Aluminum and aluminum alloys in the form of ingots, castings, bars, plates, sheets, tubes, wire and all forms of structural shapes ..

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I RCOUCTION CO.

Qj^j,„,^,vv-M-'V»-*-*-'V'^ r^ ^■ ■ K^^ - 1 ' Clvu » G ^ » '/

The PiitsDurgh Reduction Go.

MANUFACTURERS OF

UNDER THE PATENTS OF CHARLES M. HALL.

/

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS

IN THE FORM OF

INGOTS, CASTINGS, BARS, PLATES, SHEETS, TUBES, WIRE
AND ALL FORMS OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES.

ALFRED E. HUNT, President. GrKO. II. CLAI»r, Secretary.

CABLE ADDRESS :— "REDUCTION PITTSBURGH,"

USE A. B. C. CODE (fOURTH EDITION), OR A I CODE, OR LIEBER'S CABLE CODE.

701 Ferguson Building, - No. 3 19 Third Avenue,

pirrsBaRGH, pa.

Nev^ York Store, 10 & 11 Havemeyer Building, No. 26 Cortlandt Street,

Philadelphia Store, 360 Bullitt Building, No. 133 South Fourth Street,

Chicago Store, Nos. 156 and 158 Lake Street.

"vu^onKis:

NEW KENSINGTON, WESTMORELAND COUNTY, PA.
NIAGARA FALLS, NIAGARA COUNTY, N. Y.

U. S. A.
1897.

THE MYCRS A tHINKLC COMPANY, PRINTERS AND STATIONERS, 623 WOOD STREET, PITTSBURGH, PA.

T.P.R.Co

TRADE MARK.

COMTKnTS,

\

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PART I.

Data with Reference to Aluminum.

Ingots : pagk.

Shape of ordinary Ingots furnished by The Pittsburgh Re-
duction Company 2

Standard Re-melting Ingots 3

Hollow Tube Ingots 3

Acknowledgments 4

Purity, Composition, Etc.:

General Characteristics 5

Composition and Forms of Aluminum as sold by The Pitts-
burgh Reduction Company

No. I grade

Extra Pure Aluminum

No. 2 grade

Rolling Ingots

Rolling Slabs 8

Aluminum Ingots for Re-melting 8

Aluminum Bronze Powder 9

Data on Varnish for Aluminum Bronze Powder 9

Properties of Aluminum,

Including Data Regardins some of the Properties of

Other Metals for Reference.

Solubility 10

Galvanic Action. 11

Position in Electro-Chemical Series 12

Melting Point of Aluminum 13

Melting Points of Various Substances 13-16

Physical Properties of Metals:

Physical Properties of Metals . 17-18

Latent Heat of Fusion 19

Comparative Specific Heats 20

Specific Heats and Combining Numbers 21

Specific Heats of Metals 22

Linear Expansion 23

Co-efficients of Linear Expansion 23-24

Characteristics of Metals 25

Conduction of Heat 25

Relative Thermal Conductivity 25

P'lectrical Properties of Metals :

Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum" 26-27

Relative Electrical Conductivity 28

Impurities 28

Hardness and Elasticity 29

Order of Ductility of Metals 30-31

Order of Malleability of Metals 30-3 1

Malleability , : ■ : , : , , » . • 31

IV Contents.

■* PAGE.

Sonorousness 31

Specific Gravity :

Specific Gravity of Aluminum 32-33

Nickel Aluminum Alloy 34

Specific Gravity and Selling Price 35

Specific Gravity and Unit Weights of Metals 3^-37

Specific Gravity of Liquids 38

Specific Gravity and Weight of Wood 38

Specific Gravity of Differ' t Kinds of Wood, Water being Unity, 39

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Various Substances 40-41

Specific Gravity and Weights of Liquids — Rain Water ipoo, 42

Specific Gravity and Weights of Elastic Fluids 43

Comparative Weights of Metals 44

Strength and Elasticity :

Strength of Pure Aluminum 45-46

Strength of Nickel- Aluminum Alloy 46-47

Moduli of Elasticity — Metals 48

Ultimate Resistance to Tension — Metals 48-49

Ultimate Resistance to Tension — Timber and Other Fiber. . 49

Ultimate Resistance to Tension — Stone 50

Ultimate Resistance to Compression — Metals 50

Ultimate Resistance to Compression — Timber 50

Ultimate Resistance to Compression — Stone 50

Moduli of Elasticity — Metals 51

Shearing and Bearing Value of Aluminum Rivets 5^-53

Ultimate Resistance to Shearing — Metals 54

Ultimate Resistance to Shearing — Timber 54

Aluminum for Structural Purposes 54-56

Strength of Gold Alloys 56

Methods of Working Aluminum.

Melting 57

Shrinkage of Castings of Metals 57-5^

Casting 58-59

Annealing 59— 60

Rolling 60

Rolled Aluminum Sections 60

Drop Forgings of Aluminum 61

Squirted Aluminum 61

Polishing 61-63

Scratch Brushing and Sand Blasting 63-64

Dipping and Frosting 64

Burnishing 64

Lubricant 64

Tooling 64-65

Speed Used for Spinning or Buffing 65

Welding 65

Soldering Aluminum 65-66

Plating Aluminum 66-67

General Remarks Upon Alloys.

Remarks on Alloys , , . , 67

Contents. v

PAGE.

Commercial Metals 68

Costly and Precious Metals 68

Rare Metals 68

Aluminum Alloys :

Aluminum and the Rare and Costly Metals 68-70

Aluminum and Other Metals 70

Aluminum and Tin 70-71

Aluminum and Chromium 71

Aluminum and Titanium 71

Aluminum and Tungsten 71

Aluminum and Nickel 7 1-72

Aluminum and Cobalt 72

Aluminum and Gold 72

Aluminum with the Metalloids 72

Aluminum with the Alkali Metals 73

Aluminum and Molybdenum 73

Aluminum and Tellurium 73

Aluminum and Arsenic 73

Aluminum and Silver 73

Aluminum and Mercury. 74

Aluminum and Magnesium 74

Aluminum and Manganese 74

Aluminum and Uranium 74

Aluminum and Cadmium 74

Aluminum and Bismuth 74

Aluminum and Vanadium 75

Aluminum and Indium 75

Aluminum and Antimony 75

Aluminum and Lead 75

Aluminum and Zinc 75

Aluminized Zinc 75-7^

Use of Aluminized Zinc in the Galvanizing Bath 76-77

Brasses 77

Properties of Copper-Zinc Alloys in Casting 78

Aluminum Brass 78-80

Uses of Brass 80

Analyses of Metals 80

Bronzes 81

Properties of Copper -Tin Alloys in Casting 82

The Kalchoids . 82

Copper-Tin-Zinc Alloys 82-83

Useful Alloys :

German Silver 83

Copper Alloys 84

Copper Nickel 85

Tin Alloys 85

Lead Alloys 86

Zinc Alloys 86

Bismuth Alloys 86

Alloys for Coinage 86

VI Contents. pace.

Metals Manufactured by the Use of Aluminum.

Aluminum Bronze 87-88

Aluminum Alloys with Small Percentages of Copper 88-89

Manufacture of Aluminum Bronze 89-91

Nickel Bronze 91

Aluminum Bearing Metal 91

Aluminum and Iron 91

Aluminum in Steei 91-98

Ferro-Aluminum 98

Aluminum in Cast Iron. 99

Aluminum in Wrought Iron 99

PART II.

Causes, Tables, Etc.

Gauges 100

Comparison of Wire and Sheet-Metal (iauges (table) loi

Master Mechanics' Standard Gauge (table) 102

Weights of Aluminum, Wro't Iron, Steel, Copper, Brass, Etc.
Weight of Aluminum, Wrought Iron, Steel. Copper and

Brass Plates (table) 103

Weight of Sheet and Bar Alum.; also Brass andSteel (table) 104
Relation in Weight of Rolled Plates — Aluminum and

Copper (table) 105

Weight of Zinc Sheets of Standard Dimensions (table).. . 105

Relation in Weight, Aluminum and Tin Plates (table)... . 106

Weight of Sheet Metals, Kilos per Square Metre (table).. . 107-1 1 1

Weight of Flat Rolled Bars of Aluminum (table) 112-117

Weight of Aluminum Bars, Areas and Circumferences (table) 1 18-1 19

Diameter and Weight of Aluminum and Copper Wire (table) 120
Weight of Aluminum, Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and

Brass Wire (table) 121

Resistance ok Wire :

Resistance of Pure Aluminum Wire (table) 122

Resistance of Pure Copper Wire (table) 123

Seamless Tubing :

Standard Sizes of Seamless Tubing Kept in Stock (table) 124

Aluminum Pipe Sizes to correspond with Iron Tubes (table) 125

WeightperFt. of Aluminum Tubing, outside diameter (table) 126-127

Safe Pressures on Aluminum Tubing (table) 128-130

Rivets :

Rivets and Burrs 131

Round Head Rivets Kept in Stock (table) 131-132

Flat Head Rivets Kept in Stock (table) 133

Angles :

Thickness of Aluminum Angles 133

Weight per Foot of Aluminum Angles (table) 134

Decimal Equivalents :

Decimal Parts of a Foot in Square Inches (table) 135

Dec'l Equivalentsof 8ths, i6ths, 32ds, 64ths of an In. (table) 136

Decimal Equivalents of an Inch for each -^_f (table) 137

Decimal parts of a Foot for each ^^j of an Inch (table) .... 138-141

Contents. vii

Mensuration : page.

Length 142

Area 142-143

Solid Contents 143

Prismoidal Formula 143

Areas, Circumferences and Contents of Spheres :

Areas of Flat Rolled Bars (table) 144-149

Areas and Circumf's of Circles, Advancing by Inches (table) 150-154

Areas and Circumf's of Circles, Advancing by Tenths (table) 155-164

Contents of Spheres (table) 164

Electrical Units :

The Ohm 165

Powers and Roots ;

Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots of Fractions (table) 166-167
Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots, 4th and 5th

Powers of Numbers (table) 168-171

Metric Weights and Measures :

Metric and English Systems of Measures, and their Rela-
tions to One Another 1 72-1 73

The Metric System of Weights and Measures (table) 174-176

Inches and Fractions and their Equivalents in Millimetres

(table) 177

Millimetres Reduced to Inches and Decimals of an Inch. . 178-182

Feet and their Equivalents in Metres 183

Metres and their Equivalents in Feet and Inches (table). . 184

Metric Weights and English Equivalents (table) . 185

Equivalent Square Measure (table) 186

Equivalent Cubic Measure (table) 187

Pounds per Square Inch, with Equivalent Kilos per Square

Centimetre (table) 188

Kilos per Centimetre, with Equivalent Pounds per Square

Inch (table) 189

Tables for Converting U. S. Weights and Measures 190-193

Metric Conversion Tables, Latimer Clark. 194-200

Metric Conversion Tables, Nelson Foley :

Lineal 201

Square 201

Cube and Capacity 202

Weight 203-204

Pressure and Stress 205

Useful Equations 206-207

Velocity and Speed 207-208

Heat Intensity 208

Kilogrammes and English Equivalents :

Ounces or Fractions of a Pound to Kilos 209

Kilogrammes to Pounds Avoirdupois 209

Fractions of Kilos to Pounds Avoirdupois 209

English Weights and Measures :

Avoirdupois or Ordinary Weight 210

Long Measure 210

Square Measure 210

viii Contents.

PAGE.

Nautical Measure 210

Cubic or Solid Measure 2n

Dry Measure 211

Measures of Weights (table) 212

Unit Equivalents for Electric Heating Problems 213

Heat :

Heat Units 214-218

Specific Heat 218

Heat Unit Table 219

Useful Information :

Steam 220-221

Water 22 1-222

Weight and Capacity of Different Standard Gallons of Water, 222

Weight and Comparative Fuel Value of Wood 222-223

Duty of Steam Engines 223

The Horse Power of Boilers 224-225

Thermometric Scales :

Table of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Degrees 226

Relation of Thermometric Scales 226

Fuels :

Comparative Fuel Value of Coal, Oil and Gas 227

One Pound of Bituminous Coal Oxidized with Perfect

Efficiency 227

One Pound of Water Evaporated at 212^ Fahrenheit 227

F. W^. Clark's List of the Atomic Weights of the 74

Known and Recognized Elements 228-229

Coinage and Relative Values:

Tables of the World's Money Units :

Single Gold Standard Countries 230

Single Silver Standard Countries 231

Double Standard Countries 232

U. S. Post-Office Regulations :

Rates of Postage, Domestic 233

Money Orders, Domestic . 233

Registration, Domestic 233

Foreign Postage 233

Coinage and Relative Values :

Values of Foreign Coins, U. S. Treasury Circular 234-236

Descriptive Table of U. S. Coins in Use December, 1896, 237

Table of Comparative Value per Pound and per Kilogramme 238-239

Table Illustrating the Monetary System of the U. S 240

Fineness of Coins 241

U. S. Values of Marks and Francs 241

Customs Duties on Aluminum in Various Countries,
May, 1896 :

United States 242

France 242-243

Germany 243

Holland 244

Belgium 244

Aluminum

The

Pittsburgh Reduction

Company

SHIPE OF DIDIIIII IICDTS FDIIISIEI I) 11 PlnSBIM nCM CI.

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" Plain Rollins Inaot."

"WaTflo InBOt."

QS i^T-^P jrPf^W

Notched Bar.

Small Notched Bar.

" Long Rectangular Ingot."

AAAAAAXAAAi/^ A

MNMNNNNNH =

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STANDARD RE-MELTING INGOTS.

Edited by ALFRED E. HUNT. S. B.

JLCICNO^MTl^KIDQ-IwIKlITS :

RCrCRCNCCS HAVE BEEN MADE AND EXTRACTS TAKEN BY PER-
MISSION FROM THE FOLLOWINQ AUTHORITIES.

"Pocket Companion" of the Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd, edited by

F. H. Kindl, C. E.

•'Mechanical Engineers' Reference Book," by Kelson Foley,* pub-
lished by Ci-osby, Lockwood Sc Co., 7 Stationers Hall, London.

"A Dictionary of Metric and Other Useful Measures," by Latimer
Clark, published by E. & F. N. Spon, 25 Strand, London.

"Alloys for Brasses and Bronzes," by Prof. R. H. Thurston, Cor-
nell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

"Introduction to the Study of Metallurgy," by Sir W. C. Roberts-
Austen, published by Chas. Griffin & Co., London.

"Graug-es at a Glance," by Thomas Taylor, published by Dunsford
& Son, South Castle Street, Liverpool, England.

"Monetary Systems of the World," M. L. Muhleman, Deputy
Assistant Treasurer of the United States.

"Mechanical Eng^ineers' Pocket Book," by \Vm. Kent, C. E. pub-
lished by John Wiley & Sons, Xew York.

"Mechanics & Engineers' Pocket Book," by Chas. H. Haswell,
published by Harper & Bro., New York.

"Chemical Technology," Groves & Thoi-p, "Fuels," published by
P. Blakiston, Son <fe Co., Philadelphia.

The following pages of this Catalogue are quoted from the "Alu-
minium " Catalogue of the Aluminium Supply Co.,
of Manchester, England :
Pages, 42, 43, ISO, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 177, 178, 179,
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189.

Valuable assistance has been rendered in the compiling of this Cata-
logue by the following officials of The Pittsburgh Reduction Co.:
Mr. George H. Ciapp, Secretary.
Mr. Arthur V. Davis, Assistant General Manager.
Mr. James C. McGiiirk, New York Agent and Consulting Engineer.

Mr. S. K. Coj.by, C. E.

ALUMINUM.

The aluminum manufactured by The Pittsburgh Reduction
Company is guaranteed to be equal in purity to the best
metal in the market.

The metal is very ductile, and has frequently been sub-
jected to the most severe tests with most satisfactory results.
It can be rolled into sheets of .cxx>7^^ thickness, and from this
beaten into leaf, equal in quality to the best leaf manu-
factured in the world. It can also be drawn into tubes or
wire and spun or stamped into different shapes. It is sus-
ceptible of a high degree of finish by polishing or burnishing.
Aluminum like other metals becomes hard by working, but
requires less annealing than copper or brass, but if required
soft, as for stamping or spinning, it must be annealed after
rolling. By forging and cold rolling it can be given consider-
able rigidity and temper.

The rigidity and temper of aluminum is considerably
increased by the addition of a few per cent, of hardening
ingredients. The metals commonly used for this purpose
are nickel, copper, chromium, tungsten, manganese, tin, iron
and zinc.

In plates and sheets these metals are added in amounts
not to exceed five or six per cent. , for greater percentages
render these aluminum alloys non-malleable.

The Pittsburgh Reduction Company sell hard plates,
sheets and sections of tensile strength superior to that of brass
under the tradenameof** nickel aluminum ;" these "nickel
ALUMINUM plates, sheets and sections having a composition
of from two to five per cent, of nickel and copper, alloyed
with pure aluminum, and with a specific gravity of about 2.75,
are furnished either hot rolled and annealed for stamping and
spinning, or medium hard rolled, or cold rolled and very stiff,
as may be required. The same ingredients, nickel and copper,
added in proportions of from seven to ten per cent., form the
"nickel aluminum casting alloys," which are sold by
The Pittsburgh Reduction Company for cast hollow ware and
other castings, where some malleability together with great
ductility and toughness are required.

This metal is easy to cast in either iron or sand moulds,
has about the same shrinkage as brass, and has a specific
gravity of from 2.80 to 2.85. The Pittsburgh Reduction
Company sell under the name of ** special casting alloy,"
a metal containing over eighty per cent, of pure aluminum
alloyed with zinc, copper, tin, manganese and iron, having a
specific gravity of about 3.0. This alloy has a tensile strength
about equal to that of brass, has no more shrinkage than
brass, and can be as easily tooled or cast. If this ** special
casting alloy " is found too brittle for any particular use,
it can be toughened by re-melting and adding pure aluminum.

Special attention is given in the fabrication of aluminum
alloys, by The Pittsburgh Reduction Company, to avoid oxi-
dation, and to this end rich alloys are first made, to be after-
w^ards reduced down to their proper percentages by re-melting
with pure aluminum. These rich alloys are made in the electri-
cal pots or furnaces at the same time that the aluminum is
made, in this way more perfectly combining the metals than
can possibly be done by melting them and mixing in crucibles
where their varying melting points render the oxidation from
over-heating very liable to occur.

Aluminum is the lightest of the commercial metals. A
given bulk of it being only one-third as heavy as a corres-
ponding bulk of iron.

COMPOSITION AND FORMS OF THE ALUMINUM AS SOLD BY
THE PinSBURGH REDUCTION CO.

The purity of commercial aluminum varies from 98% to
99-75 % • The Pittsburgh Reduction Co. sells its commercial
aluminum in three grades.

THE No. 1 GRADE of aluminum has an analysis approxi-
mately as follows :

Silicon, 0.30%.

■

Iron, 0.15%.

Aluminum, 99-55 %•

EXTRA PURE The Pittsburgh Reduction Company always have
ALUMINUM. in stock, however, metal still purer than this,
some running as high as 99.90^ pure, which is sold for
special uses at an added price.

THE No. 2 GRADE ordinarily runs quite uniform in compo-
sition, and has an analysis approximately as follows:

Silicon, 2fc'

Iron, 2%.

Aluminum, 96^.

This metal, however, is not guaranteed to be over 94% pure.
There can occasionally be bought aluminum ingots made
from scrap. It is evident, however, that if scrap ingots are
made from aluminum or alloyed aluminum, whose composition
is unknown to the makers of such ingots, that great risk is
run of unknowingly using aluminum unfitted for the purpose.
For instance, for the steel trade, aluminum scrap ingots
containing copper, nickel, zinc and tin, are manifestly injurious,
while such scrap ingots might be safely used, if their compo-
sition is known, by brass manufacturers; and, on the other
hand, aluminum having considerable silicon and iron in its
composition which might answer satisfactorily to the steel
maker, would be injurious to brass,

ROLLING Sound ingots of the No. i grade metal, suitable for
INGOTS. rolling, are kept in stock of which the following are
some of the sizes :

8

ROLLING INGOTS.

12 inches X 3 inches x 18 inches.

((
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II
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<I
((

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•

ti .

II

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7 '* X 3 *' X 22
12 " X l^ " X 18

12 " X I}^ " X 18

11)4 " XI '* X 16

10 " XI *' X 18

8 " X % *' X 18
6 '* ^ H ** X 12
2 " X >^ " X 5>^
4 " X 2 " X 84
3;^ " X3>^ ** X 36

2}i *' X 2>^ *' X 36

Ingots of any size can be furnished, providing the amount
of metal ordered will warrant the expenditure for moulds.

ROLLING Which have been "broken down ' ' from thick ingots
SLABS and rolled to about ^ of an inch in thickness, free
from flaws and with sound rolled edges and ends sheared off
square, are furnished of any desired widths by The Pittsburgh
Reduction Company.

The purchase of the metal in this form, reduces to a mini-
mum the amount of scrap produced, and ensures for the manu-
facturer of the finished sheet a perfect and sound stock

Metal furnished in this form has' become deservedly
popular with manufacturers possessing rolling mills.

ALUMINUM INGOTS Are kept in stock of the various grades of
FOR RE-MELTING metal, in what are called ** waffle*' ingots.
They are square placques, three inches on a side and of about
^ of an inch in thickness and weigh about one-half pound
each ; they are connected together by thin webs, which makes
them easily detachable from an ingot four ** waffles " wide by
seven long, weighing about fourteen pounds.

The Pittsburgh Reduction Company also furnish alum-
inum for re-melting, in ingots 14 inches long and 1^ inches
wide, which ingots are so notched as to be easily divided
into 'small pieces. These ingots are made with different
number of notches as shown in the sketch on the second

pape ot this catalogue. Thus, ingots of the above length and
width can be furnished to be broken up in any number of
pieces from two to ten. For convenience sake The Pittsburgh
Reduction Company use for each of the several grades of metal
a certain one of the above forms, although if so desired, metal
of the different grades will be furnished in any of these ingots.

ALUMINUM ** Bronze *' is the name technically given in

BRONZE POWDER, the trade to metallic powders, and Aluminum
Bronze Powders consist of finely powdered pure aluminum.
They are prepared by beating out, under trip hammers, thin
rolled sheets of aluminum into very thin foil ; this foil is after-
wards ground into powder in especially designed grinding mills.

Aluminum Bronze Powder is only made from the purest
and best grades of aluminum, for only this quality of aluminum
is malleable enough to permit of its being hammered into
sufficiently thin foil for the purpose. Aluminum Bronze Powders
are, however, sometimes adulterated with Tin Bronze Powders.

Aluminum Bronze Powder is largely used as a metallic
paint, it having almost entirely replaced the previous use of
silver for this purpose. It is also largely used in the manu-
facture of wall paper, and for a coloring matter in the manu-
facture of celluloid and rubber materials.

DATA ON VARNISH FOR ALUMINUM BRONZE.

The liquid which is sold in the United States under the
trade name of the " Light Japan Gold Size," is the best varnish
to use with powdered ** Aluminum Bronze,'* This, however,
is not the same article as is sold in England under the name
of the ** Gold Size," and the best of these varnishes is made
by taking fifty pounds of Kauri and fifty pounds of Zanzibar
resin, together with five gallons of refined linseed oil, cooking
these at a high temperature until there is no free oil left. This
mixture should then be ** thinned down " with a proper amount
of turpentine, (about twenty-five or thirty gallons) and then a
** drier" should be added.

lO

PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM

Including Data Regarding Some of the Properties of
Otiier Metals for Reference.

SOLUBILITY. Hydrochloric acid is the natural solvent foi
aluminum. Dilute sulphuric acid slowly dissolves the metal
on heating, with the evolution of sulphurous acid gas.

Concentrated sulphuric acid acts only very slowly on the
metal, although the sulphuric acid of commerce usually con-
tains an amount of hydrochloric acid sufficient to rapidly act
on the metal.

Nitric acid, either concentrated or dilute, has very little
action on aluminum when cold ; when heated it acts very slowly.

Sulphur has no action at a temperature less then a red
heat. Solutions of caustic alkalies, chlorine, bromine, iodine
and fluorine rapidly corrode the metal.

Aluminum is found to withstand the action of organic
secretions better than silver, and is receiving large use for
dental plates and surgical instruments, and in places where
subjected to carbolic acid or other antiseptic solutions.

Aluminum is little acted upon by salt water. Solutions
of salt and vinegar such as it is apt to be subjected to in ordin-
ary culinary operations, do not injure the metal.

Aluminum is little acted upon by mineral waters, and
withstands the action of sea water better than iron, steel or
copper. Strips of aluminum placed upon the sides of a wooden
vessel corroded less than ^^^^^^ths of an inch after six months
exposure to sea water. Copper sheet treated similarly was cor*

II

roded to nearly double this amount. In salt water barnacles
will attach themselves to unprotected aluminum vessels, but
these can be protected with special paints or varnishes.
Aluminum has been successfully used for structural purposes
under water and is standing such expdsiue mach better than
Steel, wrought iron, or even cast iron. It has been used as
shims in masonry foundations, and lasts well in such places.
It has also been used to a small extent for roofing, and doubt-
less this use will be extended as its advantages become better
known, more especially as aluminum is now relatively cheaper
than copper.

Ammonium solutions gradually attack the surface of
aluminum leaving behind a more resisting surface coating con-
taining silicon, which, although rapidly attacked by concen-
trated alkali or acid solutions, resists corrosion from dilute
mineral acids and dilute solutions of organic acids as well as
moist or dry air. An aluminum surface thus treated has a
brown color which may be given different shades ; it may be
left smooth or with a rough finish, or matt, and is really a
very serviceable way to treat the metal for a durable finish to
withstand corrosion.

Aluminum is not acted upon by carbonic acid, carbonic
oxide, or sulphuretted hydrogen ; but on being melted, will
absorb these gases, quite a portion of which is again excluded
on the metal cooling.

The presence of the impurities silicon and sodium in
aluminum markedly decrease the power of the metal to resist
corrosion, and most of the failures from this cause are due to
these impurities.

The occlusion of gases in moken aluminum, such as nitro-
gen, carburetted hydrogen, etc., occasion blow holes in the
ingots, which in turn make laminated plates when the ingots
are afterward rolled or hammered. Such laminated material
is much more liable to corrosion than is sound metal.

GALVANIC The common metals are very electro -negative to
ACTION. aluminum in a voltaic couple, and as the electro-
positive element is the one attacked first and most severely*

12

and the electro-motive force (or force produced by the difference
in chemical action between aluminum and any of the common
metals with which it comes in contact in a voltaic element),
is equal to the sum of the electro- motive forces between all the
intervening metals, it follows that care should be taken that
aluminum exposed to water or other solutions shall not come
in contact with any other metal, which will cause a voltaic
couple to be formed.

Aluminum can be protected in places where it is exposed
to galvanic action, by insulating with rubber, or canton flannel
soaked in a mixture of white lead and oil, or some other non-
conducting substance. It can also be protected by placing
between the aluminum and the metal with which it is in con
tact, a more electro -positive metal, such as magnesium, where
the metal from which the aluminum is insulated is electro-
negative to it, as is the case with most metals.

The table given below shows what metals are electro-
positive or electro-negative to each other :

POSITION IN ELECTRO-CHEMICAL SERIES.

IN THE ORDER OF THE MOST POSITIVE FIRST:

I

Caesium,

17

Nickel,

33

Rhodium,

2

Rubidium,

i8

Thallium,

34

Platinum,

3

Potassium,

19

Indium,

35

Osmium.

4

Sodium,

20

Lead,

36

Silicon,

5

Lithium,

21

Cadmium,

37

Carbon,

6

Barium,

22

Tin,

38

Boron,

7

Strontium,

23

Bismuth,

39

Nitrogen,

8

Calcium,

24

Copper,

40

Arsenic,

9

Magnesium,

25

Hydrogen,

41

Selenium,

10

Aluminum,

26

Mercury,

42

Phosphorus,

II

Chromium,

27

Silver,

43

Sulphur,

12

Manganese,

28

Antimony,

44

Iodine,

*3

Zinc,

29

Tellurium,

45

Bromine,

14

Gallium,

30

Palladium,

46

Chlorine,

15

Iron,

31

Gold,

47

Oxygen,

i6

Cobalt,

32

Iridium,

48

Fluorine.

Aut

hority " Electrolylic S

»«parattc

>nof Metals," (1890

•)-ByG

i. Gore, F. R. S.

13

MELTING Aluminum melts at a temperature between silver
POINT. and zinc — a temperature of about 650 degrees Centi-
grade, or 1,200 Fahrenheit (according to the latest experi-
ments.) It has been found that a small percentage of iron
materially raises the melting point. Aluminum does not
volatilize at any temperature ordinarily produced by the com-
bustion of carbon, even though the high temperature be kept
up for a considerable number of hours. It, however, is not
good practice in making castings of aluminum to heat it much
above its melting point, or to allow it to remain melted for
any great length of time, on account of its capacity for absorb-
ing gases.

MELTING POINTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.

The following figures are given by Clark (on the authority
of Pouillet, Claudel& Wilson), except those marked (*), which

are given by Prof. Roberts- Austen. The latter are probably
the most reliable figures :

Deg. Cent. Deg. Fahr.

Sulphurous Acid -100 -148

Carbonic Acid -77-§ -108

Mercury -39*4 -39

Bromine -12.6 9.5

Turpentine -10 14

Hyponitric Acid ... -8.9 16

Ice 0.0 32

Nitro-Glycerine 7.2 45

Tallow 33.3 92

Phosphorus 44.4 112

Acetic Acid 45.0 1 13

Stearine 42.8 to 48.9 109 to 120

Spermaceti 48.9 120

Margaric Acid 55«o to 60.0 131 to 140

Potassium 57,8 to 62.2 136 to 144

Wax 61,1 to 67.8 142 to 154

Stearic Acid 70.0 158

Sodium 90.0 to 97.8 194 to 208

Alloy, 3 lead, 2 tin, 5 bismuth, 92.8 199

MELTING POINTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.-Continued.

Deg. Cent. Deg. Fahr.

Iodine 107.2 225

Sulphur 1 15.0 239

Alloy, 1%, tin, i lead 167.8 334

Alloy, I tin, i lead 187.8 to 240.1 370 to 466

Tin 227.8 to 230.0 442 to 446

Cadmium 227.8 442

Bismuth. 262.2 to 263.9 504 to 507

Lead 325.6* 618*

Zinc 415.0* 779*

Antimony 432.210621.1 810 to 1150

Aluminum 6250'' 1157

Magnesium 648.9 1200

Calcium Full red heat.

Bronze 922.2 1692

Silver 945-0* ^733*

Potassium Sulphate 1015.0* 1859*

Gold 1045.0* 1913*

Copper io53'9* 1929*

Cast Iron, White 1050.0 to 1 135.0* 1922 to 2075*

Cast Iron, Gray. ...'.. 1220.0* to 1530.0 2228* to 2786

Steel 1300.0 to 1377.8 2372 102532

Steel, Hard 1410.0* 2570*

Steel, Mild 1475.0* 2687*

Wrought Iron 1 500.0 to 1600.0 2732 to 2912*

Palladium 1500.0* 2732*

Platinum 1775.0* 3227*

The melting point of metals varies in the tables given
by standard authorities due to amount of impurities con-
tained in the samples experimented upon, and also due to
the slight inaccuracy of the instruments or methods used in
determining high temperatures, as well as to errors in obser-
vation.

A table showing results of various observations on the

melting points of some of the metals, is given below, to illus-
trate the discrepancy between the various authorities ; it also
gives further information for interpreting the average and
approximate results of melting point tables in this pamphlet :

15

METAL.
Antimony

It

" Comm'l

I^ead

((

*' /.

(<

Iridium

Copper

• • • • • • *

<(

" Comm'l.

• • • • • ■ •

Oold

t(

((
((
((

Nickel

((

• • • • • • •

Palladium

((

((
Platinum

C4

MELTING POINT. OBSERVER.

450 Watts.

432 Dalton.

425 Fehling.

440 Pictet, 1879.

432 Ledebur, 1881.

322 Daniell, 1830.

326 Rudberg, 1848.

j Vincentini &
3^5- •• ) Omodei, 1888.

326 Ledebur, 1881.

326, by air therms. &

334, by merc'y therm. Persons.

335 Pictet, 1879.

2200 V. A. Weyde.

1950, Calor Violle, 1873.

1090 Daniell, 1830.

1000-1200. .. ... Pouillet, 1836.

1236 Wilson, 1852.

1050 Pictet, 1879.

iioo Ledebur, 1881.

1054 Violle, 1879.

IIOO Pictet, 1879.

1035, Calor Violle, 1879.

1 144 Daniell, 1830.

1200 ... Pouillet, 1836.

1250 V. A. Weyde.

1240 Pictet, 1879.

j Carnelli & Carleton
^"^50 -j Williams.

1450 ... Pictet, 1879.

1392-1420 Schertel, 1880.

1360- 1380 Becquerel, 1862.

1950 Carnelli, 1879.

1700 Pictet, 1879.

1500, Calor Violle, 1879.

1460-1480 Becquerel, 1863.

1779 Violle, 1879.

n

i6

METAL. MELTING POINT. OBSERVER.

Platinum 2200 V. A. Weyde.

• ' ...... 2000 Pictet, 1879.

Zinc 412 Daniell, 1830.

433 by mere, thermo.

415 by air thermo .... Persons, 1848.

The above observations have been made with mercury
thermometers as far as possible, the higher temperature with
the air thermometer : except where stated VioUe has used the
calorimeter. The temperatures have not necessarily been made
by the above observers, but have in some instances been taken
from their works.

The Centigrade scale was used throughout.

The following table of physical properties of metals, pub-
lished by a well known authority, is appended, as giving
further determinations of the melting points of metals :

17

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19

Probably the most reliable data as to melting points is
published by Prof. S. W. Holman in conjunction with R. R.
I^awrence and L. Barr, in the " Proceedings of the American
Academy," Nov. 13, 1895.

AluminUIII, melting point, 660 degrees centigrade.

Silver, " " 970

Gold, " " 1072

Copper,... " " 1095

Platinum, . " " 1760

The aluminum experimented upon was furnished by The
Pittsburgh Reduction Co., and contained 99.93 per cent,
aluminum, with .07 per cent, silicon.

The silver, gold, copper and platinum were of the purest
quality obtainable, probably with less than three one-hund-
redths of one per cent, of impurity in each case.

((

((

((

((

.(

<(

((

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION.

AUTHORITY M. PIER80N.

Mercury, .

Calories. Heat Units.
Kilos. Lbs.
.. 2.83 5.1

Lead . . . .

• 5-37 9.7

Bismuth. . .

..12.64 22.8

Cadmium. .

. . 13.66 24.6

Tin

..14.25 25.7

Oalories. Heat Units.
Kilos. Lbs.
Silver 21.07 38.0

Zinc 28.13 50.7

^Aluminum.. 28.50 51.4

*Riohardspabli8's\9Q nn f;Q nn
his own remits as / ^»-"" Oo.UU

Water 79.00 142.2

The mean specific heat of aluminum from zero to the
melting point is very high, being 0.2 1 85, water being taken
as I, and the latent heat of fusion is 28.5 calories per kilo-
gramme or 51.4 heat units per lb.; that is, the number of heat
units required to melt a pound of aluminum, is the same as
would raise 51.4 pounds of aluminum through one degree
Fahrenheit.

20

THE FOLLOWING IS A TABLE OF COMPARATIVE SPECIFIC HEATS:

SIR ROBEflT8-AU8TEN AUTHORITY, EXCEPT WHERE
OTHERWISE INDICATED.

Water

I.OOOO

Nickel

.1100

Antimony.

0510

Lithium

.9410

Copper

.0940

Barium . . .

.0470

Glucinum.. . .

.5800

Zinc

.0940

Tellurium.

.0470

Sodium

Magnesium . .

.2900

.2500

*»-{:?:[

.0939

Didymium
Cerium . . .

.0460
.0450

* Aluminum..

.2185

Arsenic

.0810

Lanthanum

.0450

Silicon

.»73o

Rubidium . .

.0770

Thallium .

.0340

Calcium

.1700

Strontium. . . .

.0740

Platinum. .

.0330

Potassium

.1700

Molybdenum .

.0720

Tungsten..

.0330

Titanium ....

.1300?

Zirconium . . .

.0660

Gold. .. .

.0320

*Grey Iron . .

.1268

Ruthenium . .

.0610

Mercury . .

.0320

Chromium . . .

.1200

Palladium. . . .

.0590

Lead

.0310

Manganese . .

.1200

Rhodium . . .

.0580

Osmium . .

.0310

*Steel

.1175

Cadmium. . . .

.0570

Bismuth . .

.0310

*Wr'ght Iron

.1138

Indium

.0570

Thorium..

.0280

Pure Iron ...

.1100

Tin

.0560

Uranium. .

.0280

Cobalt

.1100

Silver

.0560

Roberts-Austen gives specific heat of aluminum as 0.2120.
* These values are given on the authority of Laudolt & Bornstein.

The specific heat of aluminum being .2185, means that
the quantity of heat which would raise the temperature of any
given quantity of aluminum through one degree would only
raise the temperature of the same quantity of water through
.2185 of one degree.

Aluminum follows the general law of specific heats, i. e.
that they are inversely as their atomic weights.

21

The following table exhibits the relationship between the
combining numbers and specific heats of the metals ; the pro
duct of specific heat and of the combining number is seen to be
very nearly constant, as shown by Kopp. He also verifies the
law of Woestyn and Garnier, finding the specific heat of the
molecule equal to the sum of the specific heats of the consti-
tuent atoms :

SPECIFIC HEATS AND COMBINING NUMBERS.

METALS.

COMBINING
NUMBERS.

SPECIFIC HEAT
(REGNAULT.)

PRODUCT.

Aluminum,

Antimony

Arsenic

27

122

75
210
112

63.5
196
207

56

24

55
200

59
106
197.6

39.1
108

118
65

0.2143

0.0508

0.0814

0.0308

0.a567

0.0951

0.0324

0.0:^14

0.1138

0.2499

0.1217'

0.325

0.1089

0.a593

0.0:^29

0.1695

0.0570

0.29^

0.0562

0.m)56

5.8

6.1
6.1

Bismuth

6.5

Cadmium

6^

Copper

Gold

Lead

6.0
6.4
6.4

Iron

6.1

Maguesium

6.0

Manganese

Mercury (solid)

6.7
6.5

Nickel

6.4

Palladium

6.3

Platinum

6.5

Potassium

6.5

Silver

6.2

Sodium

6.7

Tin

6.6

Zinc •....

6.2

22

SPECIFIC HEATS OF METALS.

Wrought iron

32—212 F.
32—392 F.
32—572 F.
32—662 F.

Cast Iron

Steel, soft

" tempered

Copper

^^ 32— 212 F

•* 32-672 F

Cobalt

** carburetted

Nickel s

*' carburetted

Tin. English

** Indian

Zinc

" 32—212 F

" 32-672 F

Brass

Jjead. ■..••■..

Platinum, sheet

32—212 F

at 572 F

" 932 F

•• 1832 F

" 2195 F

Mercury, solid

liquid

32— 212 F

32— 572 F

Antimony

32— 572 F

Bismuth

Gold

Silver

** 32— 572 F

Manganese

Iridium

Tungsten

SPECIFIC

AUTHORITY.

HEAT.

.1138

Regnp.ult.

.1098

Dulong & Petit.

.1150

*t

.1218

t*

.1255

•t

.1298

Regnaalt.

.1165

i*

.1175

••

.09515

•t

.0927

Dulong & Petit.

.1013

tt

.10696

Regnault.

.11714

it

.1086

*t

.1119

•t

.05695

tt

.a5623

ti

.09555

tt

.0927

Dulong & Petit.

.1015

.0939

Regnault.

.0314

.03243

.0335

Dulong <fe Petit.

.034:J4

Pouillet.

.03518

tt

.03718

t«

.03818

.0319

Regnault.

.0X^2

.033

Dulong & Petit.

.(m

tt

.05077

Regnault.

.a547

Dulong & Petit.

.0:^84

Regnault.

.03244

.a5701

it

.611

Dulong & Petit.

.14411

Regnault.

.1887

tt

.03636

tt

23

LINEAR Tlie linear expansion of aluminum is relatively

EXPANSION, very high, being exceeded only by zinc and lead
of the common metals. The table below shows the expansion
per degree per unit of length of the various metals in relative
order :

COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION.

AUTHORITY, 81 R ROBERTS- AUSTEN.

CENT. FAHR.

Potassium 0000841 .0000476

Sodium 0000710 .0000395

Indium 0000417 .0000231

Cadmium 0000306 .00001 70

Thallium 0000302 .0000168

Lead 0000292 .0000162

Zinc 0000291 .0000161

Magnesium . . 0000269 .0000150

Aluminum 0000231 .0000130

Tin 0000223 .0000124

Silver 0000192 .0000107

Tellurium 0000167 .0000093

Copper , 0000167 .0000093

Bismuth 0000162 .0000090

Gold 0000144 .0000080

Nickel 0000127 .0000071

Cobalt 0000123 .0000070

Iron ' .0000121 .0000069

Palladium ooooi 17 .0000065

Antimony 0000105 .0000058

Ruthenium 0000096 .0000053

Platinum 0000089 .0000050

Rhodium 0000085 .0000046

Iridium 0000070 .0000039

Osmium 0000065 .0000036

Arsenic .^ 0000055 .0000031

Chaney gives the following values of the coefficients of
linear expansion, at ordinary temperature, as recalculated by
him, and corrected for the author, from selected data, for the
i^tandards Office of the British Board of Trade :

24

Aluminum, cast,

Brass, cast

" plate

** sheet

Bronze, Baileys,
Cop. 17; tin 25; zinc 1.

Same

Copper

Gold

Iridium

Lead

Mercury (cubic expan.)

Nickel

Osmium

Palladium

Pewter

Platinum

90; iridium 10.
8o; " ]5.

Silver

Tin

Zinc

" 8;tinl

For 1° F.

Forl°C.

0.00001234

0.00000957
0.0000ia52
O.O0O01O4O

0.00000986
0.00000975
0.00000887
0.00000786
0.00000a56
0.00001571
0.00009984
0.00004695
0.00000317
0.00000556
0.00001129
0.00000479
0.00000476
0.00000453
0.00001079
0.0(X)01163
0.00001407
0.00001496

0.00002221

0.00001722
0.00001894
0.00001872

0.00001774
0.00001775
0.00001596
0.00001415
0.00000641
0.00002828
0.00017971
0.00001251
0.00000570
0.00(K)0100
0.(KX)02033
0.00000863
0.(H)000857
0.00000815
0.00001943
0.00002094
0.00002532
0.00002692

Authority.

Fizeau.

Sheepshanks.

Ramsden.

Kater.

Clarke.

Hiigard.

Fizeau.

Chandler & Roberts.

Fizeau.
ti

Regnault & Miller.
Fizeau.

Wollaston.
Daniell.
Fizeau.

Chandler & Roberts.

Fizeau.

Baeyer.

Smeaton.

The expansion of the Metals by increase of temper-
ature is exhibited by the following table of coefficients of
linear expansion.

These figures represent the extension, in parts of its own
length, of a bar of the given metal during a rise in temperature
from the freezing to the boiling point of water :

Glass

Copper

Brass

It

Iron

Steel (untempered)
" (tempered)....

Cast Iron

Lead

Tin

Silver (fine)

(iold

Platinum

Ziuf

EXPANSION BETWEEN

32°F. (0°-C.)and212°F.
(100 C.)

AUTHORITY,

0.000872 to 0.000918
0.000776 to 0.000808
0.001712 to 0.001722
0.001867 to 0.001890
0.001855 to 0.(J01895
0.001220 to 0.001235
0.001079 to 0.001080

0.001240

0.001109

0.002849 ,

0.001938 to 0.002173
0.0()11K)9 to 0.001910
().(H)1466 to 0.(K)1552

0.000884

0.002976

Lavoisier k Laplace.
Roy k Ramsden.
Lavoisier k Laplace.

Roy k Ramsden.
Lavoisier k Laplace.

t«
it

Roy k Ramsden.
Lavoisier k Laplace.

Dulong k Petit.
Daniell.

25

These coefficients are not absolutely constant, out vary
with the physical conditions of the metals. They are not the
same with the same material in its forms of cast, rolled, ham-
mered, hardened, or annealed metal. The value of the co-
efficient of expansion also increases slightly with increase of
temperature.

The following table of the principal metals and their
properties is extracted from Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry :

CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS.

NAME.

Platinum...

Iridium

Gold

Mercury

Palladium ..

Lead V

Silver

Bismuth

Copper

Nickel

Manganese

Iron

Tin

Zinc

Antimony..
Aluminum,...
Magnesium

■S fe

1741
1803

1803

Name of
Discoverer.

Wood

Descotils..

Wollaston

17olX/ronstedt.

1774

1828
1829

Gahn ; Scheele..

W6hler.
Bussy....

Sp.G.

Water

Sp.Heat

-1.

21.5

0.0324

21.15

0.0326

19.26

0.0324

15.60

0.0319

11.80

0.0593

11.33

0.0314

10.57

0.0570

9.80

0.0308

8.94

0.0952

8.82

0.1086

8.02

0.1217

7.84

0.1138

7.30

0.0562

7.13

0.0955

6.72

0.a508

2.56

0.2143

1.74

0.2499

Melting Point.

1200° C. (?)
-39° C

332° C

1000° C

270° C

1200° C. (?)

2000° C. (?)

433° C.
450° C.

433° C.

CondnctiTitj.

8.4

53.2

6.3
8.5

100.
1.8

73.5

11.9
14.5

18.

78.

18.4

8.3

100

1.2

99.9

13.1

16.8
12.4
29.
4.6
56.1
41.2

CONDUCTION
OF HEAT.

The thermal conductivity of aluminum is very
high, and is exceeded by only one of the baser
common metals, i. e. copper, all the others being less, iron
having but one-third as much. The following table gives
metals in their order :

RELATIVE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY.

AUTHORITY SIR ROBERTS-AUSTEN.

Silver loo.oo

Copper 73- 6o

Gold 53- 20

Sodium 36-5°

Magnesium . . 34.30

^Aluminum.. 3 1.33

Zinc 28.10

Cadmium .... 20.06

Tin 15.20

Iron 11.90

Steel 1 1 . 60

Lead 8. 50

Platinum . . 8.40
Antimony.. 4.03
Bismuth. . . 1.80
Mercury. . . 1.30

* Wiedermanu & Franz give for Thermal Conductivity of

Aluminum annealed 38.87

" unannealed 37.96

. 26

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM.

THE ELECTRICAL The ELECTRICAL conductivity of silver
CONDUCTIVITY being taken as loo, tliat of pure aluminum

OF ALUMINUM. is about 63.

Aluminum is practically non-magnetic, and may there-
fore be used for many purposes in electrical work where a
magnetic metal would be useless ; at the same time its elect-
rical conductivity is excellent, as the following electrical
conductivities of various metals will show. Aluminum may
therefore in the future be largely used in the windings of
held magnets on dynamos where weight is an object, and in
general for switches, brushes, brush holders, and apparatus
where its non- tarnishing and non-corrosive qualities render it
specially valuable.

As is the case with other metals of good electrical conduct-
tivity, the conducting power of aluminum is greatly decreased
as the result of the presence of alloying metals. Pure alum
inum has a much higher relative conductivity to pure copper
than is ordinarily given in the books, occasioned by the con-
siderable impurities in the aluminum that has been in the past
tested for its relative electrical conductivity.

In the early part of the year 1896, tests made of
aluminum wire manufactured by The Pittsburgh Reduction
Company, by Mr. Charles F. Scott at the electrical testing
laboratory of the Westinghouse Electric Company and also by
Prof. Joseph W. Richards, at Lehigh University, gave the
following results in electrical conductivity :

These samples of aluminum were .0282 of an inch in
diameter, and of the following composition :

Sample No. i, .... 99.50 per cent, pure aluminum.

" No. 2, 99.00 " ** **

" No. 3, 98.00 " " **

The impurities in each case being chiefly silicon and some
iron.

27

Sample No. 4, XB. was the nickel aluminum alloy used
in rolling into stiff sections; this alloy contained about 97 per
cent, pure aluminum.

Sample No. 5, XCWC, was a stiff alloy containing copper
and zinc, and about 96 per cent, pure aluminum.

Fifty feet of each sample of wire was tested, the wire
being wound on wooden spools, and immersed in oil. The
temperature was varied by placing the spools so immersed
into a steam heater ; the oil was kept thoroughly stirred.

Resistance measurements were made by means of a
** Wheatstone's Bridge."

The resistance of a soft, pure copper wire one foot long,
and one-thousandth of an inch in diameter (unit foot) was
taken as 9.720 B. A. units at o degrees C; this correspond-
ing to 9.612 legal ohms at o degrees C, or 10.20 legal ohms
at 15.5 degrees C.

The results of the tests made, by Mr. Chas. F. Scott, were
as follows :

SAMPLE.

Aluminum,

((

61

((

((

Pure Copper Wire,

No. 1, 99>^ % pure

No. 2, 99%

No. 3,98%

No. 4, XB, Nickel Alum'n Alloy

No. 5, X C W C, Copper-Zinc )

Aluminum Alloy, f

Result of Prof. J. W. Richards j
on the 99^ pure Aluminum j"

«s It:

100.00%
63.09 '*
62.17 "
56.17 "
58.48 "

55.01 "
64.50 "

.388
.385

.385
.360

.361
.359
.300

28

RELATIVE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY.

AUTHORITY, SIR ROBERT8-AUSTEN.

Silver, (pure)

. 100.00

Iron (pure).

14.57

Copper **

.. 97.61

Platinum (pure) . .

14.43

* ** (refined)

.. 97.50

Tin

<(

14.39

Gold (pure)

.. 76.61

Nickel

((

12.89

f Aluminum (pure). .

. . 63.00

Bronze (10% Aln'm,) 12.60

Magnesium "

.. 39.44

Palladium

• •

12.08

Sodium "

.. 31.98

*Steel (Siemen's).

12.00

Zinc "

.. 29.57

Thallium (pure). .

9.13

Cadmium "

.. 24.38

Lead

. .

8.42

Calcium **

.. 21.77

Strontium

• .

6.60

* Brass (35% Zinc). . .

21.50

Arsenic

. *

4.68

Potassium (pure) . . . .

.. 19.62

Antimony

. .

3-59

Lithium * *

.. 18.68

Mercury

. •

1-75

Cobalt '*

• 16.93

Bismuth

. .

1.40

*Iron (Swedish)

16.00

Tellurium

• •

.0007

* Authority, Lazare Weiler. f Authority, Scott & Richards.

M. Charpentier-Page, in the April 1896 number of
''''V Electrochimie^^'' publishes electrical conductivity results
obtained under his direction, as follows :

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY.

Pure Copper, loo

Commercially pure Aluminum,. . . 62

Aluminum 97%, Copper 3%, 49

Aluminum 94%, Copper 6^, 44

Aluminum 10%, Copper 90%, 13

The wire tested having, a diameter of two millimeters.

IMPURITIES. The impurities most commonly found in aluminum
are silicon and iron, and it may be said of the metal made by
The Pittsburgh Reduction Co. that these two im.purities are
the only ones ordinarily found. Silicon in aluminum exists in
two forms, one seemingly combined with aluminum as com-
bined carbon exists in pig iron, and the other as an allotropic
graphitoidal modification.

29

For many purposes the pure aluminum cannot be so
advantageously used as that containing 3% or 4 % of alloying
metals to harden it, as the pure aluminum is soft and not so
strong as the alloyed metal. It is only where extreme mallea-
bility, ductility, electrical conductivity and non-corrodibility
are required, that the purest metal should be used.

For some purposes, small amounts of copper, nickel,
tungsten, manganese, chromium, titanium, zinc or tin,
are advantageously added to produce hardness, rigidity and
strength — constituents that will not detract from the light-
ness of the metal and will not aflfect the non-corrodibility so
much as either silicon or iron.

Besides the common impurities of aluminum, there are
found in small proportions in commercial aluminum : copper,
sodium, carbon, and occluded gases. Nitrogen is specially
liable to be present in the metal

These impurities, however, occur in such small quantities
in good metal, that their presence need not be considered in
commercial dealings.

HARDNESS AND The hardness of aluminum varies according
ELASTICITY. to its purity ; the purest metal being the softest.

The ordinary commercial aluminum is about as hard as copper.
Aluminum hardens remarkably when it is being worked, either
by pressing, forging, rolling, stamping or other similar treat-
ment. By reason of this the metal may be turned out very
rigid in the finished shape, where the soft annealed metal would
be too weak to answer the purpose. This is especially true
with aluminum contaming a few per cent, of some other metals
as hardeners. Castings require a larger amount than rolled
aluminum of alloying metal in order to increase their hard-
ness. When these castings are drop-forged or hammered, the
metal can be produced very rigid and hard.

Great differences are observable between the hardness of
the different metals. The results of the experiments of Bottone
give valuable information. In his scale, the hardness of the
diamond was found to be 3010^ whilst the relative hardness
of twenty metals was determined with the following results:

30

TABLE OF RELATIVE HARDNESS OF METALS.

Manganese I45^

Cobalt 1450

Nickel 1410

Iron 1375

Copper 1360

Palladium i200

Platinum 1 107

Zinc 1077

Silver 990

Indium 984

Gold 979

Aluminum, 821

Cadmium 760

Magnesium . 726

Tin 651

Lead 570

Thallium 565

Calcium 405

Sodium 400

Potassium 230

In these determinations the time necessary to produce a
cut of definite depth was taken as a measure of the hardness of
the material, and Bottone concluded that the result so obtained
was proportional to the specific gravity of the metal divided
by its atomic weight. Metals that possess high limits of elas-
ticity are usually very hard.

ORDER OF DUCTILITY OF METALS.

I.

Gold,

4. Iron, 7.

Zinc,

2.

Silver,

5. Copper, 8.

Tin,

3-

Platinum,

6. Aluminum, 9.

Lead.

ORDER OF MALLEABILITY OF METALS.

I.

Gold,

5. Tin, 8,

Zinc,

2.

Aluminum,

6. Platinum, 9.

Iron,

3-

Silver,

7. Lead, 10,

NickeL

4.

Copper,

31

Prechtl gives the following as the order in which the
metals stand :

MALLEABILITY.

DUCTILITY.

Hammered.

Rolled.

Wire -drawn.

I. Lead,

Gold,

Platinum,

2. Tin,

Silver,

Silver,

3. Gold,

Copper,

Iron,

4. Zinc,

Tin,

Copper,

5. Silver,

Lead,

Gold,

6. Copper,

Zinc,

Zinc,

7, Platinum,

Platinum,

Tin,

8. Iron.

Iron.

Lead.

MALLEABILITY. Aluminum is preceded in the relative malle-
ability of the metals, only by gold, and in ductility by
gold, silver, platinum, iron, soft steel and copper. Both
malleability and ductility are impaired by the presence of the
two common impurities, silicon and iron. Aluminum of over
99 per cent, purity, is rolled into sheets of only five to seven
ten- thousandths of an inch in thickness, and such sheets
are hammered into leaf nearly as thin as any gold leaf can be
beaten. Aluminum leaf is largely used in decorative work,
and on account of its relative cheapness and non-tarnishing
qualities has almost entirely superseded the use of silver leaf.
Aluminum leaf is ground up into powder and used in large
quantities for the pigment of a decorative paint called by the
trade "Aluminum Bronze Paint."

Pure aluminum is very sonorous, and its tone seems to
be improved by alloying with a few per cent, of silver or
german silver.

32

SPECIFIC The specific gravity of aluminum is one of its most
GRAVITY, striking properties, being 2.56 in ordinary castings
of pure aluminum, and 2.68 in the compressed and worked
metal. The following is the comparative weight of aluminum
with other metals.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 62 "^ FAHRENHEIT OF ALUMINUM AND

ALUMINUM ALLOYS.

Aluminum Commercially Pure, Cast 2.56

Nickel Aluminum Alloy Ingots for Rolling 2.72

♦' Casting Alloy 2.85

Special Casting Alloy, Cast 3-00

Aluminum Commercially Pure, as rolled, sheets and wire, 2 68

" " ** Annealed 2.66

Nickel Aluminum Alloy, as rolled, sheets and wire 2.76

" •* " Sheets Annealed 2.74

WEIGHT :

Using these specific gravities, assuming water at 62 de-
grees P^ahrenheit and at Standard Barometric Height, as 62.355
lbs. per cubic foot, (authority Kent and D. K. Clark.)
Sheet of cast aluminum, 12 inches square and I

inch thick, weighs 13.3024 lbs.

Sheet of rolled aluminum, 12 inches square and I

inch thick, weighs 13*9259 lbs.

Bar of cast aluminum, I inch square and 12

inches long, weighs I.1085 lbs.

Bar of rolled aluminum, I inch square and 12

inches long, weighs ..... I.1605 lbs.

Bar of aluminum, cast, I inch round and 12

inches long, weighs 8706 lbs.

Bar of rolled aluminum, I inch round and 12

inches long, weighs .91 14 lbs.

The weight per cubic Inch of Pure Cast

Aluminum, Is .092 lbs.

The weight per cubic inch of Pure Rolled

Aluminum annealed, is .097 lbs.

The weight per cub. ft. of pure cast alum'm is 1 59.6288 lbs.

" " rolled " is 167.11 14 lbs.

33

Grade of Mbtal.

Pure Cast Aluminum

" Rolled "

Nickel Alum. Rolli'g Ingots,
'' '' Rolled Sheets,
" " Casting Metal,

Special Casting Alloy

Wrought Iron,

Soft Steel, ....

Cast Iron,

" Brass; 33 Zn., 67 Cu., . .

•* Bronze; 16 Tin, 84 Cu.,

Rolled High Yellow Brass,. .

** Commercial Copper,, .

Spkcipic

Weight per

Gravity.

Cubic Foot.

2.56

159.6288*

2.68

167.1114*

2.72

169.606

2.76

172.10

285

177.71

3.00

187.40

7.698

480.00

7.858

490. oo»

7.218 (mtti-Eeit),

450.78*

8.320 (

** Haswell),

518.79

8.832 (

.. « )^

550.72

8.549 (

" P. R. Cs

533-073*

8.93 (

A. V. Urn A. ) .

556.83*

* These values used in calculation of tables.

Weight of pure rolled aluminum, being i, (specific
gravity 2.68), relative weights of common metals have the
following factors of increase in weight :

FACTOR.

Tin, specific gravity 7.29 (Roberts- Austen) 2.720

Wrought Iron, specific gravity 7.698, (Kent) 2.872

Rolled High Brass, " 8.549, (T. P. R. Co.) 3.190

Rol'd Commer. Copper, ** 8.93. (A. C. M. A.) .
Nickel, specific gravity 8.80 (Roberts- Austen)
Silver, " ** 10.53

Lead, " ** ii-37

Gold, " ** 19.32

Platinum, •* •* 21.50

((

<(

<<

(C

3-332
3.284

3 929

4.243
7.209

8.022

34

NICKEL ALUMINUM ALLOY.

Weight of nickel aluminum, cast, being i, (specific
gravity 2.85), relative weights of common metals have the
following factors of increase in weight :

FACTOR.

Cast Iron, specific gravity 7.218 2.533

Cast Brass, 33 zinc, 67 cu., specific gravity 8.320 . . 2.919
Cast Bronze or Composition, 16 tin, 84 cu., specific

gravity 8.832 3-099

Weight of rolled nickel aluminum being i, (specific
gravity 2.76), relative weights of common metals have the
following factors of increase in weight :

FACTOR.

Wrought Iron, specific gravity 7.698 2.789

Soft Steel, specific gravity 7.858 2.847

Rolled Brass, High Yellow, specific gravity 8.549. . 3.097

Rolled Commercial Copper, specific gravity 8.930. . 3.235

THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ALUMINUM IN COMPARING ITS RELATIVE
SELLING PRICE PER POUND WITH THOSE OF OTHER METALS.

It is evident that for any use of aluminum in the form of
sheets, bars, tubes, wire or castings, its relative light weight
to other metals should be taken into consideration in comparing
their relative costs for any given purpose.

The common metals; wrought iron, cast iron, steel, copper,
zinc, tin, lead, brass, bronze, german silver, nickel, antimony
and brittania metal, are each a great deal heavier, and the rela-
tive economy in their use in either the cast or worked shape,
can only be arrived at by multiplying the price of the heavier
metal, by the factor of its specific gravity relative to the
specific gravity of aluminum.

IS the following table

36

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND UNIT WEIGHTS.

Water at 39.1° Fahrenheit = 4° Centigrade ; 62.425 pounds to the cubic
foot (authority, Kent, Has well, and D. K. Clark).

Speoiflc
Gravity.

Autbority.

Lbs. per
Cubic Foot

Lbs. per
Cubic Inch

.0924
.0967
.0960
.1031
.0996
.0989

.2779

.2984

.3006

.3036

.3071

lilos
per Cubic i
D^cm.

Aluminum, pure cast

• roUed,...

'* *' annealed

" nickel alloy, cast,..

rolled...

anne'ld

Aluminum Bronze, 10^.

Brass, cu. 67, zn. 33 cast.

" cu.60,zn.40 "
Cobalt

2.56

2.68

2 66

2.85

2.76

2.74

7.70

8.26

8.32

8.405

8.50

P. R. C.

<4
ii

(<
»i

tt

Riche.
»«

Harwell.

Thurston.

R.-A.

159.63

167.11

165.86

178.10

172.10

170.85

480.13

515.63

519.36

5*^.68

530.61

2.56

2.68

2.66

2.85

2.76

2.74

7.70

8.26

8.32

8.405

8.50

Brass, plates

nigh yellow

Bronze composition

8.586

P. R. C.

535.38

.3098

8.586

cu. 90, tin 10

Bronze composition

8.669

Thurston.

541.17

.3132

8.669

ca. 84, tin 16

Lithium

8.832

0.57

0.87

0.97

1.52

1.57

1.74

1.88

2.00

2.07

2M

O.lii

4.15

4.50

5.30

5.50

5.67

6.00

6.20

6.27

6.54

6.68

6.71

6.80

6.861

7.15

7.191

Haswell.

R.-A.
tt

It

It

• t
i.

tt

I las well.

R.-A.

ti

R.-A.

14

Haswell.
tt

R.-A.
ti

Haswell.
tt

R.-A.
<i

<i

tt

tt

Haswell.

R.-A.
Haswell.

551.34
36.83
54.31
60.55
94.89
98.01
108.62
117.36
124.85
129.2'<>
158.56
2:il.09
259.06
280.91
3;^).85
34;^.34
35:^-95
374.55
387.03
391.40
408.26
417.00
418.8()
429.49
428.»)
446.43
448.90

.3191
.0213
.0314
.0350
.a549
.0567
.0629
.0679
.0723
.0748
.0918
.l.'i'>5
.1499
.1626
.1915
.1987
.2048
.2168
.2240
.2265
.2363
.2413
.2424
.2457
.2479
.258.3
.2598

1

8.832
.57
.87
.97
1.52
1.57
1.74
1.88
2.00
2.07
2J>4
3.75
4.15
4.50
5.30
5.50
5.67
6.00
6.20
6.27
6M
6.68
6.71
6.80
6.861
7.15
7.191

Potassium

Sodium

Rubidium

Calcium

Magnesium

Caesium

Boron

Glucinum

Strontium

Barium

Zirconium

Selenium

Titanium

Vanadium

Arsenic

Columbium

Lanthanum

Niobium

Didymium

Cerium

Antimony

Chromium

Zinc, cast

*' pure

'* rolled

37

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND UNIT WEIGHTS.-Contlnued.

Wolfram

Tin, pure

Indium

Iron, cast

** wrought

^ *' wire

Steel, Bessemer

" soft

Iron, pure

Manganese

Cinnabar

Cadmium

Molybdenum

Gun Bronze

Tobin Bronze

Nickel

Copper, pure

Copper plates and sheet

Bismuth

Silver

Tantalum

Thorium

Lead

Palladium

Thallium

Rhodium

Ruthenium

Mercury

Uranium

Tungsten

Gold

Platinum

Iridium

Osmium

SjMetiic

Aatkoritj.

Lbs. per

Lbfl^par

Grayity.

Cable Foot

Cabiolneh

7.119

Haswell.

444.40

.2572

7.29

R.-A.

455.08

.2&^

7.42

ii

463.19

.2681

7.218

Kent.

450.08

.2605

7.70

tt

480.13

.2779

7.774-

Haswell.

485.29

.2808

7.852

tt

479.00

.2837

7.854

Kent.

489.74

.2834

7.86

R.-A.

490.66

.2840

8.00

1 1

499.40

.2890

8.8(W

Haswell.

505.52

.2925

8.60

R.-A.

536.85

.3107

8.60

• t

536.85

.3107

8.750

Haswell.

r)46.22

.3161

8.379

A. C. Co.

523.06

.3021

8.80

R.-A.

549.;«

.3179

8.82

««

550.59

.3186

8.93

A. of CM.

556.83

.3222

9.80

R.-A.

611.76

.3540

10.53

•«

&57.33

.3805

10.80

«t

674.19

.3902

11.10

.i

692.9:3

.4010

11.37

i4

709.77

.4108

11.50

>t

717.88

.4154

11.85

• •

739.73

.4281

12.10

t<

755.34

.4;371

12.26

a t

7&5.33

.4429

13.59

i.

848.35

.4909

18.70

• «

1167.45

.6755

19.10

«t

1192.31

.6900

19.32

«•

1206.05

.6979

21.50

ti

i;^2.13

.7767

22.42

«•

1399.57

.8099

22.48

It

1403.31

.8121

Xil«

par Cable

Deem.

7.119
7.29
7.42
7.218
7.70
7.774
7.852
7.854
7.86
8.00
8.098
8.60
8.60
.8.750
8.379
8.80
8.82
8.93
9.80
10.53
10.80
11.10
11.37
11.50
11.85
12.10
12.26
13.59
18.70
19.10
19.32
21.50
22.42
22.48

Authorities-

R.-A Prof. Roberts-Austen.

Haswell Haswell's Engineer's Pocket Book.

P. R. C Pittsburgh Reduction Co.'s tests.

Kent Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket

Book.

Thurston ...Report of Committee on Metallic Alloys
of U. S. Board appointed to test iron,
steel, and other metals. Thurston's
Materials of Engineering.

Riche Quoted by Thurston.

A. C. Co Ansonia Brass and Copper Co.

A. of C. M. .Association of Coppsr JManufactarers.

38

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS AT SO^' FAHRENHEIT.

Acid, Muriatic, . . . 1.2000

** Nitric, 1.217

** Sulphuric,.... 1.849

Alcohol, pure, 794

95 %,.. . .816

*' 50%. 934

Ammonia, 27. 9)^, . .891

Bromine, ... 2.970

Carbon -Disulphide- «.26o

Ether, Sulphuric,.. .720

Oil, Linseed, 940

Oil, Olive, 92

'* Palm, 97

'* Petroleum, .78 to .88

'* Rape, .92

*' Turpentine, 87

*♦ Whale, 92

Tar, 1. 00

Vinegar, I.08

Water, 1. 00

Water, Sea,. 1,03 to 1.026

This table is taken from Kent's Mechanical Enfirineer's Pocket
Book.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OF' WOOD.

Ash,

Beech, ....

Cedar,

Cherry,

Chestnut, ....

Cork,

Ebony, . ...
Hickory, ...
Lignum Vitae,
Mahogany, . .
Oak, Live,. . .
Oak, White,.
Oak, Red, . .
Pine, White, .
Pine, Yellow,.

Poplar,

Spruce,

Walnut,

Weight

Specific Gravity.

Average.

per

Cubic Foot.

.60 to

.84

.72

45

.62 "

.85

.73 1

46

.49 "

•75

.63

39

.61 "

.72

.66

41

.46 "

.66

.56

35

.24 **

.24 1

15

1. 13 *'

1.33

1.23

76

.69 **

•94

.77

48

.65 **

1.33

l.OO

62

.56 *'

1.06

.81

51

.96 "

1.26

I. II

69

.69 '*

.86

.77

48

.73 "

.75

.74

46

.35 **

•55

.45

28

.46 "

.76

.61

38

.38 -

.58

.48

30

.40 ♦*

.50

•45

28

.50 '*

.67

.58

36

This tabic is takeu from Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket
Book.

39

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD; WATER BEING UNITY.

FROM QROVES & THORP'S CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY OF FUELS.

VARIEn OF WOOD.

Common Oak {Querctis robur)

AVhite Willow (Salix alba)

Beech {Fagua sylvatica)

Elm (UlmiLS campestris)

Hornbeam {CarptntiS betulus)

Larch {Pinus larix)

Scotch Fir {Pinus sylvestrts)

Sycamore {Acer pseudoplatanua)

Ash {Fraxinus excelsior)

Bireh {Betula alba)

Fir {Pinus abies, Duroi)

Silver Fir {Pinus picea, Dur.)

Alder iBetvZa alnus)

Black Poplar {Populus nigra)

Aspen {Populus tremula)

Italian Poplar {Populus italica)..

Guaiacum Wood

Ebony

I.

IL

ffl.

IV.

HecentlY
fellBd.

Dnedin
air.

"a^

X^'

1.0754

0.7075

0.6441

0.663

0.9859

0.4873

0.4464

0.457

0.9822

0.5907

0.6422

0.560

0.9476

0.6474

0.5788

0.518

0.9452

0.7695

0.691

0.9205

0.4735

0.441

0.9121

0.5502

0.4205

0.485

0.9036

0.6692

0.5779

0.618

0.9036

0.6440

0.6187

0.619

0.9012

0.6274

0.5699

0.508

0.8941

0.5550

0.4303

0.493

0.8699

0.4716

0.3838

0.434

0.8571

0.5001

0.443

0.7795

0.3656

0.346

0.7654

0.4302

0.418

0.7634

0.3931

0.4402

Grif- ; 1.3420

fith. 1

, 1.2260

T.

Sri(

arm
rieo.

0.929
0.585
0.852
0.600

0.755
0.734

0.550

0.800
0.383

The Following Determinations of the Specific Gravity of Woods were made by Karmareh.

NAMES OF WOODS.

Maple

Apple

Pear

Red Beech

Box

Cedar

Oak

Ash

Pine

Larch

Lime

Poplar

Elm

Willow

White Beech..

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

IN THE GREEN STATE.

Limits.

0.84:^—0.944
0.960—1.137

0.852—1.109

0.885—1.062
0.778-0.927
0.848—0.993
0.694—0.924
0.710-0.878
0.758-0.956
0.878—0.941
0.838-0.855
0.939—1.137

Mean.

0.893
1.048

0.980

0.973
0.852
0.920
0.809
0.794
0.867
0.909
0.846
L038

IN THE IIR-DIUED STATE.

limits.

0.645-0.750
0.734-0.793
0.646—0.732
0.690—0.852
0.912—1.031
0.561-0.675
0.650—0.920
0.540—0.845
0.454-0.481

0.665
0.559-0.604
0.383—0.591
0.568—0.671
0.392—0.530
0.728-0.790

Mean.

0.697
0.763
0.689
0.771
0.971
0.568
0.785
0.692
0.467
0J565
0.581
0.487
0.619
0.461
0.759

Maan

veight of 1

cnluc foot of

air-dried Wood

infta.*

37 Ibe

41

37

41

52

30

42

37

25

30

31

26

36

25

40

it

ti

t(
it
it
it
tt
•t
It
ti
tt
it

• Th« HanoTerian pound is equal to 1.031114 lb. English.

Most trustworthy results, obtained by the method ot immersion, have been
recorded by Marcus Bull, who took the precaution of covering each specimen with
avarnish of sp. gr. = 1.000. which, without giving rise to error, ensured the pres-
ence of the whole natural Quantity of air in the wood. The most important of his
experiments are given in the table below :

Walnut (with scaly bark) 1.000

AVhite Oak and Chestnut 0.885

American Ash 0.772

Beech 0.724

Sassafras 0.618

Virginian Cherry 0.597

American Elm 0.580

Virginian Cedar 0.565

Yellow Pine 0.551

Birch (poplar-leaved) 0.530

American Horse-chestnut 0.522

Italian Poplar 0.397

40

WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.

F'ROM "oARNEOie.'8 M AN O-BOOK."

ATWBge

Names of Substances. ^]^^

Anthracite, solid, of Pennsylvania 93

broken, loose 54

moderately shaken 58

heaped bushel, loose (80)

Asphaltum 87

Brick, best pressed 150

*' common hard 125

** soft, inferior lOO

Brickwork, pressed brick 140

'* ordinary 112

Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American, Rosendale, 56

Louisville, 50

' * English Portland .... 90

Coal, bituminus, solid 84

broken, loose 49

heaped bushel, loose (76)

Coke, loose, of good coal 27

" *' heaped bushel (38)

Earth, common, loam, dry, loose 76

*' *' " " moderately rammed 95

Elm, dry 35

Flint, 162

Glass, common window 157

Gneiss, common 168

Granite 1 70

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see.

Hemlock, dry 25

Hornblende, black. 203

Ice 58.7

Ivory ..,,,..,,.. 114

1( (( (( H ((

(( (< ((

jil, bitum

(( ((

it ((

4<

41

WEIGHT OP SUBSTANCES.-€ontbiuMl.

Names of Substances. Vnght

Lte.

Lime, quick, ground, loose, or in small lumps 53

** " *' " thoroughly shaken 75

*• " " per struck bushel (66)

Limestone or Marbles 168

** *' loose, in irregular fragments; .... 96

Maple, dry 49

Marbles, see Limestones.

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed 165

** mortar rubble 1 54

" dry " (well scabbled) 138

** ** sandstone, well dressed 144

Mica 183

Mortar, hardened 103

Petroleum 55

Quartz, common, pure 1 65

Rosin 69

Salt, coarse, Syracuse, N. Y 45

** Liverpool, fine, for table use 49

Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose 90 to 106

well shaken 99 to 1 1 7

perfectly wet 120 to 140

Sandstones, fit for building 151

Shales, red or black 162

Slate 175

Snow, freshly fallen 5 to 1 2

** moistened and compacted by rain 15 to 50

Sulphur 1 25

Sycamore 37

Tar ... 62

Turf or Peat, dry, unpressed 20 to 30

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 6<P Fahrenheit 62^

** sea 64

Wax, bees 60.5

Green timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half
more than dry.

42

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF LIQUIDS.

RAIN WATKR BCtUAL.8 1000.

Calculated upon the basis of a Cubic Foot of Water at 62° F., weighing 62.50 Pounds.

Substances.

Liquids.

Acid, Acetic

" Benzoic

"' Citric

'* Concentrated . . .

' Fluoric

' Muriatic .... . .

'* Nitric

' Nitrous

" Phosphoric

* " solid.

'• Sulphuric

Alcohol, pure, 6o°. . . .
95 per cent. .
8o " ** ..

50
40

25
10

( (

((

4 (

a

i (

i i

ii

((

proof spirit, 50
per cent . . . 60°
proof spirit, 50
per cent . . . 80°

Ammonia, 27.9 per cent.

Aquafortis, double

" single

Beer

Benzine

Bitumen, liquid

Blood (human)

Brandy, f or .5 of spirit.

Bromine

Cider

Ether, acetic

muriatic

((

Specific
Gravity.

f

1062
667

1034
1521

1500

1200

1217

1550
1558

2800

1849

794
816

863
934

951
970

986

992

934

875

891
13CX)
1200

1034
850

848

1054

924

2966

1018

866

845

Weight of

a Cubic

Foot.

66.375
41.687

64.625

95.062

93.750
75.000

76.062

96.875

97-375
175.000

115.562

49.622

51.000

53.937

58.375

59.437
60.625

61.625

62.000

58.375

54.687

55.687
81.250
75.000
64.625
53.125
53.000

65.875

57-750

185.375
63.625

54.125
52.812

Substances.

Liquids.

Ether, nitric ....
* ' sulphuric.

Honey

Milk

Oil. Anise Seed. .

Codfish

Cotton-seed .

Linseed ....

Naphtha. . . .

Olive

Palm

Petroleum,. .

Rape

Sunflower. . .

Turpentine .

Whale. .

Spirit, rectified.

Steam at 212°

Tar

Vinegar . . .

Water, at 32°

'* 39.1
it it 520

" **2I2°

♦' distilled 39°.
*' Dead Sea. . .
" Mediterranean

(4
it
((
ii
((
((
it
it

a

i i
a

((

n

ram . .
sea . . .

Wine, Burgundy..
Champagne
Madeira. .
Port ... .

Atmospheric Air.

({

((

((

Specific
Gravity.

1 1 10

715
1450
1032

986

923

940
850

9'5
969
880

914
926
870

923
824

.00061

1015

1080

998.7
998.8

997.7
956.4

998
1240
1029
1000
1029

992

997
1038-

997
.001292

Weight of

a Cubic

Foot.

69.375
44.687

90.625

64.500

61.625

57.687

58.750
53.125

57.187

60.562

55.000

57.125

57.875

54.375
57.687

51.500

.03818

63.437
67.500
62.418
62.425

62.355
59.640

62.379

77.500

64.312

62.500

64.312

62.000

62.312

64.375
62.312

.080728

43

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF ELASTIC FLUIDS AT ATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR AT 32°- -1.

Substances.

Specific

Gravity.

Weight

per Cubic

Foot.

Substances.

Specific
Gravity.

Weight

per Cubic

Foot.

Acetic Ether

3040

•589

1000

•9426

•976

1520

•972

•559

2-421

3-389

5-300

1-815

•438

•752

-0692

1-278

•942

1-247

•972

1217

1094

2-638

1-527

•9672
1106

Lbs.
•245430
-047557
•089728
•076097
-078805
•122720
•078482
•045136
•195470
•273640
•428000
•146540
•035360
•060710
•005507
•103180
•076055
•100680
•078596
-098255
•088320
•212990
•123280
•078100
•089290

Phosphureted hydro...
Sulphureted ,,

Sulphurous acid

Steam, 212°

1-770
1170
2-210
•47295

-102

-105

•090

1-613

2-640
5-400
3440
4-200
2586

2-255
8-716
3750

5 013
2^700
2^586
2214
•623

Lbs.
•142910

Ammonia

094463

Atmospheric air, 32°...
.. 62°...

•178430
038185

Azote

Smoke, of bituminous
coal

Carbonic acid

008235

oxvd

,, coke

,, wood

Vapor of alcohol

,, bisulphuretofi

carbon

„ bromine

,, chloric ether.
,, chloroform...

,, ether

,, hydrochloric

ether

,, iodine

008476

Carbureted hydrogen..
Chlorine

•007266
130230

Chloro-carbonic

Chloroform

-213150

Cyanogen

•436000

Gas, coal <J

Hydrogen

•277740
•339080
•208790

Hydrochloric acid

Hydrocyanic „

Muriatic acid

•182080
•703650

Nitrogen

,, nitric acid ...
,, spirits of tur-
pentine

,, sulphuric acid
,, „ ether

,, sulphur

1 ,, water

•302780

Nitric acid

Nitric oxyd

•404700

Nitrous acid

•218000

Nitrous oxyd

-208S00

Olefiant gas

•178760

Oxycren

•05030(^

1

44

COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF METALS.

Mktals.

Wkeghts
IN Pounds per
SijUAKE Foot I
1 Inch Thick.

Approximate Percentage.

Iron, Rolled,

Steel,

Aluminum,

Brass,

Copper,

(lold,

Lead,

Nickel,

Silver,

Tin,

Zinc,

40.000

40.833

13.926

46.41

100.5

59.15

4578

Ueavikrthan
Fron.

Lighter than
Iron.

2 per ct.

44.43 I 1 1.08 perct.

65.2 per ct.

16.02

i5>.25

( (

47.87 "

14.45

54.78 36.95 "

37.92

37.21

5.2 per ct.

7.0

45

STRENGTH.

The tensile, crushing and transverse tests of aluminum
vary considerably with different conditions of hardness, due
to cold working ; also by the amount of work that has been
put upon the metal, the character of the section, amount of
hardening ingredients, etc. Cast aluminum has about an
equal strength to cast iron in tension, but under compression
it is comparatively weak. The following is a table giving
the average results of many tests of aluminum of 99.0^
purity :

POUNDS.

Elastic limit per sq. in. in tension (castings) ^,500

(sheet). 12,500 to 25,000 -
(wire). . 16,000 to 33,000
(bars) . . 14,000 to 23,000

Ultimate strength per sq. in. '* (castings) 18,000

(sheet) . 24,000 to 40,000
(wire) . .30,000 to 55 ,000
(bars). . 28,000 to 40,000
Percent, of reduct'n of area in tens'n (castings). . 15 percent.
'* " '* '* (sheet) 20 to 30 "

" " " (wire) 40 to 60 "

** " »* « (bars) 30 to 40 "

Elastic limit per square inch under compression in
cast cylindrical short columns, with length twice

the diameter 3, 500 lbs.

Ultimate strength per square inch under compression
in cast cylindrical short columns, with length

twice the diameter i2,ooo lbs.

The modulus of elasticity of cast aluminum is about
1 1 ,500,000.

Aluminum in castings, can readily be strained to the unit
stress of 1,500 lbs. per sq. inch in compression, and to 5,000
lbs. per sq. inch in tension. It is rather an open metal in its
texture ; and for cylinders, to stand pressure, an increase in
thickness over the ordinary formulae should be given to allow
for its porosity.

(( it (( ((

(k (( (( ((

< ( ( ( ( ( n

(( (( i ( ((

46

Under transverse tests, pure aluminum is not very rigid,
although the metal will bend nearly double before breaking,
while cast iron will crack before the deflection has become at
all large.

The texture and strength of aluminum are greatly improved
by subjecting the ingots to forging or pressing at a temperature
of about 600° Fahrenheit.

Taking the tensile strength of pure aluminum in relation
to its weight, it is as strong as steel of 80,000 pounds per
square inch. Comparative results in this way are tabulated
below as taken from Richards' work on "Aluminium : "

Cast Iron

Ordinary Bronze

Wrought Iron

Hard Structural Steel

Aluminum

® S "* G

16,500

36,000

50,000

78,000

26,800

a c9

« C<M

5.351

9.893
15,000

23,040

23,040

Aluminum wire will have (weight for weight) a conductivity
of 200, taking copper as being 100 and aluminum 60. Taking
into consideration the comparative tensile strengths of copper,
aluminum and the above alloys, and the tension brought upon
electrical conductors by having to withstand their own weight,
there is a wide field open for aluminum.

NICKEL The strength of The Pittsburgh Reduction Co.'s
ALUMINUM *' Nickel Aluminum Alloy" is superior to that of
ALLOY. pure aluminum, without differing materially from it
in weight. Like pure aluminum, the results of tests vary with
different conditions — the amount of cold working, character of
sections, etc., — this being particularly true of metal that has
been annealed. Under compression and transverse tests. Nickel
aluminum is much stiffer than pure aluminum. Generally
speaking it should be used in all cases where the greatest
strength and rigidity is desired.

47

The following table gives the average results of many
tests of Nickel Aluminum.
Elastic limit per sq. in. in tension (castings), 8500 to ]2cxx>

" '* *' " '• (sheet), 210001030000

(( t( (( ((

Ultimate strength, persq. in.

(( (( i(

(( (( ({

(bars), 18500 to 25000
(castings), 18000 to 28000
(sheet), 35000 to 50000
(bars), 30000 to 45000
Per cent, of reduction of area. . . . (castings), 6 to 8 percent.

" ** " (sheet), 12 to 20 '•

*' " " (bars), 12 to 15 *'

Elastic limit lbs. per sq. in. under compression in

short columns, with length twice the diam. 6000 to loooo
Ultimate strength lbs. per sq. in. under compression

in short columns, with length twice the dia. 1600 to 24000

The following table shows a set of tests of plates of alum-
inum that were supplied for the American yacht *' Defender."
These tests were made from actual sections, which were quite
thick, and cut from the finished plates two edges of which
were left as they came from the rolls, and the other two edges
were planed parallel. It will be seen that the sections were
about i}i inches wide, and of the thickness of the plate from
which the specimen was taken.

The heaviest plate in the " Defender " weighs about 200
pounds, is 38 j^ inches wide, -^^ of an inch thick, and 13 feet
10 inches long.

This plate gave an ultimate tensile strength of 40,780
pounds per square inch, an elongation of 10 per cent, in two
inches, and the reduction of area at the point of fracture was
14.75 P^"^ cent.

Except for the color, the fracture of these test specimens
is exactly like the fracture of a steel specimen of the same
size, tested under the same conditions.

1.130 I .317 ^S50

LiHX

""■■■■"

'■■""■

"i^lS

■

2itich«s

Cent.

29

le

91

}«■-„

i-i^

MODULI OF ELASTICITY OF METALS.

PounJsper&i. In.

KilMiarSq.C

Aluminum,.

. 11,500,000

808,500

Lead

. . . 2,500,000

I76,coo

Cadmium. .

... 7.700,000

492,000

Gold

...11,500,000

808,500

Silver

. . . 10,000,000

7O3.<»0

1,195,000
1,687,000
1,828,000

Soft Sleel . .

. . . 30,000,000

Wrought Iro

. . . 26,000,000

2,039,000

STHENfiTH OF MATERIALS.

E fl««irr*«OC TO TENSION

IN LBS. KR

SQ

noM "cahn

EBic-s HaND-aeoK."

ire 49000

>r gun metal, 36000

((
((
<(

((

((

((

49

irenge.

Copper, cast, 19000

sheet, 30000

bolts, 36000

wire, 16500

Iron, cast, 13400 to 29000, 16500

wrought, round or square bars of i to 2 inch

diameter, double refined, 50000 to 54000

wrought, specimens ^ inch square, cut from

large bars of double refined iron,. . .50000 to 53000
wrought, double refined, in large bars of about

7 square inches section, 46000 to 47000

** wro't, plates, angles and other shapes, ..48000 to 51000

" ** plates over 36" wide, 46000 to 50000

** wire, 70000 to looooo

** wire-ropes, 90000

Lead, sheet, 3300

Steel, 50000 to 80000

Tin, cast, 4600

Zinc, 7000 to 8000

TIMBER, SEASONED, AND OTHER ORGANIC FIBER.

ivarage.

Ash, English, 1 7000

" American, 16000

Beech, *' 15000 to 18000

Box, 20000

Cedar of Lebanon, 1 1400

*' American, red, 10300

Fir or Spruce, loooo to 136000

Hempen Ropes, 12000 to 16000

Hickory, American, ... I lOOO

Mahogany, 8000 to 21800

Oak, American, white, 10000 to 18000

*' European, lOOOO to 19800

Pine, American, white, red and pitch, Memel, Riga,.. lOOOO

" ** long leaf yellow, . . 12600 to 19000

Poplar, 7000

Walnut, black, , , , , , , , 16000

so

8TONE, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL.

Brick and Cement, 280 to 300

Glass, 9400

Slate, 9600 to 12800

Mortar, ordinary, 50

ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION.

METALS.

Brass, cast, 10300

Iron, ** 82000 to 145000

wrought, . . .■ 36000 to 40000

((

TIMBER, SEASONED, COMPRESSED IN THE DIRECTION

OPTHEQRAIN.

irenge.

Ash , American, 6800

Beech, ** 7000

Box, 10300

Cedar of Lebanon, 5900

** American, red, 6000

Deal, red, 6500

Fir or Spruce, 5000

Oak, American, white 7000

** British, loooo

** Dantzig, 7700

Pine, American, white, 5400

** ** long leaf yellow, 8500

Walnut, black, 8000

STONE. NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL.

Brick, weak, 550 to 800

*' strong, 1100

'* fire, 1700

Brickwork, ordinary, in cement 300 to 600

" best, 1000

Granite, 5000 to 18000

Limestone 4000 to 16000

Sandstone, ordinary, 2500 to lOQQO

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54

ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO SHEARING.

METALS.

Iron, cast, 25000

•* wrought, along the fiber, 45000

TIMBER ALONG THE GRAIN.

White Pine, Spruce, Hemlock, 250 to 500

Yellow Pine, long leaf, 300 to 600

Oak, 400 to 700

Ash, American, 200

ALUMINUM FOR STRUCTURAL PURPOSES.

In the use of aluminum for structural purposes, a great
deal depends upon the specific purpose to which it is desired
to apply the metal, as to just what is the proper grade that
should be used ; but generally speaking, for purposes where
aluminum is brought into tension, such as in sheets or in
rolled shapes, as angles, beams, etc., an ultimate tensile strength
of from 32,000 to 40,000 pounds per square inch may be
reckoned upon; and using a safety factor of four, gives an allow-
able working strain of from 8,000 to 10,000 pounds. This of
course is not for pure metal, but for the stronger alloys.

The ultimate tensile strength of pure metal in plates and
shapes, may be taken at from 24,000 to 28,000 pounds, with
the same safety factor of four, it gives an allowable working
strain of from 6,000 to 7,000 pounds.

For the alloys of cast aluminum in tension, the ultimate
strength may be taken at from 18,000 pounds to 28,000
pounds per square inch ; using a safety factor here of five, as
aluminum castings are quite uniform and solid, a working
strain is obtained of from 3,600 to 5,600 pounds per square
inch.

It is difficult to give a value for the ultimate strength of
pure cast aluminum in tension, for the reason that while the
ordinary pure aluminum will run about 16,000 pounds per
square inch, this can be increased very considerably by cold

55

working, and in some cases to as much as to 24,cxx> pounds
per square inch; using a safety factor of four, gives an allow-
able working strain of from 3,200 to 4,800 lbs.

In compression, the alloys of aluminum in rolled plates
and structural shapes, such as struts, columns, etc., have an
ultimate tensile strength of from 2^,000 to 34,000 pounds per
square inch, which using a safety factor of four, gives an
allowable working strain of from 6,500 to 8,500 pounds per
square inch.

Pure aluminum sheets and structural shapes in com-
pression, have an ultimate tensile strength of from 20,000 to
24 ,000 pounds per square inch ; which, with a safety factor of
four, gives an allowable working strain of from 5,000 to 6,000
pounds per square inch.

Castings of aluminum in compression can be taken at
16,000 pounds per square inch for pure aluminum, and from
this to 24,000 pounds per square inch for the alloys ; using
again a safety factor of five, an allowable working strain is
given of from 3,200 to 4,600 pounds per square inch. But
the pure metal should not be used in castings, except for elec-
trical purposes, as it is similar to pure copper in being
difficult to cast, and is soft, comparatively weak, and has a
large shrinkage. In its stead, alloys with from five to twenty
per cent, of copper, nickel or other hardeners, should be
used.

The alloys of aluminum in rivets and similar shapes in
shear, have an ultimate shearing strength of from 24,000 to
27,000 pounds; which, using here a safety factor of six, gives
an allowable working strain of from 4,000 to 4,500 pounds
per square inch.

The ratios of the ultimate shearing strength, to the ulti-
mate tensile strength for double riveted joints, is about 60 per
cent.; and for single riveted joints, the ratio is about 70 per
cent. The ratio for steel is about 75 per cent.

In bearing, the ultimate value of the alloys of aluminum
is from 32,000 to 40,000 pounds per square inch ; which,
using a safety factor of four, gives an allowable working strain
of from 8,000 to 10,000 pounds.

56

The attention of those contemplating the use of aluminum
for structural purposes, is called to the fact that the elastic
limit is closer to the ultimate tensile strength than in any other
of the commercial metals, and for this reason the safety factor
of four or five, means a great deal more than it does in steel
or iron, where the same safety factor is used.

Where any great strength in^luminum is desired, the metal
should be protected in such a way that its temperature is not
raised very much beyond that of the ordinary atmospheric
temperature, for the reason that aluminum melts at a little less
than 1 200 degrees Fahrenheit.

The values given above are for temperatures of less than
100 degrees Centigrade (212° Fahrenheit) ; for temperatures
between 100 and 200 degrees Centigrade, the unit strain
should be decreased by 50 per cent., and above 200 degrees
aluminum should not be designed to be used in strain.

STRENGTH OF GOLD ALLOYS.

The following table of tensile strength of gold with addi-
tions of some of the metals, is from Sir Roberts- Austen's
work, **An Introduction to Metallurgy."

Name of
added Element

Potassium,

Bismuth,

Tellurium,

Lead,

Thaliium

Tin

Antimony,

Cadmium

Silver

Palladium

Zinc

Rhodium

ManRanese

Indium

Copper,

Lithium,

Aluminuin.

Tensile

Strength.

Tons

per sq. inch.

Less than 0.5.

0.5 (about)

3.88

4.17

6.21

6.21

6.0 (about)

6.88

7.10

7.10

7.54

7.76

7.99

7.99

8.22

8.87
8.87

Elongation,

Per Cent.

(on 3 inches.)

Not perceptible

4.9

8.6

12.3

qy.

44,0
33.3
32.6
28.4
25.0
29.7
26.5
43.5
21.0
2.25

Impurity.
Per Cent.

Less than 0.2.

0.210

0.186

0.240

0.193

0.196

0.203

0.202

0.200

0.205

0.205

0.21 (about)

0.207

0.290

0.193

0.201
0.186

Atomic
Volume
of

Impur-
ity.

45.1

20.9

20.5

18.0

17.2

16.2

17.9

12.9

10.1

9.4

9.1

8.4

6.8

15.3

7.0

11.8

10.6

57

METHODS OF WORKING ALUMINUM.

MELTING. Aluminum is melted in ordinary plumbago crucibles,
such as are used for melting brass. If the metal is not over-
heated, it will absorb no appreciable amount of silicon from
the crucible. Aluminum re-melted twenty times in such a
crucible, showed onh' an addition of -^j^ of one per cent, of
silicon.

Aluminum does not unite with or absorb carbon in any
considerable quantity when heated in contact with it, unless
the metal is heated much above its melting point.

The MELTING POINT OF ALUMINUM is I,i57 degrees
Fahrenheit or 625 degrees Centigrade, though at about 1,000
degrees Fahrenheit the metal becomes granular, and can be
easily broken. The melting point of copper is 1,053 degrees
Centigrade, or 1,929 degrees Fahrenheit, and of cast iron
1,300 degrees Centigrade or 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit.

No flux is needed to cover the metal, for it is non-volatile
at any temperature that can be attained with any ordinary coke
fire without blast. A very thin film of oxide forms on the sur-
face of the molten metal, which, while not enough to injure
either ingots or castings, protects the metal from further
oxidation.

SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS OF METALS.

Pure Aluminum, (^f inch) 2031 inch

"Nickel Aluminum Casting ) ^ ,

Alloy" (^^ inch) j" '^^'5

** Special Casting Alloy " of The | - © <
Pittsburgh Reduction Co., (fj inch) j '^'^^

Iron, Small Cylinders 0625 '

*= Pipes 125 '

*' Girders, Beams, Etc .100 *

** Large Cylinders, Contraction of > , ,

diameter at top ) ' ^

Iron, Large Cylinders, Contraction oH ^vo »

diameter at bottom ) ' ^

Iron Large Cylinders, Cont'n in length .094 '

the foot.

( ( (( ( (

58

SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS OF METALS.- Continued.

Thin Brass Citings 167 inch to the foot.

Thick" ** 150 " " *'

Zinc 3 125

Lead 3125

Copper 1875

Bismuth 1563

CASTING. Aluminum, especially in forms where it is alloyed
with a few per cent, of hardening ingredients, is now being
used very largely in castings of all descriptions, where light-
ness, non-corrodibility or a silver color is desired. Those
alloys most used in general castings have a tensile strength
of about 20,000 pounds to the square inch, and are about one-
third the weight of brass.

The same general method is followed as in making brass
castings. Either iron or sand moulds can be used. The metal
should be poured as cold as possible, in order to insure sound
castings, free from blow-holes, (caused by the very great
absorption of gas by over- heated molten aluminum), or cracks
and depressions due to shrinkage. It is also desirable in most
cases to use large gates and risers, as a further safeguard
against these defects. The gate should be put in such a place
on the casting that the metal will not " draw away '* where
the gate joins the piece. Particular care should be used for
this reason in making *' gated patterns."

The practice of some moulders is to immerse small quan-
tities of nitre in molten aluminum to purify it, the oxidizing
effect of this salt undoubtedly acting somewhat beneficially
if care is taken to see that all of the potash salts are allowed
to come to the surface and are skimmed off to prevent con-
tamination of the metal. The method of adding nitre in
foundry practice is as follows : — After the metal is removed
from the fire, and before pouring, slightly dampen a sheet of
writing paper in water. Put in this paper one tablespoonful
of nitrate of potash, to about one hundred pounds of metal.
After the nitrate of potash has been wrapped in this paper,
it should be placed on the top of the molten metal, and
instantly with an iron ladle or stick, it should be pushed to

59

the bottom of the pot. By the time it reaches the bottom
the paper burns, and the nitre comes up through ihe metal,
combining with the oxide as it comes to the surface. It is
then skimmed off.

Sulphur is also used to purify from iron, and any other
metallic impurities that would form sulphides at the temper-
ature of molten aluminum. Sulphur does not unite with
aluminum. Care should be taken however, to free the alum-
inum from the sulphur thus added.

Some customers of The Pittsburgh Reduction Company
make a practice of placing a small amount of benzine on the
surface of molten aluminum just as it is about to be cast.

A good method of producing sound castings is that pat-
ented by L. J. Crecellius, U. S. Patent, No. 537,277, by which
the ahiminum is cast in metal moulds, heated to about 1,200
degrees Fahrenheit or about the temperature of the molten
aluminum, and causing the metal to cool from the bottom of
the moulds upwards by a blast of cold air or other suitable
means. Thus, the metal in the comparatively large sinking
head or riser remains molten until the casting has solidified.
In this way the impurities segregate in the sinking head and
the shrinkage is replaced with fresh additions of molten metal.

Charcoal is the best fuel to use in melting aluminum and
should be used in all cases where especially good castings are
desired. Both coke fires and natural gas are successfully used
in melting the metal. Care should always be taken, not only
not to overheat the metal, but to prevent the occlusion of gases
in aluminum ; both nitrogen and hydro carbon gases are
specially liable to be absorbed by molten aluminum. Care
should also be taken to have the flasks well vented.

In the casting or working of aluminum, the alloys com-
pare with the pure metal about the same as brass compares
with copper.

In general, however, no trouble will be met with in making
castings, as the metal flows very readily and takes well to sand.

ANNEALING. In annealing aluminum, an even heat should be
maintained in the muffle, and the metal on being withdrawn
should be allowed to coo) slowly. The temperature should be

6o

such that a piece of iron or steel placed in the muffle in the
dark will show a red heat ; for annealing thin sheet, a much
lower temperature will suffice. The best test as to when the
aluminum has come to the proper heat is to observe whether the
metal will char the end of a pine stick, which should leave a black
mark behind it as it is drawn over the plate. The metal should
be at this temperature throughout and not only on the surface.
For thin sheet and wire, it is sufficient to draw it slowly
over a fire and observe by bending the metal whether it has
become soft enough.

ROLLING. The extreme ductility of aluminum makes it one of
the readiest metals to work under the rolls. It is best to roll
the larger ingots hot, that is, at a low annealing heat.

Aluminum becomes hard and loses its ductility under roll-
ing, and therefore requires frequent annealing during the pro-
cess. When the plate is soft from recent annealing, itwill stand
a very considerable reduction in thickness on each pass through
the rolls ; but as it becomes hard, the draught must be light
to avoid cracking.

Aluminum can be rolled so as to be quite stiff. The hardest
rolled aluminum is about the temper of hard brass.

ROLLED Aluminum can, either in the pure state or alloyed

ALUMINUM with a few per cent, of hardening ingredients,
SECTIONS, be rolled into any sections into which steel
is rolled. The Pittsburgh Reduction Company have such
business arrangements with the Carnegie Steel Company,
Limited, of Pittsburgh, Pa., that they can have aluminum roll-
ed for their customers, in any of the shapes that are illustrated
in the Carnegie Hand Book of their rolled sections, providing
that the order be of such size as will warrant the putting in of
rolls for the purpose. In estimating the relative weights of the
aluminum to the steel sections, the fact must be borne in
mind that the Carnegie sections in steel are based upon a
weight of 490 pounds to the cubic foot and that the corres-
ponding aluminum sections will weigh 172 pounds to the
cubic foot if of nickel aluminum, the steel being 2.847 times
heavier than the similar aluminum section

6i

DROP FORCINGS Cast aluminum can be very much improved
OF ALUMINUM. in rigidity and tensile strength, if afterwards
subjected to the drop forging process. For special light run-
ning machinery, drop forgings of the nickel aluminum casting
metal produced by The Pittsburgh Reduction Company, are
particularly vi'ell adapted.

SQUIRTED Aluminum under pressure can be squirted through
ALUMINUM, dies into almost any shape, if the temperature of
from 900 to l,ocx5 degrees Fahrenheit be maintained in the
metal. Several devices are used for retaining the heat in the
molten aluminum after it is poured into the cylinder in
which it is subjected to pressure. In most of these devices
the casting cylinder is on trunnions, so that the metal can
be poured with the cylinder in a vertical position, after which
it is changed to a horizontal position and the piston plunger in-
serted and made to act on what was the bottom of ihe ingot as
cast, while the die, giving the desired shape to the metal when
drawn, is inserted at the other end. An improvement which
has been patented in England, is to have the cylinder in which
the metal is cast a composite one, consisting of several cylin-
ders of metal, one within the other, the space between the
various metal cylinders being filled with some good non-
conducting material, which has a high crushing strength ;
powdered granite is used as a preferable material for the
purpose. By means of this device the pressure on the interior
metal cylinder is conducted to the outer, thick, cool, and
therefore strong cylinders, without the heat of the contained
aluminum being conducted away in the same proportion.
By means of this apparatus, aluminum can be very cheaply and
efficiently squirted to almost any desired section.

POLISHING. An erroneous idea has become prevalent, that alum-
inum does not require cleaning or polishing.

All metals exposed to the influence of the atmosphere
and moisture become tarnished and soiled to a greater or less
extent, even though, as is the case with aluminum, the actual
oxidation of the surface is almost nlL A thin film of" matter
out of place," called by housewives by the general name of
•'dirt," will form upon aluminum as it does upon gold.

62

Almost any good metal polish will cleanse aluminum.
It is necessary, however, that the polish should contain no
coarse grit. The ordinary metal polishes used for nickel,
silver, etc., usually contain too much coarse material and
scratch the surface of aluminum.

It will be found that if aluminum has one-half the attention
that is given to brass, copper, silver or nickel, it will be
kept polished with much less labor and will remain in a brighter
condition than any of these metals.

Aluminum will take and retain a very high polish — fully
equal to that of silver. The truly distinctive and beautiful
color of aluminum is brought out in a highly polished plate.
Aluminum can be polished on buffing wheels with rouge, the
same as brass ; and for polishing any considerable quantity of
sheet, this course is the most economical way.

The Pittsburgh Reduction Company, recognizing the
necessity of cleaning aluminum, offer for sale a polish, in round
aluminum boxes, under the name of *' Acme Aluminum Polish '*
These boxes hold about two ounces each, and can be heartily
recommended for general household use. This material is
in the form of a paste of a pink color; it is applied with a rag
to the metal to be cleaned, rubbing well, then the polish is to
be wiped off thoroughly with another rag. A third polishing
cloth should be a clean, dry, soft, woolen cloth or chamois skin,
to be used in giving the final finish to the metal. The Com-
pany sell this same polish in bulk by the pound.

A good polish that has been successfully used consists of

the following materials and proportions :

Stearic Acid One part ( The whole

Fuller's Earth " " r""^ ^''?;

_ ^, ^. J fine and well

Rotten btone Six parts ( ,

^ \ mixed.

Castings are polished by the use of a solid felt wheel, or

a muslin wheel, as the nature of the work requires. In either

case the wheel should be coated with emery of about No. lOO

fineness ; the emery being applied in the usual way with

glue.

63

For *' cutting down " sheets, use a muslin wheel with
tripoli. For putting on a fine finish, or ''coloring up" either
castings or sheets, use a canton flannel buff, with snow flake
oil, or some other good coloring rouge.

If a particularly fine surface is desired, in either castings
or sheets, it is well to use, after polishing the castings, or after
** cutting down " in the case of sheet, a sheep-skin buff, with
pumice stone and oil.

SCRATCH BRUSHING A brass scratch brush run at a high
AND. SAND BLASTING, speed is used on sand castings. This
work can be somewhat lessened by first taking a leather wheel
and a very fine Connecticut sand, and revolving this wheel at
a high rate of speed on a polishing lathe, feeding the sand at
the same time between the wheel and the casting, so that the
skin and irregularities in the surface are removed ; and then
putting the casting on a buffing wheel or scratch brushing it.
In this way a variety of different effects can be produced. A
fine brass scratch brush gives a most beautiful finish to sheet
metal or to articles manufactured from the sheet. By this
means a frosted appearance is given to the metal, which effect
in many cases is equal to that given by a high polish.

An effect similar to the scratch brush finish can be given
by sand blasting. The effect of first sand blasting and then
scratch brushing sheets, gives a finish with very much less
labor than with the scratch brush alone.

Another very pretty frosted effect is secured by first sand
blasting, and then treating as hereinafter described under the
head of " Dipping and Frosting."

A very pretty mottled effect is secured on aluminum
goods, by first polishing them, and then holding them against
a soft pine wheel run at a high rate of speed on a lathe. By
careful manipulation, quite regular forms can be thus obtained.

This can be varied by first scratch brushing or sand blast-
ing and then holding it against a wheel as above described.

Aluminum which has been sand-blasted receives a grain
which will allow of printing on the surface of the sheet with
the best results, and aluminum sheets thus prepared, are
coming very largely into use for photo-lithographic purposes.

64

The surface in such cases is first sand bias te'd in order that
it will take and retain the ink, and produce very clear and
sharp outlines when printed from.

The faces for cyclometer dials, watch dials, and similar
articles, are generally sand-blasted before they are printed
upon, which gives a very fine white background.

DIPPING AND Remove the grease and dirt from the plates by
FROSTING. dipping in benzine. To whiten the metal and
produce a handsome frosted surface, the sheet should be first
dipped in a strong solution of caustic soda or potash ; then in
a solution of undiluted nitric acid ; then washed thoroughly in
water and dried in hot sawdust. The sawdust must be of a
fine, dry grade, with no resin or pitch that will streak the
surface.

FOR BURNISHING. Use a bloodstone or steel burnisher. For
hand burnishing, use either a mixture of melted vaseline and
kerosene oil, or a solution composed of two tablespoonsful of
ground borax dissolved in about a quart of hot water, with a
few drops of ammonia added.

FOR LATHE WORK.

LUBRICANT. The best lubricant to use on aluminum when
being turned in the lathe, is either coal oil or water, and in
the press when the metal is being drawn or stamped, vaseline.

TOOLING. The best results can be derived in working aluminum
by using a *' shearing tool," or in other words, a tool which is
shaped more resembling one used in working wood, than for
working iron or brass, thus securing a tool with a sharp point,
which gives the metal an opportunity to free itself, rather than
clog the cutting edge. Tools of all descriptions can be made
on this principle, regardless of the purpose for which they are
intended, whether to gut a thread or turn to a surface.

65

Benzine is considered the best lubricant on engravers'
tools to obtain a bright cut on aluminum, although naphtha,
coal oil, or a mixture of coal oil and vaseline is sometimes
used. The benzine is preferred, owing to the fact that it does
not destroy the satin finish in the neighborhood of the cut, as
these other mixtures sometimes do, if they are not carefully
handled.

There is however, as much skill required in using and
making a tool for a bright cut, as in the choice of the lubricant
that is used.

SPEED USED The best work in spinning aluminum on chucks
FOR SPINNING from five to eight inches in diameter, can be
OR BUFFING. performed by running the lathe at 2,6oo revo-
lutions a minute

Of course, as the diameter decreases for small articles,
this speed can be increased up to 3,200 revolutions a minute,
and on chucks larger than five or eight inches in diameter, the
speed would be decreased somewhat below^ that given above.

In buffing aluminum, the best work is produced by using
a buffer from eight to ten inches in diameter, at speed of about
3,800 revolutions a minute

Very fine effects can be^ produced by first burnishing or
polishing the metal, and then stamping it in polished dies,
showing unpolished figures in relief.

WELDING. Aluminum can be welded by the apparatus of The
Thomson Electric Welding Co.

SOLDERING This has so far proven a difficult task. Most solders,
ALUMINUM, such as ordinary hard solder composed of silver and
tin, or ordinary soft solders, composed of lead and zinc, will
not stick, owing to the high heat conductivity of aluminum.
The heat is very rapidly drawn away from any of the molten
solders, causing them to freeze before flowing sufficiently.
Good joints can be made, however, by carefully cleaning the
surfaces to be joined, and with very hot soldering bits, or care-
ful work with the blow pipe, * * tinning " the surfaces with some
of the special solder used, before attempting to join the metals ;

66

using special alloys for the "solder. Several such solders are
successfully used, pure tin with a little phosphor tin being the
basis of the majority of such solders. Soldering bits of
nickel are best to be used and specially good work has been
done with those kept hot by a gasolene torch or electric ap-
pliance.

Special care should be taken to clean the surfaces to be
soldered ; this can be successfully accomplished by the
mechanical means of scratch-brushing, scraping or filing the
surfaces, thus, exposing fresh metal free from the thin film of
oxide of aluminum and the oxide of silicon (silica), which forms a
retentive and protecting coatmg over the surface of the metal,
preventing either the soldering or plating of aluminum.

Another way to clean the surface of aluminum for either
soldering or plating, is to dip the sheets into nitric acid diluted
with three times its bulk of hot water, and which has had just
enough hydrofluoric acid added to it, to make the solution
act on the surface of the metal, this action being denoted by
the evolution of gas bubbles. The solution can be kept in
either a wooden or lead lined tank, and the amount of hydro-
fluoric acid added need be only small, say less than five, or
at most, ten per cent, of the bulk of the solution. The hydro-
fluoric acid required is the cheap fluid of commerce sold in lead
jugs and costing about five cents per pound.

The aluminum after being cleaned in this dilute nitric
and hydrofluoric acid solution, is again dipped into hot water
for rinsing and dried in hot sawdust ; it is then cleaned so
that either solder or plating solutions can be readily applied.

PLATING OF Aluminum which has been specially cleaned by
ALUMINUM, any of the means suggested in the preceding
paragraph, can be readily plated with copper in the way that
such platings are usually applied.

Upon the copper plating, which can be put on in a very
retentive coating of any desired thickness, either gold, silver,
nickel, or other plating solutions can be applied. In some
cases aluminum can be advantageously plated with other
metals directly without first plating with copper.

67

Aluminum is now sold at a price per pound about equal
to that of nickel, and not largely in excess of that of german
silver; volume for volume it is much cheaper than german
silver, and for replacing german silver or britannia metal as a
base in silver plated vessels, its power of retaining heat, and
its lightness, together with its much cheaper price, will cer-
tainly present such advantages as will cause its extensive use.

One method of plating is as follows : — The aluminum is
lirst immersed in a bath of acetate of copper dissolved in
vinegar, to which oxide of iron, some sulphur, and aluminum
chloride have been added. This gives a deposit of copper over
the surface. After this, the article is brushed with a soft brass
wire brush, and well rinsed in clear water, and is then placed
in the electrolytic bath to be plated in the usual manner.

If the work is well done this plating is so strong that no
amount of bending will cause it to chip off or crack.

After being plated with silver or copper, the article may
be treated by the sulphide process for "oxidizing," giving the
same results as ** oxidized silver."

Another method consists of first cleaning the aluminum
with an alkaline carbonate, after which it is thoroughly washed
in water. This is followed by an immersion in a five per cent,
solution of hydrochloric acid, and another washing in f»ure
water. A preliminary deposit of copper is then placed on the
article by immersing it in a weak, but slightly acid solution of
sulphate of copper. It is then thoroughly washed and placed
in the electrolytic bath.

GENERAL REMARKS It is to be noted, that it is not a matter of
UPO^I ALLOYS. indifference in what order the metals are

melted in making an alloy. Thus, if we combine ninety parts
of tin and ten of copper, and to this alloy add ten of antimony ;
and if again we combine ten parts of antimony and ten of
copper, and to that alloy add ninety parts of tin, we shall have
two alloys chemically the same, but in other respects — fusi-
bility, tenacity, etc. — they totally differ. In the alloys of
lead and antimony also, if the heat be raised in combining
the two metals much above their fusing points, the alloy
becomes hard and brittle.

68

THE COMMERCIAL Are never chemically pure. Lake Superior
METALS copper, and the best lead and tin are nearly

pure ; but all of the other commercial metals have a consider-
able variety of impurities always present.

The COMMERCIAL METALS are iron, copper, lead, tin, zinc,
aluminum, nickel, antimony, manganese, mercury, chromium,
cadmium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, cobalt, bismuth and
arsenic; the last eight of these metals, however, are compara-
tively costly and rare, and little used except for special purposes.

THE COSTLY AND Are gold, silver, platinum and iridium ;
PRECIOUS METALS they are obtained by special and costly
methods of metallurgical treatment in almost perfect purity
in commercial quantities.

THE RARE Have never been obtained in commercial quan-
METALS titles at all, and most of them have only been
isolated in a considerably alloyed and impure state. The rare
metals are calcium, molybdenum, tellurium, titanium, urani-
um, palladium, osmium, thallium, barium, rhodium, columbium,
ruthenium, indium, strontium, didymium, erbium, lithium,
cerium, tantalum, gallium, glucinum, boron, thorium, german-
ium, lanthanum, zirconium, rubidium and vanadium.

ALUMINUM AND Undoubtedly many of the rare and costly
THE RARE AND metals will form interesting if not valuable
COSTLY METALS, alloys with aluminum. Gold costing $20 per
ounce, forms a series of purple and violet colored alloys which
will have use in jewelry.

Gallium of the tin group costing $2CX) an ounce. Palladium
$8 per ounce. Thorium $i6o per ounce. Germanium $95 per
ounce. Rubidium $88 per ounce, Lanthanum $80 per ounce,
Glucinum $80 per ounce. Calcium $80 per ounce. Indium and
Didymium $72 per ounce, Lithium $64 per ounce, Erbium $62
per ounce. Ruthenium $55 per ounce. Cerium, Strontium,
Rhodium and Zircoftium each costing $40 per ounce, and
Barium $32 per ounce, are all costly metals, but on account
of the extreme difficulties of preserving them from oxidation,
are not " precious " or valuable. No valuable alloys of these
metals with aluminum have yet been discovered.

69

Platinum (costing $15 per ounce) and aluminum, alloy in
a very interesting and probably valuable series.

Iridium (costing $10 per ounce) and aluminum, alloy in
any proportions, but no valuable alloys have as yet been dis-
covered.

Glucinum on account of its lightness, specific gravity
only 2.90, and its high electrical conductivity, which is even
higher than that of pure silver or pure copper, is a valuable
and will undoubtedly become a useful metal. Glucinum is
white, malleable and moderately fusible, resembling aluminum.

Cadmium is a white, malleable and ductile metal resem-
bling tin. Its sulphide, known as cadmium yellow, is bright
in color and has qualities of great value to artists. The
metal is of little use.

Calcium is yellow, ductile and malleable, and softer than
gold. At a red heat it burns with a dazzling white light.

Erbium is very rare ; it resembles aluminum in its prop-
erties and compounds.

Lithium is a metal resembling silver m color. It admits
of being drawn into wire, but has little tenacity. It is
remarkable for its lightness and the readiness with which it
combines with oxygen.

Molybdenum is a silvery white, brittle and infusible
metal. It never occurs native.

Osmium is remarkable for its high specific gravity and
infusibility.

^ Paladium resembles platinum. An alloy of 20 per cent,
with 80 per cent, gold is perfectly white, very hard and does
not tarnish by exposure.

Rhodium is white, very hard and infusible. Its specific
gravity is about 11.

Ruthenium resembles iridium. It is rare and of little value.

Strontium is yellowish, ductile and malleable ; it burns
in the air with a crimson flame.

Thallium is very soft and malleable.

Thorium is an extremely rare metal, remarkable for taking
fire below red heat, and burning with great brilliancy; its oxide
together with some of the other lare metals, forms a portion

is

70

of the coating of the mantels of the celebrated '* Wellsbach
lights."

Titanium is a rare metal, usually obtained in crystalline

form, and also as a heavy iron-gray powder. The crystals are
copper-colored and of extreme hardness.

Tungsten is a hard, iron-gray metal, very difficult of
fusion. An alloy of lo per cen^ of this metal and 90 per
cent, of steel is of extreme hardness. Both the metal and its
compounds have proved of value alloyed in steel and bronze.

Uranium is very heavy and hard, but moderately mallea-
ble, resembling; nickel and iron ; it is unaltered at ordinary
temperatures by air or water. ^

Rubidium and caesium so closely resemble platinum that
no ordinary test will distinguish them.

Indium is very soft, malleable and fusible ; it marks
paper like lead.

Barium, cerium, columbium (or niobium), didymium,
lanthanum, tantalum, erbium, yttrium, and zirconium, are all
rare metals and not very well known.

ALUMINUM AND With the exception of lead, aluminum unites
OTHER METALS, readily with all the common metals, and
many useful alloys of aluminum with other metals have been
discovered within the last few years. The useful alloys of
aluminum so far found have been largely in two groups, the
one of aluminum with not more than 15 per cent, of other
metals, and the other of metals containing not over 15 per cent,
aluminum ; in the one case, the metals impartmg hardness
and other useful qualities to the aluminum, and in the other
the aluminum giving useful qualities to the metals with which
it is alloyed.

More or less useful alloys have been made of aluminum
with copper, chromium, tungsten, titanium, molybdenum,
zinc, bismuth, nickel, cadmium, magnesium, manganese, tin
and antimony, these alloys all bemg harder than pure alum-
inum ; but it is by combination of these metals that alloys of
most value have so far been discovered.

ALUMINUM Tin has been alloyed with aluminum in propoi-
AND TIN. tions of from one to fifteen per cent, of tin, giving

71

added strength and rigidity to heavy castings, as well as sharp-
ness of outline, with a decrease in the shrinkage of the metal.
The alloys of aluminum and tin are rather brittl^' however,
and while small proportions of tin in certain casting alloys
have been advantageously used to decrease the shrinkage,
on account of the comparative cost and brittleness of the tin
alloys, they are not generally used. Sometimes phosphor tin
is added to give increased hardness, together with good solder-
ing properties to aluminum alloys.

ALUMINUM AND Chromium, though rather expensive, is an
CHROMIUM. especially advantageous hardener of alum-

inum. Aluminum hardened with chromium seems to retain
its hardness after annealing or being subjected to heat, better
than almost any other of the alloys.

ALUMINUM AND Titanium alloys of aluminum, although hard
TITANIUM. to manufacture uniformly homogeneous, have

greater spring and resilience than most other aluminum
alloys. Alloys of titanium, chromium and copper, together
with aluminum, give some of the hardest and toughest light
alloys yet produced.

ALUMINUM AND l^^e alloys of aluminum and tungsten have for
TUNGSTEN. the past few years been especially popular for

rolled sheets and plates, to be afterwards spunj Under the
trade name of "Wolfram Aluminum" the metal has been
largely used for military equipments. The alloys of aluminum
and tungsten can be advantageously used with the addition of
copper, and also with the triple hardeners, tungsten, copper
and iron, or tungsten, copper and manganese. As usually
made, the aluminum is hardened with some copper; tungstate
of soda and ferro-manganese are added to the reducing bath,
making an alloy of aluminum, copper, tungsten, manganese
and iron.

ALUMINUM Nickel alloyed with copper is one of the favorite
AND NICKEL, hardeners used by The Pittsburgh Reduction
Company. This alloy, made in the reducing pot with from two
to five per cent, of the combined alloying metals, is the most
satisfactory all around hard aluminum for rolling or hammer-

72

ing that is produced. In larger proportions of from seven
to ten per cent, of the combined hardeners, the best casting
metal is produced for purposes where toughness combined with
hardness and good casting qualities are desired.

The Pittsburgh Reduction Company sell their malleable
hardened aluminum, as well as their toughest casting alloys,
under the trade name of ** Nickel Aluminum."

Several new nickel and aluminum alloys for jewelers and
Other special work, have been made. Two of these a.re : —

(i) 20 parts nickel and 80 parts aluminum.

(2) 40 parts nickel, lO parts silver, 30 parts aluminum,
and 20 parts of tin.

ALUMINUM Cobalt also acts, with about an equal amount of
AND COBALT, of copper, as a specially good alloy for hardening
aluminum.' The following are two cobalt and aluminum
alloys used for special purposes :

60 parts cobalt, 10 parts aluminum, 40 parts copper. 35
parts cobalt, 25 parts aluminum, 10 parts iron, 30 parts copper.

GOLD AND Professor W. C. Roberts- Austen has discovered
ALUMINUM. a beautiful alloy, composed of 78 parts gold, and
22 parts aluminum, which has a rich purple color.

ALUMINUM COMBINED While all the metalloids and gaseous
WITH THE METALLOIDS, elements, such as oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur, selenium, chlorine, iodine, bromine, fluorine, boron,
silicon and carbon, unite with aluminum with more or less ease
under certain conditions, yet, no useful result has been recorded
from the presence of any of these elements with metallic alum-
inum. The union of the above metalloids in combination with
aluminum results in alloys which are very undesirable in every
way from a commercial standpoint.

The only advantageous result yet obtained by union of
aluminum with any of the metalloids has been in the action of
small amounts of phosphorus to aid soldering and in some
phosphor aluminum bronzes. The prevention of the occlu- '
sion of gaseous metalloids in molten aluminum, and the pre- '
vention of the union of carbon with the metal, are among the
chief precautions to be observed in the metallurgy of aluminum.

73

ALUMINUM AND THE 1^"^ to the ease with which these alloys
ALKALI METALS. are decomposed, especially when subjected

to water or moist air, none of them can be considered in any
way advantageous ;\ in fact, alloys of metallic sodium and
potassium with aluminum are the " bete noir''^ of the metal-
lurgy of aluminum, in the same way that sulphur and phos-
phorus are feared in the metallurgy of steel.

Due to thfi precautions taken by The Pittsburgh Reduc-
tion Company, their metal as sold in the market is especially
free from contamination with the metalloids and alloys with
the alkali metals.

ALUMINUM AND Aluminum can be readily alloyed with Molyb-
MOLYBOENUM. denum in the process, by placing the molyb-
denum oxide in the electrolytic bath with the oxide of aluminum.
Molybdenum acts as a hardener for aluminum, and forms
alloys which will have special advantages for some work, as
in the production of aluminum coins and medals)

ALUMINUM AND When Tellurium is heated with aluminum, the
TELLURIUM. two combine with explosive violence, forming

a chocolate colored, difficultly fusible compounc^ which has
the composition of AI2 Tes. It is hard and brittle, and can
readily be ground to powder \ when exposed to moist air, it is
decomposed and hydrogen telluride with its fetid odor is slowly
evolved ; when thrown into water, it is rapidly decomposed.

ALUMINUM No specially advantageous compounds of these

AND ARSENIC, metals have yet been discovered, nor from the
nature of the case are they likely to be, although the metals
can readily be alloyed.

ALUMINUM The addition of a lew per cent, of silver to

AND SILVER. aluminum, to harden, whiten and strengthen
the metal, gives a material especially adaptable for many fine
instruments and tools, and for electrical apparatus, where the
work upon the tool and its convenience are of more consequence
than the increased price due to the addition of the silveri
Silver lowers the ipelting point of aluminum, and gives a metal
susceptible of taking a good polish and making fine castings.

74

ALUMINUM AND These metals unite with difficulty, but at the
MERCURY. same time amalgams and alloys can be pro-

duced by uniting the two metals^ No useful results, however,
have yet been shown from any of such alloys or combinations.

ALUMINUM AND The alloys of these light metals are interesting
MAGNESIUM. and possess some practical advantages. Mix-

tures of the powders of the two metals have special actinic
properties when burned, useful for photographic work. . Mag-
nesium being electro-positive to aluminum, will protect it
from galvanic action with other metals at the expense of the
corrosion of magnesium. The alloys of these two metals,
and combinations of them with other metals, will warrant
further research as to their advantage.

ALUMINUM AND Manganese is one of the best hardeners of
MANGANESE. aluminum ; it can be cheaply added in alum-

inum casting metal by means of the rich alloys of ferro-
manganese. To obtain this alloy for rolling purposes, the pure
black oxide of manganese is added to the electrolytic bath
in which the aluminum is produced. The alloys of manganese
gives special rigidity and hardness to aluminum ; in combi-
nation with copper and nickel, one of the hardest alloys of
aluminum yet produced has been obtained.

ALUMINUM AND This alloy is an expensive one, and while
URANIUM. uranium appears to be a good hardener for

aluminum, on account of its expense and rarity, it has not had
as yet a general application.

ALUMINUM AND These metals have been alloyed to produce a
CADMIUM. solder for aluminum which seems to give good

results. Cadmium does not appear to act as a hardener for
aluminum as almost all other metals do.

ALUMINUM AND These two metals combine easily, the alloys
BISMUTH. being very fusible, as migh^ be expected of

alloys with bismuth. They remain unchanged in the air at
ordinary temperatures, but oxidize rapidly when melted. Bis-
muth makes aluminum very brittle. No valuable alloys of
these two metals liave as yet been discovered.

75

ALUMINUM AND Vanadium is a good hardener of aluminum,
VANADIUM. and can readily be alloyed with U, due to its

presence in some of the bauxites, the native aluminum ores.

ALUMINUM AND No valuable alloys of these metals have as yet
IND.UM. been discovered.

ALUMINUM AND These metals unite with difficulty, and only
ANTIMONY. in bearing metals of the class of Babbitt

metals, have any useful alloys as yet been discovered. '

ALUMINUM AND These metals unite only with great difficulty,
LEAD. and no useful alloys have yet been discovered.

ALUMINUM AND Zinc is used as a cheap and very efficient
ZINC. hardener in aluminum castings, for such pur-

poses as sewing machine frames, etcj Proportions up to 30
per cent, of zinc with aluminum are successfully used. An
alloy of about 15 per cent, zinc, 2 per cent, tin, 2 per cent,
copper, y^ per cent, each of manganese and iron and 80 per
cent, aluminum, has special advantages.

ALUMINIZED Aluminized zinc is used for two purposes, viz :
ZINC. in the bath for galvanizing, and in aluminum

brass ; and is manufactured as follows :

Take five or ten pounds of aluminum, depending on
whether it is desired to make a five per cent, or ten percent,
aluminized zinc, and put it in a plumbago crucible.

After the aluminum is melted, add the zinc, keeping the
mass continually stirred until either ninety five or ninety
pounds of zinc has been added, making the total weight of the
metal in either case in the crucible, one hundred pounds, or
in this proportion. After all the zinc has been added, the
crucible should be removed from the fire, and the alloy cast
into ingots of any convenient form or size for breaking up.

The five per cent, aluminized zinc will be found best to
use in the galvanizing bath, and also in the lower grades of
aluminum brass, but in the higher grades of brass containing
upwards of one per cent, of aluminum, it would be best to use
a ten per cent, aluminized iinc.

76

This aluminized zinc, both in brass and in the galvanizing
baths, is treated in all respects the same as pure zinc, as far
as the question of introducing it into molten metal is concerned.

THE USE OF ALUMINIZED ZINC IN GALVANIZING BATHS.

The use of aluminum in a galvanizing bath, has become
so universal that at the present time it is considered a neces-
sity, in order to produce the best and the most economical
work. It is added in the form of aluminized zinc, which is
made as described above, and is used in such proportions
that the total amount of aluminum in the bath will be about
one pound of aluminum per ton of bath, or in using a five
per cent, aluminized zinc, twenty pounds of aluminized zinc
per ton of bath should be used.

These proportions, however, are varied according to the
grade of zinc which is being used, and also upon the class of
material to be galvanized ; in some cases more, and some
cases less than the quantities given above will be found most
advantageous.

When aluminized zinc is used, it has been found unneces-
sary to use sal ammoniac, for clearing the bath of oxide, as the
aluminum accomplishes the same purpose, and if the two are
used together, they seem to counteract the effects of each
other.

Aluminized zinc should be added to the galvanizing baths
gradually, and not all at one time, and as the bath is con-
sumed, fresh aluminized zinc is added in the proportion of
about a pound at a time, for a five ton bath. This is when a
five per cent, aluminized zinc is used.

The first action of aluminum in galvanizing baths is to
make the bath more liquid, which is one of the objects in
adding the aluminum ; a greater amount of aluminum seems
to combine with the impurities in the zinc, and come to the
surface in the form of a scum, which makes galvanizing diffi-
cult. If therefore, too much aluminum goes into the bath,
stir the bath well, and allow it to stand for a while until the
aluminum combines with these impurities and comes to the

77

surface as a scum. Remove this scum, add some sal-ammoniac
to counteract the effects of the aluminum, and reduce the pro-
portion of the aluminized zinc added.

In starting with a new bath, it is specially important that
these suggestions should be followed.

BRASSES.

Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc, as distinguished
from the Bronzes, which are alloys of copper and tin.

A common proportion for making brass is, copper 66
zinc 34. This alloy is a much poorer conductor of electricity
and of heat than copper, is more fusible, oxidizes very slowly
at low temperatures, but rapidly at a high heal.

It is customary in the manufacture of ordinary commercial
brass to introduce from two to five per cent, of tin for the
purpose of giving added strength and density.

The terms " high brass " and " low brass " are used in
the trade but applied only to rolled material. " High brass "
is composed of two parts of copper and one part of zinc and
is of a light yellow color.

** Low brass " ranges from 75 per cent, to 88 per cent,
copper and 25 per cent, to 12 per cent, of zinc, and in color
is considerably darker than *' high brass."

The brass of Romilly, which works remarkably well under
the hammer, is composed of copper 70, zinc 30 ; English
brass is often given 33 per cent, zinc, and for rolled brass 40
per cent. (This constitutes '* Muntz sheathing metal," as
patented by G. F. Muntz, in 1832.) The proportion of zinc
ranges, however, for such purposes, from 37 to $0 per cent,
copper 63 to 50.

All of these alloys are improved by additions of aluminum.

78

Mallet classifies the copper-zinc alloys according to the
following table :

PROPERTIES OF COPPER-ZINC ALLOY IN CASTINGS.

s

Cu Zn

1

10
9
8
7
6
5

1
1
1
1
1
1
4 : 1

2
1
1

8
8
8
8
8
8
S
1
1
1

1
1
1

2

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

3

4

5

1

pr. ct.

100.
98.80
90.72
88.60
87.30
85.40
83.02
79.65
74.58
66.18
49.47
32.85
31.52
30.36
29.17
28.12
27.10
26.24
25.39
24.50
19.a5
16.36
0.

». G.

8.667
8.6a5
8.607
8.633
8.587
8.591
8.415
8.448
8.397
8.299
8.230
8.263
7.721
7.836
7.019
7.60:^
8.058
7.882
7.443
7.449
7.371
6.605
6.895

COLOR.

FRACT.

red
red-j^ellow

tt
yellow -red

pale yellow
deep

it

tt

dark

silver white

silver white

light gray

ash **

light "
t. 1.

ash *'

dark "

coarse
fine

fine fibre

TENACITY
Tons per
Sq. Inch.

ORDER OF

coarse

vitr'ous

coarse
It

fine

14.6

12.1

11.5

12.8

13.2

11.1

13.7

14.7

13.1

12.5

9.2

19.3

2.1

2.2

0.7

3.2

0.9

0.8

5.9

3.1

1.9

1.8

15.2

Malleahilitj.

Hardi
ness.

8

22

6

21

4

20

2

19

18

17

11

16

7

15

10

14

3

23

12

12

I

10

very brittle

5

tt

6

tt

/

brittle

3

1 1

9

1 1

1

slight duet.

1

brittle

2

1 1

4

tt

11

23

i

15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8

5
5
5
5
4
3
2
1

In the above table, the minimum of hardness and fusibility

is denoted by 1 .

The conclusion of Storer that these alloys are mixtures

rather than true compounds, is accepted by Watts and other

authorities.

ALUMINUM Aluminum brass has an elastic limit of abgiit
BRASS. 30,000 lbs. per square inch; an ultimate strength

of from 40,000 to 50,000 lbs. per square inch, and an elonga-
tion of 3 to 10 per cent, in 8 inches.

Aluminum is used in brass in all proportions from one-
tenth of I per cent, to ten per cent., and the best results will
be derived by introducing when possible this aluminum in the
form of aluminiged zinc, manufactured as previously described.

79

This aluminized zinc is added in the same manner that
the zinc is originally introduced into the copper, and in such
proportions as will give the requisite amount of aluminum in
the brass mixture.

As stated above, a five per cent, aluminized zinc is gen-
erally used when percentages of less than one per cent, of
aluminum are required, and aluminized zinc of ten per cent, is
used when a greater percentage than one per cent, is required.

The effect of aluminum in brass, added in this manner, in
small quantities of less than one per cent., is mainly to make
the brass flow freely, and present a smooth surface, free from
blow holes. When used in these quantities, from one-half to
one-third more small patterns can be used on a gate than can
be used without the presence of aluminum, for this amount of
aluminum gives to the brass such additional fluidity as enables
it to run more freely in the moulds and a greater distance ;
consequently more patterns can be used on a gate.

In quantities of over about one per cent., the effect of the
aluminum commences to be very perceptible, from the fact
that it imparts to the brass additional strength, and this
strength is increased directly as the percentage of aluminum is
increased, up to about ten per cent.

One per cent, of aluminum in brass is very extensively
used for electrical purposes, as it gives a brass casting free
from pin holes and of greater strength than can be secured
otherwise, from the same grade of brass.

It therefore follows that by the use of a small percentage
of aluminum in brass, a cheaper grade of brass can be used to
do the same work than would otherwise be possible.

In all cases, if maximum results are desired, care must
be taken that only pure metals are used. In this connec-
tion it should be clearly understood that much of the copper
and zinc commonly used contains a large amount of impurities,
and the nature of some of these impurities is such as to abso-
lutely prevent good alloys being made with aluminum. In all
cases we would advise customers to insist on an analysis being
given of the metal supplied, and for aluminum alloys, to ex-
clude all containing more than one-fourth of one per cent, of

8o

iron, arsenic, or antimony, or more than two-huiidreths of one
per cent, of bismuth. Alloys should be poured at a low heat,
as soon as fluid.

It should be noted that the presence of aluminum in these
alloys, lowers the point at which they become fluid, and that
they are fluid at lower temperatures than either gun metal or
ordinary brass mixtures ; therefore the average brass-founder is
very liable to overheat them, and great care must be taken to
prevent this.

To illustrate the great difference which occurs in metals
found in the open market, the following are given as analyses
of metals, some of which are good, and others worthless for
making good alloys :

ANALYSES OF METALS.

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Silver

Lead

Bismuth...

Iron

Nickel

Arsenic...
Antimony
Sulphur ..
Oxygen . .

Best Copper.

90.861 9i).84
.0

.0 trace

.053 .061

.«M7 .0

.0 .0

.030 .0

.039 .a5

trace

0.26

»'^'^Pf«-'ff ! B^dti. 1^,

99.67 |98

.015

.018

.177
.0

1

04 98.02

27 1.40|

98.60

.'(')9
trace

« • •

• ••

trace

95.55

95.80

.020

...

...

99.(>56

.567

3.04

.158

• • •

.0

.812

.714

.093

...

...

• ••

trace

2.58

.121

.0

...

.073
...

Poor
Zinc.

98.76

i!09
.03

trace

USES OF Brass is the alloy commonly employed in the arts
BRASS. in the construction of scientific apparatus, mathe-
matical instrunrents and small parts of machinery. It is cast
into parts of irregular shape, drawn into wire, or rolled into
rods and sheets. It is harder than copper, very malleable
and ductile, and can be ''struck up" in dies, formed in
moulds, or " spun " into vessels of a wide variety of forms, if
handled cold or slightly warm: it is brittle at a high temperature.

8i

BRONZES. The Principal Bronzes are those used in coinage,
in ordnance, in statuary, in bells, and musical instruments,
and in mirrors and the specula of telescopes. These alloy
oxidize less rapidly than copper, are all harder, and often
stronger and denser.

The addition of a small quantity of tin to copper causes
it to become brittle under the hammer, according to Karsten,
and the ductility is restored only by heating to a red heat and
suddenly cooling. Mushet finds that the alloy, copper 97,
tin 3, makes good sheathing, as it is not readily dissolved in
hydrochloric acid. The best gun-metal is from copper 90,
tin 10, to copper 91, tin 9 ; if richer in copper, it is especially
liable to liquation, which action is detrimental to all these
alloys. Bell-metal, copper 80, tin 20, to copper 84, tin 16, is
sonorous and makes good castings, but is hard, difficult to
work and quite brittle. Suddenly cooling it from a high
temperature, reduces its brittleness, while slow cooling restores
its hardness and brittleness. It is malleable at low red heat,
and can be forged by careful management.

Speculum-metal, copper 75, tin 25, is harder, whiter,
more brittle and more troublesome to work than bell metal.

Old flexible bronzes contain about % of an ounce of tin to
the pound of copper, or copper 95, tin 5, as stated by Ure.
Ancient tools and weapons, contain from 8 to 15 percent, tin ;
medals from 8 to 12 per cent., with often 2 per cent, zinc to
give a better color. Mirrors contained from 20 to 30 per cent,
tin. The metals, copper and tin, mix in all proportions, and
the alloys are, to a certain extent, independent of their chemi-
cal proportions. The occurrence of hard, brittle, elastic alloys
between the extremes of a series having soft tin and ductile
copper at either end, both of which metals are inelastic, is
probably a proof that these alloys are sometimes chemical
compounds. They are probably compounds in which are dis-
solved an excess of on€ or the others of the components.

Mallet stmilatly classilies Ihe copper-tin alloys according
o the following ta.b1e :

iUm
Oxnrn

.»»"

Sp.G.

mm.

"^'^ |E?

-

CuS

100.

1

a

Men

1

i

^1

red-pllow
yellow-red
pale ted
MliBrar

" w^itT''

.6

.'

1

brittle
frisble
brittle

Stoueh

7 ■■

10

7

1

V;
S ;

/ :

i ;

vitreons
conchoid

"^Irf^j"
l»m/grain

earthy

5

!

a

1
1

; d, Imnl braes for pi

THE KALCHOIDS. or copper-tin zinc alloys, are of great value,
ADd include the strongest and probably the hardest possible
combinations of these metals.

C<

PPER-TIM-ZING ALLOYS.

lo.

t«m

liL,

...

RgllBtS.

i

100

100

r

ICO

i

\ery white brittle aabject 1 1 liouation.

Brittle hard yellow

1.1 M grained,
bellow slightly malleable

1 S

la 00

13 00

6

li

ai ^aMr.it"""-

83

The use of 8 to 15 per cent, of tin and 2 per cent, zinc in
alloy with copper is probably as common as the employment
of the bronzes without zinc; the latter is added to improve
the color. Alloys of copper containing from 3 to 8 or 10 per
cent, zinc, and from 8 to 15 per cent, tin are used in engineer-
ing very extensively, the softer alloys for pump-work, the
harder for turned work and for nuts and bearings. An alloy
of 5 percent, tin, 5 zinc, and 90 copper is cast into ingots and
remelted for general purposes. It is tough, strong and
sound. Copper 75, tin 12, zinc 3, makes a good mixture for
heavy journal-bearings. Copper 76, tin 12, zinc 12, is as hard
as tempered steel and was made into a razor-blade by its
discoverer, Sir F. Chantrey. When copper and brass are
mixed in equal proportions and their sum is equal to the
weight of tin used, the alloy constitutes a solder.

GERMAN SILVER As made by good makers consists usually of

Copper, 60 per cent.

Zinc, 20 "

Nickel, 20 ' *

100 *'
This is the composition of almost all German Silver Sheet ;
but it can be had of any grade with from 4 to 20 per cent,
nickel.

German Silver has a specific gravity of 8.50 to 8.60, ac
cording to composition.

German Silver rolls cold into sheets. For table utensils
to be plated with silver, twenty five per cent, each of nickel
and zinc, to fifty per cent, of copper is usually used.

An alloy consisting of copper 56 per cent., zinc 5 per
cent, and nickel 39 per cent., makes a fine white metal of the
same class as ordinary german silver.

Aluminum is added to advantage to german silver in vary-
ing proportions up to one per cent., the aluminum being first
melted with the zinc, as ** aluminized zinc."

The aluminum serves to protect the zinc from oxidization,
prevents excessive dross, and makes the german silver stronger
and somewhat more dense.

31

i;

|ss / ;

sliiiii

III

'Mi:\

85

COPPER NICKEL ALLOYS.

Cu.

Ni.

25.0

Zn.

Other
Constituents.

Remarks.

Nickel coins

75.0

Packfong

43.8

15.6

40.6

—

Chinese alloy.

English "Ger-

man silver,"..

61.3

19.1

19.1

Berlin argentan

52.0

26.0

22.0

Sheffield Ger-

man silver

57.0

24.0

19.0

Platinoid

"""

A German
silver, with

High electrical re-

sistance, not

1 to 2 per

changing with

cent, of

temperature.

tungsten.

Ancient coin.... T7J)8

20.0

Fel.04;

Second century.

Co 0.54;

B.C.

Sn 0.03.

TIN ALLOYS.

Sn.

Sb.
7.81

Cu.
1.46

Other

Remarks.

Constituents.

Britannia met'l

90.62

Birmingham sheet.

White metal

82.00

12.00

6.00

For bearinprs. The
composition of
white metal is
very variable.

t« ««

53.00

10.60

2.40

Pb33.0;
Znl.O

Ashberry metal

77.8

19.4

—

Zn2.8

Pewter.

80.0
66.6

_

-"~

Pb20.0
Pb33.3

Solder, fine

The melting point

increases with

the proportion of

" tin

50.0 —

—

Pb 50.0

" plumbers'

;iS.H

"^

Pb66.6

Authoriscil by the
Plumbers* Com-

pany.

86

LEAD ALLOYS.

T^pe metal

Bearing metal

it tt
Shot metal

Pb.

Sb.

Sn.

70.0

18.0

10.0

82.0

14.8

3.2

84.0

16.0

—

60.0

20.0

20.0

99.6

Other
Constituents.

Cu. 2.0

As. 0.2 to
0.35

Remarks.

For stereotyping.
For slowly revolv*
iuK axles.

ZINC ALLOYS.

Zn.

Sn.

Cu.

Antifriction
metal

85.0
69.0

19.0

5.0
4.0

Babbitt's metal

Other
Constituents.

Sb 10.0
SbS.O;
Pb5.0

Remarks.

For bearings.
(Ledebur.)

BISMUTH ALLOYS, (FUSIBLE METALS.)

Newton's alloys.
Rose's

Darcet's "
Wood's
Lipowitz's *•

Bi.

Pb.

Sn.

Cd.

60.0

31.25

18.75

50.0

28.10

24.64

—

50.0

25.00

25.00

—

60.0

24.00

14.00

12.00

50.0

27.00

13.00

10.00

Melting
Point.

95
100

93
66-71

60

ALLOYS FOR COINAGE

•

Au.

Cu.

Ag.

Other
Constituents.

Remarks.

Qold ooin

91.66
90.0

IAS

40.35

0.1

8.33
10.0

82.73

19.63

7.1

7.5

15.93
40.02
92.5

92.5

PbO.2

British standard.

4t 4*

*' Latin Union "

•• •«

and American.
Roman. Septimus

M t«

Severus, 265 A. D.
Early British B.C.

Silver coin..

Silver ooin.......

50.

Roman, B. C. 31,
almost same as
British silver

coin.

British standard.

87

ALUMINUM AND COPPER.

Aluminum and copper form two series of valuable alloys.
Aluminum bronze, containing from 2 to 12 per cent, of
aluminum ; and copper-hardened aluminum, containing from
2 to 15 per cent, of copper.

ALUMINUM The 5 to 10 per cent, aluminum bronzes are among
BRONZE. the most dense, finest grained, and strongest alloys
known — alloys having remarkable ductility as compared with
tensile strength. The 10 per cent, bronze can be made in
forged bars, with 70,000 pounds per square inch tensile
strength, with 40,000 pounds elastic limit to the square inch,
and with at least 25 per cent, elongation in 8 inches. This
bronze has a specific gravity of about 7.50, and is of a light-
yellow color. The 5 to 7^ per cent, aluminum bronzes of
from 8.30 to 8 specific gravity, have a handsome yellow color,
and readily give 40,000 to 50,000 pounds per square inch tensile
strength, with over 30 per cent, elongation in 8 inches, and
with an elastic limit of 20,000 pounds per square inch. It
will probably be alloys of the latter characteristics that will be
most used — especially in bronze wire and for marine work ;
and the fact that 5 to 7 per cent, bronzes can be rolled or
hammered at a red heat, proper precautions, which can readily
be secured, being taken, will add greatly to their use. Alloys
of this character can be worked in almost every way that steel
can, having for its advantages greater combined strength
and ductility, and its greater power to withstand corrosion.
The presence of silicon makes a harder bronze, but one of
much less comparative ductility and a less malleable alloy.
The presence of iron weakens, and very seriously interferes
with the value of the bronze. The presence of zinc in the
aluminum bronze is not so deleterious — in fact it makes the
best aluminum brasses.

88

Alasnmum in bronzes lowers the melting-point of the
copper at least lOO* or 200*'. The melting-point of 10 per cent,
aluminum bronze is somevi'here in the neighborhood of i ,800®
Fahrenheit. Aluminum bronze is among the hardest of the
bronzes, and hardens upon cold working considerably. This
hardness, however, can be lowered by annealing at a red-heat
and plunging into cold water. Aluminum bronze can readily
be worked in a lathe, the chips cut smooth and long, and do
not clog the tool. Aluminum bronze is a remarkably rigid
metal under transverse strain, being much more rigid than
ordinary brass or even gun bronze, and under compressive
strain, although rather low in elastic limit compared with its
ultimate compressive strength, it is still much stronger than
any of the other bronzes, and there is a long period of gradual
compression before finally giving way, making it a peculiarly
safe metal under compression.

Sound castings can be made with aluminum bronze if the
precautions are taken to avoid the difficulties which are par-
ticularly imminent in melting.

ist. Care must be taken not to overheat the metal, for
if the metal is heated to too high a temperature, the aluminum
will oxidize ; the aluminum oxide which is formed, making
the entire casting "dirty." The metal will also be spongy
from the presence of large amounts of occluded gases.

2nd. The scum which floats on top of the melted bronze
in the crucible must be prevented from going into the body of
the casting. This is accomplished by providing the casting
with suitable skim gates.

3rd. The greatest trouble in making bronze castings,
however, arises from the shrinkage of the metal, which is very
excessive ; but the difficulty can be overcome if the casting
is given a large sinking-head and " risers." It is necessary
to make the sinking-head fully as large as the casting, in many
cases.

ALLOYS WITH Copper in proportions of from 2 to 15

SMALL PERCENTAGES per cent, has been advantageously used
OF COPPER. ^^ harden aluminum in cases where a

more rigid metal is required than pure aluminum. Copper

89

is the most common metal used at present to harden aluminum.
A few per cent, of copper decreases the shrinkage of the
metal, and gives alloys that are especially adapted for art
castings. The remainder of the range, from 20 per cent,
copper up to over 85 per cent. , give crystalline and brittle
grayish-white alloys of no use in the arts. After 80 per cent,
copper is reached, the distinctly red color of the copper begins
to show itself.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINUM BRONZE.

In the manufacture of aluminum bronze, the best results
will be derived by following closely the following method of
manufacture:

Both the copper and the aluminum should be carefully
selected, and none but the purest Calumet and Hecla Mine or
" Lake " copper should be used and the aluminum should be
guaranteed to be at least ninety-nine per cent. pure.

The copper should be put in a plumbago crucible, and
melted over a charcoal or coke fire ; these being the best fuels
to use. Next to charcoal or coke comes oil, and then natural
gas or producers gas as a fuel for melting. It is impossible
to make satisfactory aluminum bronze over an ordinary coal
fire, for the reason that the copper will absorb the gases from
the coal. The copper should be covered with charcoal to
prevent oxidation and the absorption of gases as far as pos-
sible, as there is always the liability of a small amount of
gases being present, even in using the fuels previously men-
tioned.

After the copper has been melted, and the time has arrived
to put in the aluminum, the crucible should be taken hold of
with tongs in order to remove from the fire instantly and the
percentage of aluminum which it is desired to add, is dropped
into the pot through the charcoal.

In large pots of bronze, the pot may be removed from the
fire before adding the aluminum. As soon as the aluminum

90

goes into the pot, the first action will be a cooling one to a
certain extent, caused by the actual temperature of the alum-
inum, but as aluminum and copper form natural alloys, the
aluminum as soon as it is heated to its melting temperature,
goes into combination with the copper, and consequently a
great deal of latent heat is set free or made sensible by the
chemical union of these two metals, and coasequently the
temperature of the mass is raised.

If the mixture is watched, one can tell as soon as union
takes place, for the reason that the copper will become more
liquid, and also turn a little brighter.

This is onlv an instant after the aluminum is introduced,
then if the crucible has remained on the fire, it should be re-
moved instantly, the charcoal skimmed from the surface, and
the contents, which is now aluminum bronze, poured into
moulds of any convenient size, keeping the liquid stirred as
much as possible until poured.

After this aluminum bronze has become cold, it should be
remelted and poured into moulds as desired, for the purpose
of manufacturing finished castings.

After aluminum bronze is made, it improves with each
successive re-melting and casting, until this has been accom-
plished three or four times, for the reason that it seems to give
the aluminum a better chance to become more freely dissem-
inated, and form a more uniform alloy with the copper.

After putting the aluminum into the crucible, and before
pouring, the molten mass should be stirred, in order to insure
that the aluminum is as well disseminated through the alloy
as possible.

If these points are strictly adhered to, good castings can
be produced.

The percentage of aluminum in aluminum bronze varies
from a few per cent, up to ten, or eleven per cent., depending
for what purpose the metal is intended. The strongest mixture
is between ten per cent, and eleven per cent. Beyond this
point the bronze is hard to work, and becomes brittle.

Aluminum Bronze can be readily soldered. There is not
the difficulty in soldering this that there is with pure aluminum.

9t

The best method of soldering aluminum bronze is to use pure
block tin with a flux of zinc filings and muriatic acid. It is
well to ** tin " the two surfaces before putting them together.

NICKEL An alloy of 70 per cent, copper, 23 per cent, nickel,
BRONZE, and 7 per cent, aluminum, has a fine yellow color
and takes a high polish, a small percentage of phosphorus
considerably hardening the alloy.

ALUMINUM Additions of ^ to 2 per cent, of aluminum

BEARING METAL, to Babbitt metal with a composition of cop-
per 3 7 per cent, antimony 7.3 per cent., tin 89 per cent., gives
a very superior bearing metal.

ALUMINUM Aluminum combines with iron in all proportions.
AND IRON. Few of the alloys, however, have yet proved of
value, except those of small percentages of aluminum with
steel, cast iron and wrought iron. Small amounts of iron have
been used with advantage in some casting alloys of aluminum.
An alloy of aluminum with a small percentage of copper,
tungsten and iron has been shown to have some advantages
for rigidity and strength. Iron as a ferro alloy of chromium,
manganese or similar metals, is a convenient and cheap
metal to use in hardening aluminum alloys. So far as experi-
ments have yet gone, as a general proposition, other elements
can better be employed to harden aluminum than iron, and its
presence in aluminum is usually regarded as deleterious and
to be avoided if possible. There are very few commercial
metals not chemically pure containing as little iron as does
aluminum as made by The Pittsburgh Reduction Company ;
certainly all of the brasses, bronzes or German silvers, contain
a larger percentage of iron.

ALUMINUM Aluminum is largely used in the manufacture of
IN STEEL, steel, the amount of aluminum used, however,
being small. The amount of aluminum used to give the best
results varies with the grade of steel, amount of occluded
gases, temperature of the molten metal, etc.

Aluminum is usually added in proportions of from one-
eighth to three-quarters of a pound to the ton of steel ; the

92

aluminum being added either in the ladle, or in the case of
steel castings, with more economy of the aluminum as the
metal is being poured into the ingot moulds or groups of

moulds.

Until the proper percentage of aluminum to add to any-
particular grade of steel has been determined, it is advisable
to start with small lots, for instance, with two or three ounces
to the ton, working up to the proportion that seems to give
the best results.

The special advantages to be gained by the use of
aluminum in steel manufacture are enumerated as follows :

1. The increase of soundness of tops of ingots and conse-
quent decrease of scrap and other loss, which more than
compensates for the cost of the small amount of aluminum
added.

2. The quieting the ebullition in molten steel, thereby
allowing the successful pouring of *'wild" heats from fur-
naces, ladles, etc.

3. The aid to the homogeneity of the steel ;
(a) — By preventing oxidation ;

(b) — By that property of aluminum by which it rapidly
permeates the body of the steel, thereby increasing the ease
with which other metals will alloy homogeneously with steel ;

(c) — By decreasing the time that steel will remain fluid
after being poured into moulds, and causing the steel when
solidifying to do so more evenly, preventing a central core
remaining molten longer than the outside portion of the metal,
and in this way stopping the segregation of phosphorus and
other impurities in the ** mother liquor" of the metal remain-
ing molten the longest.

4. The increase of the tensile strength of steel without
decrease of the ductility.

5. The removal of any oxygen or oxides that there may
be in the steel, the aluminum acting in the same way as man-
ganese does as a deoxidizer. Good steel has been made for
electrical purposes, using aluminum entirely in the place of
manganese, to remove the oxidation from the molten steel and
render it malleable.

93

6. The rendering steel less liable to oxidation. This is
occasioned by preventing the continued exposure of fresh sur-
faces of the molten steel in its ebullition in the moulds after
pouring.

7. The production of smoother surfaced castings and
ingots of steel than it is possible to obtain without the use of
aluminum.

There are no such metals as ** aluminum steels," in the
same way that there are "nickel steels" and *'chromium steels."
Aluminum is not a hardener of steel, and none of its alloys
with steel in material proportions have so far proven advan-
tageous. It has been proved that the addition of aluminum to
the steel just before ** teeming " causes the metal to lie quiet,
and give off no appreciable quantity of gases, producing ingots
with much sounder tops. There are two theories to account for
this : one, that the aluminum decomposes these gases, and
absorbs the oxygen contained in them ; the other is that
aluminum greatly increases the solubility in the steel of the
gases which are usually given off at the moment of setting,
thus forming blow-holes and bubbles.

Probably both of these causes operate to produce the de-
sired effect, but the well known affinity of aluminum for oxygen
would point to the former as being the chief action, /. <?., in
combining with both the carbonic oxide and the dissolved
oxide of iron which may be present. Professor Arnold has
shown that blowholes in steel and iron are partly caused by
the presence of carbonic oxide gas in the metal, and this gas
is decomposed by the aluminum which unites with the oxygen,
forming alumina, or oxide of aluminum, setting free the car-
bon, which appears as uncombined carbon or graphite. It
also combines, in some way not yet determined, with the hy-
drogen and nitrogen present, absorbing these gases or render-
ing them more soluble in the steel. Aluminum also sets free
much of the remaining carbon in the steel, as the following
result obtained by Mr. R. A. Hadfield will clearly show. Be-
lieving that aluminum, like silicon, would cause a precipitation
of graphite, he added between three and four per cent, to
ordinary spiegel, (12 and 25 per cent, manganese). The

94

lesult was m both cases a complete change from the well-
known Spiegel fracture to that of ordinary close No. 3 grey
pig iron.

I ('. C.

Gr.C' Si. I Mn. Al.

Spiegel.

12 fi before
addition of

Al I 4.80 I none.

12 'fi after

addition of
Al

25 5f before
addition of
Al

25 9fc after
addition ot
Al

.93

4.10
2.:30

3.45

1.30

I
1.88 I 2.1G

3.19

1.2i

' X()n-raa«rDetie susoep-

^tibility unaltered.

Fract'e changed from

usual pronounced

"spieKel" appearance

to that of No. 3 iron.

Do. except the change
was not quite so de-
cided.

There wag considera-
ble loss of alumin'm

Aluminum is the principal deoxidizer known to metal-
lurgists, the next being silicon ; their relative values being
shown as follows : — 100 parts by weight of oxygen will com-
bine with 1 14 parts of aluminum, or with 140 parts of silicon,
or with 350 parts of manganese. This, however, does not cor-
rectly express the value of aluminum as a deoxidizer of iron and
steel, as it has such a great affinity for oxygen that it will entirely
disappear if there is any oxygen present, and will only be found
in the steel and iron after all the oxygen has been absorbed.
This is not the case with either silicon or manganese, as either
or both of these are often found in the steel when oxygen is
present. There is also an additional inducement to use alum-
inum, namely, in the cost, for the use of silicon will add from
87 cents to $1.12 to the cost per ton of steel, while sufficient
aluminum will not add over 20 cents, and in many cases not
more than 10 cents per ton to the cost of the steel. The saving
in bad castings, or unsound ingots, will repay this many times
over. One large English steelmaker estimates his saving at over
;f 2,000 per annum from this source alone. The special ad-
vantage seems to be that aluminum combines the effects of
both silicon and manganese to the steel maker.

There is danger of adding too large a quantity of aluminum,
in which case the metal will set very solid and will be liable to
form deep " pipes " in the ingots. To add just the right pro-

95

portion of aluminum requires some little experience on the
part of the steel manufacturer, but successful results have
been secured with varying kinds of steel by adding from one-
eighth to three-quarters of n pound of aluminum to the ton of
steel. No difficulty has been experienced with the thorough
mixing of the aluminum added to steel, as it seems to rapidly
and uniformly permeate the steel without any special pains
being taken in stirring. This property adds to the homogeneous
alloying of nickel to steel as well, and the nickel-steel manu-
factuiei*s use aluminum in addition to nickel for this purpose.
If the metal be ** wild " in the ladle, full of occluded gases, too
hot, or oxidized, a larger proportion of aluminum can be
advantageously added. Mr. R. A. Hadfield says that the
influence of aluminum in steel appears to be like that of silicon,
though acting more powerfully. The same writer, together
with Howe and Osmund, claim that an addition of aluminum
does not lower the melting point of steel ; i. ^., that the critical
point is about the same whether aluminum is present or not,
but it is certain that when once melted, the alloys containing
small percentages of aluminum are far more fluid than those
without it. It is the aim, however, in adding aluminum to
iron or steel, to add just sufficient to combine with all the
oxygen present, but leave no trace in the ingot or casting ; any
more than this is not required.

Mr. J. E. Stead states that in a case where aluminum
had been added to ordinary soft open-hearth steel with properly
prepared moulds, the castings were very sound indeed. The
test bars, which were cast about eight inches long by three-
quarters of an inch square, were perfectly sound and had a
tensile strength of 40,000 lbs. per square inch, whereas the
same bar, without aluminum, only stood 20,000 lbs., the reason
being that in the ordinary steel without aluminum the cavities
were very numerous. One-tenth per cent, of aluminum in that
casting increased,the weight and solidity, and reduced the blow-
holes by 23 per cent.

In the manufacture of steel ingots, too large a proportion
of aluminum added causes excessive piping and loss by increase
of crop-ends, occasioned thereby. With steel ingots to be

96

afterwards hammered or rolled, from two to four ounces of
aluminum to the ton of steel has been found to be the most
advantageous in producing ingots which have sound tops. In
the manufacture of steel castings, where the first desideratum
is soundness of the castings and freedom from blow-holes,
and where the excessive piping and contraction in cooling is
provided for by large runners and high and capacious fountain
or *' sinking head," as they are called in foundryman's par-
lance, larger amounts of aluminum, up to 1 6 or even 32 ounces
of aluminum to the ton of steel, are advantageously added.

A valuable alloy of aluminum and ferro-manganese has
lately been patented, the addition of a small percentage of
aluminum to the ferro-manganese rendering the combined car-
bon, in the manganese alloy, graphitic, and throwing it out
of the molten mass. This permits of the production of a ferro-
manganese very low in combined carbon, and it is particu-
larly useful in the manufacture of low carbon steel.

Professor Arnold states that his experiments show clearly
that the effect of even small quantities of aluminum in producing
steel free from blowholes is perhaps the most remarkable
phenomenon in the metallurgy of steel. Its action is about
twenty times as powerful as that of silicon, and the resultant
steel is far superior in ductility and toughness. The action of
aluminum is almost certainly chemical.

He also illustrates the remarkable results obtained by the
use of aluminum with the following cuts :

A melted from Bessemer spring scrap only. Compositioa
C. 0.62. Si. o.»7, Mn. 0.46. S. 0.11, P. 0.08.

A exactly same as B , but o, 1 per cent, aluminum added
Etc minutes btfore casting. Composition : C. 0,64, Si. 0.29,
Mn. 0.62, S. O.io, P. 0.08, Al. 0.04.

The following illustration' of broken ingots shows clearly
Ihe elTect of aluminum in producing better and more valuable

The tno ingota are ideatical, e

Aside from the reduction of blowholes, and consequent
ater soundness, the addition of about 1 pound of aluminum

98

per ton of steel, is of advantage where the steel is to be cast
in heavy ingots which will receive only scant work. Here it
seems to increase the ductility as measured by the elongation
and reduction of area of tensile test specimens, without mate-
rially altering the ultimate strength.

In steel castings the benefit from the use of a small per-
centage of aluminum has become widely recognized, and it is
being generally used. The additions of aluminum are in many
instances made by throwing the metal, into the ladle, in pieces
weighing a few ounces each, as the steel is poured into it.

This, however, is not always the method used to introduce
the aluminum, and some manufacturers prefer to add the
aluminum in the form of ferro-aluminum ; in this case the
alloy is first placed in the ladle, and as the molten steel runs
in. the alloy melts, and is diffused through the entire contents
of the ladle.

FERRO-ALUMINUM. This is the trade name given to alloys of
from five to ten, or even twenty per cent, of aluminum added
to iron. These alloys vary in quality occasioned by the grade
of steel or iron used in making them. Either a good grade of
cast iron, free from sulphur and phosphorus, or of pure steel
low in these elements, is the best material used for this pur-
pose. For most cases, in either steel making or foundry work,
the use of pure aluminum is most general in American prac-
tice. It has the advantage, in that the consumer knows more
exactly the amount of aluminum he is adding, and avoids the
disadvantage of the addition of a considerable amount of iron
of a quality foreign and perhaps injurious to his mixture.

The English practice favors more the use of ferro-alum-
inum, specially in foundry work, but it is believed among
many American iron and steel founders, that this is more a
prejudice and the result of having first used ferro-aluminum
alloys which used to be sold cheaper for the contained pure
ahiminum. This is not now the case, and pure aluminum can
be bought as cheaply as the contained aluminum in any of
the ferro-aluminum alloys.

99

ALUMINUM In cast iron, from one to two pounds of alum-

IN CAST IRON, inum per ton is put into the metal as it is being
poured from the cupola or melting furnace. To soft gray
No. I foundry iron it is doubtful if the metal does much
good, except, perhaps, in the way of keeping the metal
melted for a longer time ; but where difficult castings are to
be made, where much loss is occasioned by defective castings,
or where the iron will not flow well, or give sound and
strong castings, the aluminum certainly in many cases allows
better work to be done and stronger and sounder castings
to be made, having a closer grain, and hence much easier
tooled. The tendency of the aluminum is to change com-
bined carbon to graphitic, and it lessens the tendency of the
metal to chill. Aluminum in proportions of two per cent, and
over, materially decreases the shrinkage of cast iron.

ALUMINUM The effect of aluminum in wrought iron

IN WROUGHT IRON, is not very marked in the ordinary pud-
dling process. It seems to add somewhat to the strength of
the iron, but the amount is not of sufficient value to induce
the general use of aluminum for this purpose. The peculiar
property of aluminum in reducing the long range of tempera-
ture between that at which wrought iron first softens and that
at which it becomes fluid, is taken advantage of in the well-
known Mitis process for making *' wrought iron castings." It
is for this that aluminum is most used in wrought iron at
present.

One per cent, of aluminum makes wrought iron more
fluid at 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (which is about the melting
point of cast iron) than it would be without it at 3,500 degrees
Fahrenheit.

In puddling iron an addition of 0.25 per cent, to the bath
causes the charge to stiffen more quickly, and in the shingling
process and in rolling the balls work much stiffer than usual. In
one instance, where the ordinary iron averaged 22 tons tensile
strength, with 12 per cent, elongation, the iron treated with
aluminum showed over 30 tons tensile strength, with 22 per
cent, elongation. ' *

ICXD

6AU6ES.

As SO many different gauges are in use in different coun-
tries, and even in different parts of the United States, and as
no two gauges are exactly alike after being in use a few weeks
(even if they are correct to start with), we advise all our cus-
tomers, for the sake of clearness and accuracy, to give the
thickness of sheets or diameter of wire in thousandths of an
inch, or in millimetres, as they prefer. Micrometer gauges are
now so common, that this is no longer a matter of difficulty.

To aid our customers, comprehensive tables are given in
the following pages. First, of the correct sizes of the various
gauges ; second, of the weights of sheets to gauge sizes ; and
third, of the weights of sheets and wires both to English and
metric measurements ; and we would recommend these to the
consideration of all parties who are contemplating the use of
aluminum for various purposes. The difference in weight be-
tween aluminum and other metals is here clearly shown, and
in many cases it will be found that this difference renders
aluminum the cheapest metal, apart from the many other ad-
vantages obtained by its use.

The following rules may be used to advantage by all who
have occasion to convert the metric into English measurement,
or vice versa: —

Divide weight of square metre in kilogrammes by .309 and
the quotient is the weight per square foot in ounces.

Multiply weight per square foot in ounces by .039 and
the product is the weight per square metre in kilogrammes.

Divide weight per square foot in ounces by 25.2 and the
quotient is the thickness in m.m.

Multiply thickness in m.m. by 25.2 and the product is
the weight per square foot in ounces, or the thickness in 64ths
^of sCu inch.

C0IPIRI80N OF VIRE iHD SIEET HETIL GIUCES.

BnvD ud Shupi'i.

linmighui.

.^

Si

llldM.

JJ

-3-i-t

iii>.i>r

Cup).

iKfaL

tmat

lute,
.490

m

ti

Iub«.

Iiohit.

7

.50000

600

6

,460

464

6

5

.432

510

.454

!3»3

140625

3

.425

.382

.380

.37600

2

.380

.331

.330

.340

!3l25a

.300

J3085

.2812S

2

.aS76S

.2M

.0096

.265625

3

.22842

.^a

,012^

i225

;^

!234375

^

'.m

.207

.21875

.203

■fl'*

.192

.20311!,1

aleffi

.177

176

!l71875

160

.148

:i«(

.145

.15625

]

.lom

2.58B

.134

.135

.130

,140625

128

.WD71

zSte

116

;i09

:i05

;i09S75

104

12

1

.09,5

.092

.0925

.09375

1

.083

.080

.080

,078125

1

m

1

.a»)S2

.04.'i26

lllSO

i

■^

!063
.054

IL

'S

m

1?

1

.04030

1.024

,049

.060

.M7

.045

18

]

040

MU

!035

'.m

;03760

136

2

.7229

.032

.068

.032

.034375

21

.028

.072

.0

.03125.

22

ffi

024

at

:oi»io

isios

:022

J

;0225

Mm

122

2S

.OiTWI

.4547

.020

.090

.V

.020

.021875

2fi

.01594

.4W»

.018

i

.018

,01875

26

1164

27

:0I254

'.OU

.124

J

.016

,015625

1148

,01128

!2S60

.013

,136

J

5

.015

.0140625

31

.01002

.2545

M2

,01250

11

31

ioOTSS

!20I9

;i82

3

m

!0tOI.5625

)108

.00708

.1798

.200

.(

1

.011

.009375

)100

.00630

.1600

.010

.0HB59375

.im

.0095

.0095

.00781 ffi

3fl

m

iaso

.009

.009

.00703125

37

.00445

.270

.0085

.0085

.006640625

.00396

.008

.006K

.'0897 1

39

40

:oo7

41

."0711 1

42

.00249

.0632 1

:0040

42

I02

MASTER MECHANICS' STANDARD GAUGE (Decimal.)

Alto Adopted by the Association of American Steel Manufacturers, October 23, 1896.

8l

1 OQ

4k

Weight Per Sq. Ft. in

SB

Lbs. Avoirdupois.

Basis
lbs. Per
>r 2833
er Cu.

Master
Stand

M

<

ALUMIN
Basis 1
Lbs. p
Ft. or J
per Cu

«— t

Steel.
489.6 L
Cu. Ft.c
Lb. P
Inch.

0.002

1-500

0.0508001

.028

0.080

0.082

0.004

1-250

O.1016002

.056

0.160

0.163

0.006

3-500

0.1524003

.084

0.240

0.245

0.008

I-I25

0.2032004

.111

0.320

0.326

O.OIO

I 100

0.2540005

.140

0.400

0.408

0.012

3-250

0.3048001

.188

0.480

0.490

0.014

7500

0.3556007

.195

0.560

0.571

0.016

2-125 (^T-h)

0.4064008

.224

0.640

0.653

0.018

9-500

0.4572009

.251

0.721

0-734

0.020

I 50

0.5080010

.279

0.801

0.816

0.022

11-500

0.558801 1

.307

0.881

0.897

0.025

1-40

0.63500125

.349

I. 001

1.020

0.028

7250

O.7112014

.391

1. 121

1.142

0.032

4-125 (^Jj-h)

0.8128016

.447

1. 281

1.305

0.036

9250

O.9144018

.603

1. 441

1.469

0.040

I 25

1. 01 60020

.559

1. 601

1.632

0.045

9 200

1. 14 1 00225

.629

1. 801

1.836

0.050

1-20

1.2700025

.699

2.002

2,040

0.055

11-200

1.39500275

.768

2.202

2.244

0.060

3-50 (tV-)

1.5240030

.838

2.402

2.448

0.065

13-200

1.64900325

.908

2.602

2.652

0.070

7-100

1.7780025

.978

2.802

2.856

0.075

3-40

1.90300375

1.048

3.002

3.060

0.080

2-25

2.0320040

1.117

3.202

3 264

0.085

17-200

2.15700425

1.187

3.403

3.468

0.090

9-100

2.2820045

1.257

3.603

3.672

0.095

19 200

2.41 100475

1.327

3-803

3876

O.IOO

I 10

2.5400050

1.397

4.003

4.080

O.I 10

II 100

2.7940055

1.537

4.404

4.487

0.125

18

3.17500625

1.746

5.004

5.099

0135

27-200

3.42700675

1.886

5 404

5507

0.150

3-20

3.8100075

2.096

6.005

6. 119

0.165

33-200

4.18900825

2.305

6.605

6.731

0.180

9-50

4.5720090

2 515

7.206

7.343

0.200

15

5.0800100

2.794

8.006

8.159

0.220

II 50

5.5880110

3.073

8.807

8.974

0.240

6-25

6.0960120

3.353

9.608

9.791

0.250

14

6.3500125

3.493

10.008

10.199

I03

Weight of Aluminam, Wro'tlron, Steel, Copper and Brass Plates.

Thickness Determined by American (Brown Sl Sharpe) Qaucȣ.

AVater at 62 ° Fahrenheit, 62,355 lbs. per cubic foot.

Rolled Wrought Iron is 2.8724 times heavier than Rolled Aluminum.

Steel " 2.9322

Copper " 3.3321 '

Brass " 3.1900

ilaminam. Wr'tlron. Steel. Copper. Brass.
Specific GniTity Rolled Metal, 2.680 7.698 7.858 8.930 8.549

Weight p^r ca. ft. Rolled Metal. 167.111 480.000 490.000 556.&30 533.073

No. of

Size of
each No.

Weight of Plates Per Square Foot.

Gauge.

UUMINUM.

WR'T IRON.

STEEL

COPPER.

BRASS.

Inch,

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

0000

.46000

6.406

18.400

18.784

21.345

20.435

000

.40964

5.704

16.386

16.728

19.010

18.200

00

.36480

5.080

14.592

14.895

16.928

16.2a5

.32486

4.524

12.995

13.265

15.075

14.431

1

.28930

4.029

11.572

11.813

13.425

12.851

2

.25763

3.588

10.306

10.520

11.955

11.445

3

.22942

3.195

9.173

9.369

10.647

10.193

4

.20431

2.845

8.173

8.343

9.481

9.076

5

.18194

2.534

7^8

7.430

8.443

8.083

6

.16202

2.256

6.481

6.616

7.513

7.197

7

.14428

2.009

5.770

5.890

6.693

6.408

8

.12849

1.789

5.139 •

5.246

5.961

5.707

9

.11443

1.594

4.578

4.673

5.311

5.084

10

.10189

1.418

4.075

4.160

4.728

4.526

11

.090742

J. 264

3.630

3.706

4.212

4.032

12

.080808

1.126

3.234

3.301

3.751

3.591

13

.071961

1.002

2.878

2.938

3.339

3.196

14

.064084

.8924

2.564

2.617

2.974

2.847

15

.057068

.7946

2.282

2.330

2.fr48

2.5.35

16

'.050820

.7078

2.033

2.075

2.358

2.258

17

.045257

.6302

1.810

1.848

2.100

2.010

18

.040303

.5612

1.612

1.646

1.870

1.790

19

.0a5890

.4998

1.4%

1.465

1.665

1.594

20

.031961

.4450

1.278

1.305

1.483

1.420

21

.028462

.3964

1.139

1.162

1.321

1.265

?2

.025347

.a530

1.014

1.035

1.176

1.126

23

.022571

.3143

.9028

.9216

1.047

1.003

24

.020100

.2798

.8039

.8207

.9325

.8927

25

.C17900

.2492

.7159

.7308

.8304

.7949

26

.015940

.2219

.6375

.6508

.7395

.7080

27

.014195

.1976

^5678

.5796

.6587

.a305*

28

.012641

.1760

.5a56

.5161

.5865

.5514

29

.011257

.1567

.4503

.4597

.5224

.5001

30

.010025

.1396

.4011

.4095

.4&53

.4455

31

.008928

.1244

.3572

.3647

.4144

.:i967

32

.007950

.1107

.3181

.3247

.3690

.3532

33

.007080

.09854

.2831

.2890

.:^287

.3147

34

.006304

.08778

.2522

.2569

.2925

.2801

35

.005614

.07817

.2246

.2292

.26a5

.2494

36

.005000

.06962

.2000

.2042

.2320

.?f?.?.l

37

.004453

.06201

.1781

.1818

.2066

.1978

38

.003965

.05521

.1586

.1619

,. .1840

1 .1761

39

.003531

.04917

.1412

.1442

.1639

.1569

40

.003144

.04378

.1257

.1284

.1459

.1396

TABLE SHOWING WEIGHT IN POUNDS

SHEET AND BAii aluminum; also, skass and steel

Water at SZ° = 62.3^ lbs.

linam. 2.6S. Specifio aiSTity of Rolled
Iravitr of fiollad Steel. T.SS8.
latnlDum tAkea as 1. Bnu la 3.190 timee heavier. Steel ia 2.»S22 timea

Ralatlon of Aluminum to the orflclal Table Adopted

by the Aasoclatjon of Copper Manufacturers

of the United States, isQ3.

ROLLED COPPER haa a speciSDEmvitf 0(8.9^ One irubit fcut xeiirhs

ROLLED ALUMINUM has a epecifio mvity of 2.68. ODecubiofoot
veighs 167.1114 pgunile. One siiuare foot o( uac inch thick naighg

One ouuoe pet Bguare fijot atuminui
eomspODds lo aiwut No. 3T B. & S. «aui

1 sheet 'a 0.00419 iDchei tbicli anil

the Sheeti at SUndard Dimensloni liai» tli» Following WdghU :

.0111 inch thick weighs 10 oi. to the Ktpre foot.

io6

WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT

OF THE DIFFERENT DENOMINATIONS OF ALUMINUM AND TIN

PLATES AND CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF THE

PROPOSED NEW U. S. STANDARD GAUGE.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY ALUMINUM, 2.68.

Trade

Designation

of Gauge.

IC.

171 12.73 •S

8.

IX

.213 3.41 .625 10.

(w S eg

28 .0125

28 26 .015625

IXX 242 3.88 .711 11.37 ' 26>^i 24 .018930

IXXX 273 14.37 .8 , 12.8 25>^; 24 .020300

I '

IXXXX.. .307 4.91 .9 14.4 I 25 ' 23 .021875

IXXXXX| .341 '5.46 i.o 16. 24 22 .02500

DC
DX

,218 3.50 .64 10.25
283 ,4.52! .83 ' 13.25

DXX....

•331

5.29

•97

15.5

DXXX..

•379

6.07

I. II

17.8

DXXXX.

.426

6.82

1.25

, 20.

1

28 26 .015025

25 >^' 24 .020300

24 I 22 .02500

I

23 I 21 .028125

22 ' 20 .031250

* Thickness of black sheet before tinnintr.

The thickness of tin plate varies according to the coating of tin
retained on the surface of the sheet. About two or three numbers of
Brown & Sharpe gauge should be added to the above columns for com-
paring the thickness of aluminum with tinned sheets.

I07

(0

ij

ij
u
I

0)

iii

■

•
X

X
H

be

<

Pk

93

<

O

s

5

Zinc.

OC vO Tf N X vO

• •«••••

Tt N OC VO -^ «

• ••••■••

^vO 00 O^*-" POU^t^

>5S

IT) u^ trt ir>

m»- vO N r>. POOO
M 1- w w ro pr>

• ••••••

M -^vO 00 « ^

(M HH (M

\n m to m
^ONtoQvO 'I t^C4
^ ^ tovO vO t^ t^oO

• ••■•• ••

vO 00 O W TfvO 00 O

>

III

•

On OnOC OC 00 t«* r>.

• ••••••

i-i PO M^- 1^ O^ "-^ fO

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112

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.

Specific (iravity 2.68 and at 62 deflrrees Fahr., Water taken h» 62.355

Lbs. i>er cubic inch.

For Thickness tnmi 3-16 in. to 2 in., and Widths from 1 in. to 12% in.

Thickness
in Inches.

1"

.218
.290

1^"

IW

m"

2"

.437

.580

2K"

2W

.542
.723

2%"

.597
.798

12"

:vi6

1-4

.272
.362

.326

.4;^7

.379

.508

.491
.651

2.609
3.479

5-16
3^
7-16
1-2

.362
.437
.508
.580

.M2
.6:i4

.72:^

.542
.651
.761
.870

.634

.761

.887

1.016

.723

.870

1.016

1.159

.815

.979

1.143

1.306

.904
1.088
1.269
1.449

.996
1.197
1.395
1.593

4.348
5^5
6.088
6.968

9-16

5^

11-16

3-4

.655
.723

.798
.870

.816

.904

.996

1.088

.979
1.088
1.197
1.306

1.143
1.269
1.395
1.524

1.306
1.449
1.593
1.739

1.466
1.630
1.794
1.961

i.eso

1.811
1.992
2.176

1.794
1.992
2.193
2.394

7.827

8.697

9.567

10.436

13-16

7-8
15-16
1

.941
1.016
1.088
1.159

1.177
1.269
1.361
1.449

1.412
1.521
1.630
1.739

1.651
1.773
1.903
2.029

1.882
2.029
2.176
2.319

2.118
2.282
2.449
2.609

2.363
2.538
2.718
2.899

2.592
2.790
2.991
3.189

11JW6
12.175
13.045
13.916

1 1-16
1 1-8
1 3-16
1 1-4

1.231
1.306
1.378
1.449

1.541

1.722
1.811

1.848
1.958
2.067
2.176

2.155
2.285
2.411
2.538

2.462
2.609
2.756
2.899

2.773
2.936
3.100
3.264

3.080
3.264
3.445
3.625

3.387
3.588
3.789
3.987

14.784
16.664
16.624
17.383

15-16
13-8
17-16
11-2

1.521
1.593
1.668
1.739

1.9(X3
1.992
2.084
2.176

2.282
2.394
2..503
2.609

2.664
2.790
2.919
3.045

3.046
3.189
3.336
3.479

3.424
3.688
3.752
3.915

3.806
3.987
4,168
4.349

4.185
4.383
4.584
4.785

18.263
19.133
20.002
20.872

19-16
15-8
1 11-16
13-4

1.814

1.882
1.958
2.029

2.265
2.a53
2.445
2.5;«

2.718
2.827
2.936
3.045

3.172
3.298
3.424
3.551

3.625
3.769
3.912
4.a59

4.076
4.239
4.403
4.570

4J>30
4.710
4.891
5.075

4.983
6.181
6.382

5.580

21.741
22.611
23.481
24.860

1 13-16
1 7-8
1 15-16
2

2.101
2.176
2.248
2.319

2.626
2.718
2.810
2.899

3.151
3.264
3.370
3.479

3.680
3.806
3.392
4.059

4.205
4.349
4.495
4.638

4.727
4.891
5.058
5.218

5.252
6.437
5.621
6.798

5.781
5.979
6.180
6.378

26.250
26.090
26.960
27.829

"3

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.
(continued.)

Thickness
in Inches.

3"

3^"

'iW

35i"

4"

4^"

iW

m'

12"

3-16
1-4

.651
.870

.7(iB
.941

.761
1.016

.815
1.088

.870
1.1.59

.924
1.231

.979
1.30(i

1.033
1.378

2.609
3.479

.5-16
3-8
7-16
1-2

1.088
1.306
1.521
1.739

1.177
1.415
1.647
1.886

1.269
1.524
1.773
2.029

1.361
1.630
1.903
2.176

1.449
1.739
2.029
2.319

1..541
1.848
2.155
2.462

1.630
1.961
2.285
2.609

1.722
2.067
2.411
2.7.56

4.MS
5.218
6.088
6.958

9-16
5-8
11-16
3-4

1.958
2.176
2.394
2.609

2.121
2.357
2.592

2.828

2.285
2.538
2.790
3.045

2.445
2.718
2.988
3.264

2.609
2.899
3.189
3.479

2.773
3.080
3.387
3.697

2.936
3.2W
3..588
3.915

3.100
3.445
3.789
4.134

7.827

8.697

9.,567

10.436

13-16
' 7-8

15-1()
1

2.827
3.046
3.264
3.479

3.062
3.298
3.53:^
3.769

3.298
3.5.51
3.806
4.059

3.5;^^
3.80(>
4.076
4.;i48

3.769
4.a59
4.349

4.004
4.315
4.621
4.928

4.239
4..570
4.891
5.218

4.475
4.819
6.164
6..508

11.306
12.175
13.0*5
13.915

1 1-16
I 1-8
1 3-16
1 1-4

3.697
3.915
4.ia4
4.34S

4.004
4.240
4.475
4.710

4.315
5.567
4.819
5.071

4.621
4.891
5.164
5.43<)

4.928
5.218
5.508
5.798

5.235
5..546
5.852
6.160

5.546
5.873
6.197
6..528

5.853
6.197
6..542
6.888

14.784
15.654
16.52*
17.39:3

1 5- J 6
1 3-8
1 7-16
1 1-2

4.567
4.785
5.000
5.218

4.945
5.184
5.416
5.655

5.328
5.580
5.832
6.088

5.710
5.979
6.251
6.524

6.088
6.378
6.668
6.95H

6.467
6.777
7.084
7.394

().849
7.176
7..500
7.827

7.231
7.576
7.919
8.269

18.26;^
19.133
20.(H)2
20.872

1 9-16
1 .5-8
1 11-16
13-4

5.4;^
5.655
5.872
6.088

5.890
6.126
6.361
6.596

6.;i44
6.596
6.848
7.104

6.794
7.066
7.33(>
7.613

7.il8
7..538
7.827
8.118

7.702

um

8.315
8.626

8.14;>
8.480
8.806
9.1S4

8.608
8.953
9.297
9M2

21.741
22.611
2:^.481
24.;i50

1 13-16
1 7-8
1 15-16
2

6.306
6.524
6.744
6.958

6.832
7.066
7.302
7.538

7.356
7.609
7.864
8.118

7.882
8.1.54
8.424
8.696

1

8.407
8.697
8.988
9.277

8.93.3
9.242
9..5.5()
9.85(>

1

9.458

9.785

10.110

10.4;i(>

!

9.970
10.300
10.672
11.015

2.5.250
26.090
2().960
27.82J)

114

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.
(continued.)

Thioknefis
in incaes.

5"

5^"

1.143
1.521

55^"

1.197
1.593

5%"

6"

6K"

1.361
1.811

1.415
1.886

GH"

12"

3-16
1-4

1.088
1.449

1.252
1.668

1.306
1.7;39

1.466
1.958

2.609
3.479

6-16
3-8
7-16
1-2

1.811
2.176
2.5:38
2.899

1.903
2.282
2.664
3.045

1.992
2.394
2.790
3.189

2.084
2.503
2.919
3.332

2.176
2.609
3.045
3.479

2.265
2.722
3.168
3.626

2.357
2.828
3.298
3.769

2.445
2.936
3.424
3.915

4.348
5.218
6.088
6.958

9-16

5-8

11-16

3-4

3.264
3.625
3.987
4.349

3.424
3.806
4.185
4.567

3.588
3.987
4.;«3

4.785

3.752
4.168

4.587
5.007

3.915
4.348

4.785
5.218

4.076
4.529
4.983
5.433

4.240
4.710
5.184
6.655

4.403
4.891
6.382
6.873

7.827

8.697

9.667

10.436

i;m6

7-8
15-16

1

4.710
5.075
5.437
5.798

4.945
5.328
5.709
6.088

5.181
5.580
5.979
6.378

5.416
5.836
6.251
6.668

5.655
6.088
6.524
6.958

5.890
6.344
6.794
7.248

6.126
6.596
7.066
7.538

6.361
6.849
7.336
7.827

11.306
12.175
13.045
13.915

1 1-16
1 1-8
1 3-16
11-4

6.159
6.528

6.886
7.248

6.466
6.848
7.230
7.613

6.777
7.176
7.576
7.975

7.084
7.500
7.919
8.335

7.394

7.827
8.264
8.697

7.701
8.152
iJ.6a5
9.059

8.009
8.483
8.950
9.419

8.318
8.8a5
9.293
9.784

14.784
15.654
16.524
17.393

1 5-16
1 3-8
1 7-16
11-2

7.613
7.974
8.335
8.696

7.992
8.369
8.751
9.134

8.369
8.768
9.168
9.567

8.751
9.168
9.584
10.00

9.134
9.567
10.00
10.44

9.516
9.965
10.42
10.87

9.893
10.36
10.83
11.31

10.27
10.76
11.25
11.74

18.263
19.133
20.002
20.872

19-16
1 5-8
1 11-16
1 3-4

9.062

9.423

9.784

10.147

9.513

9.894

10.273

10.655

9.96.5
10.355
10.760
11.162

10.42
10.84
11.25
11.67

10.87
11.31
11.74
12.17

11.32
11.78
12.23
12.68

11.77
12.25
12.72
13.19

12.23
12.72
13.21
13.70

21.741
22.611
23.481
24.360

1 13-16
17-8
1 15-16
2

10.508
10.869
11.23:^
11.595

11.033
11.416
11.796
12.176

11.558
11.958
12.a56
12.756

12.08
12.50
12.92
13.33

12.61
13.04
13.43
13.91

13.14
13.59
14.04
14.49

13.66
14.13
14.60
15.07

14.19
14.67
15.16
15.65

26.250
26.090
26.960
27.829

"5

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.
(continued.)

Thioknees
in inches.

7"

7W

7W'

n^''

8"

»W

SW

8%"

12"

3-16
1-4

1.521
2.029

1.576
2.101

1.630
2.172

1.685
2.244

1.739
2.319

1.794
2.391

1.848
2.462

1.903
2.534

2.609
3.479

5-16
3-8
7-16
1-2

2.538
3.045
3.551
4.059

2.626
3.155
8.677
4.202

2.718
3.264
3.806
4.348

2.807
3.370
3.932
4.495

2.899
3.479
4.059
4.638

2.988
3.588
4.185

4.785

3.080
3.697
4.315
4,928

3.169
3.806
4.441
5.072

4.348
5.218
6.088
6.958

9-16

5-8

11-16

3-4

4.567
5.072
5.580
6.088

4.727
5.252
5.777
6.306

4.891
5.436
5.979
6.524

5.055
5.617
6.180
6.743

5.218
5.798
6.378
6.958

5.382
5.979
6.576
7.176

5.546
6.160

6.777
7.394

5.710
6.340
6.974
7.612

7.827

8.697

9.567

10.436

13-16
7-8
15-16
1

6.596
7.104
7.613
8.118

6.832
7.a56

7.881
8.406

7.066
7.613
8.154
8.696

7.302
7.861
8.424
8.988

7.538
8.118
8.697
9.277

7.773
8.373
8.970
9.567

8.009
8.626
9.242
9.856

8.243
8.881
9.513
10.15

11.306
12.175
13.045
13.915

1 1-16
1 1-8
13-16
1 1-4

8.626
9.134
9.638
10.15

8.932
9.458
9.982
10.51

9.242
9.781
10.33
10.87

9.550
10.11
10.67
11.23

9.856
10.44
11.02
11.60

10.16
10.76
11.36
11.96

10.47
11.09
11.70
12.32

10.78
11.42
12.05
12.69

14.784
15.654
16.524
17.393

15-16
13-8
17-16
1 1-2

10.65
11.16
11.67
12.17

11.03
11.56
12.09
12.61

11.42
11.96
12.50
13.05

11.80
12.36
12.92
13.48

12.18
12.76
13.33
13.91

12.55
13.15
13.75
14.a5

12.94
13.55
14.17

14.78

13.32
13.95
14.59
15.22

18.263
19.133
20.002
20.872

19-16
1 5-8
1 11-16
1 3-4

12.68
13.19
13.70
14.21

13.13
13.66
14.18
14.71

13.59
14.13
14.67
15.22

14.04
14.60
15.17
15.73

14.50
15.08
15.a5
16.23

14.95
15.54
16.14
16.74

15.40
16.02
16.63
17.25

15.86
16.49
17.12
17.76

21.741
22.611
23.481
24.350

1 13-16
17-8
1 15-16
2

14.71
15.22
15.73
16.23

15.24
15.76
16.29
16.81

15.76
16.31
16.85
17.39

16.29
16.85
17.41
17.97

16.81
17.39
17.97
18.55

1

17.34
17.94
18.54
19.13

17.87
18.48
19.10
19.71

18.39
19.03
19.66
20.2i>

25.250
26.090
26.96(»
27.82^)

ii6

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.
(continued.)

Thickness
in indus.

9"

9^"

9M"

i%"

10"

lOH"

IW

1(^"

12"

3-16
1-4

1.957
2.609

2.012
2.681

2.067
2.756

2.121
2.827

2.176
2.899

2.230
2.971

2.282
3.046

2.340
3.117

2.609
3.479

5-16
3-8
7-16
1-2

3.264
3.915
4.567
5218

3.a53
4.025
4.693
5.365

3.445
4.134

4.819
5.508

3JV33
4.243
4.949
5.&55

3.625
4.^49
5.075
5.798

3.714
4.458
5.201
5.941

3.806
4.567
5.328
6.088

3.895
4.676
5.454
6.234

4.348
5.218
6.088
6.958

9-16

5-8

11-16

3-4

5.873
6.528
7.176

7.827

6.034
6.702
7.373
8.046

6.197
6.888
7.576
8.269

6.361
7.066
7.773
8.479

6.528
7.248
7.974
8.696

6.688
7.428
8.172
8.915

6.848
7.613
8.369
9.134

7.012
7.793
8.571
9.351

7.827

8.697

9.567

10.436

13-16
7-8
15-16
1

8.480
9.134
9.785
10.44

8.714
9.385
10.06
10.73

8.953
9.642
10.30
11.01

9.184
9.89;5
10.60
11.31

9.423
10.15
10.87
11.60

9.659
10.40
11.14
11.88

9.894
10.65
11.42
12.18

10.13
10.91
11.69
12.46

11.306
12.175
13.046
13.916

1 1-16
11-8
1 3-16
1 1-4

11.09
11.74
12^
13.(K5

11.39
12.07
12.74
13.41

11.70
12.39
13.08
13.77

12.01
12.72
13.43
14.13

12.32
13.04
13.77
14.50

12.63
13.37
14.12
14.86

12.93
13.70
14.46
15.22

13.24
U.02
14.80
15.58

14.784
15.654
16.524
17.393

1 5-16

1 ;^8

1 7-16
1 1-2

13.70
14.;i5
15.01
15.65

14.08
14.75
15.42
16.09

14.46
15.15
15.84
16.52

14.84
15.54
16.25
16.96

15.22
15.94
16.67
17..39

15.60
16.34
17.09
17.83

15.98
16.74
17.50
18.26

16.36
17.14
17.92
18.70

18.263
19.133
20.002
20.872

1 i>-16
1 5-8
1 11-16
1 3-4

16.31
16.96
17.61
18.27

16.76
17.43
18.10
18.77

17.22
17.90
18.59
19.28

17.67
18.37
19.08
19.78

18.12
18.84
19.57
20.29

18.57
19.31
19.82
20.80

19.02
19.78
20.55
21.31

19.48
20.26
21.03
21.82

21.741
22.611
23.481
24.350

1 13-16

1 7-8
1 15-16
2

18.02
19.57
20.22
20.87

19.44
20.11
20.78
21.45

19.96
20.65
21.34
22.03

20.49
21.20
21.91
22.61

21.01
21.74
22.47
23.19

21..'>4
22.29
23.a3
23.77

22.07
22.83
2;S..59
24.a5

22.59
23.37
24.16
24.93

26.250
26.090
26.960
27.829

"7

THE WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED BARS OF ALUMINUM,

PER LINEAL FOOT.
(continued )

Tiuokness
in Inches.

11"

11^"

11^"

IW

12"

12K"

12H"

125^"

3-16
1-4

2.:«4
3.189

2.445
3.284

2.503
3.332

2.555
3.411

2609
3.479

2.667
3.554

2.722
3.626

2.773
3.697

5-16
3-8
7-16
1-2

3.987
4.785
5.580
6.378

4.076
4.894
5.710
6.524

4.168
6.007
5.836
6.668

4.260
5.113
5.965
6.811

4.348
5.218
6.088
6.958

4.437
5.328
6.217
7.101

4.529
5.433
6.344
7.248

4.621
5.543
6.470
7.390

9-16

5-8

11-16

3-4

7.176
7.975
8.768
9.567

7.336
8.155
8.971
9.781

7.500
8.335
9.168
10.00

7.667
8.516
9.368
10.22

7.827

8.697

9.567

10.436

7.992
8.877
9.767
10.66

8.152
9.a59
9.965
10.87

8.318
9.273
10.16
11.04

13-16

7-8
15-16

1

10.36
11.16
11.96
12.76

10.60
11.42
12.23
13.04

10.84
11.67
12.50
13.33

11.07
11.92
12.78
13.63

11.306
12.175
13.045
13.915

11.54
12.43
13.32
14.20

11.78
12.68
13.59
14.49

12.01
12.94
13.86
14.78

11-16
1 1-8
13-16
11-4

13.55
14.a5
15.15
15.95

13.86
14.68
15.49
16.31

14.17
15.00
15.84
16.67

14.48
15.33
16.18
17.03

14.784
15.654
16.524
17.393

15.09
15.98
16.87
17,75

15.40
16.31
17.21
18.12

15.71
16.63
17.56
18.48

15-16
1 3-8
1 7-16
1 1-2

16.74
17.54
18.33
19.13

17.12
17.94
18.75
19.56

17.50
18.33
19.17
20.00

17.88
18.73
19.59
20.44

18.263
19.133
20.002
20.872

18.64
19.53
20.42
21.31

19.02
19.93
20.84
21.74

19.41
20.33
21.25
22.18

1 9-16
1 5-8
1 11-16
13-4

19.92
20.73
21.52
22.32

20.38
21.20
22.01
22.83

20.84
21.67
22.50
23.34

21.29
22.14
22.99
23.85

21.741
22.611
23.481
24.350

22.19
23.08
23.97
24.86

22.65
23.55
24.46
25.37

23.10
24.02
24.95
25.87

1 13-16
17-8
1 15-16
2

23.12
23.92
24.71
25.51

23.64
24.46
25.28
26.09

24.17
25.00
25.84
26.67

24.69
25.55
26.40
27.25

25.250
26.090
26.960
27.829

25.74
26.63
27.52
28.41

26.27
27.18
28.08
28.99

26.80
27.72
28.65
29.57

The weights for 12 in. width are repeated on each page to facilitate
making the additions necessary to obtain the weights of plates wider
than 12 in. Thus, to find the weight of 15}4 in. x % in., add the weights
to be found in the same line for 3H x % and 12 x %, 3.551 -f 12.175 =
15.726 lbs.

ii8

WEIGHTS OF ALUMINUM BARS IN POUNDS ; ALSO AREAS OF SQUARES
AND ROUND BARS, AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF ROUND BARS.

Specific Gravity, 2.68 and at 62 deg. Fahr., Water taken as 62.355 lbs.

per Cubic Inch.

flSsI

1

Thickoitt

or Diame

in inch(

Weight of

Weight of

irea of

irea of

Gircumferenoe

Square Bar

Round Bar

SauareBar
in Sq. Inches.

Round Bar

of Round Bar

One Foot Long.

One Foot Long.

in Sq. Inches.

in Inches.

o

.0044

.0034

.0039

.0031

.1963

J-

.018

.014

.0156

.0123

.3927

A

.041

.032

.0352

.0276

.5890

}

.072

.057

.0625

.0491

.7854

A

.114

.089

.0977

.0767

.9817

1

.163

.128

.1406

.1104

1.1781

/j

.222

.174

.1914

.1503

1.3744

1

.290

.227

.2500

.1963

1.5708

A

.367

.288

.3164

.2485

1. 7671

f

.453

.356

.3906

.3068

1.9635

a

.548

.430

.4727

.3712

2.1598

1

.652

.516

.5625

.4418

2.3562

if

.766

.601

.6602

.5185

2.5525

If

i

.888

.697

.7656

.6013

2.7489

if

1.019

.800

.8789

.6903

2.9452

1. 159

.911

I.OOOO

.7854

3.1416

•i'^

1.309

1.028

I. 1289

.8866

3.3379

li

1.467

1. 152

1.2656

.9940

3.5343

lA

1-635

1.284

I.4I02

1. 1075

3.7306

» 1

* 4

1. 812

1.423

1.5625

1.2272

3.9270

'♦

1.997

1.569

1.7227

1.3530

4.1233

2.192

1.722

1.8906

1.4849

4.3197

'A

2.396

1.882

2.0664

1.6230

4.5160

T 1

2.609

2.049

2.2500

I. 7671

4.7124

'j\

2.831

2.223

2.4414

1.9175

4.9087

If

3.062

2.405

2.6406

2.0739

5.1051

r 1 1

3.302

2.593

2.8477

2.2365

5.3014

I ^

'■ 4

3.550

2.789

3.0625

2.4053

5.4978

Ifl

3.810

2.992

3.2852

2.5802

5.6941

I|

4.075

3.202

3.5156

2.7612

5.8905

I-J§

4.352

3.417

3.7539

2.9483

6.0868

119

SQUARE AND ROUND BARS.

(CONTINUKD.)

Ill

T«if U of

Weight of

Area of

Area of

Oironrnferenca

•§ ys •"•

SqnureBar

Round Bar

SooareBar
in. 8q. Inches.

Ronnd Bar

of Roand Bar

a -.9

Oiun»tI«iig.

One Foot Long.

in Sq. Inches.

in Inches.

2

4.638

3.642

4.0000

3.1416

6.2832

A

4.931

3.874

4.2539

3.3410

6.4795

i

5.235

4. 1 13

4.5156

3.5466

6.6759

A

5.549

4.358

4.7852

3.7583

6.8722

i

5.872

4.61 1

5.0625

3-9761

7.0686

A

6.203

4.870

5.3477

4.2000

7.2649

f

6.541

5.140

5.6406

4.4301

7.4613

A

6.889

5.409

5.9414

4.6664

7.6576

1

7.248

5.692

6.2500

4.9087

7.8540

A

7.616

5.979

6.5664

5.1572

8.0503

f

7.990

6.275

6.8906

5-4119

8.2467

«

8.376

6.578

7.2227

5.6727

8.4430

1

8.526

6.889

7.5625

5.9396

8.6394

1

9.174

7.203

7.9102

6.2126

8.8357

*

9.584

7.528

8.2656

6.4918

9.0321

if

10.001

7.857

8.6289

6.7771

9.2284

3

10.435

8.195

9.0000

7.0686

9.4248

A

10.876

8.540

9.3789

7.3662

9.6211

*

"•323

8.894

9.7656

7.6699

9.8175

A

11.782

9.252

10.160

7.9798

10.014

i

12.250

9.618

10.563

8.2958

10.210

A

12.724

9.992

10.973

8.6179

10.407

1

13.208

10.374

II.391

8.9462

10.603

A

13.702

10.763

II.816

9.2806

10.799

i

14.205

I1.155

12.250

9.6211

10.996

A

I4.7II

11.560

12.691

9.9678

1 1. 192

f

15.238

11.967

13.141

10.321

11.388

H

15.769

12.382

13.598

10.680

11.585

f

16.308

12.810

14.063

11.045

11.781

t«

16.855

13.235

14.535

II.416

11.977

J

17.410

13.676

15.016

11.793

12.174

il

17.976

14. 1 19

15.504

12.177

12.370

I20

Table of Dimensions and Weights of Alnminnm and Copper Wire.

Specific Gravity of Aluminum taken as 2.68, water weighing 62^55 pounds pev

cubic foot. Specific Gravity of Copper, 8.93.

Diam.
Mils.

Area.

Weiqht and Length.

a1

<5PQ

Circular

Mils. (d2)

ImiL =

.OOlincL

Square Inch,
(d2x.7854.)

Pounds
per mile,
Alum'n.

Pounds

per mile.

Copper.

Feet

per Pound

Aluminum.

Feet

per pound

Copper.

000()

460.000

211600.00

166190.

1018.30

3393.07

6.18.5

1.728

000

409.640

1678a5.00

131790.

807.52

2690.75

6.539

2.1T9

00

364.800

133079.40

104520.

640.36

2m.74

8.246

2.748

324.860

105534.00

82886.

507.83

1692.14

10.397

3.465

1

289.300

83694.20

65733.

402.81

1342.21

13.108

4.368

2

257.630

66373.00

52130.

319.44

1064.39

16.529

5.508

3

229.420

52634.00

41339.

253.28

843.96

20.846

6.946

4

204.310

41742.00

32784.

200.90

669.4i

26.281

8.757

6

181.940

33102.00

25998.

159.30

530.79

33.146

11.044

6

162.020

26250.50

20617.

126.a5

421.02

41.789

13.924

7

144.280

20816.00

16349.

100.21

333.93

52.687

17.556

8

128.490

16509.00

12966.

79.46

264.78

66.445

22.140

9

114.430

13094.00

10284.

62.99

209.90

83.822

27.931

10

101.890

10381.00

8153.2

48.71

162.32

105.68

35.215

11

90.742

8234.00

6467.0

39.63

132.04

133.24

44.398

12

80.808

6529.90

5128.6

31.43

104.71

168.01

55.983

13

71.961

5178.40

4067.1

24.83

83.02

211.86

70.595

U

64.084

4106.80

3146.9

19.76

65.83

267.17

89.022

lo

57.068

3256.70

2557.8

15.67

52.22

336.93

112.27

16

60.820

2582.90

2028.6

12.43

41.42

424.81

141.55

17

45.257

2048.20

1608.6

9.857

32.85

535.62

178.47

18

40.303

1624.30

1275.7

7.814

26.04

675.67

225.14

19

35.890

1288.10

1011.66

6.199

20.65

851.79

283.82

20

31.961

1021.50

802.28

4.916

16.38

1074.11

357.91

21

28.462

810.10

636.25

3.898

12.99

13o4.&5

451.38

22

25.347

642.70

504.78

3.091

10.30

1707.94

669.10

23

22.571

509.45

400.12

2.451

8.169

2153.78

717.66

24

20.100

404.01

317.31

1.944

6.478

2715.91

904.97

25

17.900

320.40

251.64

1.542

5.138

3424.66

1141.1

26

15.940

254.01

199.50

1.223

4.075

4317.78

1438.7

27

14.195

201.50

158.26

.9694

3.230

5446.63

1814.9

28

12.641

159.79

125.50

.7688

2.562

6868.13

2288.5

29

11.257

126.72

99.526

.6098

2.o;^2

8698.03

2884.9

30

10.025

100.50

78.933

.4836

1.612

10917.0

3637.7

31

8.928

79.71

62.604

.3836

1.278

13762.8

4585.9

32

7.950

63.20

49.637

.3041

1.013

17361.1

6784.9

:i3

7.080

50.13

39.372

.2412

.8039

21886.7

7292.9

34

6.304

39.74

31.212

.1912

.6373

27609.1

9199.6

35

5.614

31.52

24.756

.1517

.5055

34807.3

11627.4

36

5.000

25.00

19.6.35

.1203

.4010

43878.9

14620.6

37

4.453

19.83

15.567

.0954

.3179

55340.4

18440.0

38

3.965

15.72

12.347

.0757

.2521

69783.7

23252.6

39

3.531

12.47

9.7939

.0600

.1999

88028.2

29331.9

40

3.144

9.89

7.7676

.0475

.1584

111099.0

37019.2

121

Weigbt of Aluminum, f ro't Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass Wire.

Diameters Determined by American (Brown & Sharpe) Qauqe.

Water at 62° Fahrenheit, 62.355 lbs. per cubic foot.

Drawn Wrought Iron is 2.8724 times heavier than Drawn Aluminum.

Steel *• 2.9322

Copper •• 3.3321

Brass " 3.1iKK) "

«*

44

••
««

4<

Wei

UHT OK Wl

RK Per 1000 Lineal

Ft.

Size of

Ft. per lb.

No. of

Gauge.

each No.

Aluminum.
Feet.

ILUMIHUM.

WR'T IRON.

STEEL

OOPPBL

BRASR.

Inch,

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

0000

.46000

5.ia5

192.86

553.97

565.50

642.68

615.21

000

.40964

6.5;«

152.94

439.33

448.45

509.32

487.92

00

.36480

8.246

121.28

348.40

355.65

404.20

386.94

.32486

10.3f)6

96.18

276.30

282.02

320.50

306.83

1

.28930

13.108

76.29

219.11

223.68

254.20

243.35

2

.25763

16.529

60.50

173.78

177.38

201.60

192.98

3

.22942

20.846

47.97

137.80

140.67

159.86

153.02

4

.20431

26.281

38.05

109.28

111.57

126.78

121.37

5

.18194

33.146

30.17

86.68

88.46

100.54

96.26

6

.16202

41.789

23.93

68.73

70.15

79.72

76.32

7

.14428

52.687

18.98

54.43

55.56

63.23

60.53

8

.12849

66.445

15.05

43.23

44.12

50.14

48.00

9

.11443

8;j.822

11.93

34.28

34.99

39.77

38.07

10

.10189

ia5.68

9.462

27.18

27.74

31.53

30.18

11

.090742

133.24

7.505

21.56

22.01

25.01

23.94

12

.080808

163.01

5.952

17.10

17.46

19.83

18.99

13

.071961

211.86

4.720

13.56

13.84

15.73

15.06

14

.064084

267.17

3.743

10.75

10.98

12.47

11.94

15

.057068

336.93

2.968.

8.526

8.704

9.890

9.468

16

.a50820

424.81

2.a54

6.761

6.9a3

7.843

7.508

17

.045257

535.62

1.867

5.362

5.474

6.220

5.955

18

.040303

675.67

1.480

4.252

4.342

4.933

4.723

19

.035890

851.79

1.174

3.372

3.443

3.912

3.755

20

.031%!

1074.11

.9310

2.672

2.730

3.102

2.970

21

.028462

1354.65

.7382

2.121

2.165

2.460

2.a55

22

.025347

1707.94

.5855

1.682

1.717

1.951

1.868

23

.0W571

2153.78

.4643

1.333

1.361

1.547

1.481

24

.020100

2715.91

.3682

l.a'>8

1.080

1.227

1.175

25

.017900

3424.66

.2920

.8388

.8563

.9731

.9316

26

.015940

4317.78

.2316

.6652

.6791

.7716

.7387

27

.0141^5

5446.63

.1836

.5276

.5;«5

.6120

.5858

28

.012641

6868.13

.1456

.418;^

.4270

.4853

.4645

29

.011257

8698.03

.1155

.3:^17

.3386

.3849

aJ683

30

.010025

10917.0

.0916

.2631

.2686

.3052

.2922

31

.008928

13762.8

.0727

.2087

.2130

.2421

.2318

32

.007^50

17361.1

.0576

.1655

.1693

.1919

.1837

33

.007080

21886.7

.0457

.1312

.1340

.1522

.1457

34

.006304

27609.1

.0362

.1040

.1062

.1207

.1155

35

.005614

34807.3

.0287

.0825

.0842

.0957

.0916

36

.005000

43878.9

.0228

.06.55

.0668

.0759

.0727

37

.004453

55340.4

.0181

.0519

.0530

.0602

.0577

38

.003965

69783.7

.0143

.0413

.0420

.0478

.0457

39

.003531

88028.2

.0114

.0326

.0333

.0379

.0363

40

.0a3144

111099.0

.0090

.0259

.0264

.0300

.0287

Specific
Weight

Gravity \\

''ire

2.680

7.698

7.858

8.9;so

8.549

per cubic i

oot. Wire ...

167.111

480.0(K)

490.(H)0

556.830

533.073

TMLE OF RESISTMCES OF PORE ILOWIWII WIRE. *

Pars HlaminuiD wsiEhB 16

SffiJSSE"

TABLE OF RESISTtNCES OF PORE COPTER WIRE.'

t

RsSiSTiNCB *T 7S

F.

Lcttd'.

R.

Ohms

Feet

LogB.

c

Ohmiper
1000 F«et

permile.

per""—

OhmBperlb.

"i

.32661

1031

1.6907235

iS

ii

Ji^ora

i

:i564M

Mm

.82582

SOf

S«^

I

'.2im

SI

40^

;iSflTO

.31361

.6558

3I|

6

.39^

2.083

T.5971692

7

2.6ai

201

1.6878419

3.320

151

r.7e851B4

j

.7a281

.1860

1

^891669

12607

.6668

1

.5898

.3M0

ffi

13

2.00(7

1 .585

1

2.9908

IISO

»

1

4.0W1

a

r

5.0683
3»]1

28.761

'sres^

li

i918(861

loiiea

*„„..

.0070009

12.815

78.037

,5,23.55

.1077006

61.911

1 je

13:238

2-

135.87

21.050

ffi

1 m

33.466

3b

2 .79

21.469

35.235

Z.

fiiisio

19.410

84.614

2.3W275I

17119646

64.966

16.398

134.56

2.2035496

J(126»99

SLftal

I2.2OT^

213.96

uomy

.913!»40

103.30

31

6n.99

7:8.n73

528.4S

16l'jl6

867.27

6.0«H(.

860.33

55221

207J)8

1033.4

1367.3

51415

^1.23

70113

1738.9

415.24

21925

2.4081

U

829UZ

S23.78

2765Ji

1.9093

:•

9I35II

660.37

i

97887

S32.4S

4395.5

ijaa-i

31896.

;:0958fi6.5

1049.7

.'>542.i

.»527

34823.

0.9951963

.02I0429

J9 Ubuu at 15.6° G.

124

l_ISX OF" STANDARD SI

SEAMLESS DBAWN TUBING ZEFT IN STOCZ.

Inches

Outside

Diameter.

Thickness

of Wall

Stubs'

Gauge.

Weights

Per

Foot

in Pounds.

1
Inches
Outside
Diameter

Thickness

of Wall

Stubs*

Gauge.

Weights

Per

Foot

in Pounds.

%

24

.020

H

18

.130

%

22

.023

H

16

.170

%

20

.030

Vs

22

.090

%

l8

.036

H

20

.110

5
TtT

24

.027

H

18

.160

5

22

■035

Vs

16

.200

A

20

.043

22

.100

A

l8

•055

20

.130

y%

24

.030

18

.180

*

H

22

•037

16

.230

V%

20

.046

I'X

20

.160

y%

l8

.063

iX

18

.230

i^

24

•035

iK

16

.306

A

22

•045

i>^

20

.190

A

20

.058

^'A

18

.270

A

l8

.077

1/2

16

.360

>4

24

.040

1/2

14

.450

>^

22

.050

iH

20

.230

%

20

.063

iH

18

.320

'A

l8

.086

i«

16

.420

'A

l6

.110

iH

14

•530

H

20

.080

2

20

.260

H

i8

.110

2

18

.360

H

i6

.140

2

16

.480

H

22

.076

2

14

.610

H

20

.096

2

12

.790

Tubes of any Size and Gauge Made to Order in Lots of over 50 Pounds,
Specify whether to be Annealed for Bending.

"25

ALUMINUM PIPE SIZES.

Seamless Drawn Aluminum Tubes made to Correspond
WITH Iron Tubes and to Fit Iron Tube Fittings.

LIST OK SIZES, LENGTHS, Ac.

Same as
Iron
Size.

11/

IiZ

1

'A
2

3
4

Outside
Diameter.

1 3

1 7
^1

21

13
1^

'tV

1%

2^
3>^

Thickness
Stubs'
Gauge.

15

15

13
12

12

II

9

9
8

7
3

Weigrhts per
Foot.

Alum'um
Lbs.

.089
.123
.199
.252
.404
.540

•835
•974
1.42

1.85

2-77
4.06

Brass
Lbs.

•27

•37
.60

.76

1.22

1.63

2.52

2.94

4.28

5.58

8.35
12.24

Copper
Lbs.

.29

•39
.64
.80
1.28
1.74
2.65
3.12

4-53

592

8.84

12.96

ALIv TURKS

warranted to be equal in quality and finish

to any made.

126

WEIGHTS IN POUNDS PER FOOT OF ALUMINUM

U B6'

Hos. of Gan^e.
Thickness in

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

thousandths
of an Inch

.300

.2^4

.259

.2:«

.220

.203

.180

.16;-)

.148

.lU

.120

.109

Diainet'r.

% "

% "
% *'

1 "

.12

.11

•••■■••••

.22
.30
.37
.4,5
.53

.20
.27
.34
.42
.49

.19
.25
.32
.38
.45

.18
.23
.29
.35
.41

.17

.33
.43
.52
.62

.31
.39

.48
.57

.22

.27

.61
.74

.58
.70

.56
.66

.32

.80

.78

.37

1% "

.94

.91

.86

.81

.76

.72

.65

.61

.56

.51

.46

.43

114 "

1.09

\M

.98

.92

.87

.81

.74

.65)

.63

.58

.52

.48

1% "

1.23

1.18

l.ll

1.03

.97

.91

.83

.70

.64

.58

.53

VA "

1.36

1.33

1.23

1.15

1.08

l.(X)

.92

.85

.1 i

.70

M

.58

]% '•

l.o2

1.45

1.36

1.26

1.18

1.11

.99

.93

.84

.77

.69

.63

1% "

1.66

1.59

1.48

1.38

1.29

1.20

1.09

1.01

.91

.83

.75

.69

1% "

l.Sl

1.73

1.60

1.49

1.39

1.30

1.17

1.09

.98

.90

.81

.74

2 •'

1.94

1.84

1.73

1.61

1.50

1.40

1.25

1.17

1.05

.96

.87

.79

2% '•

2.23

2.13

1.97

1.77

1.71

1.59

1.43

1.32

1.20

1.09

.98

.90

2^ "

2.ry2

2.40

2.22

2.06

1.92

1.78

1.60

1.48

1.34

1.22

1.10

1.00

2^^ "

2.80

2.67

2.47

2.28

2.12

1.98

1.78

1.64

1.48

1.35

1.21

1.11

3 "

3.10

2.95

2.71

2.51

2.at

2.17

1.95

1.82

1.62

1.47

1.33

1.21

^% "

3.37

3.21

2.96

2.74

2.52

2.36

2.12

1.96

1.76

1.60

1.44

1.32

3^ ••

3.(>5

3.48

3.21

2.97

2.76

2.56

2.29

2.11

1.90

1.73

1.56

1.42

3^ "

3.97

3.81

3.47

3.19

2.96

2.75

2.16

2.27

2.05

1.86

1.67

1.52

4 "

4.24

4.03

3.70

3.42

3.: 8

2.90

2.64

2.43

2.19

l.i>9

1.79

1.63

^M "

4.51

4.30

3.71

3.r).5

3.39

3.14

2.81

2.59

2.33

2.12

1.90

1.73

4^:^ ••

4.80

4.57

4.20

3.88

3.61

3..33

2.98

2.75

2.47

2.'Z4

2.02

1.83

A% "

5.10

4.S4

4.45

4.11

3.81

3.;53

3.15

2.91

2.61

2.37

2.13

1.94

5 "

5.40

5.12

4.70

4.33

4.02

3.72

3.32

3.06

2.76

2.50

2.25

2.a5

^^^4 "

5.67

5.40

4.94

4.")6

4.24

3.91

3.49

3.22

2.89

2.62

2.m

2.15

5}^^ "

5.96

5.66

5.19

4.79

4.44

4.07

3.67

3.3S

3.04

2.76

2.48

2.26

5^ "

6.26

5.93

5.44

5.02

4.a5

\M

3.84

3.-54

3.18

2.89

2.59

2.36

6 "

6.53

6.20

5.68

5.24

4.86

4.49

4.01

3.70

3.32

3.01

2.71

2.47

127

(TUBING OUTSIDE MEASUREMENT.

OAUO

13

.095

14

.083

16

.072

16

.065

17

.058

18

.049

19

.042

20

.035

21

.032

22

.028

23

.025

24

.022

No8.of6aa{[a.
Thickness in
thousandths
of an Inch.

Diamet'r.

.060

.053

.050

.047

.044

.036

.03;^

.030

.027

.025

.023

.020

M in.

.100

.093

.083

.076

.069

.063

.053

.046

.043

.037

.033

.030

% *•

.147

.133

.120

.110

.100

.086

.073

.063

.056

.a50

.046

.040

M "

.190

.170

.150

.140

.130

.110

.093

.080

.073

.063

.056

.050

% "

.240

.210

.190

.170

.150

.130

.110

.096

.090

.076

.070

.060

% ••

.290

.250

.220

.200

.180

.160

.130

.110

.100

.090

.083

.073

Vs "

.330

.290

.260

.230

.210

.180

.160

.130

-.12

.10

.093

.083

1 •'

.38

.33

.29

.27

.24

.20

.18

.15

.14

.12

.11

.093

1^/^ "

.41

.37

.33

.30

.27

.23

.20

.16

.15

.13

.12

.10

1^ •'

.46

.41

.36

.33

.29

.25

.22

.18

.17

.15

.13

.11

m "

.51

.45

.39

.36

.32

.27

.24

.19

.18

.16

.14

.12

VA "

.56

.49

.43

.39

.35

.29

.26

.21

.19

.17

.15

.13

1% •'

.60

.53

.47

.42

.38

.32

.27

.23

.21

.18

.16

.14

m ••

.65

.57

.50

.45

.41

.34

.29

.24

.23

.20

.18

.15

1% ••

.70

.61

.53

.48

.43

.36

.31

.26

.24

.21

.19

.16

2 ••

.79

.69

.60

.54

.49

.41

.36

.30

.27

.24

.21

.18

2% *•

.88

.77

.69

.61

.54

.46

.39

.33

.30

.26

.24

.21

2^f ••

.97

.85

.74

.67

.60

.51

.43

.36

.33

.29

.26

.23

2% ••

1.07

.93

.81

.73

.65

.55

.48

.40

.36

.32

.28

.25

3 •'

1.15

1.01

.88

.80

.71

.60

.52

.43

.39

M

.31

.27

'U "

1.24

1.09

.95

.86

.77

.65

.56

.46

.42

.37

.33

.29

•s'A "

1.34

1.17

1.02

.92

.82

.70

.60

.50

.46

.40

.36

.31

3% *•

1.43

1.25

1.09

.98

.88

.74

.64

.53

.49

.42

.38

.3:3

4 ••

1.52

1.33

1.16

1.05

.93

.79

.68

.56

.52

.45

.40

.36

4% "

1.61

1.41

1.23

1.11

.99

.84

.72

.60

.55

.48

.43

.38

i'A "

1.70

1.49

1.30

1.18

1.05

.88

.76

.63

.58

.51

.45

.40

m "

1.79

1.57

1.36

1.23

1.07

.93

.80

.67

.61

.53

.48

.42

5 "

1.88

1.65

1.43

1.30

1.16

.98

M

.70

.64

.56

.50

.44

^% "

1.98

1.73

1.50

1.36

1.21

1.03

.88

.73

.67

.59

.52

.46

5^ "

2.07

1.81

1.57

1.42

1.27

1.07

.92

.77

.70

.61

.55

.48

5% *•

2.16

1.89

1.64

1.48

1.33

1.12

.96

.80

.73

.64

.57

.50

6 **

128

SIFE PRESSURES OM mUMmUM TDBIIH! Ill PODNDS PER SQUIRE HGfl.

According to the formula that the Tension per linear inch is equivalent

to the Pressure per square inch, multiplied by the interior radius

of the Tube, and to get the thiclcness of the Tube, divide by

the Unit Stress per square inch.

Outside

Dia.
in inch.

688 of

OOOths
inch.

So.
Stabs
6an^.

Allowable Unit Stras in

Pounds per

Square Inch.

Thickn

Wall 1

of an

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

18

lbs.

lbs.
2352

lbs.
2744

lbs.
3136

lbs.

lbs.

Va.

.049

1960

a528

3920

sm

20

1400

1680

1960

2240

2520

2800

• • •

.028

22

1120

1344

1568

1792

2016

2240

• • ■

.022

24

880

1056

1232

1408

1584

1760

5-16

.049

18

1.568

1882

2ia5

2508

2822

3136

• a •

.()*■)

20

1120

i;^

1568

1792

2016

2240

• • •

.028

22

896

1075

1254

143;^

1613

1792

.022

24

704

845

986

1126

1267

1408

%

.049

18

1307

1568

182i)

20SK)

2352

2613

• • •

.0;i')

20

93;^

1120

13(M)

1493

1680

1866

■ • ■

.028

22

747

896

104^)

1195

1344

1493

• • •

.022

24

587

704

821

939

1056

1173

7-16

.049

18

1120

1344

1568

1792

2016

2240

.(»>

20

800

960

1120

1280

1440

1600

.028

22

640

768

896

1024

1152

1280

.022

24

503

60;^

7(4

804

905

1005

%

.065

16

13(K)

1560

1820

2080

2340

2600

.049

18

980

1176

1372

1568

1764

1960

.(»'>

20

7(K)

840

980

1120

1260

1400

...

.028

22

m)

672

784

896

1008

1120

.022

24

■WO

528

616

704

792

880

%

.06')

16

1040

1248

14.56

1664

1872

2080

.049

18

7H4

941

1098

12.>1

1411

1568

.03;->

20

560

672

784

896

1008

1120

.028

22

448

5;«

627

717

806

896

%

.06;3

16

H67

1040

1213

l:w

1560

173;^

.0-19

18

6r).3

784

915

104;")

1176

1306

.035

20

4r)7

560

ft5:^

747

iVtO

933

.028

22

373

448

52:^

597

672

746

%

.Oft')

16

743

891

1040

1188

1337

1485

.049

18

560

672

784

896

1008

1120

• • ■

.03")

20

400

480

560

&10

720

800

.028

22

320

384

448

512

576

&40

l""

.06;")

16

6")0

780

910

1040

1170

1300

• ■ •

.049

28

490

588

686

784

882

980

• ■ •

.0;i')

20

:i50

420

490

560

630

700

.028

22

280

336

392

448

504

560

V/4.

.083

14

6<)4

797

930

1062

1195

1328

• a •

.062

16

520

624

728

832

9;^

1040

• • •

.049

18

392

470

549

627

706

784

• • •

.0;5;')

20

280

3,^6

392

4-18

504

560

Sib Prenm oi Alnaiiua Tnbit; it Ptnili |hc Sqiin lirb.— CoiliiMd.

OaUdt

No

lU,

>wib)i Hoi! »ra> in

IW4. p-r a,>u« I,«i.

Uu.

an

iniKh.

6»t

* 6M0

ma

TDM
ita.

aooD

Ua.

MW

■r

IM

08S

653

m

~~

~885~

996

1106

s

m

606
457

523

m

653

327

373

420

466

m

949

J)65

.(H9

449

604

.oai)

240

m

360

400

i"

.109

654

109O

.083

498

747

.065

390

455

520

m

660

294

3IM

592

441

490

.035

210

24.'i

Zi

.109

3^

4.39

m

m

96»
827

3*7

404

462

578

2W

.1(»

526

701

876

,m

309

5»2

.065

312

364

468

iS

:m

m

476
362

655

423

m

as

m

.065

XK

426

«7

715

804

893

i

363

m

:™

581

654

727

^

403

470

537

m

m

.m

.107

3,18

409

460

511

i%

.134

4-59

613

766

.109

623

■

237

285

352

379

474

M.

im

(

357

429

500

572

715

.109

2

291

407

.n$3

4

266

C

Im

n

2

3^

i

1

M6

'i

670

.109

H

,545

iH

.185

466

699

776

;

442

60.^

:i09

309

359

410

462

4H

.I6a

440

a

660

738

;

417

1

291

339

4.16

m

.165

(

417

486

556

625

.131

:

339

451

.'508

275

!l65

594

660

...

.1.34

1

269

m

305

429

482

^

(

m

251

306

357

409

460

109

5

208

2»I

332

374

415

I30

Safe PressirM oi AlonhiDa TiUig n Poawb per S^ure Iieh. — CoitiBKii.

Oatside
Diam.

vm 9

No.

Stabs

movable Unit Stress in

Founds per Square Inoh.

in inch.

Gauge.

5000

6000

7000

' 8000

9000

lOOOO

10

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

. ^'^

lbs.

lbs.

5}4

.165

300

360

420

480

540

600

• ••

.134

12

244

292

341

390

438

487

• ■•

.109

14

198

238

277

317

357

396

5%

.165

10

287

344

402

459

617

574

.134

12

233

280

326

373

419

466

• ••

.1.09

14

190

227

265

303

341

379

IB

.165

10

275

330

385

440

495

550

• •■

.134

12

228

268

313

357

402

447

• a ■

.109

14

182

218

254

291

337

363

G'A

.250

10

385

462

538

615

692

769

.1875

12

288

346

404

462

519

577

.175

14

192

231

269

308

346

385

7"

.250

2-3

357

429

500

571

643

714

■ • •

.1876

6-7

268

321

375

429

482

536

•■«•

.175

10-11

179

214

250

286

321

357

VA

.250

2-3

333

400

467

543

600

667

• ••

.1875

6-7

250

300

350

400

450

500

• ••

.125

10-11

167

200

233

267

300

333

8

.250

2-3

313

375

438

500

563

625

• ••

.1875

fr-7

234

281

328

375

422

469

• • •

.125

10-11

156

187

219

250

281

313

SA

.250

2-3

294

353

412

471

529

588

.1875

6-7

221

265

309

353

397

441

, ^

.125

10-11

147

176

206

235

265

294

9

.250

2-3

278

3:«

389

445

500

556

...

.1875

6-7

208

250

292

&33

375

417

.125

10-11

139

167

194

222

250

278

lO"

.250

2-3

250

300

350

400

^ 450

500

• • ■

.1875

6-7

188

225

263

290

338

375

.125

10-11

126

150

175

200

225

250

li"

.375

00-0

341

409

477

546

614

682

...

.250

2-3

228

273

319

365

410

456

• ■ •

.1875

6-7

170

205

239

273

307

341

•• •

.125

10-11

114

136

159

182

204

227

12

.500

abOOOO

417

500

583

667

750

833

• a •

.375

00-0

313

375

438

500

563

625

• • •

.250

2-3

208

250

292

333

375

417

• • •

.125

10-11

IW

125

146

167

187

208

The above allowable unit strains are based on a factor of safety
of about four, and may be used as follows for the different alloys,
whfen the temperature is not above 100° Centigrade; when the temper-
ature is above 100° Centigrade, the allowable unit stresses should be
divided by two, and aluminum should not be subject to strains at
temperatures above 200° Centigrade.

Pure Aluminum (cast) 5000 lbs. per sq. inch.

Special Casting Alloy (cast) 5000 to 6000 lbs. per sq. inch.

Nickel Casting Alloy (cast) 6000 to 8000 lbs.

Pure Alumi'um Tubing (made from sheet) 6000 to 8000 lbs. " **

Nickel " 8000 to 10,000 lbs. " "

For Rivktkd Joints : Single riveted 60 per cent, of the allowable
unit stress as given above for the efficiency of the joint. For double
nvet^d joints, y5 per oent. of the allowable stresses giyen aboye*

'31

RIVETS AND BURRS. All sizes and styles of rivets and burrs
will be made as desired. On account, however, of the expense
and inconvenience of specially making small lots of rivets, The
Pittsburgh Reduction Company carry in stock a large assort-
ment of rivets. Orders for rivets of a size or style not carried
in stock, will not be taken for lots of less than five pounds.

The Pittsburgh Reduction Company carry in stock, alum-
inum rivets of the same size and shape as iron '* tinners " or
"pound " rivets, as follows : — 8 oz., lo oz., 12 oz., 14 oz., i
lb., 1)4 lb., l}4 lb., I^ lb., 2 lb., 2}i lb., 3 lb., 3>^ lb., 4
lb., 5 lb., 6 lb., 7 lb., 8 lb., 9 Ib.^ 10 lb., 12 lb., 14 lb. and
16 lb.

The following is the list of round head and flat head rivets
(other than the pound rivets) kept in stock :

ROUND HEAD RIVETS KEPT IN STOCK.

(stub's gauge the standard.)

^ in. diameter, i}4 in.

long.

11

in.

diameter,

Ji in. long.

H " '

' I

ii

((

H "

H " '

H

iJ

A "

A " '

1/2

A

I **

A " •

* I

A

^ ..

A " '

H

A

H "

'A " '

tA

A

A "

'A " '

•X

A

A "

}i " •

* I

No.

I,

tt "

A " '

A

( i

I,

A "

A " '

H

"

I,

H "

A " '

A

((

2,

H "

A " '

* I

<(

2,

A "

A " '

'A

((

2,

A "

A " •

* I

((

3»

A "

A " '

A

((

3»

if "

A "

A

H

3»

if "

% " *

* I

'4 " '

H

•

132

RIVETS AND BURRS.-Contlnued.

}( in. diameter.

^ in. long

No.

9, diameter,

Xin

■ long

%

((

<t

>^ "

((

9»

((

A

t(

%

l(

<(

tV "

((

lO,

((

}i

((

%

((

i(

H **

((

lO,

(i

il

((

%

((

n

A ''

it

lO,

(t

ii

((

No.

4,

((

A "

It

lO,

((

tV

((

((

4.

((

il **

((

lO,

((

A

<t

((

4,

((

\\ ''

^

in.

«

I

(t

((

5'

((

V2 "

H

((

«(

A

((

it

5.

(i

A **

'A

((

t(

H

<(

«(

5.

{(

H "

%

((

((

H

t(

ti

5»

((

iV **

'A

<(

it

A

(t

<<

6,

((

il ''

'A

<(

«(

A

C(

((

6,

((

il **

A

((

(t

A

((

((

6,

((

il ''

A

it

((

t\

((

A

in.

4 i

I "

A

ti

{(

X

t(

A

( (

?i "

A

((

it

3

<(

A

((

y* "

A

(<

tt

>i

((

A

((

>^ "

No.

12,

((

ii

t(

A

((

>^ •'

((

12,

t(

t\

(i

A

(i

A "

t (

12,

i(

A

((

A

((

H "

i (

12,

((

A

(»

A

((

tV "

( (

12,

((

/.

((

3

TtV

(<

% "

((

'3,

t<

A

t(

No.

7.

((

il "

a

13.

((

^

i(

t

7»

((

il "

n

13.

tt

A

<(

((

7.

t(

ii "

ti

13.

ti

>^

((

((

8,

i(

I *'

n

14,

ti

X

((

((

8,

((

V> "

a

14.

tt

A

tt

t(

8,

((

X "

((

14,

tt

>^

it

<i

8,

<(

^ "

((

14,

tt

A

tt

((

8,

((

;4 "

((

iS»

tt

/.

((

i(

8,

((

A "

((

i5»

tt

A

«(

i(

8,

((

^ "

((

I.S,

tt

A

C(

((

8,

i(

.5 a
IS

A

in.

tt

X

it

((

9.

((

H "

tV

(i

tt

A

ti

<i

9»

((

IB

A

((

ti

>i

tt

A

((

it

A

tt

133

FLAT HEAD RIVETS KEPT IN STOCK.

(stub's (lAUGE THE STANDARD.)

y^5 in. diameter, || in. long.

A "

3 (( (

t\

No. 7,

( 5

- 8, '

if

" 8, *

A

" 9» •

A

'* lO, *

A

** lO,

jV

'A in. »

A

/8 " *

X

H '' '

A

1 1

No. 12, diameter, y"*^ in. long.

i (

1

1
TF

12,

X "

13.

9 ((
5ir

i3»

7 **
7?

i3»

A "

14,

A "

14,

A "

15,

A "

i5»

H "

in.

5 ((

t(

3 ((

ALUMINUM ANGLES.

The ratio of specific gravity of rolled steel and rolled
aluminum of average composition, in bars and angles, is

2.72

The thickness of an aluminum angle in thirty-seconds
of an inch, is equal to the weight per running foot multiplied
by 2.894 ^"^^ t^^ product divided by the sum of the sides of
the angle.

134

ALUMINUM ANGLES.

Weights per foot corresponding to thickness tarying by ^^".
One Cubic Foot weighing 172 lbs. Nickel Alloy.

Size
Inches.

i"

S ff

i"

5 ''

*\ 99

7 "

i"

9 It

Id

7.687
6.019
4.317
3.651

1"

8.494
5.511

4.774
4.002

1 1"
16

1"

10.07
6.494
5.616

1 3"

I"

Eqnal Legs.
6 x6

6.037
3.966
3.440
2.913
2.667
2.387
2.141
1.860
1.615

- •• •••• •

6.880
4.493
3.896
3.300
2.964
.2.703
2.387

9.302
6.002
5.195

10.85
6.985
6.002

WJSL

4 x4

2.878

3.440
2.984
2.527
2.317
2.071
1.860
1.650
1.404
1.194

3Mx3H
3 x3

1.720
1.580
1.439
1.299
1.123
.9828
.8424
.6669
.5967
.5265

2.141
1.930
1.755
1.580
1.404
1.194
1.0J8
.8424
.7371

2%x2%
2>^2M
2^x2K
2 x2

.8775
.7372
.6318
.5265
.4563
.4212
.2808

l?ixl5i

IKxlJ^

l^xlVi

.3510
.3159
.2808
.2106
.1755

'

V/kuV/B

1 xl

%x %

5^x %

1

Size
Inches.

i"

8 f
16

Y

5 "

1"

4.317
3.861
3.651
3.440
3.194
2.984
2.738
2.176
2.317
2.071
1.860

7 ''
16

Y

9 ff
T6-

r

11"
16

8.284
7.406
6.950
6.494
6.037
5.616
5.160

«"

I"

UneqQitlLegs
6 x4

5.019
4.493
4.212
3.967
3.686
3.440
3.194
2.527
2.668
2.387
2.141

5.686
5.090
4.774
4.493
4.177
3.896
3.580
2.843
2.984
2.703
2.387

6.353
5.686
5.335
4.984
4.669
4.317
4.002
3.159
3.335

7.020
6.248
5.897
5.511
5.125
4.774
4.388

7.662
6.845
6.423
6.002
5.581
5.195
4.774

8.915
7.933
7.476
6.985
6.494
6.002
6.511

9.547

5 x4

8.495

5 x3V^

7.968

5 x3

2.878

4 x3V^

\

4 x3

2.492
2.317
1.866
1.931
1.755
1.579

3i^x3

3^x2

1.509
1.579
1.439
1.299

3 x2V^

3 x2

......J,,

2V^x2

.9828

'35

DECIMAL PARTS OF A FOOT IN SQUARE INCHES.

sq. foot.

Sqvark

1^

Square

1^

Is*

Squabk

Js*

S **

Inchrs.

* «•

Inchesj

s **

Inchbs.

«5*5

S*8

34

67

I

1.44

49.0

96.5

2

2.88

35

50-4

68

97.9

3

4.32

36

51.8

69

99.4

4

5.76

37

53.3

70

100.8

5

7.20

38

54.7

71

102.2

6

8.64

39

56.2

72

1037

7

lO.I

40

57.6

73

105. 1

8

II.5

41

58.0

74

106.6

9

13.0

42

60.5

75

108.0

lO

14.4

43

61.9

76

109.4

II

15.8

44

63.4

77

1 10.9

12

17.3

45

64.8

78

112.3

13

18.7

46

66.2

79

113.8

14

20.2

47

67.7

80

115. 2

15

21.6

48

69.1

81

I16.6

16

23.0

49

70.6

82

I18.I

11

24.5

50

72.0

83

1 19.5

18

25.9

51

73.4

84

I2I.O

19

27.4

52

74.9

85

122.4

20

28.8

53

76.3

86

123.8

21

30.2

54

77.8

87

125.3

22

31.7

55

79.2

88

126.7

?3

33.1

56

80.6

89

128.2

24

34.6

57

82.1

90

129.6

25

36.0

58

83.5

91

I3I.O

26

37.4

59

85.0

92

132.5

27

38.9

60

86.4

93

133.9

28

40.3

61

87.8

94

135-4

29

41.8

62

89.3

95

136.8

30

43.2

63

90.7

96

138.2

31

44.6

64

92.2

97

139.7

32

46.1

^A

93.6

98

141. 1

33

47.5

66

95.0

99
100

1

142.6
144.0

TABLE OP DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.

IN FEET AND rNCH£S,

of 8ths,16ths, 32nd8and64th8 0f an Inch.

Fraefi

Decimsl

D«iinsl

Frttot'n

Deeimal

Decimsl

Man

of Bl>

of a

of an

of a

Inch.

Inch.

Fool

1 Inch.

Iq^I

FooL

SUu.

Stlu.

Stlu.

Hiiu.

eiths.

filUu.

—

.125

.01041

.015625

.001302

.350

.02083

.046875

.003906

■375

.03125

.078125

.006510

.500

.04166

.109375

.009114

.625

.05108

.140625

.0117.8

.750

.06250

.171875

.014322

.875

.07291

.203125

.0.6926

lethB.

IStht.

IfithB.

■234375
.265625

.019530
.022134

^i.-

.0052,

.296875

.024738

A=-

.1875

.01562

.318125

.027342

■3"5

■359375

.029946

■4375

.03645 1

.390625

■032550

l!^s

.04688

.421875

■035 '54

i-

.6875

.05729

■45312s
■484375

■037758

.8125

.06771

.040362

■W75

.07S12

.515625

.042966

33ndi.

32llds.
■03 "25

sasde.

.002604
.007812

■546875
■578125
.609375

■045570
.048174.
.050778

■09375

.640625

■053382

: j

.15625
.2.875
.28125
■3«75
.40625
.46875

.033852

.67,875
.703125

S.'4

.055986
.058590

.066402
.069006

■S3'2S

.044268

■859375

.0716.0

i I

.65625
■7'87S
.78125 1
■S4375 '

.059892

.890625
.921875
■953 '25

-074214
.076S18
.079422

i :

.065100
.070308

Y-

-984375

:o85So

.1)0625 1

.075516

■ -

.96875

.0S0724

»37

DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOfi EAOH ^th.

■h^-

I

Decimal.

FraetioB.

tV^

,Vtb8.

Deeimal.

FractioL

.015625

33

.515625

I

2

.03125

17

34

.53125

3

.046875

35

.546875

2

4

.0625

1-16

18

36

.5625

9-16

5

.078125

37

.578125

3

6

.09375

19

38

.59375

7

.109375

•

39

.609375

4

8

.125

1-8

■

20

40

.625

5-8

9

.140625

41

.640625

5

10

.15625

21

42

.65625

II

.171875

43

.671875

6

12

.1875

3-16

22

44

.6875

11-16

13

.203125

45

.703125

7

H

.21875

23

46

.71875

>5

.234375

47

.734375

8

16

•25

1-4

24

48

.75

3-4

17

.265625

49

.765625

9

18

.28125

25

50

.78125

19

.296875

51

.796875

lO

20

.3125

5-16

26

52

.8125

13-16

21

.328125

53

.828125

II

22

.34375

27

54

.84375

23

.359375

55

.859375

•

12

24

.375

3-8

28

56

.875

7-8

25

.390625

57

.890625

13

26

.40625

29

58

.90625

27

.421875

59

.921875

14

28

•4375

7-16

30

60

.9375

15-16

29

.453125

61

.953125

15

30

.46875

31

62

.96875

3«

.484375

63

.984375

16

32

•5

1-2

32

64

I.

I

138

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o

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141

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o

o

I

M
o

S

s

Fh

V

o

• • • •

l«*0 tO^O
tm^OO ON

00 00 00 00

On ON On ON
• • • •

5 « to^"

• • • .

NO c^oo 5

^ C^ On Q

On On On O
• • • •

■H

Q^ ON Q^ C'

00 00 00 ON
• • • •

tOvO QjW

C\ On O^ <S
• • • •

NO ON M «0

O Q M» iM

ON ON On On
• • • •

00 1-4 ^

IH >H hH

On On On

• • •

00 ►H ij-|^
IM M M M

00 00 00 00
• • • •

Q tovO On
ON O ►I M
M N « M

00 00 00 00
• • • •

M iTiOO M

■^ li^vO 00

C« (4 C« M

00 00 OO 00

• • • •

OnO N

M fOtO

00 00 00
• • •

li^OO ►H ^
O <-• ro^
fO to CO to
Jh* t«» »^ 1^

t^ O tovO
tn t^oo ON
to to CO to
*>. t^ t>» t^

QNd moo

r- 1^ t>»

t;^OQ g^ ►"•

NO vO vO vO
■ • • •

tovo g^ tj

vO vO vO vO

• > • •

vO On ^ u^

t>»00 O "^

imovO vO

\0 vO vO vO
• • • •

00 w^
N -^ lO

VO VO vO
NO ^0 vO

• • •

b

00 »-« tH^
tOM^vp t^
vO vO vO vO

• • • •

O tpvO ON
OnO ►"• «^

• • • •

^iTivO 00

t^ t"* t^ r*

• • • •

OnQ N

t«.oooo
m to trt

• « •

moo >-• 't
Q M CO -^
00 00 00 00

^ Tl- Tj- Tf
• • • •

t^ O fOvO

U^l^OO ON

00 00 00 00
• • • •

g\ ti moo

N tO'"!-

On On On On

''t -<*■ Tl- tJ-

• • • ■

NO t^oo

• • •

•*
*.

^

^ ThJf"^
t^oo a\ ►H

0^ O^ On Q

CO fO to ^
• • • •

COvO Qn M
M CO ^O

• • • •

vO On t< u%

Q Q l>4 N^

• • • •

00 M Th

»H NN H4

• « ■

C)

00 <■* Tht^

IH IH »4 M

ro to to to

• • • •

Q to^ On
OnO »-' N
« N M N

to to to to

• • • •

« voOO M

^u^vOOO

e« M e« c«

fO to to to
• • • •

OnQ N

w to to
CO to to

• • ■

lOOO ►"• '*'
O •-' tO'^

to to to to
t< t^ N t<

• • • •

t*» too
mi^OO ON
CO CO to to
N d N ri

• • • *

qn r< vooo

r* N M N

• • • •

VO Jf^OO

t< M C<

• • •

•^ Tf 1-*

t>.00 Cv «

<^ <^ <^m

>H M M M

coo ON d
t>< to "^vO

»H H4 NN »H

NO On CI »n
t^OO Q ►H
mmvO vO

M »H HH »H

00 HH Th

NO NO VO

■■4 NN NN

1

6

00 ►H ^t^

• • • ■

Q tOvO ON
O^ "^ «

O O O
• • • •

N u^OO ^
^ u^vO 00

O O O

• • • •

On O «

GOO

• • •

•

u

1—1

142

MENSURATION

LENGTH.

Circumference of circle = diameter X 3.1416.
Diameter of circle = circumference X 0-3183.
Side of square of equal periphery as circle = diameter XO-7854.
Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square = side X * -2732.
Side of an inscribed square = diameter of circle X 0.7071.
Length of an arc =: No. of degrees X diameter X 0.008727.

Tr = 3.14159265.

log.7r = 0.49714W

/t^ 1772454.

:r ^ _ 9.869604.

2 V

or, very nearly,-^

0.318310.

0.101321.

TT'

{/ n

=-0.564190.

0= j/r2— x^— (r— v)

1/ c^ c^

= r — y r^ — or, very nearly, —

4 or

AREA.

Triangle = base X ^^^ perpendicular height.

Parallelogram = base X perpendicular height.

Trapezoid = half the sum of the parallel sides X perpen

dicular height.
Trapezium, found by dividing in two triangles.
Circle = diameter squared X 0.7854 ; or,
= circumference squared X 0.07958.
Sector of circle = length of arc X hall radius,

H3

MENSURATION.-Continued.

Segment of circle = area of sector less triangle ; also, for

flat segments very nearly^= -^^ '^^ 0.388 v^ -j-

3 4

Side of square of equal area as circle = diameter X 0.8862 ;

also = circumference X 0.2821.

Diameter of circle of equal area as square = side X 1.1284.

Parabola =z base X % height.

Ellipse =r long diameter X short diameter X 0.7854.

Regular polygon = suih of sides X half perpendicular dis-
tance from center to sides.

Surface of cylinder = circumference X height -|- area of both
ends.

Surface of sphere = diamieter squared X 3.1416.
alsorr: circumferencc X diameter.

Surface of a right pyramid or cone r= periphery or circum-
ference of base X ^^^f slant height.

Surface of a frustmm of a regular right pyramid or cone r=.- sum
of peripheries or circumferences of the two ends X half
slant height -j- area of both ends,.

SOLID CONTENTS.

Prism, right or oblique^rarea of base X perpendicular height.
Cylinder, right or oblique:^: area of section at right angles to

sides X length of side.
Sphere = diameter cubed X 0.5236.
also= surface X /^ diameter.
Pyramid or cone, right or oblique, regular or irregular = area

of base X M perpendicular height.

PRISIillOIDAL FORMULA.

A prismoid is a solid bounded by six plane surfaces, only two
of which are parallel.

To find the contents of a prismoid, add together the areas of
the two parallel surfaces, and four times the area of a sec-
tion taken midway between and parallel to them, and
multiply the sum by J/^th of the perpendicular distance
between the parallel surfaces.

144

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS.

For Thicknesses from J>^ in. to 2 in. and >Aridihs fronn 1 in. to

12% in.

Thickness
in Inches,

.063

.078

.094

\H''

2//
.125

2X^^

.156

2}i''

12//

A

.109

.141

.172

.750

*

.125

.156

.188

.219

.250

.281

•313

•344

1.50

i'

.188

.234

.281

.328

•375

.422

.469

.516

2.25

i

.250

•313

.375 -438

.500

•563

.625

.688

3.00

A

.313

•39^

.469 i -547

.625

•703

.781

.859

3-75

*

.375

.469

.563 656

.750

.844

.938

1.03

4.50

rt

.438

.547

.656 .766

.875

.984

1.09

1.20

5.25

1

2

.500

.625

.750 .875

1. 00

1-^3

1.25

1.38

6.00

9
TT

.563

.703

.844 .984

113

1.27

1.41

^•55

6.75

f

.625

.781

.938 1.09

1.25

1.41

1.56

1.72

7.50

ii

.688

•859

1.03 1.20

1.38

1.55

1.72

1.89

8.25

4

.750

•938

1.13 I-3I

1.50

1.69

1.88

2.06

9.00

H

.813

1.02

1.22 1.42

1.63

1.83

2.03

2.23

9.75

J

.875

1.09

I-3I 1-53

1.75

1.97

2.19

2.41

10.50

if

.938

1. 17

1.41 1.64

1.88

2. II

2.34

2.58

11.25

I

1. 00

1.25

1.50 1.75

1

2.00

2.25

2.50

2.75

12.00

'tV

1.06

1.33

1.59 1 1.86

2.13

2.39

2.66

2.92

12.75

li

113

1.41

1.69 1.97

2.25

2.53

2.81

309

13-50

't\

1. 19

1.48

1.78 2.08

2.38

2.67

2.97

3.27

14.25

• i

1.25

1.56

1.88 2.19

2.50

2.81

3.13

3-44

15.00

•A

I-3I

1.64

1.97 ^ 2.30

2.63

2.95

3.28

3.61

15-75

'1

1.38

1.72

2.06 2.41

2.75

3-09

3-44

3.78

16.50

'tV

1.44

1.80

2.16 2.52

2.88

323

3.59

3-95

17.25

'i

1.50

1.88

2.25 2.63

3.00

3.38

3-75

4-13

18.00

•A

1.56

1.95

2.34

2.73

3.13

352

3-91

4.30

18.75

'f

1.63

2.03

2.44

2.84

3.25

3.66

4.06

4-47

19.50

■H

1.69

2. II

2.53 2.95

3-38

3.80

4.22

4.64

20.25

I 3

4

1-75

2.19

2.63 3.06

3.50

3-94

4.38

4.81

21.00

IH

1. 81

2.27

2.72

3-17

3-63

4.08

4-53

4.98

21.75

U

1.88

2.34

2.81 3.28

3-75

4.22

4.69

5.16

22.50

iH

1.94

2.42

2.91 3-39

3.88

436

4.84

5-33

23-25

2

2.00

2.50

300 3-50

4.00

4.50

5.00

5.50

24.00

145

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS.

(continued.)

Thickness
in Inches.

3^^

3H''

3}i''

3H''

4//

.250

4^^^

4-/2''

4K-

\2''

tV

.188

.203

.219

.234

.266

.281

.297

.750

i

•375

.406

•438

.469

.500

•531

•563

•594

1.50

A

•563

.609

.656

.703

•750

•797

.8^4

.891

2.25

i

.750

.813

.875

.938

1. 00

1.06

^•i3

1. 19

3.00

A

.938

1.02

1.09

1. 17

1.25

1-33

1.41

1.48

3-75

t

113

1.22

I-3I

1. 41

1.50

1.59

1.69

1.78

4.50

A

1-31

1.42

1-53

1.64

1-75

1.86

1.97

2.08

525

i

1.50

1.63

1-75

1.88

2.CX)

2.13

2.25

2.38

6.00

A

1.69

1.83

1.97

2. II

2.25

2.39

2^53

2.67

6.75

f

1. 88

2.03

2.19

2.34

2.50

2.66

2.81

2.97

7^50

H

2.06

2.23

2.41

2.58

2.75

2.92

3-09

327

8.25

3
■f

2.25

2.44

2.63

2.81

3.00

3-19

3^38

356

9.00

«

2.44

2.64

2.84

3.05

325

3.45

3.66

3.86

9-75

J

2.63

2.84

3.06

328

350

3.72

3-94

4.16

10.50

H

2.81

305

3-28

3.52

3-75

3^98

4.22

4^45

11.25

I

3.00

3.25

350

3-75

4.00

4.25

4^50

4^75

12.00

'A

3- 19

3-45

3-72

3.98

4-25

4.52

4.78

5^05

12.75

1*

3.38

3.66

3 94

4.22

4.50

4.78

5.06

5^34

1350

»A

3.56

3.86

4.16

4.45

4.75

505

5^34

5.64

14.25

'i

3.75

4.06

4.38

4.69

5.00

5.31

5.63

5.94

15.00

'A

3-94

4.27

4-59

4.92

5.25

5.58

5.91

6.23

1575

'1

4-13

4.47

4.81

5.16

550

5.84

6.19

6.53

16.50

'A

4-3'

4.67

5-03

5-39

5-75

6. 1 1

6.47

6.83

17.25

'i

450

4.88

5.25

5.63

6.00

6.38

6.75

7.13

18.00

'A

4.69

5.08

5-47

5.86

6.25

6.64

7.03

7.42

18.75

'1

4.88

5.28

5.69

6.09

6.50

6.91

7.31

7.72

19.50

'H

5.06

5.48

591

6.33

6.75

7.17

7.59

8.02

20.25

'f

5.25

5.69

6.13

6.56

7.00

7-44

7.88

8.31

21.00

«H

5-44

5.89

6.34

6.80

7.25

7.70

8.16

8.61

21.75

',J

5.63

6.09

6.56

7.03

750

7^97

8.44

8.9I

22.50

•H

5.81

6.30

6.78

7.27

7.75

8.23

8.72

9.20

23.25

2

6.00

6.50

7.00

7.50

8.00

8.50

9.00

9.50

24.00

146

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS

(continued.)

Thickness
in Inches.

5^'

.328

•344

1

6''

6X^^

eyz''

6K''

12"

tV

•313

.359

•375

•391

.406

.422

.750

J

.625

.656

.688

.719

.750

.781

.813

.844

1.50

.1
16

.93«

.9^4

1.03

1.08

1-13

1. 17

1.22

1.27

2.25

i

1.25

1-31

1.38

1.44

1.50

1.56

1.63

1.69

3.00

r,
1«T

1.56

1.64

1.72

1.80

1.88

'•95

2.03

2. II

3-75

3

8

1.88

1.97

2.06

2.16

2.25

2.34

2.44

2-53

4.50

I'ff

2.19

2.30

2.41

2.52

2.63 1 2.73

2.84

2.95

5.25

1
2

2.50

2.63

2.75

2.88

3.00 3.13

325

3.38

6.00

9

2.81

2.95

3.09

323

3.38 ' 3-52

3.66

3.80

6.75

5 .

X

3-^3

3.28

3-44

3-59

3-75 ; 391

4.06

4.22

750

1 1

3-44

3.61

378

3-95

4-13 , 4-30

4-47

4.64

825

3
4

3-75

3-94

4.13

4.31

4.50 , 4.69

4.88

5.06

9-75

}f

4.06

4.27

4-47

4.67

4.88 ! 5.08

5.28

5.48

9-75

J

4.38

4.59

4.81

503

5.25 ' 5-47

5.69

591

10.50

i^

4.69

4.92

5.16

5-39

5.63 ■ 5-86

6.09

^■33

11.25

I

5.00

5.25

550

5-75

6.00 6.25

6.50

6.75

12.CX)

•tV

531

5.58

5.84

6. II

6.38

6.64

6.91

7.17

12.75

'^

5.63

5.91

6.19

6.47

6.75

7-03

7.31

7.59

13-50

'i^V

5-94

6.23

6.53

6.83

7.13 ' 7.42

7.72

8.02

14-25

'1

6.25

6.56

6.88

7.19

7.50 7.81

8.13

8.44

15.00

'fv

6.56

6.89

7.22

7-55

7.88 8.20

8.53

8.86

15-75

« J

6.88

7.22

7.56

791

8.25 ' 8.59

8.94

9.28

16.50

«i-V

7.19

7.55

7.91

8.27

8.63 "

8.98

9-34

9.70

17.25

• 1

7.50

7.88

8.25

8.63

9.00

938

9-75

10.13

18.00

«A

7.81

8.20

8.59

8.98

9-38 ! 9-77

10.16

IO-55

18.75

Jt

8.13

8.53

8.94 1

9-34

9.75 10.16

10.56

10.97

19.50

'IJ

8.44

8.86

9.28

9.70

10.13 10.55

10.97

"•39

20.25

'1

8.75

9.19

9.63

10.06

10.50

10.94

11.38

11.81

21.00

M3

9.06

952

9.97

10.42

10.88

11-33

11.78

12 23

21.75

U

9.38

9.84

10.31

10.78

11.25

11.72

12.19

12.66

22.50

'H

9.69

10.17

10.66

II. 14

11.63

12. II

12.59

13.08

2325

2

10.00

10.50

11.00

11.50

12.00

12.50

13.00

1350

24.00

H7

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS

(CONTINUED.)

Thickness
in Inches.

7//

.438

7H''

7)4''
.469

7U''

8''

8X^^

syz''

8H''
.547

12//

tV

.453

.484

.500

.516

.531

•750

i

.875

.906

938

.969

1. 00

1.03

1.06

1.09

1.50

r%

I-3I

1.36

1.41

1-45

1.50

1.55

1.59

1.64

2.25

1

1.75

1. 81

1.88

1.94

2.00

2.06

2.13

2.19

3.00

A

2.19

2.27

2.34

2.42

2.50

2.58

2.66

2.73

3.75

3

2.63

2.72

2.81

2.91

3.00

3.09

3.19

3.28

4.50

^

3.06

3.17

3.28

3-39

350

3.61

3.72

3.83

5.25

1
IS

3-50

3.63

3.75

3.88

4.00

4.13

4.25

438

6.00

A

3-94

4.08

4.22

4.36

4.50

4.64

4.78

4.92

6.75

i

4.38

4.53

4.69

4.84

5.00

5.16

5.31

5-47

7.50

H

4.81

4.98

5.16

5.33

5.50

5.67

5.84

6.02

8.25

J

525

5-44

5.63

5.81

6.00

6.19

6.38

6.56

9.00

*l

5.69

5.89

6.09

6.30

6.50

6.70

6.91

7.11

9-75

7
8

6.13

6.34

6.56

6.78

7.00

7.22

7.44

7.66

10.50

if

6.56

6.80

7.03

7.27

7.50

7.73

7-97

8.20

11.25

I

7.00

7.25

7.50

7.75

8.00

8.25

8.50

8.75

12.00

•i^

7-44

7.70

7.97

8.23

8.50

8.77

903

930

12.75

«i

7.88

8.16

8.44

8.72

9.00

9.28

9.56

9.84

13.50

'<^

8.31

8.61

8.91

9.20

9.50

9.80

10.09

10.39

14.25

•i

8.75

9.06

9.38

9.69

10.00

10.31

10.63

10.94

15.00

ii^s

9.19

9.52

9.84

10.17

10.50

10.83

II. 16

11.48

1575

«f

963

9-97

10.31

10.66

11.00

"■34

11.69

12.03

16.50

ii^

10.06

10.42

10.78

II. 14

11.50

11.86

12.22

12.58

17.25

«i

10.50

10.88

11.25

11.63

12.00

12.38

12.75

13.13

18.00

'A

10.94

".33

11.72

12. II

12.50

12.89

13.28

13.67

18.75

'1

11.38

11.78

12.19

12.59

13.00

13.41

13.81

14.22

19.50

«H

II. 81

12.23

12.66

13.08

13.50

13.92

1.4.34

14.77

20.25

«l

12.25

12.69

13.13

13.56

14.00

14.44

14.88

15-31

21.00

'H

12.69

13.14

13.59

14.05

14.50

14.95

15.41

15.86

21.75

ij

13.13

13.59

14.06

14.53

15.00

15.47

15.94

16.41

22.50

41

13.56

14.05

14.53

15.02

15 50

15.98

16.47

16.95

23.25

2

14.00

14.50

15.00

15.50

16.00

16.50

17.00

17.50

24.00

148

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS.

(continued.)

Thickness
in Inches.

1

1
I"
3

T»f
i

4

3

8"

/«

9

5

8

1 1

;i
T

13

1 6

7

8'
1 5
Iff

1

16

1

fi"
3

1

4

5

Iff

3

r'j

1

2
9

rs"
5

8

1 1
16
3
f

1 3
16

1 5

>//

•563

1. 13
1.69

2.25

2.81

3.38

3-94
4.50

5.06

5-63
6. 19

6.75

7-31
7.88

8.44

9.00

9.56
0.13
0.69
1.25

1.81

2.38
2.94

350

4.06

4.63
5.19

5-75

6.31
6.88

7.44
8.00

9X''

.578
X.16

1-73
2.31

2.89

3.47
4.05
463

5.20
5.78
6.36
6.94

752
8.09
8.67
9.25

9.83
0.41

0.98

1.56

2.14
2.72

3.30
3. 88

4.45

5-03
5.61

6.19

6.77

7-34
7.92
8.50

9y2"\9H"\ 10/' ■ lOJ

//

.594

•609

1. 19

1.22

1.78

1.83

2.38

2.44

2.97

3.05

3-56

3.66

4.16

4.27

4.75

4.88

5-34

5.48

5-94

6.09

6.53

6.70

7.13

7.31

7.72

7.92

8.31

8.53

8.91

9.14

9.50

9.75

[0.09

10.36

[0.69

10.97

[I.28

11.58

[1.88

12.19

[2.47

12.80

[3.06

13-41

13.66

14.02

4.25

14.63

4.84

15-23

5-44

15.84

6.03

16.45

6.63

17.06

7.22

17.67

7.81

18.28

8.41

18.89

9.CX)

19.50

.625
1.25

1.88
2.50

3.13
3.75
4.38
5.00

563
6.25

6.88

7.50

8.13

8.75
9.38
0.00

0.63
1.25

1.88
2.50

3.13
3.75
4-38
5.00

563
6.25

6.88

7.50

8.13
8.75

9.38
20.00

.641
1.28
1.92
2.56

3.20

3-84
4-48

5.13

5-77
6.41

7.05

7.69

8.33

8.97
9.61

0.25

0.89

1.53
2.17

2.81

3-45
4.09

4-73
5.38

6.02
6.66
7-30
7.94

8.58

9.22

9.86

20.50

lOi"

.672

.656

I-3I

1.34

1.97

2.02

2.63

2.69

3.28

336

3-94

4-03

4-59

4.70

5.25

538

5.9>

6.05

6.56

6.72

7.22

7.39

7.88

8.06

8.53

8.73

9.19

9.41

9.84

10.08

10.50

10.75

II. 16

11.42

II. 81

12.09

12.47

12.77

13-13

1344

13.78

14. 1 1

14.44

14.78

15.09

15.45

15-75

16.13

16.41

16.80

17.06

17.47

17.72

18.14

18.38

18.81

19.03

19.48

19.69

20.16

20.34

20.83

21.00

21.50

12"

.750
1.50

2.25

3.00

3.75

4.50

525
6.00

6.75
7.50
8.25
9.00

9-75
0.50

1.25
2.00

2.75
3.50
425
[5.00

5.75
[6.50

7.25
18.00

^8.75

19.50
20.25

21.00

21.75
22.50

23-25
24.00

J 49

AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED BARS.

(continued.

)

Thickness
in Inches.

11"

lli^^

lli^^

iir^

12//

\2V'

\2y'

\2r'

|X

I'ff

.688

•703

.719

.734

.750

.766

.781

.797

Jx

i

1.38

1.41

1.44

1.47

1.50

1-53

1.56

1-59

A

2.06

2.11

2.16

2.20

2.25

2.30

2.34

2.39

i

2.75

2.81

2.88

2.94

3.00

3.06

3.^3

3.19

* CO

A

3-44

3.52

3-59

3-67

3-75

3-83

3.91

3.98

1-^

f

4.13

4.22

4.31

4.41

4-50

4.59

4.69

4.78

>^ .s

iV

4.81

4.92

5.03

5-H

5.25

5.36

5.47

5.58

M 43

1 .s

4

550

5.63

5.75

5.88

6.00

6.13

6.25

6.38

r'<r

6.19

6.33

6.47

6.61

6.75

6.89

703

7.17

:|.s

1

6.88

703

7.19

7.34

7.50

7.66

7.81

7-97

1|

it

7.56

7.73

791

8.08

8.25

8.42

8.59

8.77

.s-i

8.25

8.44

8.63

8.81

9.00

9.19

9.38

9.56

S -S

if

8.94

9.14

9.34

9-55

9.75

9-95

10 16

10.36

i

i

9-63

9.84

10.06

10.28

10.50

TO 72

10.94

II. 16

"^ €Q

iJ

10.31

10.55

10.78

11.02

11.25

11.48

11.72

11.95

i^

I

11.00

11.25

11.50

11.75

12.00

12.25

12 50

12.75

31

W^

11.69

11.95

12 22

1248

12.75

13.02

1328

13.55

-2 i"

8,^

li

12.38

12.66

12.94

13.22

13.50

13.78

14.06

14.34

S-x

ItV

13.06

13.36

13.66

13.95

14.25

1455

14.84

15.14

li *

'3.75

1406

14.38

14.69

15.00

15.31

15.63

15.94

lA

14.44

14.77

15.09

15.42

15.75

16.08

16.41

16.73

Mi

■a s^

If

15.13

1547

15.81

16.16

16.50

16.84

17.19

'7 53

i/ff

15.81

16.17

1653

1689

17.25

17.61

17.97

18.33

'i

16.50

16.88

17.25

17.63

18.00

18.38

18.75

1913

lA

17.19

17.58

17.97

18.36

18.75

I9.I/I

1953

19.92

|1rf

I J

17.88

18.28

18.69

19.09

19.50

19 91

20.31

20.72

hii

lii

18.56

18.98

19.41

19.83

20.25

20.67

21.09

21.52

If

19.25

19.69

20.13

20.56

21.00

21.44

21.88

2231

'H

19.94

20.39

20 84

21.30

21.75

22.20

22.66

23.11

n

20.63

21.09

21.56

2203

22.50

22.97

23.44

23.91

#0 .** «^

'U

21.31

21.80

22.28

22.77

23.25

23.73

24.22

24.70

■5 ^

2

22.00

22.50

23.00

23.50

24.00

24.50

25 00

25.50

^ • %

150

Areas and Circumferences of Circles

From 1 to 60 Feet ^advancing by an IncK], or from 1 to 60 Inches ladvaneitifi by a Ttvelfth],

Dia.

1ft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

9

10
11

2ft.
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11

3/7.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

4//.
1
2

Area.

I

3;

Feet.
•7854
•9217
10690
1-2272
1-3963
1-5763
1-7671
1-9690
2-1817
2-4053
2-6398
2-8853

31416
3-4088
3-6870
3-9761
4-2761
4-5869
4-9087
5-2415
5-5852
5-9396
6-3050
6-6814

70686

7-4668

7-8758

8-2958

8-7267

9-1685

9-6211

10-0848

10-5593

11-0447

11-5410

120483

12-5664
13 0955
13 6354
141863

Circum.

Feet.
31416
3-4034
3-6652
3-9270
4-1888
4-4506
4-7124
49742
6-2360
5-4978
5-7596
60214

6-2832
6-5450
68068
70686
7 3304
7-5922
7-8540
8-1158
8-3776
8-6394
8-9012
91630

9-4248
9-6866
9-9484
10-2102
10-4720
10-7338
j 10-9956
1 11-2574
.11-5192
1 11-7810
1 12-0428
1 12-3046

12-5664
12-8282
13-0900
133518

Dia.

Area.

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

bft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9l
10|
11

6/y.
1

2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

1ft.
1
2
3
4
5
6

I

Feet.
14-7481
15-3208
15-9043
16-4989
17-1043
17-7206
18-3478
18-9859

19-6350
20-2949
20-9658
21-6476
22-3403
230439
23-7583
24-4837
25.2201
25.9673
26-7254
27-4944

28-2744
29-0653
29-8670
30-6797
31-5033
32-3378
33-1831
34-0394
34-9067
35-7848
36 6738
375738

38-4846
39-4064
40-3390
41-2826
42-2371
43-2025
441787
45-1659

i

Circum.

Feet.
13-6136
13-8754
141372
14.3990
14.6608
14-9226
15-1844
15-4462

15-7080
15-9698
16-2316
16-4934
16-7552
170170
17-2788
17-5406
17-8024
180642
18-3260
18-5878

18-8496
19-1114
19-3732
19-6350
19-8968
201586
20-4204
20-6822
20-9440
21-2058
21-4676
21-7294

21-9912
22-2530
22-5148
22-7766
230384
23-3002
23-5620
23-8238

Dia.

Area.

8

9

.10

11

Sft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

9//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

10/7.
1
2

^i

5!
6

7

8

9

10

Feet.
46-1641
471731
48-1930
49-2238

50-2656
51-3183
52-3818
63-4563
54-6417
55-6380
56-7451
57-8632
58-9923
601322
61-2830
62-4448

63-6174
64-8010
65-9954
67-2008
68-4170
69-6442
70-8823
721314
73-3913
74-6621
75-9439
77-2365

78-5400
79-8545
811798
82-5161
83-8633
85-2214
86-5903
87-9703
89-3611
90-7628
92-1754
93-5990

Circum.

Feet.
240856
24-3474
24-6092
24-8710

251328
25-3946
25-6564
25-9182
261800
26-4418
26-7036
26-9654
27-2272
27-4890
27-7508
, 28*0126

28-2744
28-5362
28-7980
290598
29-3216
29-5834
29-8452
30-1070
30-3688
30-6306
30-8924
311542

31-4160
31-6778
31-9396
322014
324632
32-7250
32-9868
332486
335104
33 7722
34-0340
i 34-2958

151

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

11//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

12//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

13//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

14//.
1
2
3

Area.

Feet.

950334

96-4787

97-9350

99-4022

100-8803

102-3693

103-8691

105-3800

106-9017

108-4343

109-9778

111-5323

1130976
114-6739
116-2610
117-8591
119-4680
121-0880
122-7187
124-3605
126-0131
127-6766
129-3510
181.0363

132-7326
134-4398
1361578
137-8868
139-6267
141-3774
143-1391
144-9117
146-6953
148-4897
150-2950
1521113

153-9384
155-7764
157-6254
159-4853

Circum.

Feet.
34-5576
34-8194
35-0812
35-3430
35-6048
35-8666
36-1284
36-3902
36-6520
36-9138
371756
37-4374

37-6992
37-9610
38-2228
38-4846
38-7464
39-0082
39-2700
39-5318
39-7936
400554
40-3172
40-5790

40-8408
41-1026
41-3644
41-6262
41-8880
42-1498
42-4116
42-6734
42-9352
431970
43-4588
43-7206

43-9824
44 2442
44-5060
44-7678

Dia.

5
6
7
8
9
10
11

15//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

16//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

17//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Area.

feet.
161-3561
163-2378
165-1303
167-0338
168-9483
170-8736
172-8098
174-7569

176-7150
178-6840
180-6638
182-6546
184-6563
186-6689
188-6924
190-7267
192-7721
194-8283
196-8954
198-9734

201-0624
2031622
205-2730
207-3947
209-5273
211-6707
213-8252
215-9904
218-1667
220-3538
222-5518
224-7607

226-9806
229-2113
231-4530
233-7056
235-9691
238-2434
240-5287
242-8249

Circum.

Feet.
450296
45-2914
45-5532
45-8150
46-0768
46-3386
46-6004
46-8622

47-1240
47-3858
47-6476
47-9094
48-1712
48-4330
48-6948
48-9566
49-2184
49-4802
49-7420
50-0038

50-2656
50-5274
50-7892
51-0510
51-3128
51-5746
51-8364
520982
52-3600
52-6218
52-8836
531454

53-4072
53-6690
53-9308
54-1926
54-4544
54-7162
54-9780
55-2398

Dia.

i|

8

9

10

11

18//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

19//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9J
10
11

20//I

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

'8

9

10

11

Area.

Feet.
2451321
247-4501
249-7790
252-1188

254-4696
256-8312
259-2038
261-5873
263-9817
266-3869
268-8031
271-2302
273-6683
276-1172
278-5770
281-0477

283-5294
2860219
288-5255
291-0398
293-5651
296-1012
298-6483
301-2064
303-7753
306-3551
308-9458
311-5475

3141600
316-7834
319-4178
3220631
324-7193
327-3864
330-0643
332-7532
335-4531
338-1638
340-8854
343-6180

Cirr

rim.

Feet.
55-5016
55-7634
56 0252
56-2870

56-5488
56-8106
57-0724
57-3342
57-5960
57-8578
58-1196
58-3814
58-6432
58-9050
591668
59-4286

59-6904
59-9522
60-2140
60-4758
60-7376
60-9994
61-2612
61-5232
61-7848
62-0466
62-3084
62-5702

62-8320
63-0938
63-3556
63-6174
63-8792
64-1410
64-4028
64-6646
64-9264
65-1882
65-4500
65-7118

152

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

21//.
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

22/7.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

23//f.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

34//.
1
2

Area.

Feet.
346-3614
349] 157
351-8810
354-6572
357-4442
360-2422
363-0511
365-8709
368-7017
371-5433
374-3958
377-2592

380-1336
383-0188
385-9150
388-8221
391-7400
394-6689
397-6087
400-5594
403-5211
406-4936
409-4770
412-4713

415-4766

418-4927

421-5198

424-5578

427-6067

430-6664

433-7371

436-8187

439.«lll

448.0147

4461290

449-2542

452-3904
455-5374
458-6954
461-8643

Circum.

Feet.
65-9736
66-2354
66-4972
66-7590
670208
67-2826
67-5444
67-8062
68-0680
68-3298
68-5916
68-8534

69-1152
69-3770
69-6388
69-9006
70-1624
70-4242
70-6860
70-9478
71-2096
71-4714
71-7332
71-9950

72-2568
72-5186
72-7804
730422
73-3040
73-5658
73-8276
74-0894
74-3512
74-6130
74-8748
75-1366

75-3984
75-6602
75-9220
70-1838

Dia.

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

25//.
1
2
3
4

I 5

I 7
8
9

i 10
11

'26//.
1
2
8

I f

o
6

8

9

10

11

27//.
1
2
3
4

O

6
7

Area.

Feet.
4650440
468-2347
471-4363
474-6488
477-8723
481-1066
484-3518
487-6076

490-8750
494-1529
497-4418
500-7416
504-0523
507-3738
510-7063
514-0492
517-4040
520-7693
5241454
527-5324

530-9304
534-3392
537'7o%
5U-1897
544-6313
548-0837
551-5471
5550214
558-5066
562-0028
565-5098
5690277

572-5566
5760963
579-6467
583-2086
586-7810
590-3644
593-9587
597-5639

Circum*

Feet.
76-4456
76-7074
76-9692
77-2310
77-4928
77-7546
78-0164
78-2782

78-5400
78-8018
79-0636
79-3254
79-5872
79-8490
80-1108
80-3726
80-6344
80-8962
81-1580
81-4198

81-6816
81-9434
82-2052
82-4670
82-7288
82-9906
83-2524
83-5142
83-7760
84-0378
84-2996
84-5614

84-8232
85-0850
85-3468
85-6086
85-8704
86-1322
86-3940
86-6558

Dift.

8

9

10

11

28//.
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11

29//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

30//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Area.

Feet.
601*1800
604-8071
608-4450
6120938

615-7536
619-4242
6231058
626-7983
630-5016
634-2159
637-9411
641-6772
645-4243
649-1822
652-9510
656-7307

660-5214
664-3229
668-1354
671-9588
675-7931
679-6382
683-4943
687-3613
691-2393
695-1281
699-0278
702-9384

706-8600
710-7924
714-7368
718-6901
722-6553
726-6313
730-6183
734-6162
738-6251
742-6448
746-6754
750-7164

Circum .

Feet.
86*9176
87-1794
87-4412
87-7030

87*9648
88*2266
88-4884
88-7502
890120
89*2738
89*5356
89-7974
90*0592
90-3210
90*5828
90*8446

911064
91*3682
91*6300
91*8918
921536
92*4154
92-6772
92*9390
93-2008
93-4626
93-7244
93-9862

94-2480
94 5098
94-7716
95-0334
95-2962
95-5570
95-8188
96-0806
96*3424
96-6042
96*8660
97*1278

153

•AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

31//.
1
2
3
4
5
6

8

9

10

11

32//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Area.

Feet.
754-7694
758-8327
762-9070
766-9922
7710883
775-1952
779-3131
783-4419
787-5817
791-7323
795-8938
800-0662

804-2496
808-4439
812-6490
816-8651
821-0920
825-3299
829-5787
833-8384
8381091
842-3906
846-6830
850-9863

SSft.

855-3006

1

859-6257

2

863-9618

3

868-3088

4

872-6667

5

8770354

6

881-4151

7

885-8057

8

890-2073

9

894-6197

10

8990430

11

903-4772

Mfi.

907-9224

1

912-3784

2

916-8454

3

921-3233

Circum.

Feet.
97-3896
97-6514
97-9132
98-1750
98-4368
98-6986
98-9604
99-2222
99-4840
99-7458
100-0076

100-2694'

I

100-5312

100-7930;

101 05481

101-3166,

101-5784!

101-8402

102-1020

102-3638

102-6256

102-8874

103-1492!

103-4110

103-6728
103-9346
104-1964
104-4582
104-7200
104-9818|
105-2436!
105-5054!
105-7672
106-0290
106-2908
106-5526

106-8144
1070762
107-3380
107-5998

Dia.

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

35//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

36//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

37//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Area.

Feet.
925-8120
930-3117
934-8223
939-3439
943-8763
948-4196
952-9738
957-5392

962

966

971

975

980

985

989

994

999

1003

1008

1013

■1150
•7019
2998
9086
5287
1588
8005
4527
1160
■7903
4754
1714

1017-8784
1022-5962
1027-3250
10320647
1036-8153
1041-5767
1046-3491
10511324
1055-9266
1060-7318
1065-5478
1070-3747

1075-2126
10800613
1084-9210
1089-7916
1094-6731
1099-5654
1104-4687
1109-3839

Circum.

Feet.
07-8616
08-1234
08-3852
08-6470
08-9088
09-1700
09-4324
09-6942

09-9560
10-2178
10-4796
10-7414
11-0032
11-2650
11-5268
11-7886
12-0504
12-3122
12-5740
12-8358|

130976'

13-35941

13-6212|

13-8830

141448

14-4068

14-6684

14-9302

15-1920

15-4538

15-7156

15-9774

16-2392
16-5010
16-7628
170246
17-2864
17-5482
17-8100
18-0718

Dia.

Area.

8

9

10

11
«

38//.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

39//.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

1 40//.

I

I 3

I ^
5

' 6

7
■ 8

9
10
11

Feet.
1114-3080
1119-2441
11241910
11291489

1134
1139
1144
1149
1154
1159
1164
1169
1174
1179
1184
1189

1176
0972
0878
0893
1017
■1249
1591
2042
2603
3272
4050
4937

1194-5934
1199-7039
1204-8254
1209-9578
12151010
1220-2552
1225-4203
1230-5963
1235-7833
1240-9811
12461898
1251-4094

1256
1261
1267
1272
1277
1282
1288
1293
1298
1304
1309
1314

6400
8814
1338
3971
6712
9563
2523
5592
8770
•2058
5454
8959

Circum,

Feet.
118-3336
118-5954
118-8572
1191190

119-3808
119-6426
119-9044
1201662
120-4280
120-6898
120-9516
121-2134
121-4758
121-7370
121-9988
122-2606

122-5224
122-7848
123-0460
123-3078
123-5696
123-8314
124-0932
124-3550
124-6168
124-8786
1251404
125-4022

125-6640
125-9258
126-1876
126-4494
126-7112
126-9730
127-2348
127-4960
127-7584
128-0202
128-2820
128-5438

154

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

Feet.

Feet.

F«et.

I'cet.

Feet.

Feet.

41//.

1320-2574

128-8056

44//.

1520-5344

138-2304

47//.

1734-9486

147-6552

1

1325-6297

129-0674

1

1526-2994

138-4922

! 1

1741-1063

147-9170

2

1331-0^30

129-3292

2

1532-0754

138-7540

2

1747-2750

148-1788

3

1336-4072

129-5910

3

1537-8623

139-0158

3

1753-4546

148-4406

4

1341-8123

129-8528',

4

1543-6600

139-2776

4

1759-6451

148-7024

5

1347-2282

130-1146

5

1549-4687

139-5394

5

1765-8464 1 148-9642

6

1352-6551

130-3764

6

1555-2883 i 1398012

6

17720587

149-2260

7

1358-0929

130-6382

7

1561-1188 140-0630

7

1778-2819

149-4878

8

1363-5416

130-9000

8

1566-9603 140-3248

8

1784-5160

149-7496

9

1369-0013

131-1618

9

1572-8126 1 140-5866

9

1790-7611

150-0114

10

1374-4718

131-42361

10

1578-6756 i 1408484

10

17970170

150-2732

11

1379-9532

131-6854

11

1584-5499 1411102

11

1

1803-2838

15O-6350

42//.

1385-4456

131-9472

45//.

1590-4350 ' 141-3720

48//.

1809-5616

150-7968

1

1390-9488

132-2090

1

1596-3309 ! 141-6338

1

1815-8502

151-058G

2

1396-4630

132-4708

2

1602-2378

141-8956

2

1822-1498

151-3204

3

1401-9881

132-7326

3

1608-1556

142-1574

3

1828-4603

151-5822

4

1407-5241

132-9944

4

1614-0843

142-4192

4

1834-7817

151-8440

5

1413-0709

133-2562

5

1620-0238

142-6810

5

1841-1139

1521058

6

1418-6287

133-5180

6

1625-9743

142-9428

6

1847-4571

152-3676

7

1424-1974

133-7798

7

1631-9357

143-2046

7

1853-8112

152-6294

8

1429-7770

1340416

8

1637-9081

143-4664

8

1860-1763

152-8912

9

1435-3676

134-3034

9

1643-8913

143-7282

8

1866-5522

153-1530

10

1440-9690

134-5652

10

1649-8854

143-9900

10

1872-9390

153-4148

11

1446-5813

134-8270

11

1655-8904

144-2518

11

1879-3367

153-6766

43//.

1452-2046

135-0888

46//

1661-9064

144-5136

49//.

1885-7454

153-9384

1

1457-8387

135-3506

1

1667-9332

144-7754

1

1892-1649

154-2002

2

1463-4838

135-6124

2

1673-9710

145-0372

2

1898-5954

154-4620

3

1469-1398

135-8742'

3

1680-0197

145-29901

3

1905-0368

1 54-7238

4

1474-8066

136-1360

4

16860792

145-5608,

4

1911-4897

1 54-9856

5

1480-4844

136-3978'

5

1692-1497

145-8226

5

1917-9522

155-2474

6

1486-1731

136-6596

6

1698-2311

146-0844

6

1924-4263

1 55-5092

7

1491-8717

136-9214

7

1704.3234

146-3462

7

1930-9113

155 7710

8

1497-5833

137-1832

8

1710.4267

146-6080

8

1937-4073

156-0328

9

1503-3047

137-4450

9

1716.5408

146-8698,

9

1943-9142

156-2946

10

15090370

137-7068

10

1722-6658

147-1316

10

1950-4318

1.56-5564

11

1514-7802

137.9686

1.1

1728-8017

147-3934

11

1956-9604

15fi-8182

I

50//.

1963-5000

' 157-0800

155

Areas and Circumferences of Circles (either inches or feet)

from xi?y to lOO.
Advancing by 1-lOOths, S-lOOths, and 1-lOths.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

Dia.
.40

Area.

Circum.

Dia.

.80

Area.

Circum.

.125664

1.25664

.502656

2.51328

.01

.000078

.031416

.41

.132025

1.28805

.81

.515300

2.54469

.02

.000314

.062832

.42

.138544

1.31947

.82

.528102

2.57611

.03

.000706

.094248

.43

.145220

1.35088

.83

.541062

2.60752

.04

.001256

.125664

.44

.152053

1.38230

.84

.554178

2.63894

.05

.001963

.157080

.45

.159043

1.41372

.85

.567451

2.67036

.06

.002827

.188496

.46

.166190

1.44513

.86

.580881

2.70177

.07

.003848

.219912

.47

.173494

1.47655

.87

.594469

2.73319

.08

.005026

.251328

.48

.180956

1.50796

.88

.608213

2.76460

.09

.006361

.282744

.49

.188574

1.53938

.89

.622115

2.79602

.10

.007854

.314160

.50

.196^50

1.57080

.90

.636174

2.82744

.11

.009503

.345576

.51

.204282

1 .60221

.91

.650389

2.85885

.12

.011309

.376992

.52

:212372

1 .63363

.92

.664762

2.89027

.13

.013273

.408408

.53

.?.)mis

1.66504

.93

.679292

2.92168

.14

.015393

.439824

.54

.2^022

1.69646

.94

.693979

2.95310

.15

.017671

.471240

.55

.237583

1.72788

.95

.708823

2.98452

.16

.020106

.502656

.56

.246301

1.75929

.96

.723824

3.01593

.17

.022698

.534072

.57

.255176

1.79071

.97

.738982

3.04735

.18

.025446

.565488

.58

.264208

1.82212

.98

.754298

3.07876

.19

.028352

.596904

.59

.273397

1.85354

.99

.769770

3.11018

.20

.031416

.628320

.60

.282744

1.88496

1.

.78.54

3.1416

.21

.034636

.659736

.61

.292^47

1.91637

.05

.8659

3.2986

.22

.038013

.691152

.62

.301907

1.94779

.10

.9503

3.4558

.23

.041547

.722568

.63

.311725

1.97920

.15

1.0386

3.6129

.24

.045239

.753984

.64

.321699

2.01062

.20

1.1310

3.7699

.25

.049087

.785400

.65

.331831

2.04204

.25

1.2272

3.9270

.26

.053093

.816816

.66

.342120

2.07345

.30

1.3273

4.0841

.27

.057255

.848232

.67

.352566

2.10487

.35

1.4313

4.2412

.28

.061575

.879648

.68

.363168

2.13628

.40

1.5394

4.3982

.29

.066052

.911064

.69

.373928

2.16770

.45

1.6513

4.5553

.30

.070686

.942480

.70

.384846

2.19912

.50

1.7671

4.7124

.31

.075476

.973896

.71

.395920

2.2t^3

.55

1.8869

4.8695

.32

.080424

1.005312

.72

.407151

2.26195

.60

2.0106

5.0266

.33

.085530

1.036728

.73

.418539

2.29336

.65

2.1382

5.1837

.34

.090792

1.068144

.74

.430085

2.32478

.70

2.2698

5.3407

.35

.096211

1.099560

.75

.441787

2.35620

.75

2.4053

5.4978

.36

.101787

1.130976

.76

.453647

2.38761

.80

2.5447

5.6549

.37

.107521

1.162392

.77

.465663

2.41903

.85

2.6880

5.8119

.38

.113411

1.193808

.78

.477837

2.45044

.90

2.8353

5.9690

,39

.119459

1.225224

.79

.490168

2.48186

.95 2.9865

6.1261

■ 56

ARK A AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

Dia.
4.

Area.
12.5664

Circum.

Dia.

8.

Area.

Circum.

2.

3.1416

6.2832

12.5664

50.2656

25.1328

.05

3.3006

6.4403

.1

13.2026

12.8806

.1

61.5301

25.4470

.10

3.4636

6.5974

.2

13.8545

13.1947

.2

52.8103

25.7611

.15

3.6305

6.7544

.3

14.5220

13.5089

.3

54.1062

26.0753

.20

3.8013

6.9115

.4

15.2053

13.8230

.4

55.4178

26.3894

.25

3.9761

7.0686

.5

15.9043

14.1372

.5

56.7451

26.7036

.30

4.1548

7.2257

.6

16.6191

14.4514

.6

58.0882

27.0178

.85

4.3374

7.3827

.7

17.3495

14.7655

.7

59.4469

27.3319

.40

4.5239

7.5398

.8

18.0956

15.0797

.8

60.8214

27.6461

.45

4.7144

7.6969

.9

18.8575

15.3938

.9

62.2115

27.9602

.50

4.9087

7.8540

5.

19.6350

15.7080

9.

63.6174

28.2744

.55

5.1071

8.0111

.1

20.4283

16.0222

.1

65.0390

28.5886

.60

5.3093

8.1682

21.2372

16.3363

.2

66.4763

28.9027

.65

5.5155

8.3252

.8

22.0619

16.6505

.3

67.9292

29.2169

.70

5.7256

8.4823

.4

22.9023

16.9646

.4

69.3979

20.5310

.75 , 5.9396

8.6394

.5

23.7583

17.2788

.5

70.8823

29.8452

.80

6.1575

8.7965

.6

24.6301

17.5930

.6

72.3825

30.1594

.8.5

6.3794

8.9536

.7

25.5176

17.9071

.7

73.8983

30.4735

.90 6.6052

9.1106

.8

26.4209

18.2213

.8

75.4298

30.7877

.95

6.8349

9.2677

.9

27.3398

18.5354

.9

76.9771

31.1018

3.

7.0686

9.4248

6.

28.2744

18.8496

10.

78.5400

31.4160

.05

7.3062

9.5819

.1

29.^'r^47

19.1638

.1

80.1187

31.7302

.10

7.5477

9.7390

.2

30.1908

19.4779

.2

81.7130

32.0443

.15

7.7931

9.8960

.3

31.1725

19.7921

.3

83.3231

32.3585

.20

8.0425

10.0531

.4

32.1700

20.1062

.4

84.9489

32.6726

.2.5

8.2958

10.2102

.5

33.1831

20.4204

.5

86.5903

32.9868

.80

8.5530

10.3673

.6

34.2120

20.7346

.6

88.2475

33.3010

.85

8.8142

10.5243

.7

35.2566

21.0487

.7

89.9204

33.6151

.40

9.0792

10.6814

.8

36.3169

21.3629

.8

91.6091

33.9293

.4;5

9.3482

10.8385

.9

37.3929

21.6770

.9

93.3134

34.2434

.50

9.6211

10.9956

7.

38.4846

21.9912

11.

95.0334

34.5576

.55

9.8980

11.1527

.1

39.5920

22.3054

.1

96.7691

34.8718

.60

10.1788

11.3098

.2

40.7151

22.6195

.2

98.5206

35.1859

.65 10.46a5

11.4668

.3

41.8540

22.9337

.3

100.2877

35.5001

.70 10.7521

11.6239

.4

43.00a5

23.2478

.4

102 0706

35.8142

.75

11.0447

11.7810

.5

44.187

23.5620

.5

103.8691

36.1284

.80

11.3412

11.9381

.6

45.3647

23.8762

.6

ia5.6834

36.4426

.85 11.6416

12.0951

.7

46.5664

24.1903

.7

107.5134

36.7567

.90 11.94^59

12.2522

.8

47.7837

24.5045

.8

109.3591

37.0709

.95

12.2542

12.4093

.9

49.0168

24.8186

.9

111.2205

37.3850

^57

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia

Area.

Circum.

Dia.
|l6-

Area.

Circum.

Dia.
20-

Area.
314-1600

Circum.

L2-

1130976

37-6992

201-0624

50-2656

628320

•1

114-9904

38-0134

•1

203-5835

50-5797

•1

317-3094

63-1462

•2

116-8989

38-3275

1 -2

208-1204

50-8939

•2

320-4746

63-4603

•3

118-8232

38-6417

1 -3

208-6729

51-2081

-3

323-6555

63-7745

4>

120-7631

38-9558

•4

211-2412

51-5222

•4

326-8521

640886

122-7187

39-2700

•5

2138251

51-8364

-5

3300643

64-4028

•6

124-6901

39-5842

\ -6

216-4248

52- 1505

•6

333 2923

64-7170

•7

126-6772

39-8983

•7

219-0402

52-4647

-7

336-5360

650311

•8

128-6799

40-2125

' -8

2216713

52-7789

-8

3397955

65-3453

•9

130-6984

40-5266

1 -9

224-3181

530930

•9

343 0706

65-6594

13-

132-7326

40-8408

17-

226 9803

53 4072

21-

346 3614

65 9736

•1

134-7825

411550

-1

229-6588

537214

•1

349-6678

66-2878

•2

136-8481

41-4691

-2

232-3527

540355

-2

352-9902

66-6019

•3

138-9294

41-7833

-3

2350624

54-3497

-3

356-3281

66-9161

•4

141-0264

42-0974

•4

237-7877

54-6638

•4

359-6818

67-2302

'5

143-1391

42-4116

•5

240-5287

54-9780

-5

3630511

67 5444

•6

145-2676

42-7258

-6

243-2855

55-2922

-6

366-4382

67-8586

•7

147-4117

43-0399

•7

246-0580

55 6083

•7

369-8370

68-1727

•8

149-5716

43-3541

■8

248 8461

55-9205

-8

3732535

68-4869

•9

151-7471

43-6382

•9

251-6500

562346

-9

376-6857

68-8010

L4-

153-9384

43-9824

18-

254-4693

56-5488

22-

3801336

69-1152

•1

156-1454

44-2966

-l

257-3049

58-8630

-1

383-5972

69-4294

•2

158-3681

44-6107

-2

260-1559

571771

•*>

387 0765

697435

•3

160-6064

44-9249

-3

263-0226

57-4913

3

390-5716

70-0577

•4

162-8605

45-2390

•4

265 9050

57-8054

•4

394-0S23

70-3718

•5

165-1303

45-5532

•5

268-8031

581196'

•5

397-6087

70-6850

•6

167-4159

45-8674

•6

271-7170

58-4338

•6

401-1509

71-0002

•7

169-7171

461815

•7

274-6465

58-7479

•7

404-7088

713143

•8

1720340

46-4957

-8

277-5918

59-0621

•8

408-2823

71-^5285

•9

174-3667

46-8098 '

1

•9

280-5527

50^-3762

•9

4118716

71-1)426

15-

176-7150

47-1240 1

19-

283-5294

59-6904 '

23-

415-4766

72-25G8

•1

1790791

47-4382

•1

288-5218

60-0046

•1

419-0973

72-5710

•2

181-4588

47-7523

•2

289-5299

60-3187

-2

4227337

72-8851

•3

183-8543

48-0665

•3

292-5536

60-6329

•3

426-3858

73-1993

•4

186-2655

48-3806

•4

295 5931

60-9470

•4

4300538

73-5134

•5

188-6924

48-6948

•5

298-6483

61-2612

•5

433-7371

73-8276

•6

191-1349

49-0090

•6

301-7193

61-5754

•6

437-4384

74-1418

•7

193-5932

493231

•7

304-8060

61-8895

•7

4411513

74-4559

•8

198-0673

49-6373

•8

3()7-90vS2

62-2037

•8

444-8820

74-7701

•9

198-5570

49-9514

•9

3110263

62-5178

-9

448-6283

75-0842

iS8

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

24-

■1
•2
•3
•4
'5
•G
7
•8
•9

25-

I
•2
•3
•4
•5

•6

.*»

•8
•9

26-

I

•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

27

•I

•3
•4
'o

•6

.*"

•8

452-3904
4561682
459-9617
463-7708
467-5967
471-4363
475-2927
479-1647
483-0524
486-9559

490-8750
494-8099
498-7604
502-7267
506-7087
510-7063
514-7196
518-7488
522-7937
526-8542

530-9304
535-0223
539-13(X)
543-2533
547-3924
551-5471
555-7176
559-9CJ3H
5641057
568-3233

572-5566
576-8056
581 0703
585-3508
589-6469
593-9587
598 2863
602-6296
606-9885
611-3632

Circum.

Dia.

75-3984
75-7126
76-0267
76-3409
76-6550
769692
77-28:^4
77-5975
77-9117
78-2258

78-5400

78-8542

79-1683

79-4825 '!

79-7966 1.

80-1108 l|

80-4250

80-7391

81-0533

81-3674

81-6816
81-9958
82-3099
82-6241
82-9382
83-2524
83-5666
83-8807
84-1949
84-5090

84-8232
85 1374
85 -45 15
85-7657
880798
86-3940
86-7082
87-0223
87-3365
87-6506

28

29

30

31

1
2
3
4
5
6

8

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2
3
4
5
6

i

8
9

2
3

4

Mi*

o
6

7
8
9

Area.

Circum.

615-7536

87.9648

6201597

88.2790

624-5815

88-5931

629-0190

88-9073

633-4722

892214

637 9411

895356

642-4258

89-8498

646-9261

90-1639

651-4422

90-4781

655-9739

90-7922

6605214

911064

6650846

91-4206

669-6635

91-7347

674-2580

92-0489

678-8683

92-3630

683-4943

926772

688-1361

92-9914

692-7935

93-3055

697 4666

93-6197

7021555

93-9338

706-8600

94-2480

711-5803

94-5622

716-3162

948763

721-0679

95-1905

725 8353

95-5046

73061S3

95-8188

735-4171

96 1330

740-2316

96-4471

745 0619

96-7613

749-9078

97 0754 1

754-7694

97-3896

7596467

97-7038

764-5398

980179

769-4485

98 3321

774-3730

98-64(52 '

779-3131

98-9604

784-2690

99-2746

789-2406

99-5887 '

794-2279

99-9029

799-2309

100-2170

Di

a.

Area.

Circum.

32-

804-2496

100-5312

1

809-2840

100-8454

2

814-3341

1011595

3

819-4000

101-4737

'4

824-4815

101-7878

5

829-5787

102-1020

6

834-6917

102-4162

•7

839-8204

102-7303

•8

844-9647

1030445

•9

850-1248

103 3586

33

855-3006

103 6728

■1

860-4921

1O3-9870

fi

865-6993

104-3011

•3

870-9222

104-6153

■4

876-1608

104 9294

■5

881-4151

105-2436

•6

886-6852

105 5578

■7

891-9709

105-8719

■8

897-2724

1061861

■9

902-5895

1O6-5003

34

907-9224

106-8144

1

913-2710

1071286

2

918-6353

107-4427

3

924-0152

107-7569

•4

929-4109

1O8-O710

5

934-8223

108-3862

6

940-2495

108-6994

945-6923

1O9-0135

8

951-1508

109-3277

9

956-6251

109-6418

35

962-1150

1O9-9660

1

967-6207

1 10-2702

2

9731420

110-5843

3

978-6791

110-8985

4

984-2319

111-2126

5

989-8003

111-5268

6

995-3845

111-8410

7

1000-9844

1121551

8

1006-6001

112-4693

9

1012-2314

1X2-7834

159

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

36-

•1
•2
•3

•4
•5
•6

•7
•8
•9

37-

•1
•2
•3
•4
•6
•6
•7
•8
•9

38-

39-

•3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

•1
•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

1017-8784
1023-5411
1029-2196
10349137
1040-6236
1046-3491
10520904
1057-8474
1063-6201
1069-4085

1075
1081
1086
1092
1098
1104
1110-
1116-
1122-
1128-

1134-

1140

1146

1152

1158

1164

1170

1176

1182

1188

2126
0324

8679
7192
5861
4687
-3671
-2812
•2109
•1564

•1176
0945
•0871
0954
1194
1591
2146
2857
3726
4751

1194-5934
1200-7274
1206-8771
12130424
12192235
1225-4203
1231-6329
1237-8611
12441050
1250-3647

Circum.

1130976
113-4118
113-7259
1140401
114-3542
114-6684
114-9826
115-2967
115-6109
115-9250

116-2392
116 5534
116-8675
1171817
117-4958
117-8100
118 1242
118-4383
118-7525
1190666

119-3808
119-6950
120-0091
120-3233
120-6374
1209516
121-2658
121-5799
121-8941
122-2082

122-5224
122-8366
1231507
123-4649
123-7790
124-0932
124-4074
1247215
125-0357
125-3498

Dia.

40-

•1
-2
•3
•4
•5
-6
•7
•8
•9

41-

42-

43

-1
-2
•3

-4
•5
•6

•7
•8
•9

•1
•2
3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

-1
-2
3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

Area.

1256-6400
1262-9311
1269-2378
1275-5603
1281-8985
1288-2523
1294-6219
1301-0072
1307-4083
1313-8250

1320
1326
1333
1339
1346
1352
1359
1365
]372
1378

2574
•7055
1694
6489
1442
6551
1818
7242
2823
8561

1385-4456
13920508
13986717
1405-3084
1411-9607
1418-6287
1425-3125
1432-0120
1438-7271
1445-4580

14522046
14589669
1465-7449
1472-5386
1479-3480
14861731
1493 0140
1499-8705
15067428
15136307

Circum.

125-6640

] 25-9782

126-2923

126-6065

126-9206

127-2348

127-5490;

127-8631

128-1773

128-4914

128-8056
129-1198
129-4339
1297481
1300622
130-3764
130-6906
131-0047
131-3189
1316330

1319472
1322614
132-5755
132-8897
133-2038
1335180
133-8322
134-1463
134-4605
134-7746

1350888

135-4030,

135-7171

1360313

136-3454

136-6596

136-9738

1372879

137-6021

137-9162

Dia

44-

45-

•1
•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
-7
•8
•9

•1
•2
3
•4
•5
•6
•7
-8
•9

46-

47-

•1
-2
•3
•4
-5
•6
-7
•8
•9

1

2
-3

•4
-5
-6

-7
•8
•9

Area.

1520
1527
1534
1541
1548
1555
1562
1569-
1576
1583-

5344
4538
3889
3396
3061
■2883
2863
2999
3292
3743

1590-4350
15975115
1604-6036
1611-7115
1618-8351
1625-9743
1633-1293
1640-3000
1647-4865
1654-6886

1661
1669
1676
1683
1690
1698
1705-
1712
1720
1727-

9064
1399
3892
6541
9348
2311
5432
8710
2145
5737

1734-9486
1742-3392
1749-7455
17571676
1764 6053
1772-0587
1779-5279
1787-0128
17945133
18020296

Circum.

138-2304
138 5446
138-8587
1391729
139-4870
139-8012
140-1154
140-4295
140 7437
1410578

141-3720
141-6862
1420003
142-3145
1426286
1429428
143-2570
143-5711
143 8853
1441994

144-5136
144-8278
145-1419
145-4561
145-7702
146-0844
146-3986
146-7127
1470269
147-3410

147-6552
147-9694
148-2835
148-5977
148-9118
149-2260
149-5402
149-8543
150-1685
150-4826

i6o

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

48-

49-

2
•3

•4

Mi*

o

•6

•.»

•8
•9

■1
•2
3
•4
•5
•6
7
•8
•9

50

1
•2
•3
•4

o

•6

,»-
7

•8
•9

51

•1
•2
•3

•4
•5
6

•7
8

1809
1817
1824
1832
1839
1847
1855
1882
1870
1878

1885
1893
1901
1908
1916
1924
1932
1940
1947
1955

1963
1971
1979
1987
1995
2002
2010
2018
2026
2034

2042
2050
2058
2066
2074
2083
2091
2099
2107
2115

5616
1093
6727
2518
8466
4571
0834
7253
3830
0563

7454
4502
1707
9068
6587
4263
2097
0087
8234
6539

5000
3619
2394
1327
0417
9663
9067
8628
8347
8222

8254
8443
8790
9293
9954
0771
1746
•2878
■4167
•5613

Circum.

150 7968
1511110
151-4251
151-7393
152 0534
152-3676
152-6818
152-9959
153-3101
1536242

1539384
154 2526

154 5667
154-8809
155-1950
155-5092

155 8234
1561375
156-4517
156-7658

1570800
157-3942
157-7083
1580225

158 3366
158-65091
158-9650 1

159 2791'
159-5933!
159-90741

160-2216
160-5358
160-8499
161-16411
161-47821
161-7924
1621066
162-4207
162-7349
1630490

Dia.

52

53

54

oo

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2

3

4
5
6
7
8
9

2
3
4
5
6

Area.

2123
2131
2140
2148
2156
2164
2173
2181
2189
2197

2206
2214
2222
2231
2239
2248
2256
2264
2273
2281

2290
2298
2307
2315
2324
2332
2341
2349
2358"
2367

2375
2384
2393
2401
2410'
2419
2427
2436
2445
2454

7216
8976
0893
2968
5199
7587
0133
2836
5695
8712

1886
5217
8705
2350
6152
-0111
-4228
-8501
-2932
-7519

2264
7166
2225
7440
2813
8343
4031
9875
5876
2035

8350
4823
1452
8239
5183
2283
9541
•6957
-4529
-2258

Circum.

63 3632
63-6774
63-9915

64 3057
64-6198
64-9340

65 2482
65-56231
65-8765
66-1906

66-5048
66-8190
671331
67-4473
67-7614
680756
68-3898
68-7039
69-0181
693322

696464
69-9606
70-2747
70-5889
70-9030
71-2172
71-5314
71-8455
72-1597
72-4738

72-7880
731022
73-4163
737305
74-0446
74-3588
74-6730
74-9871
75-3013
75-6154

Dia.

56

57

58

59

1
2
3
4

O

6

7
8
9

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Area.

24630144
2471-8187
2480-6388
2489-4745
2498-3260
25071931
2516-0760
2524-9736
2533-8889
2542-8189

2551-7646
2560-7260
25697031
2578-6960
2587-7045
2596-7287
2605-7687
2614-8244
2623-8957
26329828

2642-0856
2651-2041
2660-3383
2669-4882
2678-6538
2687-8351
2697-0322
2706-2449
2715-4734
2724-7175

2733-9774
2743-2530
2752-5443
2761-8512
27711739
2780-5123
2789-8665
2799-2363
2808-6218
28180231

Circum.

175-9296
176-2438
176-5579
176-8721
1771862
177-5004
177-8146
178-1287
1784429
178-7570

179-0713
179-3854
179-6995
1800137
180-3278
180-6420
180-9562
181-2703
181-5845
181-8986

182-2128
182-5270
182-8411
1831553
183 4694
183-7836
1840978
184-4119
184-7261
185 -0402

185-3544

185-6686
185-9827
186-2969
186-6110
186-9252
187-2394
187-5535
187-8677
1881818

i6i

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

Circum.

f
Dia.

64-

Area.
3216-9984

Circum.

Dia.

1

1 ■ ■■

68-

Arfa.

Circum.

80-

2827-4400

188-4960

201-0624

3631-6896

2136288

•1

2836-8727

188-8102

•1

32270594

201-3766

-1

3642-3789

213-9430

2

2846-3210

189-1243

•2

32371361

201-6907,

2

36530839

214-2571

•3

2855-7851

189-4385

-3

3247-2284

202-0049'

•3

3663-8050

214-^71 «

•4

2865-2649

189-7526

•4

3257 3365

202-3190'

•4

3674-5410

214*8864

•5

2874-7603 1900668

o

3267-4603

202-6332 j

1 -5

3685-2931

215-1996

•6

2884-2715

190-3810

•6

3277-5999

202 9474,

1 -6

3696-0610

215-5138

•7

2893-7984

190-6951

•7^

3287-7551

203-2615

•7

3706-8445

215-8279

•8

2903 3411

1910093

•8

3297-9261

203-5757

-8

3717-6438

2161421

•9

2912-8994

1913234

•9

33081127

203-8898

•9

3728-4587

216-4562

51-

29224734

191-6376

65-

3318-3150

204-2040

69-

3739-2894

216-7704

•1

2932-0631

191-9518

•1

3328-5331

204-5182

•1

3750-1358

2170846

•2

2941-6686

192-2659

2

3338-7668

204-8323

-2

3760-9979

217-3987

-3

2951-2897

192-5801

•3

33490163

2051465

3

3771-8756

217-7129

-4

2960-9266

192-8942

•4

3359-2815

205-4606

-4

3782-7691

218-0270

-6

2970-5791

193-2084

•5

3369-5623

205-7748

-5

3793-6783

218-3412

-6

2980-2474

193-5226

•6

3379-8589

2060890

j

•6

3804-6033

218-6554

-7

2989-9314

193-8367

•7 ■

3390-1712

206-4031

•7

3815-5439

218-9696

'8

2999 6311

1941509

•8

3400 4993

206-7173

•8

3826 5002

219-2837

-9

3009-3465

194-4650

•9

34108430

2070314

•9

38374722

219-5978

82*

3019-0776

194-7792

66-

3421-2024

207-3456

70-

3848-4600

219-9120

-1

3028-8244

1950934

•1

3431-5775

207-6598

•1

3859-4635

220-2262

-2

3038-5869

195-4075

•2

3441-9684

207-9739

•2

3870-4826

220-5403

-3

3048-3652

195-7217

•3

3452-3749

208-2881;

■3

3881-5175

220 8545

-4

30581591

1960358

•4

3462-7972

208-6022

•4

3892-5681

221-1686

-5

3067-9687

196-3500

•5

3473-2351

208-9164

-5

3903-6343

221-4828

-6

3077-7941

196-6642

•6

3483-6888

209-2306

-6

3914-7163

221-7970

'7

3087-6341

196 9783

•7

34941582

209-5447

-7

3925-8140

2221111

'S

3097-4919

197-2925

•8

3504-6433

209-8589,

-8

3936 9275

222-4253

•9

3107 3644

197 6066

•9

35151441

210-1730

•9

3948-9566

222-7394

63-

31172526

197-9208

67-

3626-6606

210-4872

71-

3959-2014

223 0536

•1

3127-1565

198-2350

1

35361928

210-8014'

-1

39703619

223 3678

•2

31370761

198-5491

•2

3546-7407

2111155

•2

3981-5382

223 6819

•3

31470114

198-8633

•3

3557-3044

211-4297

-3

3992-7301

223 9961

•4

3156-9624

199-1774

•4

3567-8837

2117438

•4

4003-9378

224-3102

•6

3166-9291

199-4916

•5

3578-4787

212-0580

•5

4015-1611

224-6244

•6

3176-9116

199-8058

•6

35890895

212-3722

•6

4026-4002

224-9386

•7

3186-9097

2001199

•7

3599-7160

212-6863

•7

4037-6550

225-2527

•8

3196-9236

200-4341

•8

3610-3581

2130005,

-8

4048 9255

225-5669

•9

3206-9531

200-7482

•9

3621-0160

213-3146

•9

4060-2117

225-8810

l62

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Dia.

Area.

72-

■1
•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
•9

73-

•1
•2
•3

•4
•o
•6

•7
•8
•9

74-

•1
•2
•3
•4
•6
•6
•7
•8
•9

75-

•1
•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
•7
•8
9

4071-5136
4082-8312
40941645
4105-5136
4116-8783
4128-2587
4139-6550
4151-0668
4162-4943
41739376

4185-3966
4196-8713
4208-3617
4219-8678
4231-3896
4242-9271
4254-4804
42660493
4277-6340
4289 2343

4300-8504
4312-4822
43241297
4335-7928
4347-4717
4359-1663
4370-8767
4382 6027
4394-3444
4406-1019

4417-8750
4429-6639
4441*4684
4453-2887
4465-1247
4476-9763
4488-8437
4500-7268
4512-6257
4524-5402

Circum.

2261952
226-5094
226-8235
227-1377
227-4518
227-7660
2280802
228-3943
228-7085
229-0226

229-3368
229 6510
229-9651
230-2793
230-5934
230-9076
231-2218
231-5359
231-8501
232-1642

232-4784
232-7926
233-1067
233-4209
2337350
234-0492
234-3634
234-6775
234-9917
235-3058

235-6200
235-9342
236-2483
236-5625
236-8766
2371908
237-5050
237-8191
238-1333
239-4474

Dia.

76

77

78

79

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

1
2
3
4

5
6

7
8
9

1
2
.9

4
5

6

7
8

Area.

4536-4704
4548-4163
4560-3780
4572-3553
4584-3484
4596-3571
4608-3816
4620-4218
4632-4777
4644-5493

4656-6366
4668-7396
4680-8583
4692-9928
4705-1429
4717-3087
4729-4903
4741-6876
4753-9005
4766-1292

4778-3736
4790-6337
4802-9095
4815-2010
4827-5082
4839-8311
48521698
4864-5241
4876-8942
4889-2799

4901-6814
49140986
4926-5315
4938-9800
4951-4443
4963-9243
4976-4201
4988-9315
5001-4586
5014-0015

Circum.

238-7616
239-0758
239-3899
239-7041
240-0182
240-3324
240-6466
240-9607
241-2749
241-5890

241-9032
242-2174
242-5315
242-8457
243-1598
243-4740
243-7882
244-1023
244-4165
244-7306

2450448
245-3590
245-6731
245-9873
246-3014
246-6156
246-9298
247-2439
247-5581
247-8722

2481864
248-5006
248-8147
249-1289
249-4430
249-7572
250-0714
250-3855
250-6997
251-0138

Dia.

80

81

82

83

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Area.

5026-5600
50391343
5051-7242
5064-3299
5076-9513
5089-5883
5102-2411
5114-9096
5127-5939
5140-2938

51530094
5165-7407
5178-4878
5191-2505
52040289
5216-8231
5229-6330
5242-4586
5255-2999
52681569

52810296
.5293-9180
5306-8221
5319-7420
53326775
5345-6287
5358-5957
5371-5784
5384-5767
5397-5908

6410-6206
5423-6661
5436-7273
5449-8042
5462-8968
54760051
54891292
5502-2689
5515-4244
5528*5955

Circum.

251-3280

251-6422
251-9563
252-2705
252-5846
252-8988
253-2130
253-5271
253-8413
2541554

254-4696
254-7838
2550979
255-4121
255-7262
256-O404
256-3546
256-6687
256*9829
257-2970

257-611i
257-925*
258-232
258-553?
258-86:1
259181
259-491
259-81(«
260-124
260-4381

260*7521

261-06H

261-381.

261-695*1

262-0091

262-3231

262-65*78

262-9d19

263-2661

263*58(«

163

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

i Area.

5541-7824

5554-9850

5568-2033

5581-4372

6594-6869

5607-9523

5621-2335

5634-5303

5647-8428

5661-1711

5674-6150
5687-8747
5701-2500
6714-6411
57280479
5741-4703
5754-9085
5768-3624
5781-8321
5795-3174

5808-8184
5822-3351
5835-8676
5849-4157
5862-9796
5876-5591
5890-1544
5903-7654
5917-3921
5931-0345

5944-6926
5958-3644
59720559
5985-7612
5999-4821
6013-2187
6026-9711
6040-7392
6054-5229
6068-3224

Circum.

263-8944
264-2086
264-5227
264-8369
265-1510
265-4652
265-7794
2660935
266-4077
266-7218

267-0360
267-3502
267-6643
267-9785
268-2926
268-6068
268-9210
269-2351
269-5493
269-8634

270-1776
270-4918
270-8059
271-1201
271-4342
271-7484
272-0626
272-3767
272-6909
273-0050

273-3192
273-6334
273-9475
274-2617
274-5758
274-8900
275-2042
275-5183
275-8325
276-1466

Dia.

88

89

90

91

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2

3

4
5
6

7
8

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8-
9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Area.

60821376
6095-9685
6109-8151
6123-6774
6137-5554
6151-4491
6165-3586
6179-2837
6193-2246
6207-1811

62211534
62351414
62491451
6263-1644
62771995
6291-2503
6305-3169
6319-3991
6333-4970
6347-6107

6361-7400
6375-8851
6390-0458
6404-2223
6418-4144
6432-6223
6446-8459
6461-0852
6475-3403
6489-6110

6503-8974

6518-1995

6532-5174

6546 -8509

6561 "2002

6575-5651

6589-9458

6604-3422

6618-7543

6633-1821

Circum.

276-4608
276-7750
277-0891
277-4033
277-7174
2780316
278-3458
278-6599
278-9741
279-2882

279-6024
279-9166
280-2307
280-5449
280-8590
281-1732
281-4874
281-8015
2821157
282-4298

282-7440
283-0582
283-3723
283-6865
284-0006
284-3148
284-6290
284-9431
285-2573
285-5714

285-8856
2861998
286-5139
286-8281
2871422
287-4564
287-7706
288-0847
288-3989
288-7130

Dia.

92

93

94

95

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Area,-*

6647-6256
66620848
6676-5698
6691-0504
6705-5567
6720-0787
6734-6165
67491700
6763-7391
6778-3240

6792-9246
6807-5409
68221729
6836-8206
6851-4840
6866-1631
6880-8580
6895-5685
6910-2948
69250367

6939-7944
6954-5678
6969-3569
6984-1616
6998-9821
7013-8183
7028-6703
7043-5379
7058-4212
7073-3203

7088-2350
7103-1655
7118-1116
7133-0735
7148-0511
71630443
7178-0533
7193-0780
72081185
72231746

Circum.

2890272
289-3414
289-6555
289-9697
290-2838
290-5980
290-9121
291-2263
291-5405
291-8546

292-1688
292-4830
292-7971
2931113
293-4254
293-7396
2940538
294-3679
294-6821
294-9962

295-3104
295-6246
295-9387
296-2529
296-5670
296-8812
2971954
297-5095
297-8237
298-1378

298-4520
298-7662
299-0803
299-3945
299-7086
300-0228
300-3370
300*6511
300-9653
301-2794

164

Dia.

96

97

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1
2

AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.

Area.

7238-2464
7253-3339
7268-4372
7283-5561
7298-6908
7313-8411
73290072
7344-1890
7359-3865
7374-5997

7889-8286
7405-0732
7420-3335
7435-6096

Circum.

301-5936
301-9078
302-2219
302-5361
302-8502
303-1644
303-4786
3037927
3041069
304-4210

304-7352
305-0494
305-3635
305-6777

Dia.

-'98

4
5

6

7
8
9

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Area.

7450-9013
7466-2087
7481-5319
7496-8708
7512-2253
7527-5956

7542-9816
7558-3833
7573-8007
7589-2338
7604-6826
7620-1471
7635-6274
7651-1233

Circum.

305-9918
306-3060
306-6202
306-9343,
307-2485
307-5626'

307-8768
3081910,
308-5051;
308-8193
3091334
309-4476
309-7618
3100759

Dia.

99

100

Area 1^

7666-6350
76821623

7697-7054
7713-2642
7728-8337
7744-4288
77600347
7775-6563
7791-2937
7806-9467
7822-6154
7838-2999

78540000

Circum.

i

310-3901;
310-7042

311-0184

311-3326!

311-64671

311-9609^

312-2750

312-5892

312-9034

313-2175

313-5317

313-8458

314-1600

CONTENTS OF SPHERES.

Dia.

Contents.

Dia.
2-1

Contents.

Dia.
4-1

Contents.

Dia.
61

Contents.

Dia.

8-1

Contents.

•1

1
•000523

1
4-849

36-087

1
118-847

278-262

-2

•004189

•2

5-575

-2

38-792

-2

124-788

2

288-696

-3

•014137

-3

6-371

' -3

41-630

-3

130-924

•3

299-387

-4

•033510

•4

7-238

' -4

44-602

•4

137-258

-4

310-339

-5

-065450

•5

8-181

-5

47713

-5

143-793

•5

321-555

•6

-113097

•6

9-203

-6

50-965

•6

150 533

•6

333-038

-7

•179594

1 -7

10-306

•7

54-362

•7

157-479 !

-7

344-791

•8

-268082

•8

11-494

-8

57-906

•8

164-636

-8

356-81H

•9

•381703

1 9

12770

-9

61-601

-9

172-007

-9

369121

10

•523599

30

14137

50

65-450

70

179-594

9-0

381-703

•1

•696910

•1

15-598

-1

69-456

•1

187-402

-1

394-569

•2

•904779

•2

17157

-2

73-622

•2

195-432

-2

407-720

•3

1-150349

-3

18-816

•3

77-952

-3

203-689

-3

421-16()

•4

1-436758

1 -4

20 579

-4

82-448

•4

212175

•4

434-893

•5

1-767250

! -5

22-449

-5

87114

-5

220-893

•5

448-921

•6

2144665

•6

24-429

1 -6

91-952

-6

229 847

-6

463-247

•7

2-572446

-7

26-552

-7

96-967

-7

239-040

-7

477-875

•8

3053635

, -8

28-731

-8

102-160

-8

248-475

-8

492-807

•9

3-591372

-9

31-059

1 -9

107-536

-9

258-155

•9

508-847

2-0

4-188800

1 40

33-510

1

1 6-0

1 13-097

!

8-0

268-083

100

523-599

i65

THE OHM.

Stated in algebraic formula, the equation for the Ohm
would be c equals e divided by r. In this equation, e repre-
sents the electro-motive force in volts, r is the resistance in
Ohms and c is the current in amperes.

The above demonstrates the law that the strength of the
current in a wire or other conductor is directly proportional
to the difference of potential between its ends and inversely
proportionate to its resistance.

At the electrical congress held in Chicago at the World's
Fair in 1893, a commission went over the ground and estab-
lished the following units, which have been adopted the
world over. The Ohm is represented by the resistance of a
a column of mercury one square millimetre section at the
temperature of 32° Fahrenheit, having a length of 106.3
Centimetres.

The current produced by a volt through an Ohm's resist-
ance is called an ampere, A coulomb is the quantity of
electricity defined by the condition that an ampere flowing
for one second gives a coulomb. A farad is defined by the con-
dition that a charge of one coulomb gives a potential of one
volt at its terminals. A volt is the E. M. F. that will sustain
a current of one ampere in a conductor whose resistance is an
Ohm.

i66

DECIMAL EaUIVALENTS, ALSO SttUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS

AND CUBE ROOTS, OF FRACTIONS.

Fraction.

Equivalent.

Square.

Cube.

Square root.

Cube root.

e^T

•015625

•00024399

•000003811

•125

•26

■5\

•03125

00097656

•000030518

•17698

•31494

3
*

•046875

•0021963

•00010293

•21648

36054

tV

•0625

■0039062

•00024414

•25

•39686

_5_
64

•078125

•0061035

•00047684

•27951

•42749

^

•09375

■0087891

•00082397

•30618

•45428

eV

•109375

■0119662

•0013083

•32430

•47823

i

•125

■015625

•0019531

•35355

•5

«v

•140625

■019683

•0027615

•37456

•51962

-5%

•15625

■024414

•0038147

•39529

•53861

ii

•171875

■029532

•0050751

•41455

•55595

■^«

•1875

■035156

•0065918

•42316

•87236

il

•203125

■041270

0083840

•45077

•58786

3^

•21875

■047851

•010467

•46771

•60254

ii

•234375

■054929

•012874

•48412

•61655

i

•25

■062500

•01 5625

•5

•62996

n

•265625

■070554

•018741

•51538

•64282

A

•28125

•079102

•022247

•63033

•66519

^

•296875

•088132

•026164

•54486

•66710

A

•3125

•097656

•030518

•55902

•67860

21
04

•328125

•107666

•035326

•57282

•68978

3 a

•34375

118162

•040619

•58630

•70061

04

•359375

129151

•046411

•59948

•71096

1

•375

140625

•052734

•61237

•72113

2i
4

•390625

15258

•059602

•62499

•73100

M

•40625

16504

•067047

•63738

•74062

li

•421875

17797

•075508

•64961

•75

•^ff

•4375

19140

•083740

•66144

•75915

6 -*•

•453125

20531

•093033

•67314

•76808

^f

•46875

21973

•103000

•68465

•77681

u

•484375

23461

•113642

•69596

•78534

t

•5

25

•125

•70711

•79370

i67

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS, ALSO SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS
AND CUBE ROOTS, OF FRACTIONS.

Fraction.

Equivalent.

•

Square.

Cube.

Square root.

Cube root.

li

•515625

•26585

•13708

•71806

•80188

ii

•53125

•28223

•14993

•72895

•80996

U

•546875

•29907

•16355

•73951

•81776

fe

•5625

•31641

•17798

•75

•82548

31.
64

•578125

•33422

•19322

•76034

•83305

M

•59375

•35254

•20932

•77055

•84049

64

•609375

•37133

•22628

•78062

•84780

1

•625

•39063

•24414

•79057

•85409

H

•640625

•41039

•26290

•80039

•86205

U

•65625

•43066

•28262

•81009

•86901

±3
64

•671875

•45141

•30329

•81968

•87585

ii

•6875

•47266

•32495

•82917

•88258

V:

•703125

•49438

•34761

•83852

•88922

II "

•71875

•51660

•37131

•84779

•89576

a

•734375

•53930

•39604

•84695

•90220

f

•75

•56250

•42188

•86602

•90856

If

•765625

•58617

•44879

•875

•91482

If

•78125

•61035

•47684

•88388

•92101

u

•796875

•63500

•50602

•89267

•92711

il

•8125

•66013

•53636

•90139

•93313

H

•828125

•68578

•56791

•91001

•93907

U

•84375

•71191

•60068

•91856

«7 JIM.'i7'J*

H

•859375

•73852

•63466

•92702

•95074

i

•875

•76563

•66992

•93541

•95646

n

•890625

•79142

•70644

•94320

•96176

If

•90625

•82129

•74429

•95197

•96772

n

•921875

•84984

•78344

•96014

•97325

H

•9375

•87891

•82397

•96825

•97872

fi

•953125

•90845

•86586

•97632

•98415

H

•96875

. -93848

•90915

•98425

•9S947

«3
64

•984375

•96898

•95384

•99215

•99476

1 »

1-

10

10

10

10

1 68

Squares, Cubes, and Square and Cube Roots, of all Numbers from
1 to 500, and 4-th and 5th powers of Numbers 1 to ISO.

No.

Square.

Cube.

4th Power.

6th Power.

Square Root.

Cube Root.

1

1

1

1

1

1-

1-

2

4

8

16

32

1-4142 136

1-2599 210

3

9

27

81

243

1-7320 508

1-4422 496

4

16

64

256

1024

2-

1-5874 Oil

5

25

125

625

3125

2-2360 680 i 17099 759

6

36

216

1296

7776

2-4494 897 18171 206

7

49

343

2401

16807

2-6457 513 , 1 9129 312

8

64

512

4096

32768

2-8284 271

2-

9

81

729

6561

59049

3-

20800 837

10

1 00

1 000

10000

100000

3-1622 777

2-1544 347

11

1 21

1 331

14641

161051

3-3166 248

2-2239 801

12

1 44

1 728

20736

2i8832

3-4641 016

2-2894 286

13

1 69

2 197

28561

371293

3-6055 513 ! 23513 347

14

1 96

2 744

38416

537824

3-7416 574 24101 422

15

2 25

3 375

50625

759375

3-8729 833

2-4662 121

16

2 56

4 096

65536

1048576

4-

2-5198 421

17

2 89

4 913

83521

1419857

4-1231 056

2-5712 816

18

3 24

5 832

104976

1889568

4-2426 407

2-6207 414

19

3 61

6 859

130321

2476099

4-368^ 989

2-6684 016

20

4 00

8 000

160000

3200000

4.4721 360

2-7144 177

21

4 41

9 261

194481

4084101

4-5825 757

2-7589 243

22

4 84

10 648

234256

5153632

4-6904 158

2-8020 393

23

5 29

12 167

279841

6436343

4-7958 315 ; 28438 670

24

5 76

13 824

331776

7962624

4-8989 795

2-884 i 991

25

6 25

15 625

390625

9765625

5-

2-9240 177

26

6 76

17 576

456976

11881376

5-0990 195

2-9624 960

27

7 29

19 683

531441

14348907

5-1961 524

3.

28

7 84

21 952

614656

17210368

5-2915 026

3*0365 889

29

8 41

24 389

707281

20511149

6-3851 648

30723 168

30

c 9 00

27 000

810000

1

24300000

5-4772 256

31072 826

\

169

SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, OF ALL NUMBERS FROM
I TO 500, AND 4TH AND 5TH POWERS OF NUMBERS I TO I50

No.

Square.

Cube.

4th Power.

•

6th Power.

Square Root.

Cube Root.

31

9 61

29 791

923521

28629151

5-5677 644

31413 806

32

10 24

32 768

1048576

33554432

5-6568 542

31748 021

33

10 89

35 937

1185921

39135393

5-7445 626

3-2075 343

34

11 56

39 304

1336336

45435424

5-8309 519

3-2396 118

35

12 25

42 875

1500625

52521875

5-9160 798

3-2710 663

36

12 96

46 656

1679616

60466176

6-

3-3019 272

37

13 69

50 653

1874161

69343957

60827 625

3-3322 218

3S

14 44

54 872

2085136

79235168

61644 140 1 3-3619 754

39

15 21

59 319

2313441

90224199

6-2449 998

3-3912 114

40

16 00

64 000

2560000

102400000

6-3245 553

3-4199 519

41

16 81

68 921

2825761

115856201

6-4031 242

3-4482 172

42

17 64 .

74 088

3111696

130891232

6-4807 407

3-4760 266

43

18 49

79 507

3418801

147008443

6-5574 385

3-5033 981

44

19 36

85 184

3748096

164916224

6-6332 496

3-5303 483

45

20 25

91 125

4100625

184528125

6-7082 039

3-5568 933

46

21 16

97 336

4477456

205962976

6-7823 300

3-5830 479

47

22 09

103 823

4879681

229345007

6-8556 546

3-6088 261

48

23 04

110 592

5308416

254803968

6-9282 032

3-6342 411

49

24 01

117 649

5764801

282475249

7.

3-6593 057

50

25 00

125 000

6250000

312500000

7-0710 678

3-6840 314

51

26 01

132 651

6765201

345025251

71414 284

3-7084 298

52

27 04

140 608

7311616

380204032

7-2111 026

3-7325 111

53

28 09

148 877

7890481

418195493

7-2801 099

3-7562 858

54

29 16

157 464

8503056

459165024

7-3484 692

3-7797 631

55

30 25

166 375

9150625

503284375

7-4161 985

3-8029 525

56

31 36

175 616

9834496

550731776

7-4833 148

3-8258 624

57

32 49

185 193

10556001

601692057

7-5498 344

3 8485 Oil

58

33 64

195 112

11316496

656356768

7-6157 731

3-8708 766

59

34 81

205 379

12117361

714924299

7-6811 457

3-8929 965

60

36 00

216 000

12960000

777600000

7-7459 667

3-9148 676

61

37 21

226 981

13845841

844596301

7-8102 497

3 9364 972

62

38 44

238 328

14776336

916132832

7-8740 079

3-9578 915

63

39 69

250 047

15752961

992436543

7-9372 539

3-9790 571

64

40 96

262 144

16777216

1073741824

8-

4-

60

42 25

274 625

17850625

1160290625

80622 577

4-0207 256

66

.43 56

287 496

18974736

1252332576

81240 384

4-0412 401

67

44 89

300 763

20151121

1350125107

8 1853 528

4-0615 480

68

46 24

314 432

21381376

1453933568

8-2462 113

4-0816 551

69

47 61

328 509

22667121

1564031349

8-3066 239

4-1015 661

70

49 00

343 000

24010000

1680700000

8-3666 003

4-1212 853

170

SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, OF ALL NUMBERS FROM
I TO 500, AND 4TH AND 5TH POWERS OF NUMBE-RS I TO I50.

No.

Squa.e.

Cube.

4th Power.

6th Power.

Square Root.

Cube Root.

71

50 41

357 911

25411681

1804229351

8-4261 498

41408 178

72

51 84

373 248

26873856

1934917632

8-4852 814

4-1601 676

73

53 29

389 017

28398241

2073071593

8-5440 037

41793 390

74

54 76

405 224

29986576

2219006624

8-6023 253

41983 364

75

56 25

421 875

31640625

2373046875

8-6602 540

4-2171 633

76

57 76

438 976

33382176

2535525376

8-7177 979

4-2358 236

77

59 29

456 533

35153041

2706784157

8-7749 644

4-2543 210

78

60 84

474 552

37015056

2887174368

8-8317 609

4-2726 586

79

62 41

493 039

38950081

3077056399

8-8881 944

4-2908 404

80

64 00

512 000

40960000

3276800000

8-9442 719

4-3088 695

81

65 61

531 441

43046721

3486784401

9-

4-3267 487

82

67 24

551 368

45212176

3707398432

9-0553 851

4-3444 815

83

68 89

571 787

47458321

3939040643

9-1104 336

4-3620 707

84

70 56

592 704

49787136

4182119424

91651 514

4-3795 191

85

72 25

614 125

52200625

4437053125

9-2195 445

4-3968 296

86

73 96

636 056

54708016

4704270176

9-2736 185

4-4140 049

87

75 69

658 503

57289761

4984209207

9-3273 791

4-4310 476

88

77 44

681 472

59969536

5277319168

9-3808 315

4-4479 602

89

79 21

704 969

62742241

5584059449

9-4339 811

4-4647 451

90

81 00

729 000

65610000

5904900000

9-4868 330

4-4814 047

91

82 81

753 571

68574961

6240321451

9-6393 920

4-4979 414

92

84 64

778 688

71639296

6590815232

9-5916 .630

4-5143 574

93

86 49

804 357

74805201

6956883693

9-6436 508

4-5306 549

94

88 36

830 584

78074896

7339040224

9-6953 597

4-5468 359

95

90 25

857 375

81450625

7737809375

9-7467 943

4-5629 026

96

92 16

884 736

84034656

8153726976

9-7979 590

4-5788 570

97

94 09

912 673

88529281

8587340257

9-8488 578

4-5947 009

98

96 04

941 192

92236816

9039207968

9-8994 949

4-6104 363

99

98 01

970 299

96059601

9509900499

9-9498 744

4-6260 650

100

1 00 00

1 000 000

100000000

10000000000

10- *.

4-6415 888

101

1 02 01'

1 030 301

104060401

10510100501

10-0498 756

4-6570 095

102

1 04 04

1 061 208

108243216

11040808032

10-0995 049

4-6723 287

103

1 06 09

1 092 727

112550881

11592740743

101488 916

4-6875 482

104

1 08 16

1 124 864

116985856

12166529024

101980 390

4-7026 694

105

1 10 25

1 157 625

121550625

12762815625

10-2469 508

4-7176 940

lOS

1 12 36

1 191 016

126247696

13382255776

10-2956 301

4-7326 235

107

1 14 49

1 225 043

131079601

14025517307

10-3440 804

4-7474 594

108

1 16 64

1 259 712

136048896

14693280768

10-3923 048

4-7622 032

109.

1 18 81

1 295 029

141158161

15386239549

10 4403 065

4-7768 562

no'

1 21 00

1 331 000

146410000

16105100000

10-4880 885

4-7914 199

171

SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, OF* ALL NUMBERS FROM
I TO 500, AND 4TH AND 5TH POWERS OF NUMBERS I TO I50.

No?

Square.

Cube.

4th Power. 1

5th Power.

Square Root.

Cube Root.

Ill

23 21

1 367 6^1

151807041 ! 16850581551

10-5356 538

4-8058 955

112

25 44

1 404 928

157351936 i 17623416832

10-5830 052

4-8202 846

113

27 69

1 442 897

163047361 1 18424351793

10-6801 458

4-8345 881

114

29 96

1 481 544

168896016 ; 19254145824

10-6770 783

4-8488 076

115

32 25

1 520 875

174900625 20113581875

10-7238 053

4-8629 442

116

34 56

1 560 896

181063936 21003416576

10-7703 296

4-8769 990

117

36 89

1 601 613

187388721

21924480357

10-8166 538

4-8909 732

118 1 1

39 24

1 643 032

193877776

22877577568

10-8627 805

4-9048 681

119 1 1

41 61

1 685 159

200533921

23863536599

10-9087 121

4-9186 847

120

1

44 00

1 728 000

207360000

24883200000

10-9544 512

4-9324 242

121

1

46 41

1 771 561

214358881 j 25937424601

11-

4-9460 874

122 : 1

48 84

1 815 848

221533456 i 27027081632

11-0453 610

4-9596 757

123 1

51 29

1 860 867

228886641 | 28153056843

11-0905 365

4-9731 898

124 ! 1

53 76

1 906 624

236421376

29316250624

11-1355 287

4-9866 310

125 \ 1

56 25

1 953 125

244140625

30517578125

11-1803 399

5- .

126

1

58 76

2 000 376

252047376 ' 31757969376

11-2249 722

5-0132 979

127

1

61 29

2 048 383

260144641

33038369407

11-2694 277

50265 257

128 ' 1

63 84

2 097 152

208435456

34359738368

11-3137 085

5-0396 842

129 i 1

66 41

2 146 689

276922881 1 35723051649

11-3578 167

50527 743

130

69 00

2 197 000

285610000 ' 37129300000

11-4017 543

5-0657 970

131

71 61

2 248 091

294499921 38579489651

11-4455 231

5-0787 531

132

74 24

2 299 968

303595776 1 40074642432

11-4891 253

50916 434

133

76 89

2 352 637

312900721

41615795893

11-5325 626

5-1044 687

134

79 56

2.406 104

322417936

43204003424

11-5758 369

51172 299

135

82 25

2 460 375

332150625

44840334375

11-6189 500

5-1299 278

136

84 96

2 515 456

342102016

46525874176

11-6619 038

5-1425 632

137

1 87 69

2 571 353

362275361

48261724457

11-7046 999

5-1551 367

138

90 44

2 628 072

362673936

50049003168

11-7473 401

5-1676 493

139

93 21

2 685 619

373301641

51888844699

11-7898 261

5-1801 015

140

96 00

2 744 000

384160000

53782400000

11-8321 596

5-1924 941

141

1 98 81

2 803 221

395254161

55730836701

11-8743 422

5-2048 279

142

2 01 64

2 863 288

406586896

57735339232

11-9163 753

5-2171 034

143

2 04 49

2 924 207

418161601 59797108943

11-9582 607

5 2293 215

144

2 07 36

2 985 984

429981696 61917364224

12-

5-2414 828

145

2 10 25

8 048 625

442050625 64097340625

120415 946

5-2535 879

146

2

13 16

3 112 136

454371856

66338290976

120830 460

5-2656 374

147

2

16 09

8 176 523

466948881

68641485507

12-1243 557

5-2776 321

148

2

19 04

8 241 792

479785216

71008211968

12-1655 251

5-2895 725

149

2

22 01

3 307 949

492884401

73439775749

12-2065 556

5-3014 592

150

2

25 00

3 375 000

506250000

75937500000

12-2474 487

5-3132 928

172

METBIC AND ENGLISH SYSTEMS OF MEASURE, AND THEIR RELATION

TO ONE ANOTHER.

One of the advantages of the metric system consists in
the fact that the weight of any quantity of material is found
in tons, or in kilogrammes, or in grammes, simply by multi-
plying its volume in cubic meters or cubic decimeters, or in
cubic centimeters by its specific gravity ; thus the specific
gravity of cast aluminum being 2.56, the weight of a cubic
metre of cast aluminum is 2560 kilogrammes.

The following data regarding weights and measures, is
quoted from ** Gauges at a Glance," by Thomas Taylor :

Measure.

The mere mention of the fact that the English system of
measures is based upon the length of Henry I.'s arm, is
enough to condemn it in the eyes of many. He measured
his arm, declared it to be the " ulna," or ancient ell. This
was well maintained, and in 1742 the Royal Society carefully
prepared a standard from the ells of Henry VH., and Eliza-
beth kept at the Exchequer, In 1758 an exact copy was made
of this Royal Society's yard, examined by a Committee of the
House of Commons, then marked and approved. The Act of
George IV. declares this " straight brass rod," &c., to be our
standard and unit ; all other measures, whether lineal, super-
ficial or solid, to be derived from it :

*'and that ^rd yard of the said standard yard shall be
"a foot, and the 12th part of such foot shall be an
*'inch : and that the pole or perch in length shall con-
**tain 5^ such yards, the furlong 220 such yards, and
"the mile 1760 such yards."
And further for area :

*'The rood of land shall contain 1,210 square yards,
"according to the said standard yard ; and that the
**acre of land shall contain 4,840 such square yards,
"being 160 square perches, poles or rods."

173

If the standard yard gets lost or destroyed, its recovery is
provided for by reference to the Pendulum at London.

The following tables give its relation to the Metric
system ;

INCHES.
I Millimetre =: 0.039370 r=r (about ^^-th inch.)

I Centimetre =: 0-393704

I Decimetre = 3 -93 7^43 =^ 3x1 inches.

I Metre = 39-370432 ^^ 3 feet 3^th inches, or

3.28 feet.
I Decametre = 393.704320 -^ 32 feet, 9Yjth inch.
I Hectometre = 3937-043196 = 109 yards I foot i inch.
I Kilometre = 39370.431960=: 1093 yards i foot lOy^^th

inch, or .6214 miles.
I Myriametre ::=; 393704.319600 zzz: 6 miles 376 yards o feet

S^Vth inch, or 6.214

miles.

Weights.

The great advantage of the Metric System lies not so
much in its determination as in its application. The former
gives it a more scientific or philosophical basis : the latter the
great merit of usefulness. The metre is determined by a ter-
restrial meridian ; our yard from Henry I.*s arm, checked by
the oscillations of a pendulum at London. This gives the
yard an arbitrary character as the oscillations vary in different
parallels of latitude, and hence its inferiority from a scientific
standpoint. But having got our basis or unit it would not
much matter Aow^ so long as we proceeded to divide or mul-
tiply it for use in a rational way. When George IV., was king,
the British act establishing uniform measures throughout the
kingdom took eflfect on January i, 1826 (5 George IV., c. 74.)
Why the only rational system, the decimal system, was not
then inaugurated, and tons, cwts, qrs., drams, &c., swept away,
passes the comprehension of ordinary folk. It seems incredi-
ble, but it is true, that *' Heaped " measure was actually
preserved. This gross absurdity was left for the wisdom of
William IV., to abolish at the close of 1835,

^

i

i ■

i -

i

j Jii

1

5

'

S

1 1

;

i

:

:
;

i

1

p

i.--^

M

"

1!

H-

^

III

s

1

it'

<&^

p

H$

III

s

sss

1

tit

SSS

^^^

§

|S-

2""

Q

^

s

III

1°

fl

■lliil

li

f

<

iii=

Jill
iilpl

i
1

s

1

i

1

; i

If

s--^^^

1

i ■

■ i :

1^

!9

177

INCHES AND FRACTIONS OF AN INCH AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS

IN MILLIMETRES.

Fractions
of an inch.

I
i

A

i

4

a

v*

s
fa

^

^

si

M

f 2

if

21.
If

n

II

S 1

Mill!*
metres.

0-7937

1-5875

2-3812

31749

3-9688

4-7624

5-5562

6-3499

71437

7-9374

8-7312

9-5249

10-3186

11-1124

11-9061

12-6998

13-4936

14-2874

15-0811

15-8748

16-6686

17-4623

18-2661

190498

19-8436

20-6373

21-4310

22-2248

230185

23-8123

24-6060

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

Inches.

MiUi.

metres.

1

25-3998

2

50-7995

3

76-1993

4

101-5991

5

126-9989

6

152-3986

7

177-7984

8

2031982

9

228-5979

10

263-9977

11

279-3975

12

304-7973

13

3301970

14

355-5968

16

380-9966

16

406-3963

17

431-7961

18

457-1959

Inches.

35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52

482-5957

53

607-9954

54

533-3952

55

558-7949

56

584-1948

57

609-5945

58

634-9943

59

660-3941

60

685-7938

61

711-1936

62

736-5934

63

761-9932

64

787-3929

65

812-7927

66

838-1925

67

863-5922

68

MiUi.

Inches.

MilH-

metres.

metres.

888-9920

69

1752-5842

914-3918

70

1777-9840

939-7916

71

1803-3838

9651913

72

1828-7836

990-5911

73

1864-1833

1015-9908

74

1879-5831

1041-3906

75

1904-9828

1066-7904

76

1930-3826

1092-1902

77

1955-7824

1117-5899

78

1981-1822

1142-9897

79

2006-5819

1168-3895

80

2031-9817

1193-7883'

81

2057-3815

12191890;

82

2082-7813

1244-5888

83

2108-1810

1269-9886

84

2133-5808

1295-3883

85 '

2158-9806

1320-7881

86

2184-3803

13461879

87

2209-7791

13715877

88

2235-1798

1396-9874

89

2260-5796

1422-3872

90

2285-9794

14477869

91

2311-3792

14731868

92

2336-7789

1498-5865

93

23621787

1523-9863

94

2387-5765

1549-3861

95

2412-9763

1574-7858

96

2438-3781

1599-1856

97

2463-7778

1625-5854

98

2489-1776

1650-9842

99

2514-5774

1676-3859

100

2539-9772

1701-7857

101

2565-3769

1727-1845

102

2590-7767

The above Table may be used for decimals of inches by altering
the decimal i^oint both Inches and Millimetres in the same number
_ofj)lace8.

■78

MILLIMETRES REDUCED TO INCHES AND DECIMALS OF AN INCH.

Milli-

■

Milli-

•

Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches. |

metres

Inches.

1

•03937

41

1-6142 1

81

31890

121

4-7638

161

63386

2

•07874

42

1-6536

82

32284

122

4-8032

162

-6-378a

8

•11811

43

1-6929

83

32677

123

4-8426

163

6-4174

4

•15748

44

1-7323

84

3 3071 :

124

4-8819

164

6-4568

€

•19685

45

1-7717 '

' 85

3-3465

125

4-9213

165

6-4961

'6

•23622

46

1-8110

; 86

3-3859

126

49607

166

6-5355

7

•27559

47

1-8504

87

34252

127

50000 '

167

6-5749

S

•31496

48

1-8898

68

34646

128

50394

168

6-6142

9

•35433

49

1-9291

89

3-5040

129

50788

169

66536

10

•3937

60

1-9685

90

35433

130

5-1182

170

6-6930

11

•4331

51

20079

91

3-5827 !

131

5-1575

171

67323

12

•4724

52

2-0473 1

92

36221

132

51969

172

6-7717

13

•5118

53

20866

93

3-6614

133

52363

173

6-8111

14

•5512

54

2-1260

94

3-7008

134

52756

174

6-8505

15

•5906

55

2- 1654 1

95

3-7402 i

135

5-3150 ;

175

6-8898

16

'6299

56

2-2047

96

3-7798

136

5 3544

176

6-9292

17

•6693

57

2-2441

97

38189

137

5-3937

177

6-9686

18

•7087

58

22835

98

3-8583

138

54331

178

70078

19

•7480

59

2 3229

99

38977

139

5-4725

179

70472

20

•7874

60

2-3622

100

39370

140

55119

180

70867

21

•8268

61

2-4016

101

39764

141

55512

181

71260

22

•8661

62

2-4410 1

102

4-0158

142

55906

182

71654

23

•9055

63

2 4803 ;

103

40552

143

5-6300

183

7-2048

24

•9449

64

2-5197

104

40945

144

5-6693

184

72442

25

•9843

65

25591

105

4 1339

145

5-7087

' 185

7-2835

26

10236

66

25984

106

4 1733

146

5-7481

186

73229

27

10630

67

26378

107

4 2126

147

5-7875

187

7-3623

28

11024

68

2-6772

108

4-2520 1

, 148

5-8268

188

74016

29

11417

69

2-7166

109

4-2914

' 149

5-8662

, 189

74410

30

11811

70

2 7559 ,

; 110

4-3308

! 150

5-9056

190

74804

31

1-2205

1 71

27953

' 111

43701

151

O *7 irlio

191

75198

32

1-2599

72

2-8347

1 112

4-4095

152

5-9843

192

7-5591

33

12992

73

2-8740

113

4-4489

153

6-0237

193

7-5985

34

13386

74

2-9134

114

4-4882

154

60630

194

76379

35

1-3780

75

29528

115

4-5276

155

6-1024

195

76772

36

1-4173

76

29922

116

4-5670 :

156

61418

, 196

77166

37

1-4567

77

30315

117

4-6063

157

6-1812

197

, 7-7560

38

1-4961

78

30709 ,

118

4-6457

158

62205

, 198

77953

39

1-5354

79

3-1103

119

4-6851

159

6-2599

199

78347

40

1-5748

l 80

, 3 1496

1 120

47245 ]

160

6-2993

200

7-8741

179

MILLIMETRES REDUCED TO INCHES AND DECIMALS OF AN INCH.

Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres
361

Incnes.

201

7-9135

241

9-4883

281

110631

321

12-6379

14-2127

202

7-9528

' 242

9-5276 ,

282

111024

322

12-6773

362

14-2520

203

7-9922

1 243

9-5670

283

111418

323

12-7166 1

363

142915

204

80316

1 244

9-6064

1 284

111812

324

12-7560

364

14-3308

205

80709

245

9-6458

1 285

11-2206

325

12 7954

365

14-3702

206

81103

246

9-6851

; 286

11-2599 ,

326

12-8347

366

14-4096

207

81497

1 247

9-7245

287

11-2993 .

327

128741

367

14-4489

208

8-1890

248

9-7639

288

11-3387

328

12-9135

368

14-4883

209

8-2284

249

9-8032

289

11-3780

329

12-9528

369

14-5277

210

8-2678

! 250

9-8426

: 290

11-4174

330

12 9922

i 370

145671

211

8-3072

251

98820

291

11-4568

331

130316

371

14 6064

212

8-3465

252

9-9213

292

11-4962

332

13-0709

372

14-6458

213

8-3859

' 253

9-9607

293

11-5355 1

333

131103

; 373

14-6852

214

8 4253

1 254

100001

294

11-5749 ;

334

131497

; 374

14 7245

215

8-4646

■ 255

10-0395

295

11 6143 ,

335

131891

, 375

147639

216

8-5040

256

100788

296

11-6536

336

13-2285

i 376

14-8033

217

8-5434

257

101182

297

11-6930

1 337

13-2678

! 377

1

148426

218

8-5828

' 258

10-1576

298

11-7324

1 338

13 3072

378

14-8820

219

8-6221

259

10-1969 ,

299

11 7717 I

339

13-3466

' 379

14-9214

220

8-6615

260

10 2363 1

300

11-8111

340

13-3859 1

380

14-9608

221

8-7009 !

261

10-2757 1

301

11-8505

341

13-4253

' 381

150001

222

8-7402

262

10-3151 '

302

11-8899

342

134647

382

15-0395

223

8-7796

263

10-3544 ;

303

119292

343

135040

383

15-0789

224

8-8190

264

10-3938 [

304

11-9686

344

13-5434

1 384

151182

225

8-8583

265

10-4332 1

305

120079

345

13-5828

385

15-1576

226

8-8977

1 266

10-4725 '

306

120473 .

346

13-6222

386

15-1969

227

8-9371

1 267

10-5119

307

120867

1 347

13 6615 ,

387

15 23^3

228

8-9765

268

10-5513 1

308

121261 1

348

13-7009 j

388

15-2757

229

90158

1 269

10-5906 1

309

12- 1655 1

349

13-7403

389

15-3151

230

9-0552

i 270

10-6300

310

12-2049 1

350

13-7796

390

15-3545

231

90946

271

10-6694

311

12-2442

351

13-8190 '

391

15-3938

232

9-1339

272

10-7087

312

12-2836

352

13-8584 '

' 392

1

15 4332

233

9-1733

273

10-7481

313

123229

353

13-8978

393

15 4726

234

9-2127

274

10-7875

314

12-3623

354

13-9371

! 394

15-5119

235

9-2520

275

10-8269

315

124017

355

139765

395

155513

236

9-2914

276

10-8662

316

12-44<10

356

14-0159

1 396

155907

237

9-3308

277

10-9056

317

12-4804

357

140552

397

15 6300

238

9-3702

278

10-9449

318

125198

358

140946

398

15-6694

239

94095

279

10-9843

319

12-5592

359

141339

399

15 7088

24ty

9-4489

280

1 10237

320

12-5985

360

141733

400

15-7482

i8o

MILLIMETRES REDUCED TO INCHES AND DECIMALS OF AN INCH.

*/

Milli-

Milli.

Milli.

Milli-

Milli.

metres

Inches.

1 metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

401

15-7875

441

17-3624

481

18-9372

521

20-5120

561

22-0868

402

15-8269

442

17-4017

482

18-9765

522

20-5514

562

22-1262

403

15-8663

443

17-4411

483

19-0159

523

20-5908

563

22-1655

404

15-9056

444

17-4805

484

190553

524

20-6301

564

222049

405

15-9450

445

17-5198

485

19-0946

525

20-6695

565

22-2443

406

15-9844

446

17-5592

486

19-1340

526

20-7088

566

22-2837

407

160238

1 447

17-5986

487

191734

527

20-7482

567

22-3230

408

160631

' 448

17-6379

488

19-2128

528

20-7876

568

22-3624

409

16-1025

i 449

17-6773

489

19-2521

529

20-8269

569

22 4018

410

161419

1 450

17-7167

490

192915

530

20-8663

570

22 4411

411

161812

i 451

17-7561

491

19-3309

531

20-9058

571

22 4805

412

16-2206

, 452

17-7954

492

19-3702

532

20-9451

572

225199

413

16-2599

: 453

17-8349

493

19-4096

533

20-9844

573

225592

414

16-2993

i 454

17-8742

494

19-4490

534

21-0238

574

225986

415

16-3388

1 455

17-9135

495

19-4884

535

21-0632

575

22-6380

416

16-3781

456

179529

496

19-5277

536

21-1025

576

22-6774

417

16-4175

457

17-9923

497

195671

537

21-1419

577

227167

418

16-4569

458

18-0316

498

19-6065

538

21-1813

578

227561

419

16-4962

459

180710

499

19-6458

539

21-2207

579

22 7955

420

16-5356

460

18-1104

500

19-6852

1 540

21-2600

580

22-8349

421

16-5750*

461

18-1498 1

501

19-7246

541

21-2995

581

228742

422

16-6143

I 462

18-1891

502

19-7640

1 542

21-3388

582

22-9136

423

16-6538

\ 463

18-2286

503

19-8033

543

21-3781

583

229530

424

166931

, 464

18 2679

504

19-8427

544

21-4175

584

22-9923

425

16-7324

j 465

18-3072

505

19-8821

545

21-4569

585

230317

426

16-7718

4^)6

18 3466

506

199214

546

21-4962

586

23 0711

427

16-8112

467

18-3860

507

19-9608

1 547

21-5356

587

231104

428

16-8505

468

18-4253

508

200002

548

21-5750

588

23-1499

429

16-S899

469

18-4647

509

20-0395

549

21-6144

589

23-1892

430

16-9293

470

18-5041

510

20-0789

550

21-6537

590

23 2285

431

16 9686

471

18-5435

511

20-1183

551

21-6931

591

23-2679

432

17-0080

472

18-5828

512

20-1577

552

21-7325

592

23 3073

433

17-0474

473

18-6222

513

201970

553

21-7718

593

23-3467

434

170868

474

18-6616

514

20-2364 ,

554

21-8112

594

23*38 >0

435

17-1261

475

18-7009

515

20-2758

555

21-8506

595

23-4254

436

17-1655

476

18-7403

516

20-3151

556

21-8900

596

23-4648

437

172049

477

18-7797

517

20-3545

557

21-9293

597

23-5041

438

17-2442

478

188191

518

20-3939

558

21-9687 ,

598

23-5435

439

172836

479

18-8584 1

519

20-4332

559

220081

599

23-5829

440

17-3230

480

18-8979 1

520

204726

560

22-0474

600

23-6222

i8i

nnLLlKIETRBS REDUCED TO INCHES AND DECIMALS OF AN INCH.

Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

' Milli-

Milli-

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

i Inches.

1 metres

Inches.

metres! Inches.

1

601

23-6616

641

25-2364

681 26-8113

721

28-3861

761

29-9609

602

23-7010

642

25-2758

682 26-8506

722

28-4254

762

30-0003

603

23-7404

643

25-3152

683 1 26-8900

723

28-4648

768

30-0396

604

23-7797

644

25-3545

684 26-9294

724

28-5042

764

30-0790

605

23-8192

645

25-3939

' 685 : 26-9687

725

28 5436

765

301184

606

23-8585

646

25-4333

686 27008L

726

28-5829

766

301577

607

23-8978

647

25-4727

687 27-0475

727

28-6223

767

301971

608

239372

648

25-5120

688 27-0868

728

28-6617

768

30-2365

609

23-9766

649

25 5514

689 27-1262

729

28-7010

769

30-2758

610

24-0160

650

25-5908

690 27 1656 ,

730

28-7404

770

30-3152

611

240553

651

25-6301

691 272050

731

28-7798

771

30-3546

612

240947

652

25-6695

692 ' 27-2443

732

28-8191

772

30-3940

613

241341

653

25-7089

693

27-2838

733

28-8585 :

773

30-4333

614

241734

654

257483

694

27-3231 !

1 734

28-8979

774

30-4727

615

24-2128

655

25 7876

695 j 27 3624

1 735

28-9373

775

30-5121

616

24-2522

656

25-8270

696 27-4018

736

28-9766

776

30-5514

617

24-2915

657

25-8664

697 27-4412

737

290160 :

777

30-5908

618

24-3309

658

25-9057

698 27-4805

738

29-0554 !

778

30-6302

619

24-3703

659

25-9451

699 27-5199

739

29-0947 1

779

30-6696

620

24-4097

660

25-9845

700 1 27-5593

740

291341

780

30-7089

621

24-4490

661

26-0238

701

27-5987

741

29-1735

781

30-7483

622

24-4885

662

26 0632

702

27-6380

742

29-2129

782

30-7877

623

24-5278

663

26-1026

703

27-6774

743 29-2522

783

30-8270

624

24-5671

664

26-1420

704

27-7168

744

29-2916 '

784

30-8664

625

24-6065

1 665

26-1813

705

27-7561

745

29-3310

785 30-9058

626

24-6459

666

26-2207

706

27-7955

746

29-3703

786 30-9451

627

24-6852

667

26-2601

707

27-8349

747

29-4097 1

787

30-9845

628

24-7246

668

26-2994

708

27-8743

748

29-4491 1

788

31-0239

629

24-7640

669

26-3388

709

27-9136

749

29-4884

789

31-0633

630

24-8034

670

263782

710

27-9530

750

29-5278

790

31-1026

631

24-8427

671

26-4175

711

27-9924

751

29-5672

791

31-1420

632

24-8821

672

26 4569

712

28-0317

752

29-6066 1

792

31-1814

633

24-9215

673

26-4963

713

28-0711

753

29-6459

793

31-2207

634

24-9608

674

26-5357

714

28-1105

754

29-6853

794

31-2601

635

250002

675

26-5750

715

28-1498

755

29-7247

795

31-2995

636

250396

676

26-6144

716

28-1892 '

756 29-7640 '

796

31-3389

637

250790

677

26-6538

717

28-2286 ;

757 1 29-8034 •

797

31-3782

638

251183

678

26-6931

718

28-2680

758

29-8428 1

798

31-4176

639

251578

679

26-7325

719

28-3073

759

29-8821 :

799

31-4570

640

25-1971

680 26-7719

720

28-3467

760

29-9215 .

800

31-4963

l82

MILLIMETRES REDUCED TO INCHES AND DECIMALS OF AN INCH.

Milli-

Milli-

1 Milli-

Milli-

Milli-

metres

Inches.

metres Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

metres

Inches.

801

31-5357

841 33-1105

881

34-6853

921

36-2602

961

37-8350

802

31-5751

842 331499

882

34-7247

1 922

36-2995 :

962

37-8743

803

31-6144

843 331893

883 , 34 7641

, 923

36-3389 ;

963

379137

804

31-6538

844 33-2286

884 348035

924

36-3783

964

37-9531

805

31-6932

845 33-2681

885

34-8428

925

36-4176

965

37-9925

806

31-7326

846 33-3074

886

34-8822

926

36-4571

966

38-0318

807

31-7719

847 33-3467

887

34-9216

927

36-4964

967

38-0712

808

31-8113

848 33-3861

888

34-9609

1 928

36-5357

968

38-1106

809

318507

' 849 33-4255

889

350003

, 929

36-5751

969

38-1499

810

31-8900

1 850 33-4649

890

35-0397

' 930

36-6145

970

38-1893

811

31-9294 1

851 33-5042

891

350790

931

36 6539

971

38-2287

812

31-9688

i 852 33-5436

892

35-1184

932

36-6932

972

38-2680

813

320081

853 33-5830

893

351578

933

36-7326

•973

38-3074

814

320475

, 854 33 6223

894

35-1972

934

36-7720

974

38-3468

815

320869

855 1 33-6617

895

35-2365

935

36-8113

975

38-3862

816

32-1263

856 33-7011

' 896

35-2759

936

36-8507

976

38-4255

817

32-1656

857 33-7404

: 897

353153

937

36-8901

977

38-4649

818

32-2050

858 33 7798

898

35-3546

938

36-9295

978

38 5043

819

32-2444

859 33.8192-

899

35-3940

939

36-9688

979

38-5436

820

32-2837 ;

860 33.8586

900

35-4334

940

370082

980

38-5830

821

323231

861

33-8979

901 i 35-4727

941

37-0476

981

38 6224

822

32-3625

862

33-9373

902 1 35-5121

942

37-0869

982

38 6618

823

32-4019

863

33-9767

, 903

35-5516

943

37-1263

983

38-7011

824

32-4412

864

34-0200

! 904

35-5909

944

37-1657

984

38-7405

825

32-4806

865

340554

905

35-6303

945

37-2050

985

38-7799

826

325200

866

34-0948

906

35-6697

946

37-2444

986

38-8192

827

325593

867

341342

907

35-7091

947

37-2838

987

38-8586

828

32-5987

868

34-1735

908

35-7484

948

37-3232

988

38-8980

829

32-6381

869

34-2129

909 35-7878

949

37-3625

989

38-9373

830

32-6774

870

34-2523

910 1 35-8271

950

37-4019

990

38-9767

831

32-7168

871

34-2916

911 1 35-8665

951

37-4413

991

390161

832

32-7562

872

34-3310

912 35-9058 ;

952

37-4806

992

390555

833

32-7956

873

34-3704

i 913 35-9452

953

37-5200

993

390948

834

32-8349

874

34-4097

914 35-9846

954

375594

994

39 1342

835

32-8743

875

34-4491

915 360239

955

37-5988

995

391736

836

32-9137

876

34-4885

916 360633

956

37-6381

996

392129

837

32-9530

877

34-5279

917 , 36-1027 I

957

37-6775

997

39-2523

838

32-9924

878

34-5672

918

361420

958

37-7169

998

39-2917

839

33-0318

879

34-6066

j, 919

36-1814

959

37-7562

999

39 3310

840

330712

880

34-6459

1 920 \ 36-2208

960

37-7956

1000 ! 39-3704

i83

FEET AND THEIR EgOIVALENTS IM METRES.

Feet.

1
Metres. '

Feet.

Metres.

\ Feet.

Metres.

Feet.

1

84

Metres.

1

•304

29

8-839 i

1 57

17373

25-602

2

•609

i 30

9 143 ,

' 58

17-678

85

25-907

3

•914

31

9-448 1

1 59

17-983 ,

86

26-212

4

1-219

' 32

9-753

, 60

18-287 '

87

26-517

5

1523

33

10058

61

18-592 ,

, 88

26-822

6

1-828 ,

34

10-363 1

62

18-897 '

89

27126

7

2133 i

35

10-667

63

19-202

90

27-431

8

2-438

36

10-972

64

19507

91

27-736

d

2743

37

11-277

65

19-811

92

28041

10

3-047

38

11-582

66

20-116

93

28-346

11

3352

39

11-887

67

20-421

94

28650

12

3-657

40

12-191

68

20-726

95

28-955

13

3 962

41

12-496 i

69

21-030

96

29-260

14

4-267

42

12-801

70

21-335

97

29-565

15

4-571

43

13-106 ]

71

21-640

98

29-870

16

4-876

44

13-411

72

21-945

99

30-174

17

5181

45

13-715

73

22-250

100

30-47»

18

5-486

46

14-020 ,

' 74

22-554

200

60959

19

5-791

47

14 325

75

22-859

300

91-439

20

6095

48

14-630

76

23164

400

121-918

21

6-400

49

14-935

77

23-469

500

152-398

22

6-705 1

50

15-239

78

23774

600

182-878

23

7010

51

15-544

79

24-078

700

213-357

24

7-315

52

15-849

80

24-383

800

243-837

25

7-619

53

16-154

81

24-688

900

274-317

26

7-924

54

16-459

82

24-993

1000

304-796

27

8229

55

16-763

83

25-298

5280

1609-3296

28

8-534

56

17-068 i

i84

METRES AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS IN FEET AND INCHES.

Metres.

Feet.

Inches;

1

3

3-3704

2

6

67409

8

9

101113

4

13

1-4817

5

16

4-8522

6

19

8-2226

7

22

11-5930

8

26

2-9634

9

29

63334

10

32

9 7043

11

36

1-0747

12

39

4-4452

13

42

7-8156

14

45

11-1860

15

49

2 5565

16

52

5-9269

17

55

92973

18

59

0-6678

19

62

40382

20

65

7-4086

21

68

10-7791 1

22

72

2- 1495

23

75

5-5199

24

78

8-8904

25

82

0-2608

26

85

3 6312

27

88

70017

28

91

10-3721

29

95

1-7425

30

98

51129

31

101

8-4834

32

104

11-8538

33

108

3-2242

34

HI

6-5947

35

114

9-9651

36

118

13355

37

121

4-7059

Metres.

38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73

Feet. Inches.

124 8
127 11
131 2

134
137
141
144
147

157
160
164
167
170

180
183
187
190
193

200
203
206

6
9

4

7

150 11
154 2

5
9

3

7

173 10
177 2

5
8

3
6

196 10

1
4

8

209 11
213 3

216
219
223
226
229 7
232 11

236
239

2

6

0764
4468
8173
1877
5681
9286
2990
6694
0399
4103
7807
1512
5216
8920
2625
6329
0033
3737
7442
1146
4850
8555
2259
5963
9668
3372
7076
0781
4485
8189
1894
5598
9302
3007
6711
•0415

Metres.

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Feet. Inches.

242
246
249
252
255
259
262
265
269
272
275
278
282
285
288
291
295
298
301
305
308
311
314
318
321
324
328
656
984
1312
1640
1968
2296
2624
2952
3280

9-4119
07824
41528
7-5233

10-8937
2-2641
5-6345
90049
03754
37458
7-1163

10-4867
1-8571
5-2276
8-5980

11-9684
3*3389
67093

10-0797
1-4502
4-8206
81910

11-5616
2-9319
6-3023
9-6728
10432
2-086
3-129
4173
5-216
6-259
7-302
8-345
9-389

10-432

i85

METRIC WEIGHTS AND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS.

Kilogr'ms.

Lbs.

Kilogr'ms.

Lbs.

Kilogr'ms.

Lbs.

1

2-2046

38

83-7756

75

165-3466

2

4-4092

39

85-9802

76

167-5512

3

6-6139

40

88-1848

77

1 169-7559

4

8-8185

41

90-3895

78

171-9605

5

110231

42

92-5941

79

1741651

6

13-2277

43

94-7987

80

176-3697

7

15-4324

Ad.

1 i'X'

970034 ,

81

178-5743

8

17-6370

1 45

99-2079

82

180-7789

9

19-8416

46

101-4126 !

83

182-9836

10

220462

47

103-6172

84

185-1882

11

24-2508

48

105-8218

85

187-3928

12

26-4554

49

1080264

86

189-5974

13

28-6601

50

110-2311

87

191-8020

14

30-8647

51

112-4357

88

194-0067

15

33-0693

52

114-6403

89

196-2113

16

35-2739

53

116-8499

90

198-4159

17

37-4786

54

1190495

91

200-6205

18

39-6832

55

121-2542

92

202 8251

19

41-8878

56

123-4588

93

205 0298

20

440924

57

125-6634

94

207-2344

21

46-2970

58

127-8680

95

209-4390

22

48-5017

59

130-0727

96

211-6431

23

50-7063

60

132-2773

97

213-8482

24

52-9109

61

134-4819

98

216-0529

25

55-1155

62

136-6865

99

218-2575

26

57-3202

63

138-8911

100

220-4621

27

59-5248

64

1410958

200

440-9243

28

61-7294

65

143-3004

300

661-3864

29

63-9340

66

145-5050

400

881-8485

30

661386

67

147-7096

i 500

1102-3106

31

68-3433

68

149-9142

600

1322-7728

32

70-5479

69

1521189

700

1543-2349

33

72-7525

70

154-3235

800

1763-6970

34

749571

71

156-5281

900

19841591

35

77-1617

72

158-7327

1000

2204-6213

36

793664

73

160-9374

1016

2239-8952

37

81-5709 ,

74

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1 88

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH WITH EQUIVALENT KILOS PER

SQUARE CENTIMETER.

Lbs. per

Kilos.

1
Lbs. per

Kilos.

Lbs. per

Kilos.

Lbs. per

Kilos. '

Lbs. per

Kilos.

sq. inch.

per

sq.inch.

per

sq. inch.

per

sq. inch.

per

sq.inch.

per

sq. cm.

i

1

sq. cm.

sq. cm.

1 sq. cm. 1

sq. cm.

1

•0703

35

2-460

69

4-850

103

7-241

137

9632

2

•1406

1 36

2-530

70

4921

! 104

7-312 1

138

9-702

3

•2109

37

2-601

71

4-991

105

7-382 1

139

9-772

4

•2812

38

2671

72

5061

106 7-452 ;

140

9843

5

•3515

39

2741

73

5-131

1 107

7-522

141

9-913

6

•4218

40

2-812

74

5-202

108 7-593

142

9-983

7

•4921

41

2-882

75

5272

109 7663

143

10054

8

•5624

42

2-952

76

5-342

110 7733

144

10-124

9

•6327

43

3-022

77

5-413 1

111

7-804 1

145

10194

10

•7030

44

3093

78

5-483

112 7-874

146

10-264

11

•7733

45

3163

79

5-553

1 13 7-944

147

10335

12

•8436

46

3233

80

5-624

, 114 8-015

148

10405

13

•9140

47

3-304

81

5-694

115

8-085 1

149

10-475

14

•9843

48

3-374

82

5764

116

8155

150

10-546

15

10546

49

3-444

, 83

5834

117

8-226

155

10-897

16

11248

50

3-515

; 84

5-905

118

8296

160

11-249

17

11952

51

3-585

85

5-975

119

8-366

165

11-600

18

1265

52

3-655

86

6-045

120

8-436

170

11-952

19

1335

53

3-725

87

6116

121

8-507

175

12-303

20

1406

54

3-796

88

6186

122

8-577

180

12-655

21

1476

55

3-866

89

6-256

123

8647 :

185

13006

22

1-546

56

3936

90

6327

124

8^718 J

190

13358

23

1-616

57

4-007

91

6-397

125

8-788

195

13-710

24

1-687

58

4077

92

6-467

126

8-858

200

14061

25

1-757

59

4-147

93

6-537

127

8-929 1

210

14-76

26

1827

60

4-218

94

6-608

128

8-999

220

15-46

27

1-898

61

4-288

95

6-678

129

9069

230

1616

28

1-968

62

4-358

96

6-748

130 9140

240

16-87

29

2038

63

4-4J^8

97

6-819

131 9210

250

17-57

30 '

2109

64

4-499

1 98

6-889

132 9-280

260

18-27

31

2179

65

4-569

99

6-959

133 9-350

* 270

18-98

32

224©

66

4-639

100

7-030

134 9-421

280

19-68

33

2319

67

4-710

101

7101

135 9-491

290

20-38

34

2390

68

4-780

i 102

7-171

136

9-561 1

300

2109

1 89

KILOS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER WITH EQUIVALENT POUNDS

PER SQUARE INCH.

Kilos.

Lbs. per

Kilos.

Lbs. per

Kilos.

Lbs. per

1

Kilos.

Lbs. per

per

square

per

square

per

square

per

square

sq. cm.

inch.

sq. cm.

inch.

sq. cm.

inch.

sq. cm.

inch.

•1

1-422

31

44-091

6-1

86-761

9-1

129-431

•2

2-844

3-2

45-514

6-2

88-183

92

130 853

•3

4-266

3-3

46-936

6-3

89-606

93

132-275

•4

5-689

3-4

48-358

6-4

91-028

9-4

133-698

•6

7111

3-5

49-781

65

92-450

95

135120

•6

8-533

36

51-203

66

93-873

9-6

136-542

•7

9-956

3-7

52-625

67

95-295

9-7

137-965

•8

11-378

38

54048

68

96-717

9-8

139-387

•9

12-800

3-9

55470

69

98-140

9-9

140-809

1-0

14-223

4-0

56-892

7-0

99 562

100

142-232

11

15-645

41

58-315

7-1

100-984

30-5

149-343

12

17-067

4-2

59-737

72

102-407

11-0

156-455

13

18-490

43

61-159

73

103-829

11-5

163-566

1-4

19-912

4-4

62-582

7-4

105-251

12-0

170-678

1-5

21334

45

64-004

75

106-674

12 5

177-790

1-6

22-757

4-6

65-426

7-6

108 096

130

184-901

17

24-179

4-7

66-849

7-7

109-518

13-5

192013

1-8

25-601

4-8

68-271

7-8

110940

140

199-124

19

27024

4-9

69-693

7-9

112363

14-5

206-236

20

28-446

50

71116

80

113785

15-0

213348

21

29-868

51

72-538

8-1

115-207

15-5

220-459

2-2

31-291

52

73-960

8-2

116 630

160

227571

23

32713

63

75-382

8-3

118*052

16-5

234-682

2-4

34135

5-4

76-805

8-4

119474

17-0

241-794

2-5

35-558

65

78-227

8-5

120-897

175

248-906

2-6

36-980

5-6

79-649

8-6

122-319

18

256-017

2-7

38-402

57

81-072

87

123-741

18-5

263-129

2-8

39-824

5-8

82-494

8-8

125164

190

270-240

2-9

41-247

5-9

83 916

8-9

126-586

19-5

277-352

42-669

60

85-339

90

128008

20-0

284-464

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194

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE.

According to Latimer Clark's *' Metric Measures," which
gives one cubic inch of distilled water, freed from air at 62
degrees Fahrenheit, barometer thirty inches, as 252.28599
grains; or one cubic foot as 62.2786 pounds.

Millimeters x .039371 = inches.

Millimeters -;- 25.4 =r inches.

Centimeters x .393708 -=. inches.

Centimeters -r- 2.5399 - inches.

Meters x 39.37079 ^- inches.

Meters x 3.280899 -—z feet.

Meters x 1.09363 — yards.

Kilometers x .62138 = miles.

Kilometers -;- 1.6093 -^ miles.

Kilometers x 3280.899 ^^ feet.

Square Millimeters x .00155 ^^ square inches.

Square Millimeters -^- 645.137 =z square inches.

Square Centimeters x .155006 = square inches.

Square Centimeters -5- 6.4514 :^ square inches.

Square Meters x 10.7643 :-^ square feet.

Square Kilometers x 247.114 ^= acres.

Hectare x 2.471 14 --=^ acres.

Cubic Centimeters 4- 16.3862 := cubic inches.

^ , \ Imperial gralloD

Cubic Centimeters -f- 3.5520 := fl. drachms (of vatsr at 62°

Cubic Centimeters - 28.416 = fluid oz. I ^Q^^

Cubic Metres x 35.31658 =^ cubic feet.

Cubic Meters x 1.30802 ^ - cubic yards.

Cubic Meters x 264.2 -_ gallons (231 cubic inches.)

Liters x 61,0364 ^^ cubic inches,

195

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE.-Continued.

Liters x 35.1968 = fluid ounces.

Liters x .2642 = gallons (231 cubic inches.)

Liters -h- 3.785 ^rr gallons (231 cubic inches.)

Liters -j- 28.311 = cubic feet.

Hectoliters x 3.5322 = cubic feet.

Hectoliters x 2.84 r= bushels (2150.42 cubic inches.)

Hectoliters x .131 =r cubic yards.

Hectoliters x 26.42 = gallons (231 cubic inches.)

Grammes x 15.43235 ^= grains.

Grammes X 981.17 ^ dynes.

Grammes h- 28.416 = fluid oz. (Imp. gal. at 62° Fahr.,
277.463 cubic inches.)

Grammes -»- 28.349 = ounces avoirdupois. (Water at
62° Fahr.)

Grammes per cubic cent, -f- 27.7 = lbs, per cubic inch.

Joule X .73719 = foot pounds.

Kilogrammes x 2.204621 ==: pounds avoirdupois.

Kilogrammes x 35.2739 = ounces avoirdupois.

Kilogrammes -j- 1016.05 = tons (2240 lbs.)

Kilogrammes -i- 907.18 = tons (2000 lbs.)

Kilogramme per square cent, x 14.2228 = lbs. per sq, in.

Kilogrammeters x 7,2331 =: foot lbs.

Kilo, per meter x .67196 = lbs. per foot.

Kilo, per cubic meter x .06243 = lbs. per cubic foot.

Kilo, per cheval x 2.235 ^^^ ^^^* P^^ horse power.

Kilo. Watts X 1.3404 = horse power.

Watts -H 746.07 1 = horse power.

Watts X .7372 = foot pounds per second.

Kilogram Calories x 3.968 i== B. T. U.

Cheval vapeur x .98634 = horse power.

(Centigrade x 1,8) -{- 32 =deg. Fahr. (Temperature.)

Franc x .193 = dollars, [Exchange as per Treasury cir-

Gravity Paris = 980.94 centimeters per second. [cular.

Tons of 2240 lbs. X 1,016 1= tonnes.

Tons of 2000 lbs. X .9071 = tonnes.

Square inches x 645.137 = square millimeters.

Lbs. per square inpU x ,00070; :^ kilos per square miUi-
meters.

196

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE.— Continued.

Square miles x 2.590 = square kilometers.

Quarts dry measure x i. loi =1^ liters.

Quarts liquid or wine measure x .9461 r=z liters.

Foot pounds x .1383 =^ kilogrammes per meter.

Thousands of pounds per square inch x 0.703 rrr kilo-
grammes per square millimeter.

Pounds per square foot x 4.8826 r= kilogrammes per
square meter.

Pounds per cubic foot x 16.02 z=z kilogrammes per cubic
meter.

Tonnes x .9842 = tons of 2240 lbs.

Tonnes x 1.1023 := tons of 2000 lbs.

Liters (one cubic decimeter) x 6 1.036 nrr cubic inches.

Liters x ,908 = quarts, dry measure.

Liters x 1.0566 .=: quarts, liquid or wine measure.

Kilogrammes per square millimeter x 1422.28 =. pounds
per square inch.

Kilogrammes per square meter x .20481 --_ pounds per
square foot.

Kilogrammes per cubic meter x .06243 ^== pounds per cubic
foot.

197

Kilowatts.

((

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE.-Continued.

Multiply. Divide. Logarithm.
.746

i(

(i

((

it

((

Mils.

t(

( (

i<

((

((

(<

((

(<

0.12722
2.86758

• • 4.64573
2.00826

.... 3,00000

.... 0.00000

I>ivide. Logarithm.

4.40483

.... J. 40483

1,000,000 6.00000

1550.059 4.80965

1,273,240 7.89509

1973.6 4.70474

into horse-power, 1.3404

into foot-pounds, per second, 737.2
into foot-pounds, per minute, 44,232
into kilogram-meters, per s. 101.919
into volt-amperes, per second 1000
into commercial *units,'per h. i

Multiply,
into Micromillimetres,. . . 25399.5
into microns or micrometres 25.3995

Square Mils.

into square inches, ....

into square millimetres,. .0006451

Circular Mils.

into square inches, . ... ....

into square millimetres, .0005067

Cube Mils.

into cube inches, 1,000,000,000 9.00000

into cube millimetres, . . .00001639 61027.05 5.21448
into grains (water 62° F.) 3»963i756 7.40i8q

Watt. The B. A. unit rate of work or unit of power =
yjj horse-power z^ 10^ absolute units of work, or 10 mil-
lion ergs per second =: 1 volt-ampere, or 1 joule per second,

(i true watt = 1.0136 B. A. Watts.) volts^
Watts z=z volts X amperes—zamperes^ X ohms=-r

Watt X seconds = joules. Logarithm.

One watt raises. 24046 grammes of water i °C. per sec. 1.38105

" " " 6.6796 grains of water 1° F. per sec. 0.82475

Watts. Multiply. Divide Logarithm.

** into horse power, 001340 746.071 3.12722

into French force dec he val, .001359 735.88

into ergs per second, 10^ ....

into foot-pounds per minute 44.2317 ....
into foot-pounds per second .7372 1.3565

ii

t(

n

<<

3.13319

7.00000

1.64573
1.86758

198

Watt

t(

((

s. Multiply

into kilogram-metres, per s. .10192

into joules per second,. ... i

into gramme calories per s. .24046

into British thermal units,

per second, 000954

Watt^Hours.

" into horse-power hours, 0013403

into foot-pounds, 2653.9

into British thermal units, 3.4352

into gramme calories, 865.67

into joules, 3600

into ergs, ;^,6 x 10^ °

into Board of Trade electri-
cal units, 001

Horse-Power. The practical unit of power --^ 746.071
watts 7ZZZ 33,000 lbs, raised i foot per minute.

amperes X volts amperes^Xohms.

<(

(t

it

(i

»<

ii

Divide. '.

[logarithm.

9.8177

1.00826

• • •

4.1586

• • • •

1.38105

1048

4.97966

746.071

3.12722

....

3.42389

• • • •

0.53596

« • • •

2.93735

....

3.55630

10.55630

1000 3.00000

Electrical horse-power.:
Horse-Power.

746

((

t4

(i

t(

((

i(

(t

((

( (

(I

(t

i(

((

into foot-pounds per minute, 33000

into foot-pounds per second, 550

into foot-tons per minute, . . 14.7321

into foot-tons per hour,. . .. 883.928

into kilogram-metres per m. 4562

into kilogram-metres per s. 76.0389

(electrical) into kilowatts. .. .7461

into watts, 746.071

into joules or volt-amperes,

per second, 746.07 1

into ergs per second, 7.46 x 10'

into gramme-cals. or therms

per second, 1 79,40

into British thermal units,

per second, 71 193

into British thermal units,

per minute, 42.7156

into gallons water raised 1°

F. per minute, 4.2716

into French horse-power, . . i. 01385

746

Divide.

Logarithm.

• • • •

4.51851

. . . .

2.74036

1. 16826

• • • •

2.94642

• • • ■

3.65916

• • • •

1. 88104

• « • •

1.87278

2.87278

• • « «

2.87278

• • • •

9.87278

• • • •

2.25383

1.4046

1.85244

• • •

1.63059

• • • •

0.63059

• • • •

0.00597

((

i (
<<

199

Horse-Power-Hour. Multiply. Divide. Logarithm,

into foot- tons, 833»93 •••• 2.94642

into foot-pounds, 1,980,000 .... 6.29667

into kilogram-metres, 273740 .... 5.43734

into large calories, (therm,
equiv.) '. 645.85 ... 2.81013

into ergs, 2.6859 x 10^ * .... 13.42908

joules, 2685860 .... 6.42908

into watt-hours, 746.071 2.87278

" into Board of Trade elec-
trical units, 7461 1.34035 1.87278

Heat of the Ei.kctric Current. The heat generated by
the passage of an electric current (in a metallic circuit
without self-induction) is proportional to the quantity of
electricity which has passed in coulombs, multiplied by

the fall of potential in volts, or is equal to cS

in therms. ^* ^

The heat in gramme-calories, or therms, per second^=:

amperes^Xohms volts^ voltsXa^^peres watts*

4,1586 ohmsX4.i586 4.1586 4.1586

♦These should be true ohms and volts. The heat per
second is proportional to C^ R, or the square of the current
multiplied by the resistance, as above shown. It varies as the
square of the current. It also varies as the square of the
E. M. F., or difference of potential, for these two functions
always vary in the same proportion.

Heat. ^ Multiply. Divide. Logarithm.

Total heat in t seconds, in gramme-
calories or therms =

volts X amperes X * X '2405 4.1586 1.38105

in kilogram -calories =

VX-A-X^X 000240 4158.6 4.38105

in British therm, units, z_^

VXAX^X 000954 1048 4.97966

" in lbs. of water 1° C. =r

VXAXtX 000530 1886.3 4.72438

Heat of Evaporation. The units of heat of evaporation are
I lb. of water at 212° F. evaporated into steam at normal
pressure = 966.1 British thermal units, or i kilogramme
of water at 100° C. evaporated -=536. 7 kilogram-calories.

4<

<<

200

((

((

(i

((

t (

»(

i(

( (

Absolute Zero of Heat, The al)solute zero =: -274° C,

or -461.2° F.
Atmosphere. English normal : ^ 14.7 lbs. per square inch
= 29.929 inches, or 760.18 millimetres of mercury at 32°
F.
Atmospheres. Multiply. Divide,

into pounds per square inch, 14.7
into pounds per circular inch, 1 1.545
into pounds per square foot, 2116.8
into pounds per circ'lr foot, 1662.5
into cwts. per square foot, . 18.900
into cwts. per circular foot, 14.844
into cwts. per square inch,. .1312 7.62

into tons per square inch,. . .00656 152.38
into tons per square foot, . . .9450 1.058

into tons per circular foot,. .7422 i»347

into kilograms per square

centimetre, i«0335 ••••

'* into inches of mercury at

32° F., 29.929

*' into feet head of water 62° F 33.9892 ....

•' into metres head of water

4° C., 10.3597

Atmosphere, P>encli normal : — 760 millimetres, or 29.922
inches of mercury at 0° C. -: 14.696 lbs, per sq. inch.

French Atmospheres. Multiply. Divide. Lograrithni.

into kilograms per square

centimetre, i«0333 .... 0.01422

into grammes per circular

centimetre, ^^^'SS •••• 2.90931

into grammes per square

millimetre, JO.333 .... i. 01422

into metres head of water.

Logarithm.
1.16732

1 .06239
3.32568
3.22077
1.27646

i.^7155
1.11810

3.81707

J.97543
7. 8705 2

0.01433

1. 476 10

1.53134
I.OI535

4° C., 10.345

into pounds per square inch, 14.696
into dynes per square centi-
metre, 1013600

I.01476
1.16721

6.00587

20I

USEFUL EQUATIONS FOR CONVERSION OF U. S. CUSTOMARY
MEASURES TO METRIC EQUIVALENTS.

THE FOLLOWING DATA IS FROM THE MECHANICAL ENOiNECRS' REFERENCE

BOOK BY NELSON FOLEY.

In.

25.4

- ni-m.

r.i-ni.

X .0393704

— ins.

- X

2.54

--- cm.

ii

X .0032808

— ft.

- X

.0254

_— m.

c-m.

X .393704

ins.

Ft. X 30.4797

— c-m.

(<

X .0328087

— ft.

" X

.30479

— m^

m.

X 39.3704

ins.

Yards X

.91497

Tziz m.

44

X 3.28087

— ft.

Miles X

.86842

— knots.

^i

X 1.0736

— yds.

'* X

1.6093

- km.

km.

X .62138

miles.

Knots X

I. 1515

- r miles.

((

X .5396

r;r knotS.

" X

J. 853 1

r- km.

SQUARE.

British Syst?:m.

144 square inches
183.35 circular "
9 square feet
3,097,600 *' yards

---- I square foot. ,
— J <t ((

■J * J
■s=z 1 sciuaije yjirdJ'

-I *' 'M)vile.

Metric System.

100 square millimetres,

100 " centimetres,

lOO '* decimetres,

10,000 '• centimetres,

I square cm.

d c-m.

1

metre.

202

Square inches
feet

((

((

(<

t(

(I

((

(i

Useful Equations.

X
X
X
X

yards X

millimetres X
centimetres X

X

metres X

((

645.14476 = sq. millimeti'es.

6.45144 r=: •' centimetres.

929.0088 := "

.0929 = " metres.

.83611 = *♦

.00155 = " inches.

.155002 = *' **

.001076 =: ** feet.

10.7641 = *'

<(

X 1.196

((

yards.

CUBIC AND CAPACITY.

British System.

1,728 cub. ins.

I cub. ft.

6.23208 gallons.

(»

(( ..

7.4805 A. *'

27 cub. ft.

I cub. yd.

4 gills

I pint

34.659 cub, in.

2 pints

I quart

69.318

•

Q

4 quarts

I gallon

277.274

I gallon

—

.16046 cub. ft.

8 gallons

1 bushel

1.28368 "

I American gallon

231. cub. in.

I American gallon

.13368 cub. ft.

I, coo cub. m-m.
1,606 ^'l-^ cm.
1,000 !*'M c-m.

I litre.
1,000 *'

Metric System.

=: I cub. c-m.

== 1 " d c-m. :i=

[— I " m. =

1,000,000 " cm. )

1 litre = I cub. decimetre = 1,000 cub. c-m.
1,000 litres = 1 cub. metre.

10 centilitres = 1 decilitre = 100 cub. c-m.

10 decilitres = 1 litre = 1,000 ** =1 cub. d o-m,

10 litres = 1 decalitre = 10,000 " = 10

100 •• =1 hectolitre = 100,000 " = 100 **

11,000 " =1 kilolitre = 1 cub. metre = 1,000 *'

m

o

203

Useful Equai

IONS.

Cub. ins.

X

16.3865

—

cub. c m.

mi (4

X

.016386

—

** d c m.

" ft.

X

.028316

'^ m.

*' vds.

X

.76453

44 44

** c m.

X

.061025

•• ins.

" d c-ni.

X

61.02522

i( 44

'* m.

X

35.3156

—

" ft.

(( ((

X

1.308

—

'• yds.

( ( «(

X

6.23208

—

Br. gallons.

(i « (

X

7.4805

—

A.

Pints

X

.5679

—

litres.

Quarts

X

».i359

C(

Br. gallons

X

4.5436

t(

(( ((

X

1.20032

A. gallons.

(( (i

X

.16046

cub. ft.

A.

X

3.7853

litres.

<k i«

X

.8331

Br. gallons.

(4 4<

X

.13368

cub. ft.

Litres. "

X

.035315

—

(4 (4

(( ((

X

61.02524

— -

*' ins.

(( it

X

.2201

Br. gallons.

i< 44

■ X

.2642

A.

(4 <(

X

.8804

—

quarts.

(( 4(

X

1.7608
weight.

—

pints.

British System, (Avon

IDUPOIS.)

1 6 drachms

[

or

I ounce.

437>^ grains.

\

1 6 ounces

"^^

I pound.

•

oz.

for ounces

14 pounds

'-

I stone.

§

lbs.

* ' pounds

28 "

1 quarter.

S

St.

*' stone.

4 qr. 112

lbs. -

I hundred-

r

qr.

" quarter.

weight.

<

cwt

. *• hundred wgl

20 cwt. 2,

240 lbs.

— 1 ton.

. T.

'* tons.

I U. S. short cwt. -

100 lbs.

20 *' **

t( _

i2,000 " I U

. s

. short ton.

204

Metric System.

S

<{

kg.

q-

t.

for grammes.
** kilogrammes.
** metric quintals
tons.

t4

((

i,ooo grammes =^ i kilogramme.

lOO kilogrs = i quintal. '^

lO quintals) ^ . ^ ©"^

^ >= 1 metric ton. J

I, OCX) kilogrs. ) !§

I gramme = lO decigrammes.
I ** = loo centigrammes.

lO grammes = i dekagramme.
lOO " --- I hectogramme.

I metric ton :rz- weight of i cub. m. of water at 39.1° F., 4° C.
1 litre of water weighs i kg. or 1,000 grammes.

Useful Equations.

rr: grammes.

((

■=. kilos.
((

= quintals.

=: short cwt.

= kilos.

= cwts.

riz: quintals.

= metric ton.

= quintals.

=^ kilos.

== short tons.

■= Br. tons.

= metric ton.

^= oz.

= lbs.

= cwts.

= tons.

= lbs.

= cwts.

^= tons.

=^ short cwt.

= short tons.

= tons.

=: short tons.

Ounces

X

28.34954

Pounds

X

453.59265

((

X

•45359

Cwt.

X

50.80241

((

X

.50803

(.

X

1. 12

Short cwt.

X

45.3597

(<

X

.89285

((

X

.4536

Tons

X

1.01604

t(

X

10.1604

a

X

1016.047

( (

X

1.12

Short tons

X

.8928

(i ((

X

.9071

Grammes

X

.03527

Kilos

X

2.2046

( 4

X

.01968

i i

X

.0009842

Quintals

X

220.4621

4<

X

1 .9684

(i

X

.09842

(4

X

2.2046

44

X

. 1 1023

Metric ton

X

.9842

4< 4t

X

1. 1023

205

PRESSURE AND STRESS.

British Units.

Metric Units.

({

( (

ti

4(

kg. per square c-m.

m-m.

m.

Atmospheres.
* c m. of mercury,
water.

((

* Metres of water.

Tons per square inch.

Lbs. **

Oz.

Lbs. ** foot.

Atmospheres.

♦Inches of mercury.

* •* ** water.

*Feet **

* The intensity of pressure capable of balancing a column
of the stated height.

Note. — It is usual to compare an atmosphere to a column
of mercury either at 32° F. or at 62°. the ordinary tempera-
ture of 62° is preferred here, the mercury column is then .30
inches high or 76.2 centimetres. If the temperature of 32°
is desired, the column is 29.922 inches or 76 centimetres.

The water column is also taken at 62°, in practice the dif-
ferences are not worth considering.

I, cxx> pounds per square inch = 0.703 Kilogrammes per
square Millimetres.

I Kilogramme per square Millimetre = 1422.3 pounds per
square inch, the thickness of a tube or cylinder to withstand
a given pressure is equal to the normal pressure per square
inch multiplied by the internal radius in inches of the tube
or cylinder and the product divided by the working stress per
square inch in tension of the materiaL

2o6

Useful Equations.

Lbs. per square inch

X

2.0408

ins. of mercury.

(4 (t

X

5.1836

c m. **

(k t(

X

27.711

—

ins. of water.

(( t(

X

2.31

—

ft.

(( <(

X

.06802

—

Atmospheres.

(( ((

X

.070308

- -

kg. per sq. cm.

(. it

X

.000703

" " m m.

'* cubic in.

X

27.682

*' cub. d cm.

Ins. of mercury

X

.49

lbs. per sq. in.

(( (4

X

13.596

ins. of water.

44 44

X

1. 133

ft.

(( 44

X

•0333

—

Atmospheres.

44 44

X

2.54

cm. of mercurv.

(4 44

X

.03445

kg. per sq. cm.

Feet of water

X

•433

lbs. '♦ in.

44 4 4

X

.02945

Atmospheres,

44 44

X

.03044

— ^

kg. per sq. c-m.

Ins. of water

X

.03608

lbs. per sq. in.

44 44

X

.57728

--

oz.

44 44

X

•07355

—

ins. of mercury.

44 44

X

.002454

Atmospheres.

4. 44

X

.002537

kg. per sq. c-m.

Oz. per sq. in.

X

1-732

ins. of water.

44 44

X

.1275

" mercury.

44 44

X

.0625

—

lbs. per sq. in.

44 44

X

.004394

kg. per sq. c-m.

Tons

X

157.49

t( n

44 44

X

1.5749

" ** mm.

Atmospheres

X

14.7

lbs, *« in.

ins., j^ of mercury '

c-m. f at 620 F.

4.

X

30.

4 4

X

76.2

» 4

X 407.36

—

ins. of water.

44

X

33.947

ft. of water.

44

X

1.0335

—

kg. per sq. c-m.

kg. per sq. c-m.

X

29.0267

ins. of mercury.

4i i«

X

73.727

. — :

c-m, **

207

((

it
((
((
{{
«

(I

<(

(<

Useful Equations. — Continued.

Kg. persq. c-m. X 394-139 = ins. of water.

X 1,000.0 r= c-m. **

X i.o — m. **

X -9675 --= Atmospheres.

X 14.2232 r= lbs. per sq. in.

X .036124^ lbs. per cub. in.

X 1422.32 = lbs.

X .635 ^ tons

X .205 ^z lbs. per sq. ft.

X -013563= kg. per sq. c-m.

X 13-596 = cm. of water.

X -3937 ^= ins. of mercury.

X .01312 = Atmospheres.

X .001 = kg. per sq. c-m.

X .014205=: lbs. per sq. in.

Cub. d c-m.
** m m.

((

((

kg. per sq. metre
c-m. of mercury

<(
it
{(
<<

it
it

water

British Units.

Feet per second.
'* .** minute.
Miles per hour.
Knots *' *'

VELOCITY AND SPEED.

Metric Units.

Metres per second.

** ** minute.

•* ** hour.
Kilometres per hour.

Knots per hour are also used
on European and American
Continents.

Useful Equations.

Feet per

second

X

.3048

—

metres per second.

(( ((

minute

X

((

** ** minute.

<( (i

((

X

.011363

miles per hour.

( ( «(

<(

X

.009868

knots **

n a

(<

X

.018287

■-■^

km. **

Miles "

hour

X

88.

feet per minute.

<( ((

n

.8684

- —

knots per hour.

(< t(

i i

>■

1.6093

km. "

Knots**

n

X

101.333

—

feet per min.

<( i i

n

X

1. 151

—

miles per hour.

« ««

H

X

1.8533

— T

km, ♦*

208

Useful Equations. — Continued.

Metres per second >'

3.2808

feet per second.

" *4 y

196.85

** min.

'• minute ><

3.2808

—

t ; ({

X

.06

km. per hour.

km. per hour X

.621

miles '*

(( <( «» Sjy'

.5396

knots "

HEAT INTENSITY.

Fahrenheit Thermometer.

When Barometer at 14.7 lbs. per square inch.
Freezing point of water registers 32°.
Boiling " '* *' 212°.

180 equal divisions between these points.
Ordinary zero (0°) is 32° below freezing.
Absolute " 461 below ordinary, or 493° below freezing

Centigrade Thermometer.

When Barometer at 14.7 ll)s. per square inch.
Freezing point of water registers 0°.
Boiling " ** '* 100°.

100 equal divisions between these points.
Absolute zero 274° below ordinary.

ORDINARY temperatures INTO ABSOLUTE.

Fahrenheit add 461 to ordinary temperature.

Centigrade " 274 •* " "

209

OUNCES OR FRACTIONS OF POUND AVOIRDUPOIS.

KILOS.

I

oz. or Y^^th of lb.

=s

.02835

2

- ' Jth "

.0567

3

- T-3^ths -

.0850

4

- ith -

.1134

5

- Aths -

.1417

6

fths -

—

.1701

7

" Aths -

—

.1984

8

i

.2268

9

- tV^s *'

—

.2551

lO

fths "

— -

.2835

II

- IJths "

—

.3118

12

fths *'

—

.3402

13

- Ifths -

.3685

14

Jths -

—

.3969

15

—

.42524

16

" or I 11).

-^-

.4536

TALENTS.

KILOGRAMMES AND ENGLISH EQUr

KILOS.

KILOS

•

12

.20462 lbs.

6 -

^ 13.22773

lbs.

2 — 4.40924 "

7 --

- 15.43235

> (

3 — 6.61386 *'

8 :

— 17.63697

> (

4 — 8.81848 "

9 ^

-- 19.84159

(«

5 —II

.02311 *'

10 :

— 22.04621

a

FRACTIONS

OF KILOS.

yVth

— .138 lb.

T^ths

- 1.24

lb.

Jth

- .2755 "

fths

1.378

» (

Aths

=. .413 "

«ths

1. 516

( »

ith

-— .551 *'

fths

— 1.653

ii

^ths

^ .689 -

Ifths

^ 1. 791

((

fths

- .8267 "

|ths

1.929

((

Aths

^ .9645 ^*

}fth3

2.067

(<

i

_ J,I02 "

2IO

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

AVOIRDUPOIS. OR ORDINARY COMMERCIAL WEIGHT.
UNITED STATES AND BRITISH.

TON.

CWTS.

I.
0.050

20.
1.0
0.0089

POUNDS.

OUNCES.

2240.
112.
I.
0.0625

35840.
1792.

16.

I pound- 27.7 cubic inches of distilled water at its maxi-
mum density, (39° Fahrenheit.)

Inches 12 :-

36
72

198.^

7920:=

63360^

LONG MEASURE.

= 1 Foot.

= 3 I Yard.

-6 2-1 Fathom.

- 16.5 5.5 - 2.75^ I Perch.

- 660 -— 220 r_^ 1 10 n-- 40 == 1 Furlong.
= 5280 ^1760 :-:88o = 320 := 8 = 1 Mile.

Inches 144 =

1296 =

39204 =

1568160=:

6272640 —

SQUARE MEASURE.

1 Foot.

9 I : 1 Yard,
272.25 : 30.25 ^= I Perch.
10890 : : 1210 —^ 40 —z I Rood.

43560 =4840 = l6o=:::r4=::: 1 Mile.

An Acre is 69.5700 yards square; or 208,740321 feet square.
A Township is 6 miles square z=^ 36 Sections.

A Section

4 ( . a

n

640 Acres.

•A "

*» iZ '*

t i

— 160 *'

1 *«

'' )4 ''

> (

— 40 **

NAUTICAL MEASURE.

Naut. Mile i -6086.07 feet, -- 1. 152664 Statute or Land Miles.
3 i-x I league.

60.=:= 2Q ♦' =1 Deg. = 69,16 Eng. Miles, J

211

WEIGHTS AND JNEASURES.— Continued.

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE.

UNITED STATES AND BRITISH.

1728 cubic inches = i cubic foot.

27 cubic feet =: i cubic yard.
A cord of wood = 4' X 4' X 8' = 128 cubic feet.
A perch of masonry = 16.5' X i-5' X i' = 24.75 cubic
feet, but is generally assumed at 25 cubic feet.

DRY MEASURE.

UNITED STATES ONLY.

STRUCK
BUSH.

PECKS. ! QUARTS.

1

PINTS.

GALLONS

CUBIC
INCH.

I

4 ' 32.
I 8.

1

I.

0.5
4.

64

16

2

1

8

8.

2.

0.25
0.125
I.

2150.

537.6
67.2

33.6
268.8

A U. S. gallon of liquid measure = 23 1 cubic inches.

A heaped bushel = i X struck bushels. The cone in a
heaped bushel must be not less than 6 inches high,

A barrel of U. S. hydraulic cement = 300 to 310 lbs.,
usually, and of genuine Portland cement := 425 lbs.

To reduce U. S. dry measures to British imperial of the
same name, divide by 1.032.

The laws of the States of Pennsylvania and Massachusetts
which correspond to the similar laws of most of the other
States of the United States, provide as follows :

The avoirdupois pound bears to the troy pound the re-
lation of seven thousand to five thousand seven hundred and
sixty.

The barrel contains thirty-one and one-half gallons, and
the hogshead two barrels,

TAe dry gallon contains two hundred and eighty-two cubic
inches; and the liquid gallon two hundred and thirty-one
cubic inches.

The bushel in heap measure contains twenty-one hundred
and fifty and forty-two otic ht^ndredths cubic imhes.

212

COMPARATIVE MEASURES OF WEIGHT.

u. s.

BR. CWl

'

BR. TONS.

KILOGRAMMES.

SHORT CWT

112 POINDS.

I

.8928

.04464

1

45.36

2

I —

1.7856

.08928

—

90.72

3

- —

2.6786

.13392

—

136.08

4

- -

3-5714

—

.17857

m

181.44

5

I -

4.4641

.22321

-J

226.8

6

:;3^

5.357

.26786

S

272.15

7

^^

6.25

.3125

e

317.51

8

- — '■

7.1428

.35715

H-

362.87

9

8.0356

.40178

408.23

lO

— _

8.9286

.44643

—

0,

453.59

II

; -^

9.822

—

.49107

—

>

498.95

12

10.714

—

.53572

—

e

544.31

13

11.607

- —

.58036

—

«e

589.67

H

12.5

-

.625

-^r

635.03

15

--Z

13.392

—

.66964

c
a

680.38

i6

14.286

—

.7143

—

725.74

17

-Z'Z

15.179

.75895

—

V

s

771. II

i8

16.071

^=

.80357

816.46

19

16.965

.84822

a.

861.82

*20

17.857

r-

.89285

1^

907.18

21

18.750

-

.9375

952.54

22

19.643

'

.98251

z::_z

997.9

22.4

20.0

rr

I.O

1016.04

I

Short Cwt.

zzz

100 Br. 11

>s.

*I

U.

S. Short Ton, -

. 2000 "

I

k »

(( H

20 IT. S.

Short Cwt

t.

OZ

•

LB.
.062

(;ram\
28.3^

lES

•

I

1J~!.Z

5 ^

^95

2

.125

56.699

3

—

.1875

85.

049

4

—

.25

113.399

5

— ~

.3125 —

141.

.748

6

.375

170.

098

7

—

.4375 —

198.447

8

—

.5

—

226.

797

9

—

.5625

255.

146

lO

—

.625

283.496

1 1

■ — ^^

.6875

311.

845

12

"-—

.75

340.

195

13

—

.8125 —

368.544

.

14

-"—

.875

396.894

15

2^^^

.9375 —

425.244

i^

1

.0

—

453.59

3

213

UNIT EQUIVALENTS FOR ELECTRIC HEATING PROBLEMS.

1 K. M'.

hfmr=

1,00() watt hours.

1.34 horse-power hours.
2.656.400 ft. lbs.
8,600,000 joules.
3,440 heat units.
366.848 kg. m.

0.229 lb. coal oxidized with

perfect eflBciency.
3 lbs. water evaporated at

at 212° F.
22.9 lbs. water raised from

62° to 212° F.
8 cents at usual rates for
electric heating.

II. P.
hour=

0.746 K. W. hour.
1,980,000 ft. lbs.
2,580 heat units.
273,740 kg. ra.

0.172 lb. coal oxidized with

perfect efficiency.
2.25 lbs. water evaporate«l

at 212° F.
17.2 lbs. water raised fn)ni

62° to 212° F.
6 cents at usual rates for
electric heating.

K. W.-

1 II. P.

1,000 watts.
1.34 H. P.
2,656,400 ft. lbs. per hour.
4,424 ft. lbs. per minute.

73.73 ft. lbs. per second.
3,440 heat units per hour.
573 heat units per minute.
9.55 heat units per second.
0.229 lb. coal oxidized per

hour.
3 lbs. water evaporated per
hour at 212^ F.

746 watts.
0.746 K. W.
33,000 ft. lbs. per minute.
550 ft. lbs. per second.
2,580 heat units per hour.
43 heat units per minute.
0.71 heat unit per second.
0.172 lb. coal oxidized per

hour.
2.25 lbs. water evaporated
per hour at 212° F.

1 joul6-

1 ft. lb.

1 watt

1 watt per
sq. in.=

1 heat
unit=

1 heat unit
per sq. ft.
I)ermin.=

1 kg. ni.—

1 watt second.
0.00000278 K. W. hour.
0.102 kg. m.
0.00094 heat unit.
0.73 ft. lb.

1.36 joules.
0.1383 kg. ra.
0.000000377 K. W. hour.
0.000291 heat unit.
0.0000005 H. P. hour.

1 joule per second.

0.00134 H. P.

0.001 K. W.

3.44 heat units per hour.

0.73 ft. lb. per second.

0.003 lb. of water evapor.ate<l

per hour.
44.24 ft. lbs. per minute.

8.26 thermal units per sq. ft.
per minute.
120° F. above surrounding air
(japanned cast iron
surface.)
6<)° C. above surrounding air
(japanned cast iron
surface.)

1.048 watt seconds.
778 ft. lbs.

0.252 caloric (kg. d.)
108 kg. m.

0.000291 K. W. hour.

0.000388 H. P. hour.

0.0000667 lb. coal oxidized.

0.00087 lb. water evaporated
at 212° F.

0.021 watt per sq.
0.0174 K. W.
0.0232 H. P.

in.

7.2;^ ft. lbs.

0.00000366 H. P. hour.
0.(X)000272 K. W. hour.
0.0092 heat unit.

214

HEAT UNITS.

The following information regarding Heat Units is from
the pen of Dr. Slocum, published in the "American Manu-
facturer " of February 8th, 1895 :

The heating value of any combustible, like its specific
gravity, must be based on some unit. There exist at present
three different heat units, without any specific name for each,
with the exception of the British Heat Unit (B. H. U.), so
that they are constantly confused and used without any specifi-
cation as to which system they belong. Hence it is often diffi-
cult or impossible to determine which system is used.

These three systems are : First. — The Centigrade or
Continental system, where the Centigrade thermometer is
used, here the term applied to the heat unit is the calorie.
Second. — The British system, in England, where Fahrenheit
is mostly used in scientific research ; the term used is the
British heat unit (B. H. U.) Third. — The molecule-gram sys-
tem or the Thomson system. In describing these different
systems separately, the same example will be used in each, viz.,
marsh gas, in order to show clearly the differences numerically
in the different systems : I

First. — The unit of the French system, the calorie, is the |

amount of heat required to raise one kilo water one degree
Centigrade. Therefore the number of kilos of water that are
raised one degree Centigrade by the complete combustior of
one kilo of a combustible gives the number of calories or its
caloric value, e. g., one kilo marsh gas burned completely to
water and carbon dioxid (C O^) will raise 13,244 kilos water
one degree Centigrade. As is readily seen, this same number
of calories would be obtained if pounds of -combustible were

215

used and pounds of water were heated. This system will be
termed for convenience, the Centigrade-Kilo system. Abbrevi-
ation — C. K.

Second. — The system used in Great Britain is the same
as the French, except Fahrenheit is substituted for Centigrade;
this decreases the size of one calorie |ths. Therefore the
amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water one
degree Fahrenheit, is one Calorie, e. g., one pound of marsh
gas burned completely to water and carbon dioxid (C O^) will
raise 23,661 pounds of water one degree Fahrenheit. This is
the calorie multiplied f ths. This Calorie is the British heat
unit, (B. H. U.) and for convenience will be termed the
Fahrenheit-pound system. Abbreviation, F-P.

Third, — The molecular-gram system is based on quite a
different method of determination, having no fixed unit of the
quantity employed, in fact every combustible employed is taken
in different quantities, unless the molecular weight should
happen to be the same as the molecular weight of some other
substance, A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to
raise one gram of water one degree Centigrade ; the quantity
used is the molecular weight of the substance taken in grams.

All gases, no matter what their composition, have the
same sized molecules ; therefore, a molecule of any gas takes up
one unit of room. In the molecular gram system, therefore,
the amount of substance used is its molecular weight taken in
grams, and the caloric value of the substance is expressed in
the number of grams of water that that amount of substance
will raise one degree Centigrade, e. g., in marsh gas, (C. II*)
molecular weight 16 ; then 16 grams of marsh gas burned
completely to water and carbon dioxid will raise 21 1,900 grams
of water one degree Centigrade. The caloric value in this
case has the advantage of expressing the caloric value of the
same volumes of substance when in its gaseous state and con-
veys quite a different meaning. It is the most useful system
for general scientific research, but is apt to be misleading to
the general technical world. It will be readily seen that it
can be converted into the C K. system by dividing the total
calories given for any substance by its molecular weight, and

2l6

is further converted into the F-K. system by multiplying this

result by f ths. For convenience we will term this system the

the Molecular- gram system. Abbreviation M-(>.

Nf aking a comparison of the different values given above,

marsh gas has its caloric value expressed as follows in the

different systems :

^ C K. FP. M G.

Marsh gas (C H*)

13,244 23,839 211,900
These all indicate the same result and are all convertible
one into the other ; still, when given promiscuously, without
any designation as to system, they must certainly be very
confusing. The F-P. or the British heat unit is entirely super-
fluous, and the sooner it is dropped from all classes of heat
unit investigations the better ; it is only the C-K. system con-
verted into Fahrenheit, and a division of the number 180 will
never make a clear or useful unit for general and accurate
work. There are only two temperatures that can be absolutely
determined anywhere in the world and be always the same.
The first is a mixture of ice and water, which has the same
temperature (no matter where) ; hence, it should be zero (0°),
as it is on the Centigrade theremometer, being the freezing
point of water. The second is the temperature at which water
is converted into steam ; the temperature of steam is the same
always under an atmospheric pressure of 30 inches of mercury
or at sea level ; this can be determined anywhere, making the
barometric correction, which is easily done ; therefore, this
temperature should be 100°, as it is on the Centigrade scale
yj,j is a comprehensive division and certainly conveys clearer
comprehension of unit than yj^, the difference between the
freezing and boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit scale.
All three systems are at fault in one respect, which can
only be overcome indirectly, as shown below. This difficulty
is that the figures given in all systems even with the lowest
heating substance are high numbers. The human mind can-
not grasp readily comparisons of high figures and be able, at
the same time, to use them quickly for comparison. In the
tables given below, there has been added another unit for all
combustible substances, and a second one for gases. A kilo

■

i

217

of pure carbon completely burned to dioxid (C O2).=^8,o8o
C-K.; this number of calories is taken as a unit or as one heat
value, abbreviation H V., hence : Carbon (C)-i^:i H V.

Carbon is the best as it is the type of all combustibles,
and has a middle value among combustibles. Hence marsh
gas, 13,244 C-K., would equal 13, 244 -=-8,080^=1.63 H-V.

Marsh gas (C H*)— 1.63 H-V.

That is, one pound of marsh gas equals 1.63 pounds of
carbon for heating purposes. The decimals are only carried
out two places ; if five or over in the third place, one is carried
up ; if not, it is dropped. This gives a quick, intelligent
comparison for general technical use, and, it is believed, will
be an aid in the general use of heat unit comparisons, as they
are all based on equal weights.

In the case of gases or substances which become gases by
solution in other gases, another unit is also used ; this unit is
used exactly as the specific gravity of gases are compared with
air, while all the solids are compared with water. This unit
is hydrogen by volume. Hydrogen has the highest heating
value of any element or compound and is the lightest. It is
unneccessary to take any given volume, but make the com-
parison direct from the molecular-gram system, as all gases have
the same sized molecule. The molecular weight of hydrogen
is H2=2, hence, H2=::68,435 M-G.; this is taken for the unit.
V-C. is the abbreviation for a volume calorie; hence Hr=i V-C,

Marsh gas under the M-G. system=:=2 11,900.
2ii,900--68,435^3.09 V-C.

This makes a quick and intelligent comparison, as the
numbers are low and easily grasped in the mind and far easier
remembered than the higher numbers.

To estimate the percentage of loss in the pi*actical com-
bustion of any fuel, providing the combustion is complete; the
temperature of the products of combustion, where they enter
the flue or stack and to which any admixed nitrogen or other
neutral gases are added, is multiplied by the quantity (weight)
of the products of combustion multiplied by their specific heats
(see table below) plus any latent heat that may be in the pro-
ducts of combustion.

2l8

t °^rTemperature.

N -Admixed nitrogen or other gases.

P -^Products of combustion.

W^Weight of all gases heated.

s rirSpecific heat.

L --1 Latent heat,

Hence : t° [W (Ps -f- Ns) ] -|- L=:Loss in calories.

If the quantity of combustible is known with the admixed
air, the nitrogen is taken usually as 77 per cent, by weight.
Below the calculation is made from an average analysis of air
with impurities, which shows that for every pound of oxygen
consumed 3.329 pounds of nitrogen are heated.

Analysis of air containing usual impurities shows :

By volume. By weight.

Oxygen 20,94% 23.10 %

Nitrogen 79.02% 76.84 %

Impurities 0.04% O.06 %

Average weight of i liter of air=: 1.29306 grams, or i cubic
foot weighs 565 grains.

Air is w^if the weight of water volume for volume.

This article was written before the presence of the elenjent
Argon in the atmosphere had been determined. (T. P. R. Co.)

SPECIFIC HEAT.

Calculated under constant pressure and an equal weight of

water as unit.

Air 0.2377

Carbon dioxid (C O^) 0.1843

Nitrogen (N^) 0.2438

Oxygen (O^) 0.2175

Water (tPO) (Gaseous) 0.4805

Water (IPO) (Liquid) l.oooo at O^C

Carbonous Oxid (CO) 0.2425

Sulphurous Oxid (S 02) 0.1544

Hydrogen 3.4090

Ammonia 0.5356

In the following table are given the weights by volume
and heat units of the chief combustibles :

220

USEFUL INFORMATION.
STEAM.

A cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary atmos-
pheric pressure is converted into I cuhic/ooi of steam (approxi-
mately.

Steam at atmospheric pressure flows into a Vactium at the
rate of about 1,550 feet per second, and into the AUnosphere
at the rate of 650 feet per second.

The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pressure)
is .411 that of air at 34° Fahrenheit, and .0006 that of wnter
at same temperature.

27,222 cul)ic feet of steam, at atmospheric pressure, weigh
I pound : 13,817 cubic feet of air weigh i pound.

Boilers require for each nominal horse power about I
cubic foot of feed water per hour.

Locomotives average a consumption of 3000 gallons of
water per 100 miles run.

The best designed boilers, well set, with good draft and
skillful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per
pound of best quality coal. The average result is from 25 to 60
per cent, below this.

In calculating horse power of tubular or flue boilers, con-
sider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one
nominal horse power.

One square foot of grate will consume on an average 12
lbs., of coal per hour.

Steam engines, in economy, vary from 20 to 60 lbs. of
feed water and from i^ to 7 lbs. of coal per hour per indicated
horse power.

Condensing engines require from 20 to 30 gallons of water
to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water
evaporated — approximately say from i to ij^ gallons per min-
ute per indicated horse power.

221

Ratio of Vacuum to Temperature (Fahrenheit) of

Feed Water.

CO inches, Vacuum 212°

II '* " 190°

18 " '' 170°

22>^ '* " 150°

*25 " " 135°

27>^ " " 112°

2^}4 " " 92°

29 '* " 72°

29>^ " " 52°

* Usually considered the standard point of efficiency — condenser
and air pump being well proportioned.

USEFUL INFORMATION.
WATER.

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity
four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square
of the velocity.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated
at 14.7 lbs. per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it
will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches or a column of
water 33.9 feet high.

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column
of water. Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.
Approximately, we say that every foot of elevation is equal to
Yz lb. pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary friction.

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the
standard of speed.) Divide the number of gallons by 4 ; then
extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter
in inches of the pump cylinder.

To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute
running at 100 feet of piston speed per minute. Square the
diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4.
Example : Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The
square of the diameter (5 inch) is 25, which multiplied by 4
gives 100, the number of gallons per minute (approximately.)

222

To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a
given height. Multiply the total weight of the water to be
elevated in one minute in lbs. by the height in feet, and divide
the product by 33,000 (an allowance of 25 per cent, should be
added for water friction, and a further allowance of 25 per
cent, for loss in steam cylinder.)

The area of the steam piston^ multiplied by the steam
pressure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted.
The area of the water piston^ multiplied by the pressure of
water per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must
be made between the poiver and the resistance to move the
pistons at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent,,
according to speed and other conditions.

To find the capacity of a pumping cylinder in gallons.
Multiplying the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches
will give the total number of cubic inches. Divide this num-
ber 231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in
inches), and product is the capacity in gallons.

WEIGHT AND CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT STANDARD
GALLONS OF WATER.

Cubic Inches in a
Gallon.

Weight of a Gallon ' Gallons m a Gabio
in Pounds. FViot.

Imperial or English
United States. . . .
New York

277.274

231.

221,819

10.00

8.33 m
8.00

6.232102
7.480519
7.901285

Weight of a cubic foot of water, English standard, 62,321
lbs. avoirdupois.

Weight of crude or refined petroleum, 6|^ lbs. per U. S.
gallon ; 42 gallons to the barrel.

A *' miner's" inch of water is approximately equal to a
supply of 12 U. S. gallons per minute.

WEIGHT AND COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE OF WOOD.

1 cord air dried Hickory or Hard Maple weighs about
4500 lbs., and is equal to about 2000 lbs. coal.

I cord air-dried White Oak weighs about 3850 lbs., and
is equal to about 17 15 lbs, coal.

223

I cord air dried Beech, Red or Black Oak weighs about
3250 lbs., and is equal to about 1450 lbs coal.

I cord air-dried Poplar (whitewood). Chestnut or Elm
weighs about 2350 lbs., and is equal to about 1050 lbs. coal.

I cord air-dried average Pine weighs about 2000 lbs., and
is equal to about 925 lbs. coal.

From the above it is safe to assume that 2% lbs. of dry
wood is equal to i lb. average quality of soft coal, and that the
full value of the same weight of different woods is very nearly
the same — that is, a pound of hickory is worth no more for
fuel than a pound of pine, assuming both to be dry. It is
important that the wood be dry, as each 10 per cent, of water
or moisture in wood will detract about 12 per cent, from its
value as fuel.

DUTY OF STEAM ENGINES.

The following are comparative figures showing the econo-
my of high-grade steam engines in actual practice :

TYPE OF ENGIKE.

Non Condensing . . .

Condensing

Compound Jacketed.

210^
100^
100*

•sill

10.5
9.4

9.4

It.

29.
20.

wg

II ^i

2.75

2.12
I.81

-S»|

•^ oa

^•4 (^ 4S (m

$0.0073
0.0056
0.0045

The effect of a good condenser and air pump should be
to make available about 10 lbs. more mean effective pres-
sure, with the same terminal pressure ; or to give the same
mean effective pressure, with a correspondingly less terminal
pressure. When the load on the engine requires 20 lbs. M.
E. P., the condenser does half the work ; at 30 lbs., one-
third of the work ; at 40 lbs., one-fourth, and so on. It is safe
to assume that practically the condenser will save from one-
fourth to one-third of the fuel, and it can be applied to any
engine, cut-of, or throttling, where a sutfigient supply of water
\% available.

224

THE HORSE-POWER OF BOILERS.

When an order is given for a boiler of a stated number of
*' nominal horsepower" it is understood (in the absence of
of any agreement to the contrary) that a *' horse power " means
the evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour, under the
conditions stated above.

In computing the horse- power of a boiler by the Centen-
nial rule, or by any other rule, the first problem is to find the
heating surface of the proposed boiler, which consists of all
those parts of the shell, heads and tubes, which are exposed
to the direct action of the fire or of the hot gases that come
from it. Considering these parts in detail :

The part of the shell which is exposed to the fire, extends
from the back head to the rear surface of the front wall of the
setting ; and it is limited at the top by the side walls, where
they extend inward and touch the boiler. To obtain this area
with precision, one should know the exact length of the shell
exposed to the fire, and also the height of the side walls of the
furnace ; but in practice it is usually assumed that the part of
the shell exposed to the fire is equal to one-half of the area of
the entire shell (omitting the dry-sheet, of course, in case
there is one.) This simplifies the calculation very much, and
yet the results correspond quite closely to the actual facts.
^\\^ front heado{ the boiler is of little or no value as a heating
surface, because, if the boiler is well designed, the temperature
in the uptake does not greatly exceed the temperature of the
boiler itself, and hence there cannot be any considerable
absorption of heat through the front head. This head should
therefore be entirely omitted in the calculation. The back
head is more directly exposed to the heat of the furnace, and
allowance is sometimes made for such heating surface as it
contains. In general practice no allowance is made for the

225

back head, however, because the only part of its surface which
is available, in any case, consists in the small segments which
lie between the tubes, together with a narrow strip around the
flange and just under the back arch. While there might be
some heating value to these parts when the boiler is new, it
is not considered that they are worth taking into account after
it has been used for a time, because scale is likely to form
upon them ; and even though the scale were not heavy
enough to produce over-heating, and consequent injury to the
boiler, it might still be quite sufficient to destroy the efficiency
of the head, when considered as a heating surface. The tubes
are of a great importance in computing the heating surface,
because their combined area is very large. Some engineers
base the calculated heating surface upon the internal diameter
of the tubes, while others use the external diameter, and still
others the average of the two. General practice has been to
take the external diameter.

This point being settled, the next step is to find the area
of the tube, by multiplying its outside circumference by its
length — the circumference being found by multiplying the out-
side diameter by 3.1416. (The diameter of the tube is usually
given in inches; so that if the surface is required in square feet ^
it is necessary to divide the given diameter (or circumference)
of the tube by 12, so that it may be expressed as a fraction of
of a foot.) The area of one tube being thus found, it is multi-
plied by the number of tubes, and thus finds the united surface
of all of them. This, when added to the heating surface
afforded by the shell, gives the entire surface upon which the
rated horsepower of the boiler is to be based.

Rule for Finding the actual Horse Power : — First find the
heating surface (in square feet) as described above. Multiply
this by 2}^, which will give the number of pounds of steam
that the boiler can produce per hour. The evaporation thus
found is then to be divided by the weight of steam required by
the engine that is to be used, per horse-power per hour, and
the quotient is the actual horse-power that may reasonably be
expected when the proposed boiler and engine are run together
under favorable conditions.

226

TABLE OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT DEGREES.

Deg.

%■

^^

H-

Deg.

^'

Deg.

Deg-

»Hr.

Deg.

C.

- F.

c.

f.

C.
41

f.

C.

F.

a

F.

32.

21

69.8

105.8

61

141.8

81

177.8

1

33.8

22

71.6

42

107.6

62

143.6

82

179.6

2

35.6

23

73.4

43

109.4

63

145.4

83

181.4

3

37.4

24

75.2

44

111.2

64

147.2

84

183.2

4

39.2

25

77.

45

113.

65

149.

85

185.

5

41.

26

78.8

46

114.8

66

150.8

86

186.8

6

42.8

27

80.6

47

116.6

67

152.6

87

188.6

44.6

28

82.4

48

118.4

68

154.4

88

190.4

8

46.4

29

84.2

49

120.2

69

156.2

89

192.2

9

48.2

30

86.

50

122.

70

158.

90

194.

10

50.

31

87.8

51

123.8

71

159.8

91

195.8

11

51.8

32

89.6

52

125.6

72

161.6

92

197.6

12

53.6

33

91.4

53

127.4

73

163.4

93

199.4

13

55.4

34

93.2

54

129.2

74

165.2

94

201.2

U

57.2

35

95.

55

131.

75

167.

95

203.

15

59.

36

96.8

56

132.8

76

168.8

96

204.8

16

60.8

37

98.6

57

134.6

77

170.6

97

206.6

17

62.6

38

100.4

58

136.4

78

172.4

98

208.4

18

64.4

39

102.2

59

138.2

79

174.2

99

210.2

19

66.2

40

104.

60

140.

80

176.

100

212.

20

68.

1

RELATIONS OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES.

9 Fahrenheit degrees •= 5 Centigrade degrees = 4 Reaumur degrees.
1 degree Fahrenheit — 0.5556 degree Centigrade.
1 degree Centigrade = 1.8 degree Fahrenheit.

To Convert

Fahrenheit to Centigrade, subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9.*
" Reaumur, " 32. " ** 4, " " " 9.*

Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.*
** Reaumur, " " 4, *' " 5.

Reaumur to Fahrenheit, ** *' 9, " " 4, and add 32.*
" Centigrade, *' ' 5. " ** 4.

Example— 212° Fahrenheit to Centigrade, 212 — 32 = 180 X 5 -f~ 9 —

100° Centigrade.

* If the temperature is below freezing, where above formulae read
**add 32 " becomes !«ubtract from 32, and where formulae read "sub-
tract 32," becomes substract from 32

227

COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE OF COAL, OIL AND GAS.

I pound of coitl will evaporate lo pounds of water at 212
degrees atmospheric pressure.

I pound of oil will evaporate 16 pounds of water at 212
degrees atmospheric pressure.

I gallon crude lima oil 60° F., weighs 6.8945 lbs.

I pound of natural gas will evaporate 20 pounds of water •
at 212 degrees atmospheric pressure.

I pound of coal will equal 11.225 cubic feet natural gas.

2CXX) pounds (i ton) will equal 22,450 cubic feet natural
gas.

I pound of oil will equal 18 cubic feet natural gas.

I barrel (42 gallons) will equal 5,310 cubic feet natural gas.

1. 125 cubic feet natural gas will evaporate i pound of
water.

I cubic foot natural gas will equal 860. B. H. U.

1000 cubic feet natural gas will equal 860,000 B. H. U.

I ton of coal will equal 19,307,000 B. H. U.

I barrel of oil will equal 4,566,600 B. H. U.

At an evaporation of 5^ lbs. water to one pound coal
feed water at 60° F., 5.46 lbs. of coal will develop one horse-
power and 3 .03 barrels (42 gallons each) of oil equals one ton
of coal for steam making purposes under boilers.

1 LB. BITUMINOUS COAL OXIDIZED WITH PERFECT EFFICIENCY^

15.000 heat units.

0.98 lb. anthracite coal oxidized.

2. 1 lbs. dry wood oxidized.

15 cu. ft. illuminating gas.

4.37 K. W. hours (theoretical value.)

5.81 H. P. hours (theoretical value.)

ii»590?cxx) ft. lbs. (theoretical value.)

13. 1 lbs. of water evaporated at 212° F.

1 LB. WATER EVAPORATED AT 212'' F.=
0.33 K. W. hour. 124,200 kg. m.

0.44 H. P. hour. 1,219,000 joules.

I 148 heat units. 887,800 ft, lbs,

0.076 lb, of coal oxidized.

228

F. W. CLARKE'S LIST OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF
THE 74 KNOWN AND RECOGNIZED ELEMENTS.

JANUARY 3RO, tsee.

Chemical
Symbol.

Al

Sb

A

As

Ba . . . .

Bi

B

Br

Cd

Cs

Ca

C

Ce

CI

v.yi • • • •

Co

Cu

Er

F

Oa ....
Ge. . . .
Gl or Be

Au

He

H

In

I

Ir

Fe

La

Pb

Li

Aluminum .

Antimony . .

Argon

Arsenic

Barium ....
Bismuth . . . .

Boron

Bromine.. .
Cadmium. . .
Caesium . . .
Calcium . . .

Carbon

Cerium . . .
Chlorine . . .
Chromium . .

Cobalt

Columbium .

Copper

Erbium

Fluorine . . . .
Gadolinium .
Gallium ....
Germaninm .
Glucinum . .

Gold

Helium

Hydrogen . .

Indium

Iodine

Iridium

Iron

Lanthanum .

Lead

Lithium ....

Reckoning

Reckoning

Hydrogen

Oxygen

an One.

as Sixteen.

26.91

27.11

119.52

120.43

?

?

74.52

75.09

136.40

137.43

206.54

208.11

10.86

10.95

79.34

79.95

111.08

111.93

131.89

13289

39.78

40.08

11.92

12.01

139. 1

140.2

35.18

35.45

51.74

52.14

58.49

58.93

93-3

94.0

63.12

63.60

165.0

166.3

18.89

19.3

154.9

1 56. 1

68.5

69.0

71.75

72.3

9.01

9.08

195.74

197.24

?

?

1. 00

1.008

1 12.8

113.7

125.89

126.85

191.66

193.12

55.60

56.02

1376

138.6

205.36

206.92

6.97

7.03

229

F. W. CLARKE'S LIST OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS.-Continued.

Chemical
Symbol.

Mg. . .
Mn

Hg

Mo. . . .

Ni. ...

N

Os

O

Pd

P

Pt

K

Rh

Rb

Ru

Sm

Sc

Si

Se

Ag

Na

Sr

S

Ta

Te

Tr

Tl

Th

Tm . . . .

Sn

Ti . . . .
W

U

V

Yb

Y

Zn

Zr . . .

Magnesium . . .
Manganese . . .

Mercury

Molybdenum . .
Neodymium. . .

Nickel

Nitrogen . . . .

Osmium

Oxygen

Palladium

Phosphorus > . .

Platinum

Potassium . . . .
Praseodymium

Rhodium

Rubidium

Ruthenium . . .
Samarium . . . .

Scandium

Silicon

Selenium

Silver

Sodium

Strontium . . . .

Sulphur

Tantalum

Tellurium. . . .
Terbium. . . /.

Thallium

Thorium

Thulium

Tin

Titanium

Tungsten . . .

Uranium

Vanadium . . . .
Ytterbium . . . .

Yttrium

Zinc

Zirconium . . . .

Reckoning

Reckoning

Hydrogen

Oxygen

as One.

as Sixteen.

24.11

24.29

54.57

54.99

198.5

200.00

95.26

95.98

139.4

140.5

58.24

58.69

13.94

14.04

189.55

190.99

15.879

16.00

105.56

106.36

30.79

31.02

193.41

194.89

38.82

39.11

142.4

143.5

102.23

103.01

84.78

85.43

100.91

101.68

148.9

150.0

43.7

44.0

28.18

28.40

78.4

79.0

107. 1 1

107.92

22.88

23.05

86.95

87.61

31.83

32.07

181. 2

182.6

126. 1 ?

127.0?

158.8

160.0

202.60

204.15

230.87

232.63

169.4

170.7

1 18. 15

119.05

47.79

48.15

183.44

184.84

237.77

239.59

50.99

51.38

171.7

173.0

88.28

88.95

64.91

65.41

89.9

90.6

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233

RATES OF P08TAGE.-(Untted States.)

Postal Cards.— 1 cent each, go without further charge to all parts
of the United States and Canada. Cards for foreign countries (within
the Postal Union), 2 cents each. Postal cards are unmailable with an v
writing or printing on the address side, except the direction, or with
anything pasted upon or attached thereto.

Letters.— To all parts of the United States, Canada and Mexico,
2 cents each ounce or fraction thereof.

Local, or ** Drop ** Letters,— That is, for the city or town where
deposited, 2 cents where the carrier system is adopted, and 1 cent where
there is no carrier system.

First Class: — Letters and written matter, whether sealed or un-
sealed, and all other matter sealed, nailed, sewed, or fastened in any
manner so that it cannot be easily examined, 2 cents for each ounce or
fraction thereof.

Second Class: — Only for publishers and newsagents, 1 cent per
pound.

Newspapers and Periodicals (regular publications) can be mailed
by the public at the rate of 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction thereof.

Third Class:— Printed matter, in unsealed wrappers only (all
matter enclosed in notched envelopes must pay letter rates), 1 cent for
each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, which must be fully prepaid. This
includes books, circulars, etc.

Fourth Class:— All mailable matter not included in the three
preceding classes which is so prepared for mailing as to be easily with-
<lrawn from the wrapper and examined, 1 cent per ounce or fraction
thereof. Limit of weight, 4 pounds. Full preiiayment compulsory.

MONEY ORDERS.

On and after July 1, 1894, the fees for the issue of Domestic Money
orders will be as follows:

3 centa

5

s

10

12

m

i«

20

25

30

For orders not exceeding #3.50, ......

For orders exceeding $ 2.50 and not exceeding $ S.oo, -
For orders exceeding # 6.00 and not exceeding $ 10.00. -
For orders exceeding $10.00 and not exceeding $ 20.00, -
For orders exceeding $20 00 and not exceeding $ so.oo, -
For orders exceeding $30.00 and not exceeding $ 40.00, -
For orders exceeding $40.00 and not exceeding $ 60.00, -
For orders exceeding $60.00 and not exceeding $ 60 00, -
For orders exceeding $60.00 and not exceeding $ TS.OO, .
For orders exceeding $76.00 and not exceeding $100.00, -

REGISTRATION.

All kinds of postal matter, except second-class matter, can be
registered at the rate of eight cents for each package«n addition to the
regular rates of postage, to be fully prepaid by stamps. Each package
must bear the name and address or the sender, ana a receipt will he
returned from the person to whom addressed. Mail matter can be
registered at all post-offices in the United States.

The Post Office Department or its revenue is not by law liable for
the loss of any registeied mail matter.

FOREIGN POSTAGE.

The rates for letters are for the half ounce or fraction thereof and
those of newsTOipers for two ounces or fraction thereof.

To Great Britain and Ireland, France, Spain, all parts of Germany,
including Austria, Denmark, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, Norway.
Sweden, Turkey (European and Asiatic), Egypt, Australia (all parts),
letters, 5 cents ; newspapers, 1 cents.

China or Japan: — Letters via San Francisco, Brindisi or England,
5 cents ; newspapers. 1 cent for two ounces,

British India, Italian Mail :— Letters, 5 cents; newspapers, 1 cent
two ounces.

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237

DESCRIPTIVE TABLE OF UNITED STATES GOLD COINS IN USE

DECEMBER, 1896.

DBNOMINATION. WBI6BT. FINKNB8S. PIAMBTBR. THtCKNB8S.

Doubie-eaglo, - - 516 grains. .900 1..35in. .077 in.

Eagle, - - - - 258 " .900 1.05 " .060 "

Half-eagle, - - - 129 ** .900 .85 " ,046 "

(Juarter-eagle. - - 64>^ *' .900 .75 " .034 "

Deduced from the above table, the value of gold of standard fine-
ness (.900) is $18.60Hf and if fine or pure, ^.^-fj^ per ounce.

The coinaee of gold dollars and three-dollar pieces was suspended
by the act of September 26th, 1890.

According to the law of January 18, 1837, the weight of the silver
dollar was fixed at 412^ grains, and the fineness at 900-thousandths ;
leaving the weight of pure silver 371^ grains. This changed the ratio
to 15.988 (or nearly 16) to 1, and the coining value of silver at 1.295^jj%.

The Mint Act of 1873 discontinued the coinage of the dollars by
omitting it from the list of authorized coins.

In 1878 (February 28th), Congress passed, over the veto of President
Hayes, a law again authorizing its coinage, but in a limited amount
only ; not less than $2,000,000 nor more than $4,000,000 worth of silver
was to be purchased monthly and coined into the dollars of 1837; the
coin was made a legal tender for all debts, public and private, unless
otherwise stipulate — exceptin^r for the redemption of gold certificates
of the Government. The seigniorage accrued to the Treasunr.

Under the Mint Act of 1873, the change to the present (December,
1896) subsidiary silver coinage took place. The description of the pieces
follows:

DBNOMIMAnON

W'OHT IN OBAINB.

PUHB 8ILVBR.

niAMBTBR.

THICKNBS.S.

Half-dollar, -

- 192.9

173.61

liin.

.057 in.

Quarter-dollar,

- 96.45

86.805

M"

.045 "

Dime, ^ - -

- 38.58

34.725

A"

.032 "

Fineness of all 900-thousandths.

The half-dollar now weighs exactly \2\i grammes, two being equal
to the five-franc piece of France, in weight and fineness.

The present minor coins are :

Five-cent nickel of 77.16 grains, 75 per cent, copper, 25 per cent,
nickel, specific gravity 8.940, 93 weighing a pound Avoirdupois.

Onercent. bronze, of ^ grains, 95 per cent, copper, 5 per cent, tin
and zinc, specific gravity 8.782, 145 weighing a pound Avoirdupois.

Legal tender to the amount of twenty-five cents, redeemable at
any sub-treasury in sums of $20.00 or more, furnished free of transpor-
tation charge from the mint at Philadelphia, and obtainable in exchange
at any sub-treasury.

The dimensions are : Five-cent pieces : diameter, f ths of an inch ;
thickness, .062 of an inch. One-cent piece : diameter, % of an inch ;
thickness, .043 of an inch.

MINOR COINAGE. 1793-1894.

DBNOMIMAnON. PBRIOD AMOUKT.

Half-cents, -..---- 1793-1857, $ 39,926.11

Copper cents, ------ 1793-1857, 1,562,887.44

Copper-nickel cents, - - - - 1857-1864. 2,007.720.00

Bronze cents. ----- 1864-1894, 7,463,898.26

Two-cent pieces, ----- 1864-1873, 912,020.00

Three-cent nickels. . - - - 1865-1889. 941,349.48

Five-cent nickels, - - - - 1866-1894, 13,663.730.50

Total, --'--..- $26,481,531.79

238

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FINENESS OF COINS.

U. S. Silver Dollar weighs 412^ grains Troy, y*j pure silvejr.

U. S. Gold " " 25^8^ " '* j% pure gold.

The pure gold in a U. S. Gold Dollar weighs 23.21997 grains
Troy.

The English ** Unit '* is the ** Sovereign " or pound sterling,
weighing 1 13.0016 grains Troy, of pure gold. The ratio
of the gold of one U. S. Dollar to the gold in one Sover-
eign is as I is to 4.866.

The Unit of value in Germany is the grains of gold in a Mark,
namely 5.53134 grains.

The Unit of value in France is the grains of gold in a Franc,
namely 4.48035 grains.

$5 gold coin of U. S., contains 1 16.09985 grains of pure gold.

£ I Eng. Sovereign, )
ings,).... f

113.00160

(20 shillii

The German 20 mark piece ' ' 1 10.62680
The French 20 franc piece '* 89.607

The Spanish 25 pesetas p'ce '* 112.0060

((

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U. S. VALUES OF MARKS AND FRANCS.

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X4

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x7

x8

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95.24

119.05

142.86
166.67
190.48
214:29
38.6

57.9

77.2

96.5
1 15.8
135.1
154.4
173.7

242

CUSTOM DUTIES ON ALUMINUM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES,

IN MAY, 1896.

UNITED STATES.

Custom Laws of 1894: Aluminum in crude form ; alloys
of any kind in which aluminum is the component material of
chief value, ten cents per lb.

Manufactured articles or wares, composed wholly or in
part of aluminum, and whether partly or wholly manufactured,
thirty-five per centum, ad valorem.

FRANCE.

General Customs Tariff, approved January nth, 1892.

Section 203. Aluminum, General Tariff, 200 francs
per 100 kilograms ; Minimum Tariff, 150 francs per 100 kilo-
grams.

Section 205. Ferro aluminum, containing 10 per cent,
of aluminum or less. General Tariff, 4.75 francs per 100 kilo-
grams ; Minimum Tarifl*, 3.50 francs per 100 kilograms.

Ferro-aluminum, containing more than 10 per cent, of
aluminum and less than 20 per cent, of aluminum, General
Tariff, 9.00 francs per lOO kilograms ; Minimum Tariff, 7.50
francs per 100 kilograms.

Section 221. Aluminum bronze, crude, containing
more than 20 per cent, of aluminum. General Tariff, 13 francs
per 100 kilograms ; Minimum Tariff, 13 francs per 100 kilo-
grams.

Section 496. Imitation jewelry of aluminum, General
Tariff, 250 francs per 100 kilograms ; Minimum Tariff, 200
francs per 100 kilograms.

All additional taxes on importations of aluminum are
included in the above rates.

The word ** general" used in the French law, covers
the tariff duty applicable to all States or Countries generally,
i. e., those states or countries that have not entered into a
special arrangement or treaty — in the form of a reciprocity
treaty — with France.

243

The word ** minimum *' applies to the duty to be assessed
on articles imported from countries that have entered into a
special treaty with France. It is the lowest duty.

The following states are entitled to the minimum tariff,
in virtue of treaties, conventions or laws made between them
and France :

Argentine Republic, Austria Hungary, Belgium, Bolivia,
Bulgaria, Columbia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ger-
many, Great Britain, Greece, Luxembourg, (Grand Duchy),
Madagascar, Morocco, Montenegro, Netherlands, Ottoman Em-
pire, Paraguay, Persia, Roumania, Russia, Servia, South
African Republic, Spain, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland,
United States, Uruguay.

QCRMANY.

Law of July 15th, 1879. Ingots and unworked alumi-
num metal, duty free.

Section 19 {d). Aluminum, rolled, 9 marks per 100 kilos.

Section 19 {d-e). Aluminum wares, 60 marks per 100
kilos.

Law of May i8th, 1895.

Section 20 {fi-2). Fine, fancy and small wares com-
posed wholly or in part of aluminum, 200 marks per 100
kilos; conventional duty, 175 marks per 100 kilos.

The conventional duties of Germany are applicable to
goods proceeding from treaty countries, and by virtue of a
decision of the Bundesrath in 1892, the following countries
are declared to be treaty countries :

Argentine Republic, Chile, Belgium, Costa Rica, Den-
mark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Greece, Great
Britain, Guatemala, Hawaii, Honduras, Italy, Corea, Liberia,
Madagascar, Morocco, Mexico, Netherlands, Austria Hun-
gary, Paraguay, Persia, Salvador, Sweden and Norway,
Switzerland, Servia, South African Republic, Turkey, United
States, Zanzibar.

244

HOLLAND.

Tariff of August, 1862, as last modified.
Article 2. Aluminum is admitted free.
Article 52. Manufactures of aluminum, 5 per cent,
ad valorem.

BCLQIUM.

Article 37. Aluminum when unworked, free.

Article 33. Articles of aluminum, 10 per cent, ad
valorem.

Decision of May 30th, 1891. Ferro aluminum, 50 cen-
times per 100 kilos.

Acetk. meltioc puini,

Awtic, weight jier nubic (oot..

B«nw>i_o. weight per eutiic foot..

csrbonfc.";;™™™!!™'!;™"'.!'.'.!:"

CBrbouie, ineltiiiK point

Citric, Bi)eelDc gmvttlf

Cilrio, weiibt per oubio toot-.. ■

Pluone.spedOacnvit):

Pluorie, weiglit per eabic fool.
llydrochlDric. (em hrdrocliloria

[lypDnitricineitiiuc point

Marmrir, meitiiifi point

Nitric, (iwnitriruld)

SitwiiB, Hpecifie (travitT

Nitroaa, weigbt per cubic foot.,

Phuaphflrii'. Hpecifie ^nvi^ .....
Pboiphoric, weight per en. ft...

^ulphurle. (eaeautphuricncici.)

BditoriBi

Specific gmvitj

Weight iwr I'ubic £o..t

IV^ht per ™bic twit.','..!'. :!!![![.
I.KXI.I UmiLiA:
Ab impnrlties in ulutnittun]

Iiefinbilitr of—aluiniDum

HBect uf-aluminum. geaenl

Effect of— on Iwrduew of alum-
Effect gt— uu eonnrouencBa of

PrecautlonB ti^en by'the'PittJi^
burgh KeduDtion Co., in-

Proiesi uf— by The Pittsburgh
Reduction 60

IND

EX-

AUflvs:
Aluraiuui

Sfesr

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."twrTndnickei:.

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7«

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91

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31
7U

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1

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th other nieUl9.gen'1

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.ycd«

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deBirebllitjof.

29

246

Aluminum: paur.

Alloys, Glasses 70

Alloys, electrical conductivity.. 28

Alloys, strength 54, 55

Alloys, strength in bearing 55

Alloys, strength in shear 55

And the alkali metals 73

Angles, (table) 134

Angles, to find thickness of IXi

Annealing 5^-60

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17,228

Bearing metal 91

Brass ^ 78

In brass, general effect 79-80

Bronze, (see Aluminum Bronze)
Bronze i)owder, (see Aluminum

Bronze Powder)

Burnishing 64

(lasting 5*-59

Casting, in metal moulds 59

Combined with the gaseous ele-
ments 72

Combined wi^h the metaloids... 72

(Combining number 21

In compression 55

Conductivity, electrical, exi>eri-

ments on ^-27

Conductivity, electrical.. 17-25-26-27, 28

Conductivity, thermal 17, 25

Custom duties— in various coun-
tries 242-244

Dipping and frosting 64

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date of 25

Drop forgings 61

Ductility, relative 30

Ductility, general statement.... 5

Elasticity 29

Elastic limit, (tension) 45

Elastic limit, (compression) 45

Elasticity, moduli 45, 48

Electrical properties 26-28

Engraving upon 65

Eximnsion, co-efficient of linear 17, 23,24

Expansion, linear Zi

Ferro , manufacture of 98

Fuel for melting 59

Galvanic action upon 11-12

(Trades of commercial 7

Hardness, relative ^ 29, 30

Heat, effect up<m 57

Impurities in 28-29

Ingots, shape 2-3

And iron alloyed ■ 91

In iron, cast 99

To iron, relative weights 44

In iron, wrought 99

liatent heat of fusion 19

And lead 75

PAOB.

Lubricant for tooling 61

Malleability 5, 30-31

Melting 57

Melting point 13, 14, 17, 19,57

Non-magnetic quality 26

And phosphorus 72

Plates on the " Defender.'* 47

Plating 66-«7

Polishing 61-63

Polish, *^Acme." 62

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties of— and other metals 10-99

Punty of commercial 7

Purity. The Pittsburgh Reduc-
tion Co.'s guarantee 5

And the rare and costly metals 68

Reduction of area 4o

Resistance of pure wire, (table) 122

Relation of— to copper, (table) 105

Relation in weight to steel 133

Relation of — sheet to tin plates,

(table) ^ 106

Riveted joints, efficiency of Si

Rivets, shearing and bearing

value, (table) o2-r&

Rivets and burrs 131

Rivets, strength i»

Rolling...:.: m

Safety factor for 54-65

Scratch brushing and sand

blasting 63

Sections, rolled 60

Selling price, etc 35

Shrinkage 57

Soldering 65-66

Solubility 10

Sonorousness 31

Specific gravity 17, 25, 32, 35-36

Si)eci fie gravity, alloys 32-^^3

Specific heat 17, 19, 20, 21.25

In Spiegel, effect of U

Squirted sections 61

In steel, percentage of 91-95, 97-4*

Steel shapes, rolled 60

I n steel , excessive use of 95

In steel, effect, (cut) y7

Strength 45-16

Strength of pure hi

Strength, transverse 46

Strength, ultimate, tension and

compression 45

Temperature, effect upon 56

In tension 54

Tooling 64

Tubing, iron pipe sizes, (table) 125

Tubing, pressures on 128-130

Tubing, in stock, (table) 124

Unit weights 32-33,36

247

PAGE.

Aluminum :

Xon-volatilization 13

Weight, general statement 6

Weight, and relative selling

price to other metals (table), 34-35
Weight, compared to other

metals 33

Weight, per cu. ft 46

Weight, per sq. ft 44

Weight, kg. per sq. m., (table), 107-111
Weight, ounces per sq. ft.,

(table) 105

Weight, flat rolled bars, (table) 112-117

Weight, sheet and bar. (table), 32, 104

Weight, bars, (table) 118-119

Weight of—sheet B. & S. gauge,

(table) 103

Weight of sheet per sq. ft* M.

M. gauge 102

Weight per ft.— tubing, (table), 12&-127
Weight of— and copper wire,

(table) 120

Weight of— wire B. & S. gauge,

(table) 121

WeMing of 65

Working, general statements

concerning 5

Aluminizkd Zinc:

Method of manufacture and use 75-77

Precautions in the use of 76-77

Aluminum Bronze:

Castingof 88-90

Conductivity, relative electrical 28

Custom duties on 242-243

Elastic limit 87

Manufacture 89-90

Melting point 88

Properties, genei'ai 87-89

Soldering 90-91

Specific gravity 36

Strength, tensile 87

Weight, kg. per sq. m., ("table), 107-111

Unit weights 36

Aluminum Bronze Powder:

Adulteration 9

Manufacture....: 9-13

Quality of metal used 9

Uses 9

Varnish to be used with 9

Aluminum Lkaf:

Manufacture and uses 31

Ammonia, Ammonium:

Solutions, action on aluminum, 11

Specific gravity 38,42

Weight per cuoic foot 42

page.
Analysis :

Aluminum, No. 1 grade, ap-
proximate 7

Aluminum, No. 2 grade, ap-
proximate 7

Copper by- in its zinc alloys 78

Copper by— in its tin alloys 82

Of metals 80

Of Spiegel 94

Angles :

Aluminum, to find thickness of 133
Aluminum, weight, (table) 134

Annealing:

Aluminum 5^-60

Antimony :

Alloyed with aluminum 75

Atomicvolume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 17,25,28

Conductivity, thermal 17, 25

Expansion, co-efiicient of linear 17, 23

Melting point 14-15,17,25

Properties, physical 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Selling price, etc a5

Specific gravity 17, 25, a5-36

Specific heat 17, 20, 21, 22, 25

Unit weights 36

Area, Areas :

Bars, flat rolled, (table) 144-149

Bars, square and round, (table) 118-119
And circumference of circles,

(tables) 150-164

Formulae concerning 142

Reduction of — in aluminum 45

Reduction of — in nickel alumi-
num 47

Of wire in mils., (table) 120

Argon :

Atomic weight 228

Arsenic :

Alloyed with aluminum 73

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 17, 28

Expansion, co-eflBcient of linear 17, 23
Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties, physical 17

Specific gravity 17,36

Specific heat 17, 20, 21

Unit weights 36

248

PAGE.

Atomic:

Composition of copper-tin alloys 82

Composition of copper-zinc al'ys 78

Volume of aluminum 17

Volume of metals 17-18

Weight of aluminum 17,228

Weight of metals 17-18

Weights of elements 22»-229

Avoirdupois:

Weight, (table) 210

Barium:

Atomic volume 17,228

Atomic weight 17

Conductivity, thermal 17

Cost 68

Melting point 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties, physical 17

Specific gravity 17, .%

Specific heat 17, 20

Unit weights 36

Bar, Bars:

Areas of flat rolled, (table) 144-149

Areas of square and round,

(table) 118-119

Casting ingot 2

Circumferences of round, (table) 118-1 19
Weight of aluminum, (table)... 118-119
Weight of flat rolled— of alumi-
num, (table) 112-117

Weight of sheet and- alumi-
num, (table) 32, 104

Weight of sheet and— brass,

(table) 104

Weight of sheet and— steel,
(table) 1()4

Bearing :

Shearing and— value of alumi-
num rivets, (table) 52-5;5

Value of aluminum in 55

Bearing Mktal:

Aluminum 91

Composition of 86

Belgium :

Custom duties on aluminum 244

Monetary unit 232, 2;^

Benzine :

Specific gravity 42

Use of— in casting aluminum... 59

Weight percu. ft 42

Billets :

Size of rectangular 2

Size of square 2

,^ PAGE.

Birmingham Gauge:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Bismuth :

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17,228

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Alloys 86

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 17,25.28

Conductivity, thermal 17,25

Expansion, co-eflicient of linear 17, 23

Latent heatof fusion 19

Melting point 14,17,25

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Shrinkage 58

Specific gravity 17,25,37

Si)ecific heat..: 18, 21), 21, 22, 25

Unit weights 37

Boilers :

Coal, consumption of 220

Evaporation in * 220

Feed water requirement 220

Horse power of 220, 224-225

Boron :

Atomic weight 228

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity ;i6

Unit weights 36

Brass:

Aluminum— method of manu-
facture 7S

Composition 77

Conductivity, relative electrical 2S

Elasticity, moduli 51

Expansion, co-eSicient of linear 24

Selling price, etc a5

Shrinkage 58

Specific gravity 33,35,36

Specific heat 20,22

Tensile strength 48

Tradenames .-. 77

IUti mate resistance, compress*u 50

Unit weights 36

Uses HO

Weight, factor of increase— and

aluminum 33, 34

Weight, relative to iron 44

Weight per cu. ft 3:i

Weight, kg. per sq. m., (table). 107-111

Weight of— sheet, (table) 44, 1()3, 104

Weight of —sheet & bar, (table), IW

Weight of— wire, (table) 12I

249

PAOK.

!Kriok:

Tensile strength 5()

Ultimate resistance to compres-
sion ^

Weight, (average) 4()

Britannia Metal:

Composition 85

Selling price, etc 35

Specific gravity 35

IJRiTiftH Imperial Standard Gauge:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Bromine:

Action on aluminum 10

Atomic weight 228

Melting point 13

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 38, 42

Weight percu. ft 42

Bronze:

Aluminum — castings 90

Aluminum, manufacture 89-90

Aluminum— soldering 90-91

( Bailey's ) expansion, co-eflB-

cient of linear 24

Composition of 81

Gun— specific gravity 37

Gun— unit weights 37

Manganese — composition of 84

Manganese— weight in kg. per

sq. m., (table) 107-111

Melting point 14

Moduli of elasticity 51

Nickel 91

Phosphor— composition of 84

Phosphor — moduli of elasticity 51

Selling price, etc 35

Silicon— composition of 84

Specific gravity 33,35,36

Tensile strength 46.48

Tobin— specific gravity 37

Tobin— unit weights 37

Trade name, definition 9

Unit weights 36

Uses 81

Weight " percu.' "ftV.".V.*.".V.V.'*.* ■'.'.'.".'.'.' 33, 46
Weight, relative— and nickel

aluminum 34

Brown & Sharpe's Gauoe:

Thickness in inches and milli-
metres, (table) 101

Weight of sheet metals 103

Weight of wi re, ( table) 121

Buffing:

Of aluminum 65

page.
Burnishing:

Of aluminum 64

Burrs:

Aluminum— carried in stock... 131

(;Admium:

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Combining number 21

(Conductivity, electrical 17, 28

Conductivity, relative thermal.. 25

Elasticity, moduli 48,51

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 17, 23

Latent heat of fusion 19

Melting point 14, 17

Position in electro-chemical -

series 12

Properties.... 17, 69

•Specific gravity 17,37

Specific heat 17, 20-21

Unit weights 37

Caesium:

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17,228

Melting point 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties 17, 70

Specific gravity 17,36

Unit weights'. 36

Calcium:

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Conductivity, electrical 17, 28

Cost 68

Hardness, relative 30

Melting point 14, 17

Position in electro-ohemical

series 12

Physical properties 17

Specific gravity 17,36

Specific heat 17,20

Unit weights 36

Capacity:

Metric conversion table, 190, 192, 202^203

Of pumping cylinder 221,222

Carbon:

Atomic weight 228

Dioxide 11

Disulphide, specific gravity 38

Impurity in aluminum 29

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

250

PAGK.

Casting, Castings:

AlaminHin in metal mould? 59

M«thod of makinir— of alami-

num and alloys 58-59

Aluminum bronze 88, 9()

Ingots, size, (out) 2

Safety factor for— of aluminum 55
Strength of aluminum and

alloys in 55

Shrinkage 57

Caustic Alkaliks:

Action on aluminum 10

Ckmknt:

Tensile strength 5()

Average weight 40

Ckntigkadk Dkgbkrs:

Relation to Fahrenheit 226

Relation to Reaumur 226

Ckritm:

Atwnic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Cast 68

Melting point 17

Physical properties 17

Specific gravity 17,36

Specific heat 17,20

Unit weights 36

Chlorine :

Action on aluminum 10

Atomic weight 228

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Chromium :

Alloyed with aluminum 71

Atomic weight 17, 228

Atomic volume 17

Melting point 17

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific heat 17, 20

Specific gravity 17, 36

Unit weights 36

Cinnabar:

Specific gravity 37

Unit weights 37

ClRCLKS:

Areas k circumferences,(tables) 150-164

Circumferences :

And areas of circles, (tables)... 160-164

Round bars, (table) 118-119

PACK.

Coal:

Anthracite, average weight 40

Bituminous, average weight 40

Consumption of— by boilers 220

Equivalent of one lb. perfectly

oxidized 227

Fuel value 227

Cobalt:

Alloyed with aluminum 72

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17,228

Conductivity, electrical 1 7, 28

Expansion, co-eflScient of linear 17, 23

Hardness, relative 30

Melting point 17

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 1 ^
Specific heat!."!.'.!!!!.*.*.'.V..V.V.V.V.V'i7, 20, 22

Specific gravity ; 17, 36

Unit weights 36

Co-kpficiknt:

Of linear expansion 23-24

Linearexpansion of aluminum 17, 23-24
Linear expansion of other

metals 17-18

Coins:

Alloys for 86

Fineness 241

U. S. gold, (table) 237

U. S. minor, (table) 237

U. S. silver, (table) 237

Value of foreign— in gold,

(table) 2^4-236

Coke :

Average weight 40

Color :

Copper-tin alloys 82

Copper-tin zinc alloys 82

Coppei-zinc alloys 78

CoLUMBiUM, (See Niobium):

Atomic weight 228

Specific gravity 36

Unit weights 36

Combining Number:

Of metals 21

Combustibles :

Heat units, (table) 219

Products of combustion, (table) 219

Weights by volume, (table) 219

Commercial Metals:

Purity 68

Summary 68

JlBar rallies, (t^ls) 33S-^M

Win mad Ant wmtal ihi(«.

(table) „ 101

Aluniinutu iufiots made from

AlamlnuiD, Nil. i grade.... 7

AlamlDHBi.No.2|(radB 7

Of copper alloys *4

Of ctippoi-tlB alloys, (aloinic).. TS

Of cnpper-iitic allaye. (alomiol !^

alfo^'".,"''"...".",..'."'!'!.""" Sfl

I'ltimBU resiatanin to. meUle.. All

L'ltimHte reglnlauce tul wood Z HI

Of metals... 2S

Electrioal, i>f aluminnm li.lS

Klectrioal, of metals 17-18

Thermal, of aluminum 17. 2S

Thermal, of melali 17, IN. 23

'spheres. (Uble) IM

t^rmala coneeming UK

Metric table " IM-aOO

PoaitioD ID electpo-ehemioal

Kerixtueeafpnre— winftabM) 12S

HellltiKpnM.MB. K

ehrinEatte .'M

Sperifip gravity 17, Sfi. 33, 35, 37

Sjwoific beat 17, 20, 21, 22, 2S

Ten*ile streusth ft)

Tin alloys, propertiea H2

TiD-»inc alloys m

Unit weirtlU XI

Weight percii. ft St

Weight, hg.perB4.m.. (uUe) lul-lll
Weight, onucee p«r h. ft .liable) lOn

Weight of sheet, (table) 1U3, 1U5

Weight ot-wire, B. k R. gauge.

(table) laO-121

Weight per 8<|. ft _ 41

Zino alloys, prapertiw _ 7S

Of fractions Ili6-1BT

Ot iiDinb«r», (table) llW-171

L'BE Root.*:

Of fiactione. (table). Iii6-lb7

Of numbers. 168-171

CBic Miusi-rk:
Cuslnmary and metric, (table).. ISI, 1S3

English aud metrio. (Uble) 187

Metric omversiuu table 2U2. 2u;i

Table ill

CnsTOM DunKS;

lu aluminum in variou»voun-
tries _ 212r244

UAL, DeCIHAL Eut'lVALINTS;

'eet and inches. ' table) 136. 13R-IJI

fractions, (table) l(iA-167

n inches, (table) 137

■arts of a foot in 14. in.,(table) 136

(HE, UlUjllEEIi:

'able ot Centigrade and Fahr-
enheit 226

DK1.TA MeT*I.:

Weight, kg. perw'.oi^iitabior lirT-lll

Of pump oyliiiderg. ...... 221

Hardness 29

At^imio volume 17

Atomic wei(*t 17

2S2

PA«K.

DfUYXiUM:

Physical proiiertieii 17

Specific gravits* 17, '.^

Si>ecific heat 17, 21)

Tiiit weights -^

DiMRNMIONS:

Of aluminum ingots 2-3

Dipping and Frosting:

Of aluminum W

DisrovKRv:

Of aluminum 25

Dry Mkasurk:

Table 211

DrcTiuTv:

Of aluminum 30

(leneral statement, of alumi-
num ft

Order of— of metals 30-31

Di'TiKS, (See Custom Duties):

Duty :

Steam engine 223

Elastic Fluids:

Specific gravity and weights 43

Elasticity:

Of aluminum 29

Modulus of — cast aluminum 45

Metals, moduli 51

Wood, moduli 51

Elastic Limit:

Aluminum 45

Aluminum brass 78

Aluminum bronze 87

Nickel aluminum 47

Relation of— to ultimate strength 56

Electrical Conductivity:

Of aluminum 26, 27, 28

Of aluminum with impurities.. 26

Of aluminum alloys 27

Of aluminum bronze 28

Of aluminum wire 27

Of nickel alloy wire 27

Of pure copper wire 27,28

Metals, relative 28

Unit equivalents 213

Definition 213

Elkctro-Chkmical Skriks :

Order, (table) 12

Elkmknts:

Atomic weight 228-229

PAGK.

Elongation:

Of aluminum 48

Of aluminum braes 78

English:

Kilograms and — equivalents 2()9

Metric weight and — equiva-
lents, (table) 185

Metric measure and— equiva-
lents 173

Measures of pressure with met-
ric equivalents, (table) 188-189

Engraving:

Of aluminum 65

EgUIVALKNTS:

Decimal — in feet and inches,

(table) 136

Foreign — of cents per pound 238-239

Of one lb. water evaporated 227

Of one lb. perfectly oxidized

coal 227

Unit— ifor electrical heating 213

Erbium :

Atomic weight 228

Cost 68

Properties 69

Ether:

Specific gravity 38, 42

Weight percu. ft 42

Expansion:

Co-efiicient of linear 23, 24

Co-efficient of linear— of alumi-
num 17, 23, 24

Co-efficient of linear — of metals 17, 18

Extra Pure Aluminum:

Made by The Pittsburgh Re-
duction Co 7

Fahrenheit Degrees:

Relation to Centigrade 226

Relation to Reaumur 226

Feed Water:

(Consumption of— per horse i)6wer 220
Consumption, (taole) 221

Feet :

Decimal equivalents— «k inches,
(table) 138-141

Decimal imrts of— in square
inches, (table) 13o

And equivalent meters, (table), 183

Meters and their equivalent,
(table) 184

253

PAGK.

Fkrro- Aluminum :

Custom duties 242-244

Manufacture of 98

Fifth Powers:

Of numbers 168-171

Fineness of Coins:

Money units 230-232

U. S. and European 241

Flat Head Rivets:

Kept in stock 133

Fluids, (See Elastic Fluids) :

FuroRiNE :

Action on aluminum 10

Atomic weight 228

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Foreign:

Custom duties on aluminum 242-244

Values of-coins 230, 232, 2:34, 236

Forging:

Of aluminum 61

EflEect of — aluminum 29,46

Fourth Powers:

Of numbers 168-171

Fractions:

Cube roots of, (table) 166-167

Cubes of, (table) 166-167

Decimal equivalents of, (table) 166-167

Squares of, (table) 166-167

Square roots of , (table) 166-167

Fracture :

Of copper-tin alloys 82

Of copper-tin zinc alloys 82

Of copper-zinc alloys 78

France :

Custom duties on aluminum 242-243

Monetary unit 232, 235

Francs:

Values of marks and, (table)... 241
Frosting :

Of alummum 64

Fuel :

For melting aluminum 59

Comparative — value of combus-
tibles 227

Weight and— value of wood 222-223

Gadolinium:

Atomic weight 228

PAGE.

Gallium :

Atomic weight 228

Cost 68

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Gallons:

Weight of standard, (water) 222

Galvanic Action:

Action on aluminum 12

Explanatory 11-12

Galvanizing Bath:

Precaution in using alumin-

ized zinc 76-77

(tas, Gases:

Fuel A'alue 227

Specific heat of— water unity,

(table) 218

Gauges:

Birmingham, (table) 101

British Imperial & Legal Stand-
ard, (table) 101

Brown and Sharps, (table) 101

Comparison of wire and sheet

metal, (table) 101

Discussion of 100

Master mechanics standard 102

Roebling's, (table) 101

Trenton Iron Co.'s (table) 101

IT. S. Legal Standard, (table) ... 101

Washburn & Moen's, (table)—,. 101

(Germanium:

Atomic weight 228

Cost 68

German Silver:

Aluminum in 8.3

Composition 83

Selling price, etc 35

Specific gravity 35, 83

Uses 83.

Germany:

Custom duties on aluminum 243

Monetary unit 2;^, 235

Glass:

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 24

Tensile strength 50

Glucinum :

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17,228

Cost ^ 68

Properties 17, 69

Specific heat 17,20

Specific gravity 17, SH

Unit weights 36

254

PAQK.

Gold :

Alloyed with aluminum 56, 68, 72

And aluminum, relative weight 33

Alloys for coin 86

Alloys, strength, (table) 56

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

(.'oinage, value of foreign, (table) 234-236

Coinage, table of U. S 237

Coinage, units of the world 230, 232

Combining number 21

Cost 68

Conductivity, electrical 17, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 17, 25

Ductility, relative 30,31

Elasticity, moduli 48,51

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 17, 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

And iron, relative weights in

per cent 44

Malleability, relative 31

Melting point 14, 15, 17, 19, 25

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 17, 25, 33, 37

Si>ecifio heat 17, 20, 21, 22, 25

Unit weights....: 37

Weight per square foot 44

(iUN-Rronzk, (See Bronze):

Hardness:

Of aluminum 19,30

Of copper-tin alloys 82

Of copper-zinc alloys 78

Of diamond, (as standard) 29

Of metals, relative, (table) 29, 30

Method of determining 30

Hkat:

Intensity, metric conversion
table 208

"Heat Units:

In combustibles, (table) 219

Definition 214

Different systems of 214-218

Holland:

Custom duties on aluminum....: 244
Monetary unit 232, 236

Horse Power:

Of boilers 224, 225

Equivalent, boiler heating sur-
face 220

And relative pump capacity 222

Steam engine economy per 220

Hydrochloric Acid, (See Muriatic Acid):

Action on aluminum 10

page.
Htdrogkn :

Atomic weight 228

Carburetted— occlusion of 11

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Sulphuretted 11

Ice:

Melting point 13

Weight, (average) 40

Inches :

Decimal equivalents, (table) 137

Decimal equivalents in feet

and, (tables) 137. 139-141

Millimetres and equivalent,

(tables) 177, 178-182

INDIU.M :

Alloyed with aluminum 75

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Cost 68

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 17, 23

Hardness, relative 30

Melting point 17

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

PropjBrties 70

Specific gravity 17,37

Specific heat 17,20

Unit weights 37

Ingots :

Bar casting, (cut) 2

Dimensions and general char-
acteristics 8-i>

Hollow tube 3

Long rectangular, (cut) 2

The Pittsburgh Reduction Co.'s

standard 3

Square billet, (cut) 2

Standard remelting ingots 3

Plain rolling, (cut) 2

Waffle, (cut) 2

Impurities:

In aluminum 28-29

In aluminum, effecting electri-
cal conductivity 26-27

In gold alloys 56

Malleability and ductility im-
paired by 31

Iodine:

Action on aluminum 10

Atomic weight 228

Melting point 14

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

255

PAOR.

Iridium :

Alloyed with aluminum 69

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Cost 69

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 17, 23, 24

Melting point 15, 17

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemical

series ^ 12

Specific gravity 17,25,37

Specific heat..... 17,22,2a

ITnit weights 37

Iron:

Aluminum and 91

Aluminum in ; 99

And aluminum, relative weight 33

And Nicke)- Aluminum, relative

weight ._. 34

Aluminum tubing — pipe sizes,

(table) 125

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight 17, 228

Combining number 21

Conductivity, relative thermal.. 17, 25
Conductivity,relative electrical 17, 25, 28

Ductility, relative 30-31

Elasticity, moduli 48, 50, 51

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 17,23,24

Hardness, relative..: 30

As impurity in aluminum 28

Malleability, relative 30, .31

Melting point 14, 17, 25. 57

Physical properties 17

Position in electro-chemicnl

series 12

Resistance to shearing 54

Selling price, etc 35

Shrinkage 57

Specific gravity 17. 25, 3:^, a5, 37

Specific heat 17, 20, 21, 22, 25

Tensile strength 46,49

Ultimate resistance to compres'n 50

Unit weights 37

Weight per cu. ft 33.46

Weight, kg. per sq. m., (table).. 107-111

Weight per sq. ft 44

Weight per sq. ft., M. M. gauge, 102
Weight of— sheet B. & S. gauge,

(table) 103

Weight of— wire B. & S. gauge,

(table) 121

Kalchoids :

Composition 82

Properties 83

PAOK.

Kilograms :

And English equivalents 209

Lanthaxum :

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight l<t 228

Cost 68

Physical properties 1<^

Specific gravity l/,36

. Specific heat 17,20

Lnit weights 36

Latent Hkat of Fusion :

Of aluminum 19

Of metals 19

Lkai) :

Action of— with aluminum 75

Alloys ...■••• J^

And aluminum, relative weight <»

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight !<# 228

Combining number _ 21

(Conductivity, electrical 17, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 17,25

Ductility, relative... 30, 31

Elasticity, moduli 48

Expansion, coefficient of linear 17, 2i, 24

Hardness, relative 3I>

And iron, relative weights 44

Latent heat of fusion 19

Malleability, relative »), 31

Melting point 14, 15, 17, 25

Physical properties 1<

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Selling price, etc 3o

Shrinkage _ 58

Specific gravity 17. 25, 33, 35, 37

Specific heat 17, 20. 21, 22, 25

Tensile strength 49

Unit weights ^ ^ 'jt

Weight, kg. per sq. m., (table).. 107-111
Weight per sq. ft 44

Lknoth :

Mensuration 142

Linear Expansion, (See Expansion) :

Liquids:

Flow of— in pipes 221

Specific gravity 1^,42

Specific gravity & unit weights, .*», 42

Lithium :

Atomic volume 17

Atomic weight it,^

Conductivity, electrical 17, 28

Cost ^

Melting point 17

2S6.

PAGK.

Lithium :

Position in elect ro-chemic*Al

series 12

Properties 17,69

Specific gravity....: 17,36

Specific heat 17, 2()

Unit weights 36

LoNU Measure:

Customary and metric, (table).. 190-193

Metric conversion table '201

Table of 210

Lubricant:

For aluminum lathe work 64

For press work 64

Magnesium:

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

.Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23

Hardness, relative 80

Melting point 14, 18. 25

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, 25. ;36

S4>ecific heat 18, 2J), 21, 25

I nit weights 36

Malleability:

Of aluminum 30,31

Of copi>er-tin alloys 82

Of copi)erzinc alloys 78

(Jeneral statement — of alumi-
num 5

Order of— of metals 30, 31

Manganese:

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Combining number 21

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Hardness, relative 30

Melting point 18

Physical properties 18

Position in electm-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity ...! 18, 25,37

Specific heat 18, 20, 22, 25

Unit weights 37

PAGE.

Manufacture of:

Aluminum bronze 89,90

Ferro-aluminum W*

Marks:

Values of— and francs 241

Master Mechanics:

Standard gauge 102

Measure:

History of units of 172

Melting:

Of aluminum 57

Fuel for— aluminum 59

Melting Point:

Of aluminum 13, 17, 19, 25, 57

Aluminum bronze 88

Metals 17, 18, 25

Various substances, (table) 13-14

Variously determined, (table)... 14

Mensuration:

Formula for 142-14,3

Mercury:

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Expansion, co-eflicient of linear 24

Latent heat of fusion 19

Melting point 13, 18, 25

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, '25, 37

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 22,25

Unit weights 37

Metaloids :

Presence in aluminum 72

Mktals:

Aluminum & the rare & costly.. 68

Aluminum alloy-) 7ft-^ -« '7-^ -< — -^

ed with other... [""■'^"'2 73-<4-/,T-/b

Analysis of 80

Conductivity, relative thermal, 25

Ductility, order 30-31

Elasticity, moduli 48

Fusible 86

Hardness, relative 29, :«)

Malleability, order of 30-31

Physical properties, (table) 17-18

Precious 68

Shrinkage of castings 57

257

PAGK.

Specific gravity and selling

price, (table) 34-35

Summary of commercial 68

Summary of the rare 68

Tensile strength 48-49

Tensile strength in relation to

weight 46

Ultimate resistance to compres'n 50

■Weight, (comparative) 44

Weight of sheet, (table) 107-111

MKTi':RS :

And their equivalents in feet,
(table) 184

Feet and their equivalents in,
(table) 183-184

Metric System:

Advantages 172

Of capacity with U. S. eciuiva-

lents 175

Converting customary to,(tabIe) 190-191
Converting — to customarj%

(table) 190-191

Conversion of 100, 194-200, 201-208

And English equivalents 173

General scheme of 174

Of length 174

Of pressure, with English

equivalents, (table) 188-189

Of surface, with English equiv-
alents 174

Of weight, with English equiv-
alents 175

Weight of sheet metals, (table) 107-111

MiLLIMKTRKS:

Inches and equivalent, (table).. 177
And equivalent inches, (table) 178-182

M1TI8 Process:

Of making castings 99

Moduli of Elasticity:

Of aluminum 48

Of metals 48,51

Of wood 51

Molybdenum :

Alloyed with aluminum 73

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Properties 18, 69

Specific gravity 18, 37

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 37

Monetary System:

Of the U. S., (table) 240

■mr PA(tE«

Money :

Order charges, (domestic) 233

World's— units, (table) 230-232

Muntz Metal:

Composition 84

Weight, kg. per sq. ra., (table)," 107-111

Muriatic Acid. (See Hydrochloric Acid) :

Specific gravity 38, 42

Weight percu. ft 42

Xautical Measure:

Table 2IO

Neodymium :

Atomic weight 229

Nickel:

Alloyed with aluminum 71

And aluminum, relative weight 33

Atomic volume 18, 229

Atomic weight 18

Bronze ; 91

Combining number 21

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Copper-alloys 85

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

And iron, relative weights 44

Malleability, relative 30

Melting point 15,18

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Selling price, etc 35

Specific gravity 18, 25, .35, 37

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 22, 25

Unit weights 37

Weight of— to other metalsi

(relative) 34

Weight i)er sq. ft 44

Nickel Aluminum:

Casting alloys fi

Elastic limit 47

As trade name 71-72

Plates, sheets and sections 6

Reduction of area 47

Shrinkage 57

Strength * 46-47

Specific gravity 32,33,36

Specific gravity, rolling ingots.. 32-33

Weight per cu. ft 33

Unit weights 36

Niobium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18

258

Niobium : page.

Physical properties 18

Specific gravity 18, 36

Unit weights 36

NiTRK :

Use of — in casting aluminuni... 58

Nitric Acid:

Action on aluminum 10

Specific gravity 38, 42

Weight per cu. ft 42

Nitrogen:

Atomic weight 229

As impurity in aluminum 29

Occlusion of 11

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Nitro-Glyckrink :

Melting point 13

On.:

Anise seed— weight per cu. foot 42

A nise seed— specific gravity 42

Codfish— weight per cu. ft 42

Codfish— specific gravity 42

Fuel, value of 227

Linseed— specific gravity 38, 42

Linseed — weight per cu. ft 42

Naphtha — specific gravity 42

Naphtha— weight per cu. ft 42

Olive— specific gravity 38, 42

Olive — weight per cu.ft 42

Palm — specific gravity 38, 42

Palm— weight per cu. ft 42

Petroleum— specific gravity 38, 42

Petroleum— weight per cu. ft... 42

Rape— specific gravity ;S8, 42

Rape— weight percu. ft 42

Sunflower— specific gravity 42

vSunflower— weight per cu. ft 42

Turpentine— specific gravity 38, 42

Turpentine — weight.per cu. ft.. 42

Whale — specific gravity l^, 42

Whale— weight per cu. ft 42

Occluded Gases:

Carhuretted hydrogen 11

Nitrogen 11

Ohm:

Definition 165

Organic Acids:

Action on aluminum 10

Osmium:

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Expansion,co-eflRcient of linear 18, 23, 24

Melting point 18

PAGE.

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties 18, 69

Specific gravity 18, 37

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 37

Oxygen :

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Palladium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 22i»

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 2S

Conductivity, thermal 25

Cost m

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Elasticity, moduli 48

Expansion, CO efficien t of linear 18, 23, 24

Melting point 14, 15, IS

Properties 18, 69

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, 25, 37

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 25

Unit weights 37

Pewter :

Composition 85

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 24

Phosphorus :

Action of— with aluminum 72

Atomic weight 229

Melting point 13

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Pipe, Pipes:

Capacity of 221

Iron — sizes of aluminum 125

The Pittsburgh Reduction Co.:

Alloys manufactured by 6

Material sold by — for iK)lishing ()2

Purity of metal sold by 7

Rolling injfots, stock sizes 7-8

Shai>e of ingots furnished by,

(cuts) 2

Plating:

Of aluminum 66-67

Platinum :

Alloyed with aluminum 69

And aluminum, relative weight .*tt

Atomic volume IS

Atomic weight 18,229

Combining number 21

259

PAGR.

Cost 69

Discoverer, name of 25

Discovery, date 25

Ductility, relative 30, 31

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Elasticity, moduli 48

Expansion.co-efficient of linear 18, 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

Malleability, relative JiO, 31

Meltinjf Domt 14, 15, 16, 18. 19

Physical proi>erties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Si^ecific gravity 18, 25, 33, 37

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 22, 25

Unit weights 37

Polish, Polishing:

Of aluminum 61-62-63

"Acme" aluminum polish 62

Postage :

Rates 23:^

Potassium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23

Hardness, relative l^

Meltingpoint 13, 18

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, 36

Specific heat 18, 20, 21

Sul^ihate, melting point 14

Unit weights 36

Pounds:

Foreign equivalents of cents
per, (table) 2:«-239

Metric measures and equiva-
lent—per sq. in 189

Per sq. m. and equivalent met-
ric measures 188

Powdkr:

See Aluminum Bronze Powder.

POWKRS :

See squares, cubes, fourth and
fifth powers.

Praskodymium :

Atomic weight 229

Precious Metals:

List 68

page.

Pressure:

Mean atmospheric 221

Metric and U. S. measures,

(tables) 188-189, 206-207

Safe — on aluminum tubing,

(table) 128-129-130

Units 205

Water column 221

Price:

Selling — of aluminum 35

And specific gravity of metals,

(table) :U-'Si>

Of the Pittsburgh Co.'s cata-
logue 4

Prismoidal Formula:

Statement of 148

Properties:

Electrical — of aluminum 26-28

Of copper-tin alloys in castings 82

Of copper-tin zinc alloys 82

Of coj)per-zinc alloys in castings 78

Physical— of metals, (table) 17-18

Pumps:

Information c<mceniing 221-222

Purity:

Of commercial aluininuni 7

The Pittsburgh Reduction Co.'s
guarantee of 5

Rain Water:

Specific gravity according to 42

Rare Metals:

List 68-69-70

Reaumur Degrees:

Relation to Centigrade 226

Relation to Fahrenheit 226

Registration :

Of mail matter 233

Relation :

Of aluminum to tin plates,

(table) 106

Of thermometric scales 226

In w'ght of aluminum to copper 105

Resistance :

Of pure aluminum wire, (table) 122
Of pure copper wire, (table) 123

Rhodium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Cost 68

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23
Meltingpoint 18

26o

PAOK.

Rhodium:

Position iu electro-chemical

series 12

Proi)€rtie8 18, 69

Specific ifravity 18, 37

Si>ecific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 37

RiVKTS:

Shearing and bearing value of

alaminmn, (table) 52->')3

Aluminum — carried in stock... 131

Aluminum — strength 55

Efficiency of riveted joint-s of

aluminum 55

RoKBLiNo's (Iauok:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Rolled:

Areas of flat— bars 144-U9

Sections of aluminum 60

Weight of — aluminum, ) -ms n., ,-,-.

(table) i l'». 11^-11'

Weight of— copi>er, (table) 105

Rolling :

Ingot shapes, (cut) 2

Aluminum 60

Tngot sizes 7-8

Slabs 8

Roots :

See cube and square roots.

Round Hkad Rivets:

Kept in stock 131-132

Rubidium:

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 22i)

Cost 68

Melting point 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties 18,70

Specific gravity 18, 36

Specific heat 18, 20

I nit weights 36

Ruthenium:

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Cost 68

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23

Melting imint 18

Proijerties 18, 69

Si)ecific gravity 18, 37

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 37

PAGE.

Safety Factor:

For aluminum and aluminum

alloys 54-55

Salt:

Average weight 41

Salt Water:

Action on aluminum 10

Samarium:

Atomic weight 229

Sand:

Average weight 41

Sand Blasting:

Of aluminum 63

Scandium:

Atomic weight 229

Scratch Brushing:

Of aluminum... 63

Seamless Tubing, (See Tubing):

Sections:

Of aluminum 60

Squirted — of aluminum 61

Sea Water:

Action on aluminum 10

Si>ecific gravity 38, 42

Weight per cu. ft 41,42

Selenium :

Atomic weight 229

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 36

Unit weights 36

Shape:

Of aluminum ingots (cut, 2-3), 7-8

Shearing:

Value of aluminum 55

And bearing value of alumi-
num, rivets, (table) 52-53

Resistance to— metals 54

Resistance to — timber 54

Sheet:

Comparison of wire and —

gauges, (table) 101

Aluminum— relative to tin plate

(table) 106

Solution for preparation of sur-
face of 66

Weight of-aluminum,(table) 32, 104-106

Weight of— brass, (table) 104

Weight of— copper, (table) 105

26 1

PAGE.

Weight of— metals, (table) 107-111

Weight of— steel, (table) 104

Weight of zinc — i^er sq. ft.,
(table) 104

Shrinkage:

Nickel aluminum alloy.. 57

Pure aluminum 57

Sl^ecial Casting Alloy 57

Bismuth 58

Brass castings 58

Metal eastings 57

Copper 58

Various shaiied iron castings... 57

Lead 58

Zinc 58

Silicon;

Atomic weight 229

Impurity in aluminum 11,28

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Siwcific heat 20

Silver:

Alloyed with aluminum 73

Alloys for— coins 86

And aluminum, relative weight 3;^

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Coins, table of U. S 237

Coinage units of the world 2:^

Coinage of the world, subsidiary 230-232

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Ductility, relative 30, 31

Elasticity, moduli 48

£xpansion,co-efficient of linear 18, 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

And iron, relative weights 44

Latent heat of fusion 19

Malleabilitv, relative 30, 31

Melting point 14, 18, 19, 25

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, 25, 33, 37

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 22, 25

Unit weights 37

Weight i>er sq. ft 44

Sizes :

Of rolling ingots 7-8

Slabs :

Rolling 8

PAGE.

Sodium :

Atomic volume 18, 229

Atomic weight 18

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Expansion, co-efiicient of linear 18, 2S

Hardness, relative 30

As impurity' in aluminum 11, 29

Meltingi>omt • 13,18

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18, 36

Specific heat 18, 20, 21

Unit weights 36

Solder, Soldering :

Of aluminum 65-66

Of aluminum bronze 90,91

Comiwsition 85

Solubility:

Of aluminum 10

Sonorousness:

Of aluminum 31

Special Casting Alloy:

(leneral statements wmeeniing 6

Shrinkage 57

Siiecific gravity 32, 3:^

Weight i)er cu. ft 33

Specific (travity:

Of aluminum 17, 25, 32, 33, 35, 36

Aluminum & aluminum alloys 32-33

Aluminum bronze 36

Aluminum nickel alloy 36

Combustibles, (table) 219

Copi)er-tin alloys 82

Copi)er-zinc alloys 78

Elastic fluids 43

(terman silver 83

Liquids 38, 42

Metals 17, 18, 25,36

And price of metals, (table) 34-35

Wood 38, 39

Steam 220

Specific Heats:

Of aluminum 17, 19. 20, 21, 25

Comparative table 20

Elastic fluids, (table) 218

Metals 17-18, 21, 25

Speed :

For spinning or bufiing alumi-
num 65

Metric conversion table of 207-208

262

PAGK.

Spkltkr (See Zinc):

SPKRMACETTi:

MeItinKlH)iut 13

Sphrrks:

Contents* H>4

Spikgkl:

Analysis W

Effect of aluminum in 94

Spin XI no:

Of aluminum Ho

Lathe 8i)eed for — aluminum 65

Squares:

Of fractions, (table) lHtH67

Of numbers, (table) 168-171

Square Inches:

Decimal iiarts of a foot in,
(ta,ble) 135

Square Measure:

Metric conver- | j^ ,,^, jy.^, 201-202

sion, (table)... j » • »
Table 210

Square Roots:

Of fractions, (table) 166-167

Of numbers, (table) 168-171

Standard:

Electrical units 165

Master Mechanics— Kauge 102

Remeltingr ingots 3

Sizes tubing in stock, (table).... 124

SVeight of— gallons, (water) 222

Steam :

Rate of flow 220

Useful information concerning, 220, 221

Specific gravity 42

Weight i)er cu. ft 42

Steam Engines:

Economy per horse power 220

Duty of 223

Stearic Acid:

Melting point 13

Steel :

Aluminum in 91-4»8

Effect of aluminum in, (cut) 97

Excessive use of aluminum in.. 95

Saving by use of aluminum in., 94
And aluminum, relation in

weight 3:3

And nickel-aluminum, relative

weight 34

Conductivity, relative electrical 28

page.

Conductivity, relative thermal.. 25

Elasticity, moduli of 48, 51

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 24

And iron, relative weights 44

Melting i)oint 14

Selling price, etc 35

Similar shapes of aluminum and 6()

Si)ecific gravity 33, 35, 37

Sijecific heat 20, 22

Tensile-strength 46, 49

Unit weights 37

Weight per cu. ft 33, 46

Weight, kg. per sq. m., (table).. 107-111

Weight of sheet, (table) 103, 104

Weight i)er sq. ft 44

Weight per sq. ft., M. M. gauge 102
Weight of — wire B. & S. gauge,

(table) 121

Stone:

Ultimate resistance 50

Strength :

Of pure aluminum 4&-48, 54

Of aluminum alloys 46, 48, 54

Of ^old alloys, (table) 56

Variations in — of nickel alumi-
num 47

Stress :

Metric conversion table 2()5-2(M>

Strontium:

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Cost 68

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties 18, 69

Specific gravity 18, 36

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 36

Structural:

l^se of aluminum 54-^5-56

Stubs' Gauge:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Sulphur:

Action on aluminum 10

Atomic weight 229

Position in electro-chemi«il

series 12

Melting point 14

Weight, average 41

Sulphuric Acid:

Action on aluminum 10

263

PAGE.

Tallow :

Melting point 13

Tantalum :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Physical properties 18

Specific gravity 18, 37

Unit weights 37

Tar:

Specific gravity 38, 42

Weight, average 41

Weight per cu. ft 42

Tkllueium :

Alloyed with aluminum 73

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight ^ 18, 229

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Expansion, co-efiicient of linear 18, 23

Melting point 18

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Specific gravity 18

Specific heat 18, 20

Temperature:

Effect on aluminum 56

Tensile Strength:

Aluminum 45, 54

Aluminum and alloys 54

Aluminum bronze 87

Aluminum for the "Defen-
der," (table) ^8

Copi>er-tin alloys 82

Copper-zinc alloys 78

(toIq alloys 56

Metals 48-49

Stone, natural and artificial 50

Timber and organic fiber 49

In relation to weight, (table).... 46

Terbium :

Atomic weight 229

Thallium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight IS, 229

Conductivity, electrical 18, 28

Expansion, co-efficient of linear 18, 23

Hardness, relative 30

Melting point 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Properties 18, 69

Specific gravity 18, 37

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 37

PAGE.

Thermometric Scales:

Relation of 226

Thorium:

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Cost 69

Properties 18, 69

Specific gravity 18, 37

Specific heat 1«, 20

Unit weights 87

Thulium:

Atomic weight 229

Tin:

Alloys 85

Alloyed with aluminum 70-71

Aluminum sheet relative to —

plates, (table) 106

And aluminum , relative weight 3;i

Analysis of commercial 80

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Combining number 21

Contained in commercial zinc... 80

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Copper — zinc alloys 82

Copper — alloys, properties 82

Ductility, relative 30, 31

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Expansion.co-efficient of linear 18, 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

And iron, relative weights 44

Latent heat of fusion 19

Malleability, relative ;», 31

Meltingpoint 14, 18

Phosphor— alloyed with alumi-
num 71

Physical properties ]8

Selling price, etc :i5

Specific gravity 18, 25, 35, 37

Tensile strength 49

Trade designation of — filiate,

(table) 106

U^nit weights 37

Weight per sq. ft 44

Specific heat 18, 20, 21, 22, 25

Titanium;

Alloyed with aluminum 71

Atomic weight 18, 229

Properties 18, 70

Specific gravity 36

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights 36

Tobin-Bronze, (See Bronze):

264

PAOK.

Tooling :

Of aluminum 64

Tran»vkrsr Strkxgth :

Of aluminum 46

Trkxton Iron Co.'a Gaugk:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Turk, Tubing:

Hollow — ingots 3

Aluminum — iron pii)e sizes,

(table) 125

^oJbil?,.!!!..*!!'"!!!!"!!!: } i«-i2i^i3«

Stiindard— in stock, (table) 124

Weight i>er foot of aluminum,

(table) 126-127

TUNGSTKN :

Alloyed with aluminum 71

Atomic volume IS

Atomic weight - 18, 229

Melting iK>int 18

Properties 70

Specific gravity 18, 37

S;)ecific heat 18, 20, 22

I nit weights 37

Turpkntink, (See Oil):

Melting point 13

Ultimate Strength:

Aluminum 4o

Aluminum nickel alloy 17

Aluminum brass 78

Metal nO

Stone 50

Timber 49

Tnitei) States:

Coinage, (table) 2:^7

(,'iistom duties on aluminum 242

Money orders 23.3

Regit^tration of mail 2.'i3

Kates of postage 2.*i3

Values of marks and francs,

(table) 241

V. S. Legal Standard Gauge:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Unit, Units:

Of electrical measurement 165

Equivalents for electric heating 213

^^ftebfesl!"!"!.*.''?': } 2J^^2:^^' 234-236

World's monej%' (tables) 230-232

PAGE.

Unit Wrights:

Of combustibles, (tables) 219

Of liquids 42

Of steam 220

Uranium :

Alloyed with aluminum 74

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18

Properties.... 18, 70

Specific gravity 18, 37

S;)ecificheat 18,20

Unit weights 37

Value:

Of foreign coins,(table)..230-232, 234. 236

Comparative money, (table) 238r-239

U. S. — of mark« and francs,

(table) 241

Of weights used in tables 33

Vanadium:

Alloyed with aluminum 75

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Physical proi>erties 18

Si)ecific gravity 18, 36

Unit weights 36

Varnish:

For Aluminum Bronze Powder. 9

V^elocity:

Metric conversion table 207-208

Vinegar:

Action on aluminum 10

Si>ecific gravity 38, 42

Weight per cu. ft 42

Washburn & Moen's Gauge:

Thickness in inches, (table) 101

Water:

Equivalents of one lb. of —

evaiwrated 227

Evaiwration of 220

Latent heat of fusion 19

Mineral — action on aluminum.. 10

Pressure of columns of 221

Salt— action on aluminum 10

Sea— action on aluminum 10

Sea— spg. and weight per cu. ft. 38, 42

Specific gravity 38, 42

Specific neat 20

l^^seful information conceiiiing, 221-222

Weight, average 41

Weight, kg. per sq. m., distilled,

(table) 107-111

Weight i>er cu. ft 42

265

Wax:

PA6R.

Melting point 13

Weight, average 41

Weight, Weights:

Aluminum bars, (table) .^2, 104, 11^119
Aluminum bars, flat rolled,

(table) 112-117

Aluminum bronze, kg. iier sq.

m., (table) 107-111

Aluminum & copper wire,(table) 120
Aluminum, factor of to other

metals 33

Aluminum, general statements 6

Aluminum, kg. per sq. m.(table) 107-111
Aluminum plates per sq. ft 44

^(teblS)T ^^?*! I 32, 102, 103, 104. 105
Aluminum tubing per ft,(table) 126-127
Aluminum wire B. & S. gauge,

(table) 121

Atomic, of combustibles 219

Atomic, of elements 228-229

Avoirdupois, (table) 210

Brass, kg. per sq. m., (table) 107-111

Brass sheet B. &. S. gauge,(table) 103

Brass sheet and bar, (table) 104

Brass wire, B- & S. gauge (table) 121

Coins, money units 230-232

Copper wire, B. & S. gauge(table) 121
Copper, kg. per sq. m., table)... 107-111

Copper sheet, (table) 105

Copper sheet,B.&S.gauge,(table) 103
Belta metal, kg. per sq. m.(table) 107-111

Gallons, standard, (water) 222

History of units 173

Iron, kg. per-sq. m., (table) 107-111

Iron, sheet, B. & S. gauge,(table) 103
Iron, sheet, M. M. gauge (table) 102
Iron wire, B. & S. gauge (table) 121

Le«id, kg. persq. m., (table) 107-111

Manganese bronze, kg. persq.

m., (table) 107-111

Measures of 212

Measures, customary to metric,

(table) 192

Measures, metric to customary,

(table) 190-191

Metals, comparative 44

Metals, per sq. ft 44

Metals, sheet, (table) 107-111

Metric and English equiva-
lents, (table) 185

^(teble).!^.".'^!."!!'.!!! } 203-204,207.212
Molecular, combu8tible8,(table) 219
MuntE metal, kg. per sq. m..

(table) 107-111

Steel, kg. per sq. m.. (table) 107-111

PAGE.

Steel sheet, B. & S. gange.(table) 103
Steel sheet, M. M. gauge,(table) 102
Steel wire, B. & S. gauge, (table) 121

Steel, relation to aluminum 60, 133

Steel sheet and bars, (table) 104

Tensile strength in relation to,

(metals) 46

Values, comparative, (table) 238-239

Water, kg. per sq- m., (table)... 107-111

Wood, fuel value 222-223

By volume of combustibles,

(table) 219

Zinc, kg. per sq. m., (table) 107-111

Zinc sheet per sq. ft., (table) 105

Weights and Measures:

Common— with metric equiva-
lents 176

Weight Pkb Cubic Foot:

Aluminum bronze 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, an-
nealed 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, cast.... 33-36
Aluminum nickel alloy, rolled, 33, 36
Aluminum nickel alloy, rolling

ingot 33

Aluminum pure annealed 36

Aluminum pure cast 32-33, 36

Aluminum pure rolled 32-33, 36

Aluminum Special Casting Alloy 33

Elastic fluids 43

Metals 36

Various substances 40-41

Wood 38

Weight Per Cubic Inch:

Aluminum bronze 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, an-
nealed 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, cast 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, rolled, 36

Aluminum pure annealed 36

Aluminum pure cast 32, 36

Aluminum pure rolled 32, 36

Metals 36

Weight Per Cubic Decimeter:

Aluminum pure annealed 36

Aluminum pure cast 36

Aluminum pure rolled 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, an-
nealed 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, cast.... 36

Aluminum nickel alloy, rolled. 36

Aluminum bronze 36

Metals 36

Welding:

Aluminum 65

266

PAGR.

Wiek:

Area in circular mils.t (table)... 120
Comparison of — gauges and

sheet metal gauges, (table) 101

Resistance of pure aluminum,

(table) 122

Resistance of pure copper,(table) 123
Weight of aluminum and cop-
per, (table) 120

Wolfram :

Aluminum as trade name 71

Specific gravity 37

Unit weights 37

Wood:

Specific gravity 38

Tensile strength 49

Ultimate resistance to compres-
sion 50

Weight and fuel value 222-223

Working :

Effect of — on hardness of

aluminum 29

Aluminum, general statement.. 5

Ytterbium :

Atomic weight 229

Yttrium :

Atomic weight 229

Zinc:

Alloyed with aluminum 75

Alloys 86

Analysis of commercial 80

Aluminized 75, 76, 78

PAGE.

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18, 229

Combining number 21

Conductivity, electrical 18, 25, 28

Conductivity, thermal 18, 25

Contained in commercial metals 80

Coppei^-alloys, properties 78

Copper-tin— alloys 82

Ductility, relative 30, 31

Expansion, co-efiicient of linear 18. 23, 24

Hardness, relative 30

To iron, relative weights in per

cent 44

Latent heat of fusion 19

Malleability, relative 30-31

Melting point 14, 16, 18, 25

Physical properties 18

Position in electro-chemical

series 12

Selling price, etc 35

Shrinkage 58

Specific gravity 18, 25, 35. 36

Specific heat 18, 20, 21. 22, 25

Tensile strength 49

Unit weights 36

Weight in kg. per sq. m., (table) 107-111
Weight of sheet per sq. ft.(table) 105
Weight per sq. ft 44

Zirconium :

Atomic volume 18

Atomic weight 18,229

Cost 68

Physical properties 18

Specific gravity 18, 36

Specific heat 18, 20

Unit weights '. 36