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VOLUME XXIV 



JANUARY-NOVEMBEK, 1902, 



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Rev. STEPHEN D. PEET, Ph. D.. Editor. 



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TABLE OF 'CdNtENTS.. 






VOL. XXIV. 



• : .• . 



January-February. 

page 

FRONTISPIECE: THE PALACES NEAR CAMPECHE. 

THE ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGENES. By 
Chas. Hallock, M B. S 3 

ETHNIC STYLES OF AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. By Ste- 
phen D. Peet 19 

THE CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PRIMITIVE IMPLE- 
MENTS AND WEAPONS. By Alton Howard Thompson, To- 
peka, Kansas, Parti. Gifts of Nature 35 

THE BEARD AS A TEST FOR CLASSIFICATION OF RACES. 

By C. Staniland Wake 43 

A PLEA FOR GREATER SIMPLICITY. AND GREATER AC- 
CURACY, IN THE WRITINGS OF THE FUTURE RE- 
GARDING THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. By Dr. Charles 
E. Slocum, Defiance, Ohio 46 

EDITORIAL— A Plp:a for Better Pionkbr History. By S. 
D. Peet 49 

ARCH.4£LOGICAL NOTES— 

Explorations IN Syria 52 

Excavation in Crkik 52 

Is Stonkhkngk a Nkolitiiic Structure? 53 

Pueblo Ruins in Kansas 53 

Story OF THK Corinthian Capital 3 

The ScARABiEus 54 

A Prehistoric Art Gallery of Extimct Animals 55 

LITERARY NOTES 56 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

A Historical Geography of the British Colonies. By C. P. Lucas. 56 

The Lesser New Fire Ceremony at Walpi. By J. Walter Fewkes. 57 

The Social Life of the Hebrews. Rev. Edward Day 57 

Memoranda of the Maya Callendars. By C. P. Bowdltch 57 

Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and 

Ethnology. By Teobert Maler 58 



• •* 
• • • 



• •• 
• • • 



• ' 






• • •- • 









•• • -• 



• • • • 

• • • 



2 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



March-April. 

Pag* 

ETHNIC STYLES AMONG AMERICAN TRIBES. By Stephen 

Urn A Cd •••. •.*• •..« .... .**• .... •*■• \J B 

SOME ETHNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 

X^y \J m Xl«. l^alUlaWf *•.. •.*• >••* .... .•.. .. // 

• 

CURIOUS AND INTERESTING MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF 
SOME OF THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF BRITISH CO- 
LUMBIA. By Charles Hill-Tout 85 

CARRIERS AND AINOS AT HOME. By Rev. A. G. Morice. O.M.G. 88 

THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM. By Frederick Starr 93 

PHILIPPINE STUDIES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain 97 

THE THOORGA AND OTHER AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 
By R. H. Mathews, L. S .... .... loi 

COMMUNAL HOUSES. By C. Hill-Tout 107 

EDITORIAL— Human Figures in American and Oriental Art Com- 
pared. By Stephen D. Pcet 106 

ARCHy^OLOGICAL NOTES— 

The Hermes Restored 125 

The Sacs and Foxes.... ..'. . .... .... .... .... 125 

The Northwest Coast 126 

Houses Among the Hurons 1 26 

LITERARY NOTES— 

The American Antiquarian and College Libraries 127 

Anthropology in Colleges and Universities 127 

RECENT DISCOVERIES— 

A Large Collection of Relics in the Reindeer Period 128 

Relics from East Africa 128 

In California .... .... 128 

From New Zealand 1 28 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

The Human Ear: Its Identification and Physiognomy. By Miriam 

/\nn iLiiis .. .... .... .... ••.. .... ,.,.i *</ 

L'Animisme Fetchiste des NegresBahia. Dr. Nina Rodrigues . . . 130 

Metissage Degenerescenee et Crime: Dr. Nina Rodrigues 130 

Des Formes de L'Hymen: Dr. Nina Rodrigues 13^ 

Zuni Folk-Tales: Translated by Frank Hamilton Cushing 130 

Transactions of the Canadian Institute: Rev. Father A. G. Morice. 131 

Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley. By Teobert Maler 131 

Government Museum, Madras: Catalogue of the Pre-Historic An- 
tiquities. By R. Bruce Foot^ .... ,,t '3^ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



May-Junk. 

Page 

FRONTISPIECE— Ziggurat at Nippur 133 

THE RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. Illustrated. 
By Stephen D. Peet 135 

PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. Illustrated. By 
Publius V. Lawson 157 

THE PHILIPPINE LIBRARY. By Frederick Starr 168 

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. By Dr. A. L. Benedict. 173 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By A. F. Chamberlain 17Q 

ARCHAEOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. By John Eraser, L.L.D., Sidney. 

STONE CIRCLES IN COLORADO. By A. M. Swan 182 

ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. By Arthur J. Evans 

LAKE DWELLINGS IN BELGIUM. By Alexander F. Chamberlain 184 

CONTACT BETWEEN ASIA AND AMERICA. By James Wick 

crsuam .«•• ..•• .•*• *•«• .■•> ...aX ^ / 

ANCIENT BOAT FROM THE NILE. Selected 187 

THE OLDEST DISCOVERED SPECIMENS OF EGYPTIAN 

JEWELRY .... .... .... .... .... 188 

EDITORIAL— 

Mythologic Art in Prehistoric and Historic Times. Illustrated 189 

The Coming Congress of Americanists .... . • « • • • • • I90 

EDITORIAL CORRESPONDENCE I91 

American Association for the Advancement of Science .... I9I 

International Congress uf Americanists. .. . .... .... I9I 

LITERARY NOTES I92 

BOOK REVIEWS 193 

Reproduction of Mexican Codiecs. By Luke D. Loubat •* • > I93 

Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and 

The Hieroglyphic Stairway. By George Byron Gordon .... 194 

Memoirs of the Explorations of the Basin of the Mississippi. 

Vol. IV. By J. V. Brower ... ... .... I95 

BOOKS RECEIVED I96 



Table of contents. 



July-August. 

Page 

DIFFERENT RACES IN AMERICA. By Stephen D. Peet.... igg 

APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF VARIATION IN THE 

EVOLUTION OF MAN. By Charles H. Duncan 215 

THE ESKIMO DANCE HOUSE. By James Wickersham 221 

THOMAS JEFFERSON ON PRE-HISTORIC AMERICANS. 

By Henry Burns Geer 224 

RELICS OF A BY-GONE RACE 228 

EARLY AMERICAN ART 229 

•LITTLE ORPHAN" ISLAND 230 

RECENT DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST 231 

PiCTOGRAPHS NeaK DORDOGNE 23I 

Thf. Mummy of Merenptah, 231 

MiGDOL 231 

Thk Minotaur 231 

Jewries of an Egyptian Queen 231 

Recent Discoveries in Egypt 232 

An Ancient Woman Warrior 232 

The Sahara Desert 232 

The House of the Double Ax 233 

Pre-Dynastic Period of Egypt — 233 

Present Condition of Pompeii 233 

Submarine Roman Remains of the Italian Littoral 234 

George Frederick Grotefend 234 . 

Bell Founding 235 

A Modern Rock-Cut Figure 235 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. 236 

I.MPERIALISM AND Archaeology 236 

Sacred Language 236 

Pblasgi 237 

Degeneration 237 

Kekchi Maize Products 237 

EDITORIAL- 
VILLAGE LIFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE 239 

THE ARCH.*:OLOGICAL HISTORY OF OHIO 255. 

POOK REVIEWS 258 

Arch-eological History of Ohio 258 

Free Museum of Science and Art. Bulletins No. 1-2-3-4 

Vol. II. Nos. 12-3-4. Vol. III. Nos. 1-2-3 o.-. 259-262 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5 



September-October. 

Page 
Ancient Tfmple Architecture. By Stephen D. Peet.. 365 

Ruins of the Mimbres Valley. By P>ancis U. Duff 397 

Anthropology IN Australia. By John Eraser 400 

Earlier Home of the Bella Coola Tribe. By Charles 

Hill-Tout 403 

Thomas Wilson, lld. By Warren K. Moorehead 404 

Papers Read Before the American Association. 

Explorations in 1901, of Arizona. By Dr. W. Hough 408 
The late Dr. Thomas Wilson. By W. K. Moorehead 408 

Early Migration of Mankind. By G. F. Wright 409 

Preservation of Museum Specimens. By Dr. Hough.. 411 

Primitive Man and His Stone Implements in the North 
American Loess. By Warren Upham 413 

Notes on the Eossil Man from Kansas. By the Editor. 420 

Finds in America 421 

Creation Legends in Babylonia 421 

Editorial Notes — 

Recent Explorations 422 

The Campanile Tower 423 

Book Reviews — 

The Indians of To-day. By George Bird Grinnell... 424 

The International Monthly 424 

Primitive Semitic Religion To-day.: 42!^ 

A New Eskimo Grammar 425 

National Geographic Magazine — June. The Caribs.. 425 

Annual Archaeological Reports — 1901 426 

Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia 426 
Memoirs of Explorations — Basin of the Mississippi.. 426 
Smithsonian Institution. Instructions to Collectors.. 426 
Preliminary Sketch of the Mojave Indians. By A. J. 

Kroeber 427 

Ymer 427 

September Magazines Received — 

The Antiquary, London 428 

Biblia, Meriden, Connectigut 428 

Man, for August 428 



The paging of this number is by mistake one hundred greater than 

it should be. 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



November-December. 

Pyramids IN America. By Stephen D. Peet 427 ^ 

Primitive Implements and Weapons By Alton Howard .*3 

Thompson .... .... .... .... .... 452 v 

ARCiiii^:oLO(;y in the American Museum 454 ' ^; 

Cave Painting IN West Australia. By John Fraser,LI-.D. 457 Cj 

TiiK Copper Implements of Wisconsin. By Publius V. ^ 
x^ciwson ..•• .... .... ...a •*•• 4$9 



anthkopological notes— 

Alexander F. Chamberlin . .... ...• 475 

CORRKSPONDENCE— 

By Rev. John Maclean .... .... 476 

NEW DISCOVERIES 477 

Fountains and AyUEDiicTS, Ancient and Modern .... 478 
Double HeadbdSerpent,andthe Migration of Symbols 482 

EDITORIAL— 

M#^J0R J. W. Powell AND IIis Work. .. .... ...• 484 

Intkknational Congress OP Americanists 486 

EDITORIAL NOTES- 

Virchow; Kternalism;^ A Library Before Abraham; 
Joseph Prostwich; Primitive Men; IsraePs Religion; 
^oai •••• ••. •••• ..•• .... 4^^f 4^^9 

HOOK REVIEWS- 

Jcuirnal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; Wigwam 
Stories. By Mary C. Jiidd; Homeric Society. By 
Albert Galloway . . .... .... .... .... 490 



■ 1. 



/ 



1a«.^ 





nxj^xxcmx 2KntxqnmAnn 



Vol. XXIV. January and February, 1902. No. !•* 



THE ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGENES. 

BY CHARLES HALLOCK, M. B. S. 

By an intelligent adjustment of co-efficients, the author oif 
this paper is convinced that he has been able to solve the racial 
problem of the Western Hemisphere: not only as respects the 
origin of the American Indigenes (miscalled Indians), but ap- 
proximately the antiqutity of their progenitors whose ruined 
and silent cities, like those of Asia Minor, long since passed 
out of history, and whose massive pyramids, temples and pal- 
aces vie with those of the Old World, and are inferentially not 
only coeval mth them but closely related. 

The nicety with which the parts fit is proof of the correct- 
ness of his thesis, which not only indicates the birthplace of 
the people from which the early inhabitants of North America 
sprung, but locates their point of departure (in Central Amer- 
ica) and the several divergent routes of exodus therefrom, 
northward, which eventuated in the distribution of the popu- 
lation over the greater part of the continent. And it is able to 
trace and establish these designated routes by mural inscrip- 
tions, petroglyphs» stone tablets, writings and traditions, the 
authenticity of which is self-evident and self-contained. The 
identity of the Indians with their ancient progenitors is further 
proven by relics, mortuary customs, linguistic similarities, 
plants and vegetables, and primitive industrial and mechanical 
arts which have remained constant throughout the ages. And 
not only is the progress of migration and distribution intelli- 
gently traced, but the incidental metamorphoses and vicissi- 
tudes, as well as the causes of that degeneration which, in the 
course of the long period of transformation, ultimately touched 
the level of savagery in many instances. 

The consensus of opinion among advanced ethnologists is 
that no sufficient reason can be shown for a separate racial 
classification of the three Americas, and the entire proposition 
may be summarized in the abstract which follows, wherein the 
collater has simply gathered and arranged the materials which 



4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

have been unearthed by scientists who have been working for 
years on homogeneous but independent lines. Biblical testi- 
mony and modern research are shown to corroborate each 
other, and their essence, so far as it has been accepted by 
painstaking scholars, is herewith presented : 

Imprimis: In its primordial state the Globe was only in 
small part tenable. Fertile and forested areas were few and 
geojjraphically far apart. Interminable ice fields and barren 
wastes predominated. Oceans covered four- fifths of the sur- 
face. Later on, but long anterior to the days of the traditional 
Adaria, there existed (Genesis iv. 16-17) autogenous, independ- 
ent and contemporaneous groups of men, with their associated 
flora and fauna which were distributed amon;.^ the geographical 
areas : a conservative provision of the Scheme of Creation 
whereby the species were preserved, so that when cataclysms 
or other disasters occurred in one division resources for repro- 
duction and perpetuation were available in others. [The desert 
of Sahara was once fertile and populous. Greenland teemed 
with luxuriant flora and fauna. Babylon is buried under sands. 
Scarcely 300 years were required to convert a large portion of 
Spain, the fairest of the Iberian plains, into an arid wilderness, 
after the Moors were driven out. The moving sand dunes of 
our own continent have buried towns and fertile tracts, and 
forests, in some instances sixty feet deep, as on Roanoke 
Island, within a comparatively brief space of time J Each fer- 
tile tract was in itself a veritable "Garden of Eden'* whose 
animal and vegetable output in due course of time spread 
from near by to remoter regions. One of these autogenous 
nurseries, with its perfected species, was located in Central 
America,* and was doubtless contemporary with similar nu- 
clei in Asia and Africa, the mural inscriptions and anaglyphs 
of Uxmall, Palenque, Copan, Chichen-Itza and a score of other 
places, demonstrating by inference, analogies and graven tes- 
timony that they were coeval with Egypt, Chaldea, Phoenicia, 
Tyre, Palmyra, Carthage and Mycaene, and enjoyed commercial 
intercourse with them to at least as recent a date as King Solo- 
mon's time, when, according to Scripture records, vessels return- 
ing from triennial voyages to the uttermost parts of the earth 
brought cargoes of gold, silver, apes, and peacocks. (Kings: 
chap. X., verse 22,) Egypt was the cradle of an ancient civil- 
ization for ages before the Hebrews went ihto bondage, while 
tWc country traversed by the Isaaelites in their wilderness jour- 
neyings was interspersed with the walled cities of many pre- 
historic kingdoms, tribes and clans, whom they encountered. 

During the natural processes of adaptation and develop- 

* See " Exiles from Eden," translated by Le Plonf^eon from tablets of 
Chlchen-Itza. 



ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGINES. 5 

ment, great climatic changes took place in all parts of the 
globe, involving corresponding fertility or sterility, with their 
natural concomitants. When regions were habitable they were 
inhabited; when they would not support life it departed. So 
it came to pass, during the second glacial epoch, when the 
great boreal ice sheet covered one-half of the North American 
continent, as far south as the present sites of Philadelphia and 
St. Louis, and the glaciated portions were as untenable and 
unfit for human occupation as the snow cap of Greenland is 
today, that aggregations of population clustered around the 
equatorial zone, because the climatic conditions were conge- 
nial. (Note the antipodal as well as the isthmian location of 
Egypt and Central America, both equidistant from the equator, 
and one to each hemisphere.) And inasmuch as civilization 
the world over clings to the temperate climates and thrives 
there best, we are not surprised to learn that communities far 
advanced in arts and architecture bujlt and occupied those 
great cities in Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, and other Cen- 
tral American States, whose populations once numbered hun- 
dreds of thousand?, and whose massive ruins of stone and con- 
Crete mark hundreds of sites.f In Yucatan alone, where the 
highest culture was developed, there were fifty-one cities. The 
explorations of Stephens, Le Plongeon and others, have opened 
out the secrets of these mural wastes, and archaeologists have 
coincidently been excavating their desert counterparts in the 
old world to verify their relationship. Anaglyphs of a long^ 
forgotten people have been deciphered, and the revelation is 
like an open book. 

An approximate date when this civilization was at the acme 
of its glory would be about 10,000 years ago, as established by 
observations upon the recession of the existin^r glacier fronts, 
which are known to drop back twelve miles m one hundred 
years. J 

How many centuries previously civilization had endured is 
a problem hard to solve, because it is not within mortal ken to 
know how long the ice sheet remained in bulk before it began 
to melt faster than it accumulated. But it is obvious that dur- 
ing its continuance its entire area was as much of a terrainco^nUa 
as Greenland is now, though men have always dwelt on the 
margin of the ice sheet as the Eskimo do at present. 

With the gradual withdrawal of the ice sheet the climate 

t These cities were not all under one government or federation, for 
their climax was during the epoch of petty kingdoms contemporary with 
the Hebrew exodus from Egypt. 

t Vancouver, the navigator, speaks of his inability to enter Glacier Bay 
Alaska, in 1763. It was then but an indentation of the coast hardly notice- 
able, but during the last decade was navigated by large steamers tor more 
than twelve miles inland. 



6 THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

grew proportionately milder, and flora and fauna moved simul- 
taneously northward. Coincidently, the solar heat at the equa- 
tor, which had before been tolerable, became oppressive; large 
areas of agricultural land became dessicated; quarrels and jeal- 
ousies arose; the overcrowded population grew restless, and an 
impulse of extradition supervened which has probably had no 
parallel. Some emigrants went to South America and settled 
there, carrying their customs, arts, ceremonial rites, hieroglyphs, 
architecture, etc., and an immense exodus took place into Mex- 
ico and Arizona, which ultimately extended westward up the 
Pacific coast to Alaska. Absence of glaciation on that side of 
the continental divide made exploration and settlement in that 
direction easy and attractive, and the grafts so set have kept 
their civilization better than any other congenital offsets. [At 
that period the Rocky Mountain chain was not much of a ridge, 
and a great salt estuary or arm of the sea, larger than Hudson 
Bay. covered the Great Plains, and washed the margin of the 
melting ice sheet whos:i main fluvial outlet became the Missis- 
sippi River, Gigantic Saurians sported in the saline waves 
and mastodons and other grotesque land animals fed on the 
huge calamites. tree ferns, and rushes which fringed its border. 
When lakes Erie and Ontario receded 170 feet the Dig estuary 
ran dry, and the saurian tribe succumbed from withdrawal 
of customary food and environment. At that period human 
beings occupied the southern shores of the estuary, and man 
and mastodon were contemporary. Palaeontologists have dis- 
covered, near Kimmswick, Missouri, human remains and 
flint and iron arrow heads among the well preserved bones 
and teeth of primitive bisons (bos luitifrons) and mastodons 
which had been driven off a precipice, after the practice 
maintained until a recent date by modern Indians in pursuit 
of buffalo. This "find" is in evidence that the period of 
the battue was while the glacial sheet prevailed near that 
latitude. The use of stone arrows and other implements in 
no wise establishes a primitive or savage condition. White 
nien have imitated them for <i;enerations, even to this day. Frost 
easily affects metals, and in frigid re^nons only flint or ivory 
will stand for nine months of the year.] Coincidently a 
northward migration took place through New Mexico to 
southrastern Colorado, and another exodus still more direct 
across the Ciulf of Mexico in flotillas from Yucatan to the 
\\\\\\\\ land, and thence due northward between the 87th and 
nrth meridians, extendinjj^ at last as far up as Lake Supe- 
rior, the proLj^rcssivc trend bein^ punctuated at succeeding 
Mtaiies by defensive earthworks whose construction was at- 
tributed until recently to a h)'pothetical peoj)le termed Mound 
M^jm^M's. (ireat numbers of emigrants also went to the An- 
lillcHi the Bahamas and other neighboring islands, where 



ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN. INDIGENES. 7 

colonies had already been planted, and thence to Florida, 
and from there were disseminated all over the eastern part 
of the continent, § as fast as it became habitable. They did 
not settle due north of the Arkansas because the climate was 
less propitious and the country bare of watercourses. The 
principal outpost of their occupation in that direction was 
twenty miles south of the Big Bend, the stone ruins of which 
are very striking, even now. There are hundreds of large 
flat rocks on the bluffs of the Little Arkansas, about four 
miles west of the Santa Fe crossing, whicn are covered with 
hieroglyphics deeply cut, and similar to those along the 
headwaters of the Gila in Arizona, and prototypes of those 
at Uxmall and Palenque. They are thirty-four miles from 
the edge of what was the big estuary — now the grand prairie. 
Ves'^els from the Yucatan peninsula, after crossing the Gulf 
of Mexico, would land at the "Big Bluff," which was the 
fscarpment of the rolling country extending eastward 
to the settlements. Trade between Yucatan and Cuba 
was maintained through the ages. Distinct communities like 
the Colusas, Tequitas and Timacuas, occupied Florida for a 
time and in turn became extinct. Their mural remains and 
rc-lics are abundant (Gushing). They and the several mil- 
lions of islanders whom the Spaniards managed to annihilate 
four centuries ago, all had the same direct lineage from 
Central America, except the Caribs, who came from South 
America later on (Ober). 

These initial migrations took place in the early history of 
the glacial period. In subsequent epochs, when the ice 
sheet had withdrawn from large areas, as far at least as up 
to the latitude of the Great Lakes, there were immense in- 
fluxes of people from Asia 7na Bering Strait and the Kam- 
chatkan Peninsula on the Pacific side, and from northeastern 
Kurope via Greenland on the Atlantic side east, (that sub- 
arctic tract being hospitable then,) and these continued, equo 
passu, as the earth became uncovered, distributing them- 
selves over the country by available watercourses, which 
were then larger and more numerous than now, until large 
communities occupied its most attractive uplands, notably 
the region south of Lakes P>ie and Ontario, as is made evi- 
dent by the abandoned copper mines of Lake Superior and 
the many mounds and defensive earthworks in Ohio and 
contiguous territory. The occupants at that period possessed 
many of the arts and appliances of civilization, for peace 

§ Bodies of twelve Indians, killed in battle near Turner's Falls, Mass., 
in 1704. and buried with their feet resting on a circle five feet in diameter, 
the he ids radiating like spokes of a wheel — recalling the famous Aztec 
calendar stone — were dug up in 1882. 



« , THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

had reigned continuously for ages among them, and they 
had remained unmolested until the incursions of barbarian 
hordes from the northwest and southeast made the construc- 
tion of military defences a necessity. The date of this in- 
vasion can be approximately determined by the beach ter- 
races of the great lakes, the higher of the two being 170 
feet above the present lake level, and 30 feet above the 
level of the intervening land, A conspicuous section of this 
ancient shore line extends for 78 miles from the Genessee 
river to Lexington, in New York State. South of it mounds 
and defensive earthworks exist in great numbers, but there 
are none on the flood plain between it and the present shore 
line, nor on the north shores. Large communities also 
dwelt upon navigable watercourses and estuaries of the North 
Atlantic ocean, and the historians of the i6th century speak 
of abundant evidences of a preoccupation numerically large. 
Governor Winslow, of Massachusetts upon his visit to Mas- 
sasoit in 1621, found traces of many ancient towns along 
the rivers, with clearings on both sides. '* Thousands of 
men," he wrote in his report, "have lived there which died 
in a great plague not long since: and pity it was to see so 
many goodly fields, and so well seated, without the men to 
dress the same." Agaifi: ''As we passed along we observed 
that there were few places by the river but had been inhab- 
ited." So also in the middle west, they dwelt in large vil- 
lages until they were finally dispossessed and driven out by 
the whites within the closing decades of the last century. 

As regards the immigration from Asia, authentic records 
still extant extend back into the 6th century as early as the 
year 544, which is the date of the overthrow of the Tsin 
dynasty in China, at which time the Nestorian and other 
Christian colonies in the Celestial Empire were obliterated. 
A granite memorial of that Nestorian occupation still stands. 
Chronology is quite explicit as to the occurrences between 
this date and 1325. when the City of Mexico was founded, 

'*Ot the ?[\{t tribes which constitute the present Mexican 
nation, the Toltecs first made their appearance fifty miles to 
the west of the City of Mexico in 648. They declared them- 
selves repelled from a country lying to the northwest of 
the river Gila, called by them Huehuetlapallan This mi- 
gration commenced in ^44, and its progress year by year is 
described in Mexican pamtings. * ♦ About 100 years after 
the Toltecs had left Huehuetlapallan, the Chichimecs took 
possession of it and held it 500 years. They came from 
Amaque Mecan, a country lying far to the north and occupy- 
ing eighteen months in migration. After ?[wq: centuries they 
evacuated and joined the Toltecs in Mexico in 1 170. The Nah 
uatlacs made their first appearance from the north in 1196. 



ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGBJES. g 

The Aztecs, the immediate progenitors of the Mexicans, dwelt 
in a country called Azatlan, to the north of thcCilifornia Gulf, 
in ii6o, probably- near the sSlh parallel, where the natives show 
a prediieclion for hieroglyphic paintings. After journeying 
fifty-six years — divided into three grand periods — the Aztecs 
arrived at Zumpanco. in the Valley of Mexico, in 1216. The 
first stage of this migration was to the south of the Rio Nabajoi, 
one of the branches of the Colorado, in 35°; the second to the 
north of the Rio Gila, in 33'' 30', where the ruins called Las 
Casas Grandes by the Spaniards, were discovered in i773* 
The third station was in lat. 30" 30'. near Yanos, 350 miles 
southeastof Las Casas Grandes. In 1245 they arrived Chapul- 
tepec, within two miles of the future site of Mexico, and in 1325 
they built a great temple which was the foundation of the City 
of Mexico and the beginning of the dynasty of Mexican Kings. 
It also ended the A?.tec migration. This temple was of wood, 
and was subsequently replaced by stone. 

it is believed that the progenitors of these ancestors of 
the Mexicans were an Asiatic colony from Corea, which 
was at that time tributary to the Chinese Empire, a fact 
which accounts for coincidence of dates in the first half of 
the 6th century, and this opinion is confirmed by Chinese 
manuscripts as well as by striking similarities of appear- 
ance, language and customs, and a proficiency in the arts 
and architecture. Theirwriting was in hieroglyphics exclu- 
sively, and this medium of communication is spread all over 
the continent. History shows that the Coreans migrated 
to escape tyranny, undertaking a sea voyage of nine weeks 
to the northeast. No matter who first peopled Central 
America, the Coreans certainly were in communication with 
America as far back as the second year of the dynasty of 
Tsin. Emperor of China, who declared war against Corea. 
Migrants were able to maintain the high civilization of their 
forbears as long as their basic relation and environment 
remained unchanged, a postulate which is abundantly at- 
tested by archaeological evidence, as well as by the endur- 
ing testimony of the petroglyphs. But finally came those 
stupendous terrestrial dislocations, upheavals, emergencies, 
drouths, denudations, and associated dynamic phenomena, 
which punctuated the lapse of geological time and changed 
the contour of the continent. By the same great cataclysm 

• Note bv the Author.— li lias taken 3.000 10 destroy Babylon the 
(Ireai. whose mbsl mighty and conspicuous remnant at the preseni cay is 
(he Tuio known as Bits Nimroud, whi'-h is of much the same proportion 
an.l size, and m much the same condition now as the Casa Grande, climaies 
he rg similar. Logically, the Casa Grande country and [Is people were in 
ih*: acme o[ their K'ory 2,000 years ago. At that time the whole region 
swarmed with population, 




I 



lo THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

which broke up the ** foundations of the great deep, "ac- 
cording to the Scripture, and inundated so large a part of 
the globe and its antedeluvian fauna and flora, the fructi- 
fying rivers of Central America were engulfed and the 
acequias, aqueducts and irrigating canals were destroyed 
or rendered useless. Some disjointed records of this over- 
whelming catastrophe are inscribed upon pj^ramids, temple 
walls, monoliths, and porticos of those massive ruins which 
attest to their extinguished greatness, while oral traditions, 
next in historical value to the libraries w^hicli Cortez and 
his fanatical priests destroyed, have been transmitted down 
the centuries, even to southwestern Indians of the pres- 
ent day. Drouth, famine, malignant diseases, persistent 
internecine wars, and ultimate depopulation supervened, 
and after persistent efforts to maintain themselves on the 
home sites, the discomfited survivors scattered, even to far 
off Alaska, and up the eastern slope of the continental ridge 
to the mouth of the Mackenzie river, leaving traces of their 
successive occupations all along the Pacific coast and the 
mid-continental route, not only in memorials of massive 
masonry and exqusite pottery, but in linguistic similarities, 
religious practices, mortuary rites, superstitions, social 
habits, oral traditions, and physical resemblances of a 
marked character. For many centuries large communities 
tarried in Mexico, New^ Mexico and Arizona, sections of 
which were populous up to the arrival of Coronado in 1540, 
but finally aridity of the soil, caused in large part by forest 
denudation, frequent tidal waves, the deflection of surface 
waters into subterranean rock fissures, the merciless raids 
of the Spaniards and internecine wars, scattered them over 
the lava beds and alkaline wastes of sage brush and cactus, 
to eke out a precarious livelihood with their starvling 
flocks. The remnants ultimately betook themselves to the 
cliffs and mesas which they fortified and attempted to sub- 
sist on crops which they forced from scantily irrigated gar- 
dens on the arid plains below. This for a distressful period, 
and then northw^ard again to more peaceful and fertile local- 
ities in eastern Colorado, where melting snow^s from the 
uplifted continental divide afforded perennial moisture. 
Here they maintained a long protracted status as agricul- 
turists and shepherds, establishing thrifty towns and vil- 
lages, of which a few remain to this day as ** pueblos.** 
Records of their vicissitudes and dire extremity are pecked 
upon many a neighboring rock — of the continued attacks 
and defences, and how the cliff dwellers were finally cut 
off by their enemies, and how few escaped. 

Memorabilia of permanent occupancy in bas relief, sculp- 
ture and statues, occur everyw^here among the ruins of the 



ANCESTORS OF THB! AMERICAN INDIGINES. n 

exhumed cities of Yucatan, and are repeated all over Cen- 
tral America and parts of South America, while pictographs 
and rock inscriptions of later periods mark the exodus and 
advances of the emigrants alpng the trails which diverge 
from the point of departure through Mexico and Arizona, 
and thence northwestward up the Pacific, or due north to 
Coloradp, and thence eastward along the Arkansas river 
across the great plains, or northeasterly across the Rio 
Grande through Southern Texas to Arkansas. The hiero- 
glyphs include outlines of animals, clan marks, totems, se- 
cret society insignia, challenges, defiances, taunts (since 
practiced by all Indian tribes), cautions against ambus- 
cades and natural obstacles, directions to water holes, 
camping grounds and rendezvous, as well as mention of 
skirmishes, forced marches, misadventures and special 
events, practices which were in vogue in Palestine and 
Egypt in Biblical times. f On one rock in Rowe Canon. Ari- 
zona, is a petroglyph representing emigrants driving their 
flocks before them. It is noteworthy that manjr of the 
glyphs indicate starvation. Cypher characters were much 
in vogue. The older glyphs are the most geometrical and 
are often symbolical. Many have a religious significance. 
Later ones represent natural objects. Leopards, serpents, 
crocodiles, elephants, fishes, ravens, macaws and vultures 
appear everywhere. The last three were sacred birds there, 
and are so esteemed in Alaska today. In Montana the 
Crow Indians (Apsarikas, ) retain the raven as their tribal 
totem. Taken as a whole, pictographs (which, by the way, 
are scattered all over the continent to the number of sev- 
eral thousand) are the reflections of the old-time hiero- 
glyphs found on the Sinai Peninsula as long ago as the 
wilderness journey of the Israelites, and antedating it no one 
knows how long. These rock pictures and mural etchings 
gradually gave place to alphabets which were invented, 
but in that period this expression of language constituted 
the universal medium of intercourse throughout the world 
on both hemispheres. It was not confined to rock faces 
and fixed walls, but was traced on portable tablets of stone 
and metal, and on i)apyrus, bark and parchment. The Cen- 
tral Americans and Mexicans used sheets of paper made by 
macerating the leaves of the century plant, just as the 
Egyptians used papyrus, beating out the fiber and sizing 
with a white varnish. Each volume or book was a long 
Sheet folded backward and forward like a screen or map, 
and bound by attaching boards to the outer folds. Both 
sides of the paper were used. Many books were made of 

t [See Old Testament. Prime, Warburton^ et aL\ 



12 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

it, and of these the British Museum, the Vatican at Rome- 
and the Trocadero at Paris, contain four specimens. By a 
strange chance a fifth specimen, six by ten inches, was dis- 
covered near Fort Fairfield, Iowa, in 1897, while excavating 
for the city water works, and is now in the Ohio State 
Archaeological museum at Andover. Undoubtedly a full 
history of events was of record up to the coming of Cortez, 
who is is said to have destroyed more valuable records of 
an antedeluvian civilization than were consumed in the 
Alexandrian Library, of which many were probably dupli- 
cates. 

The advent of the Spaniards and their ruthless quest for 
gold broke into the bucolic life of the Pueblos. Many were 
exterminated, while others, harassed and impoverished, aban- 
doned agriculture in despair and took to the chase for a liveli- 
hood. From that to semi-savagery the lapse was easy; a con- 
dition which was aggravated by the religious superstitions 
which they retained, involving human sacrifice, self-torture, 
immolation of war prisoners and sundry barbarous ceremonies 
which date back to earliest times, and obtain even now in iso- 
lated parts of North America. The sun dance of the Plains 
Indians is a relic of the sun worship of Chichen-ltza and Peru, 
with its attendant cruelties. All the Indian tribes burned their 
captives on occasion — a survival of ancient rites. 

The introduction of horses by Coronado* at this juncture 
was a godsend to the afflicted people, for it not only enabled 
them to chase the big game of the Rocky Mountain foothills, 
but it made long journeys possible. It enabled them to follow 
the erratic movements of the buffalo into the Great Plains, 
whose interior until then had been unoccupied by men. The 
Aztecs and •*pueblos"had no big working dogs in those days — 
no dogs at all excepting the hairless Chihuahua dogs, which 
oftener went into the pot than into harness. Lack of trans- 
portation had been an impassable barrier to travel across the 
prairies, as well as to the movement of large forces; but with 
horses a man could subsist off the country as well as carry sup- 
plies. In prairie parlance, he was **footloose'* and independ- 
ent. To be put afoot, away from water and the means of pur- 
suing game, was death: a proverb current among plainsmen, 
Indians, and trappers up to the middle of the 19th century. 
The surest way to cripple an enemy was to steal his pack 

* Wherever pictographs of the horse appear the representations must 
have been done subsequent to the advent of Coronado, or the conquestadoros 
of Florida. There are no horse portraits in Arizona and vicinity, nor up the 
Pacific coast, but they are frequent in Texas and in the trans- Mississippi 
rejiion. The domestic horse (not Ephippus, the dimmutive, quarternary ani- 
mal which was indigenous,) was introduced into Florida from Santo Do- 
mingo by the Spaniards early in the 15th century, as well as into South 
America, where it spread in fifteen years as far south as Patagonia. 



ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGENES. 13 

horses and saddle horses. So valuable did horses become that 
during the subsequent three centuries horse-stealing was a uni- 
versal industry, and a man's wealth was estimated by the num- 
ber of his ponies. Very soon after the introduction of the 
domestic horse, emigrants began to cross the Rio Grande into 
southwestern Texas, making their way eventually into Arkan- 
sas, while other parties from Colorado followed the Arkansas 
river through Kansas into Missouri. 

In Missouri and Arkansas the excavated remains of houses 
formed of upright posts with wattles interwoven to form the 
walls, are of the same pattern as th« jacals of Mexico, Yucatan, 
Guatemala and Honduras, as well as of southeastern Alaska, 
similarity of construction being good proof that they were 
built by cognate people, That the Comanches are their de- 
giMierated kinsfolk is proved by their tribal totems and symbols, 
which are similar to those pecked into the rocks at Eagle Pass 
on the Rio Grande, and one has only to descend into the river 
bottoms at low water to .see the native women at this day wash- 
ing and beating their clothes upon the rocks just as they do in 
Central America, and on the Ganges in Asia. 

Untold and uncalculated years it took for the Central 
American migration to reach the western verge of the Great 
Plains, which had emerged and grown to grass during the 
interval since it was the quarternary floor of tne sea. For 
nearly four centuries their polyglot descendants, who were 
dubbed aborigines by European explores, have been an ethno- 
logical puzzle to the world; but time seems to have solved the 
problem. The hypothesis of the reversion is easy. Their pro- 
genitors, like all pioneers, unquestionably took with them all nec- 
essary "store clothes, "tools, seeds, mechanical appliances, and 
domestic utensils; but afterthcy were isolated from the parent 
stock and base of supplies, thty learned to sub ititute makeshifts 
fur whatever was worn out or lost. Dresses of skins, furs, and 
plaited grasses replaced their home garments, and Implements 
of stone, horn, bone, shell and Ivory, took the place of their 
original tools of Iron, bronze and copper. Some of the more 
intelligent and energetic discovered mines of various ores, and 
worked them in a rude fashion for awhile, like those at Lake 
Superior, but the industry was finally abandoned because it 
WHS easier and cheaper to use what was handiest. Metal orna- 
ments, pottery, baskets, footguar, and woven fabrics were re- 
tained the longest, because they were indispenable. The man- 
ufacture of these was an art that could not be lost. Reversion 
is not necessarily a slow process. !t depends largely upon the 
environment. Intercourse brightens intellect. Isolation clogs 
it, and will sometimes banish it. There are today among the 
sea islands of South Carolina the grandchildren of ante-bellum 
negroes whose inane articulations are unintelligible to any but 




14 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

their own kin — a lapse of less than half a century. Those of 
our so-called aborigines who occupy the eastern part of the 
continent have been classed, taxonomically, as Algonguins; 
those of the mid-continental district between the Gulf coast 
and Lake Superior, as Appalachians. Collectively, they may 
be treated of as Forest Indians. The larp;er , portion of them 
came in the course of years to follow the retreating buffalo 
7uestzvani Ixom Ohio, Virj^inia and Illinois to the verge of the 
Great Plains, and there they encountered a wild and nomadic 
people of many tribes and dialects like themselves, and similar 
in features, habits, characteristics and superstitions, who had 
followed the buffalo eastivard across the plains from Colorado 
and Texas! But neither knew that they had a common an- 
cestry. 

The migrations of the American Bisons in their relation to 
the antecedents and distribution of the aboriginal population 
is oi absorbing interest, because they furnish the key to one 
important section of the ethnic problem. Although these 
primitive cattle {bos latifrons) at one time covered two-fifths 
(?) of the continent, according to credible data, including, 
forest, plain and mountain park, it was primarily a woods 
ranger, inhabiting the forested regions during the period when 
the great plains were submerged. Later on this lacustrine 
expanse was replaced by grass prairie,t to which the animals 
finally resorted for impro\'ed forage as well as to escape pur- 
suit from the huntsmen on either side. There they were com- 
paratively unmolested until the horse came. Historically, the 
first organized buffalo hunts were instituted in the southwest 
by refugees from Mexico, as related by Castaneda, the annalist 
of the Coronado expedition in 1540. Immense hunting parties 
of 1,000 or more, including women and children, with provis- 
ions for months, would travel an "eight days' journey" (some 
fifty miles or so) into the plains, and bring back robes, pem- 
mican and meat, just as was done three centuries later in the 
antipodal land of the Dakotas. These finally cut loose from 
civilization altogether as soon as supplied with horses, and be- 
came nomads, living in the saddle and spreading northward 
and eastward as inducements offered, until they finally overran 
the entire grass region up to the border of Manitoba, and east 
to the Mississippi river. In course of time they came to be 
known colloquially as Horse Indians. [Mexican hieroglyphs 
appear on the Mouse River in Manitoba.] 

The collision of these nomadic horse Indians with the more 



+ Prairies in the early staijes of formation may now be seen and studied 
on the borders of Albemarle Sound, in North Carolina, where the same 
phvsio'oi^iral processes are takinjx piace today which occurred when the 
^reat p'ains were reclamied from ilie ocean. 



ANCESTORS OF THE ANfEKICAN INDIGENES. 15 

sedentary forest tribes, who clustered in villages and had no 
horses, and have not had to this day, and the continuous strug- 
gle for territorial possession and hunting prerogatives which 
followed, account in large part for the suggestive zone of 
mounds, already mentioned, which spans the width of ten me- 
ridians and extends from the Gulf ot Mexico to Lake Superior. 
Outside of this zone there are no similar mounds east of the 
Rio Grande.J The art of construction was brought from Mex- 
ico and Florida by the descendants of the ancients who built 
the pyramids in Egypt and Central America, and in Mexico. 
Pyramidal forms and animal mounds prove this assertion. 
For three hundred and fifty years this broad territorial strip 
was disputed ground, the principal seat of the struggle being 
in Ohio, where there is every evidence of pitched battles hav- 
ing been fought in front of intrenchments, and in whose vicin- 
ity there are great tumuli where hosts of the slain were buried, 
some of their bones being found with flint and stone arrow heads 
sticking in them. These midland mounds have been geograph- 
ically assorted into three groups, the first extending from the 
sources of the Allegheny to the waters of the Missouri-Missis- 
sippi, the second occupying the Mississippi valley, vaguely so 
defined, and the third stretching from South Carolina to Texas. 
The most northwestern are on the river bluff at St. Paul, Minn. 
None are found on the plains. The forest Indians never in- 
vaded the plains until they were banished there by the whites 
in the 19th century. Distributively the mounds show quite 
exactly the area of territory fought over, their sinuous or waver- 
ing lines or series indicating the varying fortunes of the com- 
batants. Circumvallations of earth in the shape of circles, 
ellipses, polygons and rectangular parallelograms, often inclose 
from twenty to forty acres, and display much military engi- 
neering skill. Mounds are of diverse sizes and shapes from 
five to thirty feet high, and were used for burial and sacrificial 
purposes, for dykes, as sites for temples and dwellings, as 
refuges from inundations, as amphitheaters for ball games, and 
for ornamental purposes, as in public parks and gardens of the 
present day. Many in the semblance of elephants, leopards, 
turtles, rats, snakes, deer and the like, were copied from the 
Aztec and Toltec gardens, and from others extant in the Zuni 
and Mohave country. They were reproduced just as we copy 
patterns from the old world. On Vancouver Island is the re- 
production in earth of a string of grampuses (a "study from 
nature") pursued by a canoe, whose prow is of the present 
Haidah type so common on the coast, and not unlike some 
South Sea Island types. Those mounds which were used for 

^ As a matter of fact, the whole world's population from earliest record 
have been mound builders. 



l6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

defensive purposes were usually palisaded, as is proved by 
burnt and decayed portions of stockades which are often ex- 
humed. Many are associated with cemented cisterns, crema- 
tories and ovens, having fireplaces underneath. They are the 
work of both combatants^ but the art was learned centuries be- 
ore in the south and southwest. Perforated mussel shells, 
conches, copper helmets, mummy cases, passport sticks, pot- 
tery and vases of scoria and terra cotta, implements of stone 
and bronze, stone jars, obsidian knives, gems exquisitely 
wrought, amulets of gold, bone fleshers for dressing skins, and 
copper pipe bowls decorated with human heads of a type like 
those of modern Indians, identify their original possessors as 
well as their congenital predecessors, from whom they acquired 
the art. (Mrs. Kunzie, of Umatilla, Oregon, has gathered in 
Klickatat county in the State of Washington, a museum of 
Aztec relics embracing obsidian knives of the most beautiful 
workmanship, obsidian arrows, a warclub of bronze, exquisitely 
wrought stone gods, ornate gems, and, what is most suggestive, 
a carved stone metate or corn mill.) 

When the plainsmen first appeared, the foresters were dis- 
posed to be friendly, but as soon as they encroached too far 
they stood them off, Algonquins and Appalachians making 
common cause against their enemies. Finally, at the end of 
three and a half centuries, the}' were driven back to their old 
stamping ground, the prairies, permanently repulsed, the last 
battle of the interminable series having been fought in 1857 
between the Sioux and the Chippewas (representative bands) 
on the terraced shore of the glacial lake Agassiz, in Minnesota, 
A description of this battle, by the aged chief Osh Wash, a 
survivor ot the fight, is of especial value as showing the strat- 
egy and methods of defence practiced by the mound builders 
and the plan of their fortifications. 

This venerable Indian was on his way to attend the annual 
pow-wow at Turtle Mountain in commemoration of the event, 
which took place on the Sand Ridge (mound) between the 
stage half-way house and the Two Rivers Crossing, in Rosseau 
county, the battle ground being plainly marked to this day by 
the remains of breastworks behind which these hereditary ene- 
mies waged a week's fight of cunning and skill, coupled at 
times with desperate hand-to-hand conflicts. It was in this 
fight that Chief Osh Wash lost his scalp, as the large circle of 
hairless skin on the top of his cranium gives ample evidence. 
The Sioux war party invaded the hunting grounds of the Chip- 
pewas, who inhabited the shores of the Lake of the Woods on 
the American side. The latter had been apprised of the pro- 
jected raid and selected a location on the natural ridge, which 
afforded the only natural road of ingress and egress, being nar- 



^^m ANCESTORS OF THE AMERICAN INDIGENES. 17 

row with impassable muskegs on either side. Then they threw 
up breastworks on the open ground at a point which enabled 
them to guard against an attack in their rear. When the ap- 
proach of the Sioux was made known, ihe Chippewas laid in 
ambush farther west on the east bank of Two Rivers, and when 
most of the Sioux had crossed over they were suddenly at- 
tacked and several Sioax were killed and a number wounded. 
Then the Chippewas gradually fell back, and a running fight 
was kept up until they reached their breastwork fortress. The 
Sioux made an attack that night upon the entrenched enemy, 
but were driven back, the loss of life being heavy on both sides. 
The Sioux occupied the next three nights in erecting counter 
breastworks about 150 yards from the entrenched Chippewas, 
a work which was attended with the loss of several lives. Under 
the protection of their trench the Sioux erected a second breast- 
work fifty yards nearer, and then dug a tunnel up to the breast- 
work of the Chippewas, The top of the ground being a tough 
grass sod, underlaid by gravel and sand, the task of digi;ing a 
tunnel was not difficult. On the night of the seventh day the 
Sioux made a sudden but not unexpected attack upon the 
Chippewas, and the hand-to-hand conflict was tierce, bloody 
and decisive. The decimated ranks of the Sioux, and their 
lack of provisions, gave their enemies a slight advantage. The 
Sioux were driven back with a loss of over half their number, 
and the Chippewas followed up their success by a relentless 
pursuit until the last of the Sioux braves escaped across Two 
Rivers. This memorable battle the Sioux never afterwards 
attempted to avenge. 

Many such by-gone events are memoriaiized by rock inscrip- 
tions all over the country, of which several thousand have been 
located and enumerated; and the natives often gather at one 
or other of these stations, just as our own people assemble at 
Plymouth Rock, Ticonderoga. or at more recently erected mon- 
oliths at Gettysburg, Lookout Mountain, and other battlefields 
of our late war. Records are also kept on painted elk and buf- 
falo robes and rolls nf bark. 

Every new archaeological discovery adds to the ana- 
logues which go to make up testimony to establish the 
more than hypothetical origin of our American Aborigines, 
and the close relations between their ancestors of Central 
America and the peoples of Egypt and and Asia. Flat- 
tening of the cranium is common to Peru. Bolivia, Jamaica and 
Montana. The islanders of Jamaica wore feather mantles like 
the Mexicans, and helmets of feathers like the war bonnets of 
the plains Indians. Their pottery was similar in shape and 
pattern. Caribs wore lip ornaments (labrets) like the Alas- 
kans. The custom of abandoning a house when an inmate died 




i8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

was the same in Central America as among man/ plains Indi- 
ans. The chipping of flint arrow heads was an art transmitted 
from antedeluvian lapidaries, who cut exquisite gems. The 
Mandan bull boats of rawhide and wattles were copies of old 
world coracles. 

But tribes, like families, easily cultivate animosity. Di£fer- 
erences in intelligence, habits and tastes stimulate social es- 
trangement, though they do not establish physiological dis- 
tinctions. Complexion, features, size and muscular develop- 
ment, are due to climate and foreign admixtures. Natives of 
Cook's Inlet resemble the Athabascans. Haidahs and Az- 
tecs, both use masks and wadded armor like the Japan- 
ese and Egyptians, and they decorate the interiors of their 
bouses with symbols and hieroglyphs. Navajo and Thlinket 
blankets are of equal quality and texture. Hakluyt says of 
the people whom he discovered, that they ** are white even as 
our men are, saving such as are conversant with the sun." 
The Fillipino is much the same in color as the North American 
Indian, and also has the same straight black hair, high cheek 
bones, and thin beard. The Mayas, inhabiting the Sierra Ne- 
vada mountains in the lower part of Sonora, Mexico, have fair 
skins, blue eyes, and light hair. The Crows of Montana have 
very light complexions. The Croatan Indians of North Caro- 
lina present a very strikin<T phase of a race infusion which took 
place from Sir Walter Raleigh's colony in 1587. which is com- 
paratively recent time. There are a great many similitudes 
besides those of physiognomy to help determine identity. For 
example, family descent in many of the Alaska tribes is reck- 
oned through the mother, and the grafts on the totem poles 
are carved accordini^ly. The same custom is in vogue among 
our red Indians and is of very ancient origin. Alaskans, In- 
dians and Mexicans all build dwellings without chimneys, the 
same as in Asia and Egypt. They all have their shamans, ma- 
gicians, medicine men iind priests, and their religious super- 
stitions and beliefs are much the same. 



ETHNIC STYLES IN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. 

BY STEPHEN D. PEET. 

The prevalence of an Ethnic style of architecture among 
ihe early historic races has been recognized by all, and the 
names which have been given to the different styles are famil- 
iar. The question before us is as to the manner in which these 
various styles arose and the way in which they came to be so 
generally adopted and so well established ; in other words, 
what were the beginnings of the architectural styles. 

It is, however, a question which we do not expect fully to 
answer, but merely to throw out a few hints, and especially 
hints which have been received from the study of the various 
styles of construction and ornamentation which formerly ex- 
isted on the American continent. 

Every one knows that the Egyptians, at an early date, 
adopted a style of architecture which they transmitted and 
which is to this day distinctive and is called Egyptian style. 
The same is true of the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Romans and 
the Goths, all of whose styles continue to the present time 
and are easily recognized and distinguished. The same is also 
true, to a certain extent, of the Chinese, the Hindoos, the Tar- 
tars or Turks, and Arabs, for all of these nations of the east 
impressed themselves upon their architectural works and have 
transmitted their ideas and methods of construction through 
all the generations. We do not claim for America that there 
was any such general national style as existed in the old world, 
for there was no one nation, the continent being too large and 
the geographical districts too diverse to admit of this, but we 
do claim that there was on this continent a large number of 
tribes or stocks, each of which possessed a style peculiar to 
itself, the elements of which can be easily analyzed and ac- 
counted for. These elements, in a general way. may be class- 
ified under the heads of the material that was used, the method 
of construction which was common, the general style of orna- 
mentation which prevailed, and the form, shape and plan of 
arranging the houses which were peculiar to the different tribes, 
for in these same simple and rude tribal methods of ex- 
pressing their thoughts and tastes and religious ideas, we may 
find the germs from which all the great national styles and 
orders have grown, and for this reason they are worthy of close 
study. 

We do not claim for this continent any of the so^alled 



20 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

orders, for these were totally unknown here, though the distinc- 
tion between style and order should be drawn, for orders were 
introduced by the Greek tribes, i. e., the Doric from the Dori- 
ans, the Ionic from the lonians, and the Corinthian from Cor- 
inth, but these orders were not known or practiced by the other 
nations of the east until a very late period, and were never 
practiced by the native races of America. There were in Amer- 
ica styles which were confined to tribes, just as there were in 
Greece, orders which belonged to and bore the name of the 
Greek tribes, the number of styles here in America being equal 
to the number of tribes or collection of tribes, even as the 
number of orders in Greece were equal to the number of na- 
tions or tribes in Greece. Nor do we claim for America that 
there was one general style or order, for this would imply that 
there was an American nation, whereas there was here only a 
number of tribes, though every tribe had its own method of con- 
structing the houses they lived in, its own method of arranging 
those houses in a village, and its own style of decorating the 
houses, the style being derived from the mythology which pre- 
vailed. We may say further that the tribes which were situa- 
ted in certain large geographical districts were so influenced 
by their surroundings that it was not so much an individual 
tribe as a collection of tribes which impressed themselves upon 
the architecture, and the style which prevails in any one district 
is not so much tribal as it is geographical, and characteristic 
of the locality rather than of the people. There was, to be 
sure a habit of borrowing from one another which prevailed 
among the tribes which dwelt near together, which strength- 
ened and intensified this tendency to merge the tribal into the 
geographical style, thus makmg a sort of middle ground be- 
tween the tribal and national, but with enough diversity for us 
to recognize the elements which were blended together and de- 
cide as to what was the specific type which each tribe had 
adopted for itself, making the classification what maybe called 
ethnic or tribal styles. We may well take the geographical 
districts and speak of the peculiarities which were character- 
istic of the collective tribes rather than the single tribe. 

The following is the list of tribes which we may say 
in a collected capacity have shown a style of house construc- 
tion and style of ornamentation which were characteristic and 
which in a general way may exhibit the ethnic traits. Consid- 
ered geographically, they may be said to begin at the far north 
and to make two distinct lines, one on the west and the other 
on the east. The Alaskans occupying one district had one 
general style of architecture. TheThlinkeets, who dwelt on the 
northwest coasts where forests abounded and where the sea 
furnished a great variety of food, had another style and used 
wood as material, while the Pueblos, who dwelt in the interior 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 



33 



among the cliffs of Arizona and New Mexico, had an entirely 
different style, stone being the material used, the terraced house 
being the typical form. Tribes, who dwelt in Mexico and Cen- 
tral America, had a style which was somewhat similar and used 
the same material — stone — though their ornamentation was 
entirely different. Thus we find along the Pacific coast 
five general divisions or geographical districts over which 
definite and distinct styles of structures were distributed and 
can be easily recognized. A similar division can be recog- 
nized along the Atlantic coast. 

The Esquimaux first, at the extreme north ; the Canadian 
tribes second; the wild tribes which were scattered along the 
Great Lakes third: those on the Ohio Rivera fourth, and the 
tribes situated along the Gulf States a fifth. Ten distinct 
styles ot constructing and ornamenting their houses may thus 
be seen in North America, all of which were different from 
those which existed among the Peruvians of South America 
and the tribes east and south of Peru. 

As to the manner in which these different styles arose.there 
may be a difference of opinion, yet there is no doubt that much 
was owing to environment, for the method of construction 
woiild naturally depend on the material which was the most 
abundant. The ornamenting would depend largely upon the 
mythology which prevailed. The arrangement of the houses 
in the villages would also depend upon the circumstances, for 
those who were situated along the seacoast would naturally 
make their houses front the sea, but those who were situated in 
the deep interior, where enemies were numerous and means of 
subsistence scant, would naturally live together and make their 
houses their fortress as well as the home cf the entire tribe. 
On the other hand, those tribes who dwelt in the rich valley of 
the Mississippi would naturally make earth walls for their de- 
fense and gather their villages within the walls, while those 
living on the flood plains of the south would build pyramid 
mounds and resort to these in time of great freshets, the necessi- 
ties of the case and influence of environment being sufficient 
to account for the different kinds of villages and for the differ- 
ent methods of defense. 

In this respect the architecture of America differs from 
that of any other country. Here the districts which are 
bounded by certain geographical and climatic lines, are as 
distinct from one another as if they were upon different 
continents. The style of building, as well as of ornament- 
ing, are also peculiar to each district and rarely go beyond 
certain territorial boundaries. A wide region intervenes 
between these districts where no particular style is recog- 
nized, but in other countries there is no such limitation. 
The thought which is forced upon us by the works which 




24 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

appear on this continent, is that society here had not reached 
that stage where the sense of proportion and beauty had 
come into full exercise, and yet there was an influence which 
came from mythology and a certain unconscious taste which 
was engendered by it, which gave a peculiar character to 
the works and structures which were erected by the people 
of the same general locality or geographical district. This 
character we may ascribe to the people as an inheritance, 
and say that it has come down from an ancestral religion 
which embodied itself in the ornamentation. The styles were 
in this sense all traditional. The compelling idea was de- 
rived from the religious beliefs and mythologies which pre- 
vailed, though the material used, the purpose of the build- 
ing, the proportions required, were dependent upon other 
causes than those which affected the ornamentation. In 
other words, the religion and m}- thology of the different 
tribes affected the ornamentation, but employment, means 
of subsistence, climate and other physical causes, affected 
the construction. There was no one iityle of architecture in 
America, but as many styles as there were systems of my- 
thology, for the ornamentation was always borrowed from 
the mytliology which prevailed in the region, Illustrations 
of this are numerous, for we tind on the northwest coast or- 
naments in which the ti;^^ures of the creatures of sea and 
forest and certain strange monsters are conspicuous. In 
the prairie region of the West we see the tents ornamented 
with birds, plants and animals peculiar lo that region. In 
the Gulf States there were formerly carved figures with 
the human form in grotesciue attitudes, serpents, idols which 
combined the heads of different auinials, and a great variety 
of nondescript creatures, all carved out of wood, while in 
Mexico and Central America we see a great variety of fig- 
ures carved upon the facades of the palaces, the serpent 
being the most conspicuous but human figures and faces 
are ver}- prominent, all of which represented the mythol- 
ogies and forms of religion which ])revailed there. 

Illustrations of these j.M)ints may be found among the living 
tribes, for each tribe presents a dit'ferent architectural style. 
To illustrate: The rt)und house of the Kskimos, the long 
house of the Iroqut)is, and the st|uare house or the houses 
around the square of the Mobilians. are all indicative of differ- 
ent modes of gtuernment and different customs and couditions. 

We take then the tribes situated along the Pacific, especially 
those of the northwest rt>ast. Mr. H. H. Bancroft has described 
these. He divided them into several classes, as follows: I. Hy- 
perboreans; 2. Columbians. Californians: 3, New Mexicans; 4, 
wild tribes of Mexico; 5. wild tribes of Central America. He 
has given descriptions of the peculiarities of each. From his 






'X 









HOUSES OF THE COMANCHES, 




HOUSES OF THE MANDANS. 



ARCHITECfRRE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 27 

descriptions, we learn about these tribes and their architecture. 
Here we would call attention to the contrast between the 
architecture of the southern tribes and that of the northern 
tribes. These tribes have been considered as belonging to 
the same race and as occupying the same social status, mani- 
festing the same stage of progress, but when we study their 
architecture we find a great contrast, for it resembles that of the 
civilized tribes of the southweil far more than that of the un- 
civilized tribes of the northeast, showinqf thai it had been 
borrowed from or had been influenced by the people of the 
southwest, and had perpetuated that influence for many gen- 
erations. 




The following were the methods of constructing and orna- 
menting houses among the northern tribes: 

The Dakotas constructed theirs in the form of conical tents, 
out of poles, covered them with buffalo skins, and ornamented 
the sides with the clan-lotems or with ^he dream-gods or some 
other figures suggestive of their mythology. 

The Comanches constructed theirs out of poles, but 
thatched the outside with reeds and grass, tn such a shape that 
Ihey resembled so many stacks of hay. 

The Mandans constructed theirs out of heavy posts with 




as THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

cross tinibers, and covered the whole with sod and placed their 
totem poles in front of the houses. 

The Ojibwas constructed theirs out of poles and bark but 
in an obiong shape, with the ends upright and a door at each 
end. The Iroquois built theirs also with a frame work of poles 
and a covering of bark in an oblong shape, but with a long pas- 
sage way running lengthwise of the hut, and places for differ- 
ent fires in the passageway. The interior was divided into 
apartments for the different families. (See cut.) 

The Powhattans built theirs in about the same way as the 
Iroquois, but the Seminoles constructed theirs put of posts 
which were set upright in the ground and placed in a circular 
shape, with a conical roof made out of rafters which were 
thatched with reeds and grasses. 

These northern tribes made no distinction between the 
houses of the chiefs and those of the common people, for they 




; HOUSE OF THE IROQUOIS. 

were all of the same style and appearance, and were on a com- 
mon level and were generally placed in a circle about an opea 
area, sometimes with a stockade around them to protect the 
village. The only structures which were separate from the 
villages were the lookouts on the hili or the burial places 
near by. 

When, however, we come to the Southern Indians of the 
Muskogee stock, such as the Creeks, Cherokees, Choctawsaod 
Chickasaws. we find an entirely different system. These tribes 
dwelt in villages, but they were villages which resembled in a 
rude way the cities which were occupied by the Aztecs, Toltecs 
and various tribes of Central America. Among the points of 
resemblance, the most important one is, that the ruling classes 
and ofRcials, such as the chiefs and their families, lived sepa- 



I 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 29 

rate from the common people and built their houses on the 
summits of the pyramids The priests, or medicinr men, also 
had their temples or rotundas upon the summit of conical 




ANCIENT VILLAGE SITE AT WALNUT BAYOU. 

mounds, the rotunda being used also for councils as well as for 
religious assemblies. Another peculiarity was that their so- 
called dead houses, or houses in which the bodies of the dead 




ANCIENT TOLTEC CITY AT TEOTIHUACAN. 

were placed, were full of treasures and contained many carved 
images which stood in a threatening attitude and were objects 
of terror to the common people. Still another point of resem- 
blance was, that the ceremony of reproducing the sacred fir6 




y> THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

was practiced among these people — a ceremony which resem- 
bled that which occurred among the Aztecs once in every fifty 
years, at which time there were many human sacrifices, and the 
fire was reproduced by whirling the fire generator upon the 
body of a human victim. This strange ceremony involved 
the brtaking of old pottery vessels and the cleansing of the 
houses, the use of new vessels, as well as the distribution of 
fire from the central altar to the fireplaces of the entire people, 

The most interesting point of resemblance between the archi- 
tecture of the Muskogees and of the Aztecs and Toltecs, 
is found in the temples or so-called rotundas, or places of as- 
sembly. The rotundas of the southern tribes were, to be sure, 
constructed out of wood and were rude in their appearance,, 
and yet when we come to consider their shape and general 
style of construction, the symbolism which was embodied in 
their ornaments, carved figures, also the general arrange- 
ment of the different parts and the use ot them, especially in 
connection with religious ceremonies, we shall find many very 
striking analogies. 

These rude and primitive temples, which were called rotun- 
das, with their covering of bark and their circle of seats or 
sofas on which the inmates lounged, with the fire in the center, 
were indeed very inferior to the massive stone structures 
which were wrought with such care and contained so many re- 
ligious symbols, and yet we may perceive a resemblance be- 
tween every part, for both represented apparently the great 
temple of the universe with its circular horizon and the dome 
of the sky surmounting it, the sacred fire being in the center 
beneath the dome and the lightnings playing in the form of 
serpents between the earth and sky, while the sun with its 
changes shone in from the four quarters. The symbolism 
which is contained in these great houses and rotundas of the 
Southern Indians is certainly very significant, especially con- 
sidering the fact that they so closely resembled that which pre- 
vailed among the so-called civilized people of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America, for it shows that they had contact with one an- 
other and may have belonged to the same stock, and originally 
migrated from the same center. There was, to be sure, as we 
have said, a variation in the style of building between these 
tribes, but it was a variation which was more noticeable in the 
houses of the common people than in the houses of the rulers 
or in the rotundas. Bartram describes these as being the same 
among the Cherokees, Choctaws and Chickasaws. 

The feature which furnishes the most striking resemblance 
between the works of the southern Indians and those of the 
Mexican tribes, and at the same time shows the greatest con- 
trast to the earthworks of the northern Indians, is the pyramid. 
'I he shape of the pyramids may b e seen by examining the cuts. 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES, 31 

one of which represents the pyramidal mounds which still 
stand at Walnut Bayou, near the Mississippi -River ; and the 
other, the series of pyramids which are still found at Teotihua- 
can, in Mexico- 

The pyramidal mounds mark the site of an ancient village 
of the southern mound builders, a village in which the houses 
of the chiefs were placed above those of the common people, 
sll of them arranged in a quadrangular form, but with stair- 



JJ±±±±±±±±±±±iiJ 



p:jr' 



EIE 



JHT 



+^ 

-H 
-H 



® 






GKOUND FLAN OP THK NCNNERY AT COPAN. 

ways leading from them to the open area in the center, while 
a long wall stretches away from the group on the side of the 
stream or bayou, thus furnishing alanding place for the people 
in time of high water. The truncated pyramids at Teotihuacan. 
on the other hand, mark the site of an ancient, prehistoric 
city, which was situated in a great plain. The houses of the 
iin^ :l asses in this city, however, were arranged as were those 




31 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of the village. They were all placed on the summit • 
pyramids, but in quadrangles, all of them fronting the courts, 
which were enclosed ,while a wide road, called the " Pathway of 
the Dead, led from the central temple to the gateway in the 
distance. The contrast between the village of the mound 
builders and and the city of the pyramid builders seems to be 
great, yet the (ound'itions on which the two widely separated 
peoples placed their temples and the houses of the ruling 
classes are very similar. 

This resemblance between the works of the southern m ound 
builders and of the pyramid builders of the southwest, can 
hardly be accounted for on the ground of ethnic relationship, 
inasmuch as the people at present speak different languages. 
Still there are traditions among the Muskogees to the effect 
that their ancestors migrated from the west and so-thwest, 




TPE PALACE AT PALENQUE. 

from the mountain of fire, and entered the region of the Gul£ 
States many generations ago. That there was a resemblance 
in the arrangement of the apartments of the great house of the 
Muskogees and the apartments of the palace of the Maya: 
may be seen from the cuts, which represent the ground pla 
of the palace called the Nunnery, at Uxmal. and the restora^ 
tion of the palace of Palenque. Bancroft has described the 
Nunnery as follows: 

"This is perhaos the most wonderFul edilic^cor collection of edifices 
in Yucatan, if Dot the liiiesl specimen of aboriginal sculpture and archi- 
tecture in America. The supporting mound Is, In general 



:he ^_ 



IS, 3sofeet ^H 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES 



33 



> very nearly lacing the cardinal points 
e mound h abom 70 feet wide and risea 
n three grades or terraces. There are some traces of a wide central stair- 
way, leading up to the second terrace. On the platform stand four of the 
typical Yucatan edifices, built around a courtyard, with openings between 
them and the corners. The situation ol the four structures forming the 
quadrangle, and the division of each into apartments, is shown in the ac- 
companying plan. 

The resemblance extends to other things besides the 
shape, and relative situation of the buildings, for the social 
organization and customs were quite similar. Bartrain 
says: 

" The mounds and cubical yards seem to have been 




HUT AND MANITOU FACK ON THE I'ACADE," 

raised in part for ornament and recreation, and likewise 
to serve some other public purpose, since they were al- 
ways so situated as to command the most extensive pros- 
pect over the town and country adjacent. The tetragon 
terraces seemed to be the foundation of a fortress, and 
perhaps the great pyramidal mounds served the purpose 
of lookout towers and high places for sacrifice. The. 



•Old lh< dDDCWlTI D 






^ cafuau Ih 



34 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

sunkeD area was the place where they burnt and tor- 
tured the captives, and was surrounded by a bank — sonuh 
times two of them, one behind and above the,'other;^ 
which were used as seats to accommodate the spectetocB 
at such tragical scenes. The high pyramidal mounda aier . 
to be seen with spacious and extensive avenues leadiii|f 
from them to an artificial lake, or pond of water. Obe- 
lisks, or pillars of wood, were placed in the center of 
t^e areas, about forty feet in height and two or three 
feet in diameter, gradually tajiering in the midst of ait 
oblong square. The pillars and walls of the hotises m 
the square are decorated with various paintingB 4nd' 
sculptures, with men in a variety of attitudes, having' the 
hfead of some kind of an animal, as those of a duck, tur- 
key, bear, fox, wolf or deer; and the pillars in front of 
the council house, were formed in the likeness of ser- 
pents. " 

There was not only a rotunda and a public square,.- 
answering to the temple and the palace of the more civil-. 
ized tribes; but there were also priests and kings, whic^* ». 
answered to the rulin*^ classes. * "The chief, or king, wa&f 
elected by a council, but was regarded with great n?* 
spect. His appearance is altoj^ether mysterious; as a mu- 
nificent deit}', he rises over them as the sun rises to bless 
the earth; he is universally acknowledged to be the igreat- 
est person amon^ them, and is loved, esteemed and rev-' 
erenced. Their Mice seems to them the representative of' 
Providence, or the Great Spirit. He has the power of 
calling a council to deliberate on peace or war, and pre- 
sides daily in the councils, either at the rotunda or publiCx. 
square, and decides ui)()n all complaints and difference^ 
He receives the visits of stranj^^eis, gives audience to ani9 
bassadors, and also disposes of the public granary. ' 

*'There is. in every town or tril)e, a high priest, who 
presides in si)iritiial affairs, and is a i)erson of conse- 
quence. He maintains and exercises a great influence in 
the .state, ])artioularly in military affairs. The senate 
never determines on an ex[)eilition against their enemy 
without his counsel and assistance. His influence is so 
great as to turn back an army when within a day's jour- 
ney of tiieir enemy." 



THE CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PRIMITIVE 
IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 

BY ALTON HOWARD THOMPSON, TOFEKA, KANSAS. 
PART I.— THK GIFTS OF NATURP.. 

Nature is both prodigal and niggardly in her dealings with 
man. Prodigal in furnishing for his use many simple things 
that are nt-cessary for the maintenance of his existence, and 
niggardly and reluctant in surrendering the more secret mate- 
rials and forces that have contributed so much to the wonder- 
ful advancement of civilized man. Primitive man utilized the 
simple things that nature furnished ready to his hand, and they 
were sufficient for his wants, while civilized man, by his higher 
intellectual powers and scientific knowledge, wrings from her 
reluctant hand the means for producing the wonders of this 
marvelous age. But from her great storehouse nature supplies 
both savage and civilized man with the indispensable means of 
gratifying their requirements. Her manifold products are his 
resources, and her mysterious forces are harnessed to do his 
will. Nature is as a slave to civilized man, but to primitive 
man she was a benefactor. Without the simple resources she 
placed in his unskilled hands life would have been impossible, 
and the entire race would have perished from the face of the 
earth. It would hsive been a catastrophe akin to that which 
overtook whole groups of animals in past geological ages. The 
primeval life of the human race must, therefore, be considered 
first in the light of what nature provided ready made for prac- 
tical use, which was of vital consequence in his struggle for 
existence againsfcantagonislic conditions. These simple things 
placed the balance of power in his hands, and he lived. With- 
out them he would have perished, and the earth would have 
remained the wilderness of animal and plant life that it was 
before the advent of man. 

We must contemplate first the capacities of that primeval 
troglodyte, that man-ape, that Pithecanthropus, who was ut- 
terly incapable of creating implements and weapons from the 
materials around him. He was capable only of using in a sim- 
ple, simian way, the gifts of nature as Ihey came from her 
nands, without any artificial modification whatever. Kindly 
nature gave him these resources to supplement the waning 
powers of his natural organs, which were being rapidly mod- 
ified in the process of bis psychic evolution. Having lost val- 
uable weapons in the reduction of his teeth and claws, and not 




36 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

being possessed of the agility of the carnivora nor the speed of 
the ungulates, and by gradually adopting a terrestrial mode of 
life, and losing that arboreal ability which was the refuge of 
his simian ancestors, he must needs adopt external aids to ena- 
ble him to survive amid the hostile conditions in which he found 
himself. The first extra-animal thought movement in his brain 
substance saved him, for it conferred a superiority and power 
over his natural enemies. It enabled him to select from the 
natural resources around him, efficient means for preserving 
his existence. No other animal ever attained this psychic 
power. Increasing brain power gave him additional dexterity 
in the use of nature's gifts, and from thence the battle was won 
and the race was saved. What the primeval man-ape was 
losing in physical organization, as compared with other ani- 
mals, he more than equalized in the development of ability in 
utilizing the materials that nature supplied ready to his hands. 
From that point the departure of pithecanthropic man from his 
simian ancestors began. 

To this primeval man nature was kind and beneficent, and 
nursed and nurtured him to the full development of the ma- 
turity of the race in his civilized descendant. From a mere 
animal she enabled him to develop into the god-like being who 
dominates the earth, but who seems to forget that he owes to 
her motherly care the fact that he survived all, and a little grat- 
itude would not seem to be misplaced. 

Amont^ the important gifts with which nature aided strug- 
glinj:^ primeval man, may be noted first those which were fur- 
nished by the vegetable kingdom. Like his near relatives, the 
quadrumana, pithecanthropic man was probably arboreal in his 
habits, or partially so at least. Many of man's rudimentary 
structures point to the fact of such a primitive existence. The 
apes of today furnish examples of the transitional stage, such 
as that when primeval man gradually became a terrestrial ani- 
mal in the process of his evolution. This primitive arboreal 
life first taught him the use of such products of the vegetable 
kingdom — the limbs, fruits, etc., of trees — which might be 
crudely employed as tools and weapons without modification. 
These were his missiles and clubs ready made to his hand. 
The development of the grasping powers of the hand checked 
the growth and caused the reduction of the jaws and teeth as 
prehensile and fighting organs. The hands were evolved by 
climbing and an accidentally broken limb left in the grasp 
would suggest its use as a missile or a club. This would be the 
natural, automatic action as observed in the monkeys. The 
club, therefore, either for striking or throwing, was a natural 
weapon. Nature kindly placed this most effective and typical 
weapon in the hands of primeval man at the very first and 



PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 



37 



most critical stage of his existence. His survival as a species 
probably depended more upon his discovery of the club and 
its use, at this stage of his existence, than upon any other 
agency. It gave him a new resource and placed the balance 
of power in his hands. It enabled him to dominate over other 
animals, and we probablv owe our preservation as a species to 
the discovery of the club and its subsequent modifications. 
When we consider the redu^,tion of the jaws and teeth as weap- 
ons in man. and recognize that wi'houl such externa! resources 



|e^ 



11 




THROWING STrCKS. 

to supplement his waning physical powers he would probably 
have succumbed in the struggle for existence, we must admit 
the importance of the timely discovery. The first pithecan- 
thropus who broke off a limb and used it for a missile or a club, 
was the ecnius who saved the race from extinction. With this 
weapon he became a formidable enemy and more than a match 
for the destructive animals which menaced him. 

The evolution of the club down to our times, with all its 
modifications, is a most interesting history and shows the event- 




i 



38 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ful role this great weapon has played in the development of 
the race. Conversely, the uses of the club developed initiative 
powers which led to greater brain and mental growth and this 
to further invention and advancement for the benefit of the 
race, according to the precepts of the advocates of manual 
training. 

Next to the club came the stick for throwing, which would 
early suggest itself by accidental discovery in the first place, 
in the first struggles with wild beasts and wilder men. From 
this was evolved the boomerang, the knobkerrie and other 
throwing sticks which are constructed on scientific principles 
that arc surprising among the very primitive peoples where 
they are found. Primitive man would also soon discover the 
difference between a sharp stick and a blunt one. With a 
sharp stick he could better pierce animals to kill them, and dig 
in the ground to reach root:? and grubs. With a very slight 
advance in intelligence he learned to sharpen the stick, but 
that important step placed him beyond the stage of even the 







PRIMITIVE HAMMER. 



level of the man-aoes and he became a man. The very first 
step in the direction of the artificial modification of natural 
products indicated his complete emergence from the animal 
itage of life. With sMil further advancement he hardened the 
point of the stick in the fire, and later attached to it still harder 
points of stone or bone. From this simple weapon was devel- 
oped the spear and the arrow and their relatives, but all were 
developed from from the sharp stick found ready to his band. 
Jn this category bulongs also the sharp thorn, whose piercing 
powers would soon be discovered and utilized. From this use- 
ful implement was later developed the awl, the K«edl« and the 
pUi. The thorn was a primitive tool furnished directly i^cu* 
the hand of nature that was very effective. 

Nuts, fruits and seeds could also be employed as niapilea as 
well as food; and other vegetable products were also utilised 
lor practical purposes as resources to aid in the struggle fcw 
existence. 

In the mineral kingdom we again find Nature's kmdiy pro- 
vision most fruitful. Stones of various forms and densities 



PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 39 

were furnished ready to the hand of primitive man, which could 
be used for pounding or for missiles. With the stone as a 
hammer he reduced relractory food substances, such as nuts 
and bones, and thus secured food. As his teeth and jaws had 
been so much reduced the stone hammer came as a saving re- 
source. The sSone also served an important purpose as a mis- 
sile to throw at enemies or anmials fur defence or to kill them 
as food. These ready-made weapons, he necessarily adopted 
at a very early stage, as we know of the quadrumana throwing 
stones as missiles. The use of missiles with them, however, is 
merely a "bluff " to frighten enemies away. When man at- 
tained the stage of modifying and shaping stones, to make them 
more effective as implements and weapons, he began to sus- 
tain life more easily and even to acquire some luxuries. When 
we consider the multifarious forms of stone implements and 




(prehistoric). 



weapons, and their innumerable use^, we must acknowledge a 
debt of gratitude to Old Mother Nature for her beneficence, in 
placing such a very useful material in the hands of primitive 
man. Without the indispen.sable mineral substances he could 
have progressed but little beyond the merest savagery. If the 
vsgetable kiiif^dom supplied the first resources for the preser- 
vation of life at the first emergence from the animal stage, th«» 
did tlw mineral kingdom, supply the means for the next step, 
Blip. advancement lo the stage ol improved savagery. 

The stone as a hammer developed great possibilities in the 
procftss of its evolution from the mere natural pounding imple- 
■nent. With the birth of inventive and mechanical powers, it 
was early modified to meet various purposes by chipping and 
grinding, into many and varied forms to serve the demands of 




THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

life. Ttie hammer is still important as a tool in reducing sub- 
stances that contribute to the wants of man, but with all of its 
elaborations, its relationship to the primitive pounding stone 
can be readily tracod. As Taylor states, (Early Hist, of Man- 
kind, p. 192.) " Mere natural stones, picked up and used with- 
out any artificial shaping at all, are implements of a very low 
order," and yet from this lowly origin all hammering imple- 
ments were derived. The offices of the pounding stone in 
cracking nuts, breaking bones, crushing shell fish, etc., quite 
early revealed new food resources, and thereb>^ extended the 
possibilities of life and of survival. These possibilities stimu- 
lated inv,;ntion also aid led to the attachment of a handle to 




KNIVES OF FLINT. 

a well adapted stone, and thus to other methods of increasing 
effectiveness. As a missile the stone did not undergo as great 
an evolution as it did as a hammer in early savage life, but in 
modern life the missile has become by far the most important 
and effective weapon. 

1. '-Another most important and useful tool and weapon, the 
knife, was the gift of the mineral kingdom. Aflint chip picked 
up on a hillside where an accidenally broken rock had pro- 
duced it, was prpbably the first knife. Another accident dis- 
closed how it could be made, and from thence its evolution was 
assured. The discovery of the cutting flint was a great boon 
to pimeval man. It opened up a vast field of resources, not 





PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 41 

only of means for procuring necessities, but for comforts and 
luxuries as well. He could skin animals to make clothing, cut 
up flesh for food, and do many other things that were not pos- 
sible before the discovery of this useful tool. As his inventive 
powers developed, many modifications of the knife arose. 
These modifications, however, arose at a later period and indi* 
cated a psychic advance considerably beyond that primitive 
stage in which the unmodified products of Nature were first 
employed. With these alone he accomplished a great step in 
making available the animal life around him as a resource for 
food. Without the flint knife he could do but little in the re- 
duction of coarse flesh for food, to say nothing of securing 
pelts for clothing. Here again the resources of Nature sup- 

f demented the diminishing powers of the jaws and teeth, Un- 
ike the carnivora, he was not armed to procure and reduce 
flesh for his food, but the knife came in to supply this de- 
ficiency and give him command of a new source of food sup- 
ply. It is indeed probable that while originally a vegetable 
feeder, like most of the quadrumana, yet the discovery of the 
knife was the means of extending his diet and increasing his 



STONE KNIFE. 

nourishment, so that the stronger food stimulated all of his fac- 
ulties and contributed to the development of hif^ increasing 
intellectual powers. Without the knife he might have remained 
a pithecanthropic man yet — a simian vegetarian. With ex- 
tended diet and better nourishment, he acquired increased 
powers and became the animal of psychic supremacy in the 
world. 

While the animal world, after the vegetable, contributed 
greatly to the maintenance and survival of primeval man, it 
comes next after the mineral kingdom in its ability to furnish 
ready-made materials which could be used for tools, such as 
bones, teeth, horn, shell, etc. These were great gifts from 
Nature, and they supplied some valuable tools and weapons 
ready to his hand. In this kingdom she again manifested her 
kindness to her struggling prodigy by supplying aids to him. 
Doubtless some peoples in primitive times (as the Eskimo did 
down to our day), depended entirely upon the resources of the 
anigial world for their weapons, tools and utensils, as well as 
for food and clothing. Indeed this is more than probable, for 
very early man in glacial times was a creature of the cold. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Without animal life in cold climateslife would be impossible — as 
with the Eskimo before iheadvent of the European^for animals 
supplied everything necessary for the maintenance of life. 

Bone was one of the most useful materials to primitive man, 
and is yet to savages. It furnished ready weapons and tools, 
which were crude but effective, and it lent itself readily to 
modification. Thus a long bone was a ready club; a rib was a 




knife; a scapula was a ready spade or hoe; a split'bone^was a 
dagger or spear head, and so on. 

Animal teeth furnished ready and most efficient weapons. 
Being designed by nature for piercing and cutting, primitive 
man soon learned to use them for such purposes in his hands. 
Within a very limited field uses were found for everything 
available. Later on, with the evolution of the mental powers 



I 




EARLY HISTORIC AXE, 

and manual skill, many things were made from bone and teeth, 
both useful and ornamental. Horns, hoofs and other animal 
products, also furnished useful adjuncts as tools and weapons, 
which were later modified for various purposes. 

The shells of mollusks also supplied useful implements for 
vartous purposes. The mussel shell was the first spoon and 



BEARD TEST FOR CLASSIFICATION OF RACES. 43 

furnished Ihe model for the modern spoon. It could also be 
used for cutting and scraping. Being found ready to his hand, 
shells were most convenient and useful articles to primitive 
man. The natural beauty of coloring in the shell led to its 
employment as an ornament, and thus early contributed to the 
awakening of the aesthetic instinct. 

And thus it was. that from her varied resources, beneficent 
Nature presented such things ready made to the hand of pri- 
meval, pithecanthropic man, which were most necessary for 
the maintenance of life in his first struggles for existence as he 
emerged from the animal stage. He beame adapted to his 
environments, of course, but without nature's aids to supple- 
ment his changing natural powers, he could not have survived 
at all. From the tropics to the arctic zone, nature provided 
in each region that which man seemed to require for the battle 
of life. She nursed him until he became her greafest creation, 
and finall}' he has become so all-powerful that he h-'s not only 
conquered all other animals, but has almo-t conquered nature 
herself. For, as Mr. Chas. Morris says, ( Man and His Ances- 
tors, p, 64): "When onre primilive man began to add to his 
natural powers those of surrounding nature by the use of arti- 
ficial weapons, the first step in a new and illimitable range of 
evolution was taken. From that day lo this man has been oc- 
cupied in unfolding this method and has advanced enormously 
beyond his primal state. A crude and simple use of weapons 
gave him in time supremacy over the lower animals. An ad- 
vanced use of tools and weapons has given him. in a measure, 
supremacy over nature herself." 

(TO BE CONTINUED.) 



THE BEARD AS A TEST FOR CLASSIFICATION OF 
RACES. 

BY C. STANILAND WAKE. 

[Revue d' Anihrppologie, iSBo. pp. S4~7/.] 

A consideration of the beard as a race character renders it 
evident that the division of mankind into bearded and non- 
bearded races, would not agree with the classification proposed 
and developed by Dr. Frederic Mueller, in his Ethnographie 
umverselle. on the basis of hair character. According to Dr. 
Mueller's system, races are all either woolly-haired (woilkaarig), 
or straight- haired {schlkhtkaarig). The first are subdivided 
into, (i) peoples with tutted hair {busclulhaarig). as the Hotten- 
tots and the Papuas; (2) fleecy hair {fleissluiarig), as the Nc- 
gros of Africa and the Cafres, The race; 



ith smooth hair are 




44 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

subdivided into, (i) peoples with straight hair {straafhaari£)^ 
comprising the Australians, the Hyperboreans, that is to say, 
the Jakoutes, the Tchouktschis, the Kamtschadales, the Ainos, 
the Ostiiks, the Eskimo, the Aleuts, the Americans, the Ma- 
lays (including the Polynesians and the Melanesians), and the 
Nlongolians — that is to say, the Ouralo-Altaics, the Japanese, 
the Coreans, the Chinese, the Tibetans, the Himalayans and 
Indo Chinese; (2) the races with curly hair {lockenAaarig), com- 
prising the Dravidians and the Singhalese, the Nubians (in- 
cluding the Foulah and the Mediterranean races — that is to 
say, the Caucasians, the Khamo-Semitic and the Indo-Ger- 
manic peoples and the Basques. 

I f we group these races, however, according to the abundance 
or the rarety of their beard, we shall have a different classifica- 
tion, as shown by the following table: 

ABUNDANT BEARD. 

Woolly hair, in tufts Papuas 

Smootri and strai)fht hair Australians 

Polynesians 

Melanesians 

Ainos 

Smooth and curly hair Dravidians 

Sinj^alese 
Mediterranean races 

SCANTY BEARD. 

Woolly hair, in tufts Hottentots 

Bosjesmans 
Woolly hair, fleecy African Negroes 

Cafres 
Smooth and straifi:ht hair Othtr Hyperboreans 

Americans 

Other Malays 

Mongols 
Smooth and curly hair Foulahs, Nubians 

Kolarians 

It follows from this classification that there does not exist, 
at present, any special and general connection between the na- 
ture of the hair and the development of the beard. The two 
varieties of smooth hair, straight and curly, are associated as 
well with thick beards as with scanty beards. We find woolly 
hair among non-bearvled peoples as \Nith bearded peoples. The 
only exception is the tleecy vaiiety. which is represented merely 
amon^ non-bearded peoples, and may be due to an infusion of 
Asiatic blood. The absence of such an infusion may perhaps 
account for the fact that the Foulah-Nubian peoples, who be- 
long to the section of races having smooth, curly hair, have 
the beard better furnished than their neighbors with woolly 
hair. The last group with curly hair, among the unbearded 
races, comprises the Kolarians. whose hair and the conforma- 
tion of the skull, judging of it by their dolichocephaly, appear 



BEARD TEST FOR CLASSIFICATION OF RACES. 



*S 



to connect ihem with the natives of India rather than with the 
Mongols, whom they are supposed to be allied to by language. 

The only form of hair of the woolly type included in both 
the bearded and non-bearded groups, is the tufted variety of 
tfic Papuas and the races of Southern Africa. All these races 
belong to the dolichocephalic section of the human species. 
As to the Hottentots, there is not yet sufficient reason for sep- 
arating them from other African races. Dr. Barnard Davis is 
ID agreement with M. Gratiolet in grouping together the Hot- 
tentots and the Cafres of South Africa as occipital races, their 
dolichocephaly being occipital. The small skull, beautiful and 
symmetric, of the Bosjesmans, which Dr. Davis considers as "'a 
complete refutation of the hypothesis of the unity of the human 
race, as ordinarily understood, as well as the hypothesis of ev- 
olution," would seem to prove at least that they do not occupy 
their primitive country. Their tufted hair, similar to the woolly 
hair of the Papuas, can be the result of a mixture of races, an 
explanation which is probably more plausible than that which 
would attribute the particular character of the hair of the 
Papuas to the employment of artificial means of coloring. 

In thus excluding the two varieties of the woolly haired 
type, there is left only the type with smooth hair. In this the 
variety with straight hair is met with as well among the bearded 
as among the non-bearded races; but the curly-haired variety 
belongs exclusively to the bearded race, if we exclude the 
Foulah- Nubians and the Kolarians. We thus arrive at the con- 
clusion that the bearded type belongs especially to the division 
of humanity having smooth hair, this form of hair being found 
equally with the bearded races situated at the lowest stages of 
civilization, and (as a group) associated in the the most inti- 
mate manner, by position, with the non-bearded races. Curly 
hair would appear to specially characterize the bearded races, 
the most advanced in the path of civilization. The considera- 
ble development of the hair on the face, which is attained by 
individuals of these races, and the great length which the hair 
of the head often attains among the peoples almost beardless, 
would lead us to believe that there exists a connection between 
the development of the pilous system of the head and that of 
other parts of the body. 

In conclusion, I would remark that the comparison here 
made between the development of the beard among different 
races and the nature of their hair, would seem to prove that 
that the hair of primitive man was smooth and straight. If 
this conclusion is just, we shall be disposed to believe that the 
woolly form of hair is due to the influence of secondary causes, 
an opinion which is confirmed by the small number of races 
with woolly hair which exist on the globe and by the particular 
characteristics presented by the countries which they mhabit. 




A PLEA FOR GREATER SIMPLICITY. AND GREATER 

ACCURACY, IN THE WRITINGS OF THE FUTURE 

REGARDING THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 

BY DR. CHARLES E. SLOCUM, DEFIANCE, OHIO. . 

The number of men and women who hav6 written of the 
American Aborigines with more or less of fullness, and with 
more or less of accuracy, is large, and it soon becomes evident 
to even the casual reader of their writings, that there is too 
much of ambiguity and repetition, including worn-out theories, 
too much of fiction and morbid sentiment, and altogether too 
much of complexity in the treatment of the unsolved problems 
as to the characters which should be ascribed to these people. 

The number is few who do not continue a prolix and faulty 
nomenclature. 

The term "Indian" should have been discontinued long ago, 
and while a few writers have recognized this truism, they have 
been unfortunate in their choice of a designating word to take 
its place, thus adding to the complexity. 

The designation, "American Race," is objectionable for 
several reasons, among which are the well-supported belief 
that they are not a separate race, the probability of their soon 
ceasing to exist as a separate or distinctive people, etc. 

It is also insufficient and inappropriate to style these peo- 
ple the " Red Race." Color is a relative feature, and it is but 
one of several features, when it is of value in describing race 
characteristics. A visit to the upper classes in the Carlisle 
school shows its iuappropriateness. In this connection it may 
well be stated, that the repetition of the term "the whites," to 
designate those of the Caucasian race, is a vulgarism to be 
avoided. 

The appellation, " Amerind," is the most inexcusable of 
all, and is likely to be confined to a few persons of the present 
generation. It possesses nothing to commend it, and it should 
not be repeated. An explanation of this bastard term must 
needs accompany it, and its use would also perpetuate the 
misnomer, "Indian." 

The designation, Aborigines, is both appropriate and ex- 
pressive. This ancient term is all-sufficient in its different 
forms, It is self-explanatory, and the future will commend its 
exclusive general use to designate, generally, the earliest his- 
torical peoples of all countries, which can readily be distin- 



A PLEA FOR GREATER SIMPLICITY. 



47 



guished by adding the name of the locality or country where 
found, the tribal name, or the characteristic. 

An appeal Is made to the able Director and Corps of the 
Bureau of American Ethnology, to the honored Secretary of 
ihe Smithsonian Institution, and to the authorities of museums 
generally, to expunge the term "Indian" from all their labe's 
and their future Reports, and to employ that of Aborigine in- 
stead. It is pleasing to note how little change such action 
would necessitate. 

The first Europeans found the Aborigines — in the northern 
part of America particularly — a very simple people, in lan- 

fiage, in names, in desires and aspirations. The competing 
uropeans, English and French particularly, sought to classify 
them, to amplify them in every sense for effect, to dominate, 
to apportion coats of arms to, and in every way to magnify the 
importance of minor distinctions. The simple Aborigines were 
transformed by association, and amalgamation, with these peo- 
ples from civilized countries, and the influences emanating 
from them, by possession of their metal knives, tomahawks, 
firearms, improved methods of making fire and clothing, by the 
mental stimulus of contact and admixture of blood, as well as 
by their brandy and rum — complexities multiplied! And these 
complexities, these engraftings from other peoples, have been 
presented to us in great amount by writers, often with much 
fiction of their own, as native emanations from the Aborigines. 
We read speeches attributed to them, that, notwithstanding 
their great poverty of language and their " untutored minds," 
vie with the most carefully prepared addresses of cultured ora- 
tors! Here is a halo of sentiment and garnishment by the able 
"pale face" interpreter, ably assisted by the fertile book-writer/ 
As late as the year 1796 Count de Volney, a French traveler 
and writer who traveled through the Maumee and Wabash 
country, could not find a correct literal interpreter of the Miami 
tongue. And still, notwithstanding the ignorance of the lan- 
guage and meanings of the Aborigines, we are desired to read 
their alleged "myths" set forth in all the flush and finish of the 
"dime novel!" We read of alleged legends embracing the 
creation of the earth, if not the universe, as coming from per- 
sons and tribes who were ignorant of the story of the times of 
their grandfathers! 

Doubtless every tribe of Aborigines had its romancers; 
They gathered some knowledge of the language of the nation- 
ality with which they associated, and they imbibed something 
of the fabulous stories often told to them, Peculiar concep- 
tions were obtained by them also from the efforts of the Euro- 
pean religious teachers. As the hunting grounds became nar- 
rowed, and it was no longer necessary to skirmish against ad- 
verse conditions for food, on account of the liberalities of a 




48 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

paternal government, it was not strange that they followed, 
though at a distance, their more cultured neighbors and visit- 
ors into the habit of day-dreaming. 

It is now, at this late date, impossible to analyze, separate 
and trace to their source the conceptions, beliefs and express- 
ions of our existing aboriginal descendants — to attempt to 
weig^h the influences, remote and direct, of ten or twelve gen- 
erations of Europeans, of six or more nationalities. Much good 
may result from such efforts, however, if intelligently con- 
ducted with the methods of modern science; but only addi- 
tional confusion and harm can result from the coining of inap- 
propriate and inexpressive terms, and the ill-advised increase 
and continuance oi complexities. 



Bdttortal. 



A PLEA FOR BETTER PIONEER HISTORY. 

During the Centennial, in 1876. especial interest was 
awakened in American history, and a new impetus was given 
to the writing and publishing of it. The movement took on a 
shape which was of doubtful character, as an immense number 
of '*county histories'* were prepared, and the farmers and other 
people who were men of means, had the opportunity of having 
their names, portraits, and pictures of their farms and houses, 
go into those books, which now constitute the lumber piles in 
our public libraries. History was written in the interest of ad- 
venturers, who sought to make money out of the vanity of am- 
bitious men. The country was flooded, and there was no ark 
of refuge to which a modest man could escape. The Ararat of 
solid worth was a lofty peak which arose above this misty 
sea, and, fortunately, it became a starting point for the peopling 
of the continent, by those who were worthy of confidence and 
respect, and so the foundations of society have been well 
laid. 

Within a few years history has assumed a new phase. It 
appears now under the guise of novel writing; but some of them 
are novels, which exalt the deeds which brought disgrace upon 
honorable names, and shocked the moral sense of the entire 
people. Others tear away all barriers and break through the 
reserve, which in their own day our best men possessed, and 
we have become familiar with love stories which are purely im- 
aginative and are commonplace. Just now the tendency is to 
take up the story of the Indians, both those which were for 
merly situated in the Connecticut valley, and those who se re" 



EDITORIAL 



4» 



cently removed from the valley of the Mississippi. The dark 
deeds and cruelties of the first are dwell upon, wliile the suffer- 
ings and wrongs of the last are paraded with ^reat lorce. 

Parkman has presented the white man's side of the story, 
and, so far as that goes, his works are reliable and graphic, 
The history of the French and Indian war, the war of the Rev- 
olution, that of 1812, and the Blackhawk war in 1832, have been 
written from the white man's side. But the Indian and his 
rights and grievances have hardly been recognized. It is as 
easy nowadays to create a sensation out of sympathy with the 
Indians, as it was a few years ago, to create it out of (ear. The 
old motto was: "The only good Indian is the dead Indian;" 
the present motto is: "The only good Indian is the Indian who 
has lost his identity, and has no longer a tribal boundary or 
treaty to secure him from the aggressions of the whites." The 
struggles have ceased to be the struggles of war, but they have 
begun to be the struggles which are peaceful, but disastrous to 
the poor Indian. As an Individual, the Indian has no chance. 
It is a survival of the fittest, under new environments over 
which he has no control. The Blackhawk war was the last 
struggle which the Indian made east of the Mississippi River. 
Sensations are produced in our lecture halls by pictures of In- 
dians, and our historical societies are open to those who awaken 
sympathies for those Indians who suffered so much during that 
war. Blackhawk is counted a great hero and warrior, and his 
adherence to the English is excused while the first families of 
Illinois and Wisconsin arc ridiculed over the shoulders of the 
"squatters," who pressed so closely upon the borders and came 
first in contact with the Indians. These first families laid the 
foundations of society, and they do well, who build upon 
those foundations. There is no need of tearing up the stones 
and throwing them at those whose names are so well known. 
Governors, congressmen, the best generals that we have had, 
and the best president that we ever had, had to do with the 
Blackhawk war. They were not responsible for the bargain 
by which the best of lands in Illinois and Wisconsin wer^ sold 
to the government, nor were they responsible for the panic that 
came upon the "'squatters" when Blackhawk returned to his 
ancient village, near the mouth of the Rock River. Blackhawk 
himself was to blame for (he calamities which came upon his 
people. He did not receive sympathy from either the Potto- 
waltomics, who were located near Chicago, nor the Winneba- 
goes, who were the aborigines of Wisconsin, nor from the 
Foxes, whose village was on the Des Moines, in Iowa. Black- 
hawk violated his own written agreement, and returned to the 
land which had been sold to the government by his own people 
and the Foxes. He began a hopeless contest for the re-pos- 
session of the land which he had forsaken. He was not a war- 




so THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

rior, and never fought a real battle, but was engaged in several 
skirmishes with the whites. He was quite unlike Pontiac, 
who rallied all the tribes of the Middle West in their great 
conflict wiih the whites. 

The majority of the families which settled in Illinois and 
Wisconsin, belore the Blackhawk war. were totally unlike the 
adventurous and rough bands of whiles who were roaming 
through the forests of Ohio during Pontiac's time, as any one 
may see who reads Parkman's valuable history. These early 
settlers began to build up villages and cities, which are now 
the largest and most attractive in the country; and they im- 
pressed their influence uprn their descendants strongly. We, 
in fact, owe to them a debt of gratitude which we can never 
repay. Their names are held sacred in the memory of those 
who followed them, and should be regarded as worthy of hon- 
orable mention by the historians of our day. 

There are many localities which are memorable because of 
their connection with the " Blackhawk War," They are likely 
to be visited by summer tourists, but ihe historian should sift 
the evidence and fix upon the exact spot where Blackhawk's 
village was situated, also upon the spot where he was taken 
captive, and all other localities which were made memorable 
by the war. hi this the archa;ologist and the historian may 
well go hand in hand; but while identifying these localities, it 
is well to perpetuate the memory of those who did so much 
for laying the foundation of society, and. if possible, preserve 
the buildings in which they made their homes and make a note of 
the lives which they lived. The pioneer history of the Middle 
West is as important as that of the Indians, and should be 
written up correctly. The history of the French explorers and 
the early French settlements has been written carefully, but 
that of the pioneers has never received ihe attention it deserves. 
We plead tor more interest in this, and especially for a more dili- 
gent collection of the material, which is likely to be lost. 



I 




BOCK ISLANn 



I. 




rr- 


-n 








1 








■ 






j'^H 


J 






BLACKHAWK. 








t 



ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 

EXPLORATIONS IN SYRIA. 

On January ]6th. igoi, Mr. Howard CroBby Butter delivered a leclurc 
at the Free Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, upon 
"The Deserted Cities of North-Central Syria." The Amtncan expedition, 
of which Mr, Butlei was a member, found no excavation necessary, since 
the ruins lie on the bare slopes and desert planes of the mountainous dis- 
trict. None of the ihiriV'three cities discovered, are older than the first 
century B. C. The steady decrea.te in moisture seems lo liavc practically 
depopulated the section, culminatinif shortly before the rise of Islam. 
Everywhere wine presses and signs of former cultivation abound. Roman 
roads, perfect as ii yet frequented by the traffic of the empire; curtain walls 
piercea by superb arches, still true despite the loss of the retaining weight: 
public baths; flat houses five stories in height; bazaatsand dwellings which 
would be habitable to-day were the rotted timber roofs replaced; tombs 
with sculptures both in relief and In the round; temples dedicated lo the ' 
hybrid worship of the great Zeus and the local deity; baptistries and 
churches whose strong architecture stands aloof from the decadeikt para- 
sitism of the Roman basilica. Such are a frw of the notable conqueMsof 
the expedition. With a praiseworthy consideration lor the'difficulties of 
the future aniniuary. [he builders have inscribed and dated right atid left. 
The publication of the results of the exploration will be of great value lor 
the solution of more than one knotty problem, and must be awaited with 
considerable interest. H. N. W. 



EXCAVATION IN CRETE, 

On the wild and little visited island of Crete two of the 
and interesting aichseological discoveries of modern times 
been made. These are the finding o 
scribed in both Greek and Roman clas 
palace ol King Minos, with its mysler' 

ancient site of Knossos. These two di 

of the British archaeologists, D. G. Hogarth, who found and explored »__ 
ancient cave, and Arthur J. Kvans, director of the Untish school at Atben^S 
to whose researches the world is indebted for the excavations that havcl 
brought to light the palace of Minos, Both discoveries were made it ' 
interior of Crete, and from them it would appear that this Island wa: 
birthplace and cradle of Greek civilization and culture. 

Ir the ancient Greek mythology the Ki^d Zeus was the son of Kronot,^ 
Icing of heaven, and was born in a cave on a high hill on the Island of Cret^]fl 
Because of a prophecy that the child should cast him from his thronttjf 
Kronos sought to kill his son, and it was because of this that the motho^ 
Rhea, fled to Greece and there reared the child, before whom Krooos wall ' 
forced to bow. The cave came lo be regarded as a holy place by the 
Greeks. Minos, the lawgiver of Greece, was the son of Zeus, and every 
nine years he repaired lo the cave, there to receive the inspired laws for 
the guidance of the land. The recent discoveries would seem lo prove 
that the legendary Zeus and Minos of the ancients rested on a liasis of r©.. 
ality and that there was a hislory side to them . 

For many years Greek officials and wild hillmen, intolerant of s_.__ 
£ers, have prevented any explorations of the inner part of Crete, and it ii 




^^^^. ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. S3 

only recently, therefore, lh»l Ihere has been any archjeological research 
there. Rcporlsreached the ouler world that shepherds, tendiog their flockft 
in the vicinity of the rockv hill kuown as Uicla. had found stranee objects 
of bronze and other metals near the mouth of a cavern. Soaie of these ob- 
jects found their way in lime to the hands oF archsologists. and so mani- 
festly were thev votive offennKs of very ancient desi|ni that they indicated 
plainlv a locality rich in interest. When Crete was liberated the interior ol 
the island was open to visitors, and the British government, securing a con- 
cession to explore this cave, put Mr. Hogarth in charge ol the operations. 
At the opening of the vear he established a ca np of Cretan workmen at 
the loot of the hill and began the work. Soon, n ligzag mule track was 
made up the ;oa-foot slope of rock which led to the entrance of the cave. 
It look four davs to blast away the immense bowlders that blocked the en- 
trance to the cave, exposing the black mouth of the great orifice, which Mr. 
Hogarth describes as follows : 

"The great cave 14 double There is a shallow hall to the right and 
an ahy^mal chaim to the left, the last not unworthy of a place among the 
famous limestone grottoes ol the world. The rock at hrst breaks down 
sheer, but. as the ll^hl grows dim. t.ikes an outward slope and so falls 
steeply for j^m feet into a inkv darkness An icy pool spreads From your 
feet ahoui the bases of fantastic stal.iclile columns, on into the heart of Ibe 
hill. Hall opens from hall, With fretted roiifs and black, unruffled floors. 
Fit scene enough for Miiios' mysterious colloquy with his father, Zeus," 

IS STONEHENGE A NEOLITHIC STRUCTURE? 

A striking discovery has been made during excavations which wen 
necessary to raise one of the monoliths in the famous prehistoric group al 
btonehenge. in Wiltshire, into an upright po-ition, sayslhc New York bun, 
The mfn engaged in the work have found numerous neolithic implements, 
which bad evidently been used In cuttmj^' and squaring the si 
when bluDted. had been turned into the bidding on which the 
supported. The discovcrv is held to prove that the unique mo 
Stonehenge is anterior lo ihe Uroniy age anil iliai the structure still visible 
was certainly built before 1500 B, C. 

PUEBLO RUINS IN KANSAS. 
For the pa-'t fifteen >ears or more the existence ol Pueblo ruins have 
been known to the people of the vicinity. They are situated in the North- 
em part of Scott county in the valley ol a rrcek which flows into the Smoky 
Hill River, No stream in the western part of the State affords more favor- 
able conditions for irrigation. 

THE STORY OF THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. 

Ur Quinn. Ihe well known antii 
a charming legend of the origin of t 
tenies the Corinthian pillar : 

"In the winter a young girl had died in Corinth," he savs. "Sometime 
afterward her maid gathered together various trinkets and playthings 
which the girl had loved, and brought them to the girl's grave. There 
she placed them In a basket near the monument, and placed a lar^e 
square tile on the basket to, prevent the wind from overturning it. 
It happened that under the basket was a root of an acanthus plant. When 
sprm:; came the acanthus sprouted; but its shoots were not able to pierce 
the basket. and accordingly they grew around it, having the basket in their 
midst. Such of the long leaves as grew up against Che four protruding cor- 




S4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

aeri of the tile on the top of the basket curled around uoder these c 
and formed pretty ,volutes. Kallimachos, the sculptor, walkios tbat way 
one day. saw this, and immediatelv conceived the notion that the lorm of 
the basket with the plaque on top of it, and surrounded by the leaves and 
stalks of acaoihus, would be a comely headlflf; for coiumns in architect ore. 
He from this idea formed the beautiful Corinihian style of capital. Sucb 
at least is the story as the architect Vilruvius told it igoo years ago." 

THE SCARAB.€US 

Id the insect world, the insect regarded by the old Egyptians as sacred 
above all others, was the beetle. i The beetle came to be held ia such ex- 
alted esteem on account of that which it symboiued. and what it symbol- 
lied was based upon its own characteristics and habits. The natural Egyp- 
tian beetle, still surviving, is large, black, horned and winged. When tbe 
female beetle comes to the period of batching. It will form a ball, consider- 
ably larger than itself, out of Nile clay and refuse. Having formed the ball 
It will roll it for long distances to some secluded place, frequently and most 
appropriaiely to some ancient tomb or temple. Havini; done so, the beetle 
then enters and incloses, literally burying itself in the ball. There it de- 
posits its eggs and rem ims there until the eggs are hatched. It is en- 
tombed. The beetle doe> not die and does not cume out of this, its tomb 
until It comes out with Its young. Having observed these habus of the 
beetle, the old Egyptian htly chose it as the symbol ol life, immortality and 
resurrection. The beetle lyinjc so long in this ball, entombed, as if dead 
and in its grave, and then suddenly, at the appointed time, hiir^tini; forth 
from it, most ndlur.illy and aptly symbolized resiirrection from tbe 
dead. And the beetle not dying in this ball, but coming forih living and 
with its living young, not dying unti It had perpetated its life in its young, 
that symboliztd life, continuity of hie without a break and without cessa- 
tion — eternal life. Such wa^ the symbolism of tiie beetle, and hence se- 
lected and held sacred. 

On account ol this its symbolism, and also because of convenience in 1 
size and form, ih - beetle was chosen as ttie model for ihe stone of the seal 1 
ring. A piece of stone, limestone or any one of the stones above menliooedi " 
was taken and carved for the purpnsc. The upper portion and the sides 
were carvcU to resemble the beeilc precisely. 1 he under part was cut Rat 
and smooth and on ibi-> surface was cdrved (m hieroglyphics) the name or 
inscription desired. Through Ibib carved beetle a hole was drilled length- 
wise, so that It could be mounted mto a rln^ having a revolving stone, or 
strung ir: forming necklaces and bracelets. The original and principal use 
to which this carved sacred beetle was put was ihesral,olten times mounted 
into a seal rinj;. On the unoersiiie waacarvtd th; i ame or official title, or 
both, of tlie reigning fharaoh or of his suboitimate officials. Subsequently 
the beetle came to be iidoptcd and applied very generally, as they are found 
containmiJ the names and titles also of deities, prie-^is. prophets, notables, 
symbolisms, iDScrlpllous Irom The Book of the Dead, etc. The name gen- 
erally applied to these curved, sacred beetles, is scarabieus (plural scara- 
baei), which is simply the Latin name for beetle. 

The above is quoted from the Aos Angeles ( Cai.) GaxetU, which claims 
that the scarab^eus ol Jo-eph is in that ciiv. Doubtful. J 

The inscription on the Joseph Scarabseus, to which reference is hereJ 
made. Is as follows: ' 

The inscription is the official life of Joseph as Prime Ministerof Egypt, 
and precisely as that title is given in the hook of Genesis— a fact that at 
odce both confirms the b blical record and also identities the scarabaeus or 
seal. Joseph's full official title as Premier, and according to the Bitile. was. 
"Father to Pharaoh, lord of all his house and ruler iDroughout all the land t 



^^^H Egypt-" 



lk 



ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 55 

~A PREHISTORIC ART GALLERY OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 

A remarkable collection of prehistoric drawings or rock engrnvinE;!, 
Tepresenting animals, has been discovered on the walls of a cavern inConi- 
barelles. Dordogne, France, by Dr. CapitsD. Oth<^r caverns in Ibis re^ioa 
have yielded similar finds, but [his is of unusual richness. The engravingi 

r both sides oE a rockv passage for nearly 300 feet. Says a contrihulor 
" ■ ' * 'escriplion of this prehistoric art 



to /ji Nature (Paris. Oclober 5), 
gallery : 

"Messrs. Capitan and Breuit have examined one 
figures, some of incredible clearness formed of deepiv ini 
of lighler mi.rking but easily followed. Some are grai 
rock, while others^and this is quite novel — are quite cov 
mitic deposit that tills the lines and forms a sort of glaie 
I- '—-IS the stalagmite is thicker and hides the " — 



' one all these 
^d lines, others 
on the living 
d with a stalag- 
;r the drawing. 



recognized 109 absolutely clear figures, without countlne i 
marks, parts of animals, and uninterprctable combinations of lines. Prob- 
ably other figures will be found among these. 

"These 109 figures include 64 entire animals and 4; heads Among 
the former the drawing is of varied merit, but many are of a perfection of 
design so great thai it is easy at once to recognize the animal represented. 

"The authors have indicated only absolute IdentificatioDS. Thus they 
report Ig unidentified animals; 23 horses, some of ibem admirably drawn, 
. . . and others differing from our modern horse by the curved neck 
with straight mane and by the lowgrowing tufted tails; 3 oxen . . with 
long horns; 2 unraistakeable buffaloes; 3 reindeer, finely drawn with all 
the details of the horns; and finally — tne moat curious discovery of all — 14 
representations of mammoths, so clearly drawn that there can be no doubt 
about them. . , . The lone hair marked on the rock by numerous stri- 
atloDS, the high forehead with its median concavity, the long-curved tusks, 
the great trunk, either pendant or curved to the rear, the Ivpical feet^all 
are rendered with an extreme care that will allow a separate study of nu- 
merous points of detail 

'■ Such are the figures, whose great antiquity can not be doubted — the 
evident work of artists reproducing, with perfect fidelity and astonishing 
technical skill, the animals ihit ihey saw. It may be understood that, apart 
from its arch:cological value, Ibis discovery may give, with detailed study 
of the figures, precious information about a number of the animals then 
living, which naturally could not be obtained alone from the study of their 
■ - - " -TransMion made Jor The Literary Digest. 




Literary Notes. 

The Opbn Court for December has an article on " Taeping: Rebel- 
lion in China. 1856," from S. Wells Wilhams' report. The illustrations rep- 
resent the observatory and the wonderful astronomical instruments which 
formerly existed there, but were looted during the late rebellion. It con- 
tains also a short article by the editor on the ''Deluge Legends of American 
Indians." 



The Biblical World for December has an interesting article on 
"The Route of the Exodus from Egvpt/' by Prof. G. L. Robinson, Ph. D. 
Well illustrated from photographs taken on the spot. 



The Era (Philadelphia; for December contains an article on ' Unex- 
plored Alaska ; *' also one on '* Whittier*s Birthplace and the Houses in 
Which he Lived ;" also a picture of the •* Snow-Bound." "The Coronation 
Chair at Westminster/* and the "Ancient Cross at Glen-da Lough, Ireland/' 
are also illustrated by "cuts." The magazine has a good deal on Archaeol- 
ogy, and is iurnished at a very low price — ten cents a number. 



The International Monthly for December has an article on 
"The Middle West/* by Frederick J. Turner, and one on " The Christian 
and Infidel in the Holy Land/* by Dana Carleton Monroe. Also '*A Re- 
view of the A'nerican Dictionary of Architecture," bv Montgomery Schuyler 



The Trainman*s Journal for November has an interesting article 
on " The Cliff Dwellers," with ten views of the cliff dwellers' palace in Col- 
orado, some of them different from any that have been taken before. 



-ctnzffi' 



BOOK REVIEWS. 

A Historical GEi)GRAPHy of the British Colonies. Vol. V. By C. P« 
Lucas, C. 13., of Baliol College, Oxford, and the Colonial Office. London 
Canada. Part I. (New France), with four Maps. Published in uniform, 
bmding with the previous volumes of the series. Oxford, at the Clar- 
endon Press, MDCCCl. 

The series of books on "The Historical Geography of the British Col- 
onies*' is very valuable, but those devoted to the British Colonies in Amer- 
ica are more interesting thm the others— at least they are to American 
readers. The author speaks first of the colonization in prehi^toric times, 
and refers to the fact tnat there was a civilization to be found on the western 
side of the Andes and on both sides of the Pacific Ocean, but there was a 
higher civilization upon the eastern * ide of Asia and Africa. The main 
course of European civilization has, on the other hand, been in the 
opposite direction. Its center c^radually shifted from Asia Minor and Phoe- 
nicia to Greece; from Greece to Rome and the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean; from Rome to the shores of the Atlantic; finally, from the east side 
of the Atlantic to the western. The West Indies and Central America were 
easier to rench. and more attractive when reached, than were the provinces 
of New England and the Canadian possessions- For a century after the 



BOOK REVIEWS 

discovery of Cential and Soutb Atnerica, which were organized into Span 
ish provinces, the extreme north was left lo Basque, Breton and English 
fishermen. The central provinces gave gold and silver, and the adventur. 
ers Irom Europe hurried In and stayed; but the fishers of New Foundland 
5aw men come and go. and the agricultural resources of Virginia and New 
England were left undeveloped. The only reason for adventurers to trav- 
erse the norihern regions was that they lay between Europe and the won- 
derful land of Calhay, about which Marco Polo had wriii'n. 

Lord Raleigh was a true Englishman and favored colonization, though 
Samuel Chaoiplain, as a Frenchman, spent the mo£I of his lime in explor- 
ing the region north of the great lakes. The Dutch and Danes settled 
mainly along the Atlantic coast, south of the mouth of the Hud^o^. But 
the Jesuits established their tnissions in New York and in iheCanadas. The 
change from the French to the English did not occur until the French and 
Indian waroC 1750, and, for this reason, the eastern province is still tilled 
with French population, whicn still clinKs lo its (.wn language. 

The volume abounds with excellent descriptions, and is valuable on 
account of the broad range of view which is taken by Ihe author. The 
"History of Canada," which is distinctively British, is delayed until the 
second pan. and we awaii that with some impatience, for it treats upon a 
subject which is quite unfamiliar to the majority of American readers. 

The Lesser Nkw Fire Ceremony at Walpi , The OwakuUi Aliar at 

Sichomovi, Pueblo. By J. Waiter Fewkes, 

Dr. Fewkes is still continuing his study of the altars and religious cer- 
emonies and festivals o( the Pueblo tribes, especially the Hopis, at Walpi. 
One of the pamphlets describes the fire ceremony quite minutely, and gives 
the symbolic significance. The other describes the sacred objects which 
have occult powers, including the iiponis or (badges) effigies (idols), and 
medicine bowls. These are made very clear, and the pamphlets are very 
instructive. They are well illustrated. 

The SociAi. Life of the Hbbrrws. By the Rev. Edward Day; New 
York. Charles Scribnet's Sons, igoi. 

The keynote of this book is taken from the clan life, the best example 
of which is found among the American aborigines. The main thought is 
that the clan existed before the family, and that the social organitation in 
primitive limes among the Semites was founded upon the clan. Matriar- 
chy changed to patriarchy at an early dale, which was the system which pre- 
vailed between the time of Abraham, and the return from Egypt, The in- 
fluence of individuals was felt during the time of the Judges, as Samson 
owed bis power to his strength. Gideon to his valor, Jeplha to his impet- 
uous character. Saul to his height and manly appearance, David to 
his symmetrical and noble character. In those early days properly was 
mainly in flocks and herds rather than landed estate. The unsettled con- 
dition of the Danites is referred to as proving that clan life was prominent. 
The five Daniles were representatives of the different sects of the clan. 
Morality was largely a thing of the clan. An offence against an individual, 
whether male or female, in any ctan was avenged by the whole clan, as is 
shown in Ihe case of the Lcvite and the concubine. The churlish Nabal 
was also the bead of a clan, and resembled a modern Sheik among the 
Arabs. *^ ^ *-* 

Mbmoranda on the Maya Calendars, Used in thb Books of 
CutLAN Balam. Was the Beginning Day of the Maya Month num- 
beied Zero (or twenty) or One i A Method which may have been Used 
by the Mavas in Calculating Time. Notes on the Report of Teoberl 
Maler, in Memoirs of the Peabody Museum. By Charles Bowdilch. 
It is fortunate that a man of erudition, and of ample means, has taken 




58 BOOK REVIEWS. 



Vt 



up the study of the Calendar System of Mayas, for every one on the cont- 
nent, who has been, heretofore, at work on it, has dropped the study. 
Among these may be mentioned, Dr. Cyrus Thomas, Mr. Lewis W. Gunckel, 
aad Mr. Saville. Mr. Bowditch has furnished the means for exploration, 
which has enabled the Feabody Museum to send Mr. Teobert Maler to 
Central America, and the result is, that one of the most remarkable "finds" 
has been made. This find consists of fifteen or twenty stelae, which con- 
tain sculptured human figures, with a large number ot hieroglyphs, which 
perhaps were designed to explain the names and dates. Mr. Bowditch has 
also given clo&e study to the glyphs upon the stel<e, and thinks that they 
refer to calendar dates; perhaps the dates of the birth, initiation, chieftaincy 
and history of the person whose hgure is sculptured on the stelae. This is 
made probable from the fact that each stelce is, in itself, a pictograph. as 
the attitudes of the different p^^rsons sculptured on the stone, tell a story 
which may at least be >;uessed at by the ordinary observer. 

It is to be hoped that the work will go on, until the mystery with which 
this subject is shrouded, shall be cleared up. and the figures, whose atti- 
tudes are so natural, be in a sense brought to life. 



Mkmoiks of the Pkabody MrsKUM ok Amkkicax Archaeology and 
Kthnoi.oc.v. Harvard ITniversity. Vol. 11. No. i. Researches in the 
Central Tortion of the Usumatsintia Valley. Report of Exploration 
. for the Museum. i8q8 iqoo. By Teobert Maler. Cambridge, iqoi. 

This volume contains 7S padres of Letter Press, a Map, and 33 heliotypc 
platc>. a few of which represent the scenery and the native^ ot the region; 
but the majority portr.iy the ancient altars, shrines, statues and stela? which 
were found by the explorer. No *'tind" has been eciual to this smce those 
made bv M . Habcl,and perhaps not since J. L. Stepliens discovered the re- 
markable statues and palaces at Copan. No one can see these figures 
without re.ilizing something of the barbaric magnificence which existed. 
The rostuim-s of the king>, queens and priesfs were very gorgeous. It is 
impossible to realize the variety of tiie personal decoration and ornaments 
of these st.itui'N, which represent divinities or heroes, or to understand the 
iigmlir.iiM'e ol their ilifTerent attitudes. Of one thing we are certain: the 
spli'iulor ol the pal. ires aihi temples have been underestimated by many 
iiiiiilcTii ari li.i'ologists, and were nut exaggerated bv the Spanish historians, 
as iiiaiiv li.ivr suppO'^^•d, for the very symbols which are contained in these 
siulptuMs, show ijj.it K^vpti.ms and Ttabylonians of the early dvnastics, 
li.iil tiirir (ouiittTpaits ill America, except as one studies the specimens of 
arl pM'sri V r«i in llieii st.itncs. 

( )|H ol tiic most inipnriant ohject> discovered was a circular sacriticial 
iltiiir with .III rl.iborair ba** relief on the upper surface, supported bv three 
siMi.in- pill.irs. r.ich having ten glyphs on its front fare; this was called the 
iilt.ii. Niir iliis sever.il stelas were iliscovered. The following is 
a ilrsi ription ol tliem: 

•■ riie pusiTved relief represents the front view of a male figure, with 
un oval, l>i'ai(lless face carved in very high relief. Upon the brow is placed 
the Mr|M'iii's head, the upper row of teeth forming a diadem. Above the 
Hcrpi'iit'^ hea«l i>* ihe turban, from the center of which rises the ornamented 
fr.ith«i holder ami the plumes of the feathers proceeding from it fall to the 
flyhl .md lelt. The K^'d is clothed in a tunic reaching to his feet, oma- 
inounli'd with delicately incised Maltese crosses and finished at the neck by 
(-upr ol M ales. In his right hand the god holds feathers, and his left lies 
on thr iiirtlallion of the cape. 



THE 



Jim. wtx ^ntiannxmn 



Vol. XXIV. March and April, 1902. No. 2, 



ETHNIC STYLES AMONG AMERICAN TRIBES. 

BY STEPHEN D. PEET 

The similarity between the house construction and orna- 
mentation of the southern tribes and that of the tribes in 
Mexico and Central America is noticeable but is difficult to 
account for, except on the supposition that there was a con- 
tract between the two people and that the same general sys- 
tem of government and distinction of classes existed in the 
two regions. We present here two cuts representing columns 
at Tulan in Mexico and at Chicheu-Itsa-Guatemuala. The 
first was a simple shaft ornamented with feathers, the 
base representing a serpent's head. The second has a capitol 
which is ornamented with human figures but supports an en- 
tablature arid heavy cornice. These present the same con- 
ception which was recognized by Bartram in the houses of the 
Muskogees, especially those which were occupied by the rul'ng 
classes. They show how the ethnic styie of oue country was 
introduced into another, but upon the whole, confirm the 
position taken. 

This custom of placing the houses of the ruling classes on 
the summit of truncated pyramids, and around public square 
or courts, is distinctive of a state of society in which the many 
are controlled by a few. Such a state does not often exist 
among the hunters and savages, but generally appears among 
the agriculturists; though, on the northwest coast, the fisher- 
men who were gathered in permanent villages, exhibit these 
different grades and ranks. The Southern or Muskogee tribes 
were the earliest, or the most primitive, to show this condition, 
but the tribes of the southwest carried it to great extremes. 

III. Another illustration of the prevalence of ethnic styles 
can be found in the various structures which formerly ex- 
isted on the great plateau of the west, where the form of house 
construction is entirely different from that found anywhere else, 
and where also the style of house ornamentation is in the 
greatest contrast This was, as every one knows, the home 



61 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



of the Pueblos and the Cliff-Dwellers, but it is also a locality 
where a peculiar ethnic type of architecture is to be seen. The 
question is, How did thisarise? Was it owing to the influence 
of environment, or did it arise from the social organization, 
combined with the mythology which had been inherited from 
an unknown ancestry. These people have long dwelt in the 
arid regions of the west, isolated and separated from the 
rest of the world, but they have developed in their isolation a 
mode of construction which is peculiar to the region, and 
totally unknown anywhere else in the world. They do not 
present any very high stage of architecture, nor any very 
advanced stage of art, but their method of constructing their 
houses and their style of decorating their interiors as well as their 





SNAK£ COLUMN. 

COLUMN AT CHICHKNJTZA. 

style of ornamt-nting their pottery and works of art, are very 
unique. 

The snake dances of the Moquis, the sand paintings of the 
Navajos, and the house decoration and personal ornamentation 
of the Zunis. are well known, still there were so many archi- 
tectural features contained in those ruined villages, which con- 
stituted the abodes of the strange people called Cliff-dwellers, 
that there is a demand for a close study of their works. In the 
cliffs there were towers for defense; estuEas for religious assem 
blies; many storied houses for the dwelling places of the 
pie; balconies for their loitering place; behind the houses 
courts in which the children might play, and open places - 



1 

3 iU)3t:iII- _ 

the peo- M 
ses were H 
;s where ^| 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 63 

pottery was manufactured and where looms were set up; and 
farther back, under the cliffs, was the burying place for their 
dead, while hidden away in the niches of the rocks were the 
storehouses where they placed their grain; and above all were 
the loophole forts, from which the warriors shot their arrows 
rato the bands of wild Indians, who were lurking in the valleys, 
and w«K constantly attacking them in their chosen places of 
refuge. VVh«(i we consider all the dangers, and the difficulties 
with which they eon tended, we conclude that ihey did not fall 
far short of many of the cultivated races of the earth, even in the 
departments of art and architecture. It is especially worthy of 
notice, that all the buildings which have been discovered, 




AT HANCOS CANON.* 

whether in the high mesas and open places of the Pueblo coun- 
try, or in the deep canons and remote recesses in which the 
Cliff-dwellers made their refuge, that there was one particular 
type, or style, which they wrought out for themselves, without 
aid or suggestion from any source, except that which came 
from the study of their natural surroundings and the exercise 
of their own powers. It seems certain, to us, that if any people 
deserve the credit for having developed an ethnic type of 
architecture and art, these comparatively uncultured and strange 
people, whom we call the Cliff-dwellers, are the most deserving. 
There is very little ornamentation to be seen in the build- 
ings of the Cliff-dwellers or Pueblos. A simple dado around 
the inner rooms, and the use of different colored plaster, con- 
stituted about all of the ornamentation that was used. When, 
however, we come to the religious ceremonies and observan- 



n in Itw nar, ll» 



•mitt io itu Bidi 





fi4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

ces, we find an immense amount of ornamentation; all of it 
grotesque, outre and bizarre. So whimsical is the costume of 
the performers in the sacred 
dances of the Tusayans, Mo- 
quis, and the Zunis, that the/ 
impress the visitor very 
strangely. They, however; 
embody the mythology of the 
people, and represent the va- 
rious creatures which are spo- 
ken of in it. There are. also, 
many so-called altars, which 
contain a vast amount of sym- 
bolism. These have been de- 
scribed by the various parties 
who have visited the pueblos 
—Dr. Washington Matthews, Mr. F. H. Gushing, J. Walter 
Fewkes, and others, 

Dr. Fewkes classifies the altars under two groups; those ar- 
ranged on the floor of the kiva, and those forming the uprights 
of a vertical frame-work. The former include th; following 
objects: tiponis, effigies or idols, and medicine bowls. The 
tiponis are the badges of the relig- 
ious fraternities, and constitute the 
"palladium" of the clan. They are 
totemic in character, but also contain 
symbols of food, and of seed, which 
constitute the sustenance of the agri- 
cultural people. Generally, an car 
of corn, with appropriate wra|>pin^'s 
and feathers, is very conspicimus. 
The idols represent the sky and eaiih 
gods, and are male and female. Ev- 
ery clan had a great sky-god. and an 
earth-god or goddess, the former be- 
ing the father, and the latter the 
mother of all the minor gods. The 
medicine bowl and other objects, are 
generally placed in front of the altar, 
on a low pile of sand, upon which are 
drawn six or eight lines of sacred 
meal, representing the six directions. 
On each of these lines of meal is masked danckrs 

an ear of corn, of the color cor- 







ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBF.S. 



Tcspondir 



65 

cling to the directions or points of the compass— north, 
yellow; west, blue or grsen; south, red; east, white; above, 
black; below, speckled. Alternating with these ears of corn, 
are effigies of birds and butterflies, also painted with different 
colors — yellow, blue, red, white, black, variegated. A very 
common symbol is the one which represents the rain-cloud 
(Omawuh). an arch symbolizing the cloud; perpendicular lines 
representing the falling rain; zigzag markings representing the 
lightning 

There are often paintings and engravings upon the rocks, 
which show the artistic taste of the Cliff-dwellers. In these 
paintings, the figure of a hand is very conspicuous. Some of 
their house paintings contain the traditions, and an accountof 




VIEW OF MOQUl PUEBLOS. 

the wanderings of the people, and furnish legendary evidence - 
of the combination of several tribes in one great village. They 
furnish the only cUie to the history. 

The work upon " The Cliff- Dwellers," whi<Ji has already been 
published, illustrates this point, and it does not need to be 
dwelt upon here ; but there are a few facts which should be 
brought out, and set in a new light. It is acknowledged by all, 
that the pattern *hich was adopted by the Pueblos in building 
tneir "great houses," was borrowed from the shape of the 
mesas on which they built them; the terraces with which they 
abounded, being close imitations of the terraces which were 
seen in the cliffs. It is also acknowledged that the pattern 
which the cliff-dwellers followed in constructing their kivas, 
or religious assembly places, they took from the primitive hut 



L. 



i 



66 



THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



which constituted their primeval abode. This hut was evi- 
dently constructed out of wood, and was supported by posts; 
and was entered from the top, just as the huts of the California 
Indians are today. But along with this primeval pattern, there 
were introduced elements which, to them, became the symbols 
of the great house, whose roof consisted of the dome of the 
sky, whose floor was the surface of the earth, and whose sup- 
ports or posts consisted of the six great pillars which their 
mythology taught them, were the supports of the sky. Still 
further, they made the opening in the floor of the kivas. which 
they called the "sipapuh," lo represent the "place of emer- 
eence." through which their ancestors, according to their in- 
herited mythology, came up through the different caves in 
which they had formerly dwell. The roof of the cave was sym- 
bolized bv the roof of I he kiva: the ^^idi-sof the cave, by the walla 
of the kivas; and the 
openingihrough which 
they reached the upper 
surface, by the "sipa- 
puh"in the floor of the 
kiva. We have, then, 
a double symbolism in 
this simple structure 
which was used as the 
assembly place of the 
secret societies, and the 
council house of the . 
clan chiefs, as well as I 
the sleeping place for 
scEseRv IN nil. ill.,i.u ul^-ion. the men of the entire 
village, the world above 
and the world below being both symbolized. 

There was a grandeur in the scenery about them, and an 
influence coming to them, from the shadowy cliffs below, which 
evidently impressed iheir sanies and filled their souls with a 
revei'ence (or the unseen divinities. One cannot look upon 
these many storied houses, kivas and courts, built upon the 
ledge of the rock, and covered with the overhanging cliff which 
formed the only roof of the houses, without thinking of the 
shadow of fear whi^^h conslantly haunted them, and realizing 
that they were, after all, like fu.iitives who were fleeing from 3 
cruel and relentless enemy. 

The ethnic style was drawn from the cliffs and mesas, but 
the form of construction was gained from their necessities as 
well as from the unconscious influence of the surroundings. 
The architecture of the Pueblos and Cliff Dwellers is very in- 
structive in this respect; it shows th^t the material which was 
used was owing lo the abundance of stone; the manner of con- 
structing their houses and terrace.-; was copied after the cliffs 




I 




ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 67 

and mesas; the manner of arranging the houses and rooms was 
such that a dead wall would always be presented to those who, 
whether friendly or hostile, approached the village; but the 
manner of the arranging of the rooms of the houses, one above 
the other, placing the storerooms in the lower stories and the 
rooms of the chiefs on the upper stories, was owing to the com- 
munistic system which prevailed among them. The originality 
of this style of architecture came, in reality, from the teach- 
ings of nature combined with a unique system of society which 
prevailed among them. There may be certain analogies be- 
tween these so-called communistic houses, which were built 
after the honeycomb pattern, to the so-called palaces which 
prevailed among the nations of the southwest, in Mexico and 
Central America; but the differences are so many more than 
the resemblances, that we are forced to believe that there could 
have been no connection between them when they were first 
erected, and no borrowing from one another at any time. The 
ethnic type was one which originated in the very locality in 
which it appears. 

These Pueblos, when seen from a distance, on the summit 
of the mesas, appear like ancient castles, but as we come nearer 
we find that they are not castles at all, for there are no iron- 
bound gates, no grated windows, and no dark passages, which 
suggest tragic stories or romantic adventures; and yet they are 
castles, for they were, at one time, the places of refuge to a 
people who were constantly beset by enemies, and who had to 

f protect themselves from the midnight attacks of the foe who 
urked in the shadows of the forest, or in the secret places 
among the rocks. Inside of these castles the scene was very 
peaceful, for here dwelt the different clans and families of a 
tribe, the families having all things in common, and sharing 
the different apartments; the vil'age cacique, who occupied the 
upper apartment, being like a father to the household; and 
the village officers, who superintended the work and directed 
the employments, being like elder brothers of the family. 

This pueblo territory, which was fringed on its borders by 
the strange abodes of the Cliff-dwellers, presents, as we have 
said, a very peculiar form of house construction, and a peculiar 
style of ornamentation. But there were districts surrounding 
it, in which we find a style of constructing houses very different 
in all its features, the difference being due to the ethnic taste 
of a people who belonged to another stock, or race. We have 
not the spare here to dwell upon these differences, and shall 
only refer to the few illustrations which are furnished herewith. 
It will be noticed that, upon the Gila River, which flows around* 
the southern and western borders of the Pueblo territory, there 
are certain great structures, in rectangular forms, which resem- 
ble massive temples more than they do fortresses, though they 
are called castles. Another distinct type is also presented, in 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the province ofSonora. the first having received from the Span- 
ish the name of Casa Grande, the other the name of Ca'ias ' 
Grandes, the singular and the plural, suggesting the main dif- 
ference between them. Still farther south, amia the mountains 
of Sonora, are deep valleys, on the sides of which are hidden 
a number of houses, which arc quite different from those be- 
fore described. The style of the storehouses and the shape of 
the abodes present features which are not seen anywhere else' 




them represented by 



TOLTBC ALTAR AT TEOTIHUACAN. 

IV. The best illustrations of the ethnic types of architecture, 
are found among the so-called civilized races of the southwest. 
These races were divided, as every one knows, into two or 
three great stocks, of which the Nahuas and Mayas are the 
chief, though the Aztecs and Toltecs are among the laiesl rep- 
resentatives. The general opinion is, that there were only two 
styles of architecture to be found in this cntiie region — one of 
' ' ' ' s cities of Mexico; the other, 

by the cities farther south, in 
Yucatan, Guatemala and 
Honduras; but recent explo- 
^■%»»«i^J^^"^ ■■ ' '^ rations arcshowingthatthere 

^V,,, . ^_. ". " was hereagreat variety in the 

^ '" J^^ method of construction, as 

S^- ■■ -^ " well as ill styles of ornament- 

ation, as each tribe, or collec- 
tion of tribes, had a style 
peculiar to itself, exactly as did those on the nnrihwest 
coast, and in the Mississij^pi valley. This will be seen by com- 
paring the ruins al .Xochicaico, near the City of Mexico, with 
those at Mitia; and again, by comparing those at Mitla with 
the ruins at Papantla and Mayapan. all of them situated in 
provinces of Mexico. And these, in turn, should b: compared 
with the ruins at Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen-Itita, which 
were cities situated in Honduras and Guatemala. There are 
also ruined cities in Yucatan. .Salvador and Nicaragua, which 
differ from all the others before mentioned. Here, also, the 
strangest idols, and nondescript animal figures, are found north 
of that line. 

I Now. it is noticeable that among the Aztecs and other 
tribes of Mexico and Central America, there are many of those 



TOLTEC CO.STCM ES. 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 69 

mythologic figures which are made up of a variety of human 
faces and forms, mingled with figures of the serpent and other 
nondescript creatures, all of which are sculptured on the 
facades of the palaces, ihe statues of the kings and queens be- 
ing placed in the courts in front of the palaces, with altars 
near them. The statues represented, not merely the form and 
features of the king or queen, but .;ven the ornaments with 
which they were ad irned while living, and various parts of the 
gorgeous apparel and headdresses which they wore, all boldly 
represented in the figures, which are carved with the utmost 
sicill and accuracy into the stone pillars. The ornamentation 
of the facades and the portrait columns are also finished in 
the highest style of aboriginal art. 

The ancient inhabitants of Mexico had methods of orna- 




EEtoT 



PiaURES PAINTED ON INTEKIOK WALLS. 

menting their hou<ies which are worthy of study. There are 
many ancii-nt ruins in this region, whose facades present a great 
variety of sculptured figuies Some of ihem present the shapes 
of serpents and nondescript animals, which were the products 
of their mythology. The ancient palace at Xochicalco. is es- 
pecially noted for its sculptures. This has been described by 
various explorers. Ihe latest being Mr. M. H. Saville. There 
are also ancient ruinsatTeotihuacan, which contain houseswith 
large and elaborate suites of apartmenls. all of them well built 
and highly ornamtnied. Prof. Starr has described one of these 
houses, as follows: 



'■ The walla were cov 
beinifs. in fine Karments 
green, red, pink, oranjie : 
s(en in ifae cui; here wi 
cerminaljng at the lower 




re.l with elaborate paintings, representing human 
ind gorgeous headdresses. The colors used are 
nd brown. The most important figure maybe 
have a warrior, carrying a shield and weapons. 
'nds wiLh balls, painted green; the shads painted 





•f a b; 
m rnse and red, 
;i4ireako( yellow 
upper pari is an . 
menial disi. of p. 
red, while and yrfl 
the whole desiijD* 
ileredat ihe sides 
orn^menlal banits 
ihe sundinK figi 
the faces, hands and 
legs are painted yel- 
low; the headdresses 
of feathers are large, 
and in wtiite or pale 
pink. A sreat coil o£ 
yellow piocecds 
ilietnouthof each, 

>n Ihe t ._ 
these probably rcpre 
Ecnied speech. Ontl 
left hand t: 
pendant object, w 

ini!!'. fainted ii 
white and red." 
V- Wl- sec in these paintings a style of decoration wbicbt 
was common among the Toltecs, for they are found at Tct 
hilricnn which is supposed to hitve been an ancient Tolte^ cit3 
There was however another style which prevailed farther S" 
in the region of Guatemala, Hondmas and Yucalan and i 
common among all the Maya tribes. It consisied not s 
imieh ill Ihe ilccurating of the inteiioras in the ornainentio|f 
\\\ Ihc exlfiiors by sculptured figures in stone. IlluslralionS^ 
\i{ lilt' lifNl are fnund in the ruined cities of Uxnia!, Chicheti-1 
U»t>, Ktibah, Labna Zayi and of the latter mainly at PalenqueL 
'\'hi"tt are also in these cities many architectural features wliichj 
«|* wof'hy of notice as nearly all of the buildings are finished'T 
with he^vy cornices, wide entablatures, columns which arel 
u4«vv«l In clusters at the corners of the buildings, the sides of ' 
(kv iKw>f"i mid oftcn-times between the door-ways. The most 
vi thvKt <irf without capital or ba^es but are ornamented with 



COKNER AT 




FACADE OK Till: NUNNEKV AT i HiCH EN-ITZA 



1 




GENERAL VIKW OF FAf.ACES AT UXMAL. 



ARCHITECTURE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES. 75 

bands at the centre and :ome of them with a sculptured base 
and top. These columns are found mainly in ihe palaces and 
form an interesting feature in the facades of these great build- 
ings which were placed in a quadrangular form and some- 
ti mes placed on terraces which arose ouc above the other and 
were furnished with a high tower which made them appear 
very imposing. 

The palaces alsn have their facades decorated with a 
complicated series of carving which are difficult to describe 
The most singular object is that which has been called the 
elephant's trunk, though it more resembles an ornament which 
.iSijCommon in Jiipsn, llhistrations are numerous. Here, in 

one place, at 
Chichen-Itza, a 
temple-wilh its 
front a mass of 
intricate c arv- 
ing, placed high 
upon a terraced 
mound — over- 
looked the en- 
lire collection 
of dwellings. 
Along each 
front of this 
high mound, ex- 
tended the un- 
dulating body of 
a huge serpent, 
carved out of 
blocks of stone. 
High upon the 
platform of the 
temple rested 
the tail, while 
the gigantic 
FACADE or E'ALAUii: AT KAiiAH. head, With jaws 

wide open and 
forked tongue extended, lay menacingly upon the level plain 
at the base of the mound. At one side, an immense terrace 
supported a massive structure, over three hundred feet long, 
of many turns and angles. It was a gigantic mosaic of marble 
and limestone. The rooms were narrow and windowless, but 
the entire front wascovered with richly carved stonework, 

—ZTbt dilfennu bel»«a lb* d,earxaoa. >l Lmbn. and K..b.h >n -nrj m^kci. Al Lubiu 
tktn » ■ Mrsenl rBgy, with open jawi aod a human fact in >ha Jawi, pmjictiDS bsyoiid Ik* 
caniix. Had fomiQc ■ ran ar:nc ctaaracuniiii: hook, while bcbindilw jaw, and akan ud bfe- 





74 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARM«»w 

over which was placed a thin coat of hard stucco, glistenurg^ 
white and shining like silver, The flat roof was covered with 
the same material, and from the eaves projected gargoyles of 
grotesque type. 

} . The hook at Kabah, extends out from the corner of the build- 
ing, making a unique feature to the architectural decoration, and 
one that is characteristic of this region. There is also at Labna, 
in Yucatan, a mound forty-five feet high, which su;. ports a build- 
ing 20x30 feet, on which is a row of death's heads, two lines of 
human figures in high relief, an immense human figure, seated, 
also a ball or globe supported by a man kneeling on one knee, 
and by another man standing at its side. All the figures are 
painted in bright colors, and present the most curious and ex- 
traordinary appearance. Near by is a terrace 400 feet long 
and 150 feet wide, which supports a building of two receding 
stories, with a front of 282 feet. This front is elaborately 
sculptured, and presents three distinct styles in as many por- 
tions of the wall. At the corner is the open mouth of an alli- 
gator, from which looks out a human face; back of this corner 
are scrolls and palm leaves, and decorations resembling the 
Roman key ; and below it, the series of columns clustered to- 
gether, with bands around the center and at the bottom; the 
doorways were divided by a heavy column, with a square block 
for a capitol, with two lintels resting upon the block for sup- 
port. 

The palaces at Xkichmook, about fifty miles east of Cam- 
peche, have been explored by Edward H. Thompson, for the 
Field Columbian Museum. Of these, two of the edifices 
are represented in the plates, which have been kindly loaned. 
The palace appears to be the result of successive periods of 
growth; all ot the chambers are finished in the usual style; the 
roof is vaulted with the Maya arch; there is a tower in the cen- 
ter, with a wide staircase in front of it; the cornice on the tower 
and on the palace proper, correspond in style, There are the 
remains of columns in the facade, and shorter columns in the 
entablature. Another palace, resembling this, has also many 
columns, but they are of a different type, and show a variation 
in style. 



* • 



KTHNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH 
AFRICA. 

By G. E. LAIDLAW. 



f During my period of service in South Africa, igooand 190I, 

I I was enabled to make but few ethnological notes, on account 
of the rigor and exigencies of the campaign. Spending some 
five weeks in Cape Town, I was finabled to view the hetero- 
geneous mass of different colored peoples, that probably, at 
the present time, has but few equals in other cities, certainly 
not in western cities: all sorts and conditions of crosses, be- 
tween different negroid stocks and various races of whites, to- 
gether with pure negroes, Malays, Javanese, Hindoos, Chinese, 
Mohammedans, Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, and other eastern 
peoples, in their respective costumes, make up a kaleidoscope 
of local color never to be forgotten. What the product of 
these in the future will be, as well as the best means of hand- 
ling the immense native population up country in the interior, is 
a question that can only be surmised at present. Thus South 
Africa, the fountain head of the negro, will have a more intri- 
cate negro problem than the United Stales, inasmuch as she is 
controlled by several European peop'es, while the negroes in 
the United States are under only one supremacy. At Durban, 
in the Natal colony on the east coast, which is in close prox- 
imity to the Zulu country I could not but be struck with 
the much finer physical development of the natives, who are 
principally Zulus, their territory extending up towards the 
northern interior of Natal- The Japanese 'rickshaw has lately 
been introduced into Durban and other towns, and the 'rick- 
shaw men are, as a rule, Zulus. These most athletic young 
men,, of a magnificent physical race, leave their native kraals 
and come down to the coast towns to be 'rickshaw runners. 
I They generally last but few months; becoming very heated 
with their work, they plunge into cold water, and thus contract 
pneumonia, and other lung troubles, which shortly carries them 
off. for when ill they become very despondent, and do not re- 
spond quickly to medical treatment, if, indeed. the> get it 
instead of (heir own witch doctors. It is a pity, too, for this 
class of men arc very original and unique. They usually wear 
a headdress representing some animal or bird, and frequently 
manage to perform some antics or actions of the creatures that 
they represent, during their work, giving imitative bellows, 
snorts, squeals and screams, to sympathetic patrons. Another 
noticeable fact amongst the Zulus in Durban and other town's, 
and not noticeable outside of Zulu territory, is. that when en- 
gaged in any outside work, either collectively or individually, 
(hey always sang some chant or song, which, on inquiry, proved 
io fee addressed to the work Which was about to be performed. 
Wfen in gan^s, one man took the lead whilst the rest joined 





I 



78 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

in repeating the words of the leader. These songs are always 
in native tongue, and practically are the same either in unload- 
ing a ship at the docks or railway trucks up country. I recol- 
lect one energetic individual, working by himself, repairing a trek 
road, singing in a deprecatory tone. His song, on being inter- 
preted, resolved itself into information which he was imparting 
to the stone, about what was going to be done to it. This, I 
understand is the base of all their work-songs; they address 
their work, or the object to be worked upon, as being animate, 
and inform it what is going to be the immediate future pro- 
ceedings. I failed to elicit if they believed that these, suppos- 
edly to them, animate objects, could understand what was being 
addressed to them. 

The Zulus are, mentally, morally and physically, the supe- 
rior native people of South Africa, They have an exceedingly 
high standard of morality, and the virtue of the women being 
a well known fact. Until recently, the lapse from the path of 
virtue was punishable by death to both parties, administered 
by command of the chief, and was carried into effect by the 
use of the assegai; even to quite lately, poison was used for 
the same cause. This code of morality does not include the 
absolute purchase of a woman out and out; said purchase being 
transacted between the purchaser and the girl's parents or nat- 
ural guardians, and being recognized as a legal form of marriage, 
the female taking her wifely place in the domicile of the pur- 
chaser. Before the Zulus came under British rule, women taken 
in war, or in raids on other tribes, were used as concubines. 
Amongst wealthier individuals, possessing several wives, sepa- 
rate huts were allowed to each wife, but all the huts were con- 
tained in one kraal. The children of concubines had no hered- 
itary right to property or chieftaincies. 

Living in a well-favored country, and formerly possessing 
large herds of cattle, sheep and goats, and the earth yielding 
abundance of mealies, pumpkins, and other vegetable food, for 
the mere scratching of the surface; it is no wonder that the 
Zulus developed their fine physical strength and superb car- 
riage. Their physical characteristics are tallness, breadth and 
squareness of shoulders, coupled with the straightest of backs, 
and high arched chests well carried forward; their limbs are 
massive, with well-shaped hands and ordinary sized feet. 
Though stout people, extreme fatness is only observable among 
the women, which is counted a sign of beauty. To produce 
this state, a diet largely composed of mealie pap and milk is 
resorted to; the men not drinking milk, saying that it is only 
fit for women and children. 

The universal habit of wearing bracelets on their legs above 
the calves, presumably has a tendency, as they believe, to de- 
velop the calves to an abnormal extent. These woven wire article 
— either of brass, iron or copper wire — are worn on the arms 
at the wrist and above the elbow, and on the legs at the ankles 



T-^ 



CARRIERS AND AINOS AT HOME 79 

and below the knee, and are often put on when the wearer is 
young, and accordingly, as that person increases in growth, 
these become permanently fixed and can only be removed by 
cutting. It is no unusual sight to see a Zulu — or other natives, 
for that matter, as the custom is universal — having three or 
four dozen of these articles on his limbs. These wristlets, arm- 
lets, anklets or bracelets, are woven out of very fine wire by the 
natives themselves, and have a thickness from an ordinary 
straw to a lead pencil in size, and are valued at from three 
pence to a shilling. The other portions of native dress used 
m ordinary wear, are sandals, made of sun-dried hide, with a 
loop to go over the big toe (these sandals are not extensively 
worn), and the ** moocha,'^ which is a girdle, with a small apron 
of about six by nine inches, made of skins of small monkeys 
and other small animals, hanging in front, and a tuft of tails 
of small animals hanging behind; this is worn by males. The 
females now wear short petticoats of cloth, except in remote 
kraals, where their ancient dress is in vogue, namely: a skin 
petticoat or apron. Skin karosses are used at night to sleep 
m, and on wet, cold days. The traders' gaily colored *'Kaflfir 
blanket" is now taking the place of the kaross. In extreme 
hot weather, clothing is discarded almost altogether, the 
younger children of both sexes wearing nothing at all, except- 
ing for ornament. 

In preparing for a public **beer drink," or dance, or other 
native festival, both sexes deck themselves out with as much 
native finery as they can obtain: men with feathers in their 
hair, and tufts of feathers and hair tied on to their arms above 
the elbows, and legs below the knee; a great deal of bead work, 
in the way of necklaces, belts and collars, is worn by both 
sexes. 

It is, indeed, extremely rare to find any naturally deformed 
individuals among the Zulus or kindred tribes. 

The word ** native," in this article, means a negro. The 
same word in South Africa, as is used by newspapers, business 
men and others, means a Hindoo or an East Indian. All 
negroes in S. Africa, with the exception, perhaps, of the almost 
extinct dwarf bushmen, are called Kaffirs by the Boers and 
colonials. The hybrid negro at the Cape rejoices in the cog- 
nomen of "Cape boy." 

"Kitchen Dutch*' is the language generally used when ad- 
dressing negro servants and work people. This bears the same 
relation to high Dutch, that the French Canadian "habitant 
patois" does to Parisian French. Kaffirs that come in contact 
with whites, in the way of employment and business, are ever 
so much more docile, willing, polite and obedient, than the 
North American negro. No doubt, from being near their prim- 
itive source, they have stronger an mal passions, as is usual 
with more primitive peoples, than their American relations^ 
and do not possess the same facilities for education, business 



So THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

chances, independent work and political advancement. They 
have been brought to this state by submissive docility, by loss 
of territory, and a long continued and frequent use of the 
*'sjambok" and rifle. 

The Boer method of negro employment is based on the 
maximum of service and the minimum of pay. A Boer farmer 
does not do manual labor himself; he has Kaffirs. These Kaf- 
firs are permitted to settle on his farm in kraals, for each hut 
of which they must pay;^i per annum taxes to the government. 
They are allowed a mealie patch sufficient for their needs, and 
a few sheep or goats; they render service, such as herders, farm 
laborers and household servants, at a low wage, thirty shillini^s 
per month being a high wage for contract labor on roads, rail- 
ways, and teamsters in the public service. It is said that some- 
times, after several years' service, a Kaffir will have to content 
ihimself with an ox from his Boer "baas." 

Independent Kaffir chiefs, or head men of large kraals, 
have to furnish so much labor on the government roads, ac- 
cording to their district — labor to be performed when called 
upon. 

Natives living on unsurveyed lands in the Transvaal, still 
have to pay the £i tax per hut, but can practically have as 
many goats, sheep or other stock as they wish, and are thus 
practically independent of work, though large numbers of them 
work in the mines at Kimberly, Johannesburg, Klerksdorp, 
Jaegersfontein, and other places. The ordinary negroes will 
work very faithfully, but are slavish. The Zulus make by far 
the best personal and domestic servants, being reliable and 
truthful, priding themselves on their honesty, morality and 
fidelity, but cannot be forced to work; in this, they resemble 
the American Indian. 

The Kraal Kaffirs, or "Red Kaffirs," are those who have not 
come under the influence of civilization. They live practically 
their old wild life, with slight modification, due to their pres- 
ent environment — such as decrease of game food supply, and 
not being permitted to indulge in petty tribal wars, or carry 
modern arms. The Swazies and Basutos are exceptions to the 
latter condition. Their immoral dances and "beer drinks" arc 
also put down, the war dance being the only one allowed. 

The "beer drink" is sometimes indulged in, when an occa- 
sion arises when they can do so without interferencerfrom those 
in authority. It consists of an invitation from one kraal to 
another to drink beer. The beer is made from meaiiesror Kaf- 
fir corn, a very small grained corn, (different from the large 
kernels of the mealies, which resembles our ordinary Indian 
corn or the common maize) the process of manufacture ^being 
simple. The grain, a little on the green side preferable, is 
crushed on a flat mealing stone, — similar to a 
— by another smooth rounded stone, generally ;avoid:iB 
and of a size large enough to be held conveniently ta both 



OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 8i 

hands. The mass ot crushed grain is put into large earthen- 
ware pots, covered with water and allowed to ferment; then it 
is strained; then it has an appearance and taste of buttermilk, 
and an individual has to consume a large quantity before in- 
toxication ensues. These beer drinks end in an oru:ie in which 
both sexes take part, in dances and songs, immoral and other- 
ivise, and boastful speeches. 

The '^rcd Kaffir" corresponds to the "blanket Indian" of 
America. Between the "red Kaffir" and the negro who is civ- 
ilized and settled down on his farm, or to a trade, such as smith 
or carpenter, there exists another class, semi-civilized, who live 
in kraals when not employed, and who only work to gain 
enough to support them for some months in idleness and ease, 
decked out with tawdry finery and cast-off European clothes. 
This class finds employment as navvies on railway lines, and 
roads, also in the mines, and on large stock farms, and as dri- 
vers on trekking outfits. 

The civilized negro possesses a status similar to the civil- 
ized Indian in America, with the exception of much less union 
in marriage with the whites than falls to the lot of the Indian. 
Indeed, marriage between white and negro, or those having 
negro blood in them to any extent, is seldom heard of in South 
Africa. 

Numbers of Zulus and Kaffirs are enlisted in police forces. 
The Natal Government employ a large force of Zulus to police 
their own country; these are attached to, and act in conjunction 
with the Natal Government police on the border, and, being offi- 
cered by white men, do very efficient service in controlling 
their own people. In towns, native policemen are also used, 
and are found to be very effective in quelling disturbances and 
suppressing minor crimes among the colored population. They 
do not arrest white men for perpetrating crime; that is left to 
the white policemen; but they may be used in tracing up crimes 
and misdemeanors committed by whites, and also as guides. 

As the South African negro has an inordinate love for 
liquor or intoxicants, equalling if not surpassing that of the 
Red Indian, the authorities do not permit the selling of those 
commodities to the same, the penalty being imprisonment or 
a heavy fine. 

Uncivilized or semi-civilized negroes have no voice in polit- 
ical matters in British territory, and no negro had a vote in the 
Boer country. 

I was not able to ascertain definitely the original aboriginal 
religion. They believed to an extremely large extent in spir- 
its, fetishes, and the supernatural powers of "witch doctors,*' 
and were consequently very superstitious. Missions have been 
established for such a length of time, and numbers of mission- 
aries have frequented the country, so that the pure, untarnished 
native religion no longer exists in the territories referred to» 
except in rare cases. Referring to the effect of missions on 



82 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the native population, it is a noteworthy fact, that while the 
moral Zulu women, especially the younger ones, stalk about 
the precincts of their native kraals in Mother Eve's costume, 
they have no sense of shame, and after a sojourn at a mission 
become aware of that fact; and also, it is said, become cogni- 
zant of the possibilities of immorality. They seldom, if ever, 
return to their tribe, preferring to live where they can obtain 
employment; if they return, they rarely go back to their prim- 
itive dress, using the costume of their white sisters. On ac- 
count of the Zulus possessing a superior character to the rest 
of the South African tribes, they are spoken of as ** the gentle- 
men of South Africa." 

Kaffirs and Zulus always make up a name for a white man, 
from some personal attribute or characteristic, and use these 
names among themselves, when speaking about or referring to 
the man in question. 

LOCALITIES OF TRIBES. 

Zulus, or, more correctly, Ama-Zulus, occupy the northern 
and western portion of Natal, touching the Drakensberg range 
of mountains, which forms the western boundary between Natal 
and the Transvaal. Their influence formerly extended many 
miles in every direction,even up to the northern part of Transvaal 
many miles distant; especially so in the Crocodile Valley, in 
the Leydenberg mountains, where the remains of many large 
kraals — said to have been demolished in Chaka's time — can be 
found on almost every strategetic point. These former domiciles 
belonged to the now nearly extinct MalpCks. a physically 
smaller race of people, said to be very treacherous and revenge- 
ful. These latter people are allied to the Sekekunis, who take 
their name from a chief, and who live in the vicinity of the 
Limpopo River. The Malpoks extended north as far as the 
Sabi River, which is south of the Limpopo, and flows east. 

On the east side of the Transvaal is Swazi land, occupied, 
as the name infers, by the Swazies, who are an offshoot of the 
Zulus, resembling them in many ways, both in speech and cus- 
toms, with but slight modifications. This tribe was founded 
some generations ago by a powerful chief, who refused to obey, 
or failed to carry out, some of Chaka's orders, fled north with 
many of his followers, and set up a kingdom of his own by 
conquering and absorbing the weaker tribes that occupied this 
territory. He gradually became very powerful, and this nation 
today is one of the very few that remain intact. The Swazies 
are slightly physically smaller than the Zulus, owing to the 
absorption of people of less stature. 

The Shangaans, who are north of the Swazies, in Portu- 
guese territory, are slavish, treacherous and licentious, and 
have the name of profiting out of their women's virtue. 

Swazies and Zulus are of the same Bantu stock, which em- 
braces the Matabeles, Mashonas, and other tribes in Rhodesia. 



^^r^ 



OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. B3 

Quite frequently decidedly Hebraic features occur among the 
Zulus, and they are said to practice circumcision. South and 
east of Zutuland, at some distance away, in a very mountainous 
district to the east of the Orange River colony — formerly the 
Orange Free State — and directly east of the Orange River, is 
Basutotand. where live the Basutos and Sosutos, possessing all 
the characteristics of mountaineers — brave, free and independ- 
ent. This country is a Protectorate of Gre^t Britain, 

East and south of Basutotand, reaching north up to Natal, 
is the territory formerly occupied by the Kaffirs (Caffres), for- 
merly called Caffraria, who were little if any inferior to the 
Zulus, but have long been in subjection to the British. 

The major portion of the Orange Free State was occupied 
by the Baralongs, a physically inferior race, inhabiting the 
Karoo and Kalahari deserts. Ttie most notable physical char- 
acter of this people is a protuberant stomach, produced by the 
vicissitudes of life in stony deserts. West of these again, live 
the Griquas, who arc a much lighter complexioned people. 
South to Capetown, the country was occupied by dwarfish Hot- 
tentots, among whom, in isolated cases, dwelt the still more 
dwarfish and almost extinct Hushmen (Boer Boschjemen). 
I have only seen one hybrid specimen of this people, and he 
was a small, wixened-up piece of humanity, which might well 
be called a man-monkey. 

As to be expected, all these tribes are virtually the same 
people, existing under the same conditions, with the same food 
and climate. Thus, their modes of life, their tribal govern- 
ment, their social and sacred usages, their manners of war and 
hunting, and their cultivation of the ground, together with their 
implements, ornaments and weapons, vary but little. 

Starting first with their kraals, we find that the beehive 
shape is maintained throughout the country, only changing 
when in long and close contact with civilized communities; 
then it is often changed for the square or oblong house, con- 
taining one or more compartments, and still having the small 
walled pens or courtyards attached, as is common with the 
remoter kraals. These beehive huts consist of a circular wall 
of about four feet in height, and up to twenty feel in diameter, 
covered with a conical roof of thatch of reeds or bamboos. 
The material of the walls may be of stone or sun-dried clay, 
and each hut has a small enclosure, courtyard or pen. attached 
to it. with stone or mud walls of a height up to six feet. In 
places where bamboo can be obtained, they are used for 
walls of enclosures, sun shelters, watch towers in their 
mealie patches, and even for the walls of huts. A group of 
huts together will each have its courtyard, and these are in 
such a position as to be on the further side of the huts from 
the center of kraal, their walla forming a barrier or protection. 
These courtyards are paved with clay, pounded hard, and the 
stone of hut and enclosure walls are set in clay for mortal 




a 



84 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Adobe clay walls for huts and other purposes, arc not rare. 
In every large kraal or group of huts, there is one hut set aside 
for a communal storehouse, in charge of an appointed person, 
where supplies of grain, food, weapons, and property of absent 
persons are kept. Beehive huts have small wooden doors, fastened 
with a thong, and hinges of rawhide; no windows. The floor 
is of clay, pounded hard, and tempered in cases with bullocks' 
blood. The occupants, as a rule, keep these huts very clean, 
and they are swept out regularly. In inclement weather, the 
fire is built in the center of the floor, the smoke escaping 
through the roof, the fireplace being simply several loose stones 
rolled together. There are never any shelves or other conven- 
iences in these huts; beds are rolled up and placed at the foot 
of the wall; household utensils ditto, and smaller articles being 
kept on the top of the wall, as the roof projects over, or else 
suspended from the framework ot the roof. The bamboo sun 
shelters, above referred to, may be either an extension of the 
roof around the hut, like a veranda roof, or a separate struc- 
ture, like a shed roof supported on posts. These shelters are 
more prevalent in the Northern Transvaal than elsewhere. The 
square or oblong hut, occurring in the most civilized commu- 
nities, are constructed of sun-dried adobe clay or stone, with a 
thatched roof. Those that are communal, or containing sev- 
eral compartments, have a door to each compartment and sev- 
eral small window places, the floors being of the usual pounded 
clay sort. 

The large extensive ruins in the Leydenberg district, before 
referred to, seemed to have possessed a system of terraces. 
They abound in pottery fragments, not unlike in material the 
pottery from village sites here, but without any incised orna- 
mentation. In some cases, descendants of survivors live on 
or in the vicinity of these ruins. I am not aware of any sys- 
tematic excavations being carried on in these places, but was 
informed that several attempts had been made, and abandoned 
on account of lack of material recovered, which consisted 
mainly of mealing stones. 

The word "kraal," is applied indiscriminately to single huts, 
groups of huts, and enclosures for live stock. The cultivated 
ground is immediately in the vicinity of kraals, and cultivation 
is carried on by means of large, heavy, mattock-shaped iron 
hoes, wielded by the women. Mealies, Kaffir corn, pumpkins, 
and tobacco arc the principal crops raised. The watch-tow 
<:rs, built for overlooking these fields, are constructed of bam- 
l)(i<), if obtainable; if not, of any other small trees. They are 
•limply small shelter huts, raised on four posts, in which per- 
f»iiiis arc stationed at night to watch the crops, and give alarm 
on iijiproach of destructive animals. 



CURIOUS AND INTERESTING MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 
OF SOME OF THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF 

BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

BY CHARLES HILL-TOUT. 
[Hon Secretary Ethnological Survey of Canada.] 

The following account of the marriag^e customs of the Yale 
tribe of the Salish stock of British Columbia, was given to the 
writer by Chief Mischelle, of Lytton, whose father was a Yale 
Indian. These customs have been much modified of late years. 
Some of the Indians are now married after the manner of the 
whites, by the priest or minister; some few retain the old cus- 
toms, and others unite the church service with the customs of 
their forefathers, and thus go through what is practically a 
double marriage. 

Formerly, when a young man wished to marry a girl, he went 
to the house of her father at daybreak, and squatted down just 
inside the door, with his blanket so wrapped about him that 
only his face was visible. When the father rose he perceived 
the young man there, but passed by without taking any notice 
of his presence. All the other members of the household did 
the same. They prepared the morning meal, sat down to it, 
and still continued to ignore the young man's presence, who, 
as soon as the meal was finished, quietly left the house without 
speaking. The members of the girl's family make no comment 
upon the occurrence. The following morning, the young man 
enters the house and squats down again by the door. After break- 
fast he departs, still without speaking. After his departure, 
on this second occasion, the father of the girl calls the family 
and relations together, and discusses with them the eligibility 
of the suitor. If acceptable to the family, when he presents 
himself next morning he is invited to breakfast, and knows 
thereby that his suit is accepted. After the meal is over, with- 
out in any way referring to the object of his visit, he leaves the 
house, and in the course of a day or two sends a message to 
the girl's father, saying that he intends paying him a formal 
visit. The girl's people make preparations to receive him, and 
the friends who accompany him. Accordingly, at the time 
appointed, in company with his friends, who all, as well as him- 
self, bring gifts and food to the girl's father, he makes his 
formal call, and presents the gifts of himself and friends. When 
these have been received they sit down to a feast, to which all 
the friends and relatives of both parties have been invited. 
After the feast is over, the bridegroom takes his bride and de- 
parts with her to his own house. When two or three weeks 
have intervened, the wife's relatives send word that they are 
coming to pay the young couple a visit of ceremony. The 



86 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

young wife forthwith prepares a feast for them, and all the 
young man's friends and relatives turn up again, together with 
those of the wife. Presents, of value equal to those given by 
the bridegroom and his friends, are now presented to htm by 
the wife's father and friends, after which they all sit down to 
the feast prepared for the occasion. When this is over, the 
marriage is supposed to be consummated, and the two are 
regarded thereafter as man and wife in the eyes of the whole 
community. 

But, on the other hand, should the suitor not be agreeable 
to the girl's parents, the eldest male member of the girl's fam- 
ily is appointed to acquaint the youth, on his third visit, that 
his advances are not acceptable to the family, and that he had 
better discontinue his visits. On the third morning, therefore, 
when the young man presents himself and squats down in the cus- 
tomary place, the ola man chosen for the omce of intermediary, 
goes over and informs him that the decision of the family is 
against him, and that he had better seek a wife elsewhere. If 
the young man's affections have not been very deeply engaged, 
he will accept his dismissal and trouble them no more; but if, 
on the contrary, he has set his heart on getting this particular 
girl for his wife, he will now go to the forest and cut down a 
quantity of firewood. He chooses for this the best alder-wood 
he can find, as this is more highly esteemed than other kinds 
among the Indians, on account of its emitting no sparks when 
burning. This he will take to the house of the girl's father 
next morning at daybreak, and start a fire for the inmates. If 
the girl's parents are serious in their rejection of him as their 
daughter's husband, they will take both fire and wood and throw 
them out of the house. The youth is in nowise daunted by this, 
and repeats his action on the following morning, when they 
again reject his services, and cast out the wood and fire as be- 
fore. But, during the day, seeing his determination to get the 
girl for his wife, her people call another family council, at 
which the father points out to those assembled, the young man's 
perseverance and earnestness, and asks for their advice under 
the circumstances. They all answer that he must do what he 
thinks right and fitting. If the objection to the young man's 
suit has come, perchance, from the mother of the girl — as it 
frequently does if she thinks the youth will not make a good 
food supplier for her daughter — the father asks her what she 
now thinks about the matter. She will probably reply, that if 
they refuse any longer to accede to the young man's wishes, 
they will give him pain, and so withdraws her opposition. 
The girl is then, for the first time in the ceremony, con- 
sulted in the matter; but as her desires are mostly what her 
parents wish, she rarely dissents from the arrangement. 
The matter thus being satisfactorily settled, the next morn- 
ing, when the persevering youth presents himself with his 
wood, and builds a fire, some of the elder members of the 



ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 87 

family come and sit round and warm their hands over it. 
By this action, the youth knows that his suit is at last ac- 
cepted, and that his perseverence is not to go imrewarded. 
He presently joins them at the morning meal, and the con- 
clusion of the affair from that moment follows the course 
already described, where the suitor was at the outset ac- 
cepted, 

The following customs were formerly practiced by the 
Squomish — another division of the same stock. The account 
was given to the writer by one of their own chiefs. In this 
tribe, when a young man took a fancy to a young woman 
for a wife, the custom was for him to go to the house of the 
girl's parents, and squat down with his blanket wrapped 
about him. just inside the door. Here he was supposed to 
remain for four days and nights, without eating or drinking. 
During this period, no one of the girl's family take the 
slightest notice of him. The only difference his presence 
makes in the house, is to cause the parents to keep a bright 
fire burning all night. This is done that they may readily 
perceive that he takes no advantage of his proximity to the 
girl to make love to her, or to otherwise molest her during 
the night. On the fourth day. if the suitor is acceptable to 
the parents, the mother of the girl asks some neighbor to 
acquaint the youth that they are willing to accept him as 
their son-in-law, and give him the girl. To himself they 
still saj nothing, nor in any way take the slightest notice 
of him. And as no communication of any kind can take 
place between the girl's people and the young man at this 
stage of the proceedings, this neighbor now cooks a meal 
for the fasting lover, and informs him at the same time that 
his suit is acceptable to the family, and that the girl will be 
given to him in the usual way. 

When I questioned my informant regarding this four 
days* fast — whether the Squomisn youths really abstained 
from food and drink for four days and nights — he told me 
that they undoubtedly did, and that it was a matter of honor 
with them to eat or drink nothing during the whole period, 
the significance of their abstinence being, that they were 
now men, and could readily endure the hardships and priva- 
tions incident to manhood. And, apropos of this custom, 
he related to me an instance of what befel a certain luck- 
less youth who sought, surreptitiously, to break his fast. 



CARRIERS AND AINOS AT HOME. 

BY THE REV. A. G. MORICE, O. M. G. 

By Carrier I do not mean herewith the Standard Dictionary 
•*a person or company that undertakes to carry or makes a 
business of carrying persons or goods for hire," neither do I 
take that word in any of the many acceptations enumerated by 
that work. Throughout this article a Carrier will be a member 
of that important aboriginal tribe whose habitat lies to the 
west of the Rocky Mountains between 52° and 56° of latitude 
north, and forms a part of the great Dene family of Indians. 
The Carriers are the so-called Cacullies or Cakalis of the early 
travelers and ethnologists who meant thereby the Cakhelhne 
(singular Cakhelh) a meaningless cognomen of extraneous 
origin which nowadays is applied by the Carriers to all the 
American aborigines. 

Their English name is a literal translation of the "Porteurs" 
of the French Canadians formerly in the employ of the Hud- 
son's Hay Company, who themselves simply translated the 
Orelhne, **packers" of the Tekanais Indians, according to the 
particular genius of their idiom which lacks a proper synonym 
for the Anglo-Saxon verb to pack. **Packers" would have 
been more appropriate than Carriers. 

The tribe owes its name to the custom according to which 
a widow had, at the time when cremation was the national 
mode of disposing of the dead, to pack or carry about in a 
leather satchel the few remaining charred bones of her late 
husband. Together with their close relatives, the Babines, 
who might perhaps be considered a distinct tribe constituting 
the immediate northwestern neighbors of the Carriers proper, 
they are semi-sedentary, dwelling in permanent villages, 
though passing much of their time in quest of the fur-bearing 
animals aud the fish on which they mainly subsist. Both 
Carriers and Babines, though generally pure Denes and there- 
fore belonging to a savagre and nomadic race, have a complete 
social organization comprising so-called *'noblemen" who arc 
the sole possessors of the hunting grounds and the headmen 
of the various gentes into which the tribes are divided. Their 
funciamt^ntal law is the matriarchate and they are exogamous. 
The rif^ht of succession is therefore in the female line, and con- 
nected thcrc^with is a series of ceremonial feasts or potlalches 
bc^rrovved, as the whole social system, from the neighboring 
coast races. 

These customs, though evanescent among the Carriers, 
are still in vogue among the Babines who owe their name to a 



CARRIERS AND AINOS AT HOME 89 

practice likewise of western origin and which never obtained 
among the Carriers, that of wearing labrets, oblong pieces of 
hard wood or of bone, between the teeth and the lower lip. 
This was thus made to protrude considerably and recalled to 
the French Canadians the "babines" or thick, prominent lips 
of cattle, monkeys, etc. 

As for the Ainos or Ainoos, they have remained to this 
day one of the least known of human races. Chambers' En- 
cyclopedia does not deem them worthy of the shortest article, 
nor does it grant them even the slightest mention in the course 
of a somewhat extended article on Japan and the Japanese. 
What seems to be pretty well acquired to ethnology is that 
they are the original inhabitants of Japan. But while some 
would see in that race the primitive stock which, by misceg- 
enation with the Chinese, originated ttie modern Japanese, it 
is much more likely that they bear to the latter exactly the 
same relation as the American Indians to the present white 
population of this continent. Their language is quite different 
from that of the Japanese who came from the Asiatic peninsula 
and most probably belong to the Turanian family, though 
some ethnologists, with Pickering, would see in them nothing 
but pure Malays. 

In common with most primitive people of a low type such 
as the Eskimos or Innuit, the Denes and many other native 
tribes of America, the Tungus of Asia and the Bantus of Africa, 
to whom we might perhaps add the Alemanni of old, the 
Ainos call themselves simply *'men.'* From a physiological 
standpoint, they could not well be more dissimilar from our 
Carriers and Babines; but, sociologically speaking and es- 
pecially considered in their homes, they exhibit the most re- 
markable resemblances with my Indians. The oval, timid 
looking, though very hairy, faces of the former differs a good 
deal from the flat, prominent cheek boned and beardless visage 
of the latter who have such a dislike for any nirsute appendage 
that they sedulously pluck out the few hairs that will grow on 
their chin and upper lip. On the other hand, Ainos in the 
prime of life cannot be imagined without a heavy black beard, 
and those savages prize so much hairiness that even their 
women must have the most fashionable of moustaches tattooed 
on the lip. 

Yet their garments and personal appearance are not 
without points of similarity with those of the Carriers. 
Like those American aborigines, they part their long, 
black hair after the fashion of the ancient Nazarenes, and 
the simple cotton gown worn even by male Ainos, and 
which falls below the knees and is held up to the waist 
by a belt, recalls to mind the shirt- like tunic or loose 
viBstment of tanned caribou skin similarly worn, which 
formed the most conspicuous part of the prehistoric 
Carriers' wearing apparel. 



90 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

But it is to the habitation of both races, to their homes 
and their domestic customs that I wish especially to draw 
attention. I fell lately on a description of the Ainos hut 
in an odd number of * 'Mission Catholiques" by a Bishop 
who was a pioneer among the missionaries to that people, 
and I deem it so suggestive that I cannot refrain from 
quoting it almost in its entirety. 

**Imagine the framework of a little roof laid on forked 
posts about the height of a man; reeds are used to fill in 
the vacant spaces and serve as walls. The habitation 
has three openings: a door, a common window and a 
sacred window. The first of the two windows, cut in the 
southern wall has nothing uncommon about it. The 
sacred window occupies the middle of the wall opposite 
the inside door. It is opened to the east and, as a rule, 
it allows one or several bear skulls to be seen stuck on 
forked posts. This window is for worship exclusively. 
The only outside doorway gives access to a vestibule 
facing the sacred window. Therein firewood is piled up, 
millet is thrashed and the dog admitted when the weather 
is too bad; but on no account will he be allowed to pass 
the threshold of the inner door, which privilege is reserved 
for the cat." 

* 'Savages as they are, the Ainos have a sense of dignity! 
One would hardly suspect it who passes from the vesti- 
bule to the dwelling place; it is gloomy, smoky, encum- 
bered and of a disgusting dirtiness. Mats are disposed 
all around the fireplace and invite people to warm them- 
selves; but the place everyone is to occupy is strictly de- 
fined. To the left as you enter, are to be found the mem- 
bers of the household, the women folk nearest to the 
door, while common visitors squat on the opposite side. 
The place facing the doorway is reserved for distinguished 
guests and nobody will ever dream of installing himself 
there without a formal invitation.'* 

Our informant ends by stating that "the structure of these 
habitations is always the same, their dimensions alone vary. 
Identical orientation, uniform furniture, nothing is left to in- 
dividual initiative, and that all over the Aino territory." 

Now, even the most careless observer ever so little familiar ' 
with the old dwellings of the Carriers and especially of their 
neighbors and congeners, the Babines, cannot fail to be struck 
with their many points of resemblance with those above de- 
scribed. The latter simply beiray a higher degree of civiliz- 
ation, a step further away from savagery. The Babine or 
Carrier habitations did not boast any sacred window, nor in- 
deed any window at all; the alcove where the vholc Aino 
family, with the exception of the older children, retire at night 
was also wanted, but all the other particulars of the Aino home 



OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 91 

naa their duplicates on the shores of our lakes. Nay, even at 
the pfL-sent day, the Babine houses have, as in Bishop Berloiz's 
plan, their vestibule where firewood is Wept and the dogs await 
the good pleasure of their masters indoors; the fireplace is in 
the middle o( the building, the place of honor is opposite the 
door where women or people of little account huddle together, 
and even today travelers through our Denes' territory who 
come upon any bear skull are most likely to find it planted on 
a forked stick— formerly this was invariably the case. The 
distinction relatively to the [.laces in the house is so jealously 
observed, at least on ceremonial occasions, that I know of 
Babines who indignantly left the lodge where people had 
gathered, because they thought they had been slighted in be- 
ing placed too near the doorway. Another point of similarity 
in the technique of the Aino and Carrier houses, is the ladder 
which in both cases consists simply of a log notched at inter- 
vals of a foot or so. 

Speaking of the dog and of its place in the domestic econ- 
omy of the Carriers and Babines, a detail which has puzzled 
outsiders and given rise to groundless speculations presents 
itself for explanations. In a mostvaluable monograph on the 
status of the modern pagan Iroquois, Mr. David Boyle quotes 
the following from Harmon's Journal of Voyages and Travels: 
"Alt Indians are very fond of their hunting dogs. The people 
on the west side of the Rocky Mountains appear to have the 
same affection for them that they have for their children, and 
they will discourse with them as if they were rational beings. 
They frequently call them their sons or daughters, and when 
describing an Indian, they will speak of him as father of a par- 
ticular dog which belongs to him. When these dogs die, it is 
not unusual to see their masters or mistresses place them on a 
pile of wood and burn them in the same manner as they do 
the dead bodies of their relations, and they appear to lament 
their deaths by crying and howling, fully as much as if they 
were their kindred." 

Modern Carriers and Babines have not improved on (or de- 
generated from) their ancestors, for it is to the latter that the 
above passage refers. Nay more, they now treat their cats 
and horses and cattle in exactly the same fashion, and the 
writer has more than once been called the father of his own 
horse by natives who saw nothing ludicrous or disrespsctful in 
this mode of speaking. To be sure, this must sound "absurd" 
to others than Mr, Boyle; but then "psychologically the Indian 
differs from the white man immeasurably more than he does 
physically. His habits of thought are totally unlike ours." 
This remark is not mine; it comes from the genial author of the 
above mentioned monograph and it has seldom been my 

food fortune to find so much truth condensed in so few words. 
t is because of this undeniable fact that, brought up as I now 
seem to have been, among our Indians, and having 





92 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

sciously adopted many of their ways of thinking, I could never 
bring myself to accept the late Dr. Brinton's interpretations of 
aboriginal myths. To me, his comments and explanations are 
merely the lucubrations of a highly cultivated Aryan intellect, 
something quite different from the gropings of the infantile 
Indian mind. I feel certain that our Denes, at least, could 
never have woven the marvelous abstractions and devised the 
ingenious symbolisms which he lends the poor American 
Aborigine. 

But to return to our * 'Carrier dog." In the first place, we 
should not fail to note the persistence of philological forms 
over sociological particularities; and thereby' establish once 
more the superiority of the former over the latter from an 
ethnographical standpoint. The carriers have long ceased to 
burn their dogs as if they were human beings, but the practice 
connected with that custom, that of calling father or mother (or 
indeed grandfather or grandmother as the case may be) those 
who to us are simply their masters, has survived and will prob 
ably last as long as the Carrier dialect lives. This peculiar way 
of treating domestic animals has left its impress on the lan- 
guage to such an extent that words having a relation to their 
names are granted the plural proper to personal nouus. Thus, 
while a Carrier may say that he has killed, for instance, two 
hcsLT i n/znk/if soeSt he will change the nankhc in w^z/^ when he 
states that he possesses, let us say, two dogs, naneklikhe. The 
same is true of the few genuine adjectives; another lynx, 
ayu waci\ another cat, a yunfnis. The verbs undergo analogous 
modifications when in connection with such nouns. 

The reader has perhaps, by this time, guessed the reason of 
this. As ''habits ot thought" of the Indians **are totally unlike 
ours," and as he does not possess to the same extent as the 
white race the idea of domination, or such a keen sense of 
ownership and is otherwise more patriarchal in his surround- 
ings, he considers in his dogs and other animals not so much 
the brutes he possesses and lords over as the animals the com- 
panions he has reared and fed from the time of their birth, 
atonf|r!(ide with the other members of his family, and whose ser- 
vices he enjoys in no less a degree than those of his wife and 
of the womenfolk generally — we must not forget that, among 
the Carriers, the dog is a "packer'' no less than a hound. The 
self-styled "noble" Aryan considers himself the "master" of 
bis dog and the ''proprietor" of his horse, while the humbler 
iDdian is content with regarding himself as the father by 
adoption of those he has brought up and who are to him the 
continuation of the life they originally received from their 
ofmkin. 

Thu&Mr. Boyle and others will see that in the cremation of 
dog among the Carriers there was not the remotest idea of 




THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM. 



93 



THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM. 



The above remarks should not appear in the light of a di- 
gression, for as long as we speak of the Carrier dog, we treat 
of the Carrier home. As lo the cat, it has of course its place 
by the fireside here as among the Ainos- The other members 
of the family, the little children, are treated with the same 
fondness and exaggerated indulgence as among their Aino 
brothers and sisters, and, also as a matler of course, instead of 
carrying them in their arms as is usual with us, the Carrier 
mothers pack them on their backs in their infancy, no less 
than the aborigines of Japan. Grown up to manhood, the 
Carrier will unhappily develop another tra't of resemblance to 
the Aino and. indeed to most primitive peoples, I mean that 
excessive fondness for alcoholic drinks which, when not curbed 

t by religious motives or fear of civil regulations, plays such 

havoc among those races and succeeds so well in thmning out 
I their ranks. 

L 

I Of the several creditable museums in AustraUa, the best 

( known is the Australian Museum at Sidney. New South Wales. 

It was founded in 1S36. A year later it published its first cat- 
alogue, in which were listed eight hundred and four specimens 
in various departments of natural history; there were also in 
the museum at that lime some unclassified fossils. This cata- 
logue was in octavo form, and contained seventy-one pages. 
At first the museum was connected with the Botanic Garden, 
and was housed in rooms not its own. In 1849 an important 
progress was made, by constructing a special museum building. 
This consisted of one large room with a gallery, and still stands, 
forming the "old wing" of the present imposing building. 

The building now occupied consists of five large halls, each 
with a gallery; it is, however, but part of the great edifice 
which is contemplated, and will be extended from time to 
time. It is already sadly crowded and, at least one-third more 
space is needed for the satisfactory display of specimens now 
in hand. Its present force consists of a Curator, six Scientific 
Assistants, and eighteen other persona. It is incorporated, 
and is managed by a board of twenty-five Trustees, 

It is a museum of all science, but the department of Zool- 
ogy is one of the most interesting, on account of the highly 
peculiar fauna of Australia. The taxidermic work is of high 
excellence, and in the display of mammals and birds the effort 




«4 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



has been to present them in natural surroundings, and to make 
them, in pose and relation, convey their maximum of instruc- 
tion. No pains is spared in this effort — thus, in the case of the 
bower birds, so curious in their play-life, a carefully constructed . 
copy of the bower, or playground, made by these birds, hatJ 
been fabricated, ■ 

Our attention, however, naturally turns to the departmentn 
of Ethnology. It is not limited in scope, containing objects 
from all parts of the world; it includes collections of the an- 
cient potteries of Mexico and Peru, relics from the Arkansas 
mounds, a good Egyptological series etc. But, as is to be ex- 
pected, its most interesting displays are those from the nativC;J 




THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, SIDNKV, V. 5. W. 

peoples of the great island continent itself, and from the islandfl 
world of the Pacific. A 

Leaving the latter, we may; for a moment, comment upon 
the former, and indicate some of the special features which are 
being developed by the Curator, Mr. Robert Ethcridge, Jr. 
We need hardly refer to the boomerangs, spear-throwing sticks, 
spears and parry-sticks of the natives. These may be seen in 
all ethnographic collections.^The practice of drying the body 
of the dead is quite characteristic of Australian tribes, and the 
muieum contains examples of such "mummies," which, for 
purposes of compari=on, are cased side by side with Egyptian 
mummies. — The collections contain more than a score of tree- 




THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM. 



4S 



trunks, curiously carved by the natives; the designs are varied, 
and include various zig-zags, lozenges, and the like, which may 
have been suggested by the scales and markings upon snakes 
and lizards. These carved tree-trunks are practically unique, 
and have been figured and described somewhat recently in the 
Journal of the Anthropological Institute ol Great Britain and 
Ireland. ^The museum has secured an interesting series of 
spearheads and surgical instruments, chipped from glass; the 
latter are employed in the famous operations which are per- 
formed upon boys in their initiation into manhood. — Among 
the many skulls from Australia and the I'^land Wf>rUi, inter- 
esting to the soinatologist, nne m.ti'-^ tr.m '\:c Mi'lJ-ollo 




Islanders (New Hebrides) is equally interesting to the ethnog- 
rapher; these skulls have been artificially deformed, and some 
of them still retain painted, clay, masks modeled upon them. — 
Examples of the mysterious hand-prints, from aboriginal rock- 
shelters, at Wollombi, have lately been acquired by the mu- 
seum. — Mr. Ethcridge is greatly interested in developing an 
Ethno-botanical Australian collection; this series began with 
one hundred and fifty specimens, and has steadily increased. 
The plan is to secure those parts of plants which the natives 
use as food, drink, medicine, construction material, etc., and to 
show the mode of their employment. ^Another especial series, 
upon which Mr. Etheridge is working, is an Ethno-conchological 




I 
I 
i 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

collection, which is not limited to Australian examples. It is 
intended to show the species of shells which are used for any 

fiurpose by savages and barbarians, together with the objects 
abricated from them, and the modes of manufacturing these. — 
Of high importance is the collection illustrating the ethnology 
of the Funafuti Archipelago. An expedition was sent to these 
interesting islands by the museum, to study their fauna, flora, 
structure and people. The results of the expedition have been 
printed, and, among the memoirs, one is devoted to the Eth- 
nology of Funafuti. 

One extremely interesting project of Mr. Etheridge has 
not yet been fully carried out; if, indeed, it has been begun. 
As is well known, the native Australians quite generally marked 
their bodies with scars, the size, form and arrangement of 
which varied from tribe to tribe. These scars were upon the 
chest, arms, back, or abdomen. The practice has disappeared 
from New South Wales, but exists in part of Queensland. 
Central, North, and West Australia. Mr. Etheridge proposes 
to have life moulds taken, for the reproduction of figures or 
part figures, showing these scarifications. As he justly urges, 
it will soon be too late to undertake such a work. 

In the Historical Department of the museum is one col- 
lection which is of interest to the ethnologist, for various 
reasons. It is called "the Cook relics." and consists of ob- 
jects which belonged to or were associated with the great 
navigator. Captain James Cook. The greater number of 
these objects were purchased from descendants of Capt. 
Cook. Altogether they fill eight cases. Many articles used 
by Cook in his three voyages may there be seen. Fine old 
medallions of Wedgewood ware fepresent Sir Joseph Banks 
(botanist), and Daniel Solander (naturalist), who accompa- 
nied him. The collection includes a number of Polynesian 
objects, among them the fine feather helmet presented to 
Captain Coolt on Jan. 26, 1779, by the king of Hawaii, and 
a jade ear ornament given to him by a New Zealand chief. 
Among the Polynesian weapons is one with an uncanny in- 
terest: it is a spear, the tip of which is reputed to be made 
from the leg-bone of the unfortunate navigator. 

Up to the present, the Museum has published little in 
Ethnology. Besides The Ethnology of Funafuti, already men- 
tioned, it has issued an eight-page Descriptive List of Ahong- 
tfial Weapons. Implements, etc.. from the Darling and Lach&n 
Rivers, written by K. H. Bennett. 



I 




ilLIPPINE STUDIES. VL 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN ELEMENT IN THE 
PHILIPPINES. 



The present contact between Americans and Filipinos is 
not the first occasion on which natives of the New World have 
met these Malay peoples in their island home. It was after 
Pope Alexander vl. had decided that the Spaniards must use 
the Western, the Portuguese the eastern, route to the Indies, 
that Magellan, a native of Portugal in the service of Spain, dis- 
covered the Archipelago by sailing around the end of South 
America and across the Pacific, thus securing to Charles V. the 
title to them. 

When Mexico was thoroughly subjugated by the Spaniards, 
the advantages of commerce between Asia and Europe across 
that country became apparent, and soon Acapulco and Vera 
Cruz, the one on the Pacific, the other on the Gulf of Mexico, 
rose to great influence as the ports for such traffic. 

Many of the early discoverers and adventurers in the Phil- 
ippines, naturally enough, started out from Mexico. Alvaro 
dc Saavedra's expedition, fitted oul at Zacatula under the aus- 
pices of Cortez, though aimed at the Moluccas, touched the 
eastern co^st of Mindanao, and in its attempts to return, the 
Sulu Islands. After the unsuccessful expedition of ViUaiobos 
(1542-1543). and the failure of his aitempt to settle on the 
Sarangi Islands, at the extreme south-east point of Mindanao, 
the Emperor, Charles V., seems to have lost most of his great 
interest in these far-off lands. Philip II., after whom, as In- 
fante, Villalobos had named the island of Samar/^^/(/(>/^^, stirred 
up the Mexican viceroy— he had himself been stimulated by 
the reports and letters of Urdaneta, at this time an Augustinian 
monk in the City of Mexico — to prepare another fleet for the 
Philippines. The Urdaneta-Legazpi expedition, thus inaugur- 
ated, left Mexico in 1564, and from 1565 to 1571 the Spaniards 
explored, trafficked and fought in various parts of the Archi- 
[.eligo; in the last year Legazpi founded the city of Manila, 
and, dying in 1572, his grandson, Salcedo, who had already 
done a good deal of exploring, extended his discoveries. It 
was a subordinate of Legazpi — Alonzo de Arellano— who, de- 
serting the expedition, sailed north, and, crossing the Pacific, 
coasted down the American continent till he reached Mexico, 
being thus the first to make that land from the west. His ves- 
sel is said to have been steered by a mulatto.' 

I S« BInKcalrili- Vanuch eincr Bthnogriipbis der PhilippLnsn {Bcrlia i83a), PD. ir^^- 



98 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

In 1569, the Philippines were formally annexed to Spain; 
in 1575, Guido de Labazarries was made Governor, and for up- 
wards of a century these islands were practically ruled from 
Mexico. 

Even when the Philippines ceased to be under the viceroy 
of Mexico, commercial intercourse went on as of old until the 
rupture with Spain took place. .Every year the great Manila 
galleon and its convoy crossed the seas to Acapulco, where a 
month's fair, in which also the trade from the western coast of 
South America was represented, was held. 

For morethan two centuries the port uf Acapulco thrived 
on the Oriental trade, and became one of the world's great 
commercial centers, its population swelling enormously at gal- 
ieon-time. 

In his interesting paper on "Oriental Influences in Mexico," 
Mr. Hough" points out how early this trans-Pacific trade began, 
and how many plants, manufactures, etc., were introduced into 
Mexico from the East Indies. Another evidence of this tr-iffic 
has very recently been discovered in the Hindu relic found in 
British Columbia, described by Dr. Franz Boas.^ 

The influence of Mexico and other parts of Spanish Amer- 
ica upon the Philippines has not y^t been studied, Of course, 
the great mass of trade was between Manilla and Acapulco, 
and not the other way. but the America-Philippines traffic was 
by no means very small, in spile of the fact that taxes and 
other discriminations bore against the latter. 

To the Philippines the Spaniards carried, very early, some 
of the i;ultivated plants found by them in Mexico, Central and 
South America, so that the share of the Indians in the subse- 
<|urnt development of these islands, is linked with the use their 
inhabitants made of these food-products of the pre-Columbian 
American aborigines. Among these arc the following : 

1, Pineapple. The pineapple (Ananassa saliva), or ptna, 
wan well settled in the Philippines before the end of the six- 
teenth century, and it is now so made use of thai it is hard to 
believe that the plant is not native to the country. It is from 
the fiber of the pineapple that the famous pitui cloth and other 

firoducts arc manufactured. This beautiful fabric is woven 
rom threads obtained from the leaves of the Philippine species, 
Uromelia fiietia. It is sometimes called " pina mushn." 

3. I'tickly Pear. The pricklypear, mi5named"Indian Fig" 
( Opuntitt ficus iftdica^, was, according to De Candolle.' "one of 
the first plants which the Spaniards introduced to the Old 
World, both in Europe and Asia." The titna made its appear- 
tnce very early in the Philippines. 

3. American "aloe." The American "aloe" (Agave Airuri- 
eann,) provides the well Vaov/n pila fiber. 



« 



ilfti Bl CBliln>»il Pliau (N. V., laej), p > 



PHILIPPINE STUDIES. 



97 



4. Maise. Maize, or Indian :orn {Zea mays), was probably 
not known in the Philippine Islands before the end of the sev- 
enteenth century, not being mentioned by Rumpbius. It has 
since been so generally jcuUivated in the Malay Archipelago 
that Crawford, in 1820. thought it indigenous.' 

6. Cacao. The common c ^cao (Thfodroma C(7C(?o), according 
to Blanco, "was carried by the Spaniards from Acapulco to the 
Philippine Islands in 1674-1680," where it thrived well. With 
it went chocolate, 

/. Rt'ii Pi'ppir. More than one species of Capsicum seems 
to have found its way from America to the Malay Archipelago. 
Of the shrubby capsicum (C. frnttscens),W\vtmti tells us thafit 
is naturalized in the Malay Archipelago in hedges. 

8. Tobacco. According to Raffles, tobacco (Nicotiava. sp.) 
was introduced into Java in 1601, and Rumphius notes that the 
name tabacoox tamhuco, in use in the east, was of foreign origin,' 
It was introduced into the Philippines some time during the 
sixteenth century. 

9. Tomato. The common tomato was reported in Malay- 
sian gardens in 1741, by Rumphius, but its general disribution 
is later. 

10. Sivcct Potato. The sweet potato, or batala ( Convolvitlus 
balalas), was early introduced into the Philippines. Rumphius 
reports that, '"according to the general opinion, sweet potatoes 
were brought by the Spanish Americans to Manila and the 
Moluccas, whence the Portuguese diffused it throughout the 
Malay Archipilago."* The name Camotes, borne by a small 
group of islands near Cebu, preserves the Mexican name of 
one variety of this plant. 

11. Smeet Sop. The sweet sop or custard apple (Anona 
iguafnasa) , to judge from the description of Rumphius, was "a 
plant recently cultivated in most of the islands of the Malay 
Archipelago." Blanco reports its cultivation in the Philip- 
pines, but it is doubtful when it was first introduced there,' 

12. Pea-Nut. The pea-nut, or ground-nut {Arackis hypogea), 
accordmg to Brunt.'" who wrote in 1S18, "was probably intro- 
intrduced from China into the continent of India, Ceylon, and 
into the Malay Archipelago, where, in spite of its now general 
cultivation, it is thought not to be indigenous, particularly from 
the names given it." Rumphius, however, says it was imported 
from Japan into several of these islands. De Candolle thinks 
that " tfie Portuguese carried it from Brazil into the islands to 
the south of Asia in the fifteenth century."" 

13, Analto. The anatto, or arnotto {Bixa oreltarui), from 
whose seed p'^'p ^ famous dyestuff was obtained ^now known 
as roucoxi in French, arnotto in English,) by the Indians of Cen- 




100 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARiAN. 

tral and South America, "was one of the first species trans-" 
ported from America to the north of Asia and Africa."" 

14. Alligator Pear. The avocado, or as it is called by folk- 
etymology, ■•alligator" pear, does not appear to be mentioned 
\>y Rumphius, but 'was introduced into the Sunda Isles in the 
middle of the seventeenth century " 

15. Pafaw. The papaw {Carica papaya) was long thought 
to be a native of Asia or of Africa, but Rumphius reports that 
"the inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago considered it an 
exotic plant, introduced by the Portuguese, and gave it names 
expressing its likeness to oiher species or its foreign ex- 
traction."" 

,16. Cashew. The cashew {Anacardium ocndcntale) was re- 
garded by Rumphius as of "ancient introduction, by the Portu- 
guese, into the Malay Archipelago from Aniericp,,"'* 

17. Giiava. The guava {Psuiium gutiyava) was introduced 
into the East Indies at a comparatively early date, for it was 
found wild there from the sixteenth century, but with every 
evidence of recent naturalization. '^ 

[8. Marmalade Plum. The marmalade plum, or mummce 
sapota {Lucuma mamfnosa), is mentioned by Blanco as having 
been transported to the Philippines. Its insipid taste, as De 
Candolle suggests, may have hindered its spread.'* 

Some of these plants have been of the greatest importance 
to the natives of the Philippines; others are of less account. 
The American Indian is not. however, represented in this Arch- 
ipelago by his cultivated plants alone. Some strains of his 
blood are to be found in not a few Filipinos. Several towns 
in these islands were garrisoned by soldiers of Spain from Mex- 
ico and Peru, in whose ranks were many American Indian 
slaves and recruits. Zaniboango, in Mindanao, was one of such 
garrison towns, and it is quite probable that the natives of 
some portions of that large island, have as much American 
Indian as "Arab " blood in their veins. The transport of slaves 
and "criminals" from various regions of Spanish America to 
the Philippines, brought thither many Indians of divers stocks. 
Says Blumentrilt.'* of the view that the so-called Moros are 
niODgrels of Arabs and Malays: "With much more reason could 
they be considered the mixed offspring of Malay and Spaniard, 
or Mexican or Peruvian Indians, for the slaves captured by 
them from amongst the Spanish. Mexican and Peruvian regular 
soldiers, far outnumbered all the Arabs that ever came there." 
The American Indian element in the Philippines deserves care- 
ful study and investigation. 




THE THOORGA AND OTHER AUSTRAUAK" : 
LANGUAGES. ''■•'-■'■ 

BY R. H. MATHEWS, L. S. 
Car. Membtr Aalhiopoloficar Soeialr, Wuhiotlaa, V. S. A. 

For many years I have been studying the languages of the 
Australian Aborigines, and now submit an outline of the gram- 
matical structure of the Thoorga tongue, which is spoken by 
the natives of the Tuross, Clyde, Moruya, and other rivers, 
situated partly in each of the counties St, Vincent and Dam- 
pier, respectively. New South Wales, 

In the Thoorga language I have discovered the use of two 
separate forms for the first person of the dual and plural, one 
of which includes, and the other excludes, the person to whom 
we are speaking. In the following pages, these arc distin- 
guished by the contractions "inci," and "exci.." respectively. 
This peculiarity has been observed in the dialects of many of 
the islands in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. 

Another peculiarity not hitherto reported among the Aus- 
tralian aborigines, is the inflection of almost every part of 
speech for number and person. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, 
verbs, prepositions, and adverbs, are all subject, more or less, 
to this inflection or conjugation. 

Nineteen letters of the English alphabet are sounded, com- 
prising fourteen consonants — b. d. g. h, j, k, 1, m. n, p, r, t, w, y, 
and five vowels, a, e, i, o, u. Every word is spelled phonetic- 
ally, the letters having the same value as in English, with the 
following qualifications: 

Unmarked vowels have their usual short sound. 

Vowels having the long sound are distinguished by the fol- 
io A-Jng marks; 

a as in father. ("i as in pole. ee as in feel. 

on as in loud. g is hard in everv ease 

Ng at the beginning of a syllable or word, as Ngl in ngjaga, 
has a peculiar sound, which can be got very nearly by assum- 
ing oo before it, ogngi, and articulating it quickly as one sylla- 
ble. At the end of a syllable, it has substantially the sound of 
ng in sing. 

The sound of the Spanish fl is frequent. 

Dh is pronounced nearly as th in "that," with a slight found 
of d preceding it. 

Nh has almost the sound of th in "that," with an initial 
&ound of the n. 

T is interchangeable with d; p with b; and g with k, in most 
words where these letters are employed. 



m 



THE AMEll^CAN "ANTIQUAR IAN. 



The. 



: .._; ARTICLES. 

y equivalents of "a" and "the" in the languagre. 



NOUNS, 



•-" N 
dual i 



ouns have three 



umbers 



singulai 



and plural; the 



f burraga. 
Yooift. a man. 

YcKiiitburra, a couple of roeD. 
Vooiflburraga, several men. 

Gender is sometimes shown by using a different name for 
the male and female, as, Kubbogoobal, a boy; Yandabal.agirl. 
In other instances, words are added to the name of the animal, 
signifying "male" and "female. " Several animals have a dis- 
tinguishing word for the male; thus, the name of the Koongara, 
opossum, is known as kumburrooga, whilst the female is spoken 
of as koongarakoorooroo. 

The principal cases are the nominative, genitive, and accu- 
sative, but the dative and ablative are abServable in some words. 

There are two nominatives^one merely naming th« object, 
as koongara, an opossum, and another to indicate that some 
act is being performed; thus, koongarangga jiroura thunnan — 
the opossum leaves is eating. 

In the genitive, the name of the possessor takes the suffix 
dya. or euphonic variants, and the thing possessed takes oo, 
or its modifications, to agree with the last syllable of the word 
to which it is sutRxedi 

Yooin, a man; warrangan, a boomerang; yooifidya warran- 
ganyoo, a man's boomerang. 

Any object whatever which belongs to a native, can be in- 

- ' ' ' ■ , as follows: 



fleeted for person and 
Singular 4 ad " ' 



3d '■ 
I9t Person, 

2d 



3d 



my boomerang 
thy boomerang 
his boomerang 

iour boomerang, incl., 
our boomerang, excl., 
your boomerang 
their boom o rang 

iour boomerang, incl., 
our boomerang, excl., 
r boomerang 
r boomerang 



the 



warrangandhoogE. 

warranganvung 

warranganyoo 

warrangangul 

warrangan yullunga 

warranganboot 

warranganyabool 

war rang .iny in 

warraneaoylnnungga 

warrangandyoor 

warrangangaaven 



The native words In the above example, read "boomerang 
my, boomerang thy, boomerang his," and so on. 

As far as I can yet learn, the accusate is the same as the 
nominative. Examples of the dative and oblative cases are 
omitted for want of space. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have the same numbers as the 
and are placed after it. 




AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 103 

Wurran Koobeejanga, a child smalL 

Wutranburra Koabeejangamburra. a conple of children smalL 

Wurranburraga Koobeejangamburraga, several cblldren small, 

Comparison of adjectives does not follow fixed rules, but 
there are several ways of comparing one quantity or quality 
with another, as: This is good; that is bad. This is strong; 
that also is strong. This is large; that is very large, 

When an adjective is used predicatively, as, jumagambaga — 
I am good — it can be conjugated for number, person and tense, 
the same as an intransitive verb. The following example 
shows the present tense of the indicative mood: 



Singula 



Dual 



Plural 



2d '■ 


1st Person 


2d 

3d ■■ 


ist Person, 



I a 



Bulwulwaga 
Bulwulwee 
Bulwulwool 



Thou art strong 

He is strong 
jWe are strong, incl., 
/ We are strong, ex ' 

Von are strong 

They are strong 

(We are strong, incl., 
(We are strong, excl,. 
You are strong 
(3d " They are strong 

The past and future tenses are omitted, and also the imper- 
ative and conditional moods. It might be preferable to include 
these predicative adjectives among theverbs, but I nave thought 
it best to exemplify them under the present heading, to keep 
all the adjectives together. 



'ulwungulla 
Bulwulwoola 
Bulwulwurra 

Bulwulwufi 
Bulwulwutiga 

Bulwulwurraga 



PRONOUNS. 



The nominative and possessive pronouns 
Singuh 



!tst Person, 1 
2d ■■ Thou 
3d ■• He 



Ngiaga 
Indecga 
JeenjuUa 



Thine 
His 



Ngiagangool 
Indeegangool 

Jellanudda 



(3d 



(3d 



iWe,incl.,Ngiawaii 
' ( We, excl.,Ngiwanga 
You Indeewan 

Tbey Jeenjullowur. 



Ours, incl., Ngiawungalool 
1 Ours, excl., Ngiawungalan- 
Yours Indewool [gool 

I Theirs Jellanowurra 
Ours. incl. .Ngiawunyungool 
Ours,incl..Neia*ungagool 
Yours Indeewunungool 
Theirs Jellanowurraga 



There are other forms of the above pronouns, meaning "for 
mc," "with me," "from me," etc., which extend through the 
three numbers and persons. Pronominal suffixes, in contracted 
forms, arc used in great number and variety in the declension 
of nouns, adjectives and verbs, examples of which are given 
under these parts of speech in this paper. The equivalents of 
the demonstrative pronouns, "this' and "that," are declinable 
for dual and plural number, and also have modifications to ex- 





THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



Interrogative pronouns are likewise declin- 
10 relative pronouns. 

VERBS. 

Verbs have three numbers, with the usual persons and tenses. 
There are three principal moods- — the indicative, imperative, 
and subjunctive or conditional. The verb stem, and an abbre- 
viated form of the fitting pronoun, are amalgamated, which 
admits of their being treated as one word for purposes of con- 
jugation. Space will not allow of more than one example, 
which I shall take at random from the past tense of the iadica- 
live mood: 



in-fl 



Singular^ 2d 
(3d 



lid 
(3d 

The negative i 



Thou thfewdsi 

He threw 
j We threw, iocl.. 
J We threw, cxcl.. 

You threw 

They threw 
( We threw, incl., 
) We threw, eitci., 

Vou ibrew 

They threw 



(eengalaga ^H 

ieengalee ^H 

teen gal ool ^^M 

leengaboorung ^H 

tecDgaboorunguIla ^M 

leengabooroo ^M 

teengaboorawum ^M 

leengabooraufi ^M 

lecDgaboorainga ^M 

leengaburrarun ^M 
leengaboorawuTTaga ^H 
■ ngamb, being in- 
noun, thus: I threw 



xpressed by ngam, c 
fi^ed between the verb stem and the pri 
not, beengalngambaga, and so on. 

The verb follows the noun, and agrees with it in number: 

Warrangan iileega; a boomerang carry-1, 
Warranganburra illeegool; a pair of boomerangs carry-T. 
Warranganburraga illeegin; several boomerangs carry-l. 

There are variations in the verbal suffixes to convey such 
meanings as, ' I took from." "I gave to." "I caught for." and 
many others of a similar character. Such modifications, for 
the purpose of giving different shades of meaning, are almost 

endless. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

The equivalents of English prepositions are of two sorts, as 
booroongoona, between; gurroowurro, up (as up a river or 
creek); guddha, down (the river). Another kind comprises 
suffixes to verbs to give them a prepositional meaning; thus, 
instead of having a word for "around," there is a verb, goo- 
roomboaga, around-go-l, which can be conjugated for number, 
person and tense. Other words signify "across-go-I," "through 
go-I," and so on. 

Some prepositions can be conjugated by suffixing an abridged 
form of the proper pronoun: 






( 1st Person 

Aid ■■ 

1 3d ■■ 



ehind me 


Bulgandyen 


ehind ihee 


Bulgangoon 


ehind htm 






AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES, 



incL, 



\ Behind 

? Behind 

Behind you 
Behind them 
( Behind us, inc 
} Behind us, exc 
Behind you 
Behind them 

ADVERBS. 



Bulgangulling 

Bulgangalyean 

Biilgowoolung 

BuIganoolanOloo 

Bulganyinning 

Bulganyinneen 

Bulganthoorung 

Bulgadhunnung 



Adverbs may be either (i) primitive words. or,(ii} they may 
be derived from adjectives, or, (iii) an adverbial meaning may 
be obtained by means of verbs: 



(i) Mullee, why; yooka, when oi 
Jii) lummagamanyeen willian, w. 
(i)i) Yannoon-miooga, he goes, I ri 



; yaggoondyooalee, soon. 

.; that is, he goes instead of a 



A few adverbs can be inflected for number and person, like 
nouns and prepositions: 



(3d - 

I 1st Person 



Where ai 
Where ai 
Where is 



Wanjeea 
Wanjaweelee 



1 Where ate 
) Where ate .. _ 
Where are you 

Where are they 



incl., Wanjanyin 
excl., Wanjanyinna 
Wanjanyoo 
Wanjanwurraga 



CONJUNCTIONS, 

The number of conjunctions in the Thoarga dialect is very 
limited, 

THE THURRAWAL DIALECT. 

It is intended to furnish a cursory abstract of the Thurrawal 
grammar, for the purpose of showing its affinityto theThoorga 
tongue. The Thurrawal language is spoken among the rem- 
nants of the native tribes inhabiting the coastal district of New 
South Wales, from Port Hacking southerly to Jervis Bay, where 
they adjoin the Thoorga speaking people. 

The dual and pluralnumbers of nouns are shown by suffixes: 

Booroo. a kangaroo. 

Booroolallee. a couple of kangaroos. 

Boorool6ala, several kangaroos. 

In the human family, different words are used for the mas- 
ctiline and feminine, as, yooiri, a man; ngurrungal, a woman. 

Among mammals, usually, gender is distinguished by placing 
kowalang after the name of the male, and nunginung after 




io6 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



that of the female, as, bunggoo kowaigang; bunggoo Dungi- 
nung. For birds, the male has the suffix banhoong. and the 
female nunganung. for certain animals there is a distinguish- 
ing name for males and females. 

There is the nominative case, and the nominative agent, as, 
ngurrungai, a woman; ngurrungalla moondha yoorinya, the 
woman a snake killed. 

The possessive is formed by means of suffix to the name of 
the possessor, and also to the object possessed, thus: mulyan, 
a eaglehawk, and ngoora, a nest; but we must say mulyangoo- 
lee ngooranhoong for the eaglehawk's nest. 

The name of any object over which possession can be exer- 
cised by a native, is subject to inflection for number and person; 
I 1st Person My head .Wollarnoongyen 

Singular 1 2d " Thy head .WollarBoongoon 

( 3d " His head .Wollornoonoong 

and so on through the dual and plural. 

The dative is sometimes shown by the suffix 00, as, Bunna- 
bee, a place; Bunnabeeoo. to Bunnabee; ngoora, a camp; 
ngooraoo, to the camp. 

For the oblative they say. Bunnabee-een, from Bunnabee, 
Buddi, a walerhole; buddieen, from the waterhole; ngooraeen, 
from the camp. 

Both the dative and ablative are frequently expressed by a 
modification of the verbs, meaning "I gave to," "I took from," 
and many others. Adjectives are declined for dual and plural, 
and are placed after the nouns they qualify: 
Boorroo jilK^ari, a kangaroo grey. 
Booroolaliee jillflaran«>ol, a pair of kangaroos grey. 
Booroolciala jill^arantha, several kangaroos grey. 

Comparison is effected in a manner similar to the Thoorga, and 
certain adjectives can be conjugated like intransitive verbs. An 
example, in the singular number only, will be given: 

( lit Person Good 

Singular j 2d '' Good 

( 3d " Good 

Nominative and possessive pronouns are similar in charac- 
ter to the Thoorga, although differing slightly in form. 



I 



I 




COMMUNAL HOUSKS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

BY C. HILL-TOUT, 

The dwellings of the Skokomich (or Skqomic,) were of the 
communal kind, and were very large. Each village contained 
one, and sonnetimes two, of these communal houses. Some of 
them were of enormous length, extending six hundred feet and 
more. Houses of 200 and 300 feet in length were very com- 
mon. In width Ihey varied from twenty to forty feet, and in 
height from eight to fifteen feet. They were generally made 
of cedar, split inlo slabs. The boards were held in place by 
wythes or ropes, and there were no windows in the buildings. 
The sunlight and air came through the doors or by the roof, ai 
that part was left open to let tire smoke out. They were open 
from end to end, without partitions or divisions of any kind. 
Each family had its own allotted space, at the side of the 
dwelling, and had its own f^re. The beds of the family were 
arranged around three sides of a square, with the open part 
toward the fire. They were separated from one another by 
curtains of grass and reeds, which were suspended on two 
sides, but the inner side toward the fire left open, 

The coverings of the poorer were of reed mats, and the pil- 
lows of communal mats rolled up. The wealthy classes had 
blankets made of mountain goat and dressed deer skins. In 
winter it was customary to keep the fires burning all night. 
The housekeeper possessed cooking pots of cedar and basketry. 
Food is served in large shallow troughs or dishes. Smaller 
platters of the same material were in use. likewise spoons, made 
of wood and of bone. Of baskets they had a great variety 

The dress of the Koqomics did not differ from other tribes. 
The men commonly wore high leggings and waist cloths. Over 
their shoulders they wore native blankets. The women wore 
dressed deer skin frocks, which depended from the shoulders 
to below the knees, and sometimes covered the head with a 
plaited conical hat, with broad, sloping brim, which served as 
a receptacle for berries and other small things. These hats 
were figured in red and black paints. 

The canoes of this tribe were made out of solid logs, and 
have a beam of six or seven feet. The thickness of the sides 
is less than an inch. They have five different canoes, each 
called bya special term. Canoe building is quite an art among 
them. — See Report of the Etknolo^ ical Survey of Catiada for zgoo. ' 




k 




poles abont eight £eel long by lashings of hemp, and formed the chief weap- 
ons of the natives. They were thrown lo a. distance, and were also used as 
a thrusting weapon, mucii aftef the manner in which the Zulus use their 
■Jsegais. They are classified according lo their shape, as follows : 

rmirav, IpAde-Ahapcd : fif . g, hroAcI, i(rugrLt.<dcvd ^ fis- 6, ilD4Kjl>i , rounrf-fidged ; lie. 
7, brofto, hui4h*p4d ; pg. if coac^tt aad coavex-tidBd; Eig. 9, long, ttiArp-poliited. 

The shape and size were dependent upon the individual taste and skill. 




1 



HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN AND ORIENTAL 
ART COMPARED. 

The study of sculptured art in America has always proved 
very interesting, although it has never been taken up with as 
much thoroughness as is desirable. There are afew specimens 
which have been gathered into the cabinets of private collect- 
ors, and these have been studied and compared with one an- 
other; but those specimens which have been gathered into the 
museums, and have been described by the museum reports, have 
never received as much attention as they deserve. Now, it is 
because of the fact that they seem to be neglected, that we 



shall giv 



ief review 



of the specimens of sculp- 
ture thus far discovered, 
and shall draw a compar- 
ison between them and 
thespecimens which have 
been diacovered in other 
countries. WcshaM, how- 
ever confine ourselves to • 
those specimens which 
represent the human fig 
ure. leaving out those 
which have animal sem 
blances, and those which 
are mainly symbols. 

I. In reference to the 
geographical distribu- 
tion of these figures, we 
would say that they are 
/"W I -Mythologic Ftgurts. found in every part of [he Fi^. i. 

from Rocks in Arisona. conilnent; some of them ^«et/o Idol. 
carvi:d out of wood, others out of stone, and still others en- 
graved upon shell; many are drawn in outline upon the mcks, 
a few pictured upon the walls of houses, and still others drawn 
upon bark or painted upon tents. 

Human figures are also very common in Oriental countries, 
in Egypt. Babylonia. Assyria, India, and even in China. In 
these countries they form important features of ancient art, 
and are frequently described, though seldom has there been a 
comoarison between them and those found in America. 

These representations of the human figure, when treated 
ethnographicaily, illustrate the difference between the native 






no THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tribes, in their way of conceiving of the human form, and a 
representing it: i. The wild tribes of the far north, generally^ 
draw the human figure, as well as animals, tents and boats, ' 
outline on ivory, very much as did the cave-dweilers of Europc^J 
bi.t they distinguished between the human beings and demons^ 
as one can easily see who studies the drawings. 2, The hunt" 
ers around the Great Lakes also drew the human figure in outline,^ 
but they made them express activities, andcorabined thei 
pictographs, so as to convey a meaning by them. 3, The stone ■ 
grave people wore accustomed to make semblances of the hu- \ 
man figure upon shell gorgets.but generally represented them a 
dancing, and en- 
gaged in some relig- 
lous ceremony, 
though they arc 
draped in the usual 
style, and show what 
kind of costumes the 
tribes were accus- 
tomed to wear, 

4. The people of 
the Atlantic coast 
were accustomed to 
bury copper plates in 
the mounds, on which 
human figures were 
engraved, some of 
which have been ex- 
humed and de- 
scribed. These fig- 
ures are represented 
in outline, but they 
frequently have 
wings emanating 

anT the beaks ^of Fig- 3~Su>i Worshipper, from tht Gulf StamS 
birds, instead of human faces. They evidently were mytho 
logic figures. 5. Further south, throughout the Gulf States, 
there were formerly human figures kept in the dead houses. 
They were carved out of wood, and some of them were very 
hideous in their appearance. 6. There are also many pottery 
vessels throughout this region in the human shape. Some of 
these are very grotesque and comical, others are suggestive of 
sun-worship. Pottery pipes were common among the Iroquois, ,^ 
and many stone pipes have been found in Ohio made ii 
human shape. 

7. Among the pueblos. human figures were frequently draw; 
upon the rocks and walls, and the altars and frameworks whf 
represented their religious ceremonies. These were covei 





HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. in 

with drapery of many kinds. 8. The Navajoes are accustomed 
to make sand- painting i, in which the human form is represented 
by a great variety of colors. These are personifications of the 
Nature divinities, and are very interesting and often beautiful. 
The rainbow has a human semblance, and the arch of the sky is 
by them, as well as by the Egyptians, represented as a female 
figure, whose arms and feet are upon the earth, but whose body 
spans the sky. 9. On the northwest coast, human figures are 
very common. They are carved out of wood, and represent 
the ancestors of the people. They are also mingled with ani- 
mals and birds, which represent the mythology of the people. 
Volumes might be written on the significance of these totem- 
poles, and the human figures contained in them. 




S/iape of Human Head. 

10. The Aztecs had many carved images, which represented 
the human form in various shapes, and with a great variety of 
adornments. 11. The same is true of the people who dwelt in 
Centra! America, for here we find, as we have seen, many por- 
traits, statues and sculptured columns, some of which are sup- 
posed to represent priests and kings, others represent the Na- 
ture divinities. There was a system of mythology here which 
consisted in the personification of Nature powers, and, as a 
result, every force in nature was represented by the human face 
or form. The sun and moon were supposed to have faces, and 




i 



t» THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to be looking out of the sky. The rain, also, had a humat 
and the rain-drop was represented by the eye. The lightnioj 
was generally represented by the serpent, but it was controtlei_ 
by divinities bearing human forms. The codices are full of 
pictographs of human beings in various attitudes, some of them 
riding upon crooked serpents and emptying vases of water 
from the sky. Others are seen falling from the sky, headfore- 
most, and landing in great vessels, which are supported by 
coiled serpents. The hieroglyphs of Central America are madti 
up largely of human faces, mingled with hands and feet. 
Strange to say, the cntiie sea- 
son is represented in America, 
as it was in the far ea<it, bv the 
human form, which resembles 
that seen in the old-fashioned 
almanacs. Every month in ihe 
year was represented by differ- 
ent parts of the body; every 
constellation in the sky. also,, 
3 being suggestive of the differ- 
ent activities of the human! 
frame. 12. Thecalendarstones: 
in Mexico have a human face 
looking out from the cen- 
ter, and a serpent forming'" 




Fig. S— Pueblo Poll, u-ilk Sky Symbols 

the circumference; but in Central Amer- 
ica, the human face is seen upon the walls 
of the temples, supported by staves, ar- 
ranged in the shape of crosses. These '^ 
faces, or masks, are so placed that the ; 
sun shines in upon them at various sea- ^ _ 

sons of the year, and lights them up by f^-^nur^^Mh^fi^ 
Its rays. PaUnqut. 

13. No such sun masks have been seen in Mexico, though the 
calendar stone of Mexico represents the sun under semblance J 
of a human face. These sun-masks are to be distinguished I 
from the human figures which are sculptured upon the columns.] 





HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. 113 

and upon the slabs. Recently there have been brought to light 
a ne* series of sculptured stelae, in which human forms are 
represented, but covered with a great variety of Ornaments, 
some of which were designed to be symbols, and others to rep- 
resent drapery that was common. These are very suggestive 
of the stage of civilization that had been reached, as the 
drapery is very elaborate and the ornaments are so numerous, 
that we are impressed with tUe magnificence which must have 
prevailed among the ruling cU'^ses. 

The descriptions of these slabs are given by Teobert Maler, 
who discivered them, as follows : 




n Effigu-i. from 

with the ancie 

:n equal to lb 

J. L. Stephen 



Ts, shrinei, statues 
:e those made by 
ivered the remark- 



These figures are connectci 
aud stela:. No "tind" has bi 
M. Habel, and perhaps not sin 

able statues and palaces at Copar . . 

wiihout realiiing something of the harbaric magnificeDce which exPsled. 
Tbe costumes of the king^, queens and priests were v?ry gorgeous. They 
help ue to realize the variety of the personal decofdlion and ornaments 
of these statues, which represent divinities ot heroes, or to undeisiand the 
signilicance of their different atliludes. Of oDe thine we aie certain: tbe 
splendor of the palaces and temples have been undtreilimaled by many 
modem archaiologisls, and were not exaggerated by the Spanish historians, 
as many have supposi^d, for the very symbols which are contained in these 
sculptures, show that Egyptians and Babylonians of the early dynasties, 
had their counterpaits in America, except as one studies the specimens oE 
an preserved in their statues. 

One of the most important objects discovered was a circular sacrificial 
stone with an elaborate has reliel on the upper surface, supported by three 
fouaie pillars, each having ten glyphs on its front lace; this was called the 
altar. Near this several stelx were discovered. The following is 
a description of them: 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ienls the front v 



"The preserved relief represents the front view o( a male figure. .__ 
*D oval, beardless face carved in very high relief. Upon the brow is placed 
the serpent's ^ead, [he upper row of teeth forming a diadem. Above the 
serpeDl's head is the turban, from the center of which rises the ornamented 
feather-holder and the plumes of the feathers proceeding from it fall lo the 
right and left. The god is ctolhed in a lunic reachmg to his feet, ema- 
mented with deticaicly incised Maltese crosses and finished at the neck by 
a cape of scales. In his right hand the god holds feathers, and bis left "" 
on the medallion of the cape. 

14. In Guatemala, there are tablets or slabs which represent 
human faces looking out from the sky, surrounded by vine: 



] 




and various forms of vegetation, while persons are below it 
lifting up their hands in supplication, their prayers being rep- 
resented by vines, with nodes in the vines. A descriptioq of 
these is given in the book on "Myths and Svmbols. 

I s. The discovery of statues and idols at Pantaleon. in Gua- 
temala, a number of years ago, with faces distorted as if by old 
age, was made known through one of the Smithsonian reports, 
but no explanation of their object was given, and it is still un- 




HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. ii; 

certain what their intent was. i6. About the same time, tliere 
were brought to light, in the West India Islands, a number of 
carved objects which represented human creatures in the atti- 
tude of swimming, but bearing upon their backs great humps, 
These were supposed to represent the island divinities, and 
■were very suggestive symbols, as most of the islands have a 
mountain peak in the center of them. These images are called 
Zemcs, and are worshipped as idols. 

17. Now, all Ihesefiguresare very curious and interesting, and 
are worthy of attention for several reasons, bbut especially be- 
cause ihey show the stage of art which had been reached by 
the natives, and because they show the different conceptions 
which were entertained. There are. to be sure, occasionally 
those which puzzle the arch;Eelogist and baffle explanation. 
Among these we would place the figures found at i'antaleon. 
The following is the description of them given by J. F. Brans- 
ford, who discovered them in 18S2: 

"The objects are all of black basalt. They were arranged 
around a fountain, 

,-. ,- , ^,1. ,. . .- , „ sign, but not in such 

/■'S-'J—(J'>-' of llie Atraml Sea. from Peru. ^ j ,■.. 

good condition, was 

left at the mound. The figure was in high relief, fronting a 
tablet 50 inches high, 43 wide, and g in thickness. A crest 
rose 17 inches from the upper edge of the tablet, making the 
total height of the object 67 inches. It was in a state of excel- 
lent preservation, the only serious defect being the loss of the 
greater portion of the nose. The quiet strength and simplicity 
of the face, is something new in the art of the ancient Ameri- 
cans. It was well formed, the lines simple and clear cut, and 
without a shadow of the conventional. Majesty wa^i so plainly 
stamped on the countenance, that it was known by the Indians 
as El Rey — The King. The brow, the eyes and the nose, as 
far as could be judged, were in good shape and proportion. 
The mouth was hard, and the chin firm and full of character 




Ii6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

On the head was a turban, with a banded edge coming well. 
down on the brow. On the front of the turban, an elaborate ar- 
rangement of plumes was secured by a double band, knotted' 
in front. Lying on its left side, supported by the band, 
the mask of a human face, nearly half the size of that of Et 
Rey. This mask, the earrings, and the gorget suspended bjr 
the necklace, were probably chalchiuetis, as we may well imag- 
ine that a man of his conscquenci.- would naturally choose the 
favorite green stone wherewith to adorn his person. As a 
background for the mask, was apparently a broad leaf — it was 
too broad to have been a feather — supported in turn by two 
others of similar design. These may have been beaten gold,, 
worked into the form of broad leaves or plumes. If the last 
were furnished by) 
that royal bird, the 
quetzal, our cazique 
surely rejoiced i 
headdress which, 
gorgeous brilliancy, 
left nothing to be, 
desired." 

18, There were 
human figures in Ve- 
the most inter- 
I esling of which Is 
the one which was 
seen byE.G.Squi 
sculptured upon on©: 
of the massive gate- 
ways at Cuzco. 

The figure givei 
represents the god' 
of the air and of the 
sea, which, accord' 
ing to the Peruvian 
mythology, had hu' 
man forms but with 
animal attributes, and were consequenlly very grotesque ic 
their appearance. It will be noticed, however, that the my- 
thology of Peru was very different from that ol Central Amer- 
ica and the northwest coast. 

II, We see, then, from the various and diverse figures, that' 
there was a tribal style of art in America which came from thcj 
tribal divisions and mythologies. But the question is, whether- 
there was a style which wrs peculiar to the continent 
be called American. This question is important, for it ma; 
help to solve certain problems which are constantly comin_ 
up. Among these problems, the chief is the one which relatei 
to the contact with other continents during prehistoric timi 
Many years ago the opinion was held by many that ti 



i 

IS 
IS 



— IS'ir'gi'ii -Fig 



HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART, 



Mound Builders were the lost tribes of Israel, and it was ar- 
gued ihat ihtre were so many customs and objects which re- 
sembled those of the Jews, which could be accounted for in no 
other way. A similar theory has arisen in reference to the 
Egypiians, for it is claimed, especially by Leplongeon, thai 
there were many specimen! of art, especially in Central Amer- 
ica, like those which were common in Kgypt. 

Very recently ihc theory has been broached, that the statues 
and human figures inCentral America proved that Buddhism had 
reached this continent before the time of its discovery. Now, 
all these theories have been based mainly upon the presence of 
human figures in America, and upon their resemblance to those 
which are common in the early art of Egypt and India. There 
might be added to this, the thought that there are winged 
circles which resemble those which were common in Egypt 
and were afterwards common aUo ihroughout Europe, and be- 
came associated with the thoughts of angels in Christian lands. 




Fi£ . ti — ' f inged ( ireli , en Temple at Paletique. 

The l.itter may not seem to be of any importance, and yet it 
bring' up the whole question of the origin of art, and especially 
'i( religious art, and it may be well to include everything in 
Am r ca which may have a bearing upon the subject. 

It will be remembered that human figures are very common 
in the sculptured art of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, In- 
dia, and Greece. In Babylonia and Assyria these figures are 
often represented as fumished with wings, but in Egypt, India 
and Greece, they are generally without wings. The winged 
svmb'il is. to be sure, very common in Egypt, and winged 
bulls are common in Assyria, but in the majority of lands of 
Ihe east human fic'ires are repre^iented as without wings. In 
America there are many human figures with wings, but they 
are found mainly among the uncivilized tribes, such as the 
mound-building tribes of the Mississippi valley, and the Pueb- 
los of New Mexico, In all those cases, where human figures 



"'J 

OttJ 

he 

T. 

>r-J 



ii8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

are furnished with wings, they represent mythologic creaturt 
and not human persons or attributes. In Assyria and Baby- 
lonia, wings are suggestive of royalty and power, and perhaps 
convey the idea that the king rules by divine power. Il was 
in Bal?} Ion that Ezekiel, the prophet, saw the eagle, the lion, 
the o.xand theliuman face all united in one symbol, in his vision. 
And it was also in that kingdom that palaces were guarded 
by winged bulls aud winged lions. The priests were repre- 
sented as having wings upon their shoulders and beaks upooi 
their heads. It is to be noted, however, that in F.gyptJ 
the priests never have wings. The same is true in Mexico,^ 
Central America and Peru. Now these facts are important, 
for they help us to recognize the distinctions between the 
various nations, in their methods of representing kingly power. 
There are. to be sure, statues of kings in Babylonia with , 
altars in front of them, which resemble the statues or por-< 
trait columns at Copan, as these have altars before them. But! 
the drapery and the ornamentation which cover the human* 
figures are very different — in fact as different as are the 
tenances and forms of the kings themselves. There are a 
few statues on the facades of the palace al Palenque, which 
have faces resembling the face of Buddha, and the attitude is 
the same as that which Buddha sometimes takes — an atti- 
tude with the legs drawn and crossed — but the resemblance 
ceases with these two coincidences. There were four attitudes 
which Buddha assumed, each one of which represents his . 
official activities. One of these represents Buddha teaching,^ 
with his two open palms on his knees; another is Buddhu 
learning, with his hands entirely closed; another represents^ 
Buddha meditating, with both hands open on his knees; an- 
other. Buddha is believing and convinced, the knees expanded 
with hands held upward; another, with Buddha demonstra- 
ting, with thumb and index finger touching. Now these points 
are important, because of their bearing upon the question oL 
contact between the two continents. J 

It is well known that certain parties have claimed thal^ 
the American art was greatly influenced by the Egyptians, a 
this proved that there was contact between Egypt and Amer'l 
ica in prehistoric times. The chief advocate of this theor/l 
was the famous LePlongeon. who discovered a recumbentl 
figure in Central America, which he called Chacmool. and, 
claimed that it resembled the statue of Bacchus. But th«| 
statue of Bacchus was not common in Egypt, nor was any suctu 
statue of Bacchus common in Greece. The argument fails .inj 
this case, as it fails in every case where analogies betwceoJ 
the human figures are treated. 

The Egyptian civilization did not reach as far as America; 
nor did Egyptian art have any effect upon American art, and 
yet there arc certain remarkable coincidences between the c 
toiits, habits and ways of the eastern nations and the Amep* 



HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. 



iig 



I 



ican nations, which cannot fail (o bring up the question of con- 
tact over and over again. It is singular that the resemblances 
should be noticL-d in connection with the human form, for the 
Egyptian faces have no resemblance to the Maya races. 

If it had been the customs and the traditions which were in 
dispute, instead of the human figure, the decision would be 
more uncertain. To illustrate : Circumcision was in usage 
among the Egyptians, the Hebrews, and was common even in 
Central America among the Mayas. Sun worship was also 
common among the Egyptians, the Semitics and the Mayas, 
but there is no proof of contact, for the worship was too com- 
mon. The same reasoning might be used in the case of other 
countrie.'i, for circumcision is a rite common to all nations in hot 
climates. 

Le Plongcon makes an argument on the similarity be- 
tween the terrace pvramids and the palaces in Yucatan and 
those in Babylon. The pyramids were in terraces, and the 
palaces were built with long and narrow rooms, with arched 
corridors about the rooms, and open courts in the center. But 
these arguments will not apply to Egypt, for the pyramids and 
palaces of Egypt were very different from those of Babylon. 

The calendar system of the Mayas and the Egyptians have 
been referred to, but the Mayas divided their civil year into 
eighteen months of twenty days, while the Egyptians divided 
theirs into twelve months of thirty days. The Mayas had a 
system of fives and twenties, and thirtet^n was their sacred 
number, while thi- Egyptians had a system of fives and tens, 
and seven was their sacred number, as well as among the He- 
brews, Hindoos, Chaldeans and Indo- Europeans. Virgins of 
the sun were common among the Mexicans and Peruvians. 
They were priestesses, and dwelt In what might be called a 
convent or monastery. Virgins were common in Rome, but 
no one claims that the Latin race ever reached Central Amer- 
ica. These must be rCfjarded as remarkable coincidences. 
They are to be put down in the same list with the symbol of 
the hand, which was common in India as in New Mexico, In 
India it was used to remind the gods of the vow and prayer, 
but there is no evidence that it had this significance among the 
Cliff-dwellers. 

The symbol of the mastodon's head, among the hieroglyph- 
ics of Mexico, has been referred to, but it has been denied that 
any such symbol can be found. There is a god with an ele- 
phant's head in India and inSiani,but the whole body is always 
repre'cnted. with the head and trunk of the elephant substi- 
tuted for the human head. No such figure has ever been found 
in America, 

There arc other coincidences more remarkable than these; 
The cosmic egg; the serpent; the suastika hooked cross; the 
story of the deluge; the re-creation of the earth; the use of 
red paint; the presence of jade; the peculiar forms of altars; 



IK) THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the resemblance between the divinities and iheir offices; es- 
pecially the appearance of a mother with a child in her arms 
on the facades of Palenque: but these are all so indefinile and 
so varied, that they only confuse rather than give force to the 
argument, so that at present it must be left an open question, 
whether there was contact between the two continents in pre- 
historic limes or not. The argument against the influence of 
Egyptians on American art has been summarized by Prescott, 
as follows: 

"The sculptures on the Palenque buildings arc in relief, 
unlike the Egyptian, which are usually in intaglio. The Egyp- 
tians were not very successful in their representations of the 
human figure, which are on the same invariable model, always 
in profile, from the greater facility of execution this presents 
over the front view. The full eye is placed on the side of the 
hi ad. while the countenance is similar in all and perfectly des- 
titute of expression. The Palenque artists were equally awk- 




ward in representing the various attitudes of the body, which 
ih'-y delineated also in profile. But the parts were executed 
w.ih much correctness, and sometimes gracefully; the costume 
is rich and various; and the ornamental headdress— typical, 
perhaps, like the Aztec, of the name and condition of the 
p.rty^ — conforms in its magnificence to the oriental taste. The 
countenance is various, and often expressive. The contour of 
th<; head is, indeed, most extraordinary, describing almost a 
semicircle from the forehead to the top of the nose, and con- 
tracted towards che crown, cither from the artificial pressure 
pacticed by many of the aborigines, or from some preposter- 
ous notion of ideal beauty. But, while superior in the execu- 
tion of the details, the Palenque artist was far inferior to the 
Ecypl'^n in the number and variety of the objects displayed 
by him, which, on theTheban temples, comprehended animals 
as well as men, and almost every conceivable object of use or 
elegant art. 




HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. iji 

The hieroglyphics are too few on theAmerican buildings to 
authorize any decisive inference. On comparing them, how- 
ever, with those of the Dresden codex, probably from the same 
quarter of the country, with those on the monument of Xochi- 
ralco, and with the ruder picture-writing of the Aztecs, it is not 
e^asy to discern anything which indicates a common system. 
Still less obvious is the resemblance to the Egyptian charac- 
ters, whose refined and delicate abreviations approach almost 
to the simplicity of an alphabet. Vet, the Palenque writing 
shows an advanced stage of art, and, though somewhat clumsy, 
intimates by the conventional and arbitrary forms of the hier- 
oglyphics, that it was symbolical and perhaps phonetic in its 
character." — Prescott. Vol. ll.,pf>. 404-405. 

Ill, This leads us to consider the character of aboriginal 
art in America. In doing so, we shall leave out all those speci 
mens which are found among the uncivilized tribes of the 
North, and confine ourselves to those which are common among 
the so-called civilized races of Central America and of Peru. 
We maintain that these are fully equal to specimens which 
have been exhumed from the mounds of Nineveh and other 
localities in Babylonia, which represent the art of those coun- 
tries at the opening of history. The casts of many of these 
specimens have been brought to this country, and are now in 
museums alongside of casts which represent the specimens of 
art found in the cities of Central America, and so furnish the 
opportunities for a comparison. These specimens, which are 
presented in plaster casts, do not give the same impression as 
the original sculptures in stone would. The study of the casts, 
however, give opportunity for comparing ths art of thu historic 
countries with that which has been found in the prehistoric 
cities in Central America. 

The casts from Babylon and Assyria generally represent 
huge animal figures, such as human-headed bulls, bird-headed 
priests, and other objects which are known to have guarded or 
lined the walls of ancient palaces of Babylon. They are gen- 
erally marked with great simplicity, and yet are very signifi- 
cant, as they give the same impression of kingly power that 
they did when standing in the doorways of the palaces and 
lining the walls of the long, narrow rooms. The faces present 
the features of kings and priests, notwithstanding the animal 
forms on which they are placed, and at the same time they 
show the national type of the Babylonians and Assyrians. 

Among the casts of Central America there are occasionally 
animal forms, but the most of them are so grotesque and com- 
plicated, that one can hardly make out the animal which was in- 
tended to be represented They are evidently mythologic, 
and are full of a latent symbolism which only the natives could 
understand. 

We are impressed, in studying these casts, with the \ jry 




122 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

peculiar style of art which prevailed among the ancient peo- 
ple. There were elaborate figures carved in relief upon the 
facades, which represented the serpent figure as stretching 
from one end of the palace to the other, with an imitation of 
lattice-work within the folds of the serpent, but a human face 
is seen looking out from the jaws of the serpent at the corner 
of the building. The Manitou face is often seen as an orna- 
ment on the facades. This face has a glaring eye and a pecu- 
liar hooked nose, resembling the trunk of the tapir; at its end 
Is a circle, causing it to resemble the ornament common in Ja- 
pan, the ears and the mouth of the Manitou being hidden by a 
number of grotesque ornaments. The tiger, the owl and the 
turtle, and other animals, are represented on the facades of 
the palaces, but thf human faces, of gigantic size, are seen 
lookmg out from the walls near the foundations of the pyramids 
and the palaces, and these arc much more impressive than areJ 
those representing animals. The following specimens of th<f 
human figure are worthy of attention, because they represeofl 
a style of art which is in great contrast to that which pre^ 
vailed in other countries, independent of mythology: 

1. Idols or human figures are seen over the doorways 
palaces at Palenque, their heads covered with great plumevl 
which fall down to the feet and almost hide the form from 
view, These show the custom which prevailed among the war- 
riors and kings, of wearing great plumes as signs of rojalty. 

2, There are, as we have shown already, many portrait col- 
umns at Copan in which the human figure is very prominent. 
The face looks out from the center of the column, while above 
it is the crotalus jaw. and the glaring eye of the snake, and 
above this a great variety of ornaments and figures; while be- 
low the face are seen necklaces and capes, and armlets and 
wristlets, and skirts which cover the body and almost hide it 
from view with the richness of their ornaments; and yet. the 
mingling of serpents and animal forms make the figure ghastly 
and nideous to the cultivated eye. Some of these images are 
rinishcd in the round; their limbs stand out boldly, and show 
Ihal Ihc kings and priests were well fed. The feet are thick 
<ind short and clumsy— almost as thick as those of the Chinese 
women; but they are covered with moccasins, which are richly 
adorned with jewels. There is also a network of lacing upon 
the Umbit. which shows the skill of the weaver. 

V There are human figures upon the piers of the palaces 
«t l*alrnque, which arc not so elaborately dressed, and are more 
imtural in their proportions. They, however, have the same 
tfoneral characteristics as those found upon the facades and 
(nr portrait columns, These probably represent the different 
divinities which were worshipped, and yet they show the skill 
#i tlie artist in reresenting the human form. 

4, There are also idols in Central America which have very 
liUlc drapery or ornament upon them. These are finished in the 



HUMAN FIGURES IN AMERICAN ART. 



'^3 



■"ound. Some of them are represented in attitudes which arfe 
very suggestive, and were desigaed to convey a meaning to 
the people. These idols were placed near the temples, and 
may have been worshipped. 

5. There arc animal-headed seats or thrones in Central 
America. Thert is, however, a bas-relief in stone, at Palenque. 
^hich represents a man nearly naked, seated cross-legged upon 
an animal headed throne, and a woman in front of him draped 
in a very rich garment, which is woven after a pattern which 
seemed to have been common in that country, bhe is holding 
in her hands apparently a mask, or headdress, furnished with 
plumes. The significance of this group is unknown, but the 
costumes and the faces are such as are common in this region, 
and are totally unlike any found in Egypt or in India, 

6. Another bas-relief was found by J. L. Stephens in the 
temple called Casas de Piedra, at Paienque. This temple was 




^'g i3-n'l't_^'eJ Figi 



a shrine, and the bas-relief was upon the back wall and faced 
the doors. It represented a human figure seated upon a glnbe, 
the globe resting upon an animal-headed throne. But the 
seated figure was dressed like a chief, with a short kilt or skir:, 
having one leg drawn up, the other resting upon the globe. 
Its attitude is graceful and somewhat commanding, but its 
form and face have no resemblance whatever to the Egyptian 
or Hindoo princes or kings. In fact, when we look at the faces 
of these Maya kings and princes, we are struck with the coti- 
trdsi which they present to the kings of the ea-t, far more th^n 
we are with the resemblances, for they nearly all have the ri - 
treating forehead and the curved nose, which is the most prom- 
inent feature, and which seems to have been a feature which 
the artists took particular pains to display. 

These features are as distinctive and peculiar to Central 




124 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

American art, as are the passive features of Buddha to the 
Buddhistic art, and as are the heavily-bearded figures to the 
Babylonian art, or the conventional figures to the Egyptian art. 
They, however, represent peculiarities which were natural and 
ethnical, and so are valuable for the information which they. 
furnish with reference to the people who built these tnonu- 
ments. 

7. There are colossal bas-reliefs at Palenque which illus- 
trate this point even belter than the seated figures. Two 
groups of these were seen by Stephens, one on either side of 
ttie stairway which led to the palace, all of them filling up the 
space between the ground and the ^ills of the palace. They 
were carved on stone, in bas-relief, nine or ten feet high, and" 
in a position slightly inclined backward, apparently looking 
upward to the door of the palace. They are adorned with 
headdresses and necklaces, with a peculiar skullcap upon the 
head, and no plumes above the cap. "The design in anaiomi- 
cal proportions is faulty, but there is a force of expres:>ion 
about them which shows the skill of the artist." 

Some have thought that the retreating forehead was a sign 
of royalty, and that artificial means were used, perhaps in in- 
fancy, to secure this. But in these two bas-reliefs the seated 
figures resemble captives, and they have retreating foreheads. 

8. There is another bas-relief, in stucco, at Palenque, which 
represents a king standing, with a crown upon his head, and 
above the crown waving plumes, while upon his shoulders is a 
cape set with jewels, and a breastplate; about his loins atunic, 
probably a leopard skin; he holds in his hands a staff or scep- 
tre; at his fe^t are seated two naked figures, cross-legged— 
probably captive kings. — See Sh-plteris' "Incidents of Travel in 
Central Atturica," p. JIF. 

g. There is another bas-relief in stucco on one of the piers 
of the palace at Palenque, which represents a king and a queerr, 
both dressed in the usual royal attire, and both of them hold- 
ing in their hands the crooked form of a serpent, which was 
in this country a symbol of great significance. 

10. Two standing figures were seen by Stephens on (he 
piers of Casas de Piedra, each of which has a child in its arms, 
resembling the Virgin Mary, and yet they are clothed in the 
usual costume, with plumes upon their neads and fringed gar- 
ments about their loins, and a peculiar symbol in their hands. 

1 1. The tablet of the cross, at Palenque. contains two hu- " 
man figures, both of them with their faces toward the cross. 
They are dressed in gaiments which were probably made of 
cotton cloth, but it is arranged in folds about their body and 
has a rich appearance. One of them has a baton in his band, 
the other is holding up an offering to the bird which stands on 
the head of the cross, There are masks in front of these figures 
with human features, and many human faces are seen upoB 
either side of the tablet. 




ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 



The Hermes Restored. — The recovery of the shipload of 
the works art, so strangely preserved to us by the sea-god, has 
been going on. The best of the statues discovered was a splen- 
did bronze statue of Hermez, preserved in fragments. The 
fragments at Athens have been cleaned, and the statue partly 
restored, temporarily. The restoration of it may possibly be 
done a; Vienna, by Herr Wilhelm Sturm, the restorer of tfie 
archsological collections of the imperial palace. Herr Sturm 
goes on to describe the method of restoration, as follows: 

"In fitting together the statue, the experience will be use- 
ful gained in the case of a large bronze statue of an athlete, 
Ephesus, which is now in the collection of the Imperial Palace 
at Vienna. The method is this; the fragments are bound to- 
gether on their inner surface by strips of brass, and screws of 
the same metal, and in such a way that the latter do not pro- 
ject at all on the outer surface, but rather are rendered entirely 
invisible by the coating of patina. When the preserved frag- 
ments have been thus bound together, the hollow form of the 
body thus formed is fitted by brass pins upon a skeleton of 
tinned iron, extending through the trunk, arms and legs. 

■'For selling up the whole, there will be considered a bronze 
base, in which, without technical difHcutties, a hollow can be 
made, corresponding to the leaded projection at the lower ex- 
tremity of the leg, on which the statue stands." 

In Vienna , the precious statue will be deposited in the pri- 
vate rooms of the Imperial Archajological Museum, immedi- 
ately on arrival; will be accessible to no unauthorized person, 
and will have the same protection as is furnished to the treas- 
ures of the Imperial Palace; and of this, both the Greek repre- 
sentatives, and especially His Excellency, Mr. Manos, the Greek 
Ambassador at the Imperial Court, may be assured. — The last 
Ko. of the Jahrbneh des Kats. Dent. Inst. 



THE SACS AND FOXES. 

An article in the Folklore Journal for October and Novem- 
ber. 1901. gives a new and interesting resume of the mythology 
of these tribes. It shows that there is considerable resem- 
blance between this mythology and that of the Ojibwas, and 
yet it is original and peculiar to this tribe, and must have 
arisen while they were in Wisconsin, where the cobwebs were 
formerly seen filling the air. and forming filaments which might 
be taken to be shrouds for the cloud-divinities. This people 
were lovers of Nature, and were very imaginative. Their my- 
thology is very fanciful. 



ii6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

THE NORTHWEST COAST. 

Explorations on the northwest coast have been goingoD f< 
several years, under the auspices of the American Museum i 
Natural History of New York, the results of which will be soott' 
published. The parties who have done the most work, are Dr. ' 
Franz Boas, James Tejt, H. I. Smith. Livingston Farrand, Dr. 
Rowland B. Dixon, Dr. A. L. Kroeber, and Berthold Laufer, 
The result is that manj' resemblances between the cultures of 
the Siberian tribes and the northwestern American Indians 
have been traced, and the probability is that the AJnus and 
the Tennehs will be shown to have many things in common, 
as our correspondent, Father Morice, suggests in his article. 



HOUSES AMONG THE HURONS. 

Formerly the houses were made on the communal plan 
with long, narrow huts made of bark and saplings with a 
door in either end, but they gave up their old style and look 
to building after the manner of the early French settlers« 
log and board houses which were disposed in double rows 
along narrow lanes and were divided into rooms. 

Each household consists of a single family comprising; 
only a few persons, but is at present very unlike the patriarch^ 
household of their ancestors wherein eight or ten or as many, 
as twenty-four families lived under one roof. 

The old clan system was such that a child belonged to it) 
clan first and to its parents afterwards. The clans were re- 
lated to one another throughout the whole tribe and the child 
was provided for by the clans, but the inheriitnce of its 
parents was distributed among the clan. The old Huron style 
of dress consisted of a short skirt, leggings and moi.assins, but 
it has changed to the modern style. (See the report of theJ 
«thnologicalsurvey of Canada, 1901, article by Leon Gerin. 



The Open Court for February, 1902, has an article on the I 
Mysteries of Mythra, by Prof. Franz Cumont, and another J 
on Indian Burial Customs, by Dr William Thornton Parker, 

J The Biblical World for January. 1902, has an article 1 
Crinding in Ancient and Modern Palestine, by Prof. Gustaj 
Dalman. P. H, B., DD., Leipzig. 

The American Archiuet for Feb. 1, has an article on The 
Hermes Recovered Near Anticyther?, by Arthur Stoddard 
Cooley, reprinted from the Boston Transcript. Also on Exca- 
vations Near Cairo, with the belief that a Buddhist Mission, 
went from India to Egypt about 250 B. C. 




ssioQ^I 

1^ 



EDITORIAL. i?7 

ASTHROPOLOGV IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES. — An arti- 
cle on this subject, by Prof. Geo. MacCurdy. reports thirty- 
three colleges and universities in which anthropology is tang hj 
as follows: Beloit, Bellevue. Boston University, Brown Univer- 
sity, Clark University, Columbian University. Washington, 
Creighton University. Omaha, Dartmouth, Georgetown. Har- 
vard, New York, Ohio State, Chicago, California, Illinois, Ur- 
bana, Indiana. Bloomington, Kansas, Lawrence, Minnesota. 
Missouri, Nebraska (Lincoln), Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 
Vermont (Burlington).Wisconsin (Madison), Western Reserve 
(Cleveland), Willamette (Oregon). Yale (New Haven), Phil- 
lipps' Academy. 

The department is an adjunct of Sociology in g. Philosophy. 
in 5, Psychology in 3. Geology in 5, Medicine in 1. 

Philipps Academy, at Andover, has two instructors and a 
collection of 40.OOO specimens. In addition to this report, it 
is well to state that a large number of smaller colleges, such 
as Carroll College at Waukesha, Wisconsin, and some of the 
Normal Schools, arc giving considerable attention to the sub- 
ject. Tne museums are also establishing lecture courses, and 
the prospect is that the department will, before long, be repre- 
sented in ail colleges. 

Any college which does not have Anthropology taught as 
a part of the curriculum, will be considered behind the tim^s, 

THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN AND COLLEGE 
LIBRARIES. 
In connection with the above, it is well to state that the 
AuBRrcAN Antiquarian has been recognized as authority from 
the outset, and complete sets are now in the libraries of the 
majority of the institutions mentioned. Other journals have 
risen since it was established, but as it was first in the field, 
and has since been sustained by prominent arch^ologists, it is 
still sought for, and back numbers are picked up closely. 

The fact that the magazine has been published in the inte- 
rior, where the majority of prehistoric works are lo be found. 
the subjects treated have been chiefly those which relate to the 
antiquities of this continent, as compared with those of other 
contments; in other words, archaeology has been the chief de- 
partment. Still, mythology, Iin:;uistic5 and ethnology have 
received marked attention. Physical anthropology has not 
been represented lo any extent, though the reports of excava- 
tions have mentioned the peculiarities of the bodies discovered. 
and especially the burial customs of the different tribes have 
been described, 

The diversity of the origin of the human race has never 
been advocated, and the theory that there were different cen- 
ters hag not yet been adopted- In fact, it seems premature to 
advocate such a theory, especially as the paleolithic age has 
proved to be conspicuous by its absence. 



RECENT DISCOVERIES. 



GREAT COLLECTIONS, 



A Large Coi,lection op Relics in the Reindeer Period.J 
Mr. M. Massenat has been a diligent explorer of the caves and rock-H 
shelters in the Veiere valleys. The relics represent the life and industry 
of the Magdalenian age. M. Massenat was led to recognize three epochs ; 
the "Laugerie," the "Cro-Magnon," and "Le Moustier.' corresponding lo 
the "Magdalenian," "Solutrean" and -Mouslerien,'" all embraced under the 
so-called "Reindeer Age." They consist of dints, reindeer antlers and 
reindeer bones. 



Relics prom East Africa. In contrast with the preceding is a col- 
lection by Alfred Sharpe, from Uganda, East Africa. This consists of a 
white wood stool, twenty-five inches high representing a squatting female 
filfure, resting on a pedestal and supporting with upraised arms Ihr seal. 
Also a double gong, hammered out of soft iron, and a stone hammer, six 
aod a half inches long, from the Mamhwe country. These stones are 
found in the ground and are supposed to be supernatural stones. 

A still more interestiitg collection was gathered from a pre-historic 
cemetery at El Amrah in Egypt, six miles south of Abydos, Here were 
about seven hundred graves belonging to the "New Race." The graves 
yielded a celt, mace-heads, forked huDlin^ lances of flint, dagger of cop- 
per, clay dolls, some cloth wrapped around a body, tiaskcls u^ed in the 
manufacture of pottery, a pottery coflin. Most interesting of all was a 
fragment of pottery which represented an ancient house, the only poltery- 
housc which has ever been discovered. The house is obloDg in shape, 
sloping back from the base something like the Mastaba of the Egyptians, 
but curved in ai the top but with no roof. From its form it was supposed 
to represent a house or hut, built of boughs, laid with waltle-work of twigs, 
covered with mud. The "New Race" had occasion to use boats as the 
land was more swampv than now. Some of the boats are represented in 
models of pottery. They were also a pastoral people, for in no less than 
three graves were found pottery groups of kine with crooked horns, 
weapons of war and the chase such as hunting lances, mace-heads, as welt 
■> copper daggers, showing that the people were hunters as well as , 
hardsmco. ^ 

Ik California. Basket work and specimens of cloth, presented br ■ 
Kcv.Selwyn C. Freere, have been placed in the British Museum, a gift 
from Rev. R. W. Summers, a missionary in California. The baskets are 
cylindrical and have figures of horses and other animals, 'woven in the 
llde«. The collection contained hemispherical mortars, cylindrical peS' 
llni Also lances and arrow. heads of chert and obsidian, plummet -shaped 
«|0HR«, supposed to be charms, sinkers, hammer heads, shell beads, bone 
imadtcRnniJ awls, flat instruments for smoothing mats, also water-light 
iimkols and large stone mortars. 

Kkom New Zealand. Collections made by Sir George Grey and 
btslnwed upon various inslitittions, but mainly in the Art Gallerv of 
Alirkland, Inthiscolleclion is the image called Matua Tonga made from 
lid Volciinic atone, representing the reproductive powers of nature. These 

filics h"vc been kept secret. " i.... -u. i.._. -l,_. — ..., t-i. — 

ft pr tirlesi of the Maori b 



ret. No one but the highest chiefs or the Tohun- J 
being allowed to see them. H 

e: mM 



r 



Book Reviews. 



The Human Ear; its Identification and Phvsiocnomv; Miriam Ann 
Eilis. Adam and Charles Black : London. The MacMillan Co.: 
New York. looo. ifjo pp. k. ii;. 81-75. 

As the author of ihii book continually refers to science and anthro- 
pology, and as the publishers announce the work as rivalling those of 
Francis Gallon in importance, we naturally expect to find it a carefully 
developed and scientifically enact treatise. As a matter of fact it is 
nothing of the sort. It is a book for popular reaoers, chattily written. It 
touches various suggestive topics lightly, It contains some original ideas, 
attractively presented, in a notably feminine way. The subject examined 
is the human outer ear, the shell or concha. Miriam Ellis studies it from 
the point of view of identification. Each normal individual has two ears : 
they are unlike ; each of tbem presents a number of variable features. 
If the border of the ear is divided into five parts each pair of ears gives 
ten variable elements. The possible combinations of these ten elements 
give a good basis lor identification. The author has devised a method of 
making nature-prints of ears and a system or card-records. Her plan is 
not suggested for the identification of criminals but of honest people. She 
gives no clear directions for putting the system into practice nor any goiid 
reason why it should be used. Persons who might be willing to ditty their 
finger tips for an antbropological friend or for the insurance company will 
find it less agreeable to nave an inked roller pass over the ear and carry 
IIS dirty coatinginto the hair. We can see how a wide use of either the 
Galtonorthe Ellis system can be made for police purposes under police 
direction; we hardly sec how either can be widely applied to noncrimi- 
nal s, who retain freedom of action. If collecting ear-prints is to be a 
family matter, like the list of names and birthdays in the old bible, or if it 
is to be a fad, in the )ine of a new sort of autograph collection, no doubt 
it is practicable. We can even imagine a considerable rivalry between 
collectors, in securing the largest number of ear-marks of eminent persons. 
While the author appears to consider this the most important feature of 
her study, she really devotes more space to the subject of ears as an index 
of character. Thus the book is timely in these days of revival of aiirol- 
"St- phrenology and palmistry. Far be it from us to deny some basis 10 
phvsiognomy ! That a man's face, including his ears, is— to a degree— an 
index to his character, no one doubts. Nor does any one doubt that the 
forehead of a nominally intelligent man and that of a microcepalic idiot 
differ, and this difference has an easily apprehended meaning. But, just 
as the minute subdivisions of faculty focaliiaiion of the phrenoloKi»l 
arouse doubt and opposition in the mind of the anthropologist, so such 
statements as the following must jar on the scientific thinker ; 

"This isan example of energy in enceplional circumstances. Divis- 
ion (3) absorbs Division (4) in the right ear and pulls it too high ; and 
in the left ear Division (3) is as large as Division (4). Division (5) has 
a large place in each ear and is well shaped. Independence is shown 
in the top of the pinna being nearly flat. It is this together with the 
site of Division '5) that gives the energy in lookng alter the well-being 
of many. The pair belongs to an Irish lady, a nnrse at the Royal 
Naval Hospital at Haslar. Miss E. Keogb is one of the only two 
naval nurses who have received a medal." 

One can only wonderal such statements as he wonders at the itale- 
menls ol the palmist. Do not the facts regarding Division I3) and (4) in 
ihetwo ears counterbalance? It is then the largeness and well-shaped- 
ness of Division (5) and the flatness at the top of the pinna that give Miss 
Keogh her medal. When we can say what relation there is between these 
peculiarities and the character, we may for the first time speak of science. 
We need not pursue the author s discussion of ears and heredity and 
ears in art, in folk lore, and in literature. They are treated in the same 
sketchy way. If the book made no pretense we could simply dismiss it as 
interesting and vivacious. As it is we must meet itwithcriticism. (F. S.) 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Dr. Nina -Rodriguez 3 

: Vii. H8. 1 



ME FBTICRISTB OSS KEGKES DE BaIII. 

Reia and Compaof : Bahia. Brazil- iQOo. 8' ^^ _,,. 

Mbtissage. Degbserescbsce et Ckimb^ Dr. Nma-Rodngues 

Storcke ct Cie : Lyon, France- 1899- S* pp. 40 with plates 

diaKtami. 
DBS FORMES DE L'Hyuen : Dr. Xina-Rodrigues. J. B. Baillieie el Fil) 

Paris. 1900. S° pp.38 with cuts. 

Dr. Nina- R»d Tig ues. of the medicolegal facalty of Bahia. Braiil, ha»^ 
investigated a variety of interesCiDg subjects in Brazilian anihropologVi 
ethnology and crimiaotogy. Three of hia recent papers are before us. 
In his L'animhmefetickisU d/n negres de Bahui. he presents most curious 
data. The Bihia negros^thougn nominally Catholic ^are much what 
their Alncan ancestors were in religious belief and practice. Among them 
are plain survivals of Mahommedanism with its unbounded love for amu- 
lets. Far more interesting are the numerous survivals o( pure paganism. 
HydroUtry. dendrslalry and litholatry still remain and examples of all 
three arc given : there are however other objects of worship than water, 
trees and stones. The author discusses the method of securing and sanc- 
tifying fetches o[ all sorts. He also describes in detail the fetich priests, 
places to worship, modes of worship, etc. Most interesting perhaps of 
all the curiou* subjects he presents, are the slates of ecstacy or possession 
into which the devotees pass : these are criiically examined, from the point 
of view of the medical expert. J 

la Mclisage, li^generescrnce et crime, our author presents a study of I 
the district of Serrinha, in the Stale of Bahia. The district has a popula-J 
Hon of Irom ten lo twelve thousand, of whom about two thousand live in 1 
the town of Serrhina. Degeneration and neurotic diseases are shown ta ' 
be frightfully common in this population which is for the most part of 
crossed blood— negro, Indian and European. Tables are presented of dc- 
genercy, neurosis, and criminality, showing themselves in certain famiiiM 
through generations. Nina-Rodrigues attributes this abnormal frequency 
to the mixture of races. The idea is not new and every traveler, in lands 
where great mixture of notably diSe ring races has taken place, has felt 
that abnormalities are really numerous in such populations. But our 
author's paper is not convincing. Degenerescence and crime occur with 
undue frequency in those of pure European blood in thnse lands. If this 
is so, their occurrence in the mixed bloods may not be more frequent, and 
tmy be due, not lo the mere fact of crossing, but, lo the degenerescence in 
the introduced whites and blacks. Without denying the awful frequency 
of abnormalities in the mixed population, we object to .considering 11 due 
lo crossing, ^,-r If. It isbutfairto state that Dr. Nina.Rodrigues . " 

self recognizes that degenerescence takes place in the descendenis of^ 
European immigrants. 

In his third paper, Dr, Nina Rod rigues presents an important study.J 
having both scientific and practical, /', e. medico legal bearings. He sug-^ 
gests a simpler and more complete classification oE forms than seems to J 
nave been offered before and shows that the form has decisive importance I 
in many cases where legal questions, regarding the rupture of the meca-f 
brane, arise. (F.S.) 




Zdni Folk-Tales. Recorded and Translated by Frank Hamilton C 
ing. with an Introduction bv I. W. Powell, New York and Londoi 
G. P. Putnam's Sons; The Knickerbocker Press, itjoi. . 
large 8°, 12 plates, and many pen and ink sketches. S3. 50. 
Aside Irom the scientific value of the Ihitty-lhree tales presented]; 
this posthumous work of Gushing, they possess a literary char 
heightens their fascinating interest. Gushing was a prince of slorv-lellen, 
and the pleasure he took in the narration was intensified to his bearen 
It is apparent that this hook will he sought for by those studying the India! 
mind, expressed in his love, as well as by connciisse ' '■■■* 



BOOK NOTICES. 



'3' 



Kork marks the dtsl adequate preseotatioD of folk-lales of American Indi- 
ans; li is a revelation thai there is something besides paucity of inventioa, 
and a crudeness verging on grotesqueness, or a weak assimilalion o( Euio- 
pean motives to be found in the mylhologr of our aborij^ines. This flatness 
of Indian folk-tales has been the despair of Andrew Lang, and of other 
■tudcDts in this field. There is a breadth o£ imagination and a boldness in 



ored spaces, and the clear sky of semi-arid southwest over all. One c 
never forgetlhesensation, when, after toiling over the barren mesas between 
Vavajo Springs and Zuni. he looks down into this great valley and gels an 
impression oi its vaslness and mystery. 

The cycle of animal stories is very interesting. The coyote is the clown, 
and gett the worst of the bargain with the animals he encounters. His ad- 
-venture with the locust is full of humor. The eagle, hawk, raven, turkey, 
«)wl, prairie doe, gopher, bear,badger,deer,mountain lion, antelope. coyote, 
-VFolf, mole, turtle, snake, tarantula, beetle, and other animals, play their 
parts well. The absence of rabbit stories is nnleworlhy. The adventures 
of the Twin War Gods, especially in their contests with demons and other 
mythical beings, are set forth in a number of the tales. This entertaining 
and instructive boolchas an introduction of ten pages, by Major J, W. PowelT 
in which is set forth clearly the present knowledge of the mythology, or folk- 
lore, of the American Indians. Walter Hui;gh. 



in explanation of certain implements found ctosi.' by 
Indian sfteleions near Stockton. California. The implements have sl^arp 

fioints, curved outlines and serrated edges. They were pronounced to be 
rauds at first but afterward said to be used for lacerating and bleeding of 
temples. The idea of their having been used as saws must b; abandoned, 
There are five methods of blood-lettine among the Denes, one of which 
«xplains the curved shape and serrated edges of these relics. It consists 
of scratching numerous lines on the limb and placing the bruised root ol 
the hemlock plant on the scratches, A stone curry comb made in the 
curved shape would be very suitable for this. 

Mr. J. Mooney refers to two methods of blood letting among the 
Cberokees; one of them is by scratching. This explains the relics and 
proves them to be genuine. The pamphlet goes on to describe the difierent 
methods of surgery among the Denes and is very useful, and would be 
especlallv so to surgeons. 



Researches in the Centkai. Poktion of the Ususiatsintla Vallev 
By Teobert Maler. (Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of American 
Archsology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. 11, No. l.| Cam- 
bridge, IQOI. 4". 75 pp. 

This sumptuous publication embodies not only the results of Mr. 
Maler's explorations in the interest oC the Peabody Museum between the 
years 1S98 and I900. but also the narrative, with its appropriate plates, of 
bis earlier (l8qs) researches amid thai wonderful group of ruins, lying upon 
theGuatamalan side of theUsumacinta River— the Piedras Negras. 

Interesting indeed, is the account of the romantic expedition to the 
Lake of Petha, buried in the dense forests and known onlv to the outer 
world through the reports of the Lacantun traders who come from its 
vicinity. Mr. Maler was rarely favored 'in many ways in his effort to aC' 
quaint himself with the region and its natives. The discovery of a deserted 
settlement, with its fields of bananas, sugar cane and maiie. reads like a 
passage from the "Day Dream." The death of its chief inhabitant had 





l3i 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



CBUied the hurned flight of every living creamre, and nol even a four- 
footed guardian was left to prutest against the prying into hidden corners, 
and the profane handling and photographing of sacred things. 

The complete circumnavigation of the lake and its rainificaiioni 
brought to nonce a rock painting, the chief 6gure of which was the plumed i 
serpent head so familiar to the student of Mexican and Mayan symbolisi 
who. 1 think, will scarcely recogniie in the forked and bent tongue of ll 
monster, ''the act of swallowing a man head foremost." (page 30.) Com 
parison with the feathered ear pendant (?) immediately beneath shows tl" 
no human shape is there portrayed. Whetheroi not Mr. Maler'B explai 
lion of the group drawing be accepted, the suggestion incorporates a — 
ment of no little intertsl, m view of the unearthing, in tSg;, of a set 
pots on the Rio Cunany, Brazil. The words are; "Certain perforated v 
sels in which the women wash the maize, which has been soaked in li 
water." A probable service is thus supplied for those jars with a U 
number of perforations which have aroused so much conjectut 
use. (See. for example Globus, Bd.78, S. 138, Bd. 79, S. 4g v. 1 

Of the many centers of Mayan life, t " ' "" — " 

by Mr. Maler, there is space to refer to 
were found rock sculptures, the debi 
akropotis with its Casa Grande, the ri 
seven stelx. six lintels, and five alta 
s furnishes material for n 



iS thoroughly inveati^ 
— Piedras Ne^raa. 
iris from innumerable houses, 
IS of no less than ten temples, thirtT* 
The publication of these 
a long day's study and a more extended 



^ 



reference to the various figures is not at present desirable. . 

tempted to ask why on page 46 (Stela I .) and again on page 58, (Stela XU 
the sculptures, here, as elsewhere in the Usumaciota Valley, the work of ■ 

Cure Mayan peofile, are referred to the NahuatI god Quetzalcoatl (Ketsu 
oitl) in lieu of tiis Mayan analogue Kukulcan. whose attributes 
known to be the same. On Stela 14, closely allied to Stela 11. it Is sugges 
live 10 find the human hand occurring in the place of the plume holder ' 
position occasional!); occupied by a glyph) when it is remembered t 
''Kabul." the Working Hand, was reputed (o be one of the symbols of t 
Mayan culture hero, lliamna. (Brintonafter Cogolludo, Myths of the New 
World, p. 216) 

Throughout this valuabi* report there is one note which rings out 
again and again aliove all others— a cry for baste In the preservation of 
these priceless legacies from the ancients, a cry of despair at their ruthlcMi 1 
and irreparable destruction. "Add (o this wanton vandalism, the damagei* 
indirectly occasionad by the lumbering industry in the downthrow and 4 
breakage of the massive stela:, whose uotnrned sculptured and paintedJ 
fftces rapidly lose their individuality, and the picture is a distressing ontf 
for the Americanist. H, Nbwkli, Wardle, 

"Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia." 



[ Prb-Historic] 

Of the ages represented by this collection, the paleolithic is numericallv 4 
the smallest, the neolithic contains very few high-class specimens, ihouga 1 
an oblong oval ring-stone and a club-head, with some pottery and cyhn> 1 
dcrs and jars are found among them. The bronie age is represenled oy « | 
large nambcr of articles, such as vases, beads, spear-heads, out ipecimeiu' 
of the iron age are very numerous. The iron age pottery is ijuite differ- 
ent from that of the bronte age, but is, after all, not so well finished, ot so 
attratlive. The iron weapons resemble those of the bronte age, in shape 
and appearance. They consist of arrow-heads, knives and chisels, ll ia 
an interesting catalogue and one that would be valued by archEelggigit,— 
and collectors. " 




THE RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA 



One of the saddest things, in connection with the history 
of man, is: that so many races have risen to prominence, and 
llten declined and left only a mass of ruins as the signs of 
their presence and power. This was the case in the far East, 
where the opening of history is supposed to have occurred; 
it is also the case in other lands, where history is more re- 
cent, and where the spirit of progress is stiil manifest. 

If we go back to the earliest period, we find certain nations 
in a low sta^e of advancement, not much higher than the 
savages of our own country; but that was a time before his. 
tory began to be written, and when man was without any skill- 
eiiher in art. or in architeclure. and was incapable of making 
a record for himself; but there came a time, when his powers 
were so developed, that his very works became his monuments. 
and his written words marked the beginning of his history. 
The particular region which has been fixed upon as, the earli- 
est home of civilization, and the first place where cities arc 
supposed lo have been built, is that situated near the south- 
ern coast of Asia, between the two rivers, which have been 
conspicuous in history, the Tigris and the Euphrates. 

Ibis, then, is the place where we shall begin our study of 
the Ruined Cities of the World, It is also the place where 
most scholars begin their study of history, and the place 
where the students of comparative religion begin their study 
of mythology and tradition. To this region, also the theol- 
OgjaQB and the bible scholars go back for their starting point. 
for here, it is supposed, that the Garden of Eden was situated. 

It is true, that the centre of population gradually moved 
from the South to the North, and under the rise of the "Seven 
Great Monarchies," the cities of Babylon were the first, the cities 
surrounding Nineveh were the second; but in all these regions, 
the early cities are in ruins, and scarcely anything is seen of 
them except the ■■Remains of Lost Empires." 

There were other cities which afterward arose, some o£ 
(hem in Persia and I'hrygia, others in Phcenicia. still others in 
Greece, in Crete, and Cyprus, and in the Islands of the Sea;. 
but they are nearly all in ruins, and are at present, the ob- 
jects of curiosity to the traveler; the places where the archae- 
ologist and the explorer does his chief work. 



136 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

I. In taking up the subject of these ruined cities, we shall! 
follow the geographical and historical order; taking the 
ruint^d cities of Babylon as the first object of study. 

The testimony of explorers, is that the cities of the plain 
of Babylon were numerous, and in them were great palaces 
and towers. Around them were wills and gateways. which were 
well guarded. Outside of the walls there were, m most cases 
canals, which were used for irrigating the soil. The cities were 
generally situated upon the rivers, somewhat remote from 
the seacoast. There were boats of many kinds to be seen upon 
the rivers and in the canals. Frequently four cities belonged 
to the same province and were under the same dominion, and 
the claim is that there was a division of the territory accord- 
ing to the points of the compass, the religion of the people 
requiring that the king rule, in the name of the divinities 
which were in the sky. the center of all being the place where 
the gods and men met together. 

Now it is noticeable that this same custom has prevailed 
among other nations of the earth, some of them quite remote 
from this point, for the Chinese hold that theirs is the Celestial 
Empire, and that the Emperor rules in the name of the 
divinity; the four spaces above, and the four below, with a 
meeting place of the two in the centre, making nine divisions 
of the celestial capitol, as well as nine divisions of the Celestial 
Empire. It is also held by some that in America a similar 
custom prevailed. The Pueblo tribes believed that there were 
six divisions in the sky andsi.x divisions in the earth; the zen- 
ith and the nadir being added to the four quarters, the meeting,. 
place of the two making the thirteenth point. In accordance 
with this theory there were seven Pueblos at Zuni, New Mex-I 
ico, though in the city of Mexico itself, there were four di-- 
visions only, with a temple in the center of each one, while the" 
palace and the great temple, or Teocalli, was at the meeting 
place of the four; while streets which divided the city went from 
the great temple to the four quarters of the earth, 

It is strange that this symbolic geography should have ex- 
isted at so early a date, and that it should have prevailed in so 
many distant places; but this shows that society was, at the 
first, controlled by the religious sentiment, and that there was 
something sacred even in the location of the cities and in 
the arrangement of their streets and gateways; in the situation of 
the palaces and temples, and in the very style of their archi- 
tecture and art. Such was the case, not only in Babylon aii<l 
Assyria; but in Egypt, Persia, Phcenicia, and all the cities oi 
the east. 

It is very remarkable that the cities which existed at an 
early date in Babylonia, should have been identified in recent 
years, and that their size, number, relative situation, and ar- 
chitectural character should have been a-^certaintd by the ex- 
amination of their ruins, nnd ihat we should have been able to- 



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RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. ly, 

identify the form of religion which prevailed. It in to be 
noticed, however, that the earliest specimens of art, as well as 
those of archiiecture, have been connected with the religious 
sentiment, and that history and mythology are everywhere 
mingled together in the early records. 

It was once supposed that the pyramids of Egypt were the ear- 
liest monuments, and that these were ihe only structures which 
were erected in obedience to the religious sentiment but it is 
MOW held by many of the arch:Eologistfi that the cities of 
Babylonia antedated the pyramids of Egypt, and that the 
cities were erected and ruled in the name of the divinities; the 
kings and priests being united in their government. 

As to the race which brought in the first civilization, and 
introduced the earliest fornii of architecture, there is some 
unceitainty; but the general opinion is that the earliest races 
belonged to the great Turanian stock, the same stock as were 
the Finns and Chinese of the North, and the Dravidics of 
India, the llittiles of S>ria, and possibly the same stock as 
the North American Indians, 

The scriptures represent that three races which sprung from 
the three sons of Noah; but that their descendents became 
disobedient and undertook to erect a tower touiard heaven, to 
escape from any flood which might arise in the future; but the 
confusion of tongues occurred, and people were scattered in 
different directions. An explanation of this has been given. 
It is that the Accadians.Semitics, and the Mine^ns, or Ancient 
Elamites, spoke different languages and this resulted in 
their dispeision. This story of the dispersion is significant when 
Cnnsidered in connection with the tablets which have been dis- 
covered representing the old Accadian and Hititt; race, il- 
lustrations of which are given in the plates. 

The Accadians, or the Turanians, may have btren, and pos- 
siljly were, the builders of those rude stone monuments which 
arr_- scattered all over rhe globe; in India, in China, in Japan, 
and in Peru. The same kind ol monuments are found in Syria, 
ill Northern Africa, in Great Britain, in Scandinavia, and in 
South America. They nowhere reached the stage of civilixa- 
ti'-n, which appeared among the Semilics or the Aryans. 
though they built msny cilics, some of which are found in 
China, and others in Central America; the style of those in 
C'-ntral America being very similar to those in Babylonia. 
The Semitics occLipied, at the earliest date, the region near 
the mouth ol the Tigris; but spread tneir empire toward the 
Meditcranean. They included the Babylonians, Assyrians, 
Hebrews, Arabs, and Phttnicians. They were great builders, 
aid to them may be ascribed most of the cities of the cast, 
which are now in ruins. The Aryans, or Indo-Europeans, 
cwme alter tht As-yrians, and built many of those ruined 
cities, which became .-o distinguished in hi-;tory. Their first 
seat of empire was the plateau of Iran, situated at the head 




THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, but they divided; one por- 
tion went east into Im'iii, the otlier wcni west and became the 
builders of the gr;at cities of Ecbatnnj wnd Pi-rsi-polis, and af- 
terward of the great ciins ol Troy. Ilium. MycenEE, Tiryns, 
Athens, and Corinth; the ruins of wliich have lately received 
so much attention. It is to be nnticeit, h.iwever, that sever-il 
I thousand years elap-ed betwL-en the biiililing of the cities ••{ 
Babylonia by the Semitics. and ih'.' bfginning of the archi- 
tecture of the Aryans, or Indo-Eiir- p' ans. and that a new 
siyle appeared among ihc Persians, whi<h I'ad great influence 
over the Greeks and Romans, and the growth nf architecluic, 
among these two races covered the whole period of ancient 
history, and has furnished to the world the grandest spccimei s 
of art that are known, 

As to the styles which were embodied in these ancient 
cities, we shall need to take the testimony nf the explorers 




SCENERY NbAR MOSUL. 

tvho have recently entered into the fi-ld. a* well as that of the 
Hnclent historians, who were familiar with them when they 
Pwrfc occupied by teeming multitude*. Layard says: 

i-riiire of n people must neces^rlly depend upon the ma- 

1 ilic country, and upon the objecis of their building; but 

iviM of ilie ruined tditiccsol ancient A(S)ria,Bhow Ihal 

II V rcspccis from those of an, other naiion with which ue 

I lie earliest habitation":, constructed when little progress 

- In the art of buitdlne. were probably but one slory la 

■ ^il respect ilie dwelling ol the ruler scaicely differed from The 

JH, It soon became necessary, however, that the temples of the 

H||if ptlaces ot (he kings, depositories at the same time of the 

— l4tdii*hould be rendered more conspicuous than the bumble 

l^lch Ihey were surrounded. The mcaus of defense also re- 

D culle. the place of retuae lor the inhabitants in Ihe lime of 

ft pCrmanetLt residence of the gairi^on, should be raised above 

Aould he buill &aas to alTurtl the best means oE resistuice 



RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



to an enemy. As there were no natural eminences in Ihe couniry, the in- 
babitants were compelled to construct artificial mounds, hence, the origin 
of those vast, solid structures, which have deRed the hands ot time, nnd 
with their grass-covered summits and furrowed sides rise like natural bills 
id the Assyrian plains.* 

•■ It was first necessary to form an eminence, that the huilding might 
rise above the plain and might be seen from atar. This eminence was not 
hastily madebyheapingup earth. but reguiarlv and syatemaiically built of 
^un dried brick. Thus a platform, thirty or forty feet high was formed, and 
«.span it they erected Ihe royal, or sacred edilice. 

Sundried bricks were still the principal, but could not m this instance, 
<"<)r various reasons, be the only materials employed. The earliest edifices 
«:>( this nature appear to have been at Ihe same time public monumeois, in 
■^■hich were preserved the records or archives o£ the nation, carved in 
^tone. and on iliem were reprtsented the exploits of kings, or the forms ot 
czlivinitiest whilst the hislory of the people, and invocations lo their gods 
^were also inscribed in wriilen characters upon the walls. " 

"The spaces between Ihr ure^l rjulilic edifices were probably occupied 
by private nouses, standiiu' ;. !■ ■ !'.■■ ■ .■H'l injilt at dist.mires 




Each 

hich 



RUINED TOWER AT B1K3 NIMKUU, 

fiom one another, or forming streets which enclosed gardens of consi 
able exlenl. To the palace was attached a park, or p.tradise, as it 
called, in which was preserved game of various kinds for the dlversic 
Ibe king. This enclosure, formed by wallsand towers, m^v, perhaps, 
be traced In the line of low mounds branching out from the pnnclpal 
Now, the peculiarities of these cities of the plain were all the same, 
one had in its centre, as the chief object, the great liggurat. or tower, 
reminds us of the tower of Babel, a structure which is supposed li 
been built in imitation of the mountains, which were, perhaps, the earliest 
abodes of the people, or ai least, the most impressive objects of nature." 

Layard speaks of the general extent of the city, and 
of the canals and gardens which were within the walls. 

Dr, Peters also speaks of the number of the cities and the 
extent of the canals. He .says: 

"In ancient days ihe whole couniry teemed with a vast population, and 
was dotted with mnumtrable cities. Another class of ruins, the ruins of 
is.-Vol. nip 198. ~ —— 



<42 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ancient canals I have not noticed at all, although they are, if possible, 
more numerous, more strikmg, and more characteristic than the ruins of 
the cities. They run like ^reat arteries through the country. lines of 
mounds ten to thirty feet high, stretching in all directions as far as the 
eye can reach. "* 

"The names of the cities of Babylonia are all well kno^n, especially 
to the Bible students, as Ur, of the Chaldees, was the childhood home of 
Abraham. * Ur was not only the seat of a great temple, it was a great city 
of the first political importance, dominating southern Babylon about 4000 
B. C. Both Ur and its sister city Eridu, were commercial towns, and teak 
found in the ruins of the latter proves an early connection with India. 
South of Eridu we find Sipparah, the ship city, where the records were 
buried during the flood. Both Ur and Eridu seem originally to have been 
situated near the sea, if not on it, but at present they are one t}undred and 
twentv miles from the Persian gulf. " 

This furnishes a basis for calculation as to the age of these 
cities. It is supposed that they stood on the shore about 6000 
or 7000 B. C., a date which has been fixed upon by Dr. Hil- 
precht from a study of the ruins of Nippur. 

Now, it is remarkable that this description of the cities of 
the east, with their gardens, and canals, and walls, and plat- 
form mounds, on which temples were erected, corresponds so 
closely with those given by the Spanish historians of the cities 
of Mexico and Central America, that we might take the pic- 
ture of one for that of the other. The explanation given of 
the difference of the ruling classes, from the common people, 
will also apply to the cities of America. The same is the im- 
pression which is given by the reports of the explorers, for 
they all speak of the towers, which were the most prominent 
feature of every city. 

It appears that in Mexico, the temples were in the shape of 
high towers, and upon the summit of terraced pyramids and 
were the most conspicuous objects in the city, and were often 
seen crowned with the smoke of the sacrifices. It has also 
betn held by some authors that these pyramids or teocalli 
were built in imitation of the mountains whose summits were 
sometimes crowned with the clouds of smoke, which arose 
above the volcanic fires. 

Dr Peters says: 

** To the early Hebrew mind, the mountain top or artificial high place 
afforded a means of close access to God." 

** The ziggurat is composed of two stages, represented by the exterior 
wall and by the interior wall. About it on alt sides are found rooms or cor- 
ridors This covered a space of something over eight acres, and was 
inclosed bv a hu^^e wall, which stood to the height of sixty feet and was al- 
most fifty feet at its base ?nd thirty feet at the summit. On the top of this 
great wall, at the southeast, was found a series of rooms, fourteen in all, of 
different sizes. They were irregular tower-like masses at three of the cor- 
ners of the wall ; immediately to the southeast of the ziggurat. a long street 
ran northeast and southwest. \'arious fragments of pavement were found; 
colunms of the same general significence as the pillars which stood before 
the temple at Jerusalem. Similar columns were erected in front of all 
PhfL-nician temples. Bent found in Mashonaland, in what seemed to be a 
Phoenician building, solid masonry columns which had the same signifi- 
cance. The Arabs regard these columns as male and female, nnd as signs 

*See "Nippur," b y J. P. Peters. D.D.. vol. II, p 306. 



RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



"43 



*f divinity. The brick causeway by which lo approach Ihe leirple. came 
out at a point between llie luo columns; about nine meters below ihe sur- 
Ucea solid terrace of ciude brick was found; above it a causeway and clay 
labtels, beliingiriE to ihe second dj nasty ol Ur, sqoo B. C, and below doot 
sockets of Saig<.n and fiagments with a date as early as 400a B.C. A 
conduit or drain for carrying water from the upper surface, was found built 
of baked brick, and over the conduit was a petfect arch, which is the old- 
est specimen of the arch ever found. 

■■ It seems to me that the Jewish, Phienician. and Assyrian temples are 
in origin, similar to ibe ZiKgurat temples, such as we have al Nippur, a 
that the ht' " ■' ' ■ ■ - ■ . . ■ ...... 



eholvof holie 



I aged Ihat o 



:spond to the 1 






lantly, t 



eholit 



portion 



The temple 

being the highest. 

Precisely the same meaning is attached in Babylonia to a 
high place. The ancestors of both the Hebrews and the 
Babylonians, although inhabiting the plain country of Baby- 
Ionia, were not autochthonous there. Their forefathtTS had 
been Datives of the mountains, and so they made the temple 
of Bel it Nippur to represent a mountain. 

The same opinion was formed by Dr. Hilprecht, who dis- 
covered the platform of unbaked brick upon which the zig- 
gurat stood, and formed an open court at its base, a discovery 
which led him lo carry back the date of the first city toamar- 
velous antiquity, joca 3. C. 

Next to the tower itself, the most interesting and ambitious 
structure, waf* the Court of Columns, which is fifteen meters 
square. On three sides of this ran a sort of edging, out of 
which arose four round brick columns, resting on square bases. 
In front of this court in the northwest side were the remains 
of a lone narrow pavement. The columns were built of biick 
which were made to tit together in the center; but leave a con- 
siderable .-ipace in the middle, and were dressed on theout^ide, 
making the surface .smooth and true. These are supposed to 
be the earliest columns in existence. They date back lo a pe- 
riod of 5000 B.C. The court itself was surrounded by buildings 
on all sides, the wails being of unbaked bricks and large 
blocks. Here we have another feature which seems to have 
been common in all of the early cities of the world. 

Columns and courts surrounded the temples and towersand 
we are reminded of Solomon's court, as well as the courts 
which were common in Mexico and Central America. Col- 
umns of different forms, and very much more elaborate, were 
lound at Tello, showing that they were a common feature, and 
appeared at a very early date. They prevailed from about 
3COO B. C. until about the ihirteenlh century H. C. 

There were various coffins found in the ruins at Nippur, 
which date back to 1300 B. C, some of them siipper-shaj.ed 
and some of them tub-shaped. These show considerable pro- 
gress of art, but the most interesting specimens are the door 
iiockets, with inscriptions on them, which date back to 2500 
B. C, Dr. Peters says in conclusion: 

"Babylonia is one of the places where civilisation and culture oriein- 
ated and was the birth place of that civilizaiion, lo which we have fallen 



•44 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



heir, and the indkalions of the discoveries at Nippur sugResl that ihe set- 
tlement of these great cities was made not later than 6000 or 7000 B. C. 
At thai remote period, men inhabited ihis country sufficiently advanced 
in civilizntion to lounil cities, build houses, make pottery, and in general 
carry on the industries oi settled and civilited life. 

About 2800 or I900 B. C. we find the city of Ur exercising a hegenicny 
tivir a!l of southern Babylonia, and the kings of that city styling them- 
selves princes of Eridu, Erech, Nippur, and^Wurka. Apparently there was 
a Close intercourse with Egypt in those days, and the artot Babylon was 
strongly inHuenced bv the traditions of the Nile. Each seems to have suf- 
fered greatly from the oppression of the Elamites, and ii was apparently 
during the period of the Elamites supremacv, that Abraham migrated into 
Canaan, and the expedition which Amraphel, king of Shinar, Arioch. king 
of Elasur. Chedoriaomer, king of Elara and Tidal, king of Goyim, wus 
conducted against the cities of the valley ut Jordan." 

II. Here. then, we see that the first great empire which 
arose in the east is entirely in ruins, and buried beneath the 
ruins of later cities, with a period of two thousand years and 
more marked by the intervening layers. We shall, then, need 
to go to another locality to find the records of that interven- 
ing period. They will be found in connection with thesecond 
great dynasty, which arose in Assyria, a region to the north of 
Babylonia. Here there are also many ruined cities, but they 
are cities constructed partly of stone, ralherthan of sun dried 
brick. They are built after the same general pattern; but the 
difference consisted in the character and finish of thewalls. 
the size and style of the palaces, and especially in the char- 
acter of the (Columns, which had begun to be used. 

It is curious, that in Assyria, as in Chaldca. there was a 
special pre-eminence of four cities. This is shown in the book 
of Genesis, where Asshur is said lo have builded Nineveh 
Rehoboth, Calah and Resen Assyria contained, besides these 
principal cities, a vast number of large towns, so numerous 
that they cover the whole face of the country with their 
ruins. The ruins opposite Mosul are those of Nineveh, twemy 
miles south of Nineveti, is Calah, marked by extensive ruins 
at Nimroud. These ruins occupy an area somewhat short of a 
thousand acres, about half the size of the ruins of Nineveh. 
Forty miles below Calah was Asshur, marked by the ruins of 
Kileh Sherghat. Nine miles from Nineveh stands the ruin 
known as Khorsabad, the walls well marked, their angles point- 
ing to the cardinal points. 

The palace of Sargon at Khorsabad has been describ< d 
by Fcrgusson. The ruins lay fifteen miles from the Tigris. 
The remains of Khor.-^abad, Koyunjik, Nimroud. Karchemisli, 
make the four corners of a vast quadrangle, which contained 
an area of two hundred and sixteen square miles, about tern 
times that of London. The ruins opposite Mosul consist 
of two principal mounds, known as Nebbi Yunus and Koyunjik. 
Xenophon. who passed close totheruinsof Nineveh, described 
the walls of the city. Up to a height of fifty feet, they wete 
composed of hewn blocks of limestone, above this sun dri-;d 
brick. There was a continuous series of battlements along 



tiements alone 



RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



US 



the top. The wall was pierced at intervals by gates, by which 

rose lofty towers. This castellated rampart was not the only 

means of defense, for outside the stone basement lay a water 

barrier, or moat. There are many pictures of the Assyrian 

casties, so that they are familiar. The palaces of Nineveh 

have been de.cribed and pictured by Layard with all their 

in tricate adornment. and convey the idea of great magnificence. 

The ruins opposite Mosul consist of two principal mounds, 

Nebi Yumis and Koyunjik, the platforms on which palaces and 

temples were raised. The first covers about forty acres and 

the second covers about one hundred acres and has a height 

of about ninety-five feel. On this artificial eminence were 

raised in ancient times, the palaces and temples. The entire 

length of this side of Nineveh was about two and one-half 

miles. The circuit of the wall was about eight miles. The 

rampart or wall, according to Diodorus, was lOO feet high and 

so broad that three chariots might ride side by side along the 

top. It was pierced at irregular intervals by gates above which 

^ose lofty towers. Outside the wall was a broad, deep moat, 

into which the river was made to flow. 

AmODg the architeclural work of the Assyrians, the Rrst place is oc- 
C:tjpied by ihe palaces. They made their lempjes insignificant in compar' 
x^on. In the palace their art culmiDates. There every effort is made, 
^ very omamenl is lavished. The Assyrian palace stood uniformly on an 
artificial platlorm, commonly cumposed o[ sun-dried bricks. In most 
criases the sides were protected by massive stone masonry, carried up per- 
pendicularly to a height beyond that of the plalform, crowned with stone 
battlemenis cut into gradines.* 

The pavement consisted, in part, of stone slabs, sometimes in- 
scribed, and sometimes ornamented. The terraces were at different eleva- 
Cixons and were connected by staircases or inclined planes. Tbe ascents 
'Were on the side adjoining the town. The palace arose pcrpendicularlv, 
Kcnerally with the river, a moat or a broad lake at tbe base of the walls, 
Xn this respect they resembled Che platlorm at Copan, which was washed 
t:>y the waters of the river, with (wo secret or hidden channels, leading 
f lom the interior of the palace to the river. 

The platforms in Assyria appear lo have been rectangular, very much 
^s ihey were in America. Palaces were commonly placed near one edge 
<:if the platform mounds. They were composed of three main elements, 
^:ourts, grand halls, and small priviite apartments. A palace has usually 
CroiD two to four courts, which are either square or oblong, and vary in size 
according to the general scale of the building. In one palace at Nimrud. 
«>ne court had the dimensions of one hundred and twenty feet by ninety; 
ait Khorsabad, the palace of Sargon had four courts, the largest of which 
"^las Iwfi hundred and filty feel long and one hundred and lifty feet wide; 
■«he smallest about one hundred and twenty feet each way. 

The palace at Koyunjik had three courts, measuring respectively nine- 
■«y -three feet hy eighty -four; one hundred and iweniy-lour by ninety, and one 
liundred and hfiy-Tour by one hundred and twenty-five. 

The palace of Essarhaddon had a length of one hundred and sixty 
aud a width of sixty-two feet, and was divided by a wall down (he middle 
^0 support the roof. The courts were paved with baked brick or with stone 
stabs. The halls were ornamented with elaborate sculptures, sometimes 
"with a double line around (he four walls, The most striking peculiarilv of 



iiDDati, cuL into gr^^iaoM, dibv be ttna in the bmtding 
hough ibu i> ■iiheiopof ikainllnitharlbuallEa 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the ground plans of this palace was Ilial ihev were divided by straight and 
parallel lines into exact recianeles, tboui;h the buildings are irregular, 
especially in their internal arranecmenis. Rooms open into one another 
and have very few corridors or passages. 

Another feature of the pal.icc oil Assyria was the portal. This was 
not so high or commanding in appearance as was the porta! of Egypt; but 
they were, nevertheless, very imposing. They were ornamented with 
colossal, human-headed hulls on either side, and were probably spanned 
by an arch. Received wilhm the portals, the visitor found himself in front 
of a long wall of solid stone masonry, which rose from iheoutercourt to a 
height of at least twenty feet, with a flight of steps leading up to the en- 
trance, where was aoniher portal, or gateway, ninety feet wide, twenty'five 
feet deep, guarded by three wmged bulls ot eigantic size, which stood at 
right angles, facing the spectator. A colossal hgure strangling the lion, 
representing the Assyiian Hercules, was also seen at the entrance. 

"The great state apartments consisted of a suite of ten rooms, and in 
their external and internal decorations was the most splendid in the whole 
palace, all of them lined throughout with sculpture. This hall was 
called the Hall of Punishment. A second hali opered bv three door- 
ways upon a square court, which was occupied bv buildings on three sides. 




GROUND i>[.AN 01- COURTS IN ASSYRIAN PALACE, 
the State apartments on ihe noftheast, the temple on Ibe southwest and a 
range of buildings called Priests Rooms on the southeast. " 

This description by Rawlinson is suggestive for it brings 
before us certain analogies which have been recognized in the 
ruined cities of America. 

The temple court was guarded by winged bulls, with aseriesof human 
figures or genii; but the courts and halls, with the sculptured figures, re- 
mind us of the halls oi Palenque, though in the latter place, there are no 
domestic animals, and (he human figures or genii are without winjis. 

The palaces of Central America were ijetieralty arranged about the 
four sides of a court, and were furnished with arch?d corridors, which 
fronted both directions; a corridor fronting on the court, and another front- 
ing the stairway; though the space between the corridors and the stairways 
was very narrow compared with the paved platforms on which the palaces 
of Assyria opened. The height of the buildings was a matter of conjee- 
ture. Layard and Fergusson held that there was an upper story, and all 
their restorations represent the palaces having two stories, the upper storf 
presenting a heavy cornice. These restorations, like that ol the palace of 



I 




RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



Peru, are notalways to be relied upon. It is held that the palacei liod 
temples were coluiiinar, 

But the column was not by any means as important a feature as it 
was in Egypt, Persia, Troy, and Greece, for ihe carved images, such as 
winged bulls with human heads, and winged human figures, were the mo it 
conspicuous atchiiectural ornament. 

The Assyrians did not employ this architectural ornament; but that they 
could not have been unacquainted, with it is proved bv pillars being repre- 
tented, supportiug a pavilion or tent in the older sculptures of NimrQud; 
but the first indication ot the use of columns in buildings is to be found in 
Khorsabad. It is possible that a conventional architecture, invested with a 
religious character, was introduced before the knowledge of the column, as 
an ornament, hence, it was not admitted as an ornament in sacred buildings. 

The narrowness of the chambers must be attributed to the want of 
means oi supporting the ceiling, and a dislike to the column or post as a 
support." 

We may suppose that human-beaded animals look the place of col- 
umns in Assyria as an aichitectural ornament, and yet pillars and columns 
were used as ornaments when totally detached from any building, and so 
were not used for support. This was the ease in Central America, for 
there are stelae or portrait columns in the courts at Copan, with altars 
Id front of them, the hieroglyphics upon the sides and back, evidently hav- 
ing some reference to the history of the king whose portrait is given. 

The beginnings of such columns are to be traced back to a religious- 
sentiment, which made the sun the great divinity, and considered the mov- 
mentsof the sun as connected with the life of the people. The turning of 
the sun at the solstices being watched dosely. 

The arch was more of an architectural ornament in Assyria than was 
the column. Here portals were all arched, and the entrance to Ihe pal- 
aces were through the arched doorways, still there was no sucb arch as we 
find in modern architecture, and, in fact, no such arch as we find in pre- 
historic America, for they were merely straight passages which were 
arched in one direction, while at Chichen-llza and other places in Central 
America. ther« were double arches. 

Thus it was in Assyria, rather than in Babylonia, that we 
find analogies between the architectures of the cities of Central 
America. These consist in the character of the walls, the 
shapes of the platform pyramids, the size of the palaces on 
the pyramids, the arrangement and number of apartments in 
the palaces, the broad stairways that lead to the palaces, the 
main difference is found in the ornamentation of the facades 
and the symbolic decorations of the inner apartments. In 
America the temples were more conspicuous than in Assyria, as 
there were generally three or four of them in every city, and 
and all were placed upon the summit of a pyramid, which was 
generally much higher than the platforms on which the palaces 
were erected. 

The stairways in America are very imposing, and great ef- 
fort was laid out upon them. The balustrades were in the 
shape of massive serpents, whose heads project beyond the 
stairways. Human figures were often carved upon the steps; 
in one case at Copan. every step was carved so as to present 
a series of hieroglyphics, which could be read from bottom to 
top, making what is called the "hieroglyphic stairway," 
and one of the most interesting architectural curiosities in the 
world. 



148 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Bancroft says: 

''The rooms of the Casas de MoDJas, eightv-eigbt ia number, all pre- 
senl the same genera.1 features of construction, angular, arched ceilines, 
wooden lintels, stone rings or h[nges on Ibe inside of the doorways, hofet 
in the sloping ceilings tor hammock timbers, the entire absence of aoy 
openings except the doors; the platform on which the buildinjf stands 
forms a narrow promenade only ten feet eight inches wide on the ex- 
terior of the buildmgs and in the court. 

'"The entrance to the court is by a gateway, ten feet eight inches wide, 
and about fourteen feet bigh; the top being formed by the usual triangular 
arch. Opposite tbls gateway is a stairway, which leads upward to the 

The Assyrian stairways were somewhat imposing; but not 
so much so as those in Persia, or even in Central America. In 
Persia, as we shall see, the stairway was the most important 
pirt of the palace, and was so easy in ascent that horses could 
be driven up, and large processions could ascend to the plat- 
form. 

The facades of the Assyrian palaces have been admired; 
but those seen in Central America are certainly interesting. In 
these the cornice extends around the whole circumference just 
above the doorways, while above the cornice, the whole space 
is covered with elegant and elaborate sculptures. The four 
interior facades, fronting in the court, all present elegant 
specimens of the decorators art. 

The gateways in Assyria, were also as we have seen, very im- 
posing; but not so imposing as those of Egypt, though they 
were, perhaps, designed to impress all who approached them 
with a sense of awe. The historians speak of Tht-bes, with its 
hundred gates; Homer speaks or Troy as having imposing 
gatewaj^s. The "'Lion Gateway," of Mycenie, is known to all. 
The scriptures speak of the gateways as the place of judge- 
ment and the seat of authority, and so, throughout all time, 
the gateway to a city was regarded as the most important 
feature. The gates of the city of Jerusalem all had names 
which designated ihcir character. 

The portals of Egypt have been spoken of and were the 
most prominent feature in Egyptian architecture, They were 
generally placed in front of the temples and were guarded by 
two rows of Sphinxes, whose heads are fronting one another. 
The gateways in Mexico, Central America, and Peru, were also 
very imposing. One of the portals in Mexico had a massive 
statue placed over it, which was carved in the most hideous 
shape. It represented the God of War, of Death and of Hell, 
and was covered with serpent fangs, and teeth, and tails, and 
had a grinning skull looking out from the center. 

III. This leads us to the ruined cities of the Persians. 
These were not so near together as those in Assyria; but they 
were quite numerous, and many of them were built with a 
grandeur that even exceeded all others. The peculiarities of 
the Persian architecture was affL'cted by the material ivhich was 
used. This was more apparent in the column than in anyi 




RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



149 



other element. It is supposed that the earliest buildings of 
the Persians were constructed out of wood, and the columns 
were nothing but the trunks of trees, which supported a pro- 
jecting portico in front of the building. The ceilings and sides 
of the houses were made of poles Or round logs, the rafters 
being made of the same mat(;rial. This supposition is derived 
from a study of the rock-cut tombs; for these, all present the 
same features, as they are cut in imitationof houses with beams. 

The Persians were at first a rude people, possessing neithci 
literature or art of their own; but bor- 
rowed what they had from the Assyrians 
and the Babylonians, and the empires far- 
ther south, In this respect they resembl- 
ed the Aztecs, who borrowed their civiliz- 
ation as well as their architecture from 
the cities of Central America; but modi- 
fied it to suit their o«n mythology and the 
demands of their situation. The ruins of 
PcTsepolis exhibit the same forms of ar- 
chitecture, the same peculiarities in the 5 
arrangements of the bas-reliefs, the same 
entrances formed by gigantic-winged ani- 
mals and the same religious emblems r:> 
are seen in the palaces of the Assyrian^ 
The walls of their cities were of cxtran,-- 
dinary size and height. The Persians in- 
troduced a columnar style even after they fl 
began to build in brick and stone; but | 
Iheir co'umns were at first in imitation I 
of the posts, or trees, which originally I 
supported the projecting roofs of thetrfl 
wooden buildings and formed porticos in'' 
front of them. 

The Assyriansdid not employ the col-!_ 
umn as an architectural ornament. Theyf 
undoubtedly made use of pillars of wood, = 
and, perhaps of stone; but the surmount- f 
ing with Capitols occurred late in their 
history. 

We do not find in Persia many ruined cities, Ecbatana was a 
city which reached such proportions of grandeur as to aston- 
ish the world and m.iny have taken the ruins rjf this city as 
the means by which Ihey would learn the styles which pre- 
vailed throughout the entire region. The columns of this city 
present peculiar shapus. They are round and have heavy 
bases carved in the shape of dogs and animals. The capitols 
are finished in the shape of animals heads, the shape of a 
double-headed lion, or an ox with two heads; the united body 
constituting the capitol and the heads making the ornament 
for tbe.capitol, These were evidently among the earlier spec- 




ASSYBIAN FACADB. 




THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



iniCRs, though they continued quite late in history, and api 
peared in all the palaces of the Persians. 



Perrot 
f we pass 



Chi 



piez say: 



I ihe t 



... . _ ._ _j types and columns on the sites of the 

: find the Persians differing from the Assyrians and the 
QabyloDJans. The distinctive feature in the group is composed of the fofc 
parts of tw« quadrupeds. It appears in the reign of Darius 6oQ B. C. 
The shaft is slender and slightly tapering and fluted, though in the rock- 
cut tombs it is plain. The base of the columns in the palaces at Susa is 
peculiar lo Persia. The ornaments are arianged in a vertical form instead 
of horiiontal. The capitol is divided into two parts; the lower part cvlin- 
drical, and the upper part with animal figures. The oldest stone column 
of the Persians is in the palace at Pasagarda: and is modelled stler Ibe 
primitive wood post; but is of stone. This was derived from Media, where 
at Ecbatana were edifices of pretentious buildings." 

Polybius says of Ecbatana: 

"The palace measures seven stadia in circumference. The magnifi- 
cence of the various buildings gives nne a high notion of the wealth of the 
persons who raised the noble pile, although nothing but cedar and cypress 
were employed in the consiruction. They were plated throughout; rafters, 
ceilings, wainscoting, columns supporting porticos, and peristyle were all 
sheathed in silver and gold." 

Dr.A.H.Saycesays: "Columnar architecture had its natural home 
upon the banks of the Euphrates. Wood and brick had lotake the place 
of stone and naturally suggested the employment of Ilie column which 
seems soon to have become a mere ornament and developed a great vaHeiv 
of forms; colored half-columns were used in the temple at Lig-Bagas and 
Erech for decorative purposes long ages before they were employed in the 
same way by Sargon at IChorsabad. and it is to Babylonia and Assyria thai 
we may trace the Doric and Ionic pillars of Greece; but the chasteness of 
Greek taste preserved it from the many fantastic forms into which the col- 
umn branched out in Babylonia and Assyriaand.especially in Persia, where 
we find it resting with acircniar base on the back of lions, dogs, and 
winged bulls. While the column thus became an ornament rather than a 
support, the buttresses against which the early Chaldean temples rested 
never lost their original character. The Persian art was derived from 
Babylonia through that of Susiana. Pallaces wereraisedon lofty platform 
like those of Babylonia, where such a protection from the marshy ground 
s needful, and the platforms were adorned with broad handsome Rights 



> in ten 



p. The Persian architecture may best tie 
palace near Persepolis, in the five largest 
ace of Di.rius; ihe second that of Xerxes ; 
lile the other two were known as the hall of 
)ws of ten each; each 35 feet high, and 20 
. The eastern palace contained four groups 
iws of six, and covering an area 



s which led I 
studied in the remai 
buildings. The first n 
the third that of A ttr 
one hundred c 
feel distant fro 

of pillars and a square of 36 pillar 
of over 2:j,oo square feet. 

In one respect, the palaces nf Persia, resemble those of 
Peru, for all agree that the temples and the palaces were there 
covered with gold and silver. 

- The complex column, with double capitol and volute, rose 
between the four enormous pillars of the propylea at Perscp- 
olis. It upheld the ceiling of the central hall of the great 
palace, and formed the supports of the hall of one hundred 
columns at Persepolis. Staircases appear in the pavilion at 
Ispahan a^ at Persepolis. 

Susa was surrounded by a wall of burnt bricks, which in- 
closed palaces and temples. It appears that Persia borrowed 



^<-_ 



RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



stair ways and columns and other features from Assyria, but 
as modified by Media. 

Ecbatana was chiefly celebrated for the magnificence of its 
palace. It wa* probably constructed originally by Cyaxares. 
The circumference of the building was said to be 1,420 
yard', or somewhat more than four-fifths of an English mile. 
The size exceeds that of the palace of Susa, while in is in 
turo exceeded by the palatial platform of Persepolis. We 
conclude that the area which was consigned to the royal pal- 
ace, was far from being entirely covered with buildings. One 
half the space was probably occupied by large, open courts, 
paved with marble, surrounding the various blocks of build- 
ings. The pillars, which form the most striking chara;teristic. 
were for the most part of wood rather than of stone. These 
wooden pillars, either of cedar or of cypress, supported beams, 
which crossed each other at right angles; leaving square spaces 
between, filled in with woodwork. Above the whole, a roof 
was placed, sloping at an angle. Polybius distinguishes the 
pillars into two classes; those of the main buildings and those 
that skirted the courts. From this it would appear that the 
courts were surrounded by colonnades as they were in Greek 
and Roman houses. The pillars, beams,and the wood-work were 
covered with r 




RUINS OF PEBSEPOLIS. 

em capitals. An older and ruder style of architecture appear- 
ed in the main building, which depended for its effect 
on the richness and costliness of the material. Pillar archi- 
tecture began in this part of Asia with the Medes, who were 
content to use wood, but the Persians afterward conceived the 
idea of substituting splendid and elegant stone shafts, which 
formed the glory of their edifices. The Medes and Persians 
appear to have been content to tstablish in each town 'a forti- 
fied citadel, or stronghold, without using the furth6(_ defenses- 
of a town wall. 

The ruins of Persepolis represented in the cut iljilstrates the 
peculiarities of Persian architecture. It will be sffn that the 
columns are in the shape of trees, but have capitals i-n the 
shape of ox heads. The palace was situated on a Ifi^ piKt- 



151 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 




form which is paved and is reached by a wide stairway, the 
sides of which are covered with ornamental figures in bas-re- 
lief This platform and stairway remind us of the terraces and 
stairways above which were the palaces of Palenque and Copan 
in Central America, though the most striking analogies are 
seen between the 
facades of Baby- 
lonia andthosejof 
Peru, restorations 
of which are seen 
injthe plates, ac- 
companying th i s 
chapter. 

IV. There are 
cities in Asia Mi- 
nor, in Cyprus, in 
Crete. Syila, and 
Phcenicia, which 
are now in ruins; 
but which present 
STONE ROOH AT BOZRAK. a series of struct- 

ures quite unlike those of any other region. The earliest, 
or at least the rudest of these, are found in Phcenicia 
and Sidonia, for here we find dolmens succeeded by 
megalithic structures, and these in turn by tombs and topes, 
and these again by ruined towers, and bridges and other 
structures. Architecturally they would be placed below such 
cities as Troy and Mycenje, as their art is ruder than that 
which is known as belonging to the Greeks and Romans. 

It may be said , 

that there was a j- ©r^, '""^KX*"-^ 
greater variety o f 
architecture inWest- 
ern Asia In ancient 
times than in any 
other part of the 

flobe. We have 
ere, in the first 
place, t h e strange 
cave houses, which 
were quite common 
in Cappadocia, but 
have only recently 
received any at- 
tention. These be- 
long to different 
dates and different 
races; the Hittites 




STONE DOOR AT ttUZRAH. 

;d to have dwelt in them ^as 



are supposed to have dwelt in tnem ^as early as 1400 B.C.; 
the Phrygians as early as Soo B. C; the Cappadocians aboil 



ladocians aboi(^ 



RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 153 

the time of the christian era, and other people down to the 
present time. 

Next to these may be mentioned the celebrated "giant cities 
of Bashan." These cities illustrate Ihe same points which are 
made in connection with the cities of Assyria, Persia, Chaldea, 
Greece, and Phcenicia, They were situated among the moun- 
tains to the east of the Jordan, but exhibited a succession of 
building periods. The majority of these cities ot Bashan do 
not go back as early as those in Babylonia; but they are sup- 
posed to be the cities which were occupied by the giants 
m the days of Moses; when the Israelites came out of Egypt. 
These giant cities were preceded by the dolmens and 
ihc cromlechs, which are common in the same region; but 
were followed by cities which were celebrated in history, such 
as Tadmor in the wilderness, and the ruins of Baalbek, 

Several authors have written about these cities and the 
remarkable succession apparent in them. The following is the 
testimony which Rev. J. L. Porter has given. He says: 

*'In one spot, deep down bencaih ihe accumuialed remains of more 
recent buildings. I saw the primilive dwellings of the aboriginals; with 
their atone doors and stone roof s. These were built and inhabited by the 
eigantic Fmim and Rephidim long before the Chaldean Shepherd migrated 
from Ur to Canaan, high above them rose the classic portions- of a 
Roman temple, shattered and tottering; but still grand in its ruins Pass- 
ing between the column 1 saw over ilie bcautifiillv sculptured doorway, a 
Cre:lc inscription telling bow, in the fourth century.lhe temple had become 
a church; but on entering the record of stilianother change appeared.for 
an Arabic inscription showed that it had bi^en occupied by the Moham- 
mad ens. 

The stone houses of the giants are represented in the cuts. 
It will be seen 
from them that 
columns and 
arches, corni- 
ces,stoncpave- 
m e nts, win - 
dows, doors 
with panels, 
piers and lin- 
tels,wcre in use 
at the time. 
The walls. 
roofs ponder- 
ous gates and 
bars arc char- 
acteristic of a RUINS OF TVRE. 
period certainly later than the dolmens, though perhaps, earl- 
lerthan the buildingof Troy and Mycens, yet at a lime when 
strength and security were the grand requisites. 

The ruins of Tyre and Sidon have been frequently describ- 
ed, and have been made familiar by engravings. These cities 
were marts of commerce at an early date. The Phcenicians 




iS4 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



were Semites; they were navigators and merchants; they set- 
tled Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Cadiz in Spain, Carthage in 
Africa. Their caravans passed through Palmyra, Baalbek and 
Babylon, and permeated all the Orient. They obtained tin 
from the British Isles; amber from the Baltic; silver from 
Tarsus; gold from Ophir, in eastern Africa. The ruins of Tyre 
belong to a comparatively late date. The cut represents these. 
It will be seen from it that the arch was known, and that the 
masonry was substantial. The waters of the sea roll over the 
site of the ancient city. 

Tyre was founded about 1550 B. C, and was captured by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 605, B. C, and by Alexander 332, B. C. 

The ruined cities of the wilderness, Palmyra* and Tadmor. 
should be mentioned in this connection, Solomon, the great 
king of Israel, built Tad- 
mor in the wilderness 
and the store cities of 
Ilamath. Palmyra was 
the convenient half-way 
house between the com- 
mercial cities of Phoen- 
icia and the Persian Gulf. 
Both these cities were 
destroyed by the Rom- 
ans. Their ruins show 
the style of architecture 
which prevailed at the 
time. 

V. The ruined cities 
of Troy and Greece re- 
main to be considered. 
These cities first became 
known to the world 
through the writings of 
Homer, and the Greek 
historians. They former- 
ly were supposed to have 
been com para lively 
modern, dating their be- 
FOUNDATION WALLS AT IROV, gjnnings about the time 

of Solomon, contemporaneous with the temples of Egypt, or 
the cities of Persia, but the explorations of Schliemann at Troy; 
at Mycenae; and al Tiryns, have proved that they were much old- 
er. These explorations also brought out the fact that throughout 





RUINED CITIES OF ASIA AND AMERICA. 



155 



'hich re- 
ere laid 
ight feel 



this entire region there was a succession of cities each of which 
had been built upon the ruins of the one preceding, so that the 
record of many periods could be read in the ruins. It is maintain- 
ed by some of the best arch;tologists that many of these buried 
cities were at the outset, little more than villages, and that 
their beginnings were marked by a citadel or fortified hill re- 
sembling (he hill of Salem. which David took and made his capi- 
tot. Such hill forts or castles were common throughout Judea, 
Asia, Minor, and Greece, at an early date. They remind us of 
the castles of Europe in feudal times. They also resembled 
the hill forts of the Mound liilders of the Ohio valley, and es- 
pecially the fortified hills of Mexico, Central America, and 
Peru. Mr. F. H. Bliss, explored a hill of many cities near La- 
chish in Palestine, and Schliemann discovered a succession of 
cities wherever he began to dig. 

A good illustration of this is furnished by the cut 
presents the different layers or foundations which 
bare at Troy. The layer of Ihc first city is about 
deep;lhe second city 
lies from eleven to 
twenty feet above 
the first The most 
imposing erection of 
the new period is 
the great ciladel 
wall, and the circuit 
wall near which Dr. 
Schliemann found his 
great treasure. The 
excavation showed 
the varying fortunes 
of the city through 
a period of some "buins op corinth. 

1500 years, during which the hill of Hissarlik was continuously 
inhabited, though in the time of its older settlements it^had im- 
posing palaces, and massive fortifications. Considered indi- 
vidually, the buildings and the objects discovered at Troy, are 
found to occupy a middle position between the three great 
civilizations of the ancient world, the Assyro-Babylonian, the 
Egyptian, and the Greek. 

The excavations revealed a citadel of small extent, like the 
Acropolis of Mycena;, Tiryns, and others, which did not con- 
tain the whole city; but only the palaces of the rulers. In all 
these cases the city lay at the foot of the hill, which, at Troy, 
has almost completely disappeared. We, therefore, must think 
of the people whose kings dwelt on the citadel of Troy as re- 
sembling'those who dwelt on the plains of Babylonia, whose 
rulers, consisting of kings and priests, built their great towers 

•famuion ihi>pica>ha»tii<iru'iiiaf CaHrnhbcfon ihcncint tiuntisD, 1 1 will b* 




-156 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

and temples and palaces and dwelt in them apart, very much 
as did the kings and priests in Central America, who had their 
palaces and temples on the summit of the terraced pyramids. 

VI, We turn, in conckision, to the ruined cities which have 
been discovered in the islands of the sea. It appears that these 
were established in prehistoric times by the people who had 
migrated from the Asiatic continent, and who carried with 
them the civilization which they had received from the East. 
Among these the Phcenicians are to be placed as the first. 
There was to be sure, a race preceding them called Hittitcs, 
which spread throughout Asia Minor, and built the early cities 
in that region, and along the Mediterranean coast, in Syria and 
Palestine, but they were overcome by the Egyptians, under 
Rameses. II., and never built cities which were at all enduring, 
or the ruins of which have at present any importance. The 
Phcenicians were always great traders, and carried on commerce 
between the people of the far East, and those of the far West, 
making the coasts of the Mediterranean the chief marts of 
trade, though they reached as far as the British Isles, and in- 
troduced bronze into the prehistoric settlements of the inter- 
ior of Europe, which marked the beginning of the Bronze Age. 

It was through the Phcenicians that the architectural tri- 
umphs of the East were carried to the islands of the Mediter- 
ranean. Phoenician colonies settled in Carthage in Crete, and 
in Cyprus, long before the Mycenfean age. They built there 
heavy walls, lofty towers, palaces surrounded by colonnades, 
galleries, long piers which protected the harbors, and cities with 
streets, which were lined with massive houses and lavishly 
adorned. 

These ruined cities lie below the ruins of cities which were . 
built by the Greeks in Mycenjean times, and form the lowest I 
layer which has been reached. They were the earliest build- 
ers on these islands, and are supposed to have erected the 
towers which are so numerous in Sardinia, and elsewhere, and 
which have been ascribed to the Cyclopa-ans, a giant race, but 
were followed by the Hellenes, who introduced into these is- 
lands a new style, the same style which prevailed at Troy and 
MycenfE, the main feature of which was an acropolis on 
which the temples, and palaces, of the ruling classes were built. 

Many cities have been discovered in Crete and Cyprus, 
some of which belonged to the earlier Phoenician and 
some to the Mycena:an times and some to the Roman, all of 
them containing structures which enable us to recognize the 
different styles which prevailed and to read the history of a 
chitecture from the earliest to the latest period. 



history of ar- ^^1 



PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 
BY i'(;blius v. lawson. 

Pipar rtid btUn the WbcDciia Nilunl History Sociely M Mil*ii.il<(>. Janauy 16, 1901. 

One of the chief charms of Archeology is its wide range of 
study in the various fields of exact science and knowledge with 
its ever opening discoveries. There is no subject within this 
versatile study which brings out so many and varied facts as 
the ficile art. Clay being universal over the earth's surface and 
in the plastic state readily formed into any desired shape, has 
from the earliest times, even among the most primitive people 
been used in the manufacture of vessels of many forms. Kera- 
mic art is among the earliest achievements of man. Its broken 
fragments found among the pebbles, or earths of the most re- 
mote and obscure places, are always the unmistakable handi- 
work of man. 

POT SHERDS. 

Vast quantities of broken primitive pottery is found upoir 
the fields and within the mounds and graves in our state. 
Whole vessels are very rare. The broken pieces are from the 
size of a pea to several inches. They range in thickness from 
the gauge of ihe knife blade, indicative of a delicate cup, to 
five-eighths of an inch, indictive of a very large fifteen gallon 
vessel. Tracingout the circle, shows openings from three inches 
to sixteen inches in diameter, 'lome seem to have square corners, 
but nearly all arc rounded. In my collection of over five ihou- 
sand fragments the number of vessels represented is several 
thousand which once graced the barbaric board of our aborigi- 
nal people. Hecause of its sombre appearance it is seldom 
gathered by a collector of relics, unless its markings or sine 
attracts the attention, yet for the study of prehistoric races it 
is among the most valuable of their remains. The forms made 
out are basins, bowls, cups, pitchers, and larger jars or ket- 
tles. Some one has said no two are found alike. Some pieces 
seem to be formed like a pitcher snout, with knobs and tips 
for handles. Some have holes in the rims for strings to sus- 
pend them. I should say from the fragments the local char- 
acteristic form is globular, round bottom with low neck and 
rim turned out, with its opening little less than the width of 
the body. 

COLOR OF THE ANTIQUE POTTEKY. 

The clays of Wisconsin are formed by the decomposition 
and disintegration of igneous and sedimentary rocks, which 




>S8 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



were distributed and assorted by water and the glacier or re- 
mains in situ, as shales and kaolin. The shales burn 
cream, kaolin burns white color. The lacustrine, stream and 
glacial clay burns either cream or red. No clay in our state 
burns gray or blue, black or brown. The color of the body of 
most of the local primitive pottery is gray or blue gray. Some 
are black and a few pieces white. Some are red. 

Dr. E. Desor of Switzerland, suggests of the black pottery 
of Swiss lake dwellings that it was obtained perhaps by smok- 
ing or burning in an open hearth. He does not know how the 
pottery was fired, neither do we know how this pottery was 
fired, whether in kilns or open hearth fire, nor would it make 
any difference. The manner of firing does not change the 
color of the clay. Local brick firing is practically in open 
hearth in camps or scove kilns, and burns both red and cream, 
never blue or gray. I have some pots made of nuf red clay 
which were fired in a kiln and are cream color, notwithstanding 
all the smoke, fire and creo- 
sote passL'd over and through 
the ware. The kiln only serves 
to intensify the heat. The 
brickets of ancient Azlalao 
which undoubtedly were burn- 
ed by heaping wood upon 
them in open fire, have not 
changed from red to blue. 
The red color is caused by the 
presence of iron oxide in 
clay. The absence which in 
perceptible quantity or change 
of the combination of the 
oxide by the fire, allows the 
firinf; ti' set ihe cream color, 
at (he period of incipient vilri- 
faction. Colorsareonlycaused 
by a chemical change in the 
combination not byanychem- 
ical discharge from the fire, 
Gray is the prevailing color of the pottery of the Atlantic sea 
b;>ard,and the mound building region; yellow of Ihe ancient pro- 
\ince_ofTusayan: polished black of the Pueblo; smooth red of 
the Gila valley m Arizona. Mexico and Panama; white of all 
^u *''"'"^*' ''^'^ ^""^ yellow in New Mexico and Arizo- 
na. The open hearth theory of firing cannot prevail to explain 
this difference between black and white. The only proper ex- 
planation IS that given by Dr. Buckley in his laie report on 
local clay. Gray, black, blue, and purple shades are largely due 
to carboniferous matter; while white, red, yellow and brown 
Kr:__^r*^ largely attributed to iron oxide, Hence, clays upon 
This is the rule; a few 




I 
I 



- -,_ „,.. ,„,^^,y diiMuuicci to iron o> 
Deing fired change to a different colo' 



PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 



clays do not change. There is said to be a brown clay in Caro- 
lina which does not perceptibly change on firing. At Apt 
Province in France there arc beds of pale brown clay from 
which ternnes or covered poti are made which are almost ex- 
actly the same color as the unbaked clay 

The Milwaukee clay compared with Madison clay in the 
Wisconsin Geological Survey, Vol. 2 shows that while both 
are red clays, yet the Madison clay with slightly less iron ox- 
ide, burns red, and ihe Milwaukee red clay with more iron ox- 
ide, burns cream. To explain this it is staled that the light 
color is due, not to the absence of iron, but to the manner of 
its combination, in which it is controlled by the calcareous 
matter present. 

As no clay in Wisconsin burns black, gray or blue, which is 
the prevailing color of the body of the primitive ware found in 
our state, then we must conclude such ware was not made in 
our stale but was imported. The brick red pottery may have 
been made from Wisconsin clay, but its tempering ingredient 
being usually black quartz, which is not found here, makes it 
adoubtful native product. 

BLACK QUARTZ TEMPERING, 

Pure clay as it is found in the bed cannot usually be suc- 




cessfully m?,de into earthenware. It will check in drying and 
crack irreparably in firing. In the early potteries in Menasha 
which flourished from 1^56 up to a few years ago the native 
modified red clay was mixed with 20 per cent, of bank sand in 
the manufacture of the common earthern jars, milk pans, jugs, 
flower-pots, and fired in kilns, so arranged that the fire and 
smoke passed directly through them and out at u chimney in 
the rear or overhead. Flower pots and tile required a day and 
night to properly burn, and heavier earthenware required forty- 
eight hours. Millions of brick have been made at Menasha 
and along the Fox River of the same red clay mixed with five 
per cent, bank sand to temper the clay. They required six 
days and nights burning. The above vessels and brick all 
burn cream color. Sand is silicate or disintegrated quartz rock. 
Quartz or silicate is infusable unless mixed with soda and 
hence does not perceptibly swell or shrink by heat or water. 
It thus becomes the very best mixture for clay. The world 
over, in both ancient and modern times, silicate in some form 
has been the terfipering ingredient used in Keramic and allied 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



i 



arts. The authorities say; "It is necessary that the clay should 
be mixed with a certain quantity of siliceous earth, the effect 
of which is to increase its firmness and render it less liable to 
shrink and crack on exposure to heal." 

Pulverized flint glass and white sand is mixed with the clay 
now for the same purpose. It is remarkable that both in Eu- 
rope, the Orient and America the same thing should be used 
as a tempering mixture in the clay and for the same purpose 
by primitive men and civilized as well. More than half of our 
native primitive earthenware contains silicate in shape of 
ground black quartz which is the same as flint or glass or sand 
used as a tempering mixture. The psrticies can be seen with 
the naked eye thickly dispersed through the body of the ware. 
They are jet black, with ragged edges, and have conchoidal 
cleavage, that is to say without cleavage, and it is compact, massive 
igneous rock. Its corners glint in the light, and has glass hard- 
ness, cannot be scratched or crushed with the knife. This 
black quartz is not found in our state in the drift or in situ. I 
do not know its source, but suppose it to be near the carboni- 
ferous clay from which the vessels were made. It is found in 
the black, red, blue and gray fragments of pottery. 

SHALE OR SHELL. 

Another tempering ingredient used here and universally 
over the mound region is shale or shell. There is some con- 
tention over the real identity of this content. It can be plain- 
ly seen thickly dispersed in the fragments, often in pieces over , 
one quarter inch in size and seldom pulverized. Most of the 
books designate it as shall. It does have the appearance of . 
broken shell, and often has a pearly lustre. It effervesces with ] 
acid. No one has yet named the shell, and there is this singu- 
lar thing which I have noticed upon examination of hundreds I 
of specimens, that these while fiakes are all flat, none 
rounded, concave or convex. They do not show any of the 
hinge or back of the shells cf univalves or the coarse black 
outside of the shells. The only fresh water shells are snail or 
mussel, none of which could be used without some identifying 
part being found in so many fragments to betray its origin. 
But if shell was burned in this clay vessel in the heat of from 
800 to 1500 it would be black as jet if not destroyed entirely, 
none of these particles are black, but it is fresh and hard as if 
the shell was dead but yesterday. Shell is lime, in (act, the 
material of all limestone, and if a pebble of limestone is acci- 
dentally left in the mixture of which the vessel is made the 
firing would turn it into lime in the caustic state which upon ! 
exposure to moisture will slack it and crack the ware. This 
shale is still in good condition. If we assign any sort of an- | 
tiquity to this aboriginal pottery, Ihis shell material, if such it 1 
is, would have rotted years ago exposed as it was to every 1 
kind of outdoor weather, but it has not rotted. It is still hard, I 




PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 



scratches with a sound similar to scratching a school slate or 
sharpening a slate pencil, It scratches into fine sandy, grittj, 
particles, much sandier than rotten shell dust. It exhibits a 
flat straight cleavage, like shale or slate. Its color, cleavage 
and pcdrly lustre is indicative rf feldspar. An analysis would 
show it to contain feldspar ^nd alluminum and possibly car- 
bonate of lime and ma.;nesia in small quantity. None of this 
shale or feldspar is native to Wisconsin in the shape found in 
the pot sherds. Some experimenters are now endeavoring to 
determine the identity of this shale mixture. 

A few fragments contain as a tempering mixture rounded 
gravel and sand, but such are not often found in our state. The 
fragments tempered with black quartz, or shale, or rounded 
gravel are always mixed with one of them singly, never with 
both together in one vessel. Further on it will be again ex- 
plained that the vessel decoration relates also to this temper- 
ing ingredient. Those with black quartz are the textile mark- 
ed, and those with shale are decorated by other methods. 

POROSITV. GLAZING. 

Most clavs, especially local clays are, when fired are very 
porous. Brick used as filters and drain-tile will absorb the sur- 
rounding moisture. The test of earthenware is that the tongue 
will cling to the broken edge as it takes up moisture so rapidly. 
This native antique pottery is very porous. It absorbs a drop 
ot water instantly and its pores can be seen without the aid of 
a gla-<s. The potters mentioned at Menasha learned in their 
earliest experience that our local red clays would not take a 
glaze without the ware first being dipped in a slip made of 
Ohio or New Jersey clays. Some clays near Milwaukee will 
tal<e Staniferous glaze. The chemical change that takes place 
in glazing with salt, is tnat the .soda of the salt fuses with the 
aluminum of the clay to form silicate. The object of glazing 
is to make the ware water ti^ht. I find that in testing those 
primitive fragments which have bowl enough to hold water 
that they are water tight, and as the broken edges are all very 
porous, this ware would not hold water unless it was glazed. 
The slip or enamel or veneering can be plainly seen on most 
of the native specmiens. It is usually red, white or brown. It 
is this glazing which gives a red appearance t > so many of the 
pot sherd*. The universal, statement of ail the books is that 
the mound builder pottery is not glazed. But we all know that 
there is much misinformation in the books on these subjects. 
This glaze or enamel has mostly been ola cd on the ware be- 
fore burning, but frequently after the body of the vessel has 
been fired. It is most frequently only seen on the outside, but 
often on both inside and outside the vessel. Koth the black 
qu irtz and shale wares are glazed. This glaze is not glass, as 
it can be scratched with the knife. I call it gla^e because 
there is no other name. It is at lea'it a covering to make the 
ware water tight. It is often half the thickness of the vessel 



i6i 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



and often a very thin film. It often shines and is often highly 
polished. It is found on nearly all the fragments whether dec- 
orated or not thoufih the decorated fragments have no lustre 
or polish. We may be justified in concluding all native Dot- 
tcry to be glazed as it would be valueless to hold water or as 
cooking utini-ils without, because of its great porosity. Wc 
may find an excuse for not knowing with what material the 
glazing was accomplished in the fact that it is not known to 
this day with what materials the famous Grecian vases were 
glazed. It will not be profitable here to discuss it. but I have 
no doubt that this subject of porosity is the best of evidence 
that the primitive pottery found here was not made here be- 
cause our clay fires more compactly than the pot sherds, and 
it undoubtedly made very porous by the loss of carbon of 
which the primitive pottery clay was heavily charged. 




As to the biking many have supposed that a hole in the 
ground was a primitive potter's kiln. That would do to pre- 
pare (or them a delicious dish of clams, or bake potatoes, but 
as there would be no draft to give the heat requisite for pot- 
tery, (2500 to 3000 degrees), it was not the method used. I 
would suggest that the pot was laid on a hearth of stone with 
dried faggots heaped about it. This method woulc heat the 
upper part and rims the most and, and the fact that so many 
sherds of rims and upper parts are found, has suggested the 
method of firing. M my fragments exhibit evidence of nearly 
melting or almost blow pipe heating, indicating some method 
of firing much superior to a hole in the ground. 

KNEADING. 

In the local pottery fragments I have discovered no blow 
holes or blister marks made by air bubbles in the clay paste, 
while in process of being formed into shape by the ancient 
potter. A common brick spall which is made of cl?y which 
has only been run through a pug mill will be found to be very 
coarse and have large cubes of native clay unmilled. Clay for 
pottery must be much more broken up and mixed than for 
common brick. In addition to tht pug mill with its knives to 
cut up and mix thL- material, the clay must be run between 
rollers to grind it to a fine powder or paste and thoroughly break 
up all its parts, and it must then be carefully kneaded and 
worked over again so that every particle is thoroughly knead- 
ed. When turning on the wheel it must be repeatedly forced 
back on to the wheel to rid it of air chambers. This will be 
sufficient for common ware, but much more washing and 
straming and repeated kneading is required for the higher 
grade of pottery. 

It will be noticed that the primitive pottery is not coarse 
nor full of blow holes. It seems coarse because the tempering 



I 
1 

■ 

I 




PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 



163 



of quartz or shale is not finely powdered, but the clay has been 
thoroughly mixed Thi-; indicates that the remains of the ar- 
chaic pottery art which has come to our notice was far advanc- 
ed beyond the earliest state, in which the clay would not be 
much mixed, as it would take many generations to discover 
the laborious process necessary to mix these clays to make the 
well mixed ware of our local fragments. 

POTTERS WHEEL. 

In the fragments with shale tempering it will be noticed the 
small flat fragments ot white shale are always flat with the 
ware, not presenting except in very few instances its edges to 
the face of the ware. This is evidence that the plastic clay 
has been pressed between the hands and such pressure has 
flattened out the shale tempering. If turned on a potter's 
wheel this shale would present its edges in every direction. 1 
have seen no evidence of the potter's wheel. 

CONVENTIONAL DECORATION. 

Some of the decoration of the ware and perhaps all of the 




cmbeiiishmrnt may be said to be primitive, yet it is so only in 
degrees. Mv specimens show edges decorated by notches 
made with a horn or the potter's nail, and with a shell. Others 
have the inner side of the curve of the turned over rim decor- 
ated in same manner as the outer part of the rim. The oul-:r 
parts of the rim and the neck and the upper part of the body 
, with numerous designs, hardly any two alike. Some of these 
are dots made with a quill, the nail, with a horn, with a square 
stick, and rings with the end of a bone, (one such marked rings 
one inch in diameter), with a deer horn, with the finger. 
Curved and straight lines with horn, stick and fingers and 
string corded or plated. These are formed into figures repeat- 
ed about the vessel and often several methods employed in 
one vessel. These designs are con.-entric parallel lines around 
the vessel, or chevrons, festoons, triangles and many other de- 
signs; none of them requiring more than a few idle moments 
to impress into the plastic clay. If I were to pick out some 
characteristic design 1 would not know which one to take. None 
are made with a stamp. It is true these designs may be said not 




■64 



THF. AMERICAN ANTIOUARIAN. 



to be carelessly made, in the sense that they are simply child'* 
play and without the least art. They do exhibit some sense of 
the symmetery of art. Considered in ihe light of iheir tnviton- 
ment, the supposed crude condition of society, they exhibit a 
symmetry and taste far beyond the scale in which we place them. 
As for instance, one piece in which the rim is turned over at 
right angles to the neck, the dots and lines are made with a 
square implement, into right angles and squares like the Egyp- 
tian frieze. Chevrons made with twisted cord is quite a favorite 
form of decoration. The handle, tips and knobs are decorated- 
One form o{ marking quite common especially in the Clam 
eater village of Little Lake Butte des Morts is the triangular 
chevron. It is made with dotted lines, also with a pointed im- 
plement. It is also impressed with twisted and plated cord. 
Such zigzag or diagonal patterns also appear in the textile fab- 
ric impression. This chevron pattern is also very prevalent 
over the whole eastern part of the United Slates. Another 
widely distributed type of marking is by square incised holes, 
making parallel lines or curves and squares orehevron figures. 
Samples of this marking are found in the town of Neenahandat 
Azlalan, Wisconsin, also in Indiana and New Jersey and in old 
England. 

I have local specimens marked with either a sea shell or 
fossil, by a series of indented crescent holes. Several speci- 
mens are marked by a round horn or stick closely wound with 
a small twisted cord. 

No decoration that I can find is made in high relief, but all 
intaglio or impressed. 



TEXTILE I'ABRIC DECOKATION. 



1 



Much of the ware is marked with textile fabric, such as 
cloth mide of wild hemp, thistle fibre and bark, also rush mats 
and grass bagging. Mr. Holmes supp'^ses much of ihis mark- 
ing is for decoration and his reasoning is good. I have not 
found evidence lo verify this, however, except in an uncertain 
way, which is this: Some of the rims are fabric marked upon 
both sides, whereas if the maiking was accidental in hanging 
the vessels for drying or in forming, the marking would result 
only on the outer side. 

It has been said that the textile fabric was older than pot- 
tery, because it was supposed that the fabric marked pottery 
had been moulded in a basket or sand-pit lined with cloth, or 
moulded in a cloth bag, but it has been discovered that few 
vessels are entirely impressed with fabric, and Mr. Holmes h; 
discovered by the festooning of the cloth and lay of some ( 
the strings that even the lower parts of the vessels have been 
clothed marked upside dawn, proving thif cloth to have been 
laid on after the vessel was formed. Mr. Holmes has also 
shown that rush mat markings are not impressed by stiff or 
rigid basketing, but by loose pliable fabric. So the relative 



I 

I 

ii 




PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 165 

a^c of pottery or fabric still remains an open question, with 
inference in favor of pottery being the older. It is certain that 
the cloth was removed before firing as I have a specimen 
showing a rim made thicker over parts first marked with fab- 
ric, and numerous 5p--cimens show further decoration after be- 
ing impressed with fabric. It is not certain nor even probable 
lliat fabric was used to assist in moulding as some local speci- 
mens show moulding over gourds, and none show any cloth 
markiug on the bottom, and a clay form would be much the 
easier to use as a mould on which to make the hand made ves- 
sel. It would be easily made and easily removed by picking 
out in pieces. Some of the cloth marks lay over each other, 
showing they were impiessed for Hecoration and over-lapped. 
Fortunately the plastic clay has either by design or accident, 
preserved for our eyes, the texture and web and warp of hund- 
reds of primitive designs in textile art. which would have been 
absolutely lost without. It reveals to us the real thing except 
the material of the thread a. plainly as if we had the fabric it- 
SfU. By making casts of the clay moulds, the cloth is brought 
out as plainly in every detail as if we had the real article. A 




very few fragin.:ntj of mound builder cloth have bi^en found 
preserved by wrapping copper or charred by fire, or in the cop- 
l-eras caves of Kentucky. Inscribed clay tablets of square 
tile in Mesopotamia impressed with characters forty five hun- 
dred years before Christ, give the history of a people and their 
doings six thousand four liundred years ago. And here in 
Wisconsin an antique people many years ago wove and spun 
and made cloth in their primitive loom which, though it has 
long since crumbled to dust, having been impressed on their 
pottery, it has come down to us as if photographed by the 
loom master of ages ago. The study of this cloth is a revila- 
lion, which in itself would make one respect if not love a peo- 
ple with such a diversity of skill, such prodigality of ingenuity. 
Mr. W. H. Holmes says of this fabric as revealed to us by the 
moulds of pot sherds, that the materials used in weaving con- 
sists of fibre of bark, flax and hemp, nettle, and grasses, and 1 



t66 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.] 



think I may add rushes With these he says are made mats. 
baskets. nets, bags and plain cloth, al! of which I have traced in 
local pot sherds. Thinking to ascertain the number of pat- 
terns, and kinds of cloth and textures as shown in the local 
fragments in my possession I undertook to count them. I was 
astonished at the number. Even m many patterns thai showed 
seemingly the same kind of weaving, the threads were differ- 
ent sizes. There are patterns which Mr. Foster says cannot be 
woven with a loom. There are zigzag and chevron patterns; 
there are braid patterns, and cloth with a border and selvage. 
As a comparison of the above methods of decoration with 
those of Europe we may quote Mr. Foster's remarks ; " In the 
plastic arts the mound builder attained a perfection far in ad- 
vance of anv samples which have been found characteristic of 
the stone or even bronze age of Europe." He quotes John 
Lubbocks remarks of the stone age: "That the most elegant 
ornament on their vases are impressions made by the finger 
nail or by a cord wound round the soft clay," Dr. Cyrus 
Thomas mentions a pot excavated from a mound in Vernon 
county, Wisconsin, by Mr. Middleton in service of the Smith- 
sonian Institute, and says of it: "Which I believe is of the 
finest quality of the ware so far obtained from the mounds of 
the United States." ( 1883, 1884 Ethnological report.) 

RELATION OF TEMPERING MATTER TO DECORATION. 

An i.-nportant and singular discovery I have made is that 
all fabric and string-marked local pottery is tempered with 
black quartz, none of it with white shale. I have a specimen 
of red pottery from Missouri, grass fabric marked, which is 
tempered with white shale, so the rule cannot be said to be 
universal. And another singular discovery I have made is that 
all local primitive sherds decorated by curved and straight 
lines, dots and linger nails or other implements in fact all pot- 
tery decorated in some manner except by fabric or thread Is ■ 
tempered with shale. 

As to location the pottery found at Bear Lake, Waupacca 
county, was fabric marked only. and of several hundred pieces 
found at Germaninn. Marquette county, none was fabric mark- 
ed. And of that found on one village site, which we call Little 
River, or clam eater village, on Little Lake Bute des Morts, 
West Menasha, nearly all is fabric marked. This shows that 
two tribes or nations occupied the Stale before the Indian, and 
by this method of study we might trace by pottery alone the 
different races or nations and their imigrations about the 
United States. 

WHO MADE OUR PRIMITIVE POTTERY. 

And now we come to the question of who made the local pot- 
tery and where was it made. The lithological evidence preced- 
ing, proves that most of it was not made in Wisconsin. That 



PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 



167 



the Indian known to historical times, did not make it. is evi- 
denced in the remark of Father Dablon writing of the Masco- 
titis and Miamies in 1670. He says: "they are not rich in 
household utensils, their country hardly furnishing them ma- 
terial for making bark dishes." The birch bark dish seems to 
have been a favorite vessel with Wisconsin Indians and is in 
use even to day. In another place Father Dablon mentions of 
the lake tribes, such as Chippcwas, Hurons and Ottaway. that 
they made a bark dish, into which filled with water, they 
placed heated stones to boil their food. Father Claude Jean 
AUo'jez, says: "Of the Foxes. Sacs. Winnebago. Puttowat- 
tomies, and Menomonies assembled at the Sac Village, at the 
head of Green Bay. ' where he landed in 1869.' "they knew not 
how to make even a bark dish or 
pot. They most often used 
shells." Upon the site of the 
Winnebago Villages on Doty Is- 
land. which was occupied by them 
over two hundred years.there arL' 
no pot sherds. In the vicinity I 
have found a few. There are no 
fragments on the site of the Fox 
village in West Menasha, which 
was occupied by them sixteen 
years. The only fabric which 
our Indtan made was a rush mat. 
His Wampum belt was leather, 
and the beads strung with iron, 
wood bark or leaiher. No cloth such as exhibited to us in the 
marking on the pots is known to have been made or used by 
our Indians. But the pottery was not made in Wisconsin, as 
we have shown above, as the clay and the tempering are not 
native to our State. In 1659 Radisson mentions a tribe possibly 
the Iowa, who made wooden spoons. 

, DIVISION OF LABOR. 

Another important conclusion may be drawn from the mat- 
ter treated in this paper. Much of the ware is undecorated, 
dark and sombre. There was the potter then, and a more 
skillful artisan, the arti^^t and artisan, Mr. Foster says, "sup- 
posing the modelling of particular utensils, was confided lo 
skilled artists, who impressed upon the plastic clay an individ- 
uality which is not to be confounded with more general forms." 
Then we have the skilled art st. Herein we have division of 
labor. The potter, the artisan, and the skilled artist, and 
from what has been explained of the skill required in knead- 
ing the clay, tempering, firing as well as decorating it may be 
readily concluded, none of these names could be applied lo 
many in any tribe or nation. Hence, we have here, the best 
evidence of a guild and, as 1 believe, of an extensive trafic in 




i68 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

earthenware. The hundreds of cloth patterns impressed on 
the clay exhibit another class which raises its spinner and 
weaver also above the commnn throng and creates another 
guild, in which constant practice made perfect, and exhibited 
also an inlertribal traffic in linen goods. Taken together it shows 
their art is not to be classed with the mud pies of our child- 
hood or the rush mats of our local aboriginal tribes. 

Since this paper was read, Mrs. S. S. Frackelton of Milwau- 
kee, who is celebrated for her beautiful work in the fictile art, , 
has made several important experiments which conclusively 
prove that the tempering contest of archaic earthenware is not 
shell. She mixed some blue clay from Redwing. Minn., with 
crushed mussel shells of Lake Winnebago, forming them into 
a bowl and a jar, which were fired in a china kiln, until the ware 
was well burned and the color changed to cream. The shell 
content was burned to a lime, and within a week had air-slack- 
ed and shattered the little bowl into fragments, and the jar was 
so filled with cracks, and shattered that in two weeks it scaled , 
off in pieces and the least touch would cause it to crumble in 

In the same kiln with these two modern pieces she also I 

filaced a fragment of primitive pottery from Menasha and one 
rom Germania, Wis. Their color changed from gray to red, 
but the shale content was left as hard and its lustre as pearly 
as before, and it still cuts hard and crisp like slate while the 
burned shell powders between the fingers. 



THE PHILIPPINE LIBRARY. 



BV FREDERICK STARR. 



k 



Undoubtedly the most extensive and important library of 
Philippiniatia, if I may use that word, is the property of a 
Spanish gentleman, W, E. Retaiia, who printed an admirable 
catalogue of his collection in 1898. At that time Senor Retana 
had two thousand nine hundred and eighty six pieces in nis 
library. These books included (a) works printed in the islands, 
(b) works treating of the islands, and (c) works written by 
Filipinos. We have no intention of discussing the whole col- 
lection, but propose calling attention to one important part of 
ii to which the name, The Philippine Library, may be applied 
with particular appropriateness, namely: the books which 
treat of, or arc written in, the native languages of the Archi- 
pelago. 

It will be a surprise to many to learn that books have been 




PRIMITIVE KERAMIC ART IN WISCONSIN. 



I6<» 



printed in the islands and that many of these are in native lan- 
guages, yet, such is the case. Ainong the earliest books in 
these languages ate certainly San Buenaventura's Vocabulario 
of the Tagal which was printed in [613, and San Agustin's 
Tagal /Jr/*" which appeared in 1703. Retana has no copy of 
these. The oldest work of linguistic character in his collec- 
tion is, Mateo Sanchez' Vocabulario of the Bisayan, which was 
printed in Manila in 171 1. and forms a folio volume of nearly 
six hundred pages. Since that time to the present, printing 
presses, not only at Manila and other island towns, but in vari- 
ous foreign lands, have been busy, and, to-day, considerably 
more than one thousand printed works, in or upon the native 
languages, e.xist. 

Senor Retana, himself, possesses more than nine hundred 
of these. They represent twenty-five different languages. The 
only material in several of these, however, consists of brief 
vocabularies gathered recently by scientific students or 
travelers. Thus, of the Aeta (negrito),Joloano, Manobo, Bilaan, 
Samal and Tagacaolo, which he includes in his list, there are no 
actual books. Of the eighteen others, however, there are true 
printed documents, 

In each of seven of the languages a dozen or more books 
have been printed or studies made. These, with the number 
of works, ari^ Bisayan (352), Taga! (230). llocan (143), Bicol 
(61), Pangasinan (24), Pampangan (22), and Ibanagf 15). Next 
after these, in literary representation, are our Mora allies, of 
Sulu and elsewhere, with eight works to their credit. It is only 
fair to the Tagals to stale that the term Bisayan includes three 
well distinguished dialects — those of Cebu.Pa>uiya.nA Lcyte and 
Samar. The printed matter in any one of these would fall be- 
low the Tagal number. 

Inquiring into the nature or character of the works in " The 
Philippine Library." y/c may roughly classify them as: 



A. Scietirijic stn(lii:s of languages, vocabularies, etc. 

B. Practical Works for instruction, or to facilitate inter- 

course— artfj, ^rattuiticiis. vocabularios, and died- 
otuirios. 



C. Books actually printed 1 
for the use of natives. 

1. Religious. 

2. Non-Religious. 



» the langui 
These are: 



(a) by foreigners. 

(b) by natives. 



s and intended 



Of course the most interesting, as the least numerous, fall 
in C. 2. b- We may however say a few words regarding each 
group. 

There are few Philippine languages of which absolutely 
nothing is known. Of the little blacks, negritos, Aetas, who 
■are usually considered the aboriginal population, and who lead 




A 



170 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 

the life of roving savages, we have some vocabularies gather- 
ed by foreign investigators like A. B. Meyer, Blumentritt, and 
MonCano. Of some of the less known Malayan Iribcs. we have 
vocabularies and 'grammatical observations.' Of the better 
known and civilized Malay populations we have. besides vocab- 
ularies and grammatical studies, various comparative investiga- 
tions, tracings of Sanskrit and Chinese influences, etc., etc. 
Curious and unique in its kind is Gregorio Martin's Collection of 
Tagal saws, phrases, and colloquialisms. But there still remains 
an enormous and interesting field for linguistic study. 

Far more numerous, than these investigations of scholars 
and philo-'Ophical discussions,are the practical works lor facili- 
tating intercourse. There is a long list of Aries, Gram/iticas, 
Vocabularios and Difcionarios. mostly the work of devoted 
missionaries, who, here, as in Mexico, early applied them- 
selves to studying the native tongues. Tlie term nrU- (art) 
means a practical manual for learning a language: it is the 
term used, by preference, by the older writers, while gramatica 
(grammar) is more commonly employed by later authors. So 
the term vocabulario (vocabulary), almost universally used by 
the early priests is replaced, in time, by the more pretentious 
dicciotiario (dictionary). There are in Retana's collection 
fully twenty artL's,\.\\\Tty-tvio gramaticas; eighteen vocabularios; 
and twenty-three dicctpnarios. Certainly the most famous of 
all the artes is that of Totanes, first published in 1745. which 
has gone through many editions, and, is probably, the one 
most used to-day by foreigners learning Tagal. Among mod- 
ern grantaticas, many are patterned after the "Ollendorf" 
method and the use of that name in a title appears to insure 
some popularity. It is noteworthy that most of the books in 
this large class are written from the Spanish standpoint to en- 
able Spaniards to learn some native tongue. There are, how- 
ever, some written to help natives learn Spanish. Thus, an 
abecedario tor primary schools in Cebu has gone through seven 
editions at least, and there are elementary works for teaching 
Spanish to Tagal, llocan and Isanay children. 

Coming now to books printed in Philippine languages for 
native reading, we find that it is the large-t of the three groups 
and is made up chiefly of religious works. Out of the nine 
hundred books already mentioned as in Retana's library, more 
than six hundred arc of this character. There are volumes 
of prayers, sermons, biographies of saints, sacred histories, 
catechisms, etc, in great variety and in many tongues. Most 
popular however, are the noveiuu and closely related works. 
These are little paper covered books of but a few pages, with 
prayers and meditations for a nine day's religious exercise in 
honor of some special saint or sacred event. In this great 
group, there are but few examples of translations of parts of 
the Bible. Is it a curious accident that the one most specifi- 
cally mentioned in Retana is the Lamentations of Jeremiah? 



I 




THE PHILIPPINE LIBRARY. 



With the curious recent quickening of the Protestant conscience 
toward the Filipinos, we have the British and Foreign Bible 
Society entering the field in 1898 with a Tagal Za^i-, and in 
1899 with a Pangasinanye///!. It may be that others have since 
appeared. 

Of non-religious works in Philippine languages a number 
were written by foreigners. Thus there are books of etiquette; 
books of moral maxims; books of advice; there are fables and 
pious fiction. Most of these books are by priests. A consid- 
erable list, issued by a paternal government, instruct the natives 
in the civil code, taxation, regulation of carriage rentals. cuUi- 
vation of tobacco, cocoa, and coffee, and the care of sick child- 
ren. These books are usually bi-lingual, Spanish and a native 
dialect side by side. While speaking of these governmental 
manuals, we mjst state that official proclamations have fre- 
pucntlj been printed in one and another Philippine language. 
A good many broadsides have also been issued by the Filipi- 
nos themselves, both in the days of Spanish rule ind in this 
later time of American military occupation. Nor has the Fili- 
pino lacked for periodicals. El llocaiw was the first absolutely 
"indian" periodical published; it was issued twice a month 
from iSSg to 1896 and was in the Ilocan language. In El Pasi^t 
published in the sixties for some months, there were articles 
in seveial of the native tongues. We will not try to list the 
periodicals which have printed more or less of native matter. 
Such are still published, among Xhcm Ang Kapatui IVg Bayan, 
(the cry of the people), a morning daily published at Manila, 
half in Spanish and half ioTagal, is perhaps representative. 

A notatabie characleristic of the Filipino is his fondness 
lor poetry. So great is this, that many of the strictly religious 
booklets are wholly or in part, inverse. There are some forms 
of poetical production, which are, though semi-religious in 
character, and often prepared by the priests — highly popular. 
Such AX ^ pastor elas. for singing and acting, celebrating the birth 
of Christ and various passion plays. Still more popular arc 
Ihe corridas, of which Retana has nearly fifty. These are long 
and highly romantic poems detailing the doings of knights and 
ladies, princes and princesses, with high sounding names and 
dwelling in Spain, Portugal. Albania, Turkey, Hungary and 
other regions so remote and unknown in Filipino experience 
as to be, practically fairyland or some other mythic district. 
Such wiirks as these lead us on to set dramas of which a num- 
ber have been printed in Tagal, Ilocan, Bicol.and Bisayan. On 
Ihc whole comedy appears the favorite, though not the only 
dramatic form. A number of poems pure and simple, with no 
attempt at either romance or drama, may also be attributed to 
Filipinos, several of them being by hidios: '\. e., individuals 
without Spanish admixture. 

In prose there aie calendars {almanacs), several novels — 
usually with a " purpose"— and occasional useful manuals. 
Among these the Manual dd Mc'diipiillo Visaya, manual of the 



tja THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Bisayan herb doctor, is eminently curious as it gives, in bi- 
lingual form (Spanish and Cebuan) the lore of the indian 
doctor. 

This suggests the books of amterias, which, though not in* 
print, should be included in the Philippine Library. They are 
wee books, of manuscript prayers, worn, as charms, upon 
the person. They are in themselves amulets and the repeti- 
tion of the prayers they contain givL-s magical assistance. 
Retana has publishtid one of these curious books, with prefa- 
tory notes, explanatory remarks, and transialion. His speci- 
men was taken from a bandit prisoner, who had worn it. sewed 
up in a little pouch. hung by a cord about his neck. It was written 
upon blue paper and appeared to have been made about fifty 
years ago. It consisted of fifty-two leaves, or one hundred 
and four pages of writing, which measured about two and five- 
eights by two and one-eighth inches. The text was in corrupt 
Latin, corrupt Spanish, and almost as bad Pan^asinan. Its 
pages "contain balms for curing all classes of diseases; prayers 
to the Virgin and all the Celestial Court to free the bearer 
from justice, to conquer enemies; to reduce him himself to 
smoke or render him invisible; lo give him power to steal with- 
out detection; to sally with success from every batlle; to ren- 
der firearms and weapons of steel harmless agamst him; to pro- 
tect him against snakes and witches; to win the hearts of wo- 
men." These prayers present a curious mingling of christian 
and pagan notions and. were, nodoubl, composed shortly after 
the islands were christianized. Most mteresiing of all are two 
prayers, one of which is addressed to the caiman (or crocodile), 
and the other to the bees. Scattered through this medley of 
christanity and paganism of Latin. Spanish and Pangasinan.of 
piety and cri.ninality, are mysterious characters and symbol?, 
which, if they ever had any meaning are, to-day, incomprensi- 
ble. So great is the confidence of the indios in such books, 
that cases are known, where they have stood up before fire- 
arms without flinching, when they had one upon their person. 

Thus we see that the Philippine languages are not unrepre- 
sented in print; that, in fact, "the Philippine Library " is quite 
extensive, ancient, and varied in contents. A thousand books 
is no mean showing, even though many of them are small and 
thin. New books in the native languages, similar in character 
to those described, are constantly appealing. Last Kail a friend 
purchased a handful of little books, for me, upon the streets of 
Manila. Out of twenty-one thus secured fifteen were not id 
Rctana's list. Only four of these had appeared. however,since 
his catalogue was printed. It is clear thjn that we have actu- 
ally underestimated the number of books in or on the Philipp- 
ine languages, in basing ourselves upon his figures. 



I 



CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 



BV DK. A. L. BENEDICT, 



There have bt'en most elaborate schemes suggested for the 
classification of the different peoples of the world in regard to 
their progress in art, science, and industry. Many will recall 
such a classification in one of the geographies in common use 
a generation ago which subdivided those nations commonly 
termed civilized into civilized and enlightened. Among the 
enlightened nations were the United States and those which 
have contributed most liberally to its population while the 
other races of Europe were designated as merely civilized. 
The love of country and of ancestry which this classifica- 
tion aroused in youthful bosoms and the soul-satisfying dis- 
comfiture of the occasional Russian or Italian who was so un- 
fortunate as to attend the same school with the scions of the 
enlightened races will doubtless be recalled. It is always 
difficult to classify development according lo natural law and 
whatever subdivision is made should be based on (he most 
tangible and conspicuous evidence. Taking a bird's-eye view 
of the various peoples who now inhabit the ;arth, or of whom 
we have knowledge through history or archaeology, a three- 
fold classification has suggested itself to every student who 
has not made a distinct endeavor to invent some complicated 
classification which should be different from that which was 
at once obvious and common. Adopting the natural rather 
than the logical method of classification, we shall first s^ect 
our types and later define in general terms what those types 
signify. The first type consists of peoples living most nearly^ 
in a state of nature such as the Africans and Esquimaux of the 
present, the ancestors of the present European nations at thfr 
time of their conquest by the Romans, and the American In- 
dians of a period which has barely yet elapsed. 

Secondly, we note the Chinese of to-day and the Japanese 
up to a generation ago, the ancient monarchies which cluster- 
ed about the Mediternnean Seaat the dawn of history and the 
other similar aboriginal monarchies about the Mediterranean 
Sea of America, — the Gulf of Mexico. As a third type, we re- 
cognize the Grecians, Romans, and Jews at the time of their 
maximum development and the present nations of Europe and 
America. The "irst type wc designate as savage, the second as 
barbaric and the third as civilized. Any attempt to subdivide 
these three prime types proves difficult and unsatisfactory and 
it frequently happens that we find a people emerging from 
one type into another, or we find two peoples of different type 




'7-t 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUAKIAN. 



united under a common government, without the assimilation 
or annihilation of the weaker type. As a general rule, the ai- 
(■■mpl to force a race from a low to a high grade of cuUu' e 
(iro/es disastrous. The American aborigines, for exampi , 
liave been almost annihilated in their contact with the whi'e 
race. The negroes seem to thrive physically under the d imiii- 
ation, more or less merciful, of superior races and to a large 
degree have even acquired the intellectual attainments of their 
superiors. The Japanese have also within the last century sit- 

Srised every student of human history by leaping at a single 
ound from higher barbarism into civilisation, apparently suf- 
fering neither moral Iv nor physically, for this apparent violation 
of the natural laws of human progress. In India, there has ex- 
isted for centuries a peculiar mixture of diverse cults and under 
British supremacy, there exists at present a condition which 
defies any satisfactory attempt at classification. We also have 
a unique example in the Jews who have resisted absorption and 
have maintained their lineage with a little admixture through 
centuries of persecution. Though compelled for centuries to 
subsist under the mo.-st unsanitary and commercially deplorable 
conditions, they have emerged under more benevolent laws as 
a people without political organization, living in, and we might 
say ^Z, other civilizations without being of them. It is also 
note-worthy that the Jewish people, originally pastoral and ag- 
ficultural, has devoted itself, wherever transplanted, to non- 
productive industry and in fact, that it illustrates parasitism of 
the highest and most independent kind, genuine productive in- 
dustry and actual pauperism being equally rare in its members. 

In attempting to define the three stages of savagery, bar- 
barism and civilization, we must analyze the social and politi- 
cal'lifc of man. we must studv his organization, with regard to 
his own community and those foreign to it, we must inquire 
into his religion, his industrial occupation and intellectual de- . 
velopment, the last being denoted especially by his progress in 
language, spoken and written. ' 

The evolutionist, from the trend of his interests, has ex- I 
pected to offer either in a living people or in the remains of 
some extinct race, evidences of man just emerging from the 
brute creation, — man with no spiritual life, or intellectuality 
beyond some little ingenuity in the satisfaction of his ap- 
petites, — man without speech, without religion, without knowl- 
edge of the family relation or tribal government, with no idea 
of differentiation of the activities oi the various members of a 
community, with little skill even in the rude arts of hunting 
and fishing, with no knowledge of implements beyond the 
choice of sticks and stones which may be better adapted to his 
needs than others and with no thought of shaping tools and 
weapons to his needs. This anticipation of the evolutionist 
does not exist at present nor is there proof that it ever has 
existed. Wherever human remains have been found, there 





CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 



•75 



have been foutid with them, fairly ingenious implements, in 
most cases evvn the crude indication of an artistic striving, and 
the disposal of the dead and even the rubbish which has ac- 
cumulated about his ancient hearth-stone, suggest that thi; 
earliest man of whom we have any knowledge possessed s'-me 
sentiments in regard to his family and some affectionate recard 
for the deui which persists to the present day. Indeed, the 
nearest approach to a cold-blooded lack of human affection 
and of divine Ideals has been found among the natives of Af- 
rica ivho have, in industry and language reached a fairly hi|jh 
stale of development. 

To sum up the distinctions among savagery, barbarism 
and civilization, the following tabular view may be convenient 
although numerous exceptions to the statements therein c m- 
tained will be encountered by the student in the actual sludv 
of the human race: 
Savagery 

Family — about as present. 

Political organization— practically no Internal governmenc. 
No conception of police organization. Ques- 
tions of equity decided informally though often 
by a political chief. Punishment pf criminals 
left to personal vengeance. Hence, the law re 
cognized duty of vengence for the family, clan, 
etc. External political organization well de- 
fined though definite conceptions of internat- 
ional law were not always in accordance with 
modern standards of ethics. Every male adult 
a warrior. 
Religiousorganization— Idea of creator and intermcdiiior 
usually well defined. Idolatry frequently en- 
tirely wanlmg especially in the North Ameri- 
can Indians, Symbolism sometimes frequently 
used and merging into idolatry. Ethical stand- 
ards similar in general to those prevailing 
among civilized peoples but subject to numer- 
ous exceptions on account of peculiar ideas. 
Mythology usually recognized as a personifica- 
tion of natural phenomena and forces. Priest- 
hood not very stable. Priestly offices usually 
discharged byeklerly men and women of promi- 
nence. Life-long devotion to priesthood not 
rare. 
Differentiation of Occupations— Occasional example of medi- 
cine man or Implement maker. Otherwise prac- 
tically no differentiation of trades. 
Spoken Language — (The theoretic classification of languages 
does not apply to the cultural development ot 
man as might be anticipated. The language 
of the lowest savages known Is comparatively 



176 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



perfect in construction and ample in vocabulary 
and most principal ideas of tense, mode, ab- 
stract ideas, etc., can be translated from one 
language to another without reference to the 
developement of the people speaking it. While 
there arc sciniL- notable exceptions to this state- 
ment, the langiiag<?s of savage peoples are sur- 
prisingly competent to express civilized ideas, 
their prmcipal lack being in nouns correspond- 
ing to objects unknown on account of the state 
of development.) -J 

Written Language— Entirely ideographic except that proper 
names are written as a rebus. No indication of 
sound can be given in this way and the name 
would be pronounced differently or misinter- 
preted if the reader were not familiar with the 
spoken language of the writer. .„ 

Food Supply — Hunting, fishing, crude agriculture. 

Art — Simple and crude. Seldom possible to distin- 

guish fine arts from useful ones. Convention- 
alism well developed but crude efforts at repre- 
sentative art surprisingly free from conven- 
tionalism. 

Barbarism 

Family — Polygamous. 

Political Organization^lnternal political organization ela- 
borate, consisting of a monarchic organiz.itioD | 
of the aristocracy. Police regulations well de- 
fined to the extent of protecting the nion-.rch ] 
from the aristocracy, and the aristocracy from 
the common people. Little or no attemut at 
systematic and rational enforcement of civil and [ 
criminal laws. Courts of equity cominon. 
Criminal offences, not of political significance, 
usually left to personal vengeance. Male mem- 
bers of aristocracy almost universally warriors. 
Lower classes usually in a state of more or less 
complete slavery and subject to military duty as 
required. Conceptions of international law and 
international relations very vague. 
Religious Organization — Idolatry prevalent. Polytheism, 
Sacrifices on an extensive scale largely for the 
support of the priesthood. Priesthood perma- 
nent, numerically large and influential. Medi- 
cal and scientific arts usually under the control 
of the priesthood. 
Differentiation of Occupations — Quite accurate division of 
occupation?, certain occupations being confined 
to the aristocracy and others to the lower clas- 
ses. Comparative fixity of trades by heredity. 



I 



CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 



Written Language— Ideographism developed into arbitrary 
conventional signs. Writing iconographic^that 
is, on the principal of the modern rebus, com- 
paratively few conventionalized ideograms be- 
ing combined to suggest the sounds of other 
words. 

Food Supply — Agricultural and pastoral skill well develop- 
ed. [Pastoral life impossible inNorth America 
on account of the lack of domesticable animals 
and very liitle developed in South America be- 
cause of the paucity and relatively slight value 
of domesticable animals]. 

Art — Art highly conventional, representative art be- 

ing so conventionalized as to appear like a cari- 



catui 



Civilization 
Family — 



Family rights protected by law. 

Political Organization — Both internal and external politi- 
cal organization elaborate. Points of differ- 
ence from conditions existing in savagery and 
barbarism too well-known to require recapitu- 
lation. 

Religious Organization — Tendency to return to more na- 
tural and simple ideas. Priesthood less numer- 
ous and less influential. Atheism or dissension 
from existing religious views comparatively 
common. More or less complete cession by 
priesthood, of medical practice, scientific dom- 
ination and political influence. [Practically all 
modern civilized nations are either nominally 
christian or Christianity has influenced their 
standards of ethicsj. 

Differentiation of Occupations— Specialization of industry 
more marked than in barbarism but only on ac- 
count of economic and industrial advances. No 
restriction with regard to class or heredity. 
Change of occupation during life-time of an in- 
dividual, common. 

Written Language — Writing mainly phonetic although the 
letters of the alphabet may ultimately be 
traced to ideograms. 

FoodSupply— Agricultural and pastoral life well-developed. 
. Art— Sharp distinctions between fine and useful arts 

and between conventional and representative 
arts. Caricature well developed but of limited 
application. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

■ 

Maltese Archaeology, Albert Mayr who ^udied on the 
ground the prehistoric monuments of Malta, has published the 
results of his observations in '*Die vorgeschichtlichen Denk- 
maeler von Malta (Muenchen, i9oi),of which work a recensio i 
by S. Reinach appears in '*L'Anthropologie" (Paris), Vol. XII. 
pp. 730-732. According to M. Reinach the investigations * f 
Mayr correct all previous accounts of Maltese archaeology, 
even that of Perrot and Chipiez, based upon insufficient da a. 
The megalithic sanctuaries, contrar>' to the opinion of Fergus- 
son and others, seem to have had no roofs, and show the pre- 
dilection of the ancient Maltese for elliptic foundations and 
bent lines. Such monuments are the Gigantia, Tal-Kaghan, 
Mnaidra, Hadjar-Kim, etc. The conic stones, pillars, altars, 
etc., are of cult-significance. Some of the other stone struc- 
tures, towers, walls, dwellings, rock-houses, sculptures, etc., re- 
call sometimes /Egean and sometimes Libyan art. The pot- 
tery has certain not clearly defined resemblances with the 
primitive ceramic objects of Cyprus. The opinion, hitherto 
generally held (although in 1856 H. Rhind opposed it) that 
monuments of the Maltese islands were of Phcenician origin, 
must now be abandoned, and the few inscriptions discovered 
are merely evidence of later colonization, not of original set- 
tlement. These Maltese megalithic structures belong to a cul- 
ture wider and older than that of the Phcvnician, and with an- 
alogous monuments in Sardinia, the Balearic islands and south- 
western Spain, represent a western insular civilization of the 
Mediterranean region, more or less independent of, although 
for a long time in contact with, that in the east; the presence 
in Malta of spirals and corbelling, indicates Myca,'nian influence*. 
Mayr holds that the primitive population of Malta to whom 
are due these megalithic monuments came from the African 
coast, but Reinach considers the proof of analogies between 
the Maltese structures and those of French Africa not very 
convincing, and inclines rather to the Tripolitan region for 
such resemblances. He thinks also that there are close analo- 
gies between the steatopygic statuettes found in Malta and 
those of the Egyptian proto-Libyans, than between the former 
and corresponding i^Fgean art. Reinach concludes that the 
idea of the colonization, at an extremely remote period, of 
Malta by the Phcenicians must be given up. So •* prehistoric 
Phcenicia loses a new province, and the oriental mirage has 
one less pillar to support it." Malta remains, however, none 
the less interesting to the archaiologist and student of early 
man. 

Corsican Ethnology, In September 1901 the *' Association 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



FraJ'naise pour rAvancemenl des Sciences " met at Ajaccio 
in Corsica, and the occasion naturally brought into prominence 
the ethnology of the island past and present. Several papers 
relating to Corsica were read before the Anthropological Sec- 
tion and excursions to points of arch:eological interest were 
made. A few months before the meeting there was discover- 
ed in a quarry at Cagnano, near Luri (on the Cape Coiso pen- 
insula, in the extreme north ol the island) a rock-shelter, 
where were found a number of large objects, some fragments 
of pottery, human skulls, and other osseous remains. The 
bronze ornaments of Cagnano, according to M. Ernest Chan- 
Ire, resemble those of the tumuli of the Jura and Franche- 
Comti=, from certain Italian and Sicilian necropoli and from 
Koban in the Caucasus. Of the skulls one has some resemb- 
lance to that discovered by Captain Ferton at Bonifacio (in 
the extreme south). The latter gave an account of his inves- 
tigations in the memoirs in " Premiers habitants de Bonifacio 
et leur origine" and "Poterie nt'olithique trouvce a Bonifacio." 
No traces of quaternary man seems to have been found here, 
but many remains of neolithic culture like that of the conti- 
nent during the same period. The flint, serpentine and quartz 
employed to fashion implements and weapons are of local ori- 
gin, but the considerable objects of obsidian (this rock does' 
not occur in Corsica) must have come trom abroad, by way,, 
probably of the Sardinian trade-routes. The man of these 
rock-sheitcrs, hunter and fisher, fed largely upon the Lagomys 
Corsicanus, a little rodent long ago exiinct on the island. The 
osteological peculiarities of neolithic Corsican man [dolicho- 
cephalic, platvcnemia, etc.,] bring him into relation with the 
contemporaneous man of the comment. This type seems to- 
have widely dispersed over the island and has perpetuated it- 
self to this day, although later driven back by the differing 
race that introduced inio Corsica a knowledge of copper and 
bronze and their manufacture. Finds by Tommasini at Bala- 
gna and bv Franceschi at Hioggiola, the last yielding mauy 
bronze objecis, were made some years before these later dis- 
coveries. The sculptured menhirs of Corsica,— the range of 
Palaggio, near Tizano, is the largest— have been studied by E. 
Michon. Very interesting are the two curious sculptured 
menhira of Santa Maria and Capocastinco, These Michon com- 
pares to the so-called Apricciani statue, wrongly considered 
to be a Ph<Enician sarcophagus cover. Dr, P. Delisle, who re- 
sumes the papers of the meeting for "L'Anthropologie " [Vol. 
XII. pp, 757764] expresses the opinion that the "Corsicaiv 
type" is not as uniform as has been tliought, with respect to 
both the pa-;t «nd ihe present population. The most note- 
worthy types are the Cro-Magnon and the Berber, The form- 
er is still easily distinguishable in the district of Balagna.whcre- 
Ihe latter [scattered also here and there all over the island, at 
Corte. e. g7\, is also to be noted. Some of the dolichocephals 
arc of a finer type; brachycephals and intermediate varieties 



THF. AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



are also to be found. Some of the Berber L'lement may be due 
to the "Sarrazins," who have occupied certain sections of the 
country for some three centuries. Most authorities make the 
earliest inhabitants of Corsica come from Sardinia, — ultimate- 
ly, in all probibility, from northern Africa. 

The Alptrif Type. In the "Centralblatt fur Anthropologie " 
[Vol. VI. pp. 321-330]. Dr. Gustav Kraitschek, of Landskron. 
offers objections to Ripley's recognition of a so-called "Alpine 
type"as one of the three fundamental races of which European 
peoples are composed. According to Dr. Kraitschek, Ripley's 
"Alpine type", is not autonomous wiih the "Teutonic" and Ihe 
"Mediterranean," but very clearly a hybrid or mixed form, one 
of several combinations of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic 
stocks. 

Tkf Alhged Somatic Inferiority of Woman. Dr. Giuffrida- 
Ruggeri's article "Sulla pretesa inferioritii somatica della don- 
na " [Arch. d. Psichiatria, Vol. XXI., pp. 4-5] is calculated to 
give pause to some of the somatologica! detractors of woman. 
From a careful examination of one hundred male and one 
hundred female skulls from one region he comes to the con- 
clusion that the so-called "inferiority" of woman has no exis- 
tence in a scientific sense. Dr. Giuffrida-Ruggeri does not 
even allow that the skull of woman is somatically nearer the 
infantile form than is that of man. It Is easier to maintain 
indeed, that modern woman stands higher morphologically 
than modern man. Her so-called " inferiorities," are neither 
infantile, nor developmental in their significance, but express 
merely incidents of cranial relations. The same things in a wo- 
man and in a child are not identical. 

Kraui lllhnograpktco-Psychologieo-Muiical-Musaim in Florence. 
A catalogue of part of the objects [musical instruments of all 
sorts, times and peoples] in this interesting collection appeais 
in the "Archivio per rAntropoloEia"[Vol. XXX. pp. 371-297]. 
The Museum contains in all 1076 specimens. Of these Asia 
furnishes iiS; Japan and LiuKiu 6j; Corea 7; China and An- 
nam 21; Siam 3; India 6; Per-iia 6; 'Arabia and Asia Minor 8; 
Australia and Polynesia 2I; Java and Nias 9; New Guinea i; 
Marshall Is. i ; New Britain 6; New Caledonia 4; Africa 42; 
K^ypt, Nubia and Sudan 25; Abyssinia 6; Tunis, -Algeria, 
Morocco and Congo 1 1 ; Europe 871 ; Turkey, Servia and Mon- 
tenegro 8; Russia 13: Italy 434; France 56; Belgium and Hol- 
land 13; England 19; Germany, Austria and Switzerland 87; 
parts and appliances 231: America 26; North America 10; 
Mexico 7; Haiti 4; South America 5. 

Artificitil Slfep. From a brief rcsumi' by Kohlbrugge f Cbl. 
f. Anthr-, Vol. VI. p. 379]. it appears that the Javanese know 
how to produce a pleasant artificial sleep by pressure of the 
carotid^- whose name in the native tongue is vcrai-tidor, "slee 
Ijeivc." The accompanying an.-esthesia makes it easy to pe 



I 
I 




ARCH/EOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. i8i 

form minor operaitons upon the patient. The folk-thought 
connecting the carotids and sleep is very old. Celsus called 
the carotid artery artcria somnifera ^nA. f«ra/;*rf itself is said to 
be derived from Greek karus, "■ sleep." Even the ancient As- 
syrians are credited with a knowledge of carotid-sleep. 



ARCH/EOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. 

BY JOHN I'R \5ER, LL. D.. SYDNEV, 

Six months ago I gave you .some account of the departure 
of the Spencer ami Gillen expedition into the inerior of Au- 
stralia for the purpose of examining, in the interests of Science, 
some of the manners and cuvtoms of the undiluted Tribes there. 
They have now done their work and are returning, but instead 
of following the r.mte^ nf [he Overland Telegraph Line from 
Fort Darwin on the Nortliwesc Coast to Adelaide, South Au- 
stralia, they have pushed across from Alice Springs in the in- 
terior to Biirolula, a small township on the West Coast of the 
Gulf of Carpentaria, six hundred and fifty miles by land from 
Fort Darwin. There they expected to gel the steamer which 
plies between that part of Carpentaria and the Port, but we 
now learn that the steamer has gone lo the bottom of the sea, 
and the party must wait in that lonely and malarious region 
till means can be used to bring them off and carry them back 
to civilization. This delay is unfortunate, for they have had 
malarial fever already and are weak in health, and the raining 
season is coming on. 

The Australian Association for the advancement of Science, 
held its Ninth Session in Hobart. the Capitol of Tasmania, a 
few weeks ago. This Association was first formed in Sydney 
in the year 1888, and has met in the chief cities of Australia at 
iiiteivals of one or two years. The next meeting will be held 
at Dunedin.New Zealand, in 1904. At the recent Hobart meet- 
ing, Captain Hutton.director of the Museum at Christ Church, 
New ZeaUnd was voted to the chair and gave the Presidential 
address. It was on " Evolution " and in the opening sections 
it touched on some questions that belong to Anthropology. 
From the fact that man sleeps and dreams, it was argued that 
early man was "led to believe that there was in him a spirit in- 
dependent of his natural frame in its movements, and that this 
spirit lived on as a ghost after the death of the body; hence 
ancestor spirits and their deification and worship and thence 
the worship of mythical personages in general; then came a 
belief in benificent tribal gods, and that inanimate objects also 
contained spirits. After such remarks as these, the president 



i82 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

went on to consider Darwin's theory, and the more recent as- 
pects of it. 

In the Anthropological section, papers were read on '* An- 
thropometry and child measurement;" Primitive ways;** es- 
pecially burial rites, ** Legends and marriage rites of the blacks 
in Central Australia ;" " the Islands of the Pacific Ocean " and 
so on. 

The Science Congress occupied nine days and had six hund- 
red and t^hirty one members. It organized public lectures and 
excursions into the country and received hospitality bcth 
from His Excellency, the Govener, and from private residents. 



STONE CIRCLES. 



BV A. M. SWAN. 



Stone circles, similar in many respects to those found in 
England, are not rare in New Mexico. One located on the 
east line of the Socorro Grant, in Socorro county, New Mexico, 
is typical of many of these circles. The interior of this 
circle is about forty feet and has been surrounded by an 
outer circle. The inner circle is in the best state of preserva- 
tion, most of the upright enclosing stones being still intact. 
The stones have plan equi-di>tant from each other. In the 
centre of this circle there are four upright stones forming the 
four corners of a square, which have been capped by a large 
flat stone now broken in two but edges still supported by the 
interior pillows forming what English Archiologist would 
probably term an Altar stone. 

Not far from the Cochiie mining camp in Benialills county 
there is a somewhat smaller stone circle of the same design 
and others have been noticed in several other locations. 

That thiese circles were not intended for the trapping of 
game is rent'ered very improbable from their location on 
high exposed ground with no natural barriers to aid the 
hunter in surrounding and driving his game as well as from 
their small area In each case which has come under my ob- 
servation, very ancient ruins may be found in the immediate 
vicinity, some of which are of great extent. 

Another class of upright stone remains consists of lines set 
at square distances apart covering great areas. One of these 
located on the Navojo correction line— surveyed by the late 
CoL Walter G. Marman, covers an aera of probably one thou- 
sand acres of land. The rows of upright lines are parallel and 
in an casterlv and wesierly line. Similar remains, I be- 
have been found at Yucatan. 



THE ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. 

BY ARTHUR J. EVANS. 



In my excavation of the prehistoric palace of Knossos- 
I came upon a series of deposits ot clay tablets, repre- 
senting the royal archives, tlie inscriptions on which be- 
long to two distinct systems of writing — one hierogly- 
phic and quasi-pictorial; the other for the most part lin- 
ear and much more highly developed. Of these the hier- 
oglyijhic class especially presents a series of forms an- 
swering to what, according lo the names of the Phoeni- 
cian letters, we must suppose to have been the original 
pictorial designs from which these, too, were deriv- 
ed. A series of conjectural reconstructions of the origi- 
nals of the Phcenician letters on this line were, in fact, 
drawn .out by my father. Sir John Evans, for a lecture 
on the origin of the alphabet, given at the Royal insti- 
tution, in 18""2. and it may be said that two-thirds of 
these resemble almost line for line actual forms of Cre- 
tan hieroglyphics. The oxhead Aleph. the'house Beth, the 
window He. the peg Vau, the fence Chclh, the hand IW, 
seen sideways; and the open palm Kaph; the fish Nun; 
the post or trunk Satm-kk; the eye Ain; the mouth Pe : 
the teeth Shin; the cross-sign Tati : not to speak of sev- 
eral other probable examples, are all literally reproduced. 

The analogj thus supplied is. overwhelming. It is im- 
possible to believe that while on one side of the East 
Mediterranean basin these alphabetic prototypes were 
naturally evolving themselves, the people of the oppo- 
site shore were arriving at the same result, by a com- 
plicated process of selection and transformation of a ser- 
ies of hieratic Egyptian signs derived from quite differ- 
ent objects. 

The analogy with Cretan hieroglyphic form certainly 
weighs strongly in favor of the simple and natural ex- 
planation of the origin of the PhiEuician letters, which 
was held from the time of Gesenius onward, and was 
only disturbed by the extremely ingenious, though over- 
elaborate, theory of De Rouge. 

Whether, however, the Phoenician letters, or rather 
their pictorial originals, were actually selected from the 
Cretan characters is a different question, and on this I 
wished to express myself more guardedly. The corres- 
pondences are, indeed, so striking that they certainly 
seem to point to, at least, the camel's head and neck 
Gimd. must have been adopted on Syrian soil. 

What ] ventured to suggest at the Bradford meeting 
was that the points of community might be ultimately 




m 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



explained by the powerful settlement of the ^^gean is- 
land peoples on the coast of Canaan, represented by the 
Philistines and the abiding name of Palestine. The bibli- 
cal traditions, which gave part of them, at least, the name 
of Kerethim or Cretans, have been reeently confirmed by 
an important piece of Egyptian evidence going far to 
show that Kaphtor, whence they traditionally came, is 
the same as the insular realm of the Kefts, the chief rep 
resentatives of MycKU^an culture on Eighteenth Dynasty 
monuments. The prolonged sojourn of the Caphtorim or 
Philistines, in their new home, would itself explain the 
absorption of local elements among the hieroglyphic 
forms that they bad originally brought over. We know 
that they shortly lost their indigenous speech and be- 
came Semitiaed. 

On the walls of the tomb of Rekhmara. the Governor 
of Thebes under Thothmes lll^in the first half, that is, 
of the Fifteenth century B. C. — the Keft chieftains are 
seen bearing precious vases, and ingots, and golden ox- 
heads as tributary gifts to Pharaoh. It is of great in- 
terest in relation to the chronology of the clay archives 
of Knossos that on several of the tablets, with linear in- 
scriptions—in this case, no doubt, containing inventories 
of the royal treasure — there appear beside the written 
record pictorial representations of vases, ingots, and ox- 
heads, precisely similar to those of the Egyptian paint- 
ing. It seems probable from this that part of the clay- 
archives of the palace of Knossos go back to the fifteenth 
century B. C. The date of the most recent is, at all 
events, limited by that of the destruction of the palace 
itself. Of the numerous relics found within this great 
building there are none which point to a period as late 
as the latest prehistoric elements of Mycenae itself. It 
would be extremely unsafe to bring down anything found 
within its walls later than at most, the twelfth century 
B. C — London Times, 




LAKE DWELLINGS IN BELGIUM, 

ALEXANDER F, CHAMBERLAIN, 

At the International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology 
and Archeology (Paris. 1900), Baron Alfred de Loe, of Brus- 
sels, read a paper on Dicoai'crti: de palafittes en Belgique, calling 
attention to the discovery near Roulers on the little river Man- 
del, in western Flanders, of the first important remains of lake 
dwellings within the territory of Belgium. This is not the first 
' discovery of such remains, for vestiges of pile-dwellings had 



LAKE DWELLINGS IN BELGIUM. 



already been found by Haubourdin al Strambuges, Ger^rts 
and van der CapcUen {iS72),at Wideux in Limboiirg. Captain 
Delvaux near Audenarde, and others at Bl;«svelt, in the pro- 
vince of Antwerp, etc. In the fall of 1899, in connection with 
the lowering of certain reservoirs, near Roulers. there were dis- 
covered a large number of piles of blackened oak, numerous 
osseous remains of animals, and the almost complete skeleton 
of a man. Al Emelghem, in the summer of 1899. '" ^^^ P^'^' 
cess of enlarging a tributary streamlet of the Mandel, some 
piles together with bones of horses were found, and in the 
same locality on high land overlooking the stream flints and 
horses' teeth had some time before, been discovered. But the 
discovery now under consideration tn particular was made at 
Denterghem ( in a marshy meadow once the estuary of a small 
tributary of the old Mandel) in the month of August, 1S99. M. 
Coucke. a member of the municipal council of Denterghem. in 
draining ihe meadow, discovered some bones of ruminants 
and a terra-cot ta disc, and notified the Abb;' Claerhour, who in- 
stituted systematic and careful excavations. These resulted 
in the finding of some 300 oaken piles, several incised beams 
(for horizontal placing), a numberof well-sawed planks pierced 
with large holes made with a metal auger, etc. The Abb^ 
thinks he has discovered also the oak trunk which supported 
the bridge from the dwelling to the dry land. Most of the 
piles were down, only a few being erect and covered with an 
old, thick layer of mud, they penetrated some distance into 
the Flanders sand, the bottom of the marsh. The best pre- 
served piles were still 2.20 meters long, square in section, and 
sharpened at the lower end with a metal hook. The beams 
were 3 meterslong.the planks 4. 10x0. 30x0.06 meters. The condi- 
tion and state of preservation of these oaken objects seem to 
indicate different degrees of antiquity and to prove that piles, 
beams, and planks have all been renewed at various times. 
The archseological deposit, occurring at a depth of 2 or 3 
meters, contained, distributed pell-mell among the piles, a good 
variety of objects belonging to all epochs. The osseous re- 
mains discovered include: parts of human tibia, lemur, hum- 
erus and cubitus; various bones of fox, wolf, dog (4 individ- 
uals), horse {7), boar (6). stag{2), goal (5), ox {\'2}, also the 
frontal bone of a Bos primigctiius, perhaps a hunter's trophv, 
A large quantity of husked hazel-nuts was also found. The ob- 
jects of human industry here discovered were as varied; sm^ll 
flints, discoid scrapers, arrow-heads, chips, some of them re- 
touched, rejects and nuclei of divers sorts, fragments of pol* 
ished axes, horn sheaths and handles for lools, a pierced piece 
of stag-horn having originally had a wooden handle, a portion 
of the antlers used for a pick or hoe. a chisel made of the cu- 
bitus of a horse, ribs of oxen used as polishers; long bones of 
animals broken to extract the marrow; stampers, fragments of 
querns, mullers, etc., of tertiary sandstone; a dog-tooth pierced 
(for suspension) like those of the Robenhaussan deposits, etc. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Of bronze objects ihere were found: a little rin^, some spirals, 
a crescent-shaped pendelxque. an open bracelet (ornamented 
here and there with punctillated lines in the lake-dwellers' 
fashion). Masses of limonite and sand-stone, scoria, fragments 
of slag, a portion of a large earthen mould, rejects, etc., were 
likewise disinterred. Among the other interesting specimens 
were fragments of hand- made earthen pots, ornamented on the 
edge and the upper part of the belly with nail and Snger-marks 
suggesting Campignian or Hallstattian analogues; also other 
more elegant (wheel-made) vases of finer earth of the Mena- 

fiian typt. In addition to all these there were discovered: a 
arge bronze com of the emperor Trajan (g8-l 1/ A. D.); the 
bottom of a varnished red earth vase marked Conatiun; a bronze 
fibula, a little clay lamp (white with black cover), weights far 
nets (or perhaps weaving instruments); 3l tcgiila fragment, part 
of a conglomerate mortar, bits of earthen vessels of all sorts 
and colors, the bottom of a thick blue glass bottle, fragments 
of gray pottery decorated by the roulette in a way character- 
istic of the Prankish period and belonging to theVlll-IX cen- 
turies. Belonging to a later epoch still are the fragments of 
large vessels (well-made and sonorous) of a type in use in the 
IX-XII and XVI centuries, varnished pitchers which cannot 
be anterior to the XIV-XV. centuries, knife-handles, etc The 
lake-dwellings of Denterghem are thus remarkable as belong- 
ing to a "station" which dates as far back as the neolithic 
period and appears to have been more or less continuously oc- 
cupied till towards the end of the Middle Ages of European 
history. It is thus quite probable that lake-dwellings were of 
common occurrence in Lower Belgium, and were occupied 
continuously down to a comparatively late period in historic 
times. The human bones-found at Denterghem give no indi- 
cation of race, but the skeleton of Roulers has been studied by 
Dr. E. Houzh, according to whose examination it belongs to 
the brachycephalic neolithic race of ancient Belgium. The 
man of Roulers would then be related to the brachycephalic 
people of Furfooz, Hastiire, Sandron, Obourg, of the Cren- 
elle type, found most sure in modern times at Saaftingen. Al- 
together, these recent discoveries of remains of lake-dwellers 
in Belgium form one of the most interesting and important 
results of European archseilogical activity. An abstract of 
Baron de Log's paper is published in /.'Anthropologic {Va.T'is), 
Vol. XII (1901). pp. 558-564. 



I 
I 
I 




CONTACT BETWEEN ASIA AND AMERICA. 

Nome, Alaska. Feb. 20, 1902. 

Editor American Anthjuartan; 

My Dear Sir: I enclose a paper on the Eskimo dance 
house, from my notes written at Cape Prince of Wales in Janu- 
ary when I had the pleasure of visiting that place for two 
weeks. While there I made a very c ■retul study of the situa- 
tion in regard to the possible crossing Irom Asia of the na- 
tives, From the beach at Kingegan, the E-^kimo village, you 
can plainly see the East Cape of Asia. While the Diomcde 
Islands seem to be very near, althoueh they are twenty miles 
away, The natives cross and re-cross frequently, especially in 
the summer time, but during some winters the ice packs in the 
straits and freezes there and they are able to cross for some 
time with dog teams. 1 saw the natives go out on 'he fliatjng 
ice for sisals ,ind white bear and I can see no difficulty in going 
un over to the Diomedes. Many natives are cai nei! away on 
this floating ice from East Cape, the Diomedes nnd Ciipe 
Prince of Wales and frequently drift to the opposjie shore. It 
is only a day's j lurney m their boats in the sunituer lime and 
regular international trading has been carried on troni those 
three points a* lung as Eskimos have lived on the Arctic shore. 
There has undoubiedly been aconlinuons passing of people be- 
tween these points ever since the geological and climatic con- 
ditions have remained as they now are. Within one hundred 
miles of these straits we find the Athpascans who are allied 
with every Indian tribe south to Mexico. I cannot see any 
difference in physiognomy between the natives of America and 
those of Asia. Even the reindeerman from the tundra of 
Siberia have the same appearance as the Eskimo, and I have 
no doubt but that they are relat.;d, although 1 have not been 
able to give that matter any personal examination. I will un- 
dertake, after I get settled again, to give you some more infor- 
mation upon these matters, but I wish you would make a com- 
parison, editorially or otherwise, between the " koz-ge " of 
Cape Prince of Wales and the ■' Kiva " of New Mexico. I 
know so little of the "Kiva " that I am unable to do it, and yet 
] know that there is a very great similarity between them. 
Very truly yours, 

James Wickkrsham. 



ANCIENT BOAT FROM THE NILE. 

A boat beside which Columbus's Saata Maria or the 
Northmen's ship are modern and up to date arrived at New 
York a short time ago. It was dug up out of the Nile, and 
crossed the ocean on the deck of the Hohenfels on its way 
to the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg. The mode! of the 
boat follows the lines of the modern scow, though higher at 




i88 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the bow and the stern, along the sides area number of holes, 
undoubtedly- for sweeps. 1 he boat is said to be 4J»J years 
old, and is apparently modeled on much the same p an as 
the earliest representations of Egyptian ships in the temple 
carvings. These earliest drawings go back to a period 
about 3/X^ B. C, and show ships capable of carrying a 
number of men and a cargo of cattle at the same time. 
Their chief peculiarity was in their rig of one mas: with a 
square sail, the mast being made of two poles, stepped 
apart but joined at the top.like an inverted V. These ships 
were high at the bow and the stem, and carried from 
twenty to twent^'-six oars. Whether this boat was a cattle 
ship, a war vessel, or a yacht, perhaps on the lines of Cleo- 
patra's barge, the archaeologists have not yet had a chance 
to decide. Several other boats of the same kind have been 
dug up recently in the Nile and presented to museums in 
Europe, where a larye crop of theories as to their use, their 
age, and their meaning has consequently arisen. 



-oo- 



THE OLDEST DISCOVERED SPECIMENS OF 

EGYPTIAN JEWELRY. 

The most important group of gold work consists of four 
bracelets of the wife of King Zir. the successor of Mcnes. 
These are the oldest specimens of fine jewelry that have so 
far come to us from Egv'pt. The first consists of a row <rf 
facades with the royal hawk, alternately of gold and tur- 
quoise. The second bracelet has a gold centre-piece ccypicd 
from the centre of a lotus flower: on each side is a group of 
turquoises and a large ball amethyst. The third bracelet is 
of spiral beads of a dark lazuli and gold, with small beads 
of turquoise; the fourth, of hour-glass beads of gold and 
amethyst. 

As bearing on general history, a number of other seem- 
ingly unimportant objects are of greatest significance. On 
his earlier expedition Petrie had already found several frag- 
ments of pottery which were, beyond question, not of Egyp- 
tian origin, and which, in common witli other famous arch- 
aeologists, he pronounced .Kgean < primitive Greek). This 
year new material has been added. In the tomb of the above 
mentioned King Zer were found many vases of the original 
offerings, burnt and encrusted with resins. A large number 
of them are Egyptian; and without doubt belong to this old- 
est period; eight, on the contrary, are of a red polished 
ware, with handles at the sides, and of forms quite unknown 
in Egypt. We hardly err, therefore, in assuming that these 
came from one of the islands of the -Kgean Sea; and that 
the contact between Egypt and the earliest Greek culture 
may be traced back to the beginnings of the Egyptian his- 
tory, that is, into the fourth millennium B. C. 



Editorial. 

MYTHOLOGIC ART IN PREHISTORIC AND 
HISTORIC TIMES. 

The effect of Mythology on the art of all times has beerP 
noticed by many of the students of Ancient History; but the 
thought that this began in prehistoric times and has continued 
even to the present day, has escaped the notice of the majority. - 
We present with this, cuts which illjstrate the point. One 
of these represents a figure found on the north-west coast, and* 




illustrates the style of art which prevailed there. 

It is well known that the Greeks embodied their mythologjr 
in their art. but the tendency continues to the present time, 
for there is scarcely a fountain in any of our cities which has 
not some figure or statue which carries us back to the Greet 
mythology. Our great expositions are full of such groups. 
The pointwhich we make is that there was a native mythology 
in America which impressed itself upon the prehistoric art, and' 
it would be well if the grea' exposition at St. Louis could se- 
cure some artist who would either embody thi-i mythology in 
an original piece, or would reproduce some of the remarkable 
specimens of art that are found in Me.xico and Central America. 
It. may be that the work would be so novel to most artists. 




IQO 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



that new lessons in archceology would have to be taken.but the 
novelty would be at least attractive, and would call atten- 
tion to the stage of art which was reached by sotae of the 
natives of this continent. 

The Cliff Dwelling at the Columbian Exposition was a 
travesty , yet it was visited by great crowds. The reproduc- 
tion of the art works would be more instructive ahd nearer to 
the reality than any snch huge artificial tent, though both 
forms of reproductiofi might be useful. 



THE COMING CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. 



It was in 1878 that the Congress of Americanists met at 
Luxembourg in France. The Editor of this Journal had the 
honor of presenting a paper on the Mound Builders which was 
translated into French and published in their first report, and 
afterward joined with Prof. E. T. Cox and other gentlemen in 
inviting the Congress to America. 

The Govenor of Indiana offered the hospitality of the state 
if they should come. No delegate was sent from this country 
and as no representative was present the invitation was not ac- 
cepted. It is fortunate that the younger men who have taken 
up the study of archaeology on both continents, have succeed- 
ed in the desired results, and that the Congress has been in- 
vited to the city, of New York and will be received, where there 
afe so many material and personal evidences of the progress 
archaeology has made during the last twenty-five years. 

Very few of those who began the study of the subject and 
were co-operaling at that time are now living, and yet the 
science has made wonderful progress. The museums are full 
of tokens. Those at New York, at Cambridge, at Philadel- 
phia, at Chicago, at Davenport, at .Milwaukee, and especially 
the one at Washington will furnish material objects which can- 
not fail to interest the visitors from abroad. 

The sad fact is apparent, that the living representatives of 
the race or races, whose hands have moulded and fashioned 
these relics are so far removed from the Atlantic shores; the 
few fragments that are left are far beyond the Mississippi 
River, and present but a faint shadow of the peculiar form of 
culture which formerly prevailed. 

The mounds of the Mississippi valley are left in a dilapi- 
dated condition and scarcely represent the state of art and ar- 
chitecture which formerly prevailed. Still, there are, a few 
large mounds and a few village enclosures left in Ohio, Illinois, 
and a few effigies in Wisconsin, and a few fragments in Georgia 
and Mississippi left. The great Serpent Mound and Fort An- 
cient, the Cahokia Mound are still standing. The Cliff Dwell- 



I 




EDITORIAL* »9I 

ings and Pueblos are in afair state of preservation. The ruined 
cities of Mexico are fast going to ruin. 

;^The welcome will be extended to those who have taken up 
the study of American ArchEeology, and every effort should 
be^made to open to their view the wonderful things which are 
disclosed on this continent. 



Editorial Goprespondence. 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE- 
MENT OF SCIENCE. 

The Fifty-first meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement o( Science will be held at Pittsburg, Pcnn., June 
28-july 3, 1902. Mr. Stewart Cuiin, of the University ot Penn- 
sylvania, will preside over the Section of Anthropology. 

Students are cordially invited to attend, and contribute 
papers upon subjects connected with their fields of research. 
Several members of the Section have informally expressed the 
desire to devote at least one day to papers and discussions on 
anthropological museums and their cases, methods ot installa- 
tion, and technique; also that papers should be offered on the 
more important special collections in museums both in this 
country and abroad. 

In order that a preliminary program for the Section may 
be distributed in advance oi the meeting, titles of communica- 
tions should be sent to the secretary as soon as possible. Ab- 
stracts of papers, or the papers themselves, may be sent later, 
at the convenience of the authors, who are reminded that no 
title will appear in the final program until the p iper. either in 
full or in abstract, has been passed upon by the Sectional 
Committee. 

Students will confer a favor upon the Sectional Committee 
by informing the Secretary of their intention to be present at 
the meeting. Address Harlan I. Smith, Sec'y. Sec. H., 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. 

The Thirteenth Session of the International Congress of 
Americanists will be held in the hails of the American Museum 
of Natural History, New York City, October 20-25, 1902. The 
object of the Congress is to bring together students of the ar- 
chaeology, ethnology, and the early history of the two Ameri- 
cas, and by the reading of papers and by discussions to ad- 
vance knowledge on these subjects. Communications may be 
oral or written, and in French. German, Spanish, Italian, or 



I9Z THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

English. Ail debates are expected to be brief, and no paper 
must txcecd thirty minutes in delivery. The papers presenied 
to the Congress will, on the approval of the Bureau, be printed 
in the volume of the Proceedings. Members of the Congress 
are expected to send, in advance of the meetine. the titles, 
and, if possible abstracts, of their papers, to the General Sec- 
retary. The subjects to be discussed by the Congress relate 
to: I, The native races of America, their origin, distribution, 
history, physical characteristics, languages, inventions, cus- . 
toms. and religions. II. The history of the early contact be- 
tween America and the Old World. All persons interested in 
the study of the archieology, ethnology, and early history of 
the two America'; may become members of the Congress by 
signifying their desire to Mr. Marshall H. Saville, General Sec- 
retary of the Commission of Organization, American Museum 
of Natural History, and remitting either direct to the Treas- 
urer, Mr. Harlan I. Smith, American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, or through ti.e General Secretary, the sum of three dollars 
in American money. The receipt of the Treasurer for this 
amount will entitle the holder to a card of membership and to 
all official publications emanatinfi! from the Thirteenth Session 
of the Congress. Mr. Morris K. Jesup is President, and the 
Duke of Loubat Vice President, of the Commission of Organi- 
zation. 



I 



Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., has recently estab- 
lished a department of Archseology. A fire-proof museum 
is in process of construction. The department begins with 
some 40,000 specimens and a liberal endowment. 

Charles Peabody Ph. D. is the honorary director, and 
Warren K. Moorehead, A. M. , is curator. The purpose of 
the department is to encouratre the study of types now on 
exhibition in the various museums of the country, rather 
than to attempt large explorations. Duplicate specimens 
are desired and the curator will be glad to correspond with 
persons having such in their possession. 



DEATH OF DR. THOMAS WILSON. 
Ur, Thomas Wilson, curator of prehistoric areh^ology in the Smith- 
sonian Institution and the National Museum for years, died in Washington 
in tbe seventieth year oF his age. Dr. Wilson was born in I'eunsylvania. 
but at an early see moved to Iowa. During- ihe civil war he was captain 
of a company in the Second Iowa Cavalry. After the war he went to Wash- 
ington and practiced law. and later served lor ye^rs in the coosularser- 
vice. He was a member of various scientific bodies and had been 6et, 
«d by crowned heads of Europe for his service lo science. 



LITERARY NOTES. 



I ^ 




LITERARY NOTES. 



irait of Karl Herman Berendr, and a catalogue of his linguistic collections: 
also an article on the origin of ornament, hv Stuart Cuiin; and an interst- 
ine illustrated account ol the collections in the museum. 

The S. School Times, Philadelphia, Pa.— This Journal in the past 
has furnished some verv valuable articles on the discoveries at Nippur from 
the pen of Prof. Hilpricht, More such articles would he appreciated if the 
paper could secure and publish them. 

The Journal of the Polvnesian Society, for Dec. 1901, has an 
interesling article on Polynesian numerals, by John Fraser, LL. D.; also a 
translation of the legend of the fountain of fish, hy EdwardTregear, and 
an aritcle on the Maori K.te made in the resemblance ol a flying bird, bv 
Elsdon Best: also an account of the Relics from the sand hills ol the Patea 
district on the west coast. These relics consist of knives, pounders, stone 
bowls, iamns, stone axes, drills, nsh hooks, sinkers, anchors, charms, im- 
ages, wroaght in stone and wood, by Rev, T. G, Hammond. 

Education for April 1911, Frank H. Palmer, Boston managing editor, 
— This magazine continues to be as interesting as ever. It is full of prac- 
tical Ihoaghl, and always a versatile and varied table of contents. 

■BOOK REVIEWS. 
REPRODUCTIONS OF MEXICAN CODICES. 

EV FRF.DERICK STAKH. 

The Uuke of Loubat has recently added a seventh number to his inter- 
esting and important series ai facsimile reproductions of ancient Mexican 
manuscripts. It is the Codex Fejrrvary,<iih\cU was first printed in volume HI 
of Lord Kingiborough's Anliguities of Mexico, This manuscript is now in 
Ibe possession of the Free Public Museums of Liverpool and in this new 
reprodnclion it appears under the name of Codice Fejervary-Mayet. The 
original consists ol a strip of paper folded screen-wise; there are twenty- 
two pages of pictures on each siae of the strip and a twenty-third page, 
left blank, serves as cnverlo the folded book; the designs ate in rather bril- 
liant colors and are of good execution; the pages measure 6?4 x6V inches. 
The reproduction given in Kingsborou^h has notable faults; the pages are 
numbered in reverie order; the direction of painting and reading in the 
manuscript is really from right to letl— Kingsborough did not realise this. 
Dr. Edward Seler, who has so well edited the Tonaiamall of Ike Aubin 
Collection, the preceding' number in the Duke of Loubat's series, is to pre- 
pare a descriptive and explanatory text also for the preseat number; Mex- 
ican scholars will await its appearance with interest. 

In this connection we may sr'cak briefly of the work already done by 






The SI 



s of reproductio 



■'Vc- J77J- 

No. J77S Ide los Rio. 
rvelUtri 



a behalf of AVner 

nt Mexican manuscripts inrludei: 

(.oaex Vatica 

Codex yaticanus : 

Codex Borgia (cj 

Codex de liologna {Cosptanot. 

Codex Telierittno-Remensis. 

Tonalamatl Aiibin. 

Codex Fejen-ary- Mayer. 
These seven reproductions are models In tbelr way, being as exact as 
modern methods can produce. They are far superior in every way to 
Kingsborough's. In two great folio volumes, with ma^ilicenl plates, the 
Uuke or Loubat has published the choicest specimens illustrating Ameri- 
can ethnography, in the Museum of the Trocadero; Dr. Harney wrote the 
descriptive text. The Duke has also reprinted Harney's valuable articles en- 
titled Zfei'iiJw.^wffit-aniir. He has borne the expense of printing the curious 
treatise, of Ignacio Barunda, upon Mexican writinj — Clave general de fero- 
glifico! Americanos. He bore parlor all of theexpeoseconnected with the 
[lubiicatioii of Ur. Seler's MilLt Wall Palnlingi. and the Humboldt Manu- 
script and Mrs,Seler's..4 «/(!//«« IVegen.n delighiful book of study-travel. He 
also endowed the chair held by Dr. Seler in the University of Berlin. He 
has borne the expense of Prof. S.iville's more recent and highly important 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



at Miila. He has established prizes for the eDcouragcment ot 
Amtrican studies ai Paris, Berlin, Stockholm, Madrid, and New York. 

He has thus liberally supported and encouraged Ihe work of other stu- 
dents; he has also himself been an author. Of several useful and valua- 
ble works which he has produced probably the best known, and to us the 
most interestng, is his great work on the medals of the United Slates, pub- 
lished in 1876. 

Since Ibis notice was prepared for the printer, futiber news regarding 
the Duke of Loubal has come to hand. He has recently been elected a 
membffof the French Institute^ForeJgn Correspondent of Ihe Academy of 
Inscriptions and Bellesletters of the Institute ot France. This great honor, 

fiven iQ recoenition of bis interest of American studies, is certainty richly 
eserved. This election took place in December last. Since tbat date, he 
has founded a chair of American studies in the University of Paris. 



Memoirs OF the Pkabody Museum op American Arch.«oi,ogy and 
Ethnology, Harvahd University. The Hieroglyphic Stair- 
way—Ruins OF CopAN— Rhpoktof Explorations bv the Museum. 
— By George Byron Gordon, Cambridge. Pub. by the Museum. 
The work of exploration which was begun at Copao several years ago 
by the Pcabody Museum of Cambridge, Mass., has resulted in some verv 
remarkable discoveries, but none more remarkable than that of the Hiero- 
glyphic Stairway. It has been known for a long time that Copan was the 
seat of a grade of civilization which is quite astonishing when we consider 
the time in which it prevailed, and the people among whom it existed. 

This civilisation is tnade known by the various works ol art, and'archi- 
tecture, which atiracted, at an early date, the attention of the various trav- 
elers who visited the region; but the more the locality has been investigat- 
ed, and exploited, the more remarkable does it appear. 

The archaeologists of the minimiiing class, must be, by this time, non- 
plused, tor. certamly Iheir theory that the Maya tribes were a rude 
people, scarcely raised above the savages, has been repeatedly overthrown 
by the facts brought out from time to time, and now there is not a shred of 
argument left to warrant them in holding their theory longer. 

We maintain that Central America shows as high a grade of sculptur- 
ed art. and as advanced a style of architecture as could be found in the 
proud cities of Babylonia and Assyria long after the days of history. The 
style of their art and architecture was peculiar, and presenis scarcely a 
single feature which can be found in the regions of the east. Evetytbin^ 
seems to have been developed among the people who dwell here. It la 
true that cerlain writers have argued that the Buddhists of India, reached 
the continent m some unknown way, and left their stamp upon this art, and 
even sat as models for the statues which are occasionally seen on the fa- 
cades of the palaces. 

The argument is however, based upon a few accidental resemblances. 
Iti to be sure, has the effect to keep our minds open to further evidence.bat 
tlie overwhelming evidence is. that the sculptured art, which embodied it- 
self in the glyphs, the statues, and the ornaments on the facades of the 
palaces, was purely American and has no resemblance to the Asiatic art. 
These glyphs contain a great many human faces, Ihe majority ot them 
bearing resemblance to the faces of the natives themselves, though tbey 
are often distorted and grotesque in their appearance. There was a strange 
symbolism which embodied itself in the ^lypns and in the statues; a sym- 
bolism which, came from a form of religion which is almost unknown, and 
yet sufficiently known to be pronounced unlike any other on the face of the 



The evidence of thi 

a pyramid which ar 

the great plaia.upon which 




carved ii 

iog a different seri 
ightberead by o 



presented by the Hieroglyphic Stairway. Here 
to the height of about eighty-five feet above 
.great temple, the steps to which 



< 



I 



daborate and picturesque figures. every step preaent- 
of glyphs, Ihe whole making a legend or story which 
who ascended it, and only terminating at the doorway 



J 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



of the temple and thus preseDiing the strangest 



a temple that 



We read of Luther climbing up the stair case of the Sistine Chapel on 
his hands and knees, in his ^eal among other devotees, but arising with the 
sense of the folly of so doine, and entering upon the wotk of refoTma.tloni 
from the conviction Ikat faith was better thaa this form of worship. But 
here was a stairway which required all the leatning of the priests to inter- 
pret, for it tald a strange story of the "nature divinities" whom the people 
worshiped, and contaioed specimens of art which were so numerous as to 
bewilder the ordinary mind. There were also statues finished in tbe round 
carved upon the steps, but differing from one another m altitudes and ez- 

Eression: tbe glyphs and the statues constituting a strange medley of art, 
ut together making a story which was undoubtedly Significant and lacred 
to tbe worshipers. 

The Hieroglyphic Stairway might be compared to the stairway at Palen- 
que which was guarded by the serpent balustrades, «nd above which was 
ttie temple with serpent pillar*, but would be perhaps supplementary to 
It. for the same lesson was taught in glyphs which was impressed upon the 
senses tiy the awe inspiring serpent forms. 

It is impossible to describe this stairway, or the statues hidden away 
among tbe glyphs; but the plates are very well made, and furnish mate- 
rial for study, so that the aich^ologist is without excuse who thinks that 
American art is all of the same grade, and was the product only of a rude 
savagery such as the hunter Indians of tbe north always presented, 

The ruined cities of the east have nofceased to awaken attention among 
travelers, but the American people ought to know that on this continent 
are "ruined cities" also, that deserve ihelr attention, and there were forms 
of religion here that should be studied and compared to those which exist- 
ed elsewhere; though the realm of thought which is opened by these 
strange figures, is very different from that with which we are familiar. 
Meuoirs of the Exploration of the Basin of thb Mississippi.— 

Vol, V, "Kakablkansing"— By ]. V. Brewer, President of the Quivira 

Historical Society, with a contributed section by N. H. WInchelT, Pres. 

of tbe Geological Society of America. Councilors of the Minnesota 

Historical Society, St, Paul, Minn., igoi, U. S.A. 
Thii is an elegantly bound book; Is printed on enamel paper; contains 
a chart of the Mississippi river al Little Falls, and portraits of Warren 
Upham and Joslah B, Chaney asfrontis pieces, with an introduction; twelve 
full page plates of paleolithic quartz blades from glacial gravel beds and 
from mound builders' villages, sixteen pages of bibliography; twenty- 
eight pages o( "explorations, finely illustrated by halftones;" twelve pages 
of '' differentiation; " sixteen pages on tbe " geology of the val- 
ley at Little Falls," by N. H,Winchell, without illustrations; eight pages of 
" conclusions based on ascertained facts and acquired knowledge," hv J. V, 
Brower, illustrated; eight pages on "Primitive man of the Ice Age," by 
WarrenUph ' ••^- -' -■ - j. -.-._. „.,. 






large folding maps of tbe mounds at Fort Pillager; 
. The Q"i 



Kakablkansing is the Indian name for Little Falls. 
lorical Society is "orderid and determined," as an assoi 
authors, and ethnological students, for the prosecution ol investigations, of 
wbich the officers shall be as follows: 

Jacob V. Brower, president; L. Marie Blackman, rice-president; Ed. 
A. Kilian, secretary; John C. Keagy, chairman of executive committee. 
The Minnesota Historical Society is appointed costodian, and the Conier- 
valive a newspaper published at Nebraska City, Neb , is the oflicial organ. 

A pocket contains a map of the region between the Red River and 
Lake Superior, showing the location of each lake. Mille-Lac, and Little 
Falls, and the Upper Mississippi with Little Falls, at the lower part of the 

The book ii an elegant one and has the endorsement of the prominent 
geologists of Minnesota.and archaeologists War ren,Upbam and otners. Prof. 
Wincoell speaks of the gratlficatloiithat "one of our citizens has lakenupand 




196 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



carried through so imporUDt i scientific iDvetligation, with luuh strJcllf 
sclcDtilic metbods," ind says that: "several years ago. after ID inveiliga- 
(ionof the mouads and the mines at Isle Royal, I arrived, contrary to ihe 
then prevalent opimoD, and my own eipectalion, at ihc conclusion that 
both the mound builder and the ancient copper miner was the aocestor of 
the p res em tribe of Aborigenes." "The Aborigenes who h4d formed the 
quaiti chips, were at Little Falls during the flood stage of the Mississippi 
which prevailed after the rehremenl of (he Ice margin of the lail continen- 
tal glacier from the vicinity of Little Falls. " He maintains that chips do not 
occur in the undisturbed gravels, while the river was swollen by glacial 
waters coming from the far north. "That makes the chippers post-glacial, 
bul much earlier than the present Indian." 

It is probable that- the book will open again the subject of paleolithic 
man, notwithstanding the position taken by Mr. W. H. Holmes, that ail 
the socallcd paleoliths are either " rejects or accidental fractures." No 
bones of extinct animals and no other evidence of man's presence is given 
by the posl-gtacial deposits. 



BOOKS Received. 

ladelphi 



officers list of members 

lEgi. 11 has already pub- 

• ■ Brochure 



Gbographicai, Society, of Phil^ 
Ian. 1902. — This society was organii' 
lished many valuable bulletins, a list of which is 

A Short History of Faribault— F. VV. Frink— privatly printed. 

The American Author, April igoj, edited by Mrs. M. P. Ferris. 
Published at Uobbs Ferry, N. Y. 

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciencbs.— Editor, 
Charles Lane Poor. Pubs. New Era Printing Co., Lancaster, Pa. 

Private Life op the Romans,— Harriet Waters Preston and Louise 
Dodge. Pubs. Benj, Sanborn & Co.. Boston. 

Greek and Roman Mythology— Karl P. Harrington and Herbert 
C. Tolman. Pubs. Benj. H.Sanborn & Co., Boston. 

Outline Lessons for the Study of Ancibnt Gbographv. — 
Francis M. Austin, A. M. Pub. Leach, Sherwell & Sanborn, Boston, New 
York, Chicago. 

Oceanic Origin oI the Kwakiutl-Nootka and Salish Stocks of 
British Co., Fundamental Unity of Same.— By Charles Hill-Tout. 189I. 

Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain 
AND Ireland.— Vol. XXXI., 1901. January to June. Pub. by Anthrop. Ins. 
of G. B. & 1., 3, Hanover Sq., London, 

Proceedings op the American Philosophical Society, D?c.i got 
Phil. Am. Phil. Society. id| S. 51h street. 

McClurf's Magazine, March Iqoi. — S. S. McClure Co., 141-155 E. 
aSth street. New York. 

Gritdeungen der Normannkn in America, 1902.- Slrasbu^g,M^n- 
chen and St. Louis, Mo. 

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History — 
Jan. 10, 1902. 

Transactions of the Lit'^rary and Historical Society of Quebec- 
Sessions of iEqi to 1898, 

British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bradford Meet- 
ing, 1900 — Report of the Ethnological Survey of Canada. 

The Chicago Seminary Quartkrly.— Year Book No. 1901, Chica£0 
Theological Seminary Press, 4S Warren avenue. 

The Origin of Totemism of the Aborigenes of British Columbia.— 
Charles Hill-Tout, 1901. 

Harpers' Monthly Magazine, July i90i.'-Harper Brothers, New 
York and London. 




^ 



^memart ^ntxqn^xmn 



July and August, 1902. 



DIFFERENT RACES IN AMERICA. 

BY STEPHEN D. PEET. 

We now take up the subject of the races. It was once the 
opinion that there were different races on this continent, some 
01 them were identical with the races known to history, and the 
mounds were supposed to furnish evidence of this. The par- 
ticular race which built the mounds was not known but the 
most popular theory was that they were either Phceiiicians or 
were the members of the lost tribes ol Isra;!. Whole books 
were written to prove this theory, one of them by the celebrat- 
ed Adair, who was an Indian agent, and had an abundant op- 
portunity to know about the Indians of the Gulf States. The 
great work of Lord Kingsboroiigh, on which he spent his for 
tune, and which resulted in his financial ruin, and imprison- 
ment for debt, was marred by a similar theory. Opposite to this 
theory, is the position which is taken bv the members 
of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washinglon.which is, to the ef- 
fect, that all the tribes in America belong to one race, which, 
should be called the Amerinds, a barbarous word coined out 
of two other words, viz: American Indians. Thisopinion. how- 
ever, is not accepted by all; in fact, many of those who have had 
tho best opportunities to know, take the ground that the conti- 
nent was settled by different stocks that entered from the 
northwest, and spread out in different directions; the Eskimos 
toward the north and east along the Arctic coast; the Atha- 
pascans south-east into the interior; the Algonkins and Ir( 






ward toward the Atlantic; the Nahu; 



uthward, 



ultimately reaching New Mexico and Mexico and where they 
became the founders of the Pueblos and the Toltec 
civilization.* This is the opinion of Mr. Edward H. Payne 
and Mr. L. H. Morgan who identified the Mound Builders 
with the Pueblo tribes. This diversity of opinion has had a 
tendency to keep the mound builder question open.assome hold 
that there were different races formerly dwelling in the Missis- 
sippi Valley, some of them having come into the valley at an 



Golf SulM ipd l»K«n (I >i 

confirmed'ny lie xudy gf Ih 



::'%ti:li;:: 



oiled Alltshiwi 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



early date from one direction, and some from another, three 
or four different stocks beirifj represented by the different 
classes of mounds and carthwurl^s which have been identified 
though the subject is in that state rjf uncertainty that no one 
has been able thus far to say where these stocks originated, or 
at what time they first settled in the Mississippi Valley. There 
is one fact which has not received as much attention as it de- 
serves. It is. that there was a succession of population in near- 
ly every one of the districts into which the Mound Builders' 
territory has been divided. The succession began perhaps be- 
fore the last glacial period, but continued even up through the 
time when the continent assumed its present condition, and 
did not cease until after the Discovery by Columbus. This suc- 
cession has been traced not only in the relics which have been 
discovered, but in the skulls and skeletons, as well as in the 
mounds and earthworks, for the mounds were not built all at 
the same time, but at differenf times, and by different 
peoples. 

It is claimed by Prof. F. W. Putnam and others, that the 
Esquimaux reached as far south as Cape Cod, and left their rel- 
ics in the shell mounds found on the coast; also, by Rev. W. 
M. Beauchamp, that they once dwelt in New York state, for 
their relics have been found there beneath the soil. It is also 
well known that the Iroquois and Delawares claim that they 
were preceded by a race called the AUighewi, who have been 
identified by some as the Mound Builders of the Ohio Valley, 
though others think they were the Cherokccs. Dr. Horatio 
- Hale held that the great Dakota stock once dwelt on the At- 
lantic Coast, and a portion of them migrated through the 
Mound Builders' territory and finally reached their home on 
the Missouri and upper Mississippi rivers. The evidence is that 
at one time the southern Mound Builders moved northward 
and took possession of the valley of the Ohio, and built the 
great mounds at Cahokia in Illinois, and at St. Louis, as well 
as those in Marietta, Ohio. Since the Discovery, several tribes 
have passed over the same region, among them may be men- 
tioned the Cherokees, the Eries, the Iroquois, the Shawnees, 
the Delawares, and the Hurons; all of these having used the 
mounds as burial places, and left their relics in them, but the 
difficulty has been to separate the relics from one another, and 
identify the tribe by the relics. The archxologists have also 
been pu/zled over the finding of certain highly- wrought and 
finely finished relics in the state of Ohio; relics that give the 
idea that a people or a tribe once dwell there who had reached 
a much higher stage of art than any of the Indian tribes of the 
north, and yet they do not seem to have been left by any white 



These relics have been found in the larger mounds, such as 
e utuated in the Scioto valley in Ohio.and in the Etowah val- 
r in Georgia. It is also worthy of notice that many buriai 




THE RACE QUESTION. ao3 

mounds of Ohio present a succession of burials, some of which 
belong lo Ihe early mound builders, others to the nomadic 
tribes, such as the Algonquins, while the large platform mounds 
found on the Tennessee river are stratified in such a way as to 
show that they were built at different times, as a succession 
of council-houses or great houses had been built upon them. 

Another fact is worthy of notice. Kach mound building 
tribe followed the kind of life which was best suited to Ihc te- 
gion which had been s.;lccted for its own habitat. Those who 
dwelt in the forests naturally took to WDodcraft, and to the 
mingled life of hunting, fishing, and partial land tilling; those 
who dwelt on the Ohio river where everything was favorable 
to permanent and stable liie, naturally took to the cultivation 
of the soil, and the establishing of villages, though they were 
obliged to surround their villages with earth-works as a matter 
of defense; while those who dwelt in the prairie region of the 
west naturally followed the nomadic life, occupying their vil- 
lages in the winter, but moving them in summer in order to 
. follow the herds of buffalo and wild animals to their feeding 
grounds. It is noticeable that the people who dwelt in the 
cypress swamps of Arkansas built villages on the sand ridges, 
while drawing their subsistence from the swamps, and the peo- 
ple who dwelt in the mountain regions of Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky "called the Stone Grave" people, established themselves 
on the rivers and built their fortified villages, in which are the 
remains of their council-houses, their temples as well as their 
burial places, and private houses and hearths while the Gulf states 

firesent the remains of a people who differed in many particu- 
ars from all others. These were visited by the early explor- 
ers Uiider Ferdinand de Soto, and were found to be living in 
large villages, and to be agriclturalists. their fields of corn ex- 
tending from village to village, but their houses generally be- 
ing concentrated inlo a small compass. 

Another thought arises in this connection. The magnitude 
of the mounds and earthworks on the Ohio River and the 
Gulf States, impresses nearly everyone with the conviction 
that the people who erected them were more industrious, en- 
ergetic and better organized than the hunter tribes farther 
north, the contrast between the two classes of earthworks sug- 
gesting the idea that they were erected by different races. 
The largest of Ihe earthworks were situated in southern Ohio, 
and constituted the village enclosures of an agricultural tribe 
which formerly dwelt there, but was driven off by the combined 
forces of the Iroquois and Algonkins, fierce battles being 
fought in their territory. These villages were surrounded by 
earth-walls, which perhaps were surmounted by timber stock- 
ades.making aseries of "walled towns"which must at One time 
have presented a very imposing appearance. 

In some of the valleys, especially those of the Scioto and 
Miami Rivers and their branches, several villages were cluster- 



204 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ed together, making a busy scene when they were occupied, 
and the rich fields were under cultivation. These village en- 
closures were all connected with the river banks, agricultural 
fields and the places of religious gatherings where their sacred 
dances were conducted, by so-called "covered ways," showing 
that the people were constantly besieged by enemies and so 
needed the protection of earth-walls. 

There is no place on the continent which is more sugges- 
tive of conflict than southern Ohio. The Pueblos of the west 
were built in stories, and in such a way that large villages could 
be contained in a single great house, the lower story present- 
ing a dead wall without dot)r-ways, so that no lurking foe 
could gain entrance to the village except by the aid of ladders 
which were drawn up at night, the architecture of the village 
suggesting that the people who dwelt in them were surrounded 
by hostile forces. 

The same is true of the Cliff Dwellings, for they were plac- 
ed in the most secure positions amid the cliffs and were pro- 
tected by towers, which were either situated above the cliffs 
or in the valleys below. 

The villages of the Mound Builders also convey the impres- 
sion that hostile forces were besieging them, for on every hill- 
top adjoining the valleys where the villages were situated,were 
high conical mounds on which were placed sentinels by day 
and signal fires were lighted by night, so that no attack 
could be made without an alarm being sent from village to 
village, and from valley to valley. These, village enclosures 
and high conical mounds excite our wonder especially when 
we consider the poor appliances for constructing them. There 
were no steel spades or shovels known to the people; no tram- 
ways or cars for carrying the dirt of which they were built, as 
no iron-bound wheel has ever been found, and no evidence that 
the wheel or axle was known to the people. All that the build- 
ers of the earth-works had to help them in this work were the 
rude stone axes, the few copper spades, a few stone hoes, a 
number of baskets woven out of reeds, and such other contri- 
vances as a rude people had devised. The work of con- 
structing the walls whi.h surrounded the villages, and build- 
ing up the lofty lookout mounds was very difficult under the 
circumstances, but was accomplished by the combined forces 
which were undoubtedly directed by their chiefs or by such 
overseers or officers as had been apj^ointed. 

I. The evidence is that the masses were governed by the rul- 
ing classes exactly as they were in the southern states among 
the Muscogee tribes who built the pyramid mounds which are 
so numerous in that region. Th'* view which is presented by 
the great valley is a very interesting one, for it suggests that 
here was a state of society, and a form of religion, quite differ- 
ent from that which prevailed among the hunter tribes to the 
ttorth, east, and west of the region, and was like that which 



THE RACE QUESTION, 

existed among the so-called civilized races of the south-east 
where the masses were under the control of kings and priests. 
We should say that there is in this region a greater variety 
of tumuli or burial mounds than is found any where else on 
the continent. Some of these are stratified and show a 
cession of burials. They suggest to us that the region was oc- 
cupied by different tribes, each tribe having its own method of 
burial and its own class of relics, nnd Its own customs and 
ways. This renders the region an interesting field for study, 




for it confirms what we have said of the migration of tribes 
through this same valley. 

We are to notice further that there are altar mounds in 
southern Ohio, and that the altars contain a great variety of 
relics, gpeat numbers of which show a high degree of art. 
What is remarkable about the altars is that they are always 
found at the bottom of the mounds, thus showing that the peo- 
ple whn first occupied the region, and began the process of 
mound building, were far more advanced than those who fallow- 
ed them, and for this reason they have bt^sn called the '"mound 
builders," par excellence. 






In studying lhe.se aliar mounds and (he so called temple 
mounds which adjoin them, we find that they were gener- 
ally close by some village enclosure, and probably mark the 
placesof sacrifice and religious ceremony, which the early mound 
builders were accustomed to observe. This confirms the position 
wc have taken that the earthworks which surrounded the vil- 
lage enclosures, were symbolic of sun-worship, as they abound 
in circles and squares, and in connection with them are cres- 
cents and crosses, giving an idea that there was a recognition 
of the four points of the compass, and motion of the heavenly 
bodies, as well as the phases of the moon. All of them were 



206 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



objects of worship, and (urnishL-d motives for the people to 
observe religious ceremonies at certain periods of time. This 
habit of sacrificing to the heavenly bodies, and making offer- 
iriES to them, at particular periods, is evident from the fact that 
in many localities r-lics have been found, partly burned, upon 
the altars, and even human bodies have been partially cre- 
mated, so that we are obliged to acknowledge that they were 
a very religious people and were under the direction of their 
priests who kept the calendar, and ordered the ceremonies. 




MOOND NO. l8, MOUND CITV 

The peculiarity of these altar mounds is, as we have said, that 
they were near villages, sometimes within them, which villages 
were surrounatd by circular walls, the altars themselves being 
in the shape of circles and squares, and sometimes surjounded 
by crescents. 

It is true, also, that there were many dance grounds on the 
high lands, overlooking the beautiful villages, all being sur- 
rounded by earth-works in the form of circles and crescents, 
and connected with the village enclosures by covered ways, or 




MOUND NO. 6, MOUND CITV. 

parallel walls; thus showing that the builders were an indus- 
trious and religious, and at the same time a peaceable people 
and depended upon their earth-works and village enclosures 
for defense. All this throws much light on the village life of 
the people that prevailed, and makes us realize how perma- 
nent anci peaceful their villages were. 

The impression formed by the study of the earth- works and 
relics left by this early people, is very different from that form- 
ed from the study of the so-called stockade or palisade villages 
which are so numerous in the State of New York, and to a cer- 
tain extent in northern Ohio. The impression is, that there 
was a succession of tribes, that the early people were drivea 



I 




THE RACE QUESTION. 



M7 



away by wild tribes who came in and built forts and stockade 
villages. 

Wc do not undertake lo sol^'e the problem or to say who 
the people were who built these village enclosures, and these 
altar mounds; but we associate them with the great stone forts 
and the high lookout nuunds which are seen upon the hill- 
tops overlooking the valleys, and conclude ihat there was for- 
merly a confederacy of tribes which was well organized and 
governed by pcrnnnent officers, who might either be called 
kings and priesls or chiefs, and medicine men; and one object 




MOUMi N > 10 MULM LlH 

of building the high conical mounds was, that the people dwell- 
ing in a village in one valley might send signals to those living 
in another vallev, in lime of attack, that all might escape to 
the great forts which were in the vicinity, and were so well 
provided with natural defenses. 

The picture is certainly an interesting one, and proves that 
the "mound builders, "so called, of the Ohio valley, were much 
more advanced and perhaps better organized, and governed, 
than were the wild tribes which dwelt in the stockade forts 
farther north, or the nomadic tribes which roamed over the 
prairies of the west and were mainly hunters. 

The clue to all this picture is furnished us by the village 



lAVCU ALTAR AT UOUND CITY. 

life that prevailed and filled the villages v/ith such a busy 
scene. In proof of thi^, wc shall speak of the altar mounds 
and their contents; but before doing so shall merely refer to 
the opinion of those gentlemen who first entered into the work 
of exploring the mounds and enclosures, and exhumed from 
them so many highly wrought relics of various kinds; SquierSc 
Davis. The iollo*ing is their description of the different 
earth-works and mounds: 

"In connection, more or less intimate with the various earth works al- 
ready described, and the tumuli or mounds; together these two classes oE 
remains constitu'e a single syslem of works, and the monuments oi the 
satite people, While Ihe enclosures impress us with the number and pow- 
er of the nations who built them, and enlighten us as to Ihe amount of 
military knowledge and skill which they possessed, the mounds and their 



3d8 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



contents serve to reflect light more upon the cusioms and conditions ol ait 
amon^ ihcm. 

Within these mounds we mual look lor (he only authentic remains of 
thfir builders; Ihey are the principle dcposiloiies of ancient ait; they covet 
tne bones ol the distinguished dead of remoie ages, and hide froni the pio- 
lane gaze of invading races the altars ol the ancient people. 

In respect to the position o[ the mounds, il may be Sdid that those ?( 
Ohio, occur within or near enclosures; someiimes in groups, but oftener 
detached and isolated. The altars or basins found in these mounds are 
almost invariably of buined clay." 

"Theereal size of the foregoing structures precludes the idea that they 
were temples in the general ai::ceplation oi the term: as has already been 
Intimated they were probably like the tjreat circles of England; the squares 
ot India, Feru, and Mexico, within which were erected the shrines of the 
gods of the ancient worshipers, and the altars ol the ancient leligion. They 
may have embraced consecrated groves, and as they did in Mexico, the 
residences ol the ancient priesithoud. In Peru, none except the blood of 
of the royal Incas, whose lather was the son, were permuted to pass the 
wall* of their priroalive worship, and the Imperial Montezuma humbly 
sought the pardon of his insulted gods lor venturing to introduce his un- 
believing contjueror wilhin the area consecralrd bv their shrines. Analogy 
would inerclore seem to indicaie that the structures (circles and squares] 
under consideration, were nothing but sacred enclosures. We find within 
these enclosures, the altars upon which ihe ancient people pettormed their 



SCULPTURED PIPE FROM ALTAR MOUND NO. S. 
tacririces. Wc find also pyramidal jlructurcs, ( platform mounds) at Ports- j 
mouth. Marietta, and other places which cnire-.pond entirelv with thos 
Mexico and Central America, except that of bein" composed nt stone, ihejr J 
ate constructed ol eartli; and ln^tcad ol bn ad llight-s of step«. they have f 
Uraded avenues Hnd spiral pathways leading tu th - ■■ 

See Ancient Monuments page 1 57. 

The iirst localily that we sliall speak of is the- one called the ^ 
" Mound City:" it is situated in Ross county, Ohio. The most 1 
striking feature of tli's "oik is Ihe unusual number of mounds] 
which it comains; there are no less than iwenty-four within its 
waUs. All of these have been excavated and found to con- 
twK •Itar.i and other remains which put it beyond question as ] 
AHl*oe of sacrifice. One mound is i; feet high with a broad | 
(h^nfarly 100 feet in diameter. 

Xlicsc altar mounds were evidently the places of sacrifice of'( 
Kk_^^plc who dwelt in the villages ot ihi; Scioto Valley, and J 
-fitobably the places of sacrifice lor Ihe 



e tribe, rather i 



THE RACE QUESTION, 



than one clan, as the reli 



ffered i 
Id be likely to present. 



ere more numerous than 



one clan wou 

As proof of this we refer to the fact that within a dislam 
-of twelve miles there are no less than six village enclosures, 
and a great number of burial mounds scattered indiscriminate- 
ly over the surface, and the great fortified enclosure on the 
rfiorth fork of the Paint Creek was but a few miles away, while 
dookout mounds were situated on the hill-lops surrounding 
the valley, showing that the people were banded together foi 
defense as well as lor worship. 

That altar mounds were connected with the village enclo- 
sures and were the places for sacrifice for th^ pfople dwelling 
in them is proved by the works which were discovered on the 
north fork of Paint Creek, an enclosure that contained 
-acres, and near the centre of which was a smaller enclo; 
which contained the altar mounds. This semi-circular enclo- 
sures was about 3,000 feet in circumference; within it are seven 
mounds, three of which are joined together, forming a contin 
uous elevation 30 feel high, 500 feet long, 180 feet broad at the 
•base. All the mounds were places of sacrifice containing altars. 

The first discovery was made at what is called Mound city, 
a small enclosure situated in the Scioto valley not far from the 
■<:ity of Chillicothe, in the " ~ 

a-egion where village en- 
closures are numerous, and 
where Iher; are high look- 
out mounds on the hill- 
lops and forls not far dis- 
tant, giving us the idea 
that it was the home nr ;i 
mumerous p-ople. all ot 
-whom dwelt in walled vil- 
lages and were confedL-r- 
atcd together for mutual 
defense, and gained sub- 
sistence by cultivating the ''"'" '"'"" '"'' "^ 
soil in the rich bottom lands and wcrt- happy and prosperous. 

Mound City contained twenty-six allar mounds which 
varied from 7 feet high and 55 feet base to 11 feet high 
140 feet base, all of which contained an immem^e number of 
articles, many of which were wrought into the shape of birds 
and beasts, and were the finest specimens of art wnich have 
been discovered. 

The chief impression about the people is that 1 hey were 
■very religious, and sn under the control of chiefs and priests, 
that nearly everything was done from a religious motivi,-; even 
their dances and amusements were in reality religious cere- 
monies. In this respect they resembled the mysienous peo- 
ple called Cliff Dwellers,and their survivor.s the Pueblos of the 
far west. In proof of this we would refer lo the great number 
■of altar mounds and the wonderful relics which they contained. 




all of which show that the people had not only reached a higl 
slaee of advancement in sculptured art. but they were willing 
in the time of emergency to part with their most precious rel- 
ics on which they had expended so much labor and care, in 
sacrifices to their divinities. Such is the impression we have 
gained, both from the examination of the works themsclve-!. 
and from the testimony of the various explorers who have dug 
into the mounds and discovered these altars and their relics. 

The following is a description of the altars and relics taken 
from them by Squier & Davis the authors of Ancient Monu- 
ments: , „ . 

\ Urge number of these altars were found in an enclosure callM 
Mound City, on the banks of the Scioto river. One of these is 7 feet high 
■Ad t.i feel base; il was stratified and contained an iniruded akeleloo 
near the top: the altar was perfectly round and contained pottery vases of 
eicellent finish; copper disks; a layer of silvery mica in sheets overlapping 
eacb other; and calcined bones. , . - . ■ 

Another mound No, 3 was go feel in diameter, 7 'j feet high; i( was strati- 
Md and contained an intruded skeleton at the lop: the altar measured 10 
foot m lenijib and 8 feet in width, heighi is 18 inches: among the ashes was 
■ beaotilul vase. In the mound 3 feel below the surface were tounditwo. 
*cll preserved skeleior>s; many implements of stone, horn and twoe; sev. 




SCULFTORED BIKD FKOM AI.TAK MOUND NO. 8. 
da;<ei and gouges of stone: arliclei mide from the hoin 



ott^^ 



r blade of a builalu; a notched instrument for 
, ihe faces of ihe warriors. 
ls qox6o feet base. 6 (eel in height and an altar. 



* (torn the shoulder 
iut paint and lines 
EbM mound N'o. 4 n 
A»k«c el wlikh sank below the original surface of the 9< .. 

ASMkir mound No. 3. eg^g-shapped, mtasurin^ 140(001 in length. 
4k kM wide. II feet high, contained a double attar, one within another. 
'UkKaaiu found in this mound consisted of a quantity of copper; many 
woiMMMSof Stone; a number oC spear headi be-iuiilullv chipped out o( 
WIMaMdiianm: a quantity of fragments of nuartz and crystals of Kamet; 
mm^m^tmm point; a number of fine arrow-neads of limpid quarli; two 
^HV (nvcr* or chisels, or.e measuring; eie;ht inches in length; copper 
Mme a^M^eoi carved pipes made out of marble, one of them the figure 
^«lw4*t9««bliniE the tucan. 

Jba-M^M ■tain] Ni. 8. cintaitiei an aliar 6 feel 2 inches by 4 fool. 
■A ^ Ac ater about J03 pipes, much broken up by the heat, composed' 
^»<aM»fcni stone resemblinK the pioe sione. all of them carved in l^g- 

' 1) esgiisile skill, amon^; ihem an oiler holding a fish iO' 

. ..-ran also holds a fish; the nawk grasps a small bird in its 

sit«itkittbeak; the panther; the bear; the woll; the beaver; 

«t nceoa: hawk; heron; crow; swallow: buzzard: paroquetn 

■iftii liiiili TTir T iiTir: f-'f/ toad; and raitle-snahe, are recog- 



THE RACE QUESTION. an 

tiiied at lirst glance, Bui ihe most interesting and valued are a number of 
sculptured human heads, no doubt faithfully representing Ihe physical fea- 
tures of the ancient people by whom they were made. 

Another mound No. i8, has three strata an intruded burial, and an 
altat which contains no relics but at a depth of 4 'i feet a pavement 6x4 
feet was reached.upon this pavement a skeleton upon which afire had been 
built, pailially cremating it. 

Another mound No. 7, measured 17 '< feet high,(;o foot base; it was 
Stratified at the depth of 19 feel, was found a smooth level lioor of clay, and 
a layer of silvery mica formed a rounded sheet one foot in diameter and 
overlappine each other like the scales of a fish; the entire length of this 
i__. __j ...'J. I. . I — -t-L' ij suggested 



m and was dedicated ti 

n the north fork of Paint 
e found several insiru- 



s 20 feet and greatest width was ; fee 
the idea that it was used as the symbol of the m 
that luminary. 

Mound No. 9. was found in the great work 
Creek, and contained an altar, within which w 
ments of obsilian; several scrolls cut from thin ... 

namcnis of a robe; a trace of ctotb; a number of bone needles: graven 
tools: a quantity of pearl beads Another mound contained an altar that 
had a casing of pebbles and gravel paved with small round stones, a little 
larger than a hen's egg; and upun the altar ten well wrought copper brace- 
lets encircling some calcmed bones, conveying the idea that the body had 
been cremated. 

Another mound No. 10, in the same enclosure, has two sand strata, but * 
instead of an altar there are two layers of discs chipped out of stone. They 
were placed side by side, a little inclining and one resting a little above the 
other. Out of an excavation of 6 feet long by 4 feet wide, not Far from 60a 
were thrown. Supposing it 10 be square we have not far from 4,000 of these 
discs represented here. 

It shsuld be remarked that while all these have the same general fea- 
tures, no two are alike in the size and shape of their altars, or character of 
the deposit made on them. One mound covers a deposit made almost en 
tirely of pipes: another of spear heads or of galena, or calcined shells or 

We pass from this region to the stone graves of Tennessee. 
These bring us into contact with another class of mounds, and 
another race or tribe of people. Gen. Gales P. Thruston is an 
authority on this subject. 

The e.tamination of the stone graves in Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee, confirms what has been said about distinct races having 
existed in the Mississippi valley. He says: 

"They present unmistakable evidence of aslateoE society above the 
social .cotiditionof the pre-histuric tribes of Canada and the northeastern 
Mates, including New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia. This well recog- 
nized fact seems to separate the culture ol the Mound Builders from that 
of the ancieniiribes of Ihe northeast, the Iroqitciis, 'he Hurons, and the In- 
dians oi the Algonkin stock by well delined lines rif distinction, indicating 
that the tribes of the north were more nomadic and lived in a more 
barbarous state. 

Unmistakable evidences are also presented in the preceding pages of 
contact, intercourse, or relationship, between the aborigines of the Missis- 
sippi Vallev. and the ancient peoples of the southwest and of the Pueblo 
di^filricis. The similaritv in Ihe forms of the crania fonnd in the ancient 
graves within the mound area, and the crania of the ancient inhabitants of 
Slexico. Central America, Peru and the Pueblos, suggests a common origin. 
The hroad beaded or brachycephalic type is predominant. It appears to 
distinguish the cranial types of the old peoples of the snuih and southwest 



from the long ot oval crania of the nonherr 
seem also to have represented the eth 
development that characterized the a 
the village or semi-village class.'' 



rs. The short, broad skulls 
jward progress a: 
and the Indians 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 



Prof. Putnam, in speaking of the diversity of races, says:: 1 

"We find that the prevailing form of the skulls irom the older burial 
places across the northern portion of the continent, from the Pacilic to the 
Atlantic, is of the long, narrow type (dolicbocephaiic). while the skulls «f 
the old peoples oi Central America, Mexico, and south-western and south- 
ern portions of the United States, are principally o^ the short, broad typ«* 
(brachycephalic). Following the distr.bmion at the long and short skulls,. 
as thev are now found in burial places, it is evident that ine two formsbave > 
spread in certain directiom over North America: the short, or broad-head- 
ed race of the South spreading' out toward the East and Northeast; while 
the lonK, or narrow-headed race of the North has sent its branches soutbp I 
ward, down both coasts, and toward the interior, by many lines from the 1 
North, as well as from the East and West. The two races hEve passed eacbi I 
other Itere and there; in other places they have met; and, probably, no- I 
where, is there moru marked evidence of this meeting than in ibe Obio> J 
Vallev, where have been found burial places and sepulchral mounds of f 
different kinds and of different times." 

Mr. Thruston speaks of the art of the stone-grave people i 
as furnishing analogues and identities which connect the anli- I 
quities of Tennessee with the ancient arts and industries of the J 
Mexico and Pueblos. He says: 

" The remarkable and mythological figures upon the shell gorgets and-J 




copper plat 
affiliation, 

monial fli 



ORNAMENTS FROM TENNESSE 

(show unmistakable evidences 
e pipes from the valley of the 



Me; 



.. . _ .. n origin or ] 

mberland. the large- 
s. the images, the Idols, the grotesque forms, the long cere- 
-all seem to connect the mound tribes with the arts, culture, 
r religion of the peoples of the west and sonthwesi, and to separate thenk 
from the tribes of the north and northeast. The better class of 'pottery 
from the graves and mounds, and the ancient ware of the Pueblo distrjct»j| 
of New Mexico and Ariiona, also show decided marks of reaembUnce. 



[APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF VARIATION 
IN THE EVOLUTION OF MAN. 



BY CHARLES H, DUNCAN. 

In studying the Evolution of Man, there seems to be one 
point, and a very important one. that apparently has wholly, or 
in part at least, escaped the attention and application, it de- 
serves. I refer to the application of the Law of Variation as 
advanced by Darwin. The deductions of this application ap- 
pear to be logical and enable us to more readily understand 
many of the phenomena that present themselves in the Evolu- 
tion of Man from his primitive state. 

The Law of Variation, one of the factors of organic evolu- 
tion, as advanced by Darwin, is: "AH species of animals and 
plants exhibit tendencies to variations, from the parent stock. 
These variations, however slight, are of importance and throug^h 
heredity are transmitted to succeeding generations. It is of im- 
portance to remember that no two individuals are alike in all 
particulars." 

Now one step further in this Law or Variation. It is pro- 
posed here to demonstrate from well-known physiological phe- 
nomena supported by numerous observations that: (l) Vari- 
ety of food is necessary for the highest intellectual advance- 
ment or mental activity of the human race. (2) The more 
local the food supply and the less variety of food of a people 
or nation, the less is their intellectual development, and the 
less variation is there, from the parent slock. 

Variety of food and mental capacity are inseparable and 
since the fact that they are inseparable is so persistent, and 
confronts us on all occasions with such startling regularity in 
every quarter of the globe, and in all ages, is it not reasonable 
to assume at least, for the sake of discussion, that variety of 
food may be the cause and mental activity or inactivity, as the 
case may be, the effect? 

OBSERVATIONS KROM EXISTING PEOPLE. 

The people who live on any one food, as fish for example, are 
far down in the scale of intellectual development, and physi- 
cally they have the same characteristics; the same cast of 
countenance. The Indians of the Northwest and the Eski- 
mos arc good illustrations of this. The people who live by 
agriculture are more advanced mentally, for their food supply 
is more varied, but still there are limits to its variety.and there 
are limits to their mental capabilities. 

Those people whose merchants traverse their own country 



2i6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUAR-AS- 

and bring back arijclcsof fuoduthi-rihan iho-e ^ruun in their 
immediate vicinity, are still luriiier ailv.nrc.tl mcni.ill\ , as fur 
example the Chinese. Ihey are a cultured people, but seem 
to lack the ability of developing the possibilities of their know- 
ledge. In fact they have always fallen just short of accomp- 
lishing great ends. Their merchants traverse the empire of 
China, and their food supply is limited to China almost exclu- 
sively. So, in accepting ihc above theory, we would natura ly 
infer that their mental capacity would be limited. This is so. 
They invented gunpowder but used it only for fire crackeis. 
They invented the compass but used it merely as a toy; they 
first invented movable type, but never developed its possibili- 
ties on the printing press. They have raised cattle from the 
earliest times, but travelers Icl! us that never have they been 
known to milk their cov.s. 

OBSERVATIONS FROM HISTORY. 

The Nahuas or Aztecs. When Cortcz found them ihei/ 
merchants traversed their own country and penetrated into 
North and South America. Their food was more or less 
varied but limited to restricted districts. The student of An- 
thropology knows their civilization, and culture were high, but 
remember, not the highest. Did not their advanced mental 
condition result from ihe fact that their food was more varied 
and came from sections of their country other than their own 
immediate vicmity? This is a question worthy of serious con- 
sideration. It is. to say the least, remarkable that the most 
enlightened people of early times were those who were so situ- 
ated geographically that their food from a distance came to 
them the easiest. Who can say that the early Egyptian cul- 
ture was not due to the lact that their food floated to them 
from the more remote districts of the upper Nile, and from 
across the Mediterranean or was brought to them by their cara- 
vans that pf-netrated far into the east? Accepting the above 
theory, that variety of food is necessary for the highest mental 
capacity we would naturally expect to find them superior i 
tcllectually to their contemporaneous neighbors. They were. 
In fact our first knowledge of astronomy dates back to the i 
early Egyptians, and their knowledge of engineering in build- 
ing the pyramids has been the wonder of all ages since. 

The Romans were so situated geographically that their food 
from a distance came to them very easily; therefore, we would 
expect to find them among the earliest people to show enlight- 
enment. That their iood was most varifii, and was broaghi to 
them from Ihe more remote quarters of the then known world, 
is recorded and dwelt on at length by historians of that period 
who tell us of their sumptuous and enormously costly banquets. 
The same thing may practically be said of the Greeks. We 
find to-day the most enlightened race of man in Europe and 
America. They eat a very great variety of food; iheysipiheir 
coffee from Rio in the morning, and in the evening their tea 




EVOLUTION OF MAN. 



117 



from Ceylon; theirsug^ar and fruits come from the tropics and 
their spices from India, etc. 

If there is truth in the supposition that variety of food is 
necessary for the highest mental dcvdopmcnt of the human 
race and it appears altogether probable there is, for the deep- 
er wc look into the subject the more ctinvincinR it becomes, 
who can say what the future generations may amount to when 
it is more (ully understood and followed to Us limits? 

OBSERVATIONS FROM PHVSIOLOGV. 

Again, refcrringto the law o( variation, let us ask ourselves 
the question: What would be the effect ol a great vaiiety of 
food j jdiciously given to the mother on the unborn child? The 
varied laste ol the mother at this lime is well-known 'n ail. 
Her mind will dwell for days and days upon certain ariiLlea of 
food, and will not be satisfied until she yets them, and this, at 
the very time when the highly specialized cells of the fret us are 
fast developing. This special craving of the mother for variety 
and (or almost lor^olten articles of food; this craving for chalk 
or even eating slate pencils at this time, has been recorded by 
many of the early writers, and noted by many of our modern 
obseivers. Natuie urges the mother to eat these impossible 
foods to supply materia! for the bone of the growing foetu-:. 
When ih's supply is not sufficient the child must get the vari- 
ous ingredients necessary to make up its bone from the mother 
and we find one or more of the mother's teeth sacrificed to 
help supply the calcareous material necessary- Sometimes this 
calcareous material is derived from her bone to a greater or 
less extent and the osseous elements of her blood are drawn 
on. Since then this craving for calcareous material for the 
bone of the off spring is accepted and that at the other ex- 
treme that strong, though intangible mental impressions stamp 
the physical body of the child is accepted, ( I'iersol & Palmer. )• 
who can say that the cravings for a variety of other foods it 
this period do not point to the fact that tliey are just as 1 s- 
scntiat for the rounding out of those other far more compile. ii- 
ed structures or faculties of the off-spring, or that tlie physical 
body of the child is not affected by the tangible foods that go 
to make up its composition as well as by intangible mental im- 
pressions which we know do stamp the physical body of the 
child? 

As a matter of physiological observations we find, that when 
the mother lives on the very same limited articles of f nod, as is 
the custom with the Chinese mothers, the child must draw on 
the maternal stock for the various materials necessary with 
which to manufacture its most delicate and eomplicated organ- 
isms or highly specialized c«lls. It has, in fact, no other means 
of supply, and we find that when the child does draw on the 
maternal stock the most, it varies little from the physical make 
up of its mother, and there is a striking resemblance between 
(he whole members of the same family, tribe and class. Ther 



THK AMERICAN ANTiU.UARlAN. 



all rcsi'mblf thdr common ancestor. If we accept ihis lleor>- iltat| 
variety of food is necessary for a preater variation of the off 
spring, it is easy to go a step further and accept the iliecrj 
th^l vari&iy of food is necessary for a higher intellectual dc 
velopment, since nature, (the mother's craving at this time for I 
variety of food) is more nearly satisfied and since it is borne i 
out by observations that variety of food and intellectual devel- 
opment ha5 gone hand in hand all over the world and in all 
ages. How easy it is accepting Ihis theory, that vaiietyot food 
is necessary for a greater variety in the off-spring and for a 
higher intellectual development to account for the intellectual J 
inferiority of those splendid specimens of physical manhood J 
the Wolofs and Zulus of Africa, and of the Russian Pea-antal 
or any other people or tribe that live on the products of food i 
from a limited area. 

The effect of food on the physical bodv is in direct propor- . 
tion to the building up process in the manifestations of life, \ 
since the building up process or Anabolism is max 
the fcetus we would expect the fcetus to be most effected I 
by food. Here nature urges the mother to eat a variety oM 
food, the very thing as shown above that causes a variation in \ 
the ofi-spring, Darwin's law of variation is "all species of a 
mals and plants exhibit tendencies to variation from the parent I 
stock." Does not this application of the law of variation make I 
clear, in a measure, how this variation is brought about in the I 
evolution of man? 

'A^ain lei us turn to eml'rvology and in Itie light of ibe above 
study ihe fcetus witti a view of dciermlnint; K po-sible, how, where, 
and wheoarehereditarv tendencies iran»milleil to the off spring and at what 
period of its development do the tendencies to varinlioli Set in. 

Remembering that observations and physioir gy a* ciltd abo' 
to indicate that variciy of food for the mi-ihcr csuiics a fuller development 
of Ihe menial faculties of the off-spring. 

It isonly whenihe placetiiafunctionBics that the vatious nu. . . ._ . 
the mother's blood are brought to the firtus direct by osmosis. That then 
is DO special variation ol ntitrition in Ihe mother's tilood before ttiis 
denced bv the fart, that the time when the craving i>\ the mother lor vafieiy 
of fold beg'"^- 's '^° incident with the time when the placi nia Is beginning 
10 funrlionate (from the second to iiith week.) Before the placenta Ixgaa 
to functionate the lolk sack funclionaied or supplied the nutrimi ' 

elemcDts necessary fnr the growing fiilus. I'here arc several singe 
development of the rmhrvo when it is entirely separated from the mother. 
During the period the yolk sack is funciirnatitg at its maximtim ihe em- 
bryo is nourished by secretions from the reproductive orgar.s of the mother 
and is independent of diiect coinmunic ition with the moiher.s blood as we 
find It later. It i-i only when [he yolk <=ack be^in« to a'rophv that the pla- 
centa begins 10 funi'tionale. Uelnre the plarrnta begms 10 furciionate. 
the inMuence of variety of food has not brgun on 'he embryo lor the 
mother's blood is not brouyhl to the embryo yet. Then there is no tendency 
to variation up to this time if not then there must be tendency to similarity 
or htrfdily at this point. Now heredity is transmitted thiuugb the m*le 
reproductive element. Then logically, hereoily is tranfmiitcd tbiough the 
female reproductive element The lolk sack is an integral part of rhe fe- 
male reproductive element from the female reproductive organ. 

Especially is this confirmed when we know that Ihe nuclei ur starlinK 
point of the various organs has begun before the yolk sack atrophies. 



It 

I 




THE LAW OF VARIATION. 



placenta begins to funciionate at its maximuni. Then the placenta merely 
supplies the already starred germs ol the various organlims of the fcetus 
with notricions lor their development. Voile sack Kives tbem their origin. 
The mote varied the nutriments, observation proves the fuller or more per- 
fect i, ttie mental development or the greater is the mental capacity of the 
individual. There is a period when the yolk sack is approaching com- 
plete atrophy and the placenta i& beginning to functionate that they are 
both opetating at the same lime, showing ihal variation tends to Ret Is 
nchl at or immediately alter the starling cell of the various organism 
takes its origin. 

SummiDg up then we find the yolk sack begins lo atrophy at about the 
fonneenth day and practically ceases about the lilib week. Although the 
liquid substance in it does not entirely disappear until the fourth or fifth 
month. Hereditary tendencies from the moiner are a nuximum in the earli- 
cet stages of p teg nancy and begins to diminish about The fourteenth day 
and pratticallv ceases about the fifth week and toially ceases about the 
fifth month. Tendency to variation in the fti^tus begins at iihoul the foar- 
teenth day and increases as the placenta begins its lull normal function 
and continues as long as maiabolism is mauifested. 

There are other forces at work that tend to modify to a 
greater or less extent the application of the law ot variation, 
but we cannot get away from the fact that the modifying in- 
fluence of variety of food is present whenever there is a higher 
development in the mentality of a people. 

If we accept the above observations, supported as they are 
by what we know of the laws of physiology, then let us ask the 
question: How long has this factor been in operation, and how 
far reaching is its affect, as affecting primitive man and his 
near relative, the monkey? It would be preposterous to sup- 
pose that variety of food affected man's mentality within a limit- 
ed period of time only, and since man is identically anatomi- 
cally typified in the monkey, ( Professor Owen says: " Every 
tooth, eveiy bone strictly homologous,") is it unreasonable to 
assume that this factor did affect the monkey also, especially 
since we know the monkey is affected by oth;r physiological 
laws, and since we know that many of our most important 
truths relative to man have been discovered by experimenting 
on even lower forms of vertebrates? 

All anthropologists to-day agree in Monogencis or Poly- 
genesis— in other words.il is agreed that man and the monkey 
ca.ne from the same origin. The evidence above seems to 
prove that variety of food did play a most important part in 
the evolution of man from his common ancestor with the 
monkey. 

Let us recapitulate. Man, mentally and physically, to-day 
is affected by variety of food. Man, mentally and physically, 
in the earliest period of his existence was affected by a variety 
of food. If not, when did this iniluence begin or leave off? 
Man in his earliest existence was identical with the monkey in 
his earliest existence. Is it not reasonable to suppose the dif- 
ference between man and the monkeyto-day was brought about 
by varietj of food? 

The author does not assume that this had all to do with 
evolving man from his common ancestor, with the monkey. 




Mo THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

but that this factor has not been given due consideration, and 
by accepting it we explain m^ny of the phenomena to-day un- 
explained. 

We have heard much of the missing link- There has been 
no missing link in the light of the above. It has taken ages 
for the modifying influence of variety of food on the mental 
powers of man to accomplish the present high slate of his 
mentality. To those searchers for the missing link 1 
would put them the hypothetical case of a mountain that was 
subjected to a wind sufficiently strong to level it to the ground 
in a stated period of time. What wind levelled the mountain? 
There is no one wind that blew down ihe mountain. It ha* 
taken ages to accomplish this. There may be specimens of 
•kuils found in nearly all stages of development between man 
and the monkey, but as to which is the missing link? Which 
wind blew down the mountain? 

The above furnishes food for reflection, for il certainly ap- 

Eears that man in whatever sphere or condition we find him in 
istory, needs a variety of food and foods grown in other 
countries than his own to have the fullest rounding out of his 
mental capabilities. In fact it appears reasonable lo state ihat 
man's intellectual capacity varies in a direct ratio to the variety 
of his food and to the distance from which it comes. 



'■ Physiologists* admii'«nd obsetvalio 
tions do aSect the development of the txte 
the mental development be altered in its 
tioa. Idiocy may so result. The mind i 
in ways uneicplaiocd." 

"There IS certainly more than co-inc 
shock, and the subsequent malfnrmalion oi 
known elephant mnn of England and the ti 
Stales, witD other loslances, are familiar e' 

The author is well aware that there 
It accept the staicmer 



IS prove lhat the maternal emo- 
rhrofthf firms. Likewise may 
complexion delicate organiii- 
itluences and modlhes the body 



I 
I 



irtle 



king of the ftctus 

' man exhibited m the United 
idences of this stateraenl." 
re some physicians to-day, who 
ipressions oi the mother stamp 



¥ 



the physical body of the child. Even those who do not give credence to 
this fact warn Ihe mother against undue mental oxcitemeni, as great uiRcr 
■nd great fear, as portending evil results to the off spring. Every careful 
pbyslctBn does this very thing, and in doing so, whether he acknowleders 
It or not, accepts the tact that great anger and ^''eat fear do affect the child. 
The greater the mental impression of the mother the greater will be the 
effect on Ihe child This is reasonable. Still we cannot understand or en- 
plain how it is done, and are we to reject the preponderance of evidence 
ttipporting the fact that great mental impressions do stamp the physical 
boav of the child simply because we do not understand and cannot ex- 
plain how it is done? Small indeed would be the sum total of the Icnotrl- J 
•dge of any man if he rejected cverythinR he could not explain. If physic- J 
■llv we reject this wc must deny* that meuial impressions do affect Ihe 
mother physically at all. which I hdieve few scientists at Ihe present day 
«re willinglo eo on record as sodorng. 

Again, ".Shock is a profound impression made on the nervous system 
accompanied by a diminution of Ihe heart action, caused by some severe 
phyniral injury or mental impression," 

Then, severe m- nial impressions profoundlv affect the nervous lyxem 
and blood vessels ol Ihe mother. The nerves and blood vessels affect 
every organism of 1h- mother's body. The child is affected by tbe phyai- 

' ■ ■ '^' , -. i ■ r, . . , .,i_.,ll., W.. _._t.1 1_ 



lild is affected phvs 
icipal argument ad' 



those that ^m 



THE ESKIMO DANCE HOUSE. 



disrlairathatmenlal impressions do affecuhe child physicallv islhal thereis 
DO DCrveconneclinij the child and the mother. Neither is there any nerve 
connecting the nursiug child with the mother yet we know, that when the 
mother U subjected to great anger or feni the nurfing child is thrown in 
bonvulsionsand sometimes dies. The unborn child is connected with the 
noiher as directly as it is possible for it to be and are we to say it is not 
physically affected by mental impressions o( the mother simply becftose 



irOuciiHtorChildni 



THE ESKIMO DANCE HOUSE. 



BY JAMES WILKERSHAM. 

One of the first men, Seutilit, which inpans " the first one." 
lost one of his family by death, for whom he grieved greatly. 
After his grief had somewhat worn off he danced and *ng 
and this was the first " kozge " known to the Eskimo at Cape 
Prince of Wales. There were many people in their villages 
then, and this kozge was situated in the lower town of Kinge- 
gan. Seutilit directed where the drummers and singers should 
be situated, and directed that the cast end should be reserved 
as a seat of honor for guests. There, the old men sat with the 
drummers and singers in front of them, and there the old men 
received presents. On the nnrth and south walls of the room, 
sit old men who are called "kaie-ud-ruck," wnile those on the 
east and west, are called " katenyuck." He directed that the 
dance should be called "Sa-yo to-uk." From this beginning 
many kinds of dancts have bsen established in the: Eskimo 
kozge. and it wa-* directed that no person should dance during 
the winter after a death in his f.imily. 

We were invited by Ok-ba-ok, tht- young chief, to attend a 
"you-wy-tsuk " dance in his ko/.ge in the evening. When we 
had pushed ourselves up through ihe round hole in the floor 
we found the drummers (six in number) ranged in a line facing 
west, and facing the entrance hole. Back of the drummerssst 
another line of singers on a raised seat. As we appeared wc 
were asked to come round behind the singers and a space on 
Ihe raised seat against the wall, in the centre of the east wall 
waf cleared for us as the most honored guest. The west side 
of Ihe k)z-ge was cleared, and everybody faced that way. Soon 
alter we were seated the singing and drumming began. Every- 
body gazed at the entrance and soon a fur hood appeared and 
a prominent citizen entered followed by his wife and small 
boy. The music grew louder, and the visitors began to dance, 
facing to the cast, and thus toward the music and audience. 
Each dance lasted for one or two minutes, and two such songs 



212 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and dances were performed when each new arrival desisted 
and took his place against the west wall. They were dressed 
in their fiocst spotted deerskin clothes; the man wore his la- 
brcts and had a black stripe across his nose; his wife had i 
black spot (round, and about the size of your thumb nail I. ID ' 
the centre of her forehead, while the boy, in addition to hij , 
other fur clothing, sported a large fox tail fastened to the back 
of his waist and dangling lo his heels. After these firs 
ors had danced their two short dances, and returned lo the 
west side of the room, and after a half a minute breathing 
spell, the song bi:'gan again, and the drums to beat, and another 
trio appeared, danced twice, and returned to the west side. 
They, also, were as were alt those so received, dressed in their J 
finest clothes. Time after lime a man and wornan, and gener- 
ally a child, appeared, and were all received exactly alike with | 
two songs and music, danced their two dances to the mu; 
and songs and then took their seals in the west. One time ' 
three giris came in alone. Each time a trio came in and as 
the song began one of the drummers or one of the singers, 
stripped to the waisB. stepped forward, and danced with the in- 
coming visitors. Often a mother, father, or child, seated in the 
audience came forward, and danced with the visitors. The ac- 
tion of the drummer, or singer, or relative, in dancing with the 
visitors, was to do them special public honor About a dozen 
sets of visitors came in with the songs, music and honors men- 
tioned. As soon as they turned to the west wall, each man 
took his seat on the high bench along the wall, while the wo- 
men and children stood, or squatted on the floor. As the last 
trio was seated, the music began again, and up through the 
floor popped three boys, dressed in the worst old clothes they 
could find, and masked, one ;is a white man, one as a negro, 
and the other as an eskimo. Their antics and grotesque dress; 
Ihcir bad singing, and worse dancing, greatly amused the au- 
dience and visitors After their two songs, they quickly dis- 
appeared before their identity was known. 

Then came the feast, to the visitors only. Pans of walrus 
and whale meat and other foods were passed by the drum- 
nurs and singers to the visitors. The pan first went to the 
hii-bind who helped himself, (using his fingers as forks and 
5poi>'i.<;) and then passed what was left to his wife and child. 
AM that these left, was put to »ne side to be taken home. After 
fifteen minutes spent in feasting, that gastronomic perform- 
ance closed. The drummers and singers took their places 
and struck up the music. The visitors first received, then 
danced: two short songs were sung and they were again es- 
pecially honored by the same person or persons who assisted 
tnem on their appearance, where upon, the husbind led. by the 
round hole, followed by the child, and then the mother, who 
carried the pans 'and remaining food. All were danced out 
exaaly in the order, and with the same muMc with which they J 



which they^H 



THE ESKIMO DANCE HOUSE. 



Z2y 



came in, and a(Cer the last trio had disappeared, the dance was 
ended, and the audience dispersed and went home. 

There are two koz-gc's in the village of Kin-ne-gan. at the 
Cape Prince of Wales, one in the upper village and one in the 
lower. They are alike except that the lower village is much 
the largest. The one in the lower town, is twenty-four feet 
square on the inside; it is reached by a covered entrance ten 
or twelve feet wide, and forty feet long, extending under the 
koz-ge floor, whence you emerge by rising through a hole eigh- 
teen inches in diameter, into the ronm This hole-door is 
somewhat ornamented by flat ivory pieces, inserted in the floor- 
puncheons about two inches back around the whole. The edge 
is rounding from these ivory strips to the whole; opposite, and 
where each persons face rises from the hole, on the east side, 
there is inserted in the floor a carving of a whale, made of a 
small bard stone with blue and white spots in it. 

The koz-ge is the man's house, and is only visited by the 
women on such occasions as when they hold public dances 
and invite the women. In it, all public meetings are held, such 
as dances and feasts. At other times, it is nsed by the men as 
a club room, a work shop, and a gambling house. They bring 
thither their sleds to mend; tliey make harness, for their 
dogs; repair their whaling and fishing gear; build new 
sleds; smoke; tell stories and plan the next day's hunt. 
They trade, sleep, work, gossip or gamble there without 
the prying eyes or sharp tongue of the wife discovering 
or decrying their short-comings. It is a club house, gym- 
nasium, work-shop, theatre, church;— and it is the only 
place of pnblic assembly in the village, and is built and 
maintained by the community. Here they conduct their 
various dances to propitiate the influences controlling 
the wind and weather, that they may be successful in 
bunting seal, walrus, bear, and whale. Here they receive 
visitors and tender receptions; not only to their tribal 
friends but to those from other tribes. Many dances are 
performed of different kinds, names, and for different 
purposes. The women are not found in the kon-ge ex- 
cept when invited to a dance or feast. The woman lives 
in her house — but is only tolerated at this public room. 




I 



THOMAS JEFFERSON ON PRE-HISTORIC 
AMERICANS. 

BV HBNRV BURNS GEBR. 

In Jefferson's "State of Virginia," a work written byThomis 
Jefferson about 17H1, and published in London in 17S7, a copy 
of which the writer is so fortunate as to possess, is found the 
following discourse on Indian Mounds.and their probable origin. 

Says Mr, Jefferson: " I know of no such thing existing as 
an Indian monument; for I would not honor with that name 
arrow points, stone hatchets, stone pipes, and half shapen im- 
ages. Of labor on the large scale. I think there is no remain 
as respectable as would be a common ditch for the draining of 
land; unless, indeed.il be the barrows, of which many are to be 
found all over the country. These are of different sizes; some 
of them constituted of earth, and some of loose stones. That 
they were repositories of the dead, has been obvious to all; 
but, on what particular occasion constructed, was matter of 
doubt. Some have thought they covered the bones of those 
who have fallen in battles fought on the spot of interment. 
Some ascribed them to the custom said to prevail among the 
Indians, of collecting, at certain periods, the bones of all their 
dead, wheresoever deposited at time of death. Others, again, 
supposed them the general sepulchres lor towns, conjectured 
to have been on. or near these grounds; .ind this opinion was 
supported by the quality of the lands in which they are found; 
< those constructed of earth being generally in the softest and 
most fertile meadow grounds on river sides,) and by a tra- 
dition, said to be handed down from the aboriginal Indians, 
that, when they settled in a town, the !irst person who died 
was placed erect, and earth put about him, so as to cover and 
support him; that, when another died, a narrow passage was 
cut to the first, the second reclined against him, and the cover 
of earth replaced, and so on." 

There being one of these in my neighborhood, I wished to 
Sftlisfy myself whether any, and which of the opinions were 
)USt. For this purpose, 1 determined to open and examine it 
thoroughly. It was situated on the low grounds of the Rivanna, 
«l>out two miles above iis principal fork, and opposite to some 
hills, on which has been an Indian town. It was of a spheroidl- 
vjil fiirni of about forty feet diameter at the base, and had been 
^( jjbuut twelve fret altitude, though now reduced by the plow 
(«i Mvo'i and a half, having been cultivated atiout a dozen 
yv^is. Ucfore this it was t-overed with trees of twelve inches 



THOMAS JEFFERSON 2:5 

diameter, and around the base was an excavation of five (ect 
Heptli and width, from which the earth had been taken, of 
which the hillock was formed. I first dug superficially in sev- 
eral parts of it, and came tj collections of human bones, at dif- 
ferent depths, from six inches to three ft-et below the surface. 
These were lying in the utmost confusion, some vertical, some 
oblique, some horizontal, and directed to every point ot the 
compass, entangled, and held together in clusters by the earth. 
Hones of the most distant part were found together; as, for in' 
stance, ihe small bones of ihc foot, in the hollow of a skull; 
many skulls would somet.mes be m contact, lying on the face; 
on the side; on the bick; top or bottom; so as, on the whole, 
lo give the idea aa of bones cmpiied promiscuously from a bag 
Or basket, and covered over with earth without any attention 
as to ihcir order. The bones of which the greater number re- 
mained, were skulb, jav bones, teeth, the bones of the arms, 
thighs, legs, feet, and hands; a few ribs remained; some verte- 
bra; of the neck and spine, without their processes, and one in- 
stance only, of the bone which serves as a base to the verte- 
bral column. The skulls wen" so tender, that they generally 
IlII to pieces on being touched. The other bones were strong- 
er. There were some teeth which were judged to be smaller 
than tlio*e of ah adult; a skull, which on slight view, app.:ared 
lo be that of an infant, but it fell to pieces on being taken out, 
so 3" to prevent a sansfaclory examination; a rib, a portion of 
Ihe jaw of a child, which had not yet cut its teeth. This last 
furnishing the most decisive proof of the burial of children 
here; I was particular in my attention to it. It was part of the 
right haif of the under jaw. The processes by which it was ar- 
ticulated to the temporal bones, were entire; and the bone it- 
self firm to where it had bet-n broken off, which, as nearly as ! 
could judge, was about the place ot the eyc-looth; its upper 
edge, wheriin would have been the sockets of the teeth uas 
pertectly smooth. Measuring it wiih that ot an adult by plac- 
ing their hinder proce:5ses together its broken end extended 
to the penultimate grinder of the adult. This bone was white; 
all the others of a sand color. The bones of infants being soft 
Ih&y probably decay sooner, which might be the cause so few 
■were lound here. 

I proceeded then lo make a perpendicular c&t through the 
body of the Barrow tha: I miyht examine its internal s ructure. 
This passed about three feet from its centre, was opened to the 
former surface of the earth and was wide enough for a man to 
walk through and examine its sides. At the bottom, that is on 
a level with the circnmjacenl plane, I found bones; about these, 
a few stones brought from a cliff a quarter of a mile off. and 
Irom Ihe river one-eighth of a mile off; then a large interval 
ot earth; then a stratum of bones, and so on. At one ^nd of 
Ihe section were four strata of bones plainly visible; at the 
other three, the strata in one part ranging wiih those in anoth- 
er. The bones nearest the surface were least decayed. No 



226 THt AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. ■ 

holes were discovered in any of them as if made with buUet^fl 
arrows, or other weapons. 1 conjectured that in this barrow I 
might have been a thousand skeletons. Every one will readily^ 
seize the circus tan cos above related, which militate against the ' 
opinion that it covered the bones only of those fallen in bat- 
tle; and, against the tradition also, which would make it the 
common sepulchre of a town in which the bodies were placed 
upright and touching each other. Appearances certainly indi- 
cate that it has derived both origin and growth from the ac- 
custotnary collection of bones and deposition of them togeth- 
er; that the first collection had been deposited on ihii commoL — 
surface of the earth, a few stones put over it, and then a covJ 
ering of L'arth; that the second had been laid on this, had cov^ 
ered more or less of it, in proportion to the number of bones,! 
and was then also covered with earth, and so on. 

The following are the particular circumstances whieh give 
it this aspect: i, the number of bones; 2, their confused po-i- 
tion; 3, their being in different strata; 4, the strata in one pari j 
having no correspondence with those in another; $, the differ-j 
ent stale of decay in these strata, which seem to indicate a dif- j 
fcrcnce in the lime of iheir inhumation; 6, the evidence of ia^ 
fant bones among them. 

But, on whatever occasion they have been made, they an 
of considerable notoriety among the Indians, for, a party pa^ 
sing, about thirty years ago, through the part of the country" 
where this Barrow is. went through the woods directly to il, 
without any instructions or inquiry, and having stayed there 
sometime, with expressions which were construed to be those 
of sorrow, they returned to the high road, which they had left 
about half a dozen miles away to pay the visit, and pursued 
their journey. 

There is another Harrow much resembling this in the low 
grounds of the south branch of the Shenandoah where it is 
crossed by the road leadmg from the Rockfish gap to Staun- 
ton. Both of these have, within these dozen years, been clear- 
ed of their trees and put under cultivation; are much reducrd 
in their height, and spread in width by the plow, and will prob- 
ably disappear in time. There is another on a hill in the Blue 
ridge of mountains, a few miles north of Wood's Gap, which 
is made up of small stones thrown together. This has been 
opened and found to contain human bones, as the others do. 
There are also many others in many other parts of the country. 
Greit questions have arisen, from whence came those aborgini- 
nal nhabitants of America? Discoveries long ago made, were 
sufficient to show that a passage from Europe to America was 
always prac'icable, even to the imperfect navigation of ancient 
times. In going from Norway to Iceland; from Iceland to 
Greenland; from Greenland to Labrador, the first trajcci is 
the widest, and this havinji been practised from the earliest 
times of which we have any account of that part of the eartb) m 




PKE-HISTORIC AMERICANS. 227 

it is not difRcult to suppose that the subsequent trajects may 
have been sometimes passed. Again, the late discoveries of 
Capt. Cook, coasting from Kamchatka to California, have 
proved that, if the two continents of Asia and America are 
separated at all, it is only by a narrow strait; so that from this 
side also inhabitants may have passed into America. And, the 
resemblance between the Indians of America and the eastern 
inhabitants of Asia, would induce us to conjecture that the 
former are the descendants of the Utter, or the latter of the 
former; accepting, indeed, the Esquimaux, who, from the same 
circumstance of resemblance, and from identity of language, 
must he derived from the Greenlandrrs aad th:se, probably, 
Irom th; northern part of the old continent. 

A knowledge of their several l.ingnages would be the most 
certain evidence of their deriviation which could be produced; 
in fact it is the be^t [.roof of the affinity of nations which ever 
can be referred to. How many ages have elapsed since the 
English, the Datch, the Germans, the Swiss, the Norwegians, 
Danes, and Swedes, have sep.irated from their common stock? 
Yet, how many more must elapse before the projfsof their 
comnon origin which exists in their several languages, will 
cJis.tpptar? It is to be lamented then. v;ry much iameriteJ 
that we have suffered so many of the Indian tribes already 10 
extinguish without having previously collected and depoiiied 
in the records of literature the general rudimenis, at least of 
the lansjuagc which they spoke. Were vocabularies formed of 
all the languages spoken in North and South Amerioa, preserv- 
ing their appellations of the most common objects in nature. 
of those which mast be present to every nation, barbarous or 
civilized, with the inflections of their nouns and verbs, their 
principles of regimen and concord, and these deposited in all 
the public librairies, it would furnish opportunities 10 those 
skilled in the languages of the old world to compare them with 
these now, or at any future time, and hence to construct 
the best evidence of the deriviation of this part of the human 
race. 

But, imperfect as is our knowledge of the tongues spoken 
in America, it suffices to discover the following remarkable 
fact; Arranging them under the radical ones to which they 
maybe palpably traced, and doing the same by those of the 
red' men of Asia, there will be found, probibly twenty in Am- 
erica to one in Asia of those radical languages, so called be- 
cause, if they were ever the same, they have lost all resemb- 
lance to one another. A separation into dialects may be the 
work of afe-v ages only; hut for two dialects to utterly recede 
from one another until they ha\'e lost all vestiges of their com- 
jnon origin must require an immense course of time; perhaps 
not less than many people give to the age of the earth. A 
greater number of those radical changes of language having 



zi8 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



taken place amonsj the rcJ men of Americi, proves ihcm of 
greater aiitiquity than those of Asia. 

From the figurative language of Che Indians, as well as from 
the practice of iho*e we are still acquainted with, it is evident 
that it was, and siill continues to be. a constant custom amung 
the Indians, to ^aiher up the bones of the dead, and de^n^it 
them in a particular place. Thus when they make peace with 
any nation with whom they have been at war, after "burying 
the hatchet," they take up a belt of wampum, and say: "We 
now gathLT up all (he bones of those who have been slain, and 
bury them, etc." See all the treaties of peace. Besides, it is 
customary when any of them die at a distance from home, to 
bury them, and afterwards to come and take up the bones and 
carry them home. At a treaty which was made at Lancaster 
with " Six Nations." one of Ihem died and was buried in the 
woods a little distance irom tnc town. Sometime afCcrwanlaa 
party came, took up the body, separated the flesh fr.im 
bones by boding and scraping them c'ean, and carried thei 
be deposited in the sepulchres of their ancesiois. 

From this dis.ourse of Mr. Jefferson's it would appear that 
he believed the " Barrows" — as he terms ihem —to hav^ bcerf 
constructed by the aborginal or pre-hiscoric Indians; the pre- 
decessors and the anceslors of the Indians found in this coun- 
try at the advent of the while man. 

The writer has also personally excavated and inspected 
"Barrows "similar to those ot which Mr. Jefferson wrote— "IilrJ 
dian Mounds" — as they are usually called, and has found ih< 
bones in stratas similar to those described in the foregoin 
paper. And again, I have seen individual sepulchres opened' 
in which the skeletons were found in a sitting posture and fac- 
ing the east in every instance. In many instances pottery, 
stone implements and arrow points were deposited with the 
remains and flat stones laid about and above, thus forming a 
rude enclosure. In the valley and on the hills Slonc the west 
shore of the Mississippi river between St. Louis. Mo,, and 
Cairo, III., there are many mounds of the character mentioned , 
above. 



thaA 
>ceij^ 
pre- 

jun- 

.-ted 
■nm ^ 



RELICS OF A BYGONE RACE. 



INTtRESTlNG DISCOVERIES OF AZTEC REMAINS IN MEXIO 

So little is really known of the Aztecs and so fragmentaT| 
is their history as il has come down to us in the form of rud^ 
picture and chiseled stone, that any addition to the collection 
of archxological remains of this once great perple is sure 
awaken curiosity. 

During the present year a discovery of Aztec relics of suJ 
passing antiquarian value was unexpectedly made by workmei 



RELICS OF A BV-GONE RACE. 229 

engaged in the excavation of a drain in the ciiy of Mexico. 
The "'find" proved an absorbing topicof discussion in the Capi- 
tol, and is now preserved in the National Museum. 

La Calk de las Esaiifrillas, or " the Street of the Stairs," 
where the discovery was made, in ancient days formed a por- 
tion of the site of the great Aiitec temple dedicated to the God 
of War. While the workmen were engaged in digging up the 
Street they unearthed two figures of gold representing the God 
Ebectcatl.the deity of air. One of these figures was painted in 
red. yellow, and black; the colors still remaining bright and 
fresh. Near these two idols were found; two golden disks, 
polisht-kl rtnd engraved in a remarkable manner; four gold ear 
pieces; a small gold idol also representing the God of the Air; 
a number of beads; many small idols made of jade and obsi- 
dian; sacrificial knives; large incense bowls; and various other 
articles. 

Upon the day following ihcse discoveries still other relics 
were unearthed Among them was a gold ornament of the 
God EhectcatI; an ear-ring of the same idol; a gold disc breast 
ornament; two earthenware vases of most artistic handiwork 
brightly colored and enameled the colors still retaining their 
lustre; two terra-cotta incense bowls and a funeral urn. 

Most remarkable of all. however, was the discovery of an 
Aztec sacrificial altar found twenty feet below the street level. 
This, on account of the gruesome death's head-catvings upon 
the front has been designated "The Altar of Skulls." A good 
photograph o( this altar which was undoubtedly used in the 
religious ceremonies of the people when human sactilices ware 
supposed to appease the wrath of the heathen gods, is given 
herewith. 



EARLY AMERICAN ART. 



The horizon was here limited to historic painting. There 
was no mystic background to American life inhabited by races 
of giants, goblins and nymphs, no time-honored mythology, 
vanished Hercules or Venus to tempt or inspire the painter's 
invention. And the beauties of Nature^storm-riven skies, 
wooded hills, grassy meadows, rimpling lakes, sun-kissed foli- 
age, birds and flowers had not yet been invested with artistic 
dignity and subjective importance. Artists attached themselves 
to the most thrifty communities where coin and great men 
were most abundant. As soon as the Revolution was over a 
score of European artists hastened hither to embalm in oil the 
great Washington and his fellow patriots. Pride of blood was 
strong in Copley's day and joined to it was the traditional 
haughty bearing of the colonial man of parts and English gen- 
tleman. It gave his pictures a stillness of pose and hardness 



k. 



330 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



of line and form, Plebeianism had no share yet. Republican- 
ism had not yei taken full posst-sion of the new world. He 
was therefore true to public opinion. But true to native in- 
stincts «nd taste he introduced modern costumes into histori- 
cal pictures instead of the traditional mediaeval dress. Sluart 
and Trumbull followed the examp'e and established the prac- 
tice. Thii was one touch at least tliat was original and trulv 
American. 

A reaction amounting almost to revolution was taking place 
in European art at the opening of the nineteenth century. The 
change was vital. It was not only from a proscribed idealism 
to realism, but in ihe treatment of everyday people ind the 
heroic achievements of real human beings as art subjects. 
Hector and Apollo gave way to real flesh and blood beings 
fired with patriotism, love and devotion and to Nature's beau- 
ties of earth, sea and ^ky. Human virtue, goodness and great- 
ness were put on canvas instead of superhuman qualities and 
achievements attributed to gods and deities.— Aa7>-i?<:/ from 
Education, May, igo2. 



■■LITTLE ORPHAN" ISLAND. 



One of the curious places in China, 
represented in the cut. This island is c 




Till "Littli OtftiD" Iiludn thi 7ug- 

rison of any size. The houses a 
sides of the rocks, and 
rcsses in America. 



the island which is 
ered with buildings 
arranged in ter- 
races, oneabove 
the other, with 
a tower or tem- 
ple on the sum- 
mit of the rock. 
It suggests one 
method of de- 
fense which was 
cnmmon even 
in this country. 
The isolation of 
the island, sur- 
rounded by wa- 
ter as it is, the 
steepness of the 
cliff, and the 
added factor of 
the walled ter- 
races, makes it 
well nigh im- 
pregnable, and 
yet it is too 
small for a gar- 
;s are built in terraces upon the 
bic in this respect the cliff fort- 




PiCTOORAPHS Neak Dordogse.— "A picture gallery io a 
cave passage 300 teet in length, containing catefully drawn, 
and weli preserved, roclf engravings of animals, including the 
mammoth. has been found near Dordognc.in France. There 
were 109 figures in good condition; rendered with extreme 
care that will allow a separate study, for many points in detail. 
the evident work of artists, reproducing with fidelity, and tech- 
nical skill, the animals which they saw." — Im Nature, Vaj'ts, 
Oct. 5lh, igoi- 

Thk Mummy gf Merenptah. — In 1898, there were found, 
in a waited up chamber of a rock tomb, near Thebes, in Egypt, 
a large number of Royal mummlts. Among these were the 
bodies of thp illustrious Pharaohs, Thothmes IV., Amenophis 
III., SiPtah, and the well-known heretic king, Amenophis IV. 
It is a matter of tht utmost interest that the body of Meren- 
ptah has been found. He was the successor of Ramses II,. 
who was supposed to be the Pharaoh of the oppression, and 
Merenptah was supposed to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus. 
Neither of these were found in their tomb, built by Ramses; 
but ilie body of Ramses was secreted in the pit at Der el 
Pjihn, where it was discovered in 1881, but the mummy of 
Mtrei'plah. was taken from the tomb to that of Amenophis 
n., where it has since reposed undisturbed. This solves the 
problem as to the Pharaoh of the Exodus. — Cotuienscd from 
Sunday School Times. Feb. S, /goj. 

MifiDOL. — The Frontier, city of F~gypt. will be explored by 
M. Cledat, a member of the French Archicological Institute. 
(See Exod. XIV. 2.) Migdol is known at present as Tell-el- 
Heir. It was near Pi-hahroth. 

The Minotaur. — The seventh annual report of the British 
School at Athens, is devoted chiefly to the excavation in 1901, 
by Dr. Arthur J. Evans, on the site of the Ancient Palace at 
Kno.BSOs, in Crete. Some seals and impressions of seals were 
discovered, of which, several bear the representation of a man 
with a bi b's head, clearly the Minotaur. Among the finds at 
Zakro, in Crete, were nearly 500 nodules of clay bearing im- 
pressions of intaglios, two of which are of the Minotaur 
type. 

Jewei s OF AN E.iYKfiAN QuEES'.— Jcwels of an Egytian 
(Jueen hnve been found by Prof. Flinders Petrie, io the tomb 
of King Zer, about 1500 B. C. They consist of fourteen tur- 
cjuoise hawks and thirteen gold hawks; groups of beads in the 
form of a rosette, fastened together with the finest wire; a 
bracelet, somewhat similar, but the dark purple of the lapis 




331 



THE AMERICAN ANTIoUARIAN. 



lazuli is of a lint which. Prof I'ctric tells us, he has never be- 
fore found in Egyptian jewelry; a bracelet of gold and ame- 
thyst beads shaped like an hour-glass. The workmanship, 
throughout, is of the finest order, and speaks eloquently of the 
skill of the Egyptian workman who fashioned a Queen's orna- 
ments over six thousand years ago. 

Recent Discoveries in Egvi-t.— The gorgeous burial 
chamber of King Menuhetep I., in Upper Egypt; Ihc tomb 
lies somewhat west of Thebes, that city which has been such a 
treaBure-mine to explorers. The mural decorations are elabo- 
rate and profuse. In the walls are niches containing statuei 
of the King and various members of his family. An enormous 
statue of King Menuhetep, himself, was found. It was of sand- 
stone, over seven Icet in height, and represented the king seat- 
ed, clad in a simple tunic, but wearing the crown of Upper 
Egypt. This crown was painted red. The face, and body. 
were painted black, excepting the eye-balls which, painted 
white, gave the face asomewhat startling appearance. 

Other statues found, were those of king Menuhetep's wife, 
life siie. and of a priestess, evidently a member uf the 
royal household. This, alone, proves that the tomb was butld- 
cd in the days of extreme antiquity, when women occupied a 
high place. 

A box found in the tomb, contained funerary offerings be- 
longing to the deceased queen. There was a golden bracelet 
formed of beautiful engraved beads, alternating with lazuli, the 
whole fastened together with braided gola wire. There was 
also a metal mirror and othertoilet articles. A curiously carved 
bit of ivory was evidently used as a part of the queen's per- 
sonal adornment. 

An Ancient Woman Warrihr. — A Viking tomb contains 
the skeleton of a woman, evidently a woman warrior; a com- 
plete set of arms, and a skeleton of a horse. The old Norse 
sagas speak of women warriors. 

The Sahaba Desert. ^Some interesting facts in reference 
to the prehistoric submersion of the Sahara Desert have been 
communicated to the French Academy of Science. M. Chev- 
alier has discovered near Timbuctoo. the fossil remains of two 
marine animals, which, are still to be found on the Senegam- 
bran coast. The fossil of a sea-urchin has also been unearth- 
ed at Zan Sagfaair. 

Golgotha. — The quarterly statement fcr April for the 
P. E. F,. contains a contribution on the question of Golgotha 
being identified with a rock which resembles a skull, by Sir G. 
W. Wilson, which maintains that the legend is of recent 
growth, and probably of western origin. 

Runic Inscription. — Prof. Sophus Bugge, has written an 
account of a Norwegian runic inscription, discovered in 1817, 
on a farm in Ringcrike, Norway, The character of the Runei 
indicate that the epitaph was cut between lOio and 1050, 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST. 



within a half century of the discovery of the Western Conti- 
nent. The name of Vinland is presented, and. it is supposed 
'to be the earliest document known to us. «ontaining reference 
to America, 

The House of the Double Ax. — The Nation, for June ^. 
1902. has an article on the discovery, by Arthur Evans, in old 
Knossos, of the Hall of the Double Axes. The excavation in 
exploring this hall, and the adjacent "nail of the Collonadvs," 
shows thai one side of the great parallelogram was a building 
of three stories, Ihe level of whos; floors was about twenty -five 
feet lower then the upper-most siory, and covered tuUy five 
acres. There is a private st^ir case which gave access to upper 
rooms. Impressions made from a Babylonian cylinder, were 
found: well-paved floors; stone shafts; terra cott.i drain-pipcs; 
gr*ffi;i; vases decorated with lilies; tripod of offerings; bright 
colored frescoes, etc. This brief note gives only a hint of the 
wonderful things that have been discovered. 

Pre-dynastic I'KKion OF Egvpt. — Dr. G. A. Rei-ncr main- 
tains, in opposiMon to I'etrie. that in the Necrnpolis, on the 
eastern shore of the Nile, in Upper E^ypt, opposite Memphis, 
the bidies were placed in the tomb i.i .t siiti>ig position, and, 
that the dismembering the sbelftonf, was done by the grave- 
robbers, whu rifled the tombs. Here, aloiig-side the graves, of 
the earliest period, 5000 B. C . are some which belong to the 
old and middle kingdom. In tliese was much gold jewelry. 
Reisner also cxolored ruins of a ctly with houses and palaces 
belonging to the middle kingdom. The houses were built of 
unbunit tile; in some of them was found a large papyrus b:r- 
longing to the new kingdom. 1600 B. C. It is similar to the 
well-known Kbcrs papyrus, and i-^ nothing less than a medical 
hand-book. — Condensfd front Sunday School Times, Feb. S, igo2. 

Present Condition ok Pompeii. — The disaster that hap- 
pened on the Island of Martinique, reminds us of that which 
happened at Pompeii, in 76, A, D. The destruction of this 
city. Wis as sudden as that of St. Pierre, but the buildings were 
left standing, hurrit^d entirely out of sight, by the falling vol- 
canic ashes, The wood work W4s not set on fire, but wai char- 
red, and so preserved. The ci^y has been excavated, and now 
stands open to the view, exactly as it was when it was over- 
wh -Imed, except that the tops of the houses, are ail removed. 
Tke Scientific Ameriran for May 31, iqo2. has a picture which 
represents the cityasitwas; n U taken from a -nodel of the 
city. The following qujtation will give an idea of the city as 
it wai: 

"The Forum was given up to the temples, markets and 
buildings, connected with the administration of the city. The 
principal buildings, were the Basilica; the temple of the Apollo; 
the Market Buildings; City Tr-'asury; the Temple of Jupiter; 
Ihe Sanctuary of the City Gods; the Temple of Vespasian and 
the Voting Place. Thu baths of Pompeii, were naturally on a 
small scale, but owing to their excellent preservation, and the 



TUli AMERICAN ANngUARIAN. 



certainty with which the use uf various room* can be assigned, 
we derive from them most of our information rcgardi ii; the 
arrangements of ancient balhs. The anipitheacri; lici at -i dis- 
tance from the other excavations. The length is 444 feel; 
breadth 342 feet; and, is small, compared with other ampithe- 
atres. but was natiiraJiy larije for the town, so, trtat only .1 part 
of it was provided with se-its. The houses nf Pompeii are 
worthy of special study. They (ace ttif streets. whii;li are 
usually the average width, being ten to twenty feet. There 
were sidewalks with curbing, and broad rats were made by 
passing wheels. Only the principil streets were wide enough 
for two vehicles to pass." 

Submarine Roman Remains of the Italian Littoral. — 
It has been left to the Brittish Association to undertak ; this 
task, and, under its direction, Mr. T. K. Gunthcr. of Magdalen 
College. Oxford, ha^ been engaged for some months in mak- 
ing a detailed survey of the Roman structures beneath the sea. 
From his notes it appears that the sea level has risen about 2a 
feet since the era of their construction, and has covered miny 
villas and piers, and. probably, also a road, which seem 10 have 
existed along the coast of Posilipo, Mr. Guniher's survey will 
be one of great practical value, apart from its scientific inter- 
est, because many boats run upon those old foundations annu- 
ally; and, only last year, a steam vessel, of the Italian navy. 
struck on one of them. This danger, however, is chiefly lo 
pleasure boats; and owners of yachts, need to be especially 
careful, when running along the coast, in steam lannches. No 
less than three of these crafts have had narrow escapes in re- 
cent years. A careful record of the tides have been kept for 
sometime; observations being made several limes a day. The 
figures show the rise and fall to be greater than has been gen- 
erally supposed, and also, that the level of the Mediterranean 
is less influenced by the action of the wind than has been sop- 
posed by some observers. ^.V. T, Jit'enin}; Posl. 

GEaRGE FREnEKiiJH Gkotefend. — Grotefend was bom June 
9, 1775, in the city of Munden, kingdom of Hanover, Germany, 
and began his school life in Ilfeld, and. later carried on his 
university studies at Gottingen. The aim of these protracted 
studies, was a preperation for the work of schoolmaster in the 
department of classical philology. In 1787, on the recom- 
mendation of Heinrich Heyne, Grotefend, became assistant 
master in the G)ttingen Gymnasium, and began tht-re to teach 
Greek and Latin classics. 

■ In 180J, Frorillo, the Gottingen librarian, called Grotefend's 
attention to the inscriptions of Persepolis, which has been seen 
l)y numerous priests and traders, and had finally been careful- 

1 northern 



I 



Europe, had tried to decipher the 



inaking 



out a sign 



her. 



, but had only succedcd in 



e sense of any passage. 
He began, with the a 



and there. 



vithoi 



ring the consecu- 



I, already he'd by his prede- 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST. 



23S 



■^cisori, in the work of deciphcrmi;nl. that these Per5ep3Hs in- 
scriptions, were written in three languages, and that the first 
inscription, in each group o( the threi, was in ancient Persian, 
He further reasoned that, the inscriptions, would contain the 
names of the kings who had set them up, and that these kings 
would prove to be member* of th; archtemenian dynasty. His 
first step was to select from Nicbuhr's copies, two inscriptions 
on which he began work. After some hesitation, he selected 
the two numbered B and G by Niebuhr. He followed Tychsen 
and Munter, who hid previously attempted to decipher these 
fcKts. in the following points: 

1. The wedge, occurring at regular intervals, which is 
placed diagonally from left to right, is intended to divide the 

- vrords. 

2. There is a word which appears frequently in these little 
texts, both in a shorter and a longer form. In the shorter 
4orm, Munter had gue-ised that it meant "king;" and, in the 
longer form, Grotcfcnd ventured to suppose that it meant 
"kinys." 

Grotefend's conjecture was that (a) meant "king;" while 
■^b) was the plural, and meant "kings;" the whole expression 
signifying "king of kings." But another glance at the plate 
•will sho* that this word occurs also, in the first line of both 
inscriptions, followed immediately by the same words, name- 

ty. (')■ 

Later investigation has shown that the names were correct- 
ly identified, and. that the the alphabetical characters, were, 
initirarfy every case, correctly surmised. — Si(/iifaj' School Times, 
Jan. 25. ig02. 

Bbll Foundin<i, — The art of bell founding is one of the 
most ancient. It ixisted among the Chinese perhaps earlier 
than the christian era. It carried, to a great extent, among the 
Russians. Wnether there was such a thing as bell founding, 
amon' the Am;rican tribes, is uncertain, though little bells, 
icseinbllng the French Harvls bells, have been found in the 
mounds and graves along with other pre-historic relics, which 
■convey the idea, that the miking of copper bells, was known 
in pre-historic times. 

Like most other arts and crafts, bell founding, was for some 
centuries, almost exclusively confined to the monks. St. Duns- 
tan, was a skillful workman, and was said by Ingulphus, to have 
given bells to fhe western churches. Later on, when a regular 
trade hid been established, some bell founders wandered from 
place to place; but the majority settled in large towns, princi- 
pally London, Gloucester, Salisbury, Norwich, Burv St. Ed- 
munds, and Colchester. 

A Modern Rock-Cut Figure. — The Lion of Gun Hill. 
Barbidoes, West Indias— a surprising piece of statuary carved 
cut of the solid rock, by a military ofTictr, stationed at Gun 
Hill, thirty years ago. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Lmferialism AND ARCHEOLOGY. A qucstion ot considerable 
importance has recently come up in Egypt in connection with 
the ** improvement" of that country under European auspices. 
The great Nile dam at Assuan, while benefiting the country 
from an agricultural and an industrial point of view, seems 
likely to destroy some of the famous archx'ological monuments 
or at least to seriously endanger them. The temple of Isis and 
other ruins on the island of Philae would be in part submerged 
if the VVillcock's dams were built as proposed. Various pro- 
tests have been made against such ncvv-century vandalism. M. 
Garstin proposes to remove the monuments, stone by stone, 
and set them up again on the neighboring island of Bigeh. Sir 
Henja niti Haker thinks the whole island of Phihu could be 
raised some ten meters, which would insure the safety of the 
ruins. In the Xi/ittCLfitli Century, Mr. Frank Dillon declared 
that the destruction of Phihe would stigmatize as infamous the 
P^nglish occupation of Kcrypt. The matter seems to have been 
compromised by lowering considerably the height of the dam 
at Assuan. The question involved is likely to occur in other 
parts of the world where "imperialistic" methods are in vogue. 

Sacked L.\N(;ua(;k. At a recent meeting of Ihe.Societe d'Eth- 
nographit! of Paris, as reported in the "Revue .Scientifique " 
(4 e S., V^)l. XVII. IQCJ, p. 2S^) M. 1^. Soldi, maintained the 
curious and imaginative tliesis thai there cxsts a " langue sa- 
cree," a neglected "sacred language," which created art and 
ornament. All o\er th«' w.^rld, from India to Hrittany; from 
Africa to America, its traces are discoverable. The simple 
straight lines or spirals graven on tumuli and rocks; the so- 
called geometric ornamentation of archaic (jreek vases; the 
frame of PAruscan mirrors; the field of Gaulish medals; the 
holes or 'cups' hollowed in Celtic stones, reveal it. The cus- 
toms of the ancients and of those who have preserved them 
traditionally in various ct)uiitries; the temple architecture of 
all cults from VA\\\ to the Parthenon: from Babel to Palenque; 
from Angkok to Notre l);i!ne: the humblest objects belonging 
to the s ivage and the richest i)ro(lucts of our civiliz^.tion 'con- 
ceil an ide<.>graphie hin^^uige. a real cosmoglyphy. the study 
of which may explain to us the systtMii of creation and reveal 
to us the ori;^in of man and his universal i:ivilization.' These 
same ideas were j^reviously put forth at greater length in a 
volume entitled ' La laiigu«' sacn'e Le myst/'re de la creation* 
(Paris, lS(^7. 1 containing k^'J'J pages and illustrated with 900 
figures. This is but one of the many elaborate and useless at- 
tempts to read religious, mystic, or magical ideas into things 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



*375l 



^which hsve had, so often, a simple and common-place origin 
■ n the every-day life of men and women. 

Pelasgi. In a book published in 1S94, entitled "Gli Hethei 
Pelasgi," Father de Cara sought to identify the much dis- 
cussed " Pclasgians," with the more discussed " Hittites," who 
^vandered from Syria to western Asia Minor. Greece, Italy, etc. 
The very name Pi'lasgi he interpreted to mean "wandering 
Hittites." The track of the Hittite-Pelasgians was marked by 
certain fortification styles, methods of metal-working, and 
many names left en route. From an etymological equation. 
Hethi-Khatti-Ati-Asia, de Cara elaborated other derivations. 
So, from the Hittite root-word were ultimately derived: 
Adria Bretlii Latinum Picentini 

Alatri Etrusci Latium etc. 

(Attica F"erentinum Uenotria 

Athena; Italia Macedonia 

Ausonia Kamilla Palaiium 

Against such deductions as these A. Pirro protests in his 
article"! Pelasgi a proposita di una nova tcorica del padre 
<lc Cara," in the " Rivista di Storia antica," (Messina, Vol. V. 
1900.) In a brief recension of Pirro's paper in the "Intcrnat. 
Cbl, f. Anthropologie" (Stettin, Vol. VII. 1902^1.31,) Prof. 
Walter styles De Cara's methods "quite unscientific." Sergi, 
in his recent work on "The Mediterranean Race, " (London, 
1901,) appears to have taken de Cara more seriously. 

Degeneration. In a paper read at the International Congress 
of Prehistoric Anthropology and Architalo jy ( Paris, 1900, )D[. 
Silva Telles, of Lisbon, discussed the question of "The Degen- 
eration of Human Races." Dr. Telles has stndied the Portu- 
gutse in Africa from the point of view of somatology and 
raaches the conclusion that a considerable number of degen- 
erative chang-s have taken place. In the third generation he 
notes the following peculiaricie-i: Urachycephaly, disharmony 
of cranium and face, more marked lumbar curve, growth ir- 
regularities, upper alveolar prognathism, shorter and higher 
calves, slight flattening of feet, etc, These phenomena, he 
thinks, reveal an ethnic degeneralion" and not a persistent race 
transformation. The "ethnic settling" of the Portuguese in the 
tropics Dr. Telles regards as quite impossible. In the discus- 
sion of this paper Dr. Papillault considered the conclusions of 
the author on the que'Stion of acclimatization too radical. Dr. 
Verneau asked whether the brachycephaly noted might not be 
due to spontaneous selection in emigration. The increase in 
lumbar curvature might be due to muscular weakening. But 
since it has been observed by Bianchi among the African na- 
tives it may be an adaptation instead of a stigma of degenera- 
tion. A brief abstract of Dr. Telles paper appeared in "L'An- 
thropologic " (Paris, Vol. VIIL 1902, pp. 241-242.) It has also 
been published in cxtenso by the author. 

Kbkchi Maize Prodl'cts. Maize is still the "staff of life " of 
the Kekchi Indians, (Mayan stock) of Guatemala. An interest- 




338 



THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



ing account of Iheir (o6ds and drinks has recenlly been pub- 
lished ("Globus." Vol. LX.XX. igoi. pp. 2^g-26i.i by Dr. Kail 
Sapper, — "Speise und Trank der Kekchiindianer." Fr^m this 
article the (oIloKing list has been compiled* 

I. Ciiluj iscvuii. A sort of tamal. prepared bjr slowly 
roasting dough froni unripe maize in which raw sugar haj; bceii 
mixed. 2. Cviia. The common tortilla, or mdize-caWe of 
Mexico and Centra! America. Also called xori-il. 3, Guiiti- 
boj. The famous (•liicha of Spani^^h America, an intoxicating 
drink formerly made exclusively from maize (now sugar i< ad- 
ded.) As the manufacture of alcoholic drinks is a state monop- 
oly, chicha. which is used at festivals especially, is made in se- J 
cret by the Indians. 4. hcviia A sort of lamnl made froii»J 
unripe maize and wrapped in maize husks. 5. fCoj. A drinlcB 
made from ground roListed corn and warm to hoi water. The 
Nicaraguan tis.tf is made with cold water, and a little cacao^J 
sugar, and pepper is added. From their love for ihis drink^i 
the Cosla Ricans nickname ihc NicaragUons " Pinoleios." frt 
/(>ni/.lhe Spanisl. (from Aztec) equivalent of k'aj. 6. Kor((hJ^ 
A sort of tortilla baked fur an hour or more over a slow (ire-^ 
These "cakes" will last for a couple of months, whereas the of-j 
dinary " fresh " ttirtillm spoil after a few days, The Spanish 
Americans call them totaposti-. a term of Aziec origin. 7. J/aAJ 
A warm drink made from unripe maize. Much liked by the! 
Indians. Something like rax tik'uv. 8, Muifaj. A drink tnade^ 
from young maize, g. Poclmil. The well-known /i/wW of Span-> 
ish America. 10 Rax uk'un. A sort of "maize water" made byfl 
stirring with the hand niaize-duugh in warm water. This is- 
said to be "an ideal drink" in ihp mountainous regions v 
their hot, moist climate, In Southern Mexico, however. Ihc 
Indians make a drink from fcrmtnting dough and cold waier, 
called /*o.(i'/. This is disliked by the Kekchi Indians. 11. Rax- 
ixim. A iorl of tortilla made from maize not ijuiie lipe. 12. 
Quem. The common term lor maize-doueh. 13, Siicuc. A sort 
of ■■bean-torlilla." Between two layers of iraize-dough ground, 
boiled beans are placed, and the whole roasted as is the ca.se 
with /ivC/Z/rtj-. 14. Tsuuj. A sort of "bcan-toitilla." Here whole 
boiled beans are mixed in with ihe dough, which is then roast- 
ed, 13. I'hen. A sort of tamal in ihe douph of which boiled 
perk is mixed. The whole is then conked, after being wrapped 
in leaves for four or five hours in ihe pot o\er the 6re. 16^ 
I'k'un. Raw maize ground three limes is made inio dough and 
left standing over night in boiling waleron the tire, after which 
the hulls are removed. See No. 10, 17. Xcp. A soil of "bean- 
tamal." Raw beans {I'liascolus 7'ulgaris) are mixed in with the 
dough. The whole is then wrapped in chochoc leaves and 
boiled for some five hours. 18. X'orvil. One of the terms for 
lortilla. 

These fads indicate to what extent the Indians of certain 
regions of Central America have utilized the product of the 
plant their ancestors iransfoimed from a grass into a cereal. ■ 




VILLAGK LIFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 



We now turn to the village life and village architecture of 
the tribes of the West and Northwest with the ihoui^hl that 
these will perhaps throw additional light on the r ice problem. 

We have already seen that viibge life furnishes the clue to 
the proper understanding of the nnjiiuments and .■itriicturcs of 
the Mississippi valley, and throws much light on the state of 
society which prevailed there in prehisioric times. We shall 
find, as we proceed, that the same is true of the vast region 
which lies to the norlh and west of this vailey; a rei-ion which 
abounded with a great variety of structures all of which are 
evidently connected with the village.sites, and many of them 
are still occupied. 

These tribes are scattered over a vast range of territory. 
Some of them are situated far to the north where ice andsnow 
always abound, and where the chief effort of the people 
was apparently to find protection against the inclemency 
of the weather, and to secure subsistence amid the contending 
elements. Others are situated alung the Pacific Coast where 
great forests abound, and where the sea furnishes the chief 
source of subsistence. Still others aie found in the valley of the 
Columbia river, and along the b^nks of Puget Sound. 
the variou"! tribes dwelling there having their own meth- 
ods of gaining subsistence. and building and governing the vil- 
lages. A fourth is found among the mjuntaini and val- 
leys of California, each separate locality furnishing a different 
style of house construction, and.a different kind of village. 
The people here adapted themselves to their circumstances 
aud built their villages as their necessities required, A fifth 
stuck or race may be found on the great plateau which 
riics like a great roof above the rest of the continent making, 
in itself, an air continent from which the rivers flow in every 
direction ultimately reaching the Pacific coast on one side and 
the Gulf of Mexico on the other, a fe* making their way to 
the chain of the Great Lakes. A sixth class of tribes may also 
be found far to the southwest near the region where are the 
remains of so many of the ancient cities which are now in 



We 



nay say of alt this region that, while the tribes are so 



340 



THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



different from one annlher as to be easily distinguished and 
described, yet the village life is everywhere so similar that ae 
can take it as the clue to interpret and explain each one of the 
many monuments and structures that are scattered Over the 
country, al' of which belong to the Stone Age. 

We shall see as we proceed that there were great advanta- 
ges which cnnie to the people from ihiir villige nrganization, 
as each locality had its own difficu ties and drawbacks; hut the 
people by means of Ilicir being brju^hc tnguther in viliaijes, 
were able to make themselves comfortable and prosperous 
even under the most adverse circumstances. 

1. Among the advantages of the village sysleni.we shall fir-t 
mention the fact that it brought the people together so that 
they could overcome the obstacles of climate, and the difficul- 
ties of the situation. If we studj- the villages of the people 
who dwelt amid the ice fields in the fnr north, we shall find 
this point well illustrated. 

". Another advantage furnished by the village life is that it 
enabled the people to take advantage of the resources of tlic 
country, and make them serve their purposes, and thus de- 
veloped in Ihem energy and thrift which are worthy of admi- 
ration. We find good illustrations of this among the Thlin- 
keets, Kaidas and other tribes that dwelt on the northwest 
coast. We may sny that there were no people on thecontineni 
more energetic, thritty, and comfortable than were those who 
dwelt on the edge of the forests and near the sea of this far- 
off region. 

3 The villat^e life seems to have united the people un- 
der a permanent form of government, as the village chiefs ' 
■were generally hereditary, and if they were not, they gener- 
ally belonged to the ruling classes and by their inherited' 
qualities and social position were able to retain authority 
over the people. Illustrations of this will be found among J 
the tribes on the Pacific Coast. 

4. The village life favored the system of totemism which I 
prevalledso extensively, and bj- this means brought together I 
all of the tribes into an artitit^ial brotherhood which waft J 
symbolized by the same general totemic tigiires. This sy* T 
tern was not founded upon natural descent — but an imaij^in- 
ary descent. The animals which were represented by the ' 
totems were the ancestors of certain clans or tribes as well 
as their guardian divinities. Illustration.s of this are tium- 
erous among the tribes of the Mississijipi Valley, all of which 
were totemistic. Totemism among these tribes was exhib- 
ited in the villages in a rude way by tall jioles which were 
placed in front of the huts and had rude figures susiiended 
at the top. The Mandan village painted by Catlin showsa 
this. Totemism is seen among the tribes of the Northwest 
in the carved totem poles which there show that certain a 
mals and birds such as the bear, raven, whale, and whale- 




VILLAGE LIFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 



killer, were the divioities which were worshiped as well as 
the guardians of the villages, the same totem havinff been 
adopted by nearly all the tribes, but minor divinities being 
taken as totems of the families. 

Ti. Village life along with totemism brouj^ht together the 
clans and tribes of a large district into a unity which was 
almost equal to a confederacy; the similarity of life and the 
toteraistic bonds brought the tribes adjoining into a frater- 
nity which was stronger than kinship.and equal to the bonds 
of nationality as it exists in modern times. The best illus- 
tration is found among the different tribes situated on the 
Northwest Coast, for these tribes, notwithstanding the fact 
that they were separated by mountain barriers and by the 
barriers of language, were all united, and were always at 
I)eace with one another. Other illustrations are furnished 
by the Iroquois confederacy in New York.and by the mound 
building tribes on the Ohio river, and other localities. 

H. Another advantage of village life, was that it held the 
people together in such a way 
as to resist the disturbing and 
di.-^nipting attacks of hostile 
people,and favored the growth 
from savagery into barbarism 
and from barbarism into semi- 
civilization, thus preparing 
the way for the appearance of 
cities and of established and 
organized society. The best 
illustration is that given by 
the Pueblo tribes of Colorado 
and New Mexico. These tribes 
were situated in the middle 
of an arid region and had 
many disabilities which arose 
from unfavorable climate and poor s 

village organization they were able to construct irrigating 
canals and reservoirs of water and otherimprovements.and 
so gradually advanced into a grade of culture which was in 
strong contrast to all others and which under other circum- 
stances would have brought them into a civilization equal 
to that found among the people of the Southwest. 

7. Village life, along with the intercourse between 
tribes had the effect to awaken the spirit of improve- 
ment to such an extent that there was a constant 
tendency to borrow such patterns and inventions as were 
found elsewhere and to incorporate them into art and ar- 
chitecture, until there was a mingling of the best styles 
and patterns, thu.s making a strange medley which is often 
difficult to account for. 

8. Village life and village architecture bring to light 
(he cultural areas which prevailed throughout this continent 




. hut owing to their 



143 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Prof.O. T. Mason has made a study of these areas and has recog- 
nized eighteen upon the continent which he names as follows: 
Arctic area Athapascan. Algonkin, Iroquois, Muskhogcan. 
Plains of the Great West, North Pacific Coast, Columbia drain- 
age. Interior Basin. California. Oregon. Pueblo, Middle Ameri- 
can, Antillean, South American, Curdilleran, Andean, Atlantic 
Slope, Eastern Brazilian, Central Brazihan, Argentine-Pa*a- 
gonian, Fuegiaii. 

The characteristics of the villages of these different dist- 
ricts are as follows: i. In the Arctic region, under-ground 
houses, stone lamps. woolI dishes. 2. In the Athapascan area, bark' 
lodges, bark and basket dishes, fur bedding, no pottery. 3. In 
the Algonkin area, bark and skin lodge^^. "long-houses." earth- 
works and mounds, pottery, stone knives, arrows, etc. 4. The 
Muskogee area, grass lodges and wattled houses, furniture of 
cane and matting, earth-works, pyramidal mounds. 5. The 
Plains of the Great West, skin lodges, also earth lodges, furni- 
lure-of hiile*. sinr-w bsck bows, stone arrows, corracles for 
boats, 6. North Pacific area, com- 
nial barracks with totem po^ts, 
pottery, wood carving, plain 
weaving, fine basketry, and dug-out 
canoes. 7. Columbian area, com- 
munal barracks but totem posts 
lacking, bark canoes, basketry, no 
pottery, net*. 8. Interior Basin. 
Colorado, Utah, shelters of brush. 
and cave dwellings, conical bask- 
ets, g. California area, insigni- 
ficant shelters, poor boats, conical 
baskets, elegant arrows, fish and 
animal traps, to. Pueblo area, 
cave houses, cliff houses, towers, 
d pueblos, irrigating, sand 
TortM pnr.ps, painting, pottery, coiled ware, 

basketry. 11. Middle American area, (Mexico and Cen- 
tral America), pyramids, great buildings of hammer dressed, 
stone and carved stone, mining and metallurgy, paper and bark 
cloth, gem cutting, grotesque pottery. 12. South American 
area, Peru, Ecuador, thatched huts, fortified villages, carved 
stone, buildings with huge blocks, metals, pottery, weaving, '»■ 
rigation. quipu, stone headed clubs, post roads, suspension 
bridges. 13. The Andean Slope, wooden houses, thatched 
with palm leaves, savagery, feather workers, no pottery, pois- 
oned arrows, shields, throwing sticks, long bows, head band in 
carrying. 14. Ura^^ilian area, immense huts, and shelters open 
below, thatched roofs and hammocks, canoes, houseboats, 
clubs, axes, dug-outs. 15. Panipas.or Argentine area, awnings, 
hammocks, skin beds, woven blankets, 5pear-s,and lassos, ifr 
The pufgian area, miserable huts, no furniture, pine bows. 




I 



VILLAGE LIFE ANU \'ILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 



stones thrown from the hand, canoes of bark made in three 
sections for portages. 

This list of areas shows to us the prevalence of village life 
and ihe great variety of art and architecture which prevailed 
in America, but gives us no idea as to the resemblance to ex- 
tra-limiial stylesand patterns which have been noticed by oth- 
ers, and for this reason we shall call attention to the pomts 
which are omitted while passing over the various districts 
which have been recognized in the west and northwest portions 
of the continenl. 

With these general remarks upon the peculiarities of 
the village life, we take the different styles of architec- 
ture which are presented by the various tribes scattered 
throuj^fhout the West and the Northwest, but would call 
especial attention to the analogy between these and those 
which are found in other parts of the world. 

I. We begin with the villages of the far North, es- 
pecially those situated in the ice fields of arctic regions. 

Here tne K-kimos were the inhabilants; a people who are 
supposed by some to have been the descendants of the old 
cave and hut dwellers of Europe, and who present the state of 
society which prevailed in the rude stone or paleoliihic age, a 
conclusion which is favored by the face that the musk ox is 
still found in this 
region, and is 
hunted by the 
people a-i it «as 
by the old cnve 
dwellers of Kli- 
rope. The relics 
however, prove 
that the peopk 

had passed enme- rHP' wimlk )iu,Ltn. 

ly out of the old Slone Age, and had reached a stage in the new 
Stone Age equal ahuost to that of the Lake Dwelliugs of 
Euiope, so that, if their houses resembled the old hut houses 
and chambered tombs of the north of Europe, the people must 
have passeil out of their former stage and reached a social con- 
dilion far in advance of that of their ancestors. 

This is lo be said in favor of the theory: the Eskimos on 
the north-eastern side of the continent have more primitive 
houses than those on the northwest, and retain more of the 
style of living that formerly prevailed in Europe, than can be 
found any where else. 

' The central tribes who dwell on Smith's Sound. Baffin's 
Sound, and the west shore of Hudson's Bay. differ from either 
of the others but dwell in villagesand so are able to overcome 
the difficulties of their situation and remain contented with 
their lot. The most progressive of the Eskimos are those sit- 
uated on the northwest coast. 

Ruins of Eskimo villages are common on the Yukon and 




THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



along the coast line to Point Barrow. On the Siberian shore 
they are seen Irom East Cape along the Arctic coast. The sau- 
cer shapc:d pits indicate the places formerly occupied by the 
houses. These houses had stone loundalions, many of which 
are still in place. The modern villages are generally situated 
with reference lo hunting and fishing grounds. The sites vary 
from the he^e! of some beautifully sheltered cove to the pre- 
cipitous face of a rocky slope. The ancient villages were built 
usually on the highest points of islands, near the shore, or on 
high capes or peninsulas commanding a wide view over both 
sea and land. 

The village was usually an irregular group of semi subter- 
anean houses built around a large central building called by 
the traders kashini. They are orciiiarilv made large enough 
to contain all the villagers, besides guests who may come du- 
ring festivals. The size is limited by the material available, 
which is mainly drirt logs cast up along the shore. Snow 
houses, so common 
, -.„ ^ ■s^^^^i^^ ongthe Eskimos 

■i^ '^'iSS o ^^ ' '-'. i ^St^KKK^^ '~'^ Greenland, are 
'in Alaska 
temporary 
hellers when out 
n short e.xcursion*. 
The villages look 
kesomanj mounds 
s the houses are 
overcd with earth 
ndaredu-tered lo- 
I gether in the n'ost 
gular manner, 
and the entrances to 
ht; passage ways 
eadingto the inter- 
A HOUSE OF csoAR PLA.NK, ALASKA. lor Open out in the 

most unexpected places. 

The Eskimo in the vicinity of the Behring Straits have 
summer villages built in a more or less permanent manner, but 
from Kotzcbue Sound northward, the people use tents or skin 
lodgings while at their fishing stations. In addition to store- 
houses, every village has elevated platforms on which sledgeS 
and kayaks may be placed. 

The village at Razbinsky will serve as typical of all in the 
region. 

The front and rear ends are '-onslrucied of roughly hewn planks ■■« 
upriglit. The sides are of horuoniai limbers hewed and loosely filled. 
About five feet from ihe ground a \og extende from side lo side o( Ihe 
structjre resting upon two posts in the middle, having their endi set in the 
ground, and connected by similar log^ which extend from front to rear 
along the eaves. Lengthwise ovtr the lop of llii. house extend hewea sticks 
which bold in position Ihe upright posts and the bars ifiai bind upngbt 
planks. The inner framework ia bound logelher by withes or woodt — " " 




^ 



I VILLAGE LIFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 



and held in place at ihc eaves by )oists, across which are thrown poles or 
planks (oroiine an open atlic, or plaiform for storage. The roof is double 
piicbed and covered with slabs or planks over which pieces of planks, or 
hark are laid. Along the sides of the rooms at from i to 3 feet above the 
floor are tiroad sleeping platlorms which accommixlate iri>m one to three 
families. The flour is usually of hard planks laid close together and occu- 
pies about one third the area of the room in the stiape of a square in the 
centre. It is laid on sills at the end so that the planks may be readily 
taken up; below these there Is a pit from three to live lect deep where a 
Tire IS built 10 heat ihe room at tare intervals; other planks covered the 
ground back to the walls. Tne entrance consist^i of a lon^ rooted passage 
buili of logs and covered with earih; the outer end of iiijs is faced with 
planks over which is an arctied doorway leadina iuio the roiim in sutnitier. 
In winter Ine entrance is closed and a round huls leads throagQ a low tun- 
ocl [o lae hre pit and ihruu^h a circular hole lo the middle (il ine room.* 

II. We turn now from the villages of the Eskimos which 
were situated in the great ice fields of the iioith to those which 
were situated near the great forest bell which stretches along 
the Northwest Coast, and which was occupied by various tribes 
such as the Thlinkeets, Tsimshiains, Kwakiutls and others. 

The description of these villages has been given by En- 
sign Albert P. Niblack, Dr. Franz Boas, Mr. Geo. A. Dorsey. 
and others. They all present a style of architecture and a mode 
of life which was peculiar to the region and yet was influenced 
by ihe people who lived as far south as Polynesia. 

Ensign Albert P. Niblack. says: 

" A strip of country one hundred and fifty miles broid, one thousand 
miles long. IS gener.illv called tlie Northwest Coast. Doited throughout 
tni3 retiion are the winter villages of lac Coast ]ndi.ins whose ethnic varia- 
tions are somcwiiat marked as we go farther 
gioup, [[uite matorially Irora the Hunter India 
sliirply irom the Eskimos. In contrast to the lie 
ibey are generally mild m disposition. 

The physical character of the region oi 
llaida. and Tsimshjans. is similar, in general. 
Culiimbid, but from local reaso 



branch of the warm Japanese 
to excessive humlditv, prodi 
winter the snows and sleets. 
It IS densely woo.led, the veni 
Travel is entirely by water, lli 



ti, but who diSer, as a 
'. the interior, and more 
iiid revengeful Tinnes, 

led by the Thiinlceeli. 
lat of Southern British 
peculiar climate. 



current sweeps along ttie codSt and gjv(. ._. 

icing In summer the rains and fogs, and io 
The territory is very broken and sub-divided, 
nation crowding down 10 the high water line, 
e village being on the water courses, and the 
dcvelopmer" 



The principal fur-bearing animals are the bro.vn and black bear, wolf, 
red and silver lox, beaver, mink, marten, and land otter. While in the 
mouniaios of the mainianii are wild goats and sheep; wild ducks :!nd geese 
in $..-ason: lonely heroas, cranes, i;ulis. eagles, hawk?, and ciows. It Is the 
breeding ground for whales, and wherever the wh^le is. there is found the 
whale. ki.ler. The presence of ttie bear, eagle, raven, wolf, whale, aad 
whale krIUr, explain the prominent part they play on the mythology of the 

The people are venturesome, going out to sea In their canoes. They 
olten make trips of hundreds of miles along the coant; they are ingenioui; 
haiidy with tools; imitative, and proifressive. With their ideaii of acquiring 
wealth, we have little to teach tfieni in the habit of ihiift. They have con- 
siderable taste in the use ol colors and are advanceii in the art of carving. 
Tii'emism permeates tile whole tribal orKamiaiion which is based on the 
mulher-rigbl; that is birth-righi; such as rank, wealth, property received 



946 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

from the moihcr. Among ihe Southern tribes of British Columbia, the 
fatber-righi is (tie form of social otKamtation. 

There IS no place for any person in any tribe whose kinship is nni 
fixed, and only Ihnse persons can be adoptad into the tube whc belong to 
some family, with Hrtilicii I kinship specified. The clans or Gentes ^tc 
sometimes or(;^niie<l into groups called phratries. Wc have, ihereforc. 
(i) the household or lamilv: (2} the totem; (3) the pbratry; tp (he (ribe. 

The obligatiiin attachini; to a loteni i>> not conhned to tribal or nat- 
ional limits, but L'xtend thruuKh the wriole region. The son acquires the 
tote(nshipof his father. The ties of thi: totem or phratries are considered 
far stronger than blood relaiionsbip. 

The loteir found among these people are designated is the eagle, wolf, 
crow, black bear, and whale-killer* 

Dr. Boas in speaking of the " Kwakiut!." says: 

" The Indian tribes are distinct ia characteristics and ditTerent in lan- 
enage.but so alike in (tierr arts, induitries, custom, anl beliefs, thai lliey 
form one of the liesi defunct cultural groups on the continent Intercourse 
along the coast bv means of canoes, is tasy, while access to the inierior is, 
on account of (he hills and forests, quite difhcult. The people are cs^enli- 
allvfishrrm-nr their hiiisf ■: are mide iif wood and timber and h^ii c con- 



( 




sdcrabled nen ois The r canoes are made of cedar their shapes ancl3 
sues depend rg upon vhether ihev arc u*ed for I unt ng trad ng or ftshinj; H 
work is done in wood, by means of stone knives: trees are felled with slone 
axes, split by means of bone wedges, and plained with adie* or jades and 
aerpenline, and carvings ate exccuitd wiih shell and stone knive«. Totem- 
ism prevails in the district. The crests in ufie are carved on columns, in- 
tended to perpetuate the memory of a deceased relative and the lei^endary 
history of (he clan They show the traditions of the clan*. Each clan de- 
rives Its origin from a mythical monster, who built his house at a certain 
place, and whose dccendanls lived at thil place. Tnere are many places 
in which village sites can be identified; ihev show that tfie clan was oripi- 
nally a village community, but owing to changes in number, or lor the pur- 
pose of defense, left their old hous-s and joined some mher rommunitv. 
The patriarchal system prevailed in some ol the villages, but (he r 



a combinat 



the' 



1 in olhi 
woman brings as a dower, tier talbers 
band who, bowever, is not permitted 10 
tiiem (or Ills :on; the female law of di 



The 

ivileges and powers to her bus- 
e them for himself but preserve I 
:eni hein? thus secured througl 




VILLAGE I-IFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. Jj? 

mirnagc. The crcis and the property of ihe fainily descends through 
mArriage in the female line. 

I'ht: American idea of the actiuisition of the Manitou Is embodied :n 
ihe carvinifa and in the community, as ihey represent that the Manitou was 
arquired from a mythical anceslor, who was ihf founder oE a village, and 
this fact has been handed down from gi^neraiion iti eeneratian, [hrouKh Ihe 
carved symbolism, as the tutelary genius of the clan is exhibited by the 

Here, then, we have a few features which are very uniq^ue, 
and yet importent, because of their bearing on the carving 
of the totem polls. One legend is.that the whale-killer, assum- 
ed the shape of a man. and that he gave the chiefs of a certain 
village the right to use the whale-killer as a crest or symbol on 
house fronts, and taught them how to make the quartz pointed 
harpoon. Other legends are to the effect, that the ancestors 
of the clan brought from heaven, or from the under-world, or 
out of the ocean, or from the fnn-sl. cert.iin embleiAs, such as 




the sun, or the raven, or the whale-killer, or some se» animal, 
or some bird of the forest, or fabulous monster, who-c crest 
was perpetuated in totem poles, and who were thus divinities 
of the villages. Now all titis myihologv v as embodied in the 
wood carvings, which are worthy of close study because of 
their bearing on the history of the people, and upon their so- 
cial conditions, as well as their architectural skill. There is, 
however, one other feature which is especially worthy of atten- 
tion as it indicates, that even amoug this far off people, rude 
fishermen, as they were, there had arisen class di>ttncttons 
which we may recognize in many other regions, but did not 
come to their complete and final sway, except among the so- 
called civilized people of the south-wesl. 

Dr Boas, says; 

"All the tribes of Ihe Pacific Co jst are divided inlo a nobiliiv, common 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



people and slaves. The clans of the KwakiutI are so orgaoried ihai a cet- 
lain number of limiled families are recognized as the leaders; the ancestors 
oi each of these families having been iif a high order. These bcfioaect 
special privileges; while there were other families which have nol bern so 
favored. These distinctions are bla/oned on the totem-poles and hciusir- 
fronts exactly as they are on the equipages, heraldic emblems, and coals- 
of-arms of the aristocratic families of Europe." 

Ill, The villages of the Blackfect and other uncivilized 
tribes are situated east of the Rocky Mountains, and between 
Hudson's Bay and the great lakes. 

This is the home of the Athapascans. Tinnes and Assmne- 
boins. It is a region drained by Hudson's Bay and the rivers 
that run into it. The Indians are' still in their wild state.ihough 
they have horses, and are settled in tiermanent villages. They 
dwell in tents or tepees which are of different colors, white at 
the base, reddish half way u]j, and brown at the top. some oi 



■^■: 




them gayly ornamented with geometric patterns in red. black, 
and yellow around the bottom. Others bear the painlinE-'of 
rude but highly colored figures of animals, as the clan •■ign of 
the family within. The visilor to these Kpees will someiimes 
find the men seated in a circle against the wall, and facing the 
open center where the fire is kept burning. The door ts ;i 
horseshoe shaped entrance reaching 2 feet above the ground. 
The tepees are arranged in a great circle, within which Ihi- 
games are played, among which is the Pony War Dance. The 
traditional Indian may still be seen here with the c^gle plumes 
from crown to heels, or with buffalo horns upon his skull, or 
clad in yellow buckskin, fringed at every point, the bodies 
of men painted with different colors, or wearing massKs ot 
splendid embroidery trimmed with beads, riding horses that 
werealso painted with figures of serpents, or spotlcdwith daubs 
of while. In the villages may be i^epn the braves throwing ihc 



VILLAGE LIFE AND VILLAGK ARCHITECTURE. 



249 



snow-snake and going through the various games which were 
common among the tribes. 

In a region where every sort of fishing is followed for a liv- 
ing, from that which requires a navy of sailing vessels and men, 
down through all methods of nets, spear-fishing, fiy-fishing. 
Here thf bark canoe abounds. The.se are made in different 
patterns, according to the water to be navigated, for the ca- 
noes which are used for navigating the lakes where the waters 
are rough have high bows which resist the waves and throw 
■ off the spray; while those which are used upon the streams 
have low bows that run out to a sharp point. They are adapt- 
ed to pass under the branches of the trees, and to resist the 
swift current of the river. 

The Indians of this region are great hunters and trappers. 
though the old forts and trading stations are disappearing, the 
half-breeds are growing less in number, and periiancnt settle- 
ments are in- 




ble thr 
more t ii a n 
any of our do- 

•miestic dogs. 

The only ■*■"" ''"*•* «kiks of AK)/^l.^A inuians. 

roads into ihc north are the rivers and lakes, traversed bv can- 

, oes in summer and sleds in winter. 

Brittish Columbia is of immense size. It is as extensive as 

the combination of New P^ngland. Middle Stales, Maryland 

jBind Georgia; has a length of 800 miles and an average of 400 

iniles in width. It is a vast land of silence. The traveller sees 
here and there an Indian village or a mi>5ion. and now and 

Then a tiny town; but for the most part, his eye scans only the 

■primeval forest, lofty mountains covered with trees, turbulent 
Streams, and huge sheltered lakes. The CordiUeras are divid- 
ed into four ranges; the Rockies upon the east. Gold Range. 
the Coast Range, and. last of ail. the submerged chain which 

iformed the islands skirting the mainland on the Pacific. 

The Columbian Indians are. for the most part, very 

'dark skinned, and have physiognomies very different from 
those east of the Rockies. Their high cheek-bones make them 
resemble the Chinese. The Coast Indians are splendid sailors. 



2;o 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



With a primitive tool like ao adze, these natives pick out the 
heart ot a great cedar log and shtpe its sides like a boat. 
"When the log is properly hollowed, they fili it with water, and 
then drop in stones which the*' have heated in a fire. Then 
they fit in the cross-bars which keep it strong and preserve its 
shape. These dug-outs are sometimes sixty feet long, and arc 
used for whaling and long voyages in rough seas. They arc 
capable of carrying tons of the salmon or oolachan or her- 
ring of which these people, who live as their father's did, cilch 
sufficient in a few days for their maintenance throughout a 
whole year. Salmon, sea otter, otter, beaver, marten, bear, and 
deer, caribou and moose, were and still are the chief resour- 
ces of most of the Indians."* 

IV, The villages in California are next to be considered. Here 
is 3 region which has a great variety of sceneiy. climate and 





physical characi'-nstic^i, but its resources were beyoud the 
reach of the native tribes. They were not miners and could 
only eke out a subsistence from such things as they found up- 
on the surface. There were physical barriers between the 
tribes which isolated them from one another.so that the bound- 
aries were markeo with the greatest precision. This prevented 
such combination as e.xisted either among the mound builders 
of the Mississippi Valley to a great extent, or among the 
tribes of the Northwest Coast. There wa.s no confederacy to 
be found anywhere among them. The tribes were broken into 
small fragments and were isolated from oce another, and even 
at war with each other. 

Mr. Stephen Powers has spoken of this: He says: 
" It is perilous for an Indian to be found oatside of his (rit>al boaader 

•Ste ' Caudiu FroDlKr."— J°li" Kklph P>gc i^j Hii[ 




\'ILLAGE LIFE AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 



2Sr 



Accordingly the squaws teach them to Iheir children in a sing-sone man- 
ner. Over and over again they rebearse each boulder; descnbingeach 
minmely and by name wilh ils surroundings." 

He has described the different kinds of villages and the 
bouses which abounded, each tribe having its own method of 
building a house which was adapted to their own necessities, 
and most useful for their own purpose; even the material being 
such as was most abundant in the rcfrion and the most conven- 
ient. In this way the earth loilges ol iheSacramenlo Valleys; 
the conical lodges of the Russian River thatched with leaves; 
the rile lodges of the Yokuts; and the Wickiups of the Cali 
[ fornia Indians; were the products of the locality. The wooden 
lodges of the High Sierras were affected by the surroundings.. 
I Every large natural division of teiritory possessing a cer- 

tain homogeneity constitutes the domain of one tribe and one 
chief; for instance, a river valley from the snow tine down to 
the pldiiis. olten the foot-hills to the lake. In this domain 
every village has a captain who stands as the central chief in 
relation of a governor to the president, and is generally dis- 
tinguished by his long hair. Another peculiarity is to be no- 
ticed. Being compelled to live near the streams to procure a 
supply of water they are exposed to malarial influences. They 
sometimes thiow up mounds for the village to stand on which 
were a dcfi-nse against high water as well as malaria. This ex- 
plains the object of some of the pyramid mounds in the Miss- 
issippi Valley, The following is a summary which will show 
how the California Indians were effected by the climate in the 
construction of their houses: 

"Perhaps the reader will not have noticed the large variety of styles 
employed by the California Indians in building their dwellings according to 
the requirements of the climate or the material most convenient. 

(I) In the raw and Foggy climate in the northwestern porlion of the 
State we lind the deep warm pit in the earth, surmounted by a house shap- 
ed something like our own, and firmly constructed of well-hewn redwood, 
puncheons or poles 

(a) In the snow belt, both of the Coast, Range, and Sierras, the roof 
must necessarily be much cheaper than on the low-lands: hence, roof and 
frame become united in a conical shape, ihe material being poles or enor- 
mous slabs of bark, with an open side toward the norlh or east, in front of 
which IS a bivouac-fire, thus keeping the lodge free from smoke. 

(3) In the very highest regions of the Sierra, where the snow falls 10 
such an enormous depth that the fire would be blotted out and the whole 
open side snowed up. the dwelling retains substantially the same form and 
nialerials, but the lire is taken into the middle of it, and one side of it Igen- 
erally the east side), slopes down more nearly horiiontal than the oilier, and 
terminates in a covered way about three feet high and twice as long. 

(4) In Russian River and other warm coast villages, prevails the large 
round or oblong structure of willow poles covered with hay. This Is suffi- 
ciently warm for the locality: is easily and quickly made, and easily re- 
placed when an old one is burned to destroy the vermin. 

|;l On Clear Lake, was found a singular variety of lodges: one with 
lour perpendicular walls made by planting willow poles in the ground and 
lashing others to them horizontally, leaving a great number of small square 
interstices. Whether mienlionally or not, these are exceedingly conven- 
ient far Ihe insertion of Rsh tor sun-drymg. The roof is flat, made of poles 
covered with thatch. 

(6) On the great woodless plains of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 



earth for 


iialerial. 


The round, doa 


sidered ih 


e characieririic oneolC* 




aborigina 


populatiao liM 


The door- 




times direetl; 


oae side. 


have nev 


r been able to 


nfatl oE an 


y nWt^n lo 


calicy had any 



352 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the savage naturally had recourse 

shaped, earth. covered lodge is ci: 

fornia. and probably two-thirds oi 

in dwellings of this description 

top; sometimes on the ground; a1 

certain whether the amount of r 

l^uence in determining the place (or the door. 

(7.1 In the hot and almost raiDless Kern and Tulaie Valley occurs ibc 
dwelling made of so Ir^il a material as t'ile *' 

Many illuslrations of this are given by Mr. Powers, but wc 
refer to but a few and the cuts which represent the vari- 
ous styles, and pass on to other regions. 

V. The Villages of the plains arc wurtnv 01 consideration. 
These are better known ih an those of California as I hey have been 
oftener visited by explorers and made famdi ir by descriptions 
from travelers. The first view gained of Ihein was by Coron- 
ado and his troops, who, after passing thnnigh the Pucbio re- 
gion, moved eastward, and finally reached ihc iiiy.-iIerioi.is place 
called Ouivira. Descriptions have been given of ihem by the 
government parties who were sent to the borders at an early 
date, among whom were Col. Marcy, Gen'l Simpson and Cat- 
lin. The famous historian, Parkman. made his home among 
the plains Indians, and became familiar with their Hie, The 
general impres-iion is that there was no permanent village life 
among them; that they were only wandering bands; but the 
villdge organization was as strong among them as among the 
sedentary tribes, for every tribe was divided into clans, and 
every clan had its own form of government; its own customs, 
and its own style of building houses and arranging camps. 
These western tribes belong to a different stock from the east- 
ern as the most of them were Athapascans, a stock which came 
down from the far north at a lime subsequent to the settle- 
ment of the Pueblos and cliff dwellers and proved to be a 
source of danger to them and ultimately drove them out of 
their strongholds and compelled them to concentrate their vil- 
lages on the plateau. 

They show the influence of environment, as the very habits, 
manner of living and manner of building their houses and ar- 
langing their villages were such as an open country would de- 
mand. Thev drew their material from the prairies and from 
the wild animals that roimed over 1 hem, as the many huts were 
made of poles and thatched with leaves; others thatched with 
skins. The Mandans have been called Prairie Indians, but they 
differ from the Athapascans in nearly every particular. They 
had permanent villages and often surrounded them with stock- 
ades. Catlin has painted many of these villages so that they 
are familiar to most. The Crows and Hlackfeet and Assini- 
boins have nearly the same mode of constructing their wig- 
wams. They dress the skins to make them as white as linen. 
The Mandan lodges are closely grouped together and are cir- 
cular in form and are supported by beams, poles, and timbers. 
They are very spacious and contain curtains that extend arouBii 




VILLAGE LIFE ANR VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 2S3 

ihe sides four or five feet apart; the centre is used for domestic 
purposes. The decoration of the Dakota tents has been noticed. 
This shows the influence of ihe totem system and is often 
significant. 

The following description has been given by Col. Marcy:* 
" In contemplating ihc character of the Prairie Indian and the siriking 
simiiarily b^tweeii them and Ihe Tartar, we are not less astonished at the 
absolute dis-simiUrily between thern and the aboriKinal inhabitants of the 
Eastern States. The later frum tne time of the discovery of the rr<iuntry. 
hold in permaikent villages where Ihey cultivated fields of corn, and poss- 
essed a strong altachmeiit for their ancestral abodes and sepulchres; they 
did not use horse;, but always made their hunting and war expeditions on 
loot, and sought the cover of trees on going into battle; while the former 
have no permanent abiding places; never cultivate the soil; are always 
Tnoimied. and never hght a bailie except m the open prairie, where they 
charge boldly up to an enemy, discharge their arrows with great rapidity 
and are away before their panic-stricken antagonist can prepare tu resist 

In common with most other Indians, thev are very superstitious; they 
believe in the wearing of amulets; medicine bags, and the dedication at 
offerings 1" secure the aid of invisible agents. In every village there is 
also the efficacy for dancing for the cure of disease, in all may be seen 
imall structures consisting of a frame work of small poles bent in a semi- 
circular form and were used as vapor baths. Trained up as prairie Indians 
have been from infancy to reg.ird the occupation of a warrior as the most 
honorable of all others, and having no permanent abiding places or attach- 
ments, theyjiarap without inconvenience: move all their family and world- 
ly efiects from one extreme of the bufljlo range to the other," 

A natural supposition is that th<_- pfiiirit; Incliais would build 
their houses after the same pattern and would have the same 
kind of villages, as they are supposed Co have lead the same 
life; but. in fact, we fini ps much difference between them as 
we do among the tribes of the Northwest Coast or any other 
district. They did not. to be sure, build heavy timber frames 
such a* fie Thiinkeets and Kaidas erected, for there was a 
?«carcity of wood on the prairies, nor did they build such great 
c imtnunistic houses as the Pueblo tribes did, for they were too 
migratory for this, and stone was not accessible or easy for 
them to use as such material as poles, skins, sod and grass. 

Still, notwithstanding, the similarity of their life, we find 
^reat contrasts in the village organization; in their social cus- 
toms, and their religious symbols. showing that ihey were influ- 
enced by ethnic descent and traditional habits and customs 
^I'cn anid the envirjmncnts which were so similar. The 
. wnalerial used in their houses was such as was most abundant 
as those who dwelt upon the wide prairies, built their huts 
out of poles which were fastened into the ground and bent at 
the tOD, and were thatched with long prairie grass, and when 
SfcT in the distance, had the appearance of straw beehives; 
while the Dakotas who were great hunters, built their tents in 
a conical shape, and covered them with the tanned skins of 
ilie buffalo, which they decorated with the pictures of animals 
and plants, these representing their clan tokens and their 



254 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUAKIAN. 

mythologic divinities. The Mandans on the other hand place 
their villages on the banks of streams, and surrounded them by 
stockades. They constructed iheir houses out of timber, and 
covered them with brush over which they placed the sod from 
the prairies, placing the fire in the centre of each hut. These 
houses differed in nearly all respects from the houses of the 
Ojibwas or Chippewas who dwelt on the banks of Lake Super- 
ior, who were also hunters and belonged to the Algonkin 
stock. Their wig-wams were made of poles and bark, but were 
oblong ill shape and with a roof semi-circular in form as best 
calculated to ward off rain and wind. Their huts were easily 
taken down; their bark coverings could be quickly removed 
and rolled up and transferred to >ome other point on the lake. 
The canoes of these various tribes also differed in shape. 
The bark canoe of the Ojibwas is perhaps the most beautiful 
of all the water-craft ever invented. They are generally made 
of birch bark and sewed together with the roots of the tama- 
rack, and ride upon the water as light as a cork. The canoes 
of the Mandans were very different. They resemble the cora- 
cels found upon the Tigris, which were nearly round, and re- 
sembled a shallow dish or saucer in shape. 




The Stale of Ohio has. (roni an early date, been celebrated 
for its many remarkable earth works, and still more remark- 
able relics. Many buoks have been written concerning these, 
a list of which was prepared by the writer at two separate times 
at the request ofB. F. ?oo!e,ihe celtbraJed librarian, ind pub- 
lished in the Amhkican ANTiyuARiAN. 

The authors of these books are men of established reputa- 
lions. and have been known as the best geologists and arcbseo- 
logists in the country. Some of ihcm have been at the head of 
geological surveys, others are now secretaries of learned Socie- 
ties and professors of Universities, and editors of well-known 
journals. A book, however, has just appeared, under Ae au- 
spices of the Ohio Archseological Society, written hy Mr. 
Gerard Fowke, a resident of Ohio, which, in our opinion, is 
cahruiated to do more ha:m than good, as the author his taken 
pains to break down the testimony of all who have written up- 
on the subject, and to set up his own opinions instead. 

The attitude of the author, can be seen from the first chap- 
ter, but it continues to the very end, and deserves, only of cen- 
sure, from scientific mtn. 

The book begins in the introduction with a sweeping aiser 
tion that most publications^ relating to the subject, whether 
" newspaper articles, or bulky volumes, are the work of 
reltc hunters." or of persons excited by something they have 
seen or heard, or ■■visionaries" seeking proof of a pet hypothesis. 
"A few, unfortunately, bear the signature of distinguished men 
whose successful work in some other profession or branch of 
science, gives to their words, the weight of authority, when 
they decide, usually, as a matter of recreation, to dabble in 
archeology." "There has been evolved a 'loei civilization' (or 
which writers, "largely ignorant of facts. 'have deemed it Q«cei- 
sary to account, by invcniinga great nation,' dominating all the 
country, from the Atlantic ocean to the Rocky Mountains, and 
from Canada to the ^Gulf, a busy people living in unity, under 
fixed )aws,^ but al*ays with the underlying principle of force 
and fear, tilling the soil, paying tribute, assembling pcriodiciil- 
ly for the adoration of a great spirit, or homage to rulers, na 
tional games or religious festivals, digging mica in the East, 
mining copper in the North, diving for shells and pearls in the 
South, working flint quarries, ttc.,, for these people were sup- 

fiosed toha\e preceded the known Indians, and to have dif- 
ercd from them in almost every respect; the expression, 



356 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

,. Mound Builders,' has been appropriated as a distinct'ivt 
tklc." 

Taking this unnatural altitude, this doughiy knight 
proceeds, like Sancho Panza, to fight the wind-mill, and. iciiig- 
ining himself a hero, makes an onslaught upon everything he 
meets. The result is, a book of 760 pages, which contains more j 
abusive, slanderous, and unbecoming language than has ap- 
peared in any scientific book lor years, and more mi>reprc.-cn— 
t.itioBs of others, than it seems possible (or any one who has a 
nghl mind to make. 

A very few of the expressions used are quoted in the review^ 

given below, written by Rev. J. P. MacLean.but the number u^~~ 
ihem ^^uld be difficult lo count, and not worth while to repeat — 

Suffice it to say that, no one who has had the preaump 

lion to write on the subject of mound building people, has cs 

caped his censure. All have been classed together, whetheicr- 
bclnngin^ to an early or a latter date, the teslimony of such^^ 
well-known cifizens of Ohio as Gen. Harrison, Squier & Davis. 
Alexa,nder Bradford, Dr. Drake, who were familiar with th^r- 
works when they were intact are rejeclea, and his own im — 
pressions formed from seeing the works worn as they are, ancS 
some of them nearly destroyed, being advanced, while the^ 
careful surveys made from time to lime aie set aside; his owr» 
opinions and interpretations given as authoritative: his owr» 
rude drawings are made to represent the works rather than 
the fine steel plate engravings which were published, at great 
expense, by the Government, and could easily have beer» 
reproduced. 

This was altogether unnecessary, and, certainly, does noC 
help the writer to establish any position, or to enforce his 
ideas, for the gentlemen who have written upon the archaeolo- 
gy of Ohio, are too well known, and their reputation too well 
established for him to overthrow, and. every attack of thi* 
kind, only reacts upon himself. It is now fifty-five years sincer 
the first volume of the Smithsonian Contribution to KnowUdf^e ap- 
peared, and the book stands as authority upon the subject. If 
Mr. Fowke. the author of the Archaeological History of Ohio.' 
thinks that he is going to overthrow their work, and substitute; 
hi* own in its place, it would have been well if he had foltowcci 
their manner of treating the subject, and caught the spirit of 
such gentlemen as have written upon the same or similar sub — 
jecti, but instead of this, mis-statements and mis-representa - 
tions appear in great numbers. 

It is certainly mortifying to the most of the archsologists 
of this countrf, that a writer of this kind should have been al- 
lowed to use the name ol any society, and receive the financial 
aid of any State, but when a book appears under the auspices 
of the State Archaeological Society of Ohio, and the field chos- 
en is the one which required the most judicious and careful 
treatment, the offense is aggravated and every one feels i 




THE ARCH -EOLOGICAL HISTORY OF OMIO, 257 

nant. It is well known that Ohio has produced more wiiters on 
archeology than any other state. Among them we may 
mention the names of Prof, Newberry. Col. Charles Whittle- 
sey. Pro(. M. C. Read. E. G. Squier, Prof. John W. Short. Kev. 
}. P. MacLean, Warren K. Moorhead, Prof. F. G, Wright, 
Chas. T. Metz, L. M. Hosca, Among the gentlemen who have 
entered the State and have done excellent work as explorers, 
and have written upon the subject, are Prof, F, G. Putman, W. 
H. Holmes. Dr. Cyrus Thomas. Prof. Foster, and others. 

Here, however, is a writer who criticises each in turn, ridi- 
culing some, misrepresenting others, and setting up his own 
opinion as more important than all others, even contradicting 
himself at times to overthrow the opinion of others. 

The total unreliability of this book, whether in the descrip- 
tion of the ancient earthworks and enclosures, or their situa- 
tion in relation to streams and their physical features, may be 
st-en on almost every page. A few instances of the many will 
be cited. 

The editor of this Magazine was the first who ever ad- 
vanced the idea that the so-called "sacred enclosures " were 
village sites, and the so-called " covered-ways " were designed 
to protect the people as they went from the villages to the 
canoe landings and to the dance grounds and corn fields Mr. 
Fowkc, the author of this book says, that there are no covered 
ways or graded ways, and that there were no streams near the 
villages that wouM admit of canoe navigation; and, yet, he re- 
produces, from Squier & Davis, 1 5 or 30 engravings, every one 
of which, shows that streams arc close to the enclosures, some 
so close, as to wear the embankments away. The writer also 
maintained that the great serpent eRigy is upon a cliff that re- 
sembles a serpent in shape. The author of this book sayi it is 
not any diffrrcnt in the topography than any other in the re- 
gion, and denies what Prof, Putnam. Mr. Holmes, and the 
writer maintains. The following are a few of the cuts which 
disprove the author's assertions-: On page 15% after quotini; ihe Ian 
Kuage o( ihe writer, tie says, in reference to the earlliworks being connect- 
ed with streams by covered ways, "many of the village sites are remote 
Iron) streams large enough to ftoat canoes." Of those cloier, not one pre- 
sents a grided wav to Ihe water, nor a covered wav direct to a canoe lantj- 
ine- Neither is there any evidence of proie-'tive wttlU that Pect thinks he 
sees; yet, immediately following these remarks, there are cuts on nearly 
every other page which absolutely refutes his assertion, and confirms 
the correctness of the opinion stated. On iig. 10, page 163, there is a map 
of the Racoon Creek Valley, near Newark; a-lio, fig. 1 1. on page l6t, • plile 
from "Ancient Monuments." (reproduced), in which the enclosures are 
plainly connected by "covered ways," and "defensive walls "are around^ 
the enclosures, and streams may be seen on three sides of the enclo-urci' 
with & "graded way " leading to the lower terrace adioining another stream' 
and a squire enclosure overlooking; the banks of the same stream. In fig' 
15, pagi! I7«, there are twoenclosures, one of which is connected with tht 
lower lerrKce b/ a "graded way'' which had, at the time of tbe author's 
visit, everv «v^id;nce of being artilicial: (he terrace overlooking th: Mus- 
kingum River inierverted biiween the end of the graded way aoi the 



TUF. AMKRICAM ANTIQUARIAN. 



I conned the croup on the hill ^ 
side, and the Encloiure upon 
ession that canoes were used for carrfinj; processions 
hi Ohio nrer, and suggesting the reheioii* cbaracic ' 
rci'ion which is strengthened by examiniac th; cut 
pige 177. Fig 2J, representin? twelve mfles of im , 
xre ten enclosures, and six groups of circles, all oE 
Sciito River or Paint Creek. Some of them are sn near 
that the stream has washed awav the banks and left one side of the enclo- 
sure unprotected by a wall; while in Rfc. 14. tepreientine six miles of PjiqI ' 
Creek Valley, there are three enclosures, and one fort, aU of them overlook- 
ia_I thestraam. On Rg. 31. Hopelon Worki are shown to be Kear the Scioto 
River, and conaeccecT with the vtlley by oarallels 140:1 feet Ion;, while on 
fiij. 34. page I96, the eaclosure at Cedar B ink; is directly abov • the Scioia 
River. 



othefigiving the ir 
or co^npames aero 
ol the works, an 1 
ioiigB. 18 and ig 
Scioto Valley, mere 



Book Reviews- 



Akchaoloqical History op Onio.^The Mound Builders and later la- 

dlani. by Gerard Fowke. Published by the Ohio State Archjealogical 

and Historical 5oelety.C«lnmbii5. Ohio. Hrcssof Fred. [. Heet. igol. 

The American Archxolotckt welcomes every genuine contribution to hii 

faWHil* ftudy. let the sourse be what it may, and the continued accessioa 

to the ranks of co-laborators is a matter ol pride. He recoguiics that 

atcbKoloKy is one ol the most important branches of anthropology, and 

wkatcTir advances the former enhances the latter. He fully realizes that 

the uncertainty surrounding certain phases ol his la vorile branch, but lends 

Inlereitio his subject. 

There are lew fields of scientific research, that affords a wider rattse 
for the play of the imagination, or the art of speculation than tracing the 
hiilory of a lost race of people. The temptations to theorize on the accu- 
mulated, is almofil irresistible. We know the stale of civilization of pre- 
hisioric people, bv comparing their arts with those ol enisling (rilKS: 
howevtr, the arts can hardty be said 10 be the same peoplei 10 widely 
seperatsd by time; hen:e, there is an uncertainly, a mystery surrenndine 
the sub]ect. Though one may use the grextest care in formulating his de- 
^uctiou, yet an overlooked fact, or a new discovery, may eadaneer the 
whole Kae of thought. This fact i* so well understood, that the archoetlo- 
giit Is not disturbed by the conjectures of others. The more inielligent the 
archKologist, the more tolerant is his mind. 

The antiquHles of America, have invited the attention of some of the 
world's ablest mcD. The Investigationt and conclusions of these men hare 
called out many who are unable to brook apposition; a class unable to re- 
aliK Ihe breadth and magnaaiity of a Charles Danrln; a Sir Charles Lyell. 
or a Sir Waller Scoti. True men of science are always gemleminly and 
coarteoni. 

Whether it Is a misEorlune or simply an incident, yet the unpleasant 
fact stare* us in the face, that there is a spirit of intolerance abroad which 
ouiot evidence opposing views. This was set apace. in the realm of archcCo- 
togr- by a paper, contained in the Second Annual Report of Ihe Bureau of 
Ethnology, wherein was an assault on the mim'>ers of the Uarenpirt 
Academy of S:ience. At that tim;, the said Academy, was so fortuntte at . 
lo hare k distinguished attornev of consjinmite ability, for its president. I 
The reply he made was so criishin* as to eliminate the assailant from Ih£ j 
ranks of archxologists. 

The appearance of Prof, G. Frederick Wright's "Man and the Gl»cia! 
Peno'l," in iSqi, was the signal for a preconcerted and organized asifilt 
on the contents of the hook; Ihe nature of which, immediately forced th- 
■ilciap to over 8,000 copies, which, was almost, unorecedented in that clasf 
of literature. Within a space af fifteen pages, in ta:second edition, ol hii 





BOOK REVIEWS. 259 

■work, Prai. Wrlghl mtkeja judicious and well cooiidcred reply to his 
criiict. Not lenj; since an editor of a California miK^zine made an unpro- 
voked and virulent assault on Dr. Peel, or one of Dr. Peet's coatn- 
bulinol. and the Ambrican AntiqOarian. The violence of the attack 
carried fti own antidote. 

An asiiult is one thing~a crilicism is (ar different. A broad mtDd 
do;» sot objecl tocnticiim. for this, when properly exercised, is a high art. 
Whoever speculates, must expect to meet with disclaimers, But whoso- 
ever aitumei the role of critic, must lo>k w>ll to his o«rn building. A per- 
SOI who puts (orlb his sp:culationsat private expense, stands in a diCferenI 
attitude trom the on? waose eSiris are maintainel at the public cost. If 
leniency is to be exercised, it is dje to the Former laiher than the latter. 

The latest work on American archie )logy. is a boik entitled " Arahxo- 
lojica! History of Ohio," by Girard Fowke. published under the auipice* 
oi and at the exaecise oF the O.iio State Arca;Ejloi;ical and Historical 
Siciety. The book is an ocl ivo of 760 pagiis. profusely illustrated, and 
verr attractive inapo;ac*n;e. W;re it posiiole to give this biok a gensr- 
ojt notice. I would d? so with plei-iure. I deem It but juitice to saythatit 
is the most dogmatic, arrogmt. int^iierant, waspish and libelous book. I 
think, any fair minded psrson will affirm that th; contents, oE the book 
prjve that the author, is unfitted for the performance he has essayed. 

With all the possible care excerciied, public institutions are more or 
Ie4s uoFortunate. Every person acquainted witb the Otiio State Archsealo- 
rical Society, will affirm th it in its Secretary, Prof, £, O Randall.it hat 
been exceedingly Fortuntte. He is one of the mist versatile, genial and 
patient of m :n; no m in in Ohio, works h irder. Beside his duties as Sec- 
retary, he is Supreme Court reporter, and proFeisor of law in the Stale 
Un'versity. Ttie bulk of work oF the Slate Society falls upon his should- 
ers I believe I voice the sentiment oE ths entire biard of trustees, when I 
stite thtl not one of tiem will oisi c:n;ure on him in the publication of 
Mr, Fowke's bosk. I trust thit ProE. Rindall will, in the issue oE the SfaU 
i^uarleriy, will give us a fiiain stale n*nt oF the facts leading up ro the pub- 
lication of this book. 

It is not my purpose to point out all the errors in the book, for they are 
«tceedin|{ly numerous, nor will 1 enter into Its eccentricities, iror reflect 
0.1 the chiTJcter oE th; author, but will conlioe myselE to the temper of the 
fo<jok. which entirely proves thai Mr. Fowke has not sufficient judgment 
aid intorm-ttion to compile such an archit.ilogical history of Ooio as will 
contribute to kno*leJge. Tnit he ii Uckinj in judijinjot, is proved From 
his discourteous epithets applied to his superiors. Among these detigni- 
tioni there taw b: noticed " simple," p. (3tK "paradoxical surmisei," 
(p. SI); "rldiculoui," "Fanciful," (p. (|;8>: "unwarranted opinionF," "as- 
su-nptionl," (p. S9I; "wonder mongers." Ip 72); "hysterically." p. (73): 
"eqaally ridiculous," (p. 74): "rhapsodies." (p. 7;}: "abundant thenriiing." 
"ten-iencv towards the marvellmis." (76!; "silliness." (p. 71}): "delusion." 
(p86|: '■ndiculou5,"|87); "the next i* a g:m," (p 88); " perversion of evi- 
dence." (p 89); "oure Fancy," (p iodI; "dubious feature," (io8); " funny twist," 
}p III); "twaddle." (p ll;); "erouudless assumptions." (p 111); "silly," 
P '3i); "perverted," (J74); very Foolish utterances." "conceit." |p 320I; 
' "lucubrations." (41S). Oae paragraph oF less than nine lines contains *' ri- 
dJcnlois." "fanciEul con::ep;ioni, ' " height oF absurdity," venal cnarlatan," 
(p S8); and another oE less than seven, "turgid eminationi." "sort of stuff," 
and "vagaries," (p 71), 

Not content with such deicriptiois. he attempts 10 bring others dovn 
10 hit own level by force of ndicuie. On the sam: page (631, both Prof. 
Short and Col. Waittlesey, are ridiculed, the Former on acco ini of an opin- 
iaa concerning the Cincinnati Tablet. and the latter on account of his stand- 
ard of measurement adopted oy the Mound Builders. '■ McLean," o 1 ao- 
•Iher page (67I. is charged with "a tingle of ideis," which is done by lak- 
m; Four eiccrots from a; miny different piges, thus disconuectiBg them 
' fi in the line 01 tbo'ight in which th:y were employed. 

Peck, (p 70), is advisel to re .train his im >ilience. aid Squier Si Djvis 




THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



:=4(P3^ 



ois 



alta 






tof bur 



i1 earth." Nm 



content with ridicule he gots a step further and libels Ur. Peet, Perbaps, 
erea » worse case is the misrepresentation oi Prof. Newberry's remarks on 
the age of trees (p iiS], HavioeseCat naught the opinions of Foster, the 
Marqula of Nadaillac. Squier & Davis, and Prol. Newberry, on the age of i 
trees, our author blandly informs us " that no reliance can be placed apoa J 
the number of rings in estiniatingihe age of a tree,'' Ip 1201. 

As an example of a choice of lan^agelhe following iscited: "Strani 
ly enough, he make<i no mention ol the tall man. with hairy whiskers, « 
an unusually large jaw," (p 73). 

Passing over this elainem th^t occupies so Targe a place in bit mind 
the lixt step \'! to n>tic£ hi^ reckless statements, only a few of which mm, 
be noticed. We are informed (pp 5g-6o) that "the most complete and coa- 
veiiient cataloi^ue of writers on Aboriginal Remains, accessible 10 the pub- 
lic, is that contained in the Amekican Antiqiiaria.-ii. volume IX.. July 
1877." and In ''March 1893, " "All that will be attempted here is to give ex- 
tracts from a few of their writings, showing how the subject has been cov- 
ered - - - ■ A hundred volumes could be filled with other quotations." 
The references here cited. Includmg letters and papers on societies.reports — 
as well a* distinct volumes, number eighty-one in all. Yet, Mr Fowke 
would make one hundred volumes of quotations from them '■ 

Sqiiier & Davis. "Ancient Monuments." |p 57), slate that thev carefully 
survcved, in person, an ancient , work in Ross county. Ohio. Mr. Fowke 
SBvs, in reference to this statement, " it is not probable they ever made any 
such survey as that set forth m their note." Ip 57). My understanding is 
that, the literary work of "Ancient Monuments," was that of Dr. Davis. 
Thisii thehrst, and only instance, known to me, ol the word of Dr. Davis — 
being called In question. 

Rigirdingthe Elephant Pipes owned by the Davenport Academy ot 

informed, {p lil), that all the evidence for and agamit 

n the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Eihoolo- 
sume^ihat Mr. Fowke is ignorant of Col-Putnam's paper 
pipes, published in volume IV. of the Society's Pro- 



Sciences, we a 

their genuineness is 
gv. llischaril>toa 
of 92 pages, on Ihesi 
<:eedingi. 

cerningFo''rc Ancle, 



)ne place. Ip 83), declares that such statements con- 
that 'at numerous places, are Found large qudnlitiei 
i which, after an incredible amount ol labor, have 
Oeen carried from the river below," are not true; while speaking uf ths 
■am; fort, in autjthet, pige, (231}). he avers that " at every osening where 
the wall is worn away, stone may be seen cropping out of the base. 

Without pursuing this line further, I pass to a want of system in ar- 
rangement ol matter. In chapter II, Mr, Fowke treats of glacial man; 
but near (he close ol the following chapter, takes up the subject aealo, 
(p 43). 1 he Graded Way at Piketon be summarily dismisses, (p iiiSi. as 
"a nitural fgrmation." He lakes up the subj-ct for Ireatmerit again. (p 374). 
and finallv alleges that all excavated graded ways, with one exception; 
ate natural depressions, Ip i8o.) 

In Dn!place.(p 173). the Marietta grad:d-way never >ilsted. and in an- 
'Other, (p 273), the same was formed by excavating for the ijiounds and em- 
bankments in the vicinity. 

The Great Alligator Mound, (p igi). 1^ an opossum, and one reason as- 
signed, is the uniform diamiter of the tail, an 1 even his 'imagination balki" 
when he views the serpent structure in Adamscounty. And why? Becanse, 
there is a violation of "physiological fact", (p 3S7). If the author wilt turn 
to the three illustrations of an effigy pipe, which constitutes the frontii- 
piece ol the biok he will fiadan exaggerated violation of a "phystologlcal 



Mr. Fowke goes out of his way in order lo m 
f e lu of EnniltJiy.^idSrmtng thit the form :r 
-mi 111 etplona^ #ai without practicil etperienc 
with) It et ) ;ri:n:2 or ki?rlel;:ia archsilo.'ic 



ike a 



attack on the Ba- 
of the division of 
ily enployadmOD 
. Ip3'3'' I' ram 



DOOK REVIEWS. 



be remembered iha[ some years ago, Mr, Fowke was employed in field 
work by ihe Bureau, and was dropped. 

Mr. Fowke es&avs a list of books, some of which he recoirmeods " for 
careful readinR." Amonp! those doi recommended are The American Nat- 
uralist, lournal of American Antiquarian Society. Bancroft History United 
States. Bancrofts Native Races of the Pacific Coast. Burnet's Notes, 
Fiskc's Beginainiis of New England. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of Ihe 
Romans t-mpire, Hildreih's Pioneer History. Howes Historical Coilec- 
lionsot Ohio, etc. On the other hand, he ls exceedingly severe on Squier 
Si Davis' ■' Ancient Monuments, " and boldly charges that work with being 
the cause of the misconceptions and erroneous beliefs implanted in the 
mind of nearly every person, yel this mischievous l!| book is recom- 
mended. 

The book abounds largely 

works referred lo. 

rhe book is a great disappointment in almost every particular, No 
discrimination is made between archsologists and. amateurs, but both are 
massed together with newspaper clippings. All receive a blow, (p jBS), at 
Mr, Fowke 's hand. The author is not familiar with ihe antiquities of Ohio, 
for there are many works that have been illustrated, and desciibed. which 
«re not even referred to. The only original matter in the book is thai fur- 
nished bv Prof. Mills, and that without credit. 

Mr. Fowke 's statement (preface) is misleading where he says ih^t the 
task had been assigned to bim. On the other hand he solicited the tavor 
and agreed to perform the work lor S5oj. under Ihe pretense of original 
field work which was not done, he got $400 more. He became very angry 
alProF. Randall because the latter would not lobby the legislature for an 
additional S500. He then desired a large assignment of the books thai he 
might be furher remunerated. He worried Prof. Randall, and exhausted 
Ihe patience of the printer. Prof. Randail did culoul the very worst fea- 
tures of the Mss. Ostensibly the book " is nol written for scientists iir spec- 
ialists," II certainly is of no value lo them, and, practically lono one else. 
The ii3.23o spent on this boDk may not be wholly wasted. It should be 
withdrawn and all books sent out should be recalled. 

Mr, Fowke has driven the nails Into his coffin so thoroughly that he 
.will never be able to remedy llie matter. Never was there a m.in wilh a 
belter prospect before him lo do a good work. He had no sense of the dig- 
nity of ihe occasion, nor the propriety of what the book should be. An op- 
portunity of a lifetime was thrown away that he might vent his spleen on 
those who had never harmed him. The graves of the dead were violated 
and he attempted to bring the living down to liis own level. 

j. P. McLean. 

Frkb Museum of Science and Art— Department of Archeology and Pale- 
ontology. 
University o( Pennsylvania. Bulletin No. 1. May 1897. No. 2. Dec. 

1807. N0.3, Apr. i8p8. No. 4, June 1898. Vol, II. Nos, 1, 2, 3, 1899. 4, 

1900. V0l.;ll.N0!.l.2.3, IQOI. 

The bulletins contain a resume of the collections made by the Museum; 
edited by the directors and curators, with brief papers by the officers, with 
accounts of explorations conducted by ihe Museum. 

The first one has an interesting article by Uaoieei G. Brinlon. Professor 
of American Archofology in Ihe University, describing the only nienhiis 
found, so far, on Ibe continent, called the Pillars of Ben, though dtlacbed, 
monoliths, were reported by .Stephens, Bishop Laoda stales thai [he Mayas 
were accustnmed to erect pillars al their arnual festivals, 10 the four myth 
ical gi«nts,whD were «upposed,lo beat each of the cardinal poinls.and uphold 
the sky. Dr. Brtnton was inclined to believe that these piliars wei-^ erected 
to Ben. the thirteenth hero of iheir calendar, who traveled through Ihe de- 
partment of Chipas. and left monunienls of his journey at the various 
points he visited. 

This shows the fetlilily of Ihe distinguished author's minij, whofaai al. 
ways recognized some latent symbolism in every monument, and token ot 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 



the prehistoric people of Am 
tad. 



His loss is felt more keenly from this 

■DC bulletin conlams an account of the growth of the Baby), 
section Id which Dr. Briolon was also interesiea. though Prof. Hilpieihl 
was ihe chiet ruling spirit as he spent the greater portion of the years '9; 
'g4,'g6,irConslantinople,and who secured a large number of valuabk 
Iiquities from Nippur, among which, was the titele of Naium Sin, ( 
J7S0;) the onlv cuneiform inscription fO far found in Palestine (B. C- 1 



;r of Hif 



i 



of ai 



of tl 



■ 



'ell pi . .. 

of this Museum, but two other 
included, and four successful t 
(ion about the Sabeans and M 
also informati 



Babylonian collections fi>rm the iiuclev 
I on>, Ihe HitlUes and the Phccnicians ai 
s ol Dr. Ed.Gla.ier bToU),hI out inlornw 
ins. and excavations in ainjirly btoup;f 
' ihabitauts of Palestine, and the rrnioii 



south and east; two lar^e Hittile sphmes Il^nking the 
biblical room, a large collection of B.ibylonian tablets, go new Kappado- 
Ician cuneiform tablets, Ihe earliest Babylonian documents m existence. 
(B. C. 6,0001, a beautiful inscription of the king of Tello. a new document 
referring to Sargon I. (B. C. 3,800); an account of ihe old Babylonian in- 
scriptions published by the American Philosophical Society, followed ty 
Vols. I., II.. III., v., Vr.. in the folio form. 

All this is reported in bulletin No, l,,May iSg?, showing thai as Athene- 
sprang from the head of Jupiter fully armed, so thii Society or Muse- 
um sprang out from the midst of the Quaker city fully equipped (or the- 
great work which is to be accomplished. The WeM is celebtated for iis 
rapid growth, and Chicago is supposed to have outstripped the world in il> 
progrels; but, here in the staid old city, a work has been going on almost 
unnoticed by ih^ majority which has already pioduced Ihe most atlomsh- 



ing 



esults, 



: Culin has also in the ihird bulletin, gives an account of 
American Indian games, and has presented an interesting explanation of 
the Fejervary Codex^who regards it as representing the divinalory or gam* 
log, counling circuit of the ^ur directions, ihe god of the divination wnb 
the three arrows, and Allatl or spear thrower in Ihe middle: a novel explan- 
ation, but one that is quite recent. Prof. Ames P. Brown, in bulletin No. ). 
described oriental jade, diilinguishrs it from the serpentine, and nays thai 
jade was brought to Europe by the Spanish conquerors of Central America, 
though the lade bearing rocks have not yet been discovered, li it found 
in the rollpebble*; it is found in Ihe stream; in gravel deposiis; in silu: ii» 
Western TuTkistin; in eastern Burma; in parti of Persia; oulhe rn Asia; 
island! of the Pacific; New Zealand. The jade of the Swiss lake dwellers 
may be either nephrite or jadite. Among primitive peoples the us«s of 
jade are various. The Costa Rica collection in the Museum is the best 
aisenibUge of worked jade ever brought together. Modifications of ihc axe 
or call are numerous in it. The cutting has been done by a cord with > 
bow aith quartz as Ihe cutting agent. 

The use nf plants among the i 
by Jokn W. Harshberger. 

The powder horns co 



aining i 
eoflhem 
quel espeditions to Ft, Pitt; other 



ient Peruviansis the subject treated 

laps of the interior, and routes to Ihe 
n made to suit the Braddock and Bo- 

., ^ . mbrace the Hudson and .Mohawk nv- 

; the New York Lakes; Montreal and Quebec, the two rivers which 
were the pathways of the Belligertnts, These maps were from French, 
Dutch, and Britliih sources; thirty two specimens of geo^'raphical boras 
art In the collection. 

Qnipui, from Bolivia, are described by Dr. Max Uhle. in bulletin No. 
1, Dec. tiqf. also, the potters wbeel as found in Yucatan, is described by 
Henry C. Mercer; alio, certain war aies and chunkv stones from tbe- 
Southern States, are dctcribed in the «ame bulletin and repres«&led l» 




^mzxxcmi ^^tttiquariaw 



Vol. XXIV. September and October, igo2. No. 5 



ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 



We have now passed in review the different struclures which 
appeared in pre-histortc times and continued into the historic, 
and have found that each one of them originated in a very 
primitive form, but came up through different stages until a 
high degree of perfection was reached. This has proved to be 
true of such common objects as the bridges, boats, and other 
mechanical contrivances, but especially true of the houses, forts, 
palaces, and all other forms of architecture, whether represent- 
ing naval, military, domestic, funeral or sacred. There is, how- 
ever, one class of structures into which other elements besides 
the ordinary mechanical and architectural principles have en- 
tered, namely, the Temples: for in these the religious senti- 
ment has proved a very important factor, and has had as much 
to do with their growth as even th« architectural or mechanical 
principles. We shall, therefore, take for the subject of the 
present chapter, The Early or Ancient Temples of the World, 
and seek to find out their origin and to trace the lines of their 
development and see what causes have been at work to bring 
them into such a variety as Ihey have presented. In doing «o, 
we shall assume that there were, at the beginning, certain 
primordial forms from which all architecture started, and that 
these forms continued to impress themselves upon the temple 
architecture when it arose, so that we have even now different 
kinds of temples which may be classified according to the type 
after which they were patterned. They may be classed as fol- 
lows: I. Temples in Caves. 2, Open Air Temples. 3. 
Temples in the form of a tent. 4. Temples in the lurm of a 
round hut. 5. The Temple in ihe form of a square tower 
called a teocalll. 6. The Temple or Shrine situated upon the 
summit of a pyramid. 7. The Temple in tht- form of a house 
but built in the columnar style. 

I. In reference to the cave temple, it will be understood that 
this was different from the ordmary cave dwelling, and yet 
was the outgrowth of the habit or custom of living in caves 




3^6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

It is well known th it the ora:Ies and temples of Greece and 
other ancient countries were either in caves or remote moun- 
tain recesses. The temples of Pan, Bicchus. and Pluto were 
in cave^, as well as the oracles at Delphi, Corinth, and Mount 
Cithiuron. In Persian mytholo^v^ caves were 4:he places 
where tho rites of mithras were observed. In Europe there were 
caves ab.)ut which myths have gathered, such as the Fairy 
*l)ra<^0'is or Devil's Cave and Dwarf Holes. Caves were also 
use 1 f )r burial places, and so became shrines and sacred 
places The cave of Macpelah is well known as the bu- 
rial [)lace of the household of Abraham. 

In America, caves were used as the homes of the people, 
and be :ame s;icrcd places. Among the Cliff-Dwellers, there 
wc^re whole vill i^jes built into the shelter caves, but the most 
piominoiU building in them was the so-called Kiva. This pre- 
sented the shape of a primitive hut, built in circular shape with 
the walls divided into ledges and piers, which are supposed to 
represent the posts and walls of the primitive hut, and at the 
same time, symbolize the pillars of the sky, the conical roof 
svmboli/.ing the dome of the sky, and the hole in the fl'3or 
symbolizing the ])lace of emerg^fuce through which the ances- 
tors came fro n their primitive houu!. The Pueblos built their 
kivas under the grcMud. anl reached tliem by ladders. b.it 
m ide them represe.it both the cave and the hut. 

In Mexico, and Central America, there were underground 
caves which were used for the sacred ceremonic^s th it were 
performed Dr. Hriuton has described the nagualism or witch- 
craft which fouml loJg:ui«' it in caves, and which reiiiin is us of 
the witchcraft that was j)ra:ticod i[i the time of Solo:non by 
the witch of I\ndor. wliose houie was in a cave 

The ca\e bcc.rnj so sicr»Hl tha" Libvriiths were construct- 
. ed to i'liitate them llic lab/rinthof Kgvpt is well knoA-n. 
It consisted (»l m in v ch unhrrs. th : most of them below the 
ground, the subterranean rooms being sacred [)laces. A laby- 
rinth has Ixrcn recently discovered in Cret(\ The most mag- 
nificent works of art were contained in ii. an:l some fine speci- 
mens «'f architecture, t*iu> carr\ing b ick Mie date of civilizatii>n 
in Crete to a ni irv(^!o:i- .i Ui«i.iit\". The libsrinth called "Lost 
anr] Lost." ( IVatuni Ts.ii. i in Nieara<4ua. wa^ also a sacre I 
pl 1 e \vhi::h irnilite'd [\\f^ e ive. Tne t'»!lo.ving is a description 
»'f :: bv Mr. 11. (.' Mck ^-r 

■ In;' \v}ii)!f w.i- ''Hfr-' l»\ .i!i .irMMi.i il in >un(l of sioiirs. ohl>n);l m 
^har•e. ;■; tt-ct iii • .r- uiu'Meu e. m'hI \\ feet hij^h. Within, there arc 
.'.:'*'* : f > ii{ il.it st"ii-<.. '.ri'i i}-'- >t iir i i^f leads from the iiiMenn Mt rus- 
'■A^.r .ii tl\e i<'x\^r vorv io i\.f i;p;.jr <^t(>ry." 

lh'<.i\"'t L- ■**. -111. nc". r.iien«iiie.has .il-.<» been descrjS^ 1 
. ', ^l M r 



*« 1 ■ *• 



rr :* f ''.V '»-/'* • ■'* '»" *^ v."' if . n\ 'r-d With sv '.iihfil'* ami pi« tiireir 
»< A •■ '.•^i.i'N ' ■ .* f ! 1 • »|i.',Ti.i:» .jro-sc had ^he roi ks se'Ti *h^ 



ANCIKNT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 



dllibolic rites oF Nigialiim!' or liart men veimirtfd lo live here day and 
o i; II. burying their dead h;re. anil w^nJenng into the unknown?'' 

It is to be noticed that the rock cut temples of India, were 
shrines as well as it-mples, but ihcy presented, on the outside, 
carvings which repre-^futed ihe earliest columns, b.-a ns, posts, 
d'lorways, rafters of the earliest temples constructed of wnod. 
aid, at the same time, the siaiues of the Divinile-> were pre- 
served in the shrines, but all carved out of stone. 

The ancient Etruscans, built their temples partly beneath 
the surface, bat the upper piri was built in the form of a house, 
with arched roof and pillars in front, and a ledge which form- 
ed a seat around the sid;s. Tue totib of Cyrus was in the 
(orm of a hous;, bui the front wa^ open, thus nuking it into a 
slirme. The tombi in the v,»lle\' of the K'^dron opposite J^ru- 
s.ilcm, were grottoes cut out of the rock, but resembltd houses 
or temples on a small scale. The tomb of Absalom, is a good 
specimen of this. It is ornamented with Ionic pilasters, sur- 
mounted by a circular cone of masonry which terminates in a 
tuft of palm leaves. 

It was in connection with the cave temple that the earliest 
forms of arc'iitecture appeared, The column, in its different 
stages of growth, is shown by the cave at Beni Hassen, in 
Egy-t. and the facade, or, portals, with the acco npanying 
st^tt^e-, as shown in the rock cut temple at Abou Simbel. 
Witlti 1 this tomb, or grotto, are seen two groups of statues, 
and, iipQn the roof, may be seen the winged circle. The tomb 
of Mogheir. on the other hand, presents one of the earliest 
forms of the arch, though it is made by horizontal projections 
of the bricks and without the key-stones, and thus resembles the 
arch as i' is found in America. There is a relief fiom Korsabad 
which rep-esents a lein|)le with its interior open to view, and 
on either side may be seen the castle with battlements; also, 
the rock cut tomb of D irius, represents a palace with columns 
andcornice and doorway all in the Persian style. 

11. Open air temple? are to be treated next. These were 
constructed in different ways aid had a great variety of forms. 
Amonu these forms the following may be mentioned: I The 
Monoliths nr Obelisks, i'. The Circle o( Slamling Stones, 
which arc so common throughout the far ca?t and the various 
ipartsof Kurupe. ;. The high places which are so numerous^ 
in various ptrts nf .Syria, Arabia, and the lanil of the Hittites, 
4. The various altar's which were common in the same region ' 

' but were disconnected from temples and yet were sacred places, 
H- The altars which are connected with sculptured statuei 
and idol pillats gencialh' e.illed Stel.c which were common 
both in Babvlnma and" other |>ar.ls o( Asi.i and in Central 
America, fi The sacred groves cnmnuui in India, Greece and 
•Great Britain. 7. The slab ciicle with the altar enclosed 

g ii/oand at Mvcei),T 

aairTein|iiIes were vcty acicienl. and. perhaps, follow- 




36B 



T:4K AMERICAN AN flOUARIAN. 



ed the caves in ihe order of time. These, for Ihe most part, 
were in the form of circles, sometimes consistlngof earlhworlcs 
with openings for the processions which might enter them. but 
generally were madeof monoliths, whicii were erected eitherin 
the form uf a circle or an ellipse or a hi-rseshoe. Mimoliths 
were common throughout the East. The majority of them were 
erected to commemorate some noted event, illustr. lions of 
which are found in the scriptures, for Jacob erected a pillar 
which should be a sign of his vow as well as a reminder of his 
vision. The obelisks of Kgypt. may be called monoliths rath- 
er than temples, for they arecommemoralive monuments, and 
contain the records of various kings. The obelisk at Nimrud* 
is also a monument, as it was designed to commemorate the 
victory of the king over his enemies. 

Obelisks were frequently placed near temples, and so 
may well be considered in connection with temple architec- 
ture. Two rock cut obelisks at Ma/7.ebah, near Petra. 
with a round and 
square altar, and 
a rock cut court 
have been discov- 
ered These obe- 
lisks probably 
grew out of .stand- 
ing siones; or a 
modification O f 
Lhem, and suggest 
ihe thought that 
the standing 
siones and align- 
ments, in the 
oBvi r^i, IV M i.L north of France, 

were connected 
with some form of worship, marking out the avenues Ilirough 
which the processions might be led to the tombs, as elsewhere;, 
in Great Britain, they led to open air temples. 

That standing siones and obelisks were connected with 
open air temple*, will be seen as we proceed, for they arc 
found ni>t only at Stone-hcngcand Avebury. but also in Peru, 
and many other parts of the world. There were isolated col- 
umns forming the circles around the ancient tombs in India, 
and many other parts of the H.isl. 

As to the question whether there were open air temples in 
America, it would seem that there were, for nearly all of the 
religions ceremonies of the aborigines were in the open air. 
The people of the Great Plateau timed their ceremonies by 
the position of the sun b>' day and the Pleiadrs by night, the 
siudv of the heavens being as close with them as among the 




ANCIENT TEMPLK ARCHITECTURE. 



369 



peoples of the Easl. and the dependence upon the poweis of 
ihe air was as great among them as the dependence upon the 
ri'iinB of the waters was among the people dwelling upon the 
Euphrates or the Nile. 

The circle, or rouml temple, seems to have been at one time 
the place where laws were enacted. In Ireland the Moot 
Hills are usually on the margii of a river, in the immediate 
vicinity of a religious edifice, forming an interesting object in 
the landscape. 

Sir James Logan says; 



" In Scotland, the Highlanders were accuslomed lo assemble and elect 
chiefs, Ihecl ins having tneir special place in [he circle. Clanihip involve* 
ap:n air astemblies baih (or ttie military and religious purposes. When 
ih= Highland chief entered on his Kovernment, he was placed on the lop of 
a cairn, and nround him stood his friends nad followers. The practice of 
croivnmg a king upon a stone ii oF exlrem« amiqaily and snrvivrs to the 
present day in England. The practice of holding courts in the open air 
wai common. The court of Areopa.'uB, at Athens, sat in the open air. The 
ssme pr*ctice was common amuni: the Druids, but on ihe abolition of 
Uruidism the courts which were held Jn the circles, were transferred 10 the 
church. The sacrifice ofcapuves wascon.idered, in some Cises. as neces- 
sarv (or propilialing the deilv."* 

The question arises. 
in reference to the con- 
nection of the standing 
stones with the circles, 
and the object of the 
circles. There arc many 
reasons for believing 
that the larger circles 
were designed for tem- 
ples. Among the-e arc 
the following: 1. Many 
of the circles contain 
within them dolmens, 
which were used both 
^or burial places and for altars, suggesting that human sacri- 
fices may have been practiced. 2. The fact that there are ring 
marks and cups upon some of the dolmens, suggests the idea 
that blood was poured out and was preserved in the cups. 3. 
Circles formed of slanding stones are frequently isolated from 
the surrounding country by small bodies of water, or upon hill 
top?. 4. The fact that earthwalls surrounded the stone cir- 
clrs and that avenues led to Ihe interior suggests that they 
were used for religious ceremonies and processions. 5. The 
sviTibolism contained in the stone circles suggests that the en- 
closures were sacred to the sun and the circles were symbols 




OPEN AIK TE.ML'LE AT AVEBURY. 



id irudiBi Ills «qeIsHd 



•Sam SEDlllib Oair or Ctiva Minui, by Jmn 



i 



I 470 



THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUAKIAN. 



I 



of ihe solar cult. G. The standing stones or menhirs, wtit- 
often placfcJ in such a position as to throw a shadow into ihr 
circle. This confirms the idea still further, and makes it prob- 
able that there were solstitial ceremonies observed in ihesc cir- 
cles resembling those in ihe ancient temples farther East in 
Egypt, Assyria, India, and in America. 7, Tlie color, and char- 
acter of the stones, especially those of Stone-hcnge, are very 
significant, and show that symbolism extended even to the 
material as well as to the arrangement of the stones. 

This generalizing does not prove that nil circles were open 
air temples, nor does it prove that there was any connection 
between the open air temples and other temples which appeared 
in other parts of the world, and yet this as well as the fact that 
temples and tombs wert- always closely associated, and that 
the sky and earib 
were regarded as 
the different paili 
of the Great Tem- 
ple, renders it pro- 
bable that the cir- 
cles were not only 
symbols, but were 
sanctuaries in 
which the solar cii- 
vinilies were wor- 
.shipcd. 

There were open 
■lir temples in 
America. The 
one rcpretenled in 
OPEN *iB TEW1-1.B IN VRHv, the cut Is in Peiu. 

It was dcvoied 
to sun worship. It symbolized the sun. as the stone pavement 
was laid in diagonal lines, the temcnos was marked by a circle 
of standing sti>ncs. whde ixvo standinj^ stones in the ccntrr 
showed the exact time of the equinoxes, as they cast no- shad- 
ow when the sun was at the equino.s. 

The best specimens of open air temples are those of I 
Stonc-henge and Avebury in Gicai Britain. These have al-| 
ready been desciibed, bul a* thtre arc certain features which| 
have been omitted, we shall again refer to them, drawing 
pecially from the Knglish auihors. 

The followmg is Barclay's description of Stone-hcnge; 
"ll is encliisert bv a low cirrular enibaukmenl outside a dilch, a>i 
Ihe 'Earth Circle,' To the Donhea-I is Ihi- ancicm avenue where arc 
Iwo onllyitiB stones; The • Krian Hetri ' ihat hows toward Ihe leniple, 
Ihe 'Slaughter Stone ' that lies flat with Ihe ground between ihe Hun si 
and the temple. The design consists of an outci circle of tliirlv upiit:' 




ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 



WuppOTtinp tu'enly-eii!ht transverse Iinlels; within this circle, a smaller cir- 
cle of uprights These circles contain two horseshoe figures, one within 
the other. The outer horseshoe, ie composed of five groupi, coDSislinK o( 
two piers, and a superimposed block. Thefnner horseshoe, ii compoied o( 
■mall uprights. Both horseshoes had their openines toward the Sun stone. 
The outer linlei circle and outer horseshoe are composed of Sareen sloiies 
brought from near Avehuty; the inner circle and inner hotseihoe are com- 
posed of blue sitDaes of igneous rock brought from a distance. 

The analogues of Slone-faenge, were found by Palgrave tn Central 
Arabia, by Banb near Tripoli, in Africa, consisting of triliths and sione- 
circlei. a sort of sun dial, combining the vertical and horizontal principle. 
The llai stone was IntenSed to carry off the hlood of the victim, 

Sione-henge consists of different kinds of stone, but was probflblv 
erected at oae time, and has a unity o( design in the measurement of dilTir- 
eni pans. Pans of Ihe chippings of the stcne, arc found in the barrows. 
The rursus «as an appendage of the temple and was constructed at the 

The inliths distinguish Stone-henge from other circles. The distance 
Irura the Sun stone to the Slaughter stone, is one hundrpd feel. The plac 
ing of the Slaughterstonea. the Sun stones, the Stones of the earth circle 
in regard to the center, the diameter of tbe Saricn circle, and uf the blue 
«lone circle, the diitance of the centra! tnlith, the depth ol Ihe horseshiit. 
ind the dimensions of the altar, are all derived from the triangle wilhin the 



rcie. 






ly things: the circle is a 
tne norsesnoe. is ihe sjmbol of the 
,'s: the loni^ avenues were designed to 
other symbols are found in the color 



The symbols of Stone hrnge, . 
symbol 01 the i'un; the crescent i 
moon; the irilitbs arc mystic galet 
be Ihe paths of relt)iiou$ pr«ce»siDr 
of the stone, the blue stone and thi 

We have two forms of worship symboliied at Stone henge; the earth 
worship and the sun worship. Tbe bond of union in the primitive house- 
hold was the domestic worship. As the house father made the offerings 
lo the house spirit, the fire, by throwing a share of the food into the 
fire before eatinK: in the circular temples was involved the worship of 
Ihe sun, the visible world father. Men prayed to the sun, the Rulir. and 
Saviour of the world to j,:ive them good harvest and daily bread. 

From the position of Ihe altar table, in the circle, we perceive that 
any objtcl placed on it should be at the midsummer sun-rise, w'-en 
the sun would cam its shadow on the trilith. 

As Ihe sun rose the shadow of the lintel circle covered the altar 
table, but when the portals of the east, the everlasting gatts, were thrown 
wide open and Ihe sun god shone out in the fullness of h'Sglcry. th>n 
it appealed that he regarded the sacrifices with favor, and wrote upon 
the wall with his sunbeams the golden rule, his assurance of pleAU, 

Barclay says, further: 

"When standing wilhin the precincts of this heavy or shalteied Icnjile, 
Ihe spiciaior i; forced to acknowledge that the unknown deaigner, h.is 
succeidrdin conveying a remarkable irapiession ol grandeur, simplicity 
of de-lgn. bold and rugged objects wiih no atteiiipl at ornament. Tmsc 
rocks strike one with a sense of endless endufance and power, while ori.er 
and dignity assert themselves amid this wreck and cunlusion." 

111. The temple, in the form of a Tent, is ihe most com- 
mon, and, al the same time, the most interesting. We learn 
fiom the Sacied Scriptures, that Ihe Tent was regarded as ihe 
honioofihe divinity, and. that it was sacred to the Meatih 
Divinity. This is illusirattd in the ca?e ol Abraham. When 
the angel visited him, a sacrifice was made, and ihe pieces of 
sacrifice, arcordtng to the common ctistom, were divided, but 



372 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Abraham dreamed that he saw the furnilure of his tent, such 
as (he smoking furnace and the burninglamp, passing between 
the pieces, and he look it as a sign that the hearth divinity 
had accepted the sacrifice, and had even made sacred the com- 
mon furniture 

It was perfectly natural that the temple should become a 
shrine or temple, for the most sacred associations of life were 
connected with it. The children of Israel, when they passed 
through the wilderness, are said to have received a command 
from God. as to the place in which he was to be worshiped. 
It was in the tabernacle or tent resembling those of the com- 
mon people, and its furnishings were reminders of those of the 
home, the table, upon one side, the candle stick upon the 
other, the laver at one end, and the curtain at the other, the 
Holy of Holies beyond the curtain, and the ark of the cove- 
nant within the curtain. 

Every portion of this tabernacie.reminds us of the Patriarchy 
which prevailed at the time, and furnishes a picture of the 
home life of the people, for the tabernacle was gold lined, and 
yet was in the form of a lent. The table v-fllh the sacred loaves 
upon it, and the golden candlestick. also represented thecommon 
furniture of the house; the ark within the Holy Place represent- 
ed the chest, which contained the treasures of the household; 
the sacredness of the place also suggesting the privacy of the 
house, and the authority of the father. So sacred was the 
house in these days that it was imitated by the tomb, and the 
tomb became not only the house of the dead, but the place of 
worship and sacred assemblies. In fact the tomb became 
a temple, and remained such for many centuries, even among 
the more civilized people, and into hi^^toric times. It is sup- 
posed by some, that the worship of ancestors which was one 
of the earliest forms of religion, was perpetuated by this means, 
but the tomb continued to be a temple or place of worship 
long after the worship of ancestors ceased. 

The enquiry h\s arisen as to the original form of the taber- 
nacle. Was it in the form of a tent resembling the other tents 
in which the Isr<elites d*clt or was it in the form of the oblong 
house with upright walls resembling the Egyptian temple? On 
this point there is considerable uncertainty. It is known ihal 
the Egyptian temple was made up of several parts. In front 
of it were the propyiaje or lofty gateways. Next to this waj 
the Peri-tyle hall back of this was the Hyposlylc hall in the 
rear of all was the Adytum. The tabernacle had a court in 
front of it which was entered through a single gateway and. 
was called the Temple Court and was the pla^je of sacrifice. 
Within the tabernacle proper was the Holy Place which cor- 
responded to the Hvpostylc Hall, while the Holy of Holies cor- 
■rcsponded to the Adytum of the Egyptian and no one could' 
■enter it except the high priest. 

The Temple ol Solomon was modelled partly after the or- 



« 





ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 



373 



, igi'ial tabernacle but contained features which resembled those 

\ oi the Assyrian and Babylonian rather than the p-gyptiaii tern- 

jp\c- Several features, however, seem to have been borrowed 

' from the Egyfitians. First there were two pillars in front of it 

■ ^^-hiL-ti rest-mbled the obelisks in front of the temples in Egypt. 

' Second the pillars or columns of Solomon's court were all on 

the insidc making it resemble the Egyptian temple rather 

than the Greek temple. Third, the tabernacle as well as the 

tcmpit; of Solomon was but a single story in height and in this 

■"expect resembled the Egyptian rather than the Babylonian. 

for the latiet was alivays three stories In height and ultimately 

readied the seventh story. Each story or terrace was devoted 

*o a separate Stellar divinity, the upper story devoted to the 

sun. Fourth, the tabernacle as well as the temple was divided 




SBINTOO TKI 



into three parts, the court, which was open to the people, the 
Holv Place which was open only to the priests, the Holy of 
Holies which was open only to the high priest once a year, 
and contained the ark and figures of angels; a division which 
corresponded to the Peristyle, Hypostyle. and Adytum of the 
Egvplians. Fifth, the form of angels with wings irr the Holy 
of Holies corresponded to the winged figures of the Babylon- 
ians, though the Babylonian figures had six wings. There was 
a difference, however, between the winged figures of the taber- 
nacle and those in ihe temple for in the tabernacle the winged 
figures were kneeling and both wings were thrown forward, but 
in tlie temple the winged figures were standing and the wings 
stretched out to either side, reaching t^e walls on one side 
and meeting one another over the ark on the other side and so 



374 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

over shadowing the ark. Sixth, the names of the temples of 
the different nations are significant. In Babylonia the temple 
is called Mountain House or the Loftv House. In Egypt ii is 
called the Great House or the King's House, and is equivalent 
to the palace. In Jerusalem it is called the House of Vahvch 
or God's Dvvellinj^r Place and the Holy Place. 

Seventh, the personal element prevailed in the temple of 
the Jews, but the worship of the sky and heavenly bodies pre- 
vailed in Babylonia. In Egypt it was the worship of animals, 
of ancestors, of kin<(S, and of the personified nature powt'rs.thi.- 
most of them represented under human forms but with animal 
heads. No such distorted images were ever seen in the Taber- 
nacle or temple and the only image seen was suggestive ot ^.n 
gelic creatures and typical of the heavenly scenes. 

. The Hebrew temple had two forms — that of the tabein.i- 
cle in the wilderness and Solomon's temple at Jerusalem, each 
of which was built after a different model and embodied a dif- 
ferent style. The Babylonians seem to have retained in the 
tower like form of their temple thcr reminiscences of their ear- 
liest home among the mountains, for, notwithstanding the fiict 
that they long lived on the level plains near the mouth of the 
Tigris, they always built their temple in the lorm of a l<»fiy 
tov\er and called it the Mountain Hou.-e or the House of the 
Mountain Divinit)-. They, however, changed the significance 
of the tower and made it symbolize the pillars of ;he sky, 
but dedicated it to the planets and the sun, and gave each s'o- 
ry a different color so as to represent the various planets. Ihe 
shrine u]^on the summit was consecrated to the sun. 

There were other nations beside the Hebrews who built 
their early temples in the shape of tents. Among these the 
n>(»st notab'e are the Hindoos and Chinese. The Chinese 1 ad 
two kinds, one devoted to the Shintoo faith and the other to 
l^Kldhi^m, but both retained the tent form. See cut. 

The Binidhist temples have taken the place largely of the ShiiK o 
temples. In them we see a marvellous groupinjf of buildings with a two- 
storied gable as chief feature, which resembles a gate. The framing' of 
the lower s ory is arranged so as to form niches in which stand the (iod. 
'I'he roof i^ the most artistic feature, liaving broad, overhanging cwLve^. les- 
iroHfd in the centre and beni upward and backward at the corners. lUidd 
hi-t temples, like the Shintoo temples, are composed of buildings gn up- d 
toti^'ilur. Passing through the entrance, the vi>itor finds himself in the 
tir>t lerractd court, only lo encounter another, and so on to a third ;ncl 
lourth. ,\fter traversing teirace afttr terrace he reaches the chapel or < r- 
atory. The court \ards are usually tilled with buildings of the Huddlw>t 
cult, as well as a number of bron/e lanterns. 

lUlfreNS, priest aparluunts. pavilions, with cisterns of holy water, ^'nd 
pagodas appear (Ml cvcrv side, all crttwneil with festooned roofs. Ann n^' 
the most imposing of ihe-^t- are pairi das which are invariably square. I n- 
tornally the pai;o<la i> built in five nr seven stories, each set a little b:'i-k 
of the other, and girl about with baiconus and overhanging eaves. Ihe 
wliolfis Usually lai\|uerc(l, and above all. is the sjure of bronze which forms 
tliL- I't'ak. 

1 iu^ ti'inj>lo. like the domestic buildin^js. is provided* with a ver?nral. 
and viilu ns. shatiod l>y n gabled n»of, and a bracketed cornice. The flf r 
is 1 1>. fit li with silk boidcred mats. The roi^ts, like festooned, jeweiitd 



ANCIKNT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. .175 

fnaniles. are graticrul in euive and sweep. The Japanese never niisl.lic 
greatness or oilentalion for beauly, byt ihev always cxhibii nli'iemenl 
and reserve, which contribute so much to the ideal. 

Theonjjmof these style* ol Ihe Oiienta! lemples came IromlheKn- 
•]eiicv to make the house resemble Ihe lent, and In cover it with ad'Tn- 
mer'c oF sculpture, uhkh so easily won iheir fnncv and engaged iheir 
•bill, i.i this refpeet iheir an ard literature were alike,* 

IV. Anolherpatlein is found in the Cliine^t- lo.iiplus. Thuse 
are in the shape of a round hut, with a conical roof, and vome- 
liiiies seveial roofs. They arc probably survivals of the prim- 
itive house. They arc described by Rev. Henry Bloiltjet DIX: 

I "The state woishipof ihc early kings of F.gypt, Greece 
Roirii, Phttnicia, Assyria, Babylonia, and India, no longer ex- 
ists in real life. 1 f we study it, wc do .•■o from hooks, and from 
the monuments of antitjuiiy; bvit heri; we have thi; anci -nt 
woiship of China, preserved in a h'ving fcvm. to Ihc present 
time. This worship is invested with ihi- dn-p'St intei-cst to 
Stu.ltnls of oiliiiic rrlinions. Tlic ^ntiipiity ot •i* .-i servance; 
the magnifict-iice 1 f il^* _ 
altars: Uie imposini; cul- 
ture of it« rites; combine 
to give this worship i* vc 
ry conspicuo'is plai e i<i 
the !-iudy of the ancient 
nations 

The dual principle w-ts 
recognized in China, on.' 
called ji'/i and the ollut 
j-ai'^. and there- were t>vi. 
aliars in ihc city of ft kin 
The one directed tohi-^i\- 
cn. which is also yn"^. 
is on the south; the altar 
to earth, which is jt'ii. i 
isun s on the east, and the altar ot the m- 01. on the west. Kach 
of ihese .iltars. is situated in a large p;irk. planted with lows of 
lotus, pine and lir trei s. The »outh is the ngion of light and 
heat, the ^//»^^, while the north is the region of cold and dark- 
ne^s. lhe//«. This perpetuates ihemyth, which surrounds the 
all.if to heaven, which has the greatest antiquity and import- 
ance. This altar is built of whic marble, and .stands under the 
Open sky. The structure is in three concrnlnc circular ter- 
races, rising one above another, and each surmunded by richly 
carved marble balustrades. The diameter of ihc lowest terrace 
is 2iQ feet, the middle terrace 150 feet, the uppermost terrace 
90 feet. The last is a circular flat surface about jh fret above 
(he level of the ground. It is paved With white marblt sl.tbs, 
iivhich are so arranged as to form nine concentric circles 
ijiround one circular stone in the centre. The altar is 
^round, as representing Ihc circle of heaven. It is buill of white 




37& 



T1!K AMKKICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



marble, rather than of dark, because heaven belongs to light, 
or the fiinj; principle. The ascent lo the altar, is by three flights 
of steps, on the north, the south, the east, the west; each (light 
having nine sieps. Answering in all respects lo the altar of 
heaven, is the altar of earth, on the north side of ihe city. The 
grounds of this park are square, and contain about three hun- 
dred acres. The altar to earth is made of dark colored marble, 
since the earth belongs lo _>'(■«, the dark principle. It has t*o 
terraces, instead of three. The lop of the altar is paved with 
marble slabs, quadrangular in form, and laid in squares, around 
a central square, upon which the emperor kneels and worships. 
Kach of these squares, consists of successive multiples of eight 
instead of nine as in Ihe circles on the altar to heaven It is built 
upon 3 square elevation, surrounded by a square wall, while the 
altar to heaven is built upon a round elevation, and surround- 
ed by a round wall. The altars to the sun and moon are con- 
structed on the same general plan, with constant regard to the 
dual principle, as are 




the altai 



of th 



ll.SKSH TtJJl'LH AND S 



L 



gods of the land and 
grain, the spirits of 
heaven, the spirits of 
earth.all of which are 
in the_c(«, as all wor- 
ship is arranged ac- 
cording to the dual 
principle, rin and 
1'""^. The worship of 
heaven comes at the 
winter solstice, be- 
cause then the po*et 
of Ihe yiii, or dark 
principle, has run its 
course, and is ex- 
baustcd, and the power of the ynug, or light principle, repre- 
sented by heaven, again begins to assert itself. The days be- 
gin to lengthen ; nature prepares herself once more for theglo 
ries of spring and summer. 

The worship of earth comes at the summer solstice. Then 
the power of the^tfw^^ or light principle, is exhausted, and the 
power of the 17W, or dark principle, represented by earth, be- 
gins in turn to assert itself. The days btgin to grow shorter. 
This solstitial worship, as it is most ancient, so also is it 
sacred in the regard of the Chinese, No one but the emperor 
or one of the highest rank, delegated by him. is allowed to per- 
foim it. Acknowledging its great authority, every one would 
recognize the fact that, it is invested with a high degree of rev- 
erence and solemnity; the religious feelingsare deeply moved 
in performing iis sacrerd rites; that there is a certain elevation 
of mind, a grandeur and awe, which ttaches to the worship M 



ANCIENT TEMPLF. ARCHITECTURE. J77 

the vasi heaven and broad earth, ihe sum total of all created 
tilings, perfornnrd. as It is, by the monarch of so many millions 
of human bemgs. 

The worship of heaven and earth, stands at the head of the 

. Chinese pantheon, and i>i inseparably bjund up with the worship 

' of numerous other beings and things. The pantheon of China 

'■is large. It includes the various parts and powers of nature; 

tbedcccs^ed emperors of every dynasty: dccea'-ed sages, heroes 

and wa^^ior^; distinguished statesmen; inventors of useful arts; 

in general, an under wurld made up ol all objects of worship 

in the three great religions of the land. 

V. In America there were several kinds of li niples. one cir- 
cular in shape, rtsembling the round hut, atiotlur m the shape 
of a square tower, called a tcocalli, and tlie third in the form 
of a shrine, all pLiuiil u|"iii jura^iiiiN. 



lul Cen- 




To .1 lust 
Iral An>en 
which HFC c; 
e d Caracols. 
The^e are con- 
ical in shape, 
. and have stair- 
ways in the in- 
terior, and a 
conical roof 
surr 

Ihcni. Tlieva 
placed upon a 
conical py rn - 
mid, which h^- 
stairways,poinl 

ing to the four r hi-m -i \i. ■■!>■. 

quarters of the 

earth, and are furnished with doorways connecting with the 
stairways. It is not known from what source this symbolism 
was derived, but it seems to have been connected with the 
worship of the nature powers. 

"temples are to be distinguished from towers. There ^^ere 
lemple.s connected with palacci.as can be seen from examinmij 
the plaics, which represent the ruins of Palenque, Uxmal. 
Chichen-ltsa, Xkichmook; that there were also towers con- 
nected with the temples, is shown by the accounts written by 
the various historians. To illL'Stratc: De SoUs. in describing 
the conquest of Mexico, speaks of a rising ground that com- 
manded the whole circumjacent plain, on the top of which, was 
a lowered building which appeared like a fortress. It was a 
temple dedicated to the sylvan deities or idols of the woods, to 
which those barbarians dedicated their harvests. The court of 
the temple was sufficiently capacious, encompassed with a 
wall, after their manner of building, which, together with the 



JTfi 



THt AMl.RICAN ANTlQ|iARIA\. 



towers, by which it w^s flantved, rcndt-red it tolerably defcoj 

ible* ^ 

These lowers were generally arranged on ihe side^ of e 
closures and. in connection with entrances lo the temple' 
sine of them, were at the fool of th: pyramid on which t 
tiniples were placed. DeSoIis. speaks a^ain of the tower* d 
tlie great temples, which could command a pirt of the palfiL 
and of olherscorinccied wiih the temple itself. Hesays; " Tlj 
ascent to the upper gillery to tlif: lemplc. was by a bundt^ 
steps upon the pavement, whereof some toltrably large loi 
ers were erected. In this they had lodged ab tut five hundrt 
men, chosen out of 
the Mexican nobili- 
ty, and wC'f sn fully 
bent upon maintain- 
ing it, that lh(-y had 
provided themsclvr> 
Kith arms, amuni- 
rion. and all other 
necessaries lor mahy 
days." 

Oomara. speakirg 
of the various towns 
which Wire planted 
in the middle of ihc 
lake, says: " They 
are adorn, d with 
many teninlc*^. which 
have manyfayretow- 



^p3 



sthai 



.ulilv 



linelv. the 1 
In.p.aKin(;of ihe 
city of Mexico, and 
the lo*er« which 
abound ill the ciiy, 
ihe says: "fpon the 
catlacuav are maiiv 
draw bridges built 
Upon arches that ihe 
water pass. ■sthr'iujjh. 
The sirttigih of i-\- 



<f 1" 



Ih'- Ic 



pie, which is built with a pyramid and stairs. andtoweM 
thesumiiir Besides the palac>.'^, which stand upon the pyrSi 
there areh'fiy lowers. The grent temple occiipic<t the 
of the ci y. " Trie ivall about the temi»lc, wa-i buid of 
and limr. .ind very thick, ei^ht feet hiijh. an.l coveted 
battlements tirnamenicd with strange figures. tnthesh4pra( 
•«'rpeiiT> It hal four gat.-s to the CAr'linal |> >int», iror respond- 



I 

1 wffl^fl 




ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 



381 






int; to the streets, the broadest and longest of which, led to 
Iztaclopoca, Tacuba, and Tczcuco. Over each of the gates 
was an arsenal filled with a vast quantity of weapons. The 
space within the temple wall was paved with very smooth 
stones, in the middle was raised an immense solid building of 
greater length than width. This building consisted of five 
stages, The lowest was more than fifty perches long, and for- 
ty-three perches broad; the second and third about a perch 
less, so that upon each there remained a free space which 
would allow three or four men to walk abreast, with as man/ 
separate stair-cases. The height of the building, without the 
towers, was eighteen perches, and. with the towers, twenty- 
eight perches. 
From the height 
- one might see the 
lake and the cities 
around. 

As to the city of 
Mexico, it is well 
known that there 
were, at the time 
of the conquest by 
Cortez, many tem- 
ples, which were 
cal led Tcocalli. 
These were in the 
form of pyramids 
which stood in the 
centre of an enclo- 
sure, and were sur- 
rounded by a num- 
ber of shrines or 
smaller temples. 

The following is 
DeSolis' descrip- 
tion of the Great 
Temple orTeocalli 
which is situated 
in the center of Mexico, and is represented by the plate, but 
incorrectly: 

The firsi part of the building was a ifreat square wilh a wall of hewn 
none; wrougnt on the outside with the various koots of serpents in- 
tertwisted, which gave a horror to the portico and were not improperly 
placed. At a little distance from the principal gale was a plat 




ship that was terrible, 
which went up to the 
many trunks of well grown I 



built of s' 



;, with thirty steps ot the 

flat roof, and a „ 
'. wilh holes bored ii 



Of Ihtl 
Ibt'fi^i'ciiy 



.»noiu wiupl*. wnicb wer* icillciid Ihnmiti ji Th. tgvu, 



382 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

them at equal distances and through which from one to another passed 
several bars run through the heads of men who had been sacrificed. I'he 
iour sides of the square had as many gates opening to the four winds. 
Over each of these gates were four statues of stone which seemed to 
point the wav, as if they were desirous of sending back such as approach. 
<ed with an ill disposition of mind. These were presumed to be threshold 
gods, because they had some reverences paid them at tbe entrance. Close 
to the inside of the wall were the habitations of the priests, and of thoie 
who, under them, attended the services of the temple with some offices 
which altogether took up the whole circumference within, retrenching so 
much from that vast square that but eight or ten thousand persons had sof- 
'ficient room to dance in upon their solemn festivals. In the center of this 
square stood a pile of stones, which in the open air exalted, its lofty head 
overlooking all the towers of the city; gradually diminishing till it formed 
a pyramid; three of its sides were smooth; the fourth had stairs wrought 
in the stone; a sumptuous building and extremely well proportioned. It 
was so high that the stair-case contained a hundred and twenty steps, and 
of so l<irge a compass that on the top it terminated in a flat forty foot 
square. The paveittent was beautifully laid with Jasper stones of all col- 
ors. The rails which went round in nature of a balustrade, were of a 
serpentine form and both sides covered with stones resembling jtt, placed 
in good order and joined with white and red cement, which was a very 
great ornament to the building. There were other places where similar 
temples were situated the remains of which are still standing. 

Various authors have spoken of the Teocalli of Mexico, 
Humboldt says: 

"The construction of the Teocilli recaUs the oldest monuments which 
the history of the civilized race reaches. 

The temple of Jupiter, the pyramids of Meidoum, and the group of 
Sikkarah in Egypt, were also immense heaps of bricks; the remaining of 
which have been preserved during a period of thirty centuries, down to our 
day" 

Bancroft says: "The historical annals of aboriginal times confirm- 
ed by the Spanish records of the conquest, leave no doubt that the chief 
object of the pyramid was to support a temple; the discovery of a tomb 
with human remains may indicate that it served also for burial purposes. 
These temples have disappeared along with the palaces anci pnvate 
houses, and scarcely a buildmg remains to remind us of the condition of the 
city as it was seen by the Spaniards. 

The principle monuments of Mexico, the Calendar Stone, the so- 
called Sacrificial Stoile, and the Idol, called Teovaomiqui, were all dug np 
in the Plaza, where the great Teocalli is supposed to have stood, and where 
thev were doubtless thrown doMrn.and buried from the sight of the natives 
at tne tme of the conquest." 

There are, however, localities not far from the city, which 
retain a few vestiges and remains of the ancient temples. 
Among them may be mentioned the city which, at the time of 
the conquest, stood out boldly in the midst of the waters of 
the lake, and were connected with the central city, and the 
shores, by the famous causeway or dyke over which the Span- 
iards retreated. 

Among these may be mentioned Tezcuco, the ancient rival 
of Mexico. This city yet presents traces of her aboriginal archi- 
tectural structures. In the southern part are the foundatioas 
of several large pyramids. Tylor found traces of two large 
TeocalHs. 

These Teocallis were common in Mexico and suggest the 




ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 383 

cruel practices of the Aztecs. They were furnished with sac- 
rificiai stones and were places in which human sacrifices were 
offered to the sun. 

In these sacrifices the victim was stretched upon the stone 
and his heart torn out and offered to the sun, but his body was 
hurled down the steps of the pyramid and afterward devoured 
by the people. 

On the contrary, the temples of the Mayas of Central 
America were furnished with tablets and sculptured figures 
which were suggestive only of peaceable scenes, and a mild and 
kindly religion. 

We may say of these temples that they differed from those 
of the old world, though the pyramid seems to have served as 
the foundations for all. 

An illustration 
of this will be seen 
in the cut, which 
represents the dif- 
ferent forms o f 
temples in the 
Eastern continent 
the Egyptian, the 

Assyrian, the Thi- primitive temples in the old world, 
betan and Scan- 
dinavian, all of which were of pyramidal style. 

There were, to be sure, shrines in Babylonia, some of them 
situated high up in the sides of the rocks, with columns and 
figures, and inscriptions in front of them; others, on the sum- 
mit of pyramids or towers. There were shrines among the 
rock cut temples of India, and the most of them contained im- 
ages of the personal divinities, those of Brahma, Siva, Vishnu, 
and Indra. In China, shrines are often found in the Pagodas 
and are surrounded by a court which is filled with images. 

Such shrines are at present very common in all parts of 
the world, in India, China, and America; and the supposition 
is, that they were survivals from pre-historic times, but origi- 
nated in the rectangular house, which, because, it was a home 
became very sacred. In Mexico and Central America there 
were temples which were rectangular in shape, and were placed 
upon the summit of circular or oblong pyramids, and were 
reached by stair-ways placed upon the four sides of the pyra- 
mids, every part of them being symbolic of the nature powers, 
the sky, the four parts of the compass, and the earth. They 
were called caracols, and were very sacred. It is not known 
from what source they were derived, but a supposition is, that 
they were the survivals of the primitive hut. In favor of this, 
is the fact that the figure of a hut is often seen sculptured on 
the doorways of the palaces and temples, with the image of the 
divinity seated inside the door, and a manitou face above the 
door, conveying the idea that it represented the primitive 



384 



TKK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



shrine, which was in itscU the survival of the still earlier huL 
house. Such circular structures are found at Mayapan, at CoH 
and at Chichcn-Itza, and everywhere retaining the same si 
The caracol or round tower of Chichen-Itza has been desa 
by Mr. W. H. Holnics. It is upon the summit of a pyramid J 
consists of two stories, one above the other, with a central 4 
umn or core, seven feet in diameter, with annular galleries j 
feet wide, connected by winding stairs, also supporting I 
tresses in the walls, the whole finished with heavy cornio 

VI. This leads us to a view of the temple, as a shrJn . _ 
especially as a shrine situated on the summit of a pyramid.'! 
will be understood that there were no such temples in E^ 
which was the land of the pyramid, for whatever shrines I 
were there, were situated either in caves hewn out of the it 
or in the chambers in front of the mast abas or tombs, or ialflj 
interior of the columnar temples, and never upon the s 
of pyramids. 






THE SHRINE AT PALENQUB. 

The rectangular shrine is the form of temple which ^ 
most common in Central America This generally hsL,, 
projecting cornice, a sloping roof resembling the modd 
mansard roof, but generally surmounted by a high roof-coq 
on which were sculptured various statues and symbolic F 
It had square piers in tront on which mythological I 
were sculptured. 

The best preserved temples are those found at Xochical, 
the hill of flowers. Here is a natural elevation of conical toti 
with an old base over two miles in circumference, rising fr4 
the plain to a height of nearly four hundred feet. 

Five terraces, paved with stone and mortar, and support 
by perpendicular walls of the same material, extend in ot 
form entirely round the whole circumference of the hill, a 
above the other. Neither the width of the paved platfoi 
nor the height of the supporting walls, have been given by • 
explorer, but each terrace, with the corresponding interme'" 
ate slope, constitutes something over seventy feet of the beigi 

Shrines upon the summit of pyramids are more numer« 
in America than any where else, and, for this reason, we « 




ANCIENT TEMPLE AkCHlTtCTURE. 



333- 



confine our study of them to this continent. It may be said 
that there were formerly shiines in Mexico, and that here they 
■were situated on the summit of pyramids, but very few speci- 
mens remain; one at Xochicaico, and one situated upon the 
summit of a mountain called La Casa del Tepozteco being the 
most Dotabie. Altars were an essential part of the Teocallis 
and were used for human sacrifices. In Central America the 
temples were generally in the form of shrines and suggested a 
peaceable form of worship. 

There is one peculiarity of the shrines of Central America 
which is especially worthy of notice. Instead «f containing 




an altar, as do many of the shrines and ti^niples (if Mexico. 
they contain sculptured tablets on which arc portrayed the 
symbols of religion, the cross in one, the face of the sun in 
another, and the globe with a human figure seated upon it in a. 
third. In one shrine, represented in the cut, there was a win- 
ged globe reminding us of the Egyptian symbol, on another 
were sculptured the figures of females, each bearing a child in- 
her arms. In the rear of the shrine the tablets are so placed 
that the sun would shine through the doors and make them re- 
Splendent by its rays. The shrines were constructed with a 
double cornice and a sculptured facade, and were reached by 
wide stairways. The temple of the Beau Relief is however 
more interesting than this, for in this shrine was a finely sculp- 
tured figure seated gracefully upon a globe which was support- 
ed by an animal headed throne. There were other shrines io 
Central America, all of which suggest the worship of the sun 
and the heavenly bodies, but never suggest human sacrifices 
as does the Teocalli of Mexico. 

The same kind of a construction appeared in all the cities- 
of Mexico. Humboldt says among the tribes from the 
Ttb to the I2th century, appeared in Mexico, five were enum- 
erated as follows: Toltecs, Chicemecs, Acolhuas, Tsallecs_ 
Aztecs, who spoke the same language, observed the same wor- 




388 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



ship, constructed the same kind of pyramidal edifices, whidtl 
they regarded as houses of their gods. These edifices, thougbl 
of dimensions very different, had all the same form. They were 
pyramids of several stories, the sides of which were placed \a 
exactly the direction of the meridian and parallel of the place.l 
The tcocallis arose from the middle of a vast enclosure s 
rounded by a wall. This enclosure, which one may compare I 
to the temple of the Greeks.coniained gardens, fountains, habi- 
tations for the priests, and, sometimes, even magazines for 
arms, for eaLh house of the Mexican god. A great staircase 
led to the top of the truncated pyramid, on the summit of 




COLUMNAR TEMPLE AI' LXMA 

which wa* a platform , un which were one or two chapels in the 
(orm of idols of the diviniiy to which the teocalli was dedicat- 
ed.'* This part of the edifice ought to be regarded as the 
most sacred. It was there, the priest kept up the sacred fire. 
U\ the peculiar arrangement of the edifices, the sacrifices 
r»'uld be seen by a great m»ss of people at the same time, 
ttiid from a distance. The procession as it ascended, or de- 
Mended the staircase of the pyramid, made an imposing ap- 
tttkrnnce. The interior of the edifice, served as a sepulchre 
i*r the king or priest. 

Another temple has been discovered in the U-<uma5mtUi 




ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 389 

Valley, at a place called Piedras Negras. There were here 
several temples hidden in the forests, and among them were 
several sacrificial stones; also a large number of Stelae or carved 
tablets with human figures upon them. There was also an Ac- 
ropolis between tvo of the temples with a stair-way leading to 
its summit. One of the most interesting temples in Mexico is 
one discovered and described by parties from the city of New 
York. This temple was upon a height that was almost inac- 
cessible, and overlooked the vast plain in the centre of which 
was the beautiful lake. 

It is a most picturesque spot, and, formerly supported a 
large population. On one of the most inaccessible peaks of 
the northern range of mountains, at a point which commands a 
view over the whole region was erected the old temple. Reach- 
ing the summit, we find, an irregular surface, divided into two 
parts, connected by a narrow neck; upon the western part is 
the temple; the eastern part contains vestiges of low walls,and 
terraces, occupying nearly the entire area, These may be the 
remains of the houses of the priests, the guardians of the sac- 
red spot. 

It is probable that a fire was lighted upon the altar which 
crowned the summit of this mountain and it could be seen at 
a great distance. If human victims were offered at this spot 
the sacrifice could be witnessed by the multitudes who were as- 
sembled in the plains below and the locality, with its surround- 
ings, conspired with the ceremonies to make it a most ghastly 
scene, and such a sacrifice as would fill all spectators with awe 
and fear. 

VII. We now pass to another and a very interesting class 
of temples, a class which was numerous in the historic lands 
of the East, but was also common in America during prehis- 
toric times. The peculiarity of these temples was that they 
were built in the columnar style and were adorned with corni- 
ces and sculptured facades which gave them a very artistic ap- 
pearance. 

There were many columnar temples in America in prehis- 
toric times. They however differed very much from those 
which have been known to history, as the most of them were 
placed upon the summit of a pyramid and were reached by a 
high flight of stairs* but were to a great extent inaccessible to 
the common people. Iri fact some of them were guarded 
against approach by objects which were calculated to inspire 
every superstitious person with awe and fear- The most not- 
able of these temples were those situated at Palenque especi- 
ally at Chichen Itza and Uxmal. In the former place there 
were two such temples, one of which is represented in the cut 
reproduced from Charnay's celebrated work entitled The An- 
cient Cities of the New World. The following is his descrip- 
tion of the temple: 



390 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



"The Castillo, or ratlier temple, is reared on a pyramid facing nonb 
and south, is the most interesting at Chlchen. The four sides of the pvia- 
mid are occupied by staircases lacing the cardinal points. The base mea- 
sures 175 (t. It consists of nine small esplanades or terraces, narrowing 
as they ascend, but supported by perpendicular walls. The upper plat- 
form is 68 feet above the level and is reached by a flight of ninety steps 
38 feet wide, on each side of which is a balustrade formed by a gigantic 
plumed serpent, whose body ran down the balustrade and whose nose and 
tongue protruded 8 ft. beyond the foot of the stairway. On the summit is 
a structure 39 ft. on on^ side and 28 ft. high. The northern facade consists 
of a portico supported by two massive columns representing two serpents' 
heads, while the shafts were ornamenied by feathers, showing that the tem- 
ple was dedicated loCu- 
culcan, the god of rain, 
These two shafts are 
almost exact represen- 
tations of a Toltec col- 
umn unearthed at Tu- 
la, Iboagh the two col- 
umns were found three 
hundred leagues from 
each otb er and sepa- 
rated by an iniervaf of 




Mr. W. H. Holmes 
Las also described the 
same temple, b-ji has 
shown that the capitals 
of these serpent col- 
umns were in reality 
gigantic serpent tails 
which projected be- 
yond the cornice and 
supported the wooden 
lintels, though the ser- 
pent form has been im- 
fiaired so as to be hard 
y perceptible. 

It is to be notic- 
ed that some of the 
shrines or temples 
of Central America 
have winged circles 
surmounting t h e 
doorways which re- 
mind us of those 
whichsurmount the 

Egyptian temples, though the feathers of the wings are turntid 
up instead of down and the ends rest upon an ornament which 
resembles a curved bow, one such temple being found at Oca- 
cingo. There is also a temple on the Island of Cozumel 
which has columns in front of the shrine, one of which is 
carved into tht shape of a human figure kneeling, but support- 
ing on his shoulders the capital and the lintel. 

In Egypt, the tomb was in the shape of a house, and yet, ll 
was a temple, for the friends of the deceased came and sat in 
the chamber which was a part of the tomb, and partook of 
their feasts. The spirit of the deceased was also sup- 



OBELISKS AND COLUMN AT KARNAK. 




ANCIENT TEMPLE AKCHITECTURE. 393 

posed to be present, and to partake of the food which was rep- 
resented by sculptured figures upon the wall. 

The temples of Egypt, became the most attractive struct- 
ures in the world, but they owed their attractiveness to the 
fact that they were built in the shape of a palace rather than of 
a pyramid, and' their interior was filled with all the decora- 
tions of art and architecture of which the genius of Egyptians 
was capable. The exterior of the Egyptian temple was some- 
what exclusive, for it was surrounded on three sides by a dead 
wall, without any openings, and covered, only by the sculptur- 
ed figures of kings and priests; on the fourth side, there was a 
lofty gateway, which hid the temple partly from view, but the 
interior was very imposing. In this, the temples of Egypt 
differed from the temples of Babylonia, for there the outside 
only, was attractive, the inside had no features worthy of no- 
tice. TheBabylonian temple was generally a ziggurat or tower 
which arose in separate terraces to a great height, each terrace 
being ornamented in a different way and, having a different 
color. The shrine was upon the summit, but was inaccessi- 
ble to the people. The Babylonian tower was imposing for its 
height, and, standing, as it did, near the palace, and overtop- 
ping the city, conveyed an impression similar to that of the 
pyramids, but the art of the Babylonians was expended upon 
the palace rather than the temple. The temple in both count- 
ries, was the place for religious processions, but in Babylonia, 
the processions were led around the tower, upon the outside 
very much as they were around theTeocalli or pyramid temple 
of Mexico; but the processions in Egypt were led into the 
temples through long avenues guarded by human headed stat- 
ues or sphinxes until the lofty propylcum was reached; there- 
the ceremony became more exclusive; the worshipers were ledl 
into the temple through the various courts, within which 
were lofty columns arranged in clusters, and finished in the 
highest style ot art with their capitals, carved in the shape of 
the lotus, which was the sacred flower of the Egyptians, the>r 
sides covered with sculptured figures and painted with most 
beautiful colors. The great stone beams surmounting the col- 
umns and the imposing walls gave the impression of grandeur 
which was superior, if possible, to any thing which could be 
seen in the world. 

The Greek temple was also in the form of a palace, but in- 
stead of having the pillars or columns upon the inside, and the 
dead walls upon the outside, it followed the opposite pattern 
for the Greek temple was always surrounded by columns, 
while the interior was occupied by the statue of the divinity.or 
was a mere shrine, where a few might assemble. Still the Greek 
temple never lost its resemblance to the house. The decora- 
tions of art were heaped upon the frieze and front, and the 
mythology of the ancients was embodied in the statuary tha 
surrounded it. 



ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 393 

posed to be present, and to partake of the food which was rep- 
resented by sculptured figures upon the wall. 

The temples of Egypt, became the most attractive struct- 
ures in the world, but they owed their attractiveness to the 
fact that they were built in the shape of a palace rather than of 
a^ pyramid, and* their interior was filled with all the decora- 
tions of art and architecture of which the genius of Egyptians 
was capable. The exterior of the Egyptian temple was some- 
what exclusive, for it was surrounded on three sides by a dead 
wall, without any openings, and covered, only by the sculptur- 
ed figures of kings and priests; on the fourth side, there was a 
lofty gateway, which hid the temple partly from view, but the 
interior was very imposing. In this, the temples of Egypt 
dififered from the temples of Babylonia, for there the outside 
only, was attractive, the inside had no features worthy of no- 
tice. The Babylonian temple was generally a ziggurat or tower 
which arose in separate terraces to a great height, each terrace 
being ornamented in a different way and, having a different 
color. The shrine was upon the summit, but was inaccessi- 
ble to the people. The Babylonian tower was imposing for its 
height, and, standing, as it did, near the palace, and overtop- 
ping the city, conveyed an inipression similar to that of the 
pyramids, but the art of the Babylonians was expended upon 
the palace rather than the temple. The temple in both count- 
ries, was the place for religious processions, but in Babylonia, 
the processions were led around the tower, upon the outside 
very much as they were around the Teocalli or pyramid temple 
of Mexico; but the processions in Egypt were led into the 
temples through long avenues guarded by human headed stat^ 
ues or sphinxes until the lofty propyleum was reached; there- 
the ceremony became more exclusive; the worshipers were ledl 
into the temple through the various courts, within whichi 
were lofty columns arranged in clusters, and finished in the 
highest style of art with their capitals, carved in the shape of. 
the lotus, which was the sacred flower of the Egyptians, the>r 
sides covered with sculptured figures and painted with most 
beautiful colors. The great stone beams surmounting the col- 
umns and the imposing walls gave the impression of grandeur 
which was superior, if possible, to any thing which could be 
seen in the world. 

The Greek temple was also in the form of a palace, but in- 
stead of having the pillars or columns upon the inside, and the 
dead walls upon the outside, it followed the opposite pattern 
for the Greek temple was always surrounded by columns, 
while the interior was occupied by the statue of the divinity.or 
was a mere shrine, where a few might assemble. Still the Greek 
temple never lost its resemblance to the house. The decora- 
tions of art were heaped upon the frieze and front, and the 
mythology of the ancients was embodied in the statuary tha 
surrounded it. 



THE RUINS OF THE MIMBRES VALLEY. 

BY U. FRANCIS DUFF. 

The Mimbres river rises in the rugged mountain ranges on 
the western boundary of Sierra county, New Mexico, and 
flows in a southerly direction across a portion of Grant, and 
the whole of Luna county. About half way across Luna it 
sinks; and it is only during rainy periods that there is water in 
its channel as far south as Deming, which is located in the cen- 
ter of the last named county. 

Along the course of this stream are a considerable number 
of prehistoric ruins, from which, at different times, skeletons 
and many accompanying relics have been exhumed. The 
most southerly of these ruins of which I have knowledge, is 
near the ranch of Henry Coleman, six miles from Deming, and 
near the upper end of the Florida mountains. The next above 
is at Byron's ranch, and there is also one near the Keith ranch. 
Two miles northwest from Byron's is an old burying ground; 
there was probably a village, or pueblo, at this place, although 
all signs of it, so far as I can discover, have disappeared. 

The following is a list of other ruins known to me in the 
valley, although there may be, and no doubt are, many others: 

1. One near the ranch of Mrs. Collins, four miles east of 
Deming. 

2. One six miles north of Deming, near Wilson's windmills. 
Although it is almost obliterated, many arrowheads have been 
found there. 

3. Numerous sites around the base of Black Butte, ten 
miles from Deming. Some of these are quite extensive. 

4. A small group of remains near the Southern Pacific rail- 
road tracks, opposite the western end of Black Butte. 

5. Various other ruins between Black Butte and Old Town 
on the Mimbres. Of these I have heard, but do not know 
their locations. 

6. On a blufif one-half mile south-east of Old Town, which 
it twenty-two miles from Deming, overlooking a beautiful sec- 
tion of the valley, are very extensive remains. Here part of 
the buildings were evidently more than one story high, judg- 
ing from the elevation of a portion of the remains above the 
level of the surrounding country. The outline of some sixty 
rooms shows at the surface of the ground. The bluff descends 
to the valley by an almost perpendicular fall of eighty feet, 
and the pueblo was built almost to the edge of the sheer de- 
scent. 

7. A village site on the opposite, or western side of the riv- 
er, one mile from Old Town. 

8. Near the home of Mr. Drew Gorman. 



398 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

9. A large ruin on the foothills skirting the western side of 
the valley, almost opposite Mr. W. M. Taylor's store, two miles 
above Gorman's. From this much fine pottery has been ex- 
humed. 

10. Remains of a pueblo near the Allison ranch, above Tay- 
lor's. I have in my possession twenty feet of fine large beads 
which were found in a bowl taken from a grave beneath the 
floor of one of the rooms of this ruin. Among them are sev- 
enty torquoise beads. In the same bowl were many small 
polished shells, and two small figures carved from shell or 
bone, representing toads. It also contained some thirty or 
forty bracelets sawn from some kind of shell; these, however, 
were all broken when they came into my possession. I have 
been told that village, or pueblo sites, are found along the 
whole length of the upper course of the Mimbres. 

11. Eight miles from the town of Deming Red Mountain 
rears its solitary form. Several ruins have been found near its 
base; one a short distance from Mr. Thomas Word's ranch 
being of considerable size. Great quantities of broken potte- 
ry occur at that place. 

12. Thirty miles south-west of Deming, near Colonel Rich- 
ard Hudson's Cedar Grove ranch. The evidences of occupa- 
tion here are very marked. 

None of these ruins are little more than a great mass 
of debris, rising above the level of the surrounding country. 
The buildings at Byron's ranch were of adobe (large sun-dried 
bricks); these adobes may still be excavated in a fairly good 
state of preservation. This is owing to the exceeding dryness 
of the climate. Those on the upper Mimbres, notably the 
one near Old Town, and the one opposite W. M. Taylor's, were 
built of flat rocks, laid up in mortar. Beneath the surface the 
walls of these old homesteads are still intact. 

In digging, metates or grinding stones; mortars; pestles; 
manos, or headstones for grinding, and effigies in the shape of 
bears and other animals are found. Dr. S. D. Swope and Miss 
M. A. Alcott, both of Deming, have a number of these eflfigies, 
besides many other valuable relics. Dr. Swope's collection is 
an especially fine one. 

Beautiful arrow points, some of them not more than one- 
half inch in length, carved from obsidian, jasper and agate,are 
found in considerable numbers. Mrs. A. J. Gilbert, and her 
sister, Miss Grace Brown, have in their collection, as has Miss 
Alcott ^Iso, several hundreds of these lovely specimens of 
primeval art as practiced by a people who left behind them 
little by which we can even attempt to reconstruct the past. 
In this connection, however, it is pre:»umable that a study of 
the manners, customs, and architecture of the modern Pueblo 
tribes, would ^Ive a good idea of life as practiced by the peo- 
ple of the Mimbres vallev. 

The pottery, which is s^enerally of the black-and-whitt dec- 



THE RUINS OF THE MIMBRES VALLEY. 399 

orated variety, is found, almost without exception, in the 
graves of the dead, and is in the fotin of large bbwls inverted 
over the crania of the departed. Each of these bowls, before 
being deposited in the grave, had a small hole broki^n in its 
bottom. Mr. Frederick W. Hodge, of the Bureau of Ariieri- 
can Ethnology, and a very competent authority, with whom I 
communicated in regard to this feature, tells me that it is a 
complete departure from anything hitherto known, occurring 
in no other part of the country. 

The significance of the hole in the bottom of the bowl in- 
verted over the crania of the dead, is a matter for conjecture. 
It was possibly done that the communication between the 
dead and " Those Above," or the *' Trues." might suffer less in- 
terruption. Or may be it was significant of the broken life of 
its owner. Whatever its meaning, the bowls used for the pur- 
pose were many of them fine specimens of ceramic art. 

From beneath the floor of one of the rooms in the ruins at 
Old Town, Mr. David Baker and myself took out four fine 
large ones, each inverted over the skull of a skeleton. They 
were found four feet beneath the surface, and were as fresh 
and nice in appearance as when placed there unknown ages 
before. The dead had been laid away with their heads to the 
east, and in the eastern end of the room. At another time 
Mr. Ralph Byron and myself exhumed a skeleton from a level 
patch of ground north of the main ruin located at their ranch. 
The skull had a small decorated bowl inverted over it, but, un- 
fortunately, broken. The skeleton lay about one and a half 
feet beneath the surface, and had been buried with the head 
toward the east. At Byron's, on top of a little hill crowned 
with solid rock, I found many places cut in the stone, which 
evidently had been used as mortars. They were from five 
inches to a foot in diameter, and from twelve to eighteen inch- 
es in depth. Numerous stone pestles from one to two feet in 
length have been found in the vicinity. Here, no doubt, they 
ground their grain and mesquite beans. The latter are very 
plentiful in the lower valley. 

At different places along the bases of the mountains occur 
carvings on the rocks; painted figures are also occasionally 
found. 

It is claimed by Mr. F. S. Dellenbaugh, in his The True Route 
of Colorado s March, printed some time since, that Cibola, so 
frequently mentioned in Castaneda's account of that entrada, 
was located somewhere near the Florida Mountains instead 
of at Zuni, as generally conceded, which would probably 
bring its site within twelve or fifteen miles of Deming, or may 
be less. If this were so, these ruins could not be considered 
prehistoric; but I have every reason to believe, after having 
read the account of Castenada and Jeramillo, both of whom 
were with Coronado, that Mr. Dillenbaugh is wrong in his con- 
clusions. 



400 ANTHROPOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. 

The valley of the Mimbres is very fertile, and where irri- 
gation is practiced fine crops of cereals, vegetables and fruits, 
are produced. 

It is more than probable that in the past a greater amount 
of water flowed in its channel. The country at that time— be- 
fore the advent of such vast herds of cattle — being clothed 
with grass and other vegetation to such an extent that it had 
a tendency to draw moisture, thus providing for crops where it 
wonld now be impossible to get water from the lower river for 
purposes of irrigation. 

Bandelier has suggested that malaria might have driven 
out the inhabitants of this valley. While it is almost unknown 
here to-day, it is possible that in times past it might have oc- 
curred. Whatever the cause may have been, it is certain that 
the Old People who once occupied this valley retired from it 
generations ago; and there is now left to indicate their some 
time occupation, only the crumbling remains of what was once 
no doubt, a thriving and happy past. 



-oo- 



ANTHROPOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. 

BY JOHN FRASER, LL. D.. SYDNEY. 

In some of my notes last year I mentioned the Spen- 
cer-Gillen Scientific Expedition into the interior of Aus- 
tralia. On their journey inward they followed the over- 
land railway and telegraph line as far as Alice Springs, 
in the very heart of the continent, and, after spending 
some months in that neighborhood, in friendly contact 
with the natives, they travelled north-east to the west- 
em shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria. There they expect- 
ed to catch a coasting steamer which would carry them 
to some port in Queensland, or to Thursday Island, but 
the steamer had just been wrecked, and there might not 
be another for months. In these circumstances, a vessel 
was sent especially to bring them off, and two months 
ago they got back to Melbourne. They have brought 
about one thousand photographs of natives, and native 
dances and customs, and a large mass of information 
about our blacks, such as they are in an undiluted state. 
In accomplishing this, Mr. Gillen's presence has been a 
valuable aid, for, as protector of the aborigines in these 
parts, he was known to the blacks, who, therefore, re- 
ceived the members of the expedition as friends. 

In some recent articles in your Journal, I observe two 
or three erroneous statements about Australian natives 
which ought not to go un-noticed, for errors are so apt 
to propagate themselves. For instance, on page 44, of 
this year's volume, the Australians are said to have an 



ANTHROPOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA. 401 

abundant beard and smooth and straight hair. I know 
it is commonly said in the Anthropological journals of 
Britain, that the Australians are straight haired; but 
that is a mistake which has passed unquestioned from 
month to month. In my part of the country, 1 am sure, 
there were as many curly-haired blacks as smooth-hair- 
ed, and the beard was as often scanty as abundant. It 
is true, that the women, usually are smooth-haired, be- 
cause they use grease for their hair; in fact, it is not 
wise to declare, in any book of science, that our Austra- 
lians, are of this type or of that, for they are a mixture, 
evidently of several types, but always negroid. One man 
who used to come to my house, was a true specimen of 
the Australian negro; another had as regular Caucasian 
features as most of us. The hair, with very rare excep- 
tions, is black and coarse, but it should he described as 
either smooth or curly. 

Again, on page 95, allusion is made to the carved 
tree trunks in the Australian Museum. Sidney. The Mu- 
seum prepared photographs of these, several years ago, 
but half a dozen similar tree-trunks had already been 
figured, and described in a book of mine which our Gov- 
ernment provided for the Chicago Exposition. 

On page 101, something is said about the Thoorga 
tongue, but that is only a sectional part of a tribal lan- 
guage, spoken all along our south-eastern coast from II- 
lawarra to Cape Howe, The writer says; "I have dis- 
«overed the use of two separate forms for the first per- 
son of the dual and the plural," that is, inclusive and 
' exclusive , forms, and that seems to be claimed as a 
*' peculiarity not hitherto reported among the Australian 
aborgines. " 

But that is a very old discovery. If he will look into 
Threlkelds Aiistraluin Grammar, published nearly seventy 
jears ago. he will find inclusive and exclusive forms 
there, and in Dawson's books of twenty years ago he 
will see examples of similar forms from the state of Vic- 
toria. Mr. Mathews is also very unfortunate in locating 
sounds to the vowels i as ia " pie " and ou as in "loud." 
Few scholars will agree with him in that, for his koon- 
ffard koorooroo a philologist would write kungarakurura. 

But a real new discovery in Australian language has 
been made recently by Mr. Gary of Geelong. Victoria, 
■who had access to Mss, of the Woddowro dialect there, 
written sixty years ago. He has found that the Woddowr 
had not only a dual number in their ptonouns but also o 
triple, or, as I would call it, a ternal number. This con 
Hecis our language with many of the Melanesian di a ects 




403 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

I have examined his examples and think they establish 
his claims. 

There is another mistaken notion about our aborigines 
which has much popular currency, and has been reiterated by 
scientists till I am sick of seeing it in print. It is said that the 
Australian blacks are among the lowest of human races, and 
are almost destitute of intelligence. Every person here, who 
is at all acquainted with the natives, cries out against that as a 
piece of ignorant slander. If you were to see our black fellows 
in their tribal condition, and in their daily life, you would say 
so too. The slander was first set afoot by the early settlers 
here who did not trouble themselves to understand the natives 
customs, but were content simply to say that the man was " a 
cursed black fellow,'' and "no good," Then this opinion got 
into the books that were first published, about the colony of 
N. S. Wales, and from them has been ignorantly believed, and 
handed about as an ascertained fact. It is not a fact — but a 
fiction. The natural intelligence of native children, was abund- 
antly tested in the State of Victoria, where there were two 
or three schools for them. The government inspectors of 
schools, visited these as a part of their duties, and their reports 
declared that the children in them were quite up to the aver- 
age of the schools for white boys and girls. Many of our older 
colonists also, who lived in the bush and had black boys as 
playmates in their youth, bear their testimony to the same ef- 
ect. One such, whom I know, taught two black boys about 
i6 years of age to play chess, and one of these was soon able 
to beat his master in the game. In the Sidney Morning Herald, 
a few days ago, there appeared a letter signed by * An Old 
Colcmist." In his early days he had been a boarder at the 
Normal Institution School in Sidney, and this is a part of what 
he says: 

" With me, and other white boys, was John Bungarree, an 
aborignal. He proved to be mo^t intelligent. He was a skilled 
penman, and would have put to shame, in this particular, many 
young men of the present day." 

I have written these notes now in the interests of truth, for 
I consider it a pity that errors of ignorance should circulate 
around the world. 



EARLIER HOME OF THE BELLA COOLA TRIBE 

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

, BY CHARLES HILL* TOUT. 

As is well known to students of American ethnology, the 
Bella Coola, or more correctly the Bilqula, are the most nor- 
therly division of the Salish stock. They are separated from 
their congeners to the south and to the south-east by alien 
stocks, and are characterized by many peculiarities, physical^ 
social and religious. How they got to their present quarters, 
whence they came, and to what division of the Southern Sal- 
ish they belong have been questions that have exercised the 
minds of students of this Stock. It may, therefore, be of in- 
terest to state that my studies among the Salish tribes of the 
Lower Eraser seem to throw some light upon two at least of 
these questions, viz: whence they came and to what division 
they properly belong. Of thr Delta, or Lower Fraser tribes^ 
the Kwantlen were formerly one of the most extensive and 
powerful. In their traditions they record that at the "great 
flood" their tribe was separated, a portion being carried away 
up the coast, where they effected a settlement and where they 
have since resided. They call this branch of their tribe 
Pelwheli or Pelqrli. The resemblance between this term and 
Bilqula is striking. They locate the Pelqeli, moreover, in the 
region occupied by the Bilqula. Now, as it in confirmation 
of this tradition, we find that among the Bilqula they have an 
important myth relating to one of their ancestors named To- 
tosong. In this myth Totosong is said to have descended 
from heaven to a mountain near the Eraser river. Here he 
built a house and lived in it in company with Raven. Later 
they traveled down the river in order to find people In their 
travels they came upon a house covered all over with abelone 
shells. A chief whose name was Pelqanemq. i. e., '*abelone- 
man,'' dwelt here. From here they went to various places^ 
and among others **Rivcrs Inlet," called in the Bilqula tongue 
Wanuk. I mention this place in particular, because it is a 
Kwantlen word, one of the present Kwantlen settlements on 
the Eraser being called by that very name. 

I have also mentioned their meeting with the Abelone chief 
because of hi^ name Pelqani, which Dr. F. Boas, who record- 
ed this myth, says means "abelone," his totem being the shell 
term Pelqueii and the tribal name of the Bella Coola when 
of that name. Now if the resemblance between the Kwantlen 
correctly written, is merely accidental, then in the name of the 
Abelone chief I think we may assuredly see the name given 



404 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 

by the Kwantlen of Fraser River to their dispersed tribemeo; 
for the one would appear to be merely a dialectical variation 
of the other. Mv studies have not extended yet to the speech 
of the Bella Coofa tribe, but so far as the forms of that dia- 
lect have been recorded by other students, I may say that 
there are some striking resemblances in the use of the defi- 
nite article, and also in the pronominal forms, and I fully ex- 
pect to find, when I come to study their language, the fullest 
confirmation of the tribal traditions regarding their place of 
origin. But even without this confirmation the fact that the 
Kwantlen claim direct relationship with a Salish community in 
the locality of the Bella Coola, and the Bella Coola speak of the 
Fraser River as the original home of one of their ancestors, 
warrants us, I think, in assuming that this isolated and inter- 
esting body of Salish, is an offshoot of the Kwantlen of Fra- 
ser River. The real reason of their separation and their set- 
tlement in this northern alien territory we may never learn. 



-oo- 



THOMAS WILSON, LLD. 

BY WARREN K. MOOREHEAD. 

Read at the Pttltburgh meeting of the Amercan Association for the Advancement of Scl- 
•ence. 

Mr, Thomas Wilson was born July 18th, 1832. in Beaver 
county, Pennsylvania. He was a self-made man. As a 
boy he was apprenticed to David Woodruff, of Salem, Ohio, 
who conducted a carriage shop. Attaining his majority, 
he located in Marshall county, Iowa, and engaged in mak- 
ing heavy plows, used for breaking the new prairie land. 

He was chosen a deputy clerk of the court, and this po- 
sition, small though it was, opened his eyes to the possi- 
bilities of a legal career, and he engaged in the study of 
law during evenings after his hard day's labor over the 
plow. He was admitted to the bar and practiced with suc- 
cess. 

At the beginning of the Civil war he enlisted in the Sec- 
ond Iowa Cavalry, arose to the rank of captain, but left that 
branch of the service for the infantry. He served until the 
fall of 1864, when he was honorably discharged with the 
rank of colonel, gained by distinguished gallantry in ac- 
tion. 

He formed a legal partnership with the famous Thomas 
Cor win, of Ohio, and was instrumental in putting some 
worthy war claims through congress; In 1881 he retired 
from active practice and was appointed consul to Ghent, 
His consular duties extended over a number of years and 



THOMAS WILSON. LLD. 40 

he represented the United States at Nantes and Nice. His 
tact, discretion and natural abilities won for him the.com- 
mendatioQ of his government. 

As a boy, Dr. Wilson had observed the mounds, earth 
works and other prehistoric remains of eastern Pennsylva- 
nia. While in France he had opportunity to study the an- 
cient monuments of western Europe, and he made himself 
an authority. Himself a French scholar, he became fami- 
liar with the French School of Anthropology, and when he 
came to the United States and accepted the curatorship of 
the Department of Anthropology, of the Smithsonian Inst, 
he was fitted to pursue the intelligent study of prehistoric 
man in this country. His training in law, in the diplomat- 
ic service and in European archicology broadened his mind 
and enabled him to weigh carefully archaeological prob- 
lems. 

Dr. Wilson was one of the few anthropologists in this 
country confining themselves, almost exclusively, to pre- 
historic art. I have frequently heard him say that anthro- 
pologists were emphasizing modern tribes and modern con- 
ditions at the expense of the prehistoric. He. himself. 
was not interested in the modern savage, although he did 
not deny the importance of such study Many of the 
problems, he maintained, relating to man in the United 
States, could not be solved by comparisons with or a study 
of historic tribes. After all the traditions, the ceremonies, 
etc . of existing tribes had been investigated, he thought 
that there would be a reaction and anthropologists would 
return to a consideration of the truly prehistoric. I once 
heard Dr. Wilson call the attention of a visiting ethnolo- 
gist to the thousands of •' unknown" stone objects in the 
Smithsonian collections. Said he; "They (the ethnolo- 
gists) publish hundreds of pages giving the minutest de- 
tails regarding the ceremonies of the living Pueblo and 
Plain tribes. A feather with a notch on the right side has 
a certain meaning, on the left another, two notches convey 
a different meaning, and daubs of paint on the tip or on 
either side yet another meaning. Thus a single feather 
may stand for fifty interpretations. If so frail and unim- 
portant a thing as a feather engages our attention, what 
shall we say of these imperishable stone objects with fantas- 
tic and wonderful forms, wrought with patient skill and 
highly polished "r Do not they merit our study?" 

Dr. Wilson was prominent in the various expositions 
held here and abroad during the past fifteen years. He 
was decorated by the Spanish Government and by the King 
ot Belgium. He served as vice-president in this section. 
His honors were many and varied. The following are some 
of his reports and publications: 

■'A Study of Prehistoric Antliropology"(1888). "Results 




4o6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of an Inquiry as to the Existence of Man in North Ameri 
ca During the Paleolithic Period of the Stone Age" (1888),' 
••Criminal Anthropology" (1890). 'Trimitive Industry" 
(1892), **Minute Stone Implements from India" (1892), 
•The Swastika, the Earliest Known Symbol" (1895), ''Pre- 
historic Art, or the Origin of Art as Manifested in the 
Works of Prehistoric Man" (1897), and •*Arrowpoints, Spear- 
heads and Knives of Prehistoric Time" (1898) all of which 
have been contributed to the publications of the United 
States National Museum. 

Dr. Wilson was possessed of a pleasing personality and a 
fund of humor. He was unpretentious. He could rebuke af- 
frontery and ignorance. I crave pardon for relating a person- 
al incident illustrative of his humor. 

A very pompous individual came into the exhibition ^all 
one day, and as the Doctor was busy, I was instructed to ex- 
plain the collections. He was typical of a certain class of 
persons sueh as render the life of a museum curator misera- 
able. We had been looking in the cases not more than ten 
minutes when the visitor announced in loud tones that he had 
a large archaeolcgical collection of his own and that he knew 
all about such things, and that if the Smithsonian men knew 
no more regarding prehistoric times than was evidenced by 
the labels, he would be glad to instruct them. 

The door of the office was open and Dr. Wilson, having 
heard the remark, came out at once. Walking up to the col- 
lector, he laid a paternal hand on his shoulder, and said: ''My 
dear sir, if you know all about these things, you are the very 
man we want. I have studied them all my life and know al- 
most nothing. Come over to Professor Langley's office and I 
shall resign in your favor." 

Dr. Wilson's papers on the Swastika, Art and Flint Imple- 
ments have been in general demand and were favorably re- 
viewed here and abroad. His classification of Arrow-heads 
can hardly be improved upon and must stand. He insisted up- 
on an archaeological nomenclature. 

I am convinced that his published observations, save in a 
few instances, cannot be controverted — that is, so far as they 
relate to the strictly prehistoric. In his mind, o classify the 
objects left by the Plains tribes of the past hundred years with 
those from the truly pre-Columbian sites of the Ohio Valley 
was an error, **Yet," said he to me,'* when I offer a few remarks 
apropos of some village site of unquestioned antiquity, some 
champion of the modern origin of all aboriginal remains, gets 
upon his feet and draws a parallel between my site and the 
modern Pueblo or gun- armed, buffalo-hunting tribe of the 
Plains." 

It was this lack of distinction between tribes of one re- 
fiOQ and another which he regretted. He believed that the 



THOMAS WILSON. LLU. 407 

mound building peoples of the Ohio Valley had nothing in 
common with the Plains or Pueblo peoples; that a comparison 
of their pipes, ornaments, etc., was simply out of the question. 

He h id his own views regarding folk-lore and its relation 
to the piehistorie I recall one conversation of some years 
ago along these lines. I shall not give this as a direct quota- 
tion, for although the substance is clear, I no not remember 
the exact language. 

Said he: How is it that the Sioux give elaborate traditions 
concerning their origin and other mythical matters, yet cannot 
recall the visit of Hennepin and other early Jesuits? One 
would suppose that paintings exhibiting the damnation of the 
wicked in vivid colors such as the priests carried, would make 
a lasting impression upon aboriginal minds. They had never 
seen such mysterious things. And among the more southern 
tribes the appearance of the ipen in armour, riding horses^ 
would be remembered in their folk-lore. Yet I fail to find 
more than a trace of the presence of the Spanish adventurers 
in southern Plains folk-lore, and a very faint trace at that. 

He was wont to tell, with relish, the story common on a 
certain reservation concerning the enthusiastic young folk-lor- 
ist who gravelv set down all the storytellers told him and how 
that the narrators of the tribe, mindful of the loaves and fish- 
es which he distributed with a lavish hand, got an educated 
Indian to write him that they had thought up a** lot more 
yarns'* and were anxious to have him come and record them. 

Mr. Wilson's work was not confined to anthropology alone. 
Hf did some literary work and published a creditable book on 
"Blue Beard," etc. He was a contributor to the American 
Antiquarian, and readers have perused his lines with profit 
and pleasure. 

Socially, his house occupied a high position in Washington 
and distinguished men and women were wont to attend the 
receptions held there. 

\)r. Wilson was appointed Curator of Anthropology, Smith- 
soni.in Institution, in 1887. This position he held up to the 
time of his death, May 5, 1902. His administration of the de- 
paitment was more than successful, large donations and addi- 
tions by purchase were made and the entire collection rear- 
ranged and systematized. This latter required much of his 
time for several years. 

In his death I lost a dear and personal friend. Students of 
American archaeology will do well to emulate his virtues, his 
character, his kindly and gentlemanly be^rin^, and his schol- 
arly attainments. His widow and his son have the sympathy 
of all who knew and loved Dr. Thomas Wilson. 



PAPERS READ BEFORE THE AMERICAN ASSOCI- 
ATION AT PITTSBURG. 

Notes furtdshed by H. I. Smith. 
EXPLORATIONS OF IQOI, IN ARIZONA, BY DR. WALTER HOUGH. 

Dr. Walter Hough, of the U. S. National Museum, gave an 
account of one of the most important explorations carried on 
in the Pueblo region. The field selected for examination lies 
in eastern Arizona and extends from Fort Apache to the Hopi 
Reserve, a distance of i8o milei^ and east and west of Hoi- 
brook, a distance of about 60 miles. 

During the month of May Dr. Hough explored the ruins 
of McDonald's Canyon, and at the Petrified Forest securing 
about 1000 specimens. On the first of June he took charge of 
the scientific work of the Museum-Gates Expedition which 
was financiered by Mr. P. G. Gates, a man of wealth interest- 
ed in pueblo archaeology. 

Dr. Hough said that in the course of the season's work of 
five months in 1901, 60 ruins were visited and 18 of them exca- 
vated. Some ideas of the di£fculties encountered, aside from 
the 800 miles of wagon travel, may be gathered when it is 
known that five of the groups required dry camps, water be- 
ing hauled considerable distances for men and animals. The 
work, however, was quite successful, 3,000 specimens havin^^ 
been collected. Plans of 24 pueblos, and maps showing the 
location of the groups were drawn, and ethnological data, 
specimens and photographs secured from the Apache. Navajo 
and Hopi Indians visited during the season. This material 
will be published in the Annual Report of the U. S. National 
Museum. 

THE LATE DR. THOMAS WILSON, BY WARREN K. MOOREHEAD. 

Mr. Moorehead made some brief remarks upon the career 
of the distinguished archaeologist, Dr. Thomas Wilson, late 
Curator of the Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian In- 
Mtitution. Dr. Wilson has conducted researches both in 
Ffiince and the United States, and published numerous reports 
aiut napcrs notable among which are two, the Swastika, and a 
i'lciisitication of spear-heads, arrow-heads and . knives. Dr. 
Wilnon was greatly interested in young men who desired to 
take up anthropology as their life-work. He was possessed of 
« pleaHing personality. 



AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. 40Q 

EA:^LY migration of mankind, by G. FREDSRICK WRIGHT. 

Climatic Changes in Central Asia traced to their probable 
causes and discussed with reference to their bearing upon the 
earlv migrations of mankind. 

That there have been extensive climatic changes in Central 
and Western Asia in recent times is made evident by a variety 
of considerations. 

1. The Aral Sea, which now has no outlet, formerly emp- 
tied into the Caspian through the well marked channel called 
the Uzbel, skirting the eastern side of the Ust Urt plateau. 
This outlet is as clearly marked as the old glacial outlets from 
Lake Michigan and Lake Erie into the Mississippi Basin at 
Chicago and Fort Wayne. The Amu Daria and Syr Daria riv- 
ers, both streams more than 1,000 miles in length, must there- 
fore formerly have brought into the Aral Sea a much larger 
volume of water than they now do. 

2. Lake Balkash, the Aral Sea, and the Caspian Sea, 
though they are all enclosed basins in an area that is dbtted 
with salt lakes, are themselves comparatively fresh. The wa- 
ter of the Caspian Sea is only one-third as salt as that of the 
ocean; while the water of the Aral Sea and Lake Balkash is 
so fresh that animals drink it. The only adequate explana- 
tion of this is that the supply of fresh water has up to recent 
times been so great that from all these seas there was an over- 
flow which largely carried off their salt deposits; while the 
time which has elapsed since that period has been too short for 
them to accumulate saltness as Great Salt Lake and the Dead 
Sea have done. 

3. The desert of Gobi gives every evidence of being the 
bed of a recently desiccated inland sea; while even the his- 
torical records of the Chinese bear witness to the existence of 
an extensive body of water called the Han-Hai within its 
borders. 

The depression of the lower Jordan Valley of the Dead 
Sea gives the clearest possible evidence that at a recent time 
the water stood at a level 750 feet higher than now, making a 
lake extending from Lake Huleh the entire width of the val- 
ley and many miles beyond the present south end of the Dead 
Sea. The terraces at this level are everywhere clearly mark- 
ed; while the accumulation of silt over the whole area was to 
a great depth — in some places hundreds of feet. From the 
small extent to which these silt terraces have been washed 
away by the streams which penetrate them and from the sim- 
ple fact that the Dead Sea is not filled up, it is very clear that 
the present conditions have not continued indefinitely or in- 
deed very many thousand years. 

In my extensive tour through Asia, I started with the theo- 
ry that these climatic changes were probably connected with 
glacial phenomena throughout that region corresponding to 



410 AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

those in North America and in Europe. Buti upon not find- 
ing the evidences of any extensive glacial occupation any- 
where in Central or Western Asia, I turned with more favor to 
the natural explanation offered by the theory of an extensive 
subsidence of the Asiatic Continent, approximately contemp- 
oraneous with the accumulation of ice during the glacial peri- 
od over North America and Europe. Such a subsidence 
would during its continuance, fill up the Jordan depression 
with sea water and would let it into the desert of Gobi through 
the Sungarian Depression, producing thus in Central Asia an 
internal sea as large and deep as the Mediterranean. This 
vast body of water in Central Asia would add so much to the 
evaporating surface that it wonld naturally largely increase 
the rainfall upon the bordering mountains to the north. When 
the land had again risen so that the connection was shut off 
between the desert of Gobi and the ocean through the Sunga- 
rian Depression and the present relative land levels h^d been 
reached, this vast body of water would for a longtime present 
its evaporating surface to supply increased moisture to the sur- 
rounding country. Naturally about half of this increased 
supply would fall upon the north side of the mountains, thus 
feeding the Syr Daria, the Zerafshan, the Amu Daria, Talas, 
The Ctiu, the Hi, and the innumerable other smaller streams 
which irrigate the northern base of these mountains and sup- 
ply Lake Balkash and the Aral Sea with their water. But of 
course all that portion which flowed off into the plains of 
West Turkestan and Siberia would be lost to the body of wa- 
ter in the desert of Gobi; so that this would gradually dimin- 
ish; and, as it diminished, would lessen the supply of water 
upon the north side of the water shed; thus producing the ex- 
act succession of phenomena which we find to have taken 
place. The explanation which this theory gives on such a 
complicated problem as is presented in the recent desiccation 
of the country goes far to prove its correctness. 

But it is the relation of these changing climatic sonditions 
to the early history of mankind, which is immediately before 
our minds on the present occasion. There are numerous indi- 
cations that Turkestan has been one of the most important 
centers, if not the original center, from which the human race 
has radiated. Here the conditions of life are extremely favor- 
able, and in the earlier climatic conditions were even more fa- 
vorable than now. All Central Asia is most admirably situat- 
ed for irrigation. All along the base of the Hindoo Kush, 
theTian Shan, the Alexandrofski, the Ala-tru, and the Altai 
range, there is a broad, rich belt of loess, the most fertile soil 
in the world when well watered, and the water of its irriga- 
tion is near at hand. In Egypt the water is stored for use in 
vast inland lakes in the torrid regions of Africa. But in Cen- 
tral Asia, the supply is kept in cold storage upon the lofty 
mountains. Upon these vast ranges (the Tien Shan alone be- 



AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. 411 

ing thirty times as massive as the Alps) the precipitation is 
largely in the form of snow, which is generally melted during 
the summer months, thus keeping a constant supply of water 
available for irrigation. 

With such advantages for obtaining a water supply, and 
with a climate characterized by almost perpetual sunshine, and 
with vast mountain systems spreading out their flanks for sum- 
mer pasturage, affording the most majestic scenery, the condi- 
tions were pre eminently favorable for the early development 
of civilization. Even now the population along the irrigated 
belt is dense. But it is evidently far less than at a former 
time. Doubtless this is partly due to the disorganized politi- 
cal condition which has long characterized the region, but in 
no small degree it is probably due to the diminution of the 
water supply. In driving over the country one finds in vari- 
ous places the remains of irrigating ditches long since aband- 
oned, and sees innumerable mounds indicating a former popu- 
lation where now scarcely any is to be found. 

But in the thirteenth century, in the time of Jenghis Khan, 
there would seem to be little doubt that Samarkand, Mervand 
Balkah were cities approaching a million inhabitants each; 
while in the time of Alexander the Great, who for two years 
made his headquarters at Samarkand, the inhabitants were 
able to present a more formidable resistance to his army than 
any other people encountered by him. 

In the same line it is also instructive to notice the many in- 
dications of a constant emigration from this center. By far 
the best theory of the origin of the Aryan languages would 
fix it in Bacteria, from which center Aryan speaking people in 
prehistoric times migrated to India on the one side and to 
Persia and Europe on the other. This, too, was the probable 
center of the Mongolo-Tartar races, whose families radiated 
thence to Malaysia and China on the oneside, to Turkey, Hun- 
gary and Finland upon the other, and, spreading out over the 
vast wastes of Siberia, across into America, and peopled the 
Western Continent. 

When we come to know the whole history of those great 
Tartar migrations which in early times came so near over- 
whelming Europe, it is likely that we shall find that the grad- 
ual desiccation of the country through the climatic changes 
of which we have spoken had much to do with it all; and thus 
our studies in geology will aid materially in furnishing the 
key to some of the most interesting and difficult historical 
problems. 

THE PRESERVATION OF MUSEUM SPECIMENS, BY DR. WM. HOUGH. 

The paper summarized the experience gained during the 
past seventeen years in the treatment necessary to preserve 
museum specimens from attacks of insects, from dampness, 
dust, etc., especially from insects. 



412 AMERICAN ANTigUARIAN. 



/ 



Other classes of animate nature having had their day, it is 
the turn of the insects, and, judging from their activities now, 
the state of affairs at the culmination will requite the pen of a 
Dante. There is no rest for organic materials; when the cells 
ripen they start on a downward course fought over successful- 
ly by lower and lower beings to the end of the chapter, 
which is the beginning of other chapters. 

It is the province of the museum worker to attack these 
agencies, as far as possible, and to him come chemistry and 
entomology. The subject is vital not only to the museum but 
to a vast number of people. Millions of dollars worth of fab- 
rics are destroyed annually by insects and the female portion 
of Christendom hav^ pinned their faith to camphor, alumn, 
and other pungent substances to their despair and the fatten- 
ing of the moth. 

The wonderful advance of chemistry has given us a num- 
ber of substances useful for the deterring or extermination of 
moth. Some of these are disagreeable and dangerous, unsuit- 
able for domestic use though available for the museum. 

Dr. Hough explained the method of poisoning specimens 
practiced in the National Museum, and suggested that a por- 
tion of this process may be employed for domestic use. This 
may be done, Dr. Hough says, by securing an air-tight box. 
A packing box Imid with manila or grocers' paper ais^^trs, 
placing the fabrics or objects therein, and after pouring in gas- 
oline liberally, closing the lid tightly and leaving it fOr a day 
or so. It has been found that woolens, and furs, etc., treated 
in this way, will not be subject to the attacks of moth for a 
a long time, as the oily substances in the animal fibers on 
which the moth feeds have been removed to some extent, 
leaving the fabric undesirable. Decorative objects, with which 
one does not come in immediate contact, may be brushed 
with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol, one- 
fourth ounce to the quart. 



PRIMITIVE MAN AND HIS STONE IMPLEMENTS 
IN THE NORTH AMERICAN LOESS. 

BY WARREN UPHAM. 

The recent discovery of a human skeleton at the hj^se of 
the Missouri valley loess near Lansing^, Kansas, as here relat- 
ed, brings evidence of a somewhat definite and great antiquity 
of man in this western hemisphere, and of his physical and ra- 
cial character near the geographic center of our country at 
that early time. Newspapers in Kansas City gave the first ac- 
counts of this discovery last March, which thus, through the 
kindness of Hon. J. V. Brower, came to the knowledge of 
Prof. N. H. Winchell, of Minneapolis, president of the Geo- 
logical Society of America, and myself, in Minnesota. We 
accordingly planned a visit to examine the locality and study 
the drift there in its relation to the recognized time divisions 
of the Ice age. Our visit was on Saturday, August 9th, in 
company with Profs. S. W. Williston and Erasmus Haworth, 
in charge of paleontology and geology at the State University, 
Lawrence, Kansas, and with M. C. Long, curator of the Pub- 
lic Museum of Kansas City, Mo., and Sidney J. Hare and P. 
A. Sutermeistcr, also of that city. Mr. Long had examined 
the locality in March, with Mr. Edwin Butts, of Kansas City, 
civil engineer of the* Metropolitan Street Railway; and they 
had obtained the skeleton for the Kansas City Museum. 
Again, in July, the drift section and the skeleton were exam- 
ined by Prof. Williston, who published a short notice of them, 
entitled ** A Fossil Man from Kansas," in Science for August 
1st. 

An article which I present in the American Geologist for 
September, contains the following report of the discovery, as 
learned by inquiries and observations of the drift section and 
vicinity. 

The skeleton was discovered February 20, 1902, in excava- 
ting a tunnel for storing fruit, vegetables, milk, butter, etc.,* in 
(and near the middle of the south edge of) the N. W. quar. of 
Sec, 28, T. 9 S., R. 23 E., close southwest of the Missouri riv- 
er, and of the narrow bottom land that skirts it there on the 
southwest side; being on the farm of Martin Concannon and 
only a few rods from his house, at the distance of about two 
and one-half miles southeast from Lansing, and about eight- 
een miles northwest from Kansas City. His sons, Michael T. 
and Joseph F. Concannon, found the skull and mos^ of the 
bones in their digging near the end of the tunnel, 69 to 71 feet 



4X4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

from its entrance, 2 to 6 feet from its east side, and i}^ to 2 
feet above its floor. The bones were disjointed, and were part- 
ly broken, decayed, and irregularly strewn about, but mainly 
they were huddled together in one placa. The ribs and ver- 
tebrae were mostly decayed, so that they could not be pre- 
served. Half of the broken lower jaw had been previously 
discovered, ten feet nearer the entrance and about one foot 
lower, that is, only about one foot above the floor of the tun- 
nel; and near that spot a phalangeal bone was found imbedded 
in the wall of the tunnel by one of our party. The other half 
of the lower jaw, matching that found before, was with the 
chief parts of the skeleton. No bones besides those of a sin- 
gle human skeleton were found in the entire excavation of the 
tunnel; nor were any implements, artificially chipped stone 
flakes, or other articles pi human workmanship discovered. 
Mr. Concannon and his sons supplied lights for our examina- 
tion of the section displayed in the tunnel; and they kindly 
showed us where the bones were encountered, with detailed 
relation of the circumstances of their discovery. The skull 
was found entire, but had afterwards been accidentally broken 
into many pieces, which Mr. Long fitted together, depositing 
it in the museum; but the other bones, including both parts of 
the lower jaw, were at the time of our visit in the possession of 
Mr. Butts, at whose home they were examined by all our par- 
ty. From where the skeleton was found, the overlying loess 
deposit has a thickness of 20 feet, as determined by Mr Butts^ 
to the surface of the ground above. Measurements of the 
tunnel were also made by him, showing it to be 72 feet long^ 
about 10 feet wide, and about 7^ feet high. Its walls are ver- 
tical to the height of about six feet, above which the top is 
flatly arched, with no other support than is supplied by the 
well known coherent texture of the loess formation in which 
this upper part of the tunnel is dug. 

Upper Carboniferous limestone, determined from the abun- 
dant fossils collected by Mr. Hare in the region about Kansas 
City, outcrops at the site of the tunnel, and at much higher 
elevations close southeast, and somewhat farther away to the 
south, west, and northwest; but mainly it is covered and con- 
cealed by the extensive and very thick valley drift deposit of 
loess. The limestone, in a compact bed several feet thick^ 
forms the floor of the tunnel, rising nearly two feet along its 
extent of 72 feet south-southeast into the bluff. Fragments 
of limestone and shale, with much earthy debris, rested on 
this floor along the area of the tunnel, having a variable thick- 
ness of 2 to 4 feet, but mainly about 2^ feet, and being thick- 
est and most stony, as seen in the section, at the east wall of 
the tunnel. In the debris which thus formed the lower third 
of the excavation, fragments of the limestone, and of its asso- 
ciated thin shaly layers, are common up to 6 inches long, and 
several masses one to three feet long were encountered. One 



PRIMITIVE MAN AND STONE IMPLEMENTS. 415 

measuring 12 by 20 inches is imbedded in the head of the tun- 
nel, only two or three feel from the site of the skeleton, and 
at a little greater height. The skeleton lay in the upper foot 
of the debris, or perhaps in a hollow of its surface; but the 
half of the lower jaw found separate, a foot lower, was cer- 
tainly imbedded in the stony debris about a foot below its top 
where it is overlain by the loess. The Carboniferous lime- 
stone, from which iis fragments in the debris appear to have 
been derived, outcrops within 50 fett southeast of Mr. Con- 
cannon's house, or only about 150 feet southeast of the tun- 
nel, having there a height of 50 or 60 feet above the tunnel 
floor. Thence the rock outcrop gradually rises southeastward 
as a spur ridge, attaining within the distance of an eighth of 
a mile a height of fully 125 feet above the floor of the tun- 
nel, or about 150 feet above the ordinary level of the Missouri 
river; and the overlying loess rises onward to a height of 200 
feel, or more, above the river, within another eighth of a mile, 
reaching there the general level of the top of the river bluffs 
and adjoining uplands. 

According to the surveys of the Missouri River Commis- 
sion, the extreme low and high stages of the river here during 
the period from 1873 to 18^5 were respectively 735 and 760 feet 
above the sea level, the vertical range being 25 feet. The ex- 
treme high water was in i88(, being the highest within the 
thirty-five years since Mr. Concannon settled here; but it was 
exceeded, probably six or seven feet, by the high water of 
1844, of which a record was made at Kansas City. The skele- 
ton was at a height of 1 1 to 12 feet above the high water of 
lSli^l, or 772 feet, nearly, above the sea; and the house is about 
35 feet higher, with the limestone outcrop extending from 
near it to about 900 feet above the sea. while the higher crests 
of the loess near by are at 950 feet, estimated approximately. 

The coarse debris in the lower part of the tunnel contain- 
ed, so far as we could observe, no glacial drift pebbles or 
stones of foreign origin, though they are frequent in the thin 
glacial drift which overlies the rock surfaces near. Many of 
these drift stones and boulders are of the red Sioux quartzite, 
which overcrops 300 to 350 miles northward, in southwestern 
Minnesota, the northwest corner, of Iowa, and the southeast 
part of South Dakota. It occurs in this Kansan drift mostly 
in small fragments, but often one to two feet in diameter, and 
occasionally even measuring five feet, or more, and weighing 
several tons. The southern boundary of the glacial drift, 
marking the limit of the continental ice-sheet in its extreme 
extension during the Kansan stage of the Glacial period, is at 
a line passing from east to west, as mapped by Chamberlin 
and McGee. about 12 or 15 miles south of the Kansas {com- 
monly called the Kaw) river, and 25 or 30 miles south of Lan- 
sing. 

Above the debris, which exhibits no marks of water assort- 



4X6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ing and deposition, the section, very clearly seen on each side 
and at the end of the tunnel, consists for its upper two-thirds 
of the very fine siliceous and calcareous yellowish gray silt call- 
ed loess, containing no rock fragments nor layers of gravel 
and sand, excepting a thin layer of fine gravel, with limestone 
and shale pebbles up to a half inch in diameter, which was no- 
ted by Mr. Butts near the roof of the tunnel, having a thick- 
ness of about four inches and an observed extent of some 30 
feet. Soon after the skeleton was imbedded in the stony de- 
bris, or lay exposed on its surface, the geologic conditions 
that appear to have long prevailed were somewhat suddenly 
changed, and there ensued a more rapid deposition of the very 
fine waterlaid loess, deeply envelopmg the bones hiefore they 
had time to be generally removed by decay under the influ- — j 
ences of the weather and infiltrating air and water. From the ^ 
horizon of the skeleton, the loess extends up to the surface, a .^ 
vertical thickness of 20 feet, and continues in a gently rising 
slope to a slight terrace on which Mr. Concannon's house 
stands. With similar irregularly eroded slopes, the loess con- 
tinues upward to the general elevation of about 200 feet above 
the river within a distance of a fourth of a mile to a half mile 
southward and westward, attaining there a general level which 
was probably the surface of the river's flood plain at the max- 
imum stage of the loess deposition. This plain appears to 
have been built up by gradual deposition from the broad river 
floods during many years and centuries, and to have stretched 
then over the present valley and bottom land of the Missouri, ^ i 
in this vicinity two to four miles wide, from which area it has «s j 
been since removed by the river erosion. The great valley, as ^ j 
to its inclosing rock outcrops, is of preglacial age; it was not ^^ 
much changed by glacial erosion and deposition of the bould- — Md 
er drift; but it was deeply filled by the loess, in which the val- — Ml 
ley was afterward re-excavated. 

Professor Williston noted a distinct darker layer of the 
loess, mostly about two inches thick but in part merely a 
threadlike line, traceable continuously through all the 72 feet 
of the west wall of the tunnel, running about 3 to 4 feet above 
the limestone floor, and one foot or a little morfe above the 
base of the loess. Pegs driven by our party at the line of this 
stratum along all its extent were seen to be in a straight plane, 
which by a hand level was found to have a descent of 7 or 8 
inches from south to north in this distance. Other lines of al- 
most horizontal stratification exist, but are less observable, 
throughout the loess, which is thus clearly shown to be an 
aqueous deposit. Several small gastropod shells were foun 
in it by members of our party, but they were* too delicate to 
be preserved for determination of their species. Three oth- 
ers, which have been carefully preserved by Mr. Butts, ar 
said to have been found at the same place with the skeleton. 

The admirable investigation of the physical and chemica 

i 





PRIMITIVE MAN AND STONE IMPLEMENTS. 41? 

characters of our loess deposjts by Chamberlin and Salisbu* 
ry in the paper of their joint authorship, " The Driftless Area 
of the Upper Mississippi Valley," published in the Sixth An- 
nual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1885^ 
leaves no ground for doubt that the loess of the Mississippi 
and Missouri valleys was derived mainly from the North 
American ice-sheet, being a deposit of the flooded rivers du- 
ring a stage of abundant ice melting, with considerable redis- 
tribution over the interfluvial upland areas by winds. A few 
years later, in 1891, an equally important work by McGee,. 
"The Pleistocene History of Northeastern Iowa," appeared in 
the Eleventh Annual Report of the same survey, presenting 
most satisfactory and conclusive evidence that the chief stage 
of abundant and rapid deposition of the loess was when the 
ice-sheet still covered a large part of Iowa and stretched 
thence very far northward, but after it had relinquished the 
outer area of its drift, which extends south to central Missou- 
ri and northeastern Kansas. In 1894 a chronological classifi- 
cation of the series of our North American drift formations 
was published by Chamberlin in chapters which he contribut- 
ed to the revised third edition of Prof. James Geikie's ** Great 
Ice Age." Within the next four years this very useful classi- 
fication, employing geographic nomenclature, was extended,. 
and in part corrected, by Calvin, Bain, and others, of the Iowa 
Geological Survey; Leverett, of the U. S. Geological Survey; 
and the late Dr. George M. Dawson and his associates in the 
Geological Survey of Canada. It may also be added that the 
labors of Todd in Missouri and South Dakota, Winchell in 
Minnesota, and the present writer in Minnesota, North Dako- 
ta and Manitoba, have likewise contributed toward our pres- 
ent systematic view of the sequence of events during the Ice 
age in this region, which must be brought before the reader to 
indicate the antiquity of the Lansing fossil man. 

High epeirogenic elevation of the areas which became gla- 
ciated, both in America and Europe, to altitudes at least 1,000 
to 4.000 feet above their present heights, as shown by sub- 
merged valleys and fjords, appears to have been the cause of 
the snow and ice accumulation of the Glacial period. The 
North American ice-sheet, in its time of general extension^ 
had at least one very important interval of recession and read- 
vance. The preceding time of ice accumulation is named the 
Albertan stage of the Glacial period, from the province of Al- 
berta, Canada, and the ice-sheet then reached to southern 
Iowa; the interglacial retreat of the ice border, uncovering a 
wide belt as far northward, probably, as the south half of Min- 
nesota, is called the Aftonian stage, from stratified beds with 
peat deposits covered by later glacial drift at Afton, Iowa; and 
the ensuing maximum advance of the icefields, to the outer- 
most limits of the glacial drift in Kansas and Missouri, is the 
Kansan stage. These three stages undoubtedly were long; 



4i8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and I am inclinsd to estimate the duration of each as about 
25,000 years. 

From the maximum of the Kansan ice extension, there 
was a recession, called the Buchanan stage from the county of 
this name in Iowa, followed by a renewed growth of the ice- 
fields, named the lowan stage, each of which stages may have 
occupied 10,000 years. At the culmination of the lowan stage 
the ice-burdened lands on both sides of the Atlantic sank from 
their former elevation to their present heights or mostly some- 
what lower; and the more depressed areas have since been 
moderately re-elevated. By this subsidence, the temperate 
climate belonging now tc» the northern -United States and 
southern Canada, with mild or warm spring and autumn and 
hot summers, was restored on the borders of the ice-sheet. 
Extensive melting over large marginal tracts of the ice fol- 
lowed; and the waters of this melting and of rains swept away 
much of the previously englacial and at last superglacial drift, 
depositing it beyond the ice boundaries. To this end of the 
lowan stage belong the chief deposition of the loess and the 
Lansing man. 

With slight re-elevation of the land and ordinary climatic 
vicissitudes, the mainly waning ice-sheet occasionally paused 
in its retreat, or even sometimes readvanced a little, whereby 
Its bouldery drift became heaped at these times along its grad- 
ually receding boundaries, in belts of hills, knolls, and short 
ridges, called marginal moraines, which especially characterize 
the closing Wisconsin stage of the Ice age. Where the slope 
of the land declines northward,lakes were temporarily formed 
by the dam of the departing ice-sheet. One of these glacial 
lakes, named lake Agassiz, in the basin of the Red river of the 
North and lake Winnipeg, I have especially studied; and my 
estimate of the ratio of its shore erosion and beach accumu- 
lation, in comparison with those of lake Michigan and others 
of our Laurentian lakes during the Postglacial period, indi- 
cates for this vast lake Agassiz no longer duration than one 
thousand years, the time since the Ice age, according to many 
independent estimates being only about 7,000 years. Next 
comparing the duration of lake Agassiz with the whole time 
of glacial retreat from the lowan and loess-forming stage, I 
think that their ratio may have been approximately as one to 
five; or, in other words, that th^ glacial recession from the 
Iowa boundary to the north end of lake Agassiz may have re- 
quired no more than 5,000 years. With Postglacial time, we 
have, therefore, as the antiquity of the fossil man at Landing, 
probably about 12,000 years; but the whole continuance of the 
Glacial period, from the begmning of the Alberjan glaciation 
to the final melting of the ice-sheet in its Canadian central 
portion, according to these estimates, was probably about 
100,000 years, ending some 7,000 years ago. 

In a former paper contributed to the American Antiquari- 



PRIMITIVE MAN AND STONE IMPLEMENTS. 419 

^^N in the March-April issue last year. (vol. xxiii, pp. 81-88), I 
^ave explained how primitive men could migrate to this conti- 
.nent, coming from northeastern Asia and probably also from 
■lorthwestern Europe, during the Glacial period. Even at the 
xnaxicnum of glaciation, they might advance along shores of 
land narrowly skirting the ice-sheet, like the land margin and 
-*he inland ice of Greenland. Mankind may have attained 
*iere, during the long course of our continental glaciation, 
»iearly the same stages of culture as in their Solutrian and 
IWagdalenian stages of Late Glacial time in Europe. There 
man doubtless existed as early as the beginning of the Ice 
-^ge. fully 100.000 years ago, as I showed in a paper. " Primi- 
tive Man in the Sommc Valley," published in X.\\e American Ge- 
-xDlo^st for December, 1898; and even then the men of the Som- 
ine district and other parts of France and southern England 
made very serviceable paleolithic implements. 

The Lansing discovery tells of a Glacial man, dolichoce- 
~j)halic, low-browed, and prognathous, having nearly the same 
filature as the average of our people today. A.s stated by Prof. 
"Williston, he was contemporary with the Equus fauna, well 
"w-epresented in the Late Pleistocene deposits of Kansas, which 
includes extinct spwies of horse, bison, mammoth and masto- 
-<Jon, megalonyx, moose, camels, llamas, and peccaries. 

It may reasonably be expected that many other evidences 
«3f the men of the loess-forming stage of the Ice age will be 
"*ound, and will give some knowledge or hints of their mode 
■^Df life. Two such items of testimony are already known in 
3owa. Prof. F. M. Witter, superintendent of schools at Mus- 
■^;atine, in a paper read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences. 
in 1891, described "a rather rudely lormed spear point of pink- 
ish chert," found in the loess in that city about 12 feet from 
ihe surface, and an arrow point in the same loess section, "at 
least 25 feet beliw the surface." Both were discovered in 
-place by Mr. Charles Freeman, the proprietor of a brickyard. 
Again, in volume XI of the Iowa Geological Survey, publish- 
-<d last year. Prof. J. A. Udden, reporting on Pottawattamie 
•county, writes: " In tunneling the cellars into the loess hills 
Ijack of Conrad Geisse's old brewery, on Upper Broadway in the 
-same city [Council Bluffs], it is claimed that a grooved sione 
-ax was taken out from under thirty feet of loess and forty feet 
from the entrance to the cellar excavation. The ax has an ad- 
liering incrustation of calcareous material on one side, evi- 
dently deposited by ground water. The loess at this place has 
possibly been disturbed by creeping or by rain ivash. but its 
-appearance suggests nothing of the kind. It is quite typical 
loess for this region. The ax was discovered by the workmen 
engaged in excavating the cellar and immediately shov 
Enginer Robert F. Rain, who superintended the work, 
who still has possession of it." 

The extinction of the elephants, horses, and many other 




her ^B 



420 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Species of th6 animals that flourished here near the southern- 
boundaries of the ice-sheet, may have been due to the prowess 
of the mighty huntsmen who killed and ate ihem, using their 
skins for clothing and as coverings of their lodges. Their 
stone-tipped spears and lances, even in that early time, many 
thousand years ago, were probably as effective, for the 
slaughter of such large animals, as any weapons in use by 
the Indians when Columbus discovered America. 



-oo- 



NOTES ON THE FOSSIL MAN FROM KANSAS.* 

In April of the present year, two younj;; men living in the vicinity of 
Leavenworth, Kansas, lu the excavation of a fruit storage cave near their 
residence, discovered a number of human bones. They paid but little at- 
tention to them, supposing them to be of little interest, but a brief refer- 
ence to the discovery findmg its way into the newspapers induced Mr. M. 
S. Long, the curator of the museum at Kansas City, a gentleman well 
known for his interest in, and as a collector of, things anthropological, to 
visit the locality. He recognized the scientific value of the fina and secur- 
ed such as remained of the bones discovered. Unfortunately, while ihe 
larger part ot it, if not the complete, skeleton had originally been pres- 
ent, many of the bones had been mutilated beyond repair or lost. A news- 
paper account of the'find was widely published as that of a glacial man. 

S. W. Williston, of Lawrence, visited the locality and has given the 
following account of it. • 

•The tunnel or cave excavated by the Concannon brothers is directed 
horizontally into the side of a hill to a distance of seventy-three feet, near 
the mouth of a small though deep ravine opening on the flood plain of the 
Missouri River, nineteen miles northwest of Kansas City, and within a few 
miles of Lansing, Kansas. The skeleton was found at the extremety of 
the tunnel twenty-three feet from the surface above, as determined by a 
ventilating shaft dug near by. The floor of the tunnel is a heavy stratum 
of Carboniferous limestone six feet in thickness, that outcrops at its mouth. 
The material excavated, nearly unitorm in all parts of the tunnel, is river 
loess or alluvium, interspersed here and. there by limestone fragments. 

The age of the skeleton is evidently post glacial, but is nevertheless 
veiy great, Its horizon is about twenty feet above the highest water mark 
of the Missouri River and mere than fifty feet above its present bed. Add 
to this at least twenty feet of river atluvium covering the fossil and we 
have evidence of a cfiange of altitude in the Missouri Kiver since the dep- 
osition of the fossil of at least forty and probably fifty feet. That is, the 
skeleton was deposited during the period of depression following the gU- 
cial epoch, during the time of the so-called Equus beds, the time of EUphas^ 
Mastodon, extinct bisons, moose, camels, llamas and peccaries. I see no 
other possible conclusion to be drawn. I have examined the later Pleisto- 
cene deposhs in Kansas in many places and have fossils of this sub epoch 
from all parts of the state. I am confident that the Lansing man belongs 
in the same fauna. 

This find is important in that it turns the table on those geologists and 
archaeologists who have been so confident of their own position and so con- 
demnatory of those who differed from them. It also brings the archaeologi- 
cal horizon of America more into accord with that of Europe, though there 
is an entire period still lacking, viz. that which is marked by paleolithic 
relies and by the presence ot extinct animals, and by fossil man. 

The Editor takes pleasure in referring to the article by Prof. Warren 
Upham, for his opinion, as well as that of Prof. F. G. Wrijiht and Prof. 
Winchell. will have great weight among the scientific men throughout the 
globe. ^ 

•These note* were printed bofore the article by Ptof. Upbam was recaiTcd. 



RECENT DISCOVERIES. 42i 

FINDS IN AMERICA. 

Remains OF Prehistoric Animals. — **A remarkable dis- 
covery of mastodon or mammoth bones, has just been made by 
a party of Japanese workmen, on Union Island, nesr Stockto n, 
Cal., according to recent press dispatches. Confronted by 
what they supposed, to be the root of a tree projecting from 
the ground, they proceeded to dig out the obstruction with shov- 
els, and, speedily unearthed the shattered fragments of a tusk 
measuring eight and a half feet long, and thirteen inches in 
diameter at the broadest end. Continuing their search, they 
were rewarded by finding a large skull measuring four feet 
across at the eye-sockets. In addition to this, seven vertebrae 
came to light; a shoulder blade two feet broad, and half a doz- 
en ribs each six feet in length, together with a piece of leg 
bone." — The New Ce?itury,June igo2, 

Mr. M. H. Saville, has returned to New York, after a suc- 
cessful winter's work of excavation in the Zapotecan tombs, of 
Culiacan near Oaxaca, with the Loubat expedition of the 
American Museum of Natural History. 

A Copper Pickax Pound. — An extremely interesting relic 
of bygone ages, has just been dug up on the shore of Lake 
Gogebic, northern Michigan, by A. C. Hargraves, of that lo- 
cality. It is a pickax of tempered copper that had apparently 
been used in pre-historic times by people dwelling along the 
lake. The metallic part of the pick is twenty-three inches long 
and about half an inch thick. It tapers to a point at either 
end. and is as finely tempered as a piece of tool steel. At the 
centre is a place where the tool was bound by thongs to a 
handle of wood. It is so hard that a steel file makes no im- 
pression on the copper. The art of tempering the red meta- 
is unknown at the present day. Occasionally tempered cop- 
per knives have been dug up in this region, but this is the lar- 
gest tool ever found. — Sig7is of the Times, 



CREATION LEGENDS IN BABYLONIA. 

On cuneiform tablets which date from the seventh century 
B. C, and which represent copies of much older originals, we 
read the story how once upon a time, befoie even heaven or 
earth existed, the waters covered everything; it was a period 
when confusion held sway. This confusion is symbolized by 
a monster known aa Tiamat, whose name, signifying "the 
deep," is a survival of the very primitive notion found in vari- 
ous parts of the world that makes water a primeval element. 
The end of Tiamat's sway, is foreshadowed by the creation of 
the gods, tho' we are not told in what wav the gods were pro- 
duced. For the Babylonian theologians it was sufficient to in- 



4aa AMERICAN ANTigUARIAN, 

dicate that the gods are the representatives of order arrayed 
against Tiamat, the symbol of chaos. Creation, in the proper 
sense, follows as the result of a conflict between chaos and or- 
der, in which the gods eventually prevailed. 

Burial Urn in Michigan. — A funeral vase is now on view 
in the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Its 
circumference is 36 inches; height over 12 inches; contains a 
skeleton and a human head. It was in an ancient burial 
mound which uas partly destroyed. Burial urns are common 
in Tennessee, but this is the first one found in the far north of 
Michigan. 



Editorial Notes. 



RECENT EXPLORATIONS. 

The department of anthropology of the American Institute, 
has maintained expeditions in several parts of the United 
States, and in British Columbia, Mexico, Central America, Bo- 
livia. Peru. Greenland, Siberia, Japan. Corea, and China, result- 
ing in large additions to the collections and furnishing much 
material for description. VV. Jochelson and W. Bogoras have 
entered upon a new field of research on behalf of the Jesup 
North Pacific E.xpedition in the extreme northeastern part of 
Siberia. Their investigations among the Chukchee, Koryak, 
and Vukagheer tribes on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk have 
been completed, and the material collected by them has been 
forsvtirded to the museum. The collection of models of totem- 
poles made by John R. Swanton, of the same expedition, is 
noteworthy, and serves to illustrate the significance of these 

Keculiar emblems. A well-preserved totem-pole, fifty feet in 
eight, has been received from the Queen Charlotte Islands- 
aiulpUceil in the open space of the stairway in the west cor- 
ridor halK A. I.. Krceber. has finished his field work in con- 
ueition with the Mrs. Morris K. Jesup expedition to the Arap- 
aho Indians, and the illustrated manuscriot settine forth the 
results of these important mvestigations, is ready for publica- 
tion. The field work of the Huntington, California, expedi- 
li^n. iu charge ot Roland B. Dixon, has also been completed, 
AuU the collections, are all on exhibition. 

rhe explorations of M. H. Saville. of the Mexican expedi- 
tio«, have resulted in the solution of several problems con- 
cciuiuk^ the architecture of the celebrated ruins in the vicinity 
\>i MitTa. A pre-Columbian map of '' lieiizo " on native cloth 
^<i unique example of this class of Amefican codices) and a 
map ot Fcotihuacan painted on maguey paper have been ob- 
Uiutd. rhe exploration cf the Delaware \ alley has beefl con. 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 413 

tinued by Earnest Volk, who has gathered important informa- 
tion relating to the occupation of the region about Trtjnion 
and bearing upon the evidence of preglacial man in America. 
Local archaeological explorations have been carried on among 
the rock-shelters near Westchester and in village sites and shell 
heaps on Long Island, especially those near Oyster Bay and 
Glen Cove, and much of importance relating to early Indian 
life has been learned. 



The Campanile Tower which so suddenly fell on July 14. was be- 
gun In 902, just one thousand years ag'o. It was completed m 1514. The 
total height was 323 ft,, from which altitude a glorious prospect was pre- 
scDled. I'he tower was constructed of red brick, coming to an apex in the 
usual Venetian stvle, and surmounted by a roof of green liles. The tower 
Wiis one oF [he few moaumeuts which have survived from the so-called 
dark ages, and yet It has stood through all that period called the middle 
ages to the begmning of the loth century. It would be interesting, if we 
had space, to review the changes iu architecture which have occurred since 
its erection. While the Egyptian, the Assyrian Babylonian, Persian, Gre- 
cian and Alexandrian preceded it, yet the Norman, the Gothic, the English 
Gothic, the pointed Gothic, the Italian, the Saracenian, the Geometrical 
Gothic, the modern Italian, the modern English, have followed. If com- 
pared with the Native American structures tnis tower which has fallen may 
be sunpDsed to have been built earlier than any of the famous lowers and 
temples of Mexico, and perhaps even earlier than those which are now in 
ruins in Guatemala, Honduras and Yucatan, and even earlier than those 
which were erected by the Incas of Peru. 

The history of the various temples in China is somewhat uncertain, 
and yet It Is probable that there is not a pagoda, or even a tower, standing 
in that land of the ancients which dates as far back as does this tower 
which bears th: nami: of St. Mark. In fact we may regard it as an index 
on the dial of time— the rising sun ol ancient architecture shone upon it 
upon one side, the meridiRo sun of moiern architecture threw its shadow 
upon the top, and the glories which shine in the sky of the present were 
reflected upon its wesieru side, but it has fallen now before we have learn- 
ed either the beginning or the end of the wonderful structures which have 
existed and are to exist. 

The event is Iraught, moreover, with many lessons, and should lead to 
agTcater interest in the study of the ancient and the modern works which 
man's skill and thought have created to beautify the world. 



Book reviews. 



-oo- 



The Indians of To-Day, by George Bird Grinnell, Ph. D. Illustrated 
with full page portraits of living Indians. Herbert Stone & Co., New 
York and Chicago. MDCCCC. 

This work is one of the products of the Omaha Exposition and very 
suitably supplements the various reports and magazine articles which at- 
tended that exibition. It moreover comes between that exposition and the 
more pretentious and important one which is to appear at St. Louis in the 
year 1904. • 

The mission of the book has not been fully accomplished, for the ap- 
pearance of the Indians at Omaha should be onlv an introduction to a still 
larger and more complete representation of them at St. Louis. 

There doubtless will be at St. Louis the usual number and variety of 
prehistoric relics, for that city is in reality at the very center of the Miss- 
issippi valley, and the local collections are already very numerous in the 
vicinity. 

There will also, in all probability, be many specimens of the more re- 
cently manufactured articles of the same people, for the study pf such has 
become a fad with the American people. The Indian has at last been 
found to be an artist in his work, and his native taste has at last become 
known and secures the admiration of the more cultivated. 

Basketry and pottery, feather work, textile fabrics, wood carving, gio- 
tesque and finely carved stone images, strange as they are, have already 
secured attention, and books have been written concerning these, and the 
magazines are full of articles which describe them as they are discovered. 
But the fact that there are so many live Indians and that they ;ire likely to 
appear at the great exhibition, makes this work doubly acceptable. One 
of the advantages ofifered by it is, that the author: Mr. George Bird Grin- 
nell, is so well acquainted with the Indians as they are, and has made his 
deseriptions as comprehensive as possible. Another advantage is that 
his publishers at great expense have taken the pains to present portraits 
of nearly all the prominent chiefs which are now living, and has represen- 
ted them in their native costumes, as they now are made. Still another 
advantage is that the peculiarities of the Indians are depicted both in the 
pictures, and the letter press, their tribil differences are shown and their 
actual condition portrayed. The description might to be sure have been 
more definite and speciffc and a little more pertinent to the portraits 
given, still a Bird's eye view is given of the social condition, geogra- 
phic location and present status of the different tribes, so that we have a 
double picture of the people as they are. 



The International MoNTHLV—a Magazine of Contemporary Thought, 
Burlington. Vt. 

This is one of the most valuable Magazines in the United States. It 
has the same churacter as the British Quarterlies and is hereafter to be 
published as a qarterly. For the scholarly man it is worth a dozen of the 
cheap monthlies. The articles are varied in their subjects, art, arcbaeolo- 

fy, comparative religion, sharing a place with general literature, jurispru- 
ence and the drama. An article on the laughter of Savages, by James 
TuUy, published a year ago, was a valuable contributien. Another on New 
Excavations in Aegina, by A. Fortwangler, is very instructive. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



A'S 



Primitive Semitic Religion Today, a record of Researches, Discover- 
ies and Studies in Syna, Palestine, and the Semitic Peninsula, by 
Samuel Ives Curtis. Prof, of O. T. Literature, &c, Chicago Theological 
Seminary. Fleming H, Kevell Company, Chicago, New York, To- 
ronto. IQOJ. 

The impression formed frqm reading this book is that there are mjay 
relinioiis customs practiced ai ihe present day in various parts of the world 
which greatly resemble those described in the Bible as common in very an- 
cient txnes. Many of these custom) resulted in ilie erection ol certain 
structures such as altars, shrines, high places, "chairs," sacred groves. tem- 
ples, pillars, phallic symbols, not to speak of pyramids and other more pre- 
tentious works. Civilization and Christianity have h,-Ld the effect Co change 
the customs, and sometimes to destroy and do away with the tokens of 
them, but religion is very tenacious and holds all these very sacred. 

To illuslrate. It was the custom in this country in prehistoric times 
to erect shrines and temples and altars on hi^b places, to place "seals" 
or "chairs" in sightly places, to consider mountains as the home of the di- 
vinities, to erect pyramids and loftv teocalU in imitation of them, to con- 
sider the shedding of blood as necessary to appease the divinity, to orien- 
tate temples in order to worship the sun. to offer captives in sacrifice to the 
sun. to make pilgrimages to sacred places, set up pillars and phallic sym- 
bols, to consecrate houses by burying slaves beneath the corner posts, 
to consider (ire as sacred and as a sign of the acceptance oE sacrifice, to 
use lustrations in religious exercises, and hundreds of other customs; the 
jpecific point with Prof, Curtis was to discover the Jnature of the Semitic 
customs and ascertain whether they were primitive or were sabjecls of 
revelation, but it is not in the customs or even in the structures or external 
thingi that the proof oi revelation is to be found, but rather in the thought 
and the standards of character. Such is the conclusion which we under- 
stand the author of this book to have reached, a conclusion which gives 
greal force to the study of the Scriptures, especially when thai study is 
' '■■ ' ' ' jology and comparative religion. 



connected with the study of arch^alogy and compara 



A New Eskimo Gkji 
nuit Language, as spoker 
By the Rev. Francis Han 
t»n: Ginn &: Co. 1901. 



MAR. Grammatical Fundamentals of the lo- 
V the Eskimo of ihe western coast of Alaska, 
m. S. J., of Georgetown University, B. C. Bos- 
.arge 8vo. pages 384. 



Nation.^!. Geographic Magazine, June, iqo2. 

The Carib.S. When Columbus landed at Haiti on his first voyage, he 
heard much of the warlike people to the south who ravaged the more 
peaceful natives of Haiti and the nurihern islands. But it was not until 
the end of 1493, on his second voyage of discovery, ihat he landed ai Gua- 
deloupe, the stronghold of Ihe Caribs, and first beheld the cannibal race. 
Washington Irving, in his "Life and Voyages of Chriitopher Columbus," 
describes the horror of the Spaniards when they found human limbs sus- 

S ended from the beams of the houses as if curiag for provisions. "The 
ead of a young man, recently killed, was yet btaeding. Some parts of his 
body was roasting before the fire; others boiling with the fiesh of geese 

The whole archipelago, extending from Porto Rico to Tobago, was un- 
der the ^way of the Caribs. They were a warlike and unyielding race, 
quiie different from the feeble nations around then). Of the thousands of 
these fierce people who dominated the Caribees four centuries ago, only a 
few hundred descendants remain. In the northern part of Si, Vincent a 
few Caribs are still left, and in Dominica are a tew others. 

The Caribs were also found in Guiana and along the lower Orinoco. 
Spain condemned them to slavery, but they were not much molested by 
her because of their fierce character. In later years the English and 
French fought bloody wars with them. Si. Vincent became their last 



^ 



426 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 

stronghold. In 1790 England transported 5.000 Caribs from St. Vincent to 
the Island of Ruston, where many of them passed to Honduras and Nica- 
ragua. 



Annual ARCHiCOLOGiCAL Reports, iqoi, being part of the appendix to 
the reports of the Minister of Education, Ontario. Toronto, 1902. 

This report contains information concerning the accessions to the mu-. 
seum and such explorations as have been conducted under its auspices 
The following are its themes: 

I. Accessions to the n'useum. from 22,130 to 23,809, or about 1 1 ,000. 
2. Notes on Relics, with illustrations, also ossuaries, mound earthworks, 
fish weirs, Indian village rites, animal remains, wampun belts. 40 pp. 
2. Notes on Huron Villages, including trails and Indian remains, &c.. al- 
so illustrated. 50 pp. 4. Notes on Relics— Victoria, by Geo. E. Laidlaw. 
8 pp. 5. Canadian Pottery, by F. W. Waugh. Illustrated. 6 pp. 6. Ar- 
ticle on the progression of the civilized Iriquois of Ontario, by David Boyle. 
16 pp. 7. Ethnological Observations in South Africa, by Geo. E. Laid- 
law. 18 pp. Illustrated. All of this illustrates the activity of the Soci- 
ety and the growth of the collection. 



Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Con- 
tents, Report of the Brown- Harvard Expedition to Nachvak, Labrador^ 
in the year 1900, by E. B. Delaborre, Ph. D. April, 1902. Philadelphia Geo. 
Society. 

This bulletin, with the numerous half-tone plates, gives an ex- 
cellent idea of the topography of Labrador, and shows that there is an ex- 
cellent field for the Naturalist to enter, and one which promises much 
satisfaction to those who enter it prepared for exploration. The impres- 
sion, however, gained from this bulletin and from many other preceding 
books and reports, is that Labrador, notwithstanding its proximity to the 
various routes which were followed by the Norsemen in their discovery of 
the continent is likely to be disappointtng to those who seek evidence here 
on the subject of the peopling of this continent. It is certainly true that 
the Northwest coast has vielded far greater results to ethnography and 
archaeolog'y than the Northeast coast ever has. and the probability is that 
if we are ever to learn about the time and manner in which this continent 
was first settled.it will be by studying the tribes and relics which are tound 
in that section and Comparing them with those found on the Asiatic conti- 
nent. 



Memoirs of Explorations in the Basin of the Mississippi. Vol. L 
Quivira. By. J. V. Brower. St. Paul, Minn., U. S. A. 1898. 

This book commences with a map of the interior portions of Kansas, 
with the villages which have been identified by the author, marked upon 
it, and a plate as a frontispiece which gives a fine view of the prairies and 
streams, and chert quarries which are found in the vicinity. The map rep- 
resents the line of Coronado*s march. It contains also a plate with the 
buffalo as represented by Gomara in 1554. Thevet in 1558. Hennepin \n 
1704. The memoir pertains principally to certain archaeological discover- 
ies which have betn made near the termination of Coronado's expedition at 
Quivira. Personal acknowledgments are made, curtailed to one page, but 
are ver>' suitable under the circumstances. The historical introduction 
occupies eight pages. Geological and natural history survey occupies 
about ten pages, some of it written by S. R. Elliot. The discovery of the 
Elliot village site with prehistoric mounds and relics, occupies ten pages or 
more, with lour full page plates. The Griffing village sites occupies ten 
pages, four of them oeing full page plates; the village sites on Mill Creek 
twelve pages, six of them full page plates, representing chipped instm- 



BOOK REVIEWS. 427 

menis, elc. Earlier explorers, such as Prof. Goodnow, Prof, B F. Mudge, 
occupy four paees, with two cuts. The discovery of flint instruments on 
the Smoky Hill River fills four pages more, with one i.orirait of William 
J. Henderson, abd a plaie of lomabawlcs. Prof. Uddt^n, ol Beihaoy Aca- 
demy has a village named after bim. The McArihur village site is des- 
cribed, and the implements discovered are portrayed on the full page 
plates. 

A translation of Coronado's letter lo the king, and the relation oF Rich- 
ard Hakluyt.and the narrative of Casteneda and Icatbalccta, are all given 
in full; also Gen. Simpson's location of the site of Quivira, and Bandelier's 
description of the route lollowcd bv Coronado. followed by three full page 
plates. The conclusion is giveii in Bandelier's language. 

A great deal of courtesy is shown by the author to the various gentle- 
men who have written on the subject, and full credit is given ibem. 



Memoirs OF Explorations IS THE Basin of the Mississippi. Vol. II. 

Querahay. By I. V. Brower. St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S. A. iSgt). 

This volume supplements the Vol. I, called Quivira. Itcommences 
with a view of Smoky Hill, MacPhersoD county, and has a map or chart 
with village sites marked upon it. The village sites come to an end on 
the plains overlookmg Kansas valley and marks the northeast limit of Co- 
ronado's march. 



Smithsonian Institution. Instructions lo Collectors of Historical and 
Anthropological Specimens, by William Henry Holmes and Otis Taf- 
lon Mason. Washin[,'ion Government Priming OtEce. 
This pamphlet is especially designed for collectors in our new posses- 
sions. Tne instructions in reference to sculpture and carving, the ceramic 
and textile art, also art in meta), a'so those which relate to religions, sui^h 
as sacred places, priesthood, native pantheons, worship, private religion,, 
and religious literature, are especially pertinent. 



Prrliminahv Sketch op thf. Mojave Indians, by A. J. Kroeher, from 
the American AnthrofologiU., Vol, 4, April and June, 1902. New York, 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, 190Z. 

The Mohaves lived near the Pueblos, the Navahos and the Apaches, 
but were strictly California Indians. They have no totemic system but their 
religion consists more in the individual relations with the supernatural be- 
ings than with animal totems. The importance of dreams is with them 
very great, and their ceremonies are directed by some one who has had a 
dream. The absence of symbolism also allies them to the Cahlornia In- 
dians. The art of the Mohave« consists chielly of nude painted decorations 
on (lottery. They have a creation myth resembling that common in the 
southwest. 



•■V«RB." Tid skrifl utgifven a Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och 
Geograh. Stockholm. R,-B. Nordiskli Bokhandeln. (f. d. Samson & 
Wallin. 1 dra-Haft also zdra Haft. 

The (irsi of these tidskrift has an article upon the archaeology of Costa 
Rica, by C, V. Hartraan. with many illustrations. It treats of the temple, 
and tombs at Mercedes; also, the symbols, with illustrations, and contains 
a, number oE plates which represent the stone idols found there. It has also 
an article on the Kitchen middens oE Denmark, by Oscar AIngren. 



4»8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The second contains an account of A. E, Nordenskjold*s polar finds, by 
A. G. Nathorst, with maps and cuts. The folding map shows that the lands 
of Europe, Asia and America form a circle around the polar sea. Behring 
Straits form a narrow opening to the circle upon the other side. It is a very 
suggestive map, and furnishes a key to an explanation of the formation of 
the continents. 

BoLETiN de la Sociedad Geografica de Lima. Anno XI. Tomo XI 
Trimiestre Secundo. (Julio, Agosio Setiembre) Lima. Imprentay 
Libreria de San Pedro. Calle de San Pedro N. 96, igoi. 

This bulletin treats mainly of the linguistics and grammar of the Qui- 
chua and other tribes in South America. The Society is apparently doing 
good work in this line. 

Communications del Musco Nacional de Bueno Aires. Bueno Aires, 6 
de Diciembre de 1901. Tomo i. No. 10. 

LaGeographie. 

Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. Public tons les mois par de 
Baron Hulot, Secretaire general de la Societe de Geographie, et. ML Chas. 
Rabot, membre de la commission centrale de la Societe de Geographie. 
Secretaire de la Redaction. 

Abounement: Paris, 24 fr. — Departements, 32 fr.— Etran?er, 28 fr. Le 
Numero: 2 fr. 50. Paris, Masson et'Cie.Editeurs. 120, Boulevard Saint 
Germain (6e) 1902. 

This number contains an article entitled "Explorations in Morocco 
with photographs and maps, by Dr. F. Weisgerber; another, on the opera- 
tions of surveying the arc of the meridian on the equator, by R. Bourgeois. 
The society seems to be in a flourishing condition. 

MiTTHEILUNGEN DER AnTHROPOLOGISCHEN GeSELI«SCHAFV IN WsiN 

XXXI. Band(Der neuen Folge XX. Band) VI. Heft. Miteiner Tafc/ 
und 193. Text. Illustrations. 
Wien. In commission bei Alfred Holder, k. u. k. Hof-und Universitats 
Buchhandler, 1900; also, XXXI. Band 1901. 



SEPTEMBER MAGAZINES RECEIVED. 

The Antiquary, September, 1902. London; Elliot & Stock, 62 Pater Nos- 
ter Row. 

An interesting article on "Moated Mounds,** by I. A. Rutter in this 
number, conveys the information that the castles, after the time of William 
the Conqueror, were often confined within an enclosure with an earthwork 
mound surrounding it. Sometimes, owing to the nature of the ground, a 
citadel will present from the outsido the appearance of a great mound, 
while from the court within it has a slight predomiuance. The only sepa- 
ration between the court and the mound is a ditch. The enquiry arises 
whether this may not have come from the prehistoric custom of erecting 
walled enclosures with the ditch inside, and whether we have not another 
analogy between the earthworks of the Ohio valley and those of Great 
Britain. 

Biblia, September, 1902. Meriden, Conn. Vol. XV., No. 6. 

This number contains an interesting article by our esteemed contrib- 
utor, Mr. Joseph Offord, on A New Science of History, also Notes on 
Egypt in the Neolithic and Archaic Periods, and other interesting articles. 

Man for August contains articles on Prehistoric Egyptian Pottery, by 
W. F. M. Fetrie; An American View of Totemism, by £. S. Hartland; 
also ditto, by N. VV. Thomas, 



American ^nixqunvmn 

Vol. XXIV. November and December, 1902. No, 6 



PYRAMIDS AND PALACES IN AMERICA. 

BY STEPHEN p. FEET. 

We are now to take up the study of the pyramids as furnish- 
ing another ilk'stralion of the beginnings of architL'Cture. It 
is to be noticed that there were different kinds of pyramids. 
but they all appeared at a period just following the opening 
of history and may be regarded as among the earliest struct- 
ures erected during the historic period, the only exception 
being those found in America at the time of the discovery, and 
these may be said to really belong to the historic Stage of 
progress, if not to the historic period. The point which we 
are lo make in connection with the pyramids is that they mark 
the type of structure and the form of religion which prevail- 
ed at the earliest period, but which grew out of the structures 
and the religious beliefs which prevailed before they appear- 
ed. It will be profitable to us to draw the comparison be- 
tween them and see what points of resemblance and contrasts 
there arc to be found, giving especial attention to the motives 
and beliefs which resulted in the erectiun of these massive 
structures. 

We have shown already that there were rock cut structures and 
obelisks and altars, as well as tombs, in the various countries 
of the East, but whether the pyramids preceded or followed 
these, remains at present uncertain. Still if we take the line 
of architectural development for our guide, we would natural- 
ly conclude that the pyramids were all subsequent to the erec- 
tion of the rude stone monuments, and these were subsequent 
to the mound's and caves, the line of succession making it 
appropriate to consider the pyramids after the ruined cities 
and the rock cut structures. 

In treating of the subject we shall begin with the Pyramids 
of Egypt and show their purpose, manner of construction, 
date of erection, and the motive that ruled, and afterward take 
the pyramids of Babylonia, and follow these with a description 
of the pyramids nf America, 

I. Our first inquiry will be in reference to the pyramids of 
Egypt and the contrast between them and those of other 
lands. It is well known that the earliest pyramids in Egypt 



THE AMERICAN ANTigUARIAN. 



were erected by a dynasty of kings who had come into pow- 
er and who brought the people into subjection, so that they 
were ready to obey their commands, and by this means, the 
resources of the kingdom were brought under their control. 
It is supposed also, that the religious sentiment had great 
sway. These pyramids stand upon the edge of a desert upon 
the western bank of the Nile, near the point where the river 
divides into its many mouths or outlets, showing that the dj'- 
nasty which was in power held control of the lower Nile and 
were in a comparatively high stage of development. 

The three pyramids of Gizeh, called Cheops. Chcphrens 
and Mycerinus, are supposed to be the earliest, though there 
are many others of these massiveburial vaults near the metrop- 
olis of the ancient city of \femphis and scattered along the 




PVRAMID AT SAKKARAI 



i 



plateau of the Libyan de.-crt for a distance of 25 miles. Tl 
were all erected as monuments of the kings and designed 
preserve the bodies of the kings in power, and were really bu- 
rial vaults, though they were monuments to the kings and de- 
signed to preserve the body of the kings. It was the belief in 
immortality that was the ruling motive, but an immortality 
which consisted in the preservation of the material form rath 
er than the survival of the spirit as separated from the body. 
The first requirement for the actual construction of the 
pyramid appears to have been the leveling of the rock suf; 
face. This was followed by the excavation of a subterai 




THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 



an chamber and the eieclion of a small truncated pyramid or 
m.i5tabah in the center of the rock. If the life of the king 
were prolanged, he added nsw outside layers of stone, follow- 
ing the outline of the first structure, thus enlarging the mas- 
tabah or tomb, the pyramid arising in terraces, and really be- 
caming a gigantic mastabah. The openinK to the mastabali or 
tomb was below the pyramid and was reached by a long chan- 
nel or passageway which had been cut out of the rock. 

The size of the pyramids shows the great power which the 
king had, and at the same time illustrates the mechanical con- 
trivances which were in use at the period. Still the expense 
of constructing the first pjramid was so great that it nearly 
exhausted the i^esources of the kingdom, and the successors 
to the first monarch were obliged to build on a smaller scale, 
and finally to cease pyramid building altogether. 

The situation of the pyramids marked the dividing line be- 
tween life and death. On one side we seethe River Nile, with 
the luxuriant fields bordering the river, but on the other side 
all is desolation and dreary waste. The drifting sand shines 
under the glare of the noonday sun, dotted here and there with 
the crumbling remains of ancient tombs. The pyramids were 
illustrative of the belief of the people. According to this be- 
lief every individal consisted of three distinct part^; the body 
belonged to this world, the soul belonged to another world, 
and the double which belonged to the two worlds. A double 
was generally in the form of a statue and was preseived in the 
tomb. The pyramid itself, howf^ver, was the means of pre- 
serving the body, and the utmost precaution was taken lest 
the tomb should be opened and the pyramid be despoiled of 
the body. There was orientation practiced in connection with 
this pyramid. It was. however, an orientation which appeared 
only at the earliest period, an east and west orientation, prov- 
ing thai the worship was in all probability equinoctial, proving 
also that the erection of the pyramid had something to do 
with the rising of the Nile and the sowing time, and the har- 
vest time, the inundation of the Nile being the source of life 
and prosperity to the people. The erecting of the sphinx near 
the pyramids was also suggestive of the religious belief of the 
people, It is not known at present what king erecied the 
sphinx, but as it is situated east of the middle pyramid and in 
the immediate foreground, and was sculptured from the solid 
rock so as to look toward the rising sun, it is supposed that it 
was wrought out at the time when the equinoctial worship was 
prevalent and before the solstitial worship came into vogue. 

To the ancient Egyptian the River Nile was a mystery. 
They believed that a god dwelt within its waters. It was per- 
fectly natural that ihe temples should be made sacred to the 
gods which ruled over the waters, and that the lotus plants 
which grew in the waters of the Nile should be imitated in 
the pillars that adorned the temples. The trinity of the Egyp- 



I 



431 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tian gods consisted of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. The images of 
these gods were placed in the temples, but there were no images 
in the pyramids or even outside of them, except the image of 
the sphinx, which was represented as having the form of an 
animal with a human head, and was regarded as a symbol of 
Horus, the early morning sun. 

The association of the pyramid and temple is to be consider- 
ed in this connection. There are temples in Egypt which were 
erected long after the days of the pyramids, and by dynasties 
which were entirely distinct from the pyramid builders, but 
the earliest temples are supposed to- have been contemporattc- 
ous with the pvrRmids, The temnle of "-he Sphinx shown 
in fhe cut is proof 
of this. It was dis- 
covered in 1853. It 
lies below the level 
of Ihe sand and was 
constructed by the 
pyramid builder. 
a deep well in tl 
corner of one of tl 
rooms were founi 
nine statues of Che- 
pheren or Cheops. 
The columns of this 
temple differ from 
those found in any 
of the later temples. 
They are mere maS--j 
sive blocks of gi 
ilc without 
mentation, and suj 
port other blocf 
«hich form the roof 
i.f the temple: the 
principle of the pier 
..iid lintel being em- 
h-Hiied in them but 
without cornice or 
capital, thus allji 
Ihecolumnswith 
.architectural strut 
^tures of the 

THE PYRAMID, THE SPilINX ANL> ITS TKMPLE period* 

The magnitude of the pyramids of Egypt has impressed 
every one who has looked upon them; and yet the beauty and 
symmetry of the temples adjoining have c tiled forth the ad- 
miration of all; as the contrast between the two classes of 
works strengthens the impression. This is illustrated by the 




he 

i 



has--^ 



i 



THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 



433 



description which i< given of the pyraniiJ. written by Mr. 
Ebers, the famous Egyptologist, as compared witli the des- 
cription of the temple at Karnak, written by Miss Amelia B, 
Edwards, Mr, Kbers says- 

"We stand before the largest of the workt of man which as 
Wf know llie ancients glorified as one of the wonders of the 
world. Only bv a comparison witli ntlier struciures present in 
our memory, can any idea of their immensity be missed. 
While St. Peters in Rome, is 430 ft. high, the great pyramids 
of Cheops is 482 ft. high, or 52 feet taller. If the pyramid of 
Cheops were hollow, the great cathedral eould be placed with- 
in it like a clock under a protecting glass. 

Neither St. Stephen's Cathedral of Vienna, nor that of 
Strasburg, reaches the height or the largest pyramid, and only 
the new tower of the Cathedra! of Cologne exceeds it. In 
one respect no other building in the world can be compared 
with the pyramids, and that is. in regard to the mass and 
weight of the material used in the construction. If the tomb 
of Cheops were raxed, a ivall could be built all around the bor- 
ders of France. If one fires a good pistol from the lop. the 
ball falls half wiy do.vn its side. ''Time marks all things, but 
the pyramids mark time," is the Arabian proverb." 

The following is Miss Edwatd's description; 

The great hall of Karnak and its columns are enormous. 
Six men standing with extended arms, finger-tip to finger tip, 
could barely reach around any one ot them. The largest col- 
umn cas's a shadow 12 ft, in breadth. The capilol juts out so 
high ahove one's head that it looks as though it might have 
been placiid there to support the hc-avens It is carved in 
the semblance of a full blown lotus, and glows with undying 
colors, colors that are still fresh though laid on by hands that 
have been dust .5,000 years or more. The beams arc huge 
monoliths carved and painted, bridging the span fiom pillar to 
pillar, and darkening the floor beneath with bands of shadow. 

Looking up and down the central avenue, we see atone 
end a Hame like obelisk, and at the other a background of 
glowing mountains; lo right and left, and through long lines 
of columns, we catch glimpses of colossal bas-reliefs lining 
the roofless walls in every direction. Half in light and half 
in shadow these slender fantastic forms stand out sharp and 
clear and colorless. Each figure is some i8or 20 ft. in height. 
It may be. that the traveler who finds himself for the first time 
in the midst of a grove of gigantic oaks, feels something of 
the same overwhelming sense of awe and wonder, but the 
great trees have taken 3,000 years to grow and do not strike 
iheir roots through six thousand years of history. 

Mr. A. H, Keene also says of the construction of the pyra- 
mids- 



n EKVplii 



mb 4 ft.s 



434 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

flame of fire/ The pyramids of Egypt are in the first place the tomb oi 
kings. The rise of this type has been ascribed to the 6th or yih Dynasty 
3400 or 3200 B. C. The Roval pyramids are numerous, but none have beer 
the subject of architectural study except the largest. That of Medum, 40c 
B. C. seems to have been built over a mastebah.but it was sheathed with 
masonry, and brought to a point. The great pyramids of Gizeh have beer 
supposed to have gained their great size from continued enlarging and re 
casing through a long reign. The pyramids are mainly cairns. They ar« 
solid masses of stone or brick, but each has a chamber with several passa 
ges leading to them which are carefully concealed, while false passages ex 
ist which are intended to deceive plunderers.*** 

The sides of the three great pyramids of Egypt face the 
four cardinal points of the compass. Cheops measures 750 ft 
on each of the four sides. It is 450 ft. in height, and covers 
an area of nearly 13 acres. Its estimated weight is about 7,- 
000.000 tons. 

There were changes in the construction of the pyramids 
The first or oldest is the so called step pyramid of Sakkarah 
The steps are six in number and vary in height from 38 to 25 
feet, their width being about 6 feet. The dimensions are 352X 
396 feet, and 197 feet high. Some authorities think this pyra- 
mid was erected in the first dynasty. The arrangement o\ 
chambers in the pyrimid is quite special. The claim to the 
highest antiquity IS disputed by some in favor of the **Fals€ 
Pyramid of Medum." This is a step pyramid 115 feet high 
and shows three stages, 70, 2o and 25 feet high. This presents 
the form of the Mastabah more fully than any other pyramid 
and shows clearly how the pyramids of Egypt originated 
The blunted pyramid of Dashur forms one of the group of 
four, tv o of stone and two of brick. The dimensions of these 
are as follows: 700x700 — 326 feet high; 620x620 — 321 feet 
high; 350x350—90 feet high; 343x343 — 156 feet high. Ac- 
cording to Prof. F. Petrie there is a small temple on the east 
side ot the pyramid of Medum. At sunset at the equinox the 
sepulchre chamber and the sun were inline from the adytum. 

The sphinx near the pyramid of Cheops was oriented true 
cast and m^y possibly be ascribed to the early pyramid build- 
ers. It could only have been sculptured by a race with an 
equinoctial cult. The east and west orientation is seen at the 
pyramids of Gizeh.f 

It appears that pyramid building ceased after the sixth dy- 
nasty but was revived in the twelfth dynasty. Just before the 
Hyksos period King Amenhotep III. returned to the gigantic 
irrigation works of the pyramid buildino of the earlier dynas- 
ties. Two ornamental pyramids were built, surrounded by 
statues, and the king himself was buried in the pyramid near 
the labyrinth. 

•See Staff Td's Compendium ot (ieogr-iphy aad Travel' "Central and South America," b) 
A. H. Keene, Lon Ion. Stanford & Co. 1901. 

tScc Dawn of Astro omy, P. 337, by Norman Lockyer. 



THE PYRAMIDS OF BABYLONIA 



435 



II, We turn now from the pyramids of Egypt to those ol 
Babylonia, but shall notice the contrast between the two class- 
«ss. One of the points of difference is found in the manner ol 
orienting the pyramids. Those of Babylonia are oriented tO' 
wards the solslicL-s, the corners towards the points of the com 
f3ass. This has been taken by Mr. Norman Lockyer as evi 
clence that the pyramids of Babylonia were older than those 
cjf Egypt, as solstitial worship is supposed to be older than 
the equinoctial.* 

He ^ays: "The east and west orientation is chiefly re- 
s-narkable at the pyramids of Gizeh and the associate temples, 
fc»ut it is not confined to them. The argument in favor of 
t hese structures being the work of intruders, is thai a perfectly 
■new astronomical idea comes in, as quite out of place in 
l-~'- gypt, with the solstitial rising river, as the autumnal equinox 
-^was at Eridu, with the river rising at the spring equinox. 

-We are justi6ed from what is now knoA'n of the Nile dom- 
m nattng and defining the commencement of the Egyptian year 
^a.t the solstices, in concluding that other ancient peoples placed 
» n like conditions would act in the same way; and if these 
^i^onditions weri such that spring would mean sowing time and 
.^FMutumn har\'est time, their year would begin at an equinox." 
There are other evidences ^o prove that the pyramids of 
SSabylonia were the oldest in the world, wiiile those of Egypt 
^are orientated toward the equinoxes, their sides toward the 
^jjoints of the compass 

The pyramids of Babylonia have a tradition connected 
">.*ith them which goes back to the earliest time. This tradition 
S-ias been preserved in the sacred Scriptures. Various inter- 
(sretations have bfjen given to it and to the whole story of the 
^czieluge with which it strems to have been connected. Accord- 
». ng to the celebrated author Ihcring. the whole story of the 
^Garden of Eden, the sin of the first pair, the banishment, the 
^contest between Cain and Abel, was a pictorial representation 
^of the progress of society from a primitive condition, up 
"through the various stages. The change from a natural state, 
^^vbere the peoplu fed upon fruits, was followed by the shep- 
herd life, and that by the agricultural or the raising of fruit 
■^nd grain, a contest occurring between the shepherds and ag- 
riculturists all represt-ntcd by the stury of Cain and Abel. 
~The building of the first city was by the agriculturists, but the 
"fcuilding of the first Pyramid was to escape the floods to 
■^hich the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates was subject. 

The confirmation of the story is founded on the fact 
that the first pyramid was actually erected to escape the 
iloods which were so common in the valley of the Tigris and 
Xuphrates. Whatever we may say about the correctness of 
this interpretation, we must conclude that the tradition at least 




( 



436 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN- 

favors the extreme antiquity of the pyramids of this locality. 
The recent discovery by the party sent out by the University 
of Pennsylvania to explore the ruined cities in the valley of 
the Tigris, also confirms the theory. The opinion expressed by 
the chief of the party, Professor Hilprecht, is that the pyra- 
mids here were built perhaps as early as 6000 3. C, which 
would make them two or three thousand years older than 
those of Egypt. It is true that certain graves have been dis- 
covered in Egypt which carry back the date of the first or 
oldest race to a marvellous antiquity, but the pyramids here 
were certainly not built before the days of Menes, the first 
king:, and no one claims for his reign a date earlier than 3500 
B.C. 

It is true that burials which belong to the Stone age have 
been found in Egypt. They carry us back to a more primitive 
stage, but the date of the Babylonian pyramids is supposed to 
be much earlier. The discovery of libraries at Babylonia con- 
taming tablets with cuneiform writing upon them carries back 
the date of the Babylonian civilization much further than that 
of Egypt and confirms the tradition in reference to the valley 
of the Tigris having been the original home of the human 
race. 

The fact that the pyramids of Babylonia were built in imi- 
tation of mountains favors their antiquity. This confirms the 
tradition in reference to the ark resting upon a mountain, 
which shows that the pyramid builders here originallv migrat- 
ed from the mountains. The difference in the construction is 
to be noticed. The pyramids of Babylonia were ziggurats or 
towers and not pyramids at all, nor were they used for burial 
places, but rather the foundation for temples or shrines. 

Many differences between the pyramids of Egypt and 
those of Babylonia may be traced. 

1. The pyramids of Egypt were tor the most part con- 
structed for tombs and had no buildings upon the summit or 
in the immediate vicinity. The temple of the Great Sphinx^ 
discovered in 1853 below the level of the sand, was construct- 
ed by the pyramid builders. . This temple was, however, a 
tomb as well as a temple. Numerous other tombs of great in- 
terest have been discovered near the temples; that of Edtou, 
the one at Sakkarah, the tomb of Beni Hassen, are supposed 
to belong to the same period. 

2. The pyramids of Egypt were constructed out of heavy 
blocks of stone which, with incredible toil, were transported 
from the mountains upon the other side of the river and lifted 
to their height by mere brute strength. The pyramids of 
Babylonia were generally constructed out of earth, and were 
built in terraces; the ends were veneered with stone, pavements 
of stone being placed on the platforms or terraces, and either 
palace, or shrine, or temple being placed upon the sumitiit. 



THE PYRAMIDS OF BABYLONIA. 437 

3. The pyramids of Egypt were perfect pyramids. Tliey 
were built in imitalion of mastabahs or primitive Egyptian 
houses, or tombs placed upon one another, thus making terra- 
ces, but before they were completed the terraces were filled 
■wfith stone, and the whole was covered with a veneering of 
polished flint, which made them perfect cubes. The only 

room or house about them was on the inside or below the sur- 
face. The pyramids of Babylonia on the contrary were always 
tiLiilt in terraces and were surmounted by a building of some 
Icind, either a palace, a temple, or a religious house, and were 
■never perfect pyramids. They resembled the pyramids of 
^j'^merica much more than they did those of Egypt. 

4. Another difference is shown in the fact that in Ba- 
fcylonia the pyramids were all orientated toward the solstices, 
■« he corners toward the points of the compass. "It is almost 
impossible to suppose that those who worshiped the sun at the 
solstice did not begin the year at the solstice, and that those 
-^vho proposed to arrange themselves as equinoctials did not 
"fcegin the year at an equino.v. Both of these practices could 
iiardly go on in the case of the same race in the same coun- 
try. We have then, a valuable hint of the equinoctial cult of 
OiEch. which in all orobability was interpolated after the non- 

^^quinoctial worship had been first founded at Abydos 
.snd possibly Thebes.'' 

5. We notice another difference between the pyramids of 
ZSgypt and thi>se of Babylonia • "One of the oldest pyramids 
■ n Egypt is the so-called step pyramid of Sakkarah. The 
^teps are six in number and vary in height from 38 to Jg feet, 

iheir width being 6 feet. Some authorities think that this 
~^vas erected in the first dynasty by the 4th king, but was built 
^fter the pattern uf a series of mastabshs imposed on one 
.another. "There aru 16 step pyramids in the valley of the Nile. 

The question has arisen as to the relative antiquity of the 
pyramids of Babylonia, some having claimed that those of 
Egypt were theolder, but others have given the precedence to 
those of Babylonia. The best authority, however, is Norman 
Lockyer, and he maintains that the pyramids of Egypt were 
built by an intruding race from Babylonia called the "new 
-race," the name being taken from the fact that it was newly 
round. 

^ The great pyramids of Egypt were built in the time of the 
4th dynasty, but two or three distinct periods had passed be- 
fore this dynasty began. The first period was marked by a 
people who were in the Stone age. 

The second period was marked by the peculiar bu- 
rials and the peculiar character of relics. The burial was in 
the circular grave with an immense number of pottery vessels 
arranged around the bodies, the deposit indicating that the 
people lived in circular huts. 



438 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The third period was marked by burial in a mastabah or 
rectangular tomb, built in imitation of the dwelling^ house of 
the people, the body being placed in a cellar or well below the 
house. 

The date of the earliest known pyramids in Egypt may be 
put down as about 3700 B. C. or ^200 B. C. There is conclu- 
sive evidence that the kings of Babylon built ziggurats or tow- 
ers which were in reality step pyramids, as early as 4200 B. C. 
There was an equality of arts and the possession of similar 
tools in Chaldea and in Egypt at about the same time. 

If this is a correct explanation, then we may regard the 
pyramid at Babylon as a monument of one of the most im- 
portant events of history, as well as the reminder of a great 
convulsion of nature. 

This does not, to be sure, fully account for the peculiar 
manner in which the pyramid was built, nor does it account 
for the fact that the different terraces bore different col- 
ors and were sacred to the different planets, the shrine upon 
its summit being sacred to the sun. 

Least of all does it account for the presence of courts and 
columns and other peculiarities of construction such as have 
been disclosed by recent excavations. Yet notwitstandingall 
the discrepancies, the traditions of the past and the explora- 
tions of the present have combined to make the spot a mem- 
orable one. 

All of these differences seem to confirm the opinion 
that upon this very spot near the mouth of the Tigris, 
the earliest civilization appeared, and from this as a center 
not only the historic but even many of the prehistoric 
races began their migrations, the tradition of the flood spread- 
ing from the center to nearly all parts of the world. It is 
also the opinion of the best Egyptologists that these and 
other pyramids in Babylonia preceded those of Egypt, the 
civilization of this region having reached a high point even 
when in Egypt the recently found race called the " new 
race" were \n the stage of barbarism which was peculiar to 
the Stone age, the circular graves and the pottery vessels 
recently discovered being supplanted by themastabahs and 
pyramids which the imigrants from the East had introduc- 
ed. 

It is then to the pyramids of Babylonia that we look 
for the earliest tokens of civilization and for the earliest 
record of history. 

III. The pyramids of America will next engage our at- 
tention, It is well known that there are many pyramids on 
this continent Some of them, constructed of earth, are found 
in the Mississippi valley, others, made out of stone and earth 
combined, in Mexiv^o and Central America, still others, made 
out of stone altogether, in Peru; a great variety of shapes be- 
ing presented by the pyramids here. It has been the favoriite 



THE PVKAMIDS OF AMERICA. 



theory with certain writers, especially the celebrated LePlon- 
geon, thit the pyramids of Central America were exactly like 
the pyramids of Eeypt, and were perhaps constructed by a 
colony from Egypt. In support ot this opinion he ri^fers to 
the various statues which in some respects resemble those 
found in the valley of the Nile, and claims that even the mod- 
el of the sphinx has been discovered here. In order to do 
away with this visionary theory we shall show the probable 
origin of the pyramids of America, 

It was very natural for the people upon this contment to 
erect pyramids or pyramid mounds for the purpose of raising 
their houses, and especially the houses of the ruling classes, 
above the surface, for by this means they could be iree from 
the overflow of the sircam-i, from the attack of wild animals, 
and from the malaria and heat, which continued upon the sur- 
face, and made the nights so uncomfortable and the people so 
liable to sickness, especially iu tropical regions. The largest 
pyramids were erected here m the same latitude *iith those of 
Egypt and Babylonia, and many of the circumstances were 
similar, but this does not pro^'e anv conneciion between the 
builders. 

It is certainly eas' 
to trace a resemblanci 
between the plalforn 
mounds and pyramiti 
earth worksof the Mis 
sissippi valley and thi 
various pyramids o 
Mexico and Centra 
America for they seen 
tohavebeen builtafte 
the same genera 
model, the terraces pyramid MouNLi ih uhio 

rising above one another in succession, wilh stairways or graded 
ways leading up to their summits upon either side. Many of 
them were placed inside of enclosures and had their sides 
oriented exactly as were the temples and pyramids in the cen- 
tral provinces. These platforms were surmounted by different 
olBcial buiklmgs. 

A siill more .striking resemblance may be found in ihe so- 
called Chunkey Yards in the Gulf states, for these were gen- 
erally placed in the center of the village and were used as the 
place of amusenient for the people, the rotunda being at one 
end of the public square, and in all ihese respects resembled 
the tennis courts or gymnasiums which arc so noticeable in 
Central America the very arrangement of ih': buildings and 
the yards suggesting a common origin. 

This resemblance however, docs not furnish any explanation 
of the origm of the pyramids in America, nor do they prove 
^.„;,i i.,..ij— I,,... 1 3„y connection with the 




that the pyramid builders hei 



440 THE AMERICAN AN IIQUAKIAN. 

pyramid builders of the old world, but on the contr&ry they 
must be taken as another illustration of the law of parallel de- 
velopment, the agricultural life and sedentnry state of the 
mound builders leading them to adopt the same form of reli- 
gion and the same general customs which wete adopted by the 
pyramid builders in the countries of the Kast. 

It should be said th it a theory has bc:en advanced in ref- 
erence to the pyramids of America which would make them 
the work of a mysterious race who ones iiihabiied the greater 
part of the North American continent, auU who constructed 
the platform mounds of the Missis'^ippi valley, and erected 
the many storied pueblos of the interior, and the lofty terrace 
pyramids of Mexico, and filled one entire belt of latitude with 
the tokens of their presence. 

This theory, however, would be decidedly misleading, for 
whatever we may conclude as lo the time when this continent 
was first reached, or as to the direction which the first inhabit- 
ants took in their migration, the evidence is that all the struct- 




PVKAMID AT ETOWAH. 

ure< which have thus far been discovered arc the works of dif- 
ferent tribes and races. 

We are to notice, however, that the early stages of architec- 
tiire are to be recognized on this continent, and what is more, 
the very influences and causes which led the nations of the 
ICast to erect their grea pyr.tmids and to make them their 
chief and most lasting monuments, led the natives of this 
nrmntry to erect their structures which have the pyramidal 
firm. What those influences were is not easily determined. 
Yet it is probable that the mode of life or occupation, the so- 
cial conditions, the religious belief and the mythological con- 
c.'ptions had as much to do with the forms of their structures 
as their mechanical skill had. and to these we must look for 
our explanation of the pyramids. It is well known that the 
pyramids of the East were bjilt by an agricultural people who 
never settled in permanent villages or cities and were generally 
sun worshipers, and that temples to the sun were frequently 
associated with the pyramids. 

The same may al.so be said of the pyramids of this" conti- 
nent, for there are no pyramids except in those regions where 
agriculture abounds, and where sun worsnip prevailed, but 
pyramids are the most numerous where sun worship and sky 




IHE PYKAMIDS OF AMERICA. 



worship prevailed with the great- 
est force. Many of the pyramids 
were lo be sure erected under the 
shadow of great mountains, and 
there may have been an attempt 
to imitate the mountains in the 
sizf and shape of the pyramids, 
yt-t we do not learn that there are 
any shrines devoted to the moun- 
tain divinities, as personifications 
of the sun and moon and the 
hc-aveoly bodies were very nume- 
rous, and nearly all the shrines 
and temples, as well as the pyrn- 
mids, were devoted to their wor- 
ship. In fact we may conclude 
that the pyramids of America had 
their origin in the same causes that 
led to the erection of the pyra- 
mids of Kgypt and iJabyionia. and 
that the same religious systems 
were embodied in them that were 
embodied in the great structures 
of the East, also those which re- 
late to religions such as sacred 
jilaces, priesthoods, native pan- 
iheons worship, private religion 
■■'ltd religious literature are espcci- 
[i'l\- pertinent. 

I hf pyramids of America in- 
; n ■■t us fully as much as do those 
' I K),'ypt or Babylonia, though 
U-s.s IS known concerning them, 
their builder:^, or even their his- 
tor\-. It is not claimed that they 
.im'.ls ancient as those of the old 
. <rld. nor is it maintained that 
^- much labor and oxpense was 
!.!;ii on them, and yet their form 
and character and the manner of 
their erection are worthy of es- 
pecial study. 

Some of these pyramtde were 
built in tt-rraces designed for the 
suppo-'t of palaces resembling the 
lint shown in the cut which re- 
presents the governor's house at 
Uxmal. 

h will be noticed in the first 
place that there were quite three 



1 



I 



44J THli AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

distinct regions on the continent in which pyramid* were 
common, and three distinct races who were pyramid builders, 
the Aztecs having built the majorityof those found in Mexico, 
the Mayas those scattered through Centra! America, and the 
far famed Incas having built those found in Peru. 

It is to be noticed further that the style of building the 
pyramids varied according to the locality in which they were 
found, as those in Mexico are frequently placed upon natural 
elevations and owe their height to this circumstance, while 
those of Central America were generally built upon tbe same 
level, but reached to different heights according to the pur- 
pose for which they were designed, those which were to serve 
for the support of ihe palaces were built upon terraces spread 
over a large plat of ground, those designed for temples were 
compact and small, but reached a height which overtopped all 
other structures, while those designed for religious houses or 
for other purposes, varied in size and height. 

There were many terraced pyramids scattered through the 
country on which large buildings were erected resembling 
those which were common in New Mexico. These, because 
of their size and shape, were formerly supposed to be commu- 
nistic houses like the Pueblos of the north, and the theory was 
advanced that the people lived in the same manner. This, 
however, has proved to be a mistake, fbr all the pyramids of 
Mexico and Central America, as well as those of Peru, were 
built and occupied by the ruling class. Their very height and 
size impressed the common people with a feeling of awe for 
those who were in power and the many ceremonies which 
were conducted on the summit of the pyramids served to 
strengthen the feeling. It was a strange use to make of ar- 
chitecture and of art, and yet there was not a stairway which 
ted up to the summit of a pyramid, nor a figure or ornament 
on the facade of any palace, or an image on any temple that 
lose above a pyramid, which did not contribute to the power 
of the priests and kings and increase the superstition of the 
people. 

The element of terror was hidden in every ornament which 
was wrought by the hand of man, and served as a constant 
guard at the entrance of every temple and palace, the very 
height of the pyramids on which they were placed making the 
feeling all the more intense. It was an unconscious iniluencc. 
for if the sense of the sublime was awakened by the height of 
the pyramids, the same sense was kept alive by the strange 
and grotesque figures which appeared on the facades of the 
palaces and the temples, the very stairways which served as 
the means of approach being so wrought as to be the most 
awe inspiring of all. 

In this respect we may say that the pyramids of America 
were in great contrast to those of any other country, for while 
they were in themselves very plain, and simply served the 



THE PYRAMIDS OF AMERICA. 



purpose of platforms to the temples and palaces, yet the as- 
sociaiion of the platforms with the buiidinfis upon their sum- 
mit was so close as lo make them appear like one structures 
Thp same spirit that pervaded the decorations of the facade: 
also filled the mass of the pyramids which supported Ihem. 

These points are to be borne in mind as we proceed, for It 
is Hot lo the size or strength of the pyramids that we shall call 
especial attention, but rather to the peculiar mission which they 
performed in connection with ihe temples and palaces which 
were raised above them, the close combination of the build- 
ings with the masses which supported them making them more 
interesting as objects of study. 

As to the pyramids in Mexico, it is very plain that the ma- 
jority of them were designed for the support of a temple or 
place of sacrifice, and as the height of the pyramid would 
muke the ceremony ai! the more imposing and would give 
such effect to the sacrifice as to overawe the people and make 
them feel the power of the priests and kings. ThL's people 




some;imes resorted to the mountains and placed their altars 
upon the heights which overlooked the valleys and there light- 
ed their sacrificial fires. We referred to one such temple in 
another place. The following is the account furnished by Mr. 
M. H. Saville: 

They are all situated upon the summit of pyramids,but were 
probably so placed for the sake of escaping the malaria and 
heat, and taking advantage of the cool breezes which would 
sweep over them at their height. 

About a hundred and fifty miles north-westward from Vera 
Cruz, fifty miles in the same direction frocn Misantla, forty- 
five milei from the Coast, and four or five miles southwest from 



444 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the pueblo of Papantia, stands the pyramid shown in the cut, 
known to the world by the name of pueblo Papantla, but 
called by the Totonac natives of the region, Kl bajin, "the 
thunrlerbolt. " 

The pyramid stands in a dense forest, apparently not on a 
naturally or artificially fortified plateau, like the remains far- 
ther south. Its base is square, measuring a little over ninety 
feet on each side, and the height is about fifty-four feet; the 
whole structure was built in seven stones, the upper story be- 
ing partially in ruins. Except the upper story, which seems to 
have contained interior compartments, the whole structure 
was. so far as is known, solid. The material of which it was 
built, is a sandstone, in regular cut blocks laid in mortar, al- 
though Humboldt, perhaps on the authority of Dupaix, says 
the material is deposited in immense blocks covered with hiero- 
glyphic sculpture, the whole covered on the exterior surface 
with a hard cement three inches thick, which also bears traces 
of having been painted. 

There was a temple at Xochicalco, the hill of flowers; this 
is a natural elevation, of conical form, with an oval base, over 
two miles in circumference, rising from the plain to a height 
of nearly four hundred feet. Traces of paved roads of large 
stones tightly wedged together, lead in straight lines towards 
the hills from different directions. We find the hill covered 
from top to bottom with masonry. Five terraces paved with 
stone and mortar, and supported by perpendicular walls of the 
some material, extend in oval form, entirely round the whole 
circumference of the hill, one above the other. Neither the 
width of the paved platforms, nor the height of the supporting 
walls, has been given by any explorer, but each terrace, with 
the corresponding intermediate slope, constitutes something 
over seventy feet of the height of the hill. 

The very fact of its being a pyramid in several stories, gives 
to Xochicalco, a general likeness to all the more important 
American ruins. The terraces on the hill slopes have their 
counterparts at Kabah Cho'ila, and elsewhere; still, as a 
whole, the pyramid of Xochicalco, stands above all as its archi- 
tecture and sculpture, presents a strong contrast with Copan 
Uxmal, Palenque, Mitla, Cholula, Teotihuacan, or the many 
pyramids of Vera Cruz. It must be remembered that all 
the graded temples in Anahuac or Mexico, have disappeared 
since the conquest, so that a comparison with such buildings 
as that of Xochicalco is impossible. 

In the centre of one ot the facades, is an open space, some- 
thing over twenty feet wide, bounded by solid balistrades, and 
probably, occupied originally by a stair-way, although it is said 
that no traces of steps have been found among the debris. 

The pyramid, or at least its facing,is built of large blocks of 
granite or porphyry, a kind of .stone not found within a dis- 
tance of many leagues. The blocks are of different sizes, the 



THE PYRAMIDS OF AMERICA. 



445 



largest being about eleven feet long and three feet high, very 
few being Ici^s than five feet in length. They are laid without 
mortar, and so nicely is the work done that the joints are scar- 
cely perceptible. 

It was among the sheltered spots here that, the ancients 
buift their tombs, several of which have been found, being in 
the form of stone-lined cists. The most prominent peak of 
thii southern range, is at the western end, towering high above 
the rest, jjuarding, as it were, the Cuernavaca valley. This 
mountain is named Chalchihiiitepetl, or. hill of the Chalchi- 
huitc, the sacred green stone of ancient Mexico and Central 
America. There arc said to be old quarries of it on the southern 
side of the mountain, which have not yet been investigated. 

It was placed on a very conspicuous point upon a mountain 
height which overlooked a wide valley, the temple itself be- 
ing built in the form of a pyramid, but with the altar in front 
instead of upon the top. The temple wag divided into two 
parts. At its entrance were two square pillars, making three 
doorways, but in the rear was a shrine with hieroglyphics on 
ihe walls. There was a fire bed in front of the- temple which 
gives the idea that human sacrifice may have be»;n offered up- 
on this spot, thus making the mountain itself serve the same 
purpose as an artificial pyramid.* 

The eastern end of the temple, shows a structure com- 
posed of four parts, the lowest, simply a wide foundation 
built of rough stones connected together. This serves as a 
■foundation for the second part, the two forming a truncated 
pyramid. Against the eastern side of the pyramid aro the remains 
of a. steep flight of steps; resting upon the lower pyramid is a 
smaller night one of thesamcform. Accordingly we reach the 
lower platform and, are in front of the old temple, which faced 
the we>t. The temple is slightly smaller than the pyramid. 
Nothing remains of the frcnt wall with the exception of two 
square columns, showing a wide central door, with a narrow 
one on either side. This temple is divided into two rooms. At 
either end of the front room was a narrow bench or seat built 
against the wall; in its centre was an altar, where the 
•acred fire was lighted. The importance of this altar, is 
found in the fact that it was upon the summit of a mountain 
overlooking a wide valley and was probably used as a place of 
sacrifice. It is well known that, human sacrifice was practic- 
ed by the Aztecs, and that the Teocalli reeked with human 
gore. The most important feature of the ruin is, the hierog- 
lyphic inscription. This establishes the date of the temple at 
1502, A. D, ; seventeen years before the entry of Cortez into 
Mexico. It is one of the few ruined temples which have bten 
discovered, and its discovery shows that the same form of 
temple architecture prevailed among the Aztecs that had pre- 



U6 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



vailed among the Toltccs, but the temple among the Aztecs 

was devoted to human sacrifice. 

The pyramids of CcTitral America are similar to those of 
Mexico in many respects, and yet differ enough to warrant 
a separate account of them. 

The cities here, are all very much alike. There was, in each 
a palace, which was generally arranged in a quadrangle, and 
furnished with courts and plazas, having wide terraces or plat- 
forms, in front of them, while the temples, were single build- 
ings, placed on the summit of a lotty pyramid and, were ap- 
proached by stairways, some of which were in the shape of ser- 
pents, whose heads projected beyond the stairway. There was 
a slight difference between the temples of the Mayas and Nah- 
uas, but the difference consisted more in the ornamentation 
than in the construction. 

Bancroft says: " Having fixed upon a site for a proposed 
edifice the Maya builder invariably constructed an artificial 




I 
I 



elevation on which it might rest. If it was a palace or a Nun- 
nery so called.or some other public building. the elevatiom would 
consist of a series of wide terraces and platforms, which were 
surmounted by the buildings which were generally a single 
story in height, but .so covered with heavy cornices and enta- 
blatures as to make them appear to be at least two stories in 
height. The tower in the centre, often arose to a height of 
three and four stories, thus giving them an imposing appear- 
ance. The palaces were generally long buildings, and had 
many doorways, some of which opened outward toward the 
terraces; others inward, toward the court." 

"All of the pyramids arc truncated; none forming a poiii 

the top. A few of them have been found to have contained I 

tombs, which were probably the tombs of kings or priests, 1 





THE PYRAMIDS OF AMERICA 



Jt7 



Some of the temples have tomb? in the lower stories, with 
stairs leading down to (he chambers. The edifices supported 
by the mounds, were built upon the summit platform, and, gen- 
erally, cover the platform with the exception of a narrow esp- 
lanade around them. The palaces are built in receding ranges. 
one above another, on the .slope, and are quite imposing in 
their appearance. One building usually occupies the summit, 
but in several cases, four of them enclose an interior court 




TEMCLE OF THK MACilClANS. 

yard. The buildings are low and narrow. Thirty-one feet Js 
the greatest height; thirty-nine feet the greatest width; three- 
hundred thirty-two feet the greatest length. The roofs arc flat, 
and like th; aoors, covertd with cement." 

The walls are in proportion to the dimensions of the build- 
ing, very thick, usually from three to six feet, but sometimes 
nine feet. The interior has generally two, rarely four, parallel 
ranges of rooms, while in a few uf the smaller buildings an unin- 
terrupted corridor extended the whole length. Neither 
rooms nor corridors ever exceed twenty feet in width or 



448 TlIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

length, while the ordinary width is eight to ten feet, and the 
height fifteen to eighteen feet; sixty feet is the greatest length 
noted. The walls of each room rise, perpendicurlarly, for one- 
half their height and, then approach each other by the stone 
blocks overlapping horizontally to within about one foot, the 
intervening spacebeingcovered with alayer of wide flat stones, 
and the projecting corners being beveled off to form a straight 
or rarely a curved surface. 

This shows the general characteristics of the various pyra- 
mids and palaces but we shall need to take specific cases to 
understand them fully. We have given a number of cuts 
which illustrate the different pyramids, especially those on 
which temples were erected. One of them represents the pyra- 
mid at Izamal which Charnay visited and has described. 

He says: *'The great mound is called Kinich-Kakmo 'the 
sun's face with fiery rays,* from an idol which stood in the tem- 
ple crowning its summit. The monument consists of two parts, 
ihe basement, nearly 650 feet long, surmounted by an immense 
platform, and the small pyramid to the north. Facing this to 
the south was another great mound. The third pyramid to the 
east supported a temple dedicated to Zamna, the founder of 
the great Maya Empire. The fourth pyramid to the west had 
on its summit the palace of the 'commander-in-chief of 8000 
flints.' On its side near the basement, consisting of stone, 
laid without mortar, stood the gigantic face reproduced by 
Stephens. It is 7 feet 8 inches high. The features are rudely 
formed of small rough stones and afterward covered with 
stucco. On the east side is the collossal head 13 ft. high, the 
eyes, nose, and under lip formed of rough stones covered over 
with mortar, while double spirals, symbols of wind or speech 
may be seen, similar to those in Mexico at Palenque and Chic- 
hen Itza." 

The pyramids and palaces at Uxmal are also worthy of 

notice. They have been described by different writers, among 

them Mr. J. L. Stephens, Charnay, Mr. W. H. Holmes, Mr. 

Bancroft and others. Mr. Holmes has furnished a panorama 

which shows the number and shape of these pyramids, and a 

general description of them from which we make brief extracts: 

" The pyramid Temple of the Magicians (A); the Nunnery quadrangle 
(B); the Gymnasium (C); the House of the Turtles (D);the Governor's palace 
(E); the House of the Pigeons (F); and near it the massive pyramid (G);also 
the temple crowned pyramid (H); and a group consisting of two pyramids 
(I); and further away ruined masses." 

A pyramid at Uxmal is described by Charnay but he 
calls it the Dwarf's House. He says: *'It is a charming tem- 
ple crowning a pyramid with a very steep slope 400 feet high. 
It consists of two parts, one reared on the upper summit, 
the other a kind of chapel, lower down, facing the town. It 
was richly ornamented and presumably dedicated to a great 
deity. Two stairways facing east and west led to these build- 
ings." 



THE PYRAMIDS OF AMERICA. 



449 



Of thisHouseof the Magicians (A) Mr. Holmes says: ■'This 
temple may well be regarded as the most notable among the 
group and is the first to catch the eye of the visitor. The tem- 
ple which crowns the summit is some 70 feet long by 12 feet 
wide and contains three rooms the middle one being longer 
than the others. 

The Nnnnery qua- 
dra ;^le( B ) he says, is 
among the best known 
specimens of Maya 
architecture. Four 
great rectangular 
strnctures, low, heavy 
and formal in general 
conformation, stand 
upon a broad terrace 
in quadrangular ar- 
rangement. The ter- 
race measures up- 
wards of 300 feet 
square. The four great 
facades facing the 
court are among the 
most notable in Yu- 
catan and deserve es- 
p.'cial attention at 
the hands of students 
of American art. Of 
the Governor's Hoi'se 
he says:*(E) "This su- 
perb building crown- 
ing the summit is re- 
garded as the most 
important single 
structure of its class 
in Yucatan and lor 
that matter in Ame- 
rica. It is extremely 
simple in plan and 
outline being a tra- 
pezoidal mass some 
320 feet long, 40 feet 
wide and 25 or 26 feet 
high. It IS partially 
separated into three 
parts, a long middle 

shorter sections, with 
recesses leading to 




450 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

two great transverse archways. The front wall is pierced by 
nine principal doorways and by two archway openings and 
presents a facade of rare beauty and great originality." 

"One of the grandest structures in Uxmal is the great trun- 
cated pyramid (G) seen in the panorama rising at the south- 
west corner of the main terrace of the palace. It is sixty or 
seventy feet in height, and measures, according to Stephens, 
some 200 ft. by 300 ft. at the base. This author described a sum- 
mit platform 65 feet square and three feet high, and a narrow 
terrace extending all around the pyramid fifteen feet below 
the crest. The surfaces seem to have been richly decorated 
with characteristic sculptures." 

Of the Houseof the Pigeons(F)he says: "This unique structure 
is a remarkable quadrangle which could appropriately be called 
the Quadrangle of the Nine Gables. The court of this quad- 
rangle is I80 feet from east to west and 150 from north to 
south. Here was a great building of unusual construction and 
size with an arch opening through the middle into a court 
bearing upon its roof a colossal masonry cone, built at an enor- 
mous expenditure 6i time and labor." 

The pyramids at Palenque are aNo described by various 
authors, Del Rio, Dupaix, Waldeck, Stephens, Ch&rnay, Ban- 
croft, and Maudslev. Mr. Holmes has drawn a panorama of 
this city with its ruined palaces and temples. 

He says of the pyramids: ' "There are upward of a dozen 
pyramids of greatly varying style and dimensions, eight only re- 
taining the remains of their superstructures. Some arc built 
on level ground and are symmetrical, while others arc set against 
the mountain sides. With respect to the stairways by which 
the pyramids were ascended Stephens and others seem to con- 
vey the idea that the temple pyramids had stairs on all sides 
covering the entire surface. As stair builders the Palenquians 
were superior in some respects to the Yucatecs. Some of the 
short flights which lead from the courts to the adjoining galle- 
ries are of speeial interest." 



THE CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PRIMITIVE 
IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 

BY ALTON HOWARD THOMPSON, TOPEKA, KANSAS. 



PART II. THE PSYCHIC EMERGENCE OF MAN. 

The struggles of the first man ape to maintain his existence 
amid the hostile surroundings in which he found himself, are 
fraught with peculiar interest, and are even pathetic when we 
consider the great odds that were against him in the fight. He 
well employed what gifts nature had bestowed upon him with 
such skill as he possessed, and by the cultivation of that skill 
made of himself a new being, who. in the process of evolution, 
dominated not only over the rest of the animal world but made 
nature herself his slave. 

His own natural weapons of defence, the teeth and claws, 
v^ere being reduced with a rapidity that must have speedily 
brought about his extinction, but for the development of the 
grasping powers of the hand which enabled him to employ the 
extra-natural resonrct'saround him. These natural weaponscame 
in to supplement his own waning powers. The reduction of 
the jaws, teeth and claws, we can readily perceive, were a cor- 
relative variation, due to the evolution of the grasping powers 
of the hand and the assumption of th*^ erect attitude. From 
the primitive arboreal prototype it is probable that the later an- 
cestor of man descended again to the earth and became semi- 
terrestrial in habit, like the anthropoid apes of to-day. But 
the grasping power of the hand still remained and developed 
for other purposes than climbing and with its development 
the seizing and prehensile functions of the jaws and teeth were 
i^uperceded, and becoming useless, these parts were corres- 
pondingly reduced according to nature's well known laws of 
economy of growth. For. as Darwin well says, (Descent of 
Man. 562): "As man gradually became erect and continually 
used his arms and hands for fiehting with sticks and stones, as 
well at for other purposes of life, he would have used his teeth 
and jaws less and less. The jaws, together with their muscles, 
would then have been reduced through disuse, as well as the 
teeth, through the principles of correlation and economy of 
growth." This correlated variation is one of the most wonder- 
ful chapters of humim evolution! The jaws and teeth are of 
such embryonic form in man to-dav that some other influence 
must have supervened to accomplish their reduction, aside 
from mere food selection. This power in man's primitive, 
ancestral type, was undoubtedly the developmeut of the grasp- 
ing power of the hand with the consqeuent relieving of th^ de- 
mand upon the jaws and teeth for fighting, prehension and 
food seizing. With the evolution of the manual grasping 
power, an immense resource was placed at the command of 
pithecanthropic man for combat with his enemies. Indeed, it 



452 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN^. 

was apparently sufficient to enable him to survive in his 
struggle for existence and was the cause of all his subsequent 
marvellous evolution. He could not only fight better but he 
could procure food easier, and this marvellous new facuUy 
thus contributed to the better solution of the two greatest 
problems of primeval life. 

While the ancestral form of man became gradually adapted 
to terrestrial locomotion, he retained the erect attitude ac- 
quired in the arboreal existence of his predecessors. Thus it 
came about that the upper limbs, the hands and arms, were 
left free to be employed for other purposes than locomotio i. 
As Charles Morris says, (Man and His Ancestor, 51): *'The 
organization of man renders it questionable if his immedi.ite 
ancestor was arboreal to the extent of the apes andlemurs. 
He probably made the ground his habitual place of residence 
at an early period in his history and that the result of this new 
habit was a change in the relative length of his limbs, ^ (56) 
so that the man-ape was, in his early days, more truly a biped 
than any of the living apes and lemurs.*' Unlike the kan- 
garoo, the extinct dinosaurs and other animals which have 
learned to walk on the hind legs alone, the front limbs were 
not excessively reduced in man, for the reason that they were 
gradually diverted to the performance of other services and 
were kept employed. *'It is quite probable that the man-ape, 
at an early date, became more omnivorous in his diet, that he 
added flesh food to his fruit and nuts, and this would demand 
a more active employment of his hands and arms in the cap- 
ture of animals. This would not fail to modify to a great 
degree, the use of the arms, and would interfere with their 
utility in locomotion, so that more and more freedom would 
be necessary to render them effective." 

The original man-ape, the pithecanthropus of the trees, 
probably chased or sprang after his prey and seized it with his 
hands: but he also probably discovered, before he became ter- 
resterial in his habits, the uses of the club as a missile, and 
added these resources to his powers of overcoming and cap- 
turing living prey. The acquisition of these two habits of life, 
i.e., the addition of carniverous food to his dietary and his des 
cent to the ground, contributed largely to the evolution of the 
faculty of employing clubs and stones for striking and throw- 
ing, and he thereby became a distinct being. To this shadowy 
beginning, — when and where we know not, — we owe the begin- 
nings of the divergence which led to the evolution of man. 

The most important consideration in connection with the 
evolution of the grasping power of the hands is, that as primi- 
tive man learned to use the club or a stone as a tool or 
weapon, — even in a simple and automatic way, — and as he came 
to attempt more precision and skill that these efforts taught 
him to think, and this important result marked the era of his 
psychic eqiergence from the purely animal kingdom and his 



PRIMITIVE IMPLEMENTS. 453 

emancipation from the thraldom of mere animal mentality. 
The awakening of the consciousness of a desire for greater 
precision in the use of the hand, acted as a stimulus of the 
nerve centres controlling motion and these centres became 
enlarged by the efforts put forth to accomplish the desire. 
The first observation that a sharp pointed stick was better 
than a blunt one, and suggested the possibility of sharpening 
it by hand, was a forward step of the greatest possible import- 
ance. It made the difference between the man-ape and the 
ape-man, — between the mere animal with his automatic mind 
and the predestined, thinking man. The vital spark that first 
lit up the mind of pithecanthropic man acted as a stimulus on 
the nerve substance and it grew, and as it grew he thought 
more, and as he thought more his brain grew more, — and he 
became a man. As Prof. J. D. Cunningham has well said, 
(Free. Brit. A.A. Science, 1901, SCIENCE, 641): **ln man 
certain parts of the cerebral cortex have been greatly en- 
larged, — and there is no corresponding increase in the simian 
brain. I do not think it difficult to account for this important 
expansion of the cerebral surface. In the forepart of the 
region involved are placed the groups of motor centers which 
control the muscular movements of the more important parts 
of the body.,|n|j Within this are the centers for the arm and 
hand.« and others. In man certain of these have undoubtedly 
undergone marked expansion. The skilled movements of the 
hand, as shown in the use of tools, have not been acquired 
'without an increase in the brain mechanism by which these are 
guided. So important, indeed, is the part played by the human 
Ixand as an agent of the mind, and so perfectly is it adjusted 
with reference to this office that there are many who think 
that the first great start which man obtained on the path which 
has led to his higher development, was given by setting his 
upper limb free from the duty of acting as an organ of support 
and locomotion. It is an old saying **that man is the wisest 
of animals because of his hands." Thus the brain received a 
stimulus by the dawning of the idea of using the hands, with 
the consequent reactions in both directions, i.e., the increasing 
of manual skill and the evolution of thought power. For as 
Prof. Russell, (of Yale College) says, *The manual concept 
reacts upon the mental concept," and the stimulus is mutual 
and retroactive. This mutual effect is well understood and is 
utilized in special fields of training for both the muscles and 
the brain. It is a well known fact that in dealing with crim- 
inals, incapables and defectives in reformatories and special 
schools for the defective classes, that the training of the mus- 
cles is the first step in the process of awakening the dormant 
powers of the mind. The results of this method have been 
simply marvellous, as all who are engaged in the blessed work 
of reclaiming defectives, can well attest. As Dr. E. S. Talbot 
says, (Degeneracy, 362): ^'Manual training is a principle long 



454 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

adopted in idiot schools, where training of certain muscles 
through both mental and physical methods precedes intellec- 
tual training alone." Manual training in the common schools 
is now looked upon, — and its results well attest its value, — as 
a desirable, if not necessary adjunct in the work of the awak- 
ening and development not only of the physical powers but 
also the mental life of children. Its effect upon dullards is 
like an inspiration. The reflex effect upon the brain of 
manual effort, of the consciousness of manual precision, is 
well understood where ever displayed. This effect, we are 
bound to believe, was the potent power that awakened the 
mind of primitive man, and that his psychic emergence was 
due to that awakening. From that moment he ceased to be a 
mere animal and became a man. 

(to be continued) 



-oo- 



SOUTH AMERICAN ARCH/EOLOGY IN THE AME- 
RICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, 

NEW YORK. 

Hall 308, the South American Gallery in the American 
Museum of Natural History, New York, contains archaelogical 
collections from Peru and Bolivia, collected by Mr. A. F. Ban- 
delier on expiditions instituted in 1892 at the expense of the 
late Mr. Henry Villard, and continued for the Museum until 
1900; a number of older collections from the same region; 
collections from Colombia; and archaeological material from 
Brazil. 

The greater part of the hall is filled with collections illus- 
trating the various forms of cultures prevailing in the empire 
of the Incas, which was inhabited principally by two groups 
of people, — the Kechua and the Aymara. The people inhabit- 
ing this empire were tillers of the soil. They raised maize, 
potatoes, yucca, tobacco, and cotton. They had domesticated 
the llama, which was used as a beast of burden, and the wool 
of which served in the manufacture of garments. They were 
excellent road-builders. Their architectural structures were 
composed of immense bowlders fitted together without mortar. 
The arts of the people differ somewhat in different regions. 

The railing cases contain objects from the plateaus near 
Lake Titicaca. In the southern part of this district the 
Aymara were located, while northward extends the area in- 
habited by the Kechua. 

Typical pottery and wooden vessels, and some coarse fab 
rics which were used for a mummy covering are here in a wal." 



SOUTH AMERICAN ARCH/EOLOGY. 4S$ 

case. On top of the case are a number of large pottery vessels 
which served as water-jars. 

In this district is found pottery painted with delicate pat- 
terns similar to those found on woven fabrics. Some of the 
most beautiful objects made by the ancient inhabitants of this 
district were wooden vases and cups inlaid with elaborate 
designs. Shallow stone mortars and slabs for grinding corn 
were found in great numbers. 

Here are also located the ruins of Tiahuanaco, which 
were deserted at the time of the Conquest. Stones cut in 
peculiar forms, to be used for architectural purposes, were 
found here. A model of a monolithic doorway illustrates the 
type of architecture of this district 

In other railing cases a number of smaller objects, particu- 
larly copper pins, small pottery, spindle whorls, and beads, 
are exhibited. The northern part of the coast was inhabited 
by the Yuncas where culture differed somewhat from that of 
the tribes of the interior. 

A wall cave contains a number of garments and implements 
taken from mummies. A tattooing implement is shown in this 
case, while in Railing Case 9 may be seen the traces of tattoo- 
ing on a mummilied arm. The ancient Peruvians had no 
system of writing, but used knotted strings as mnemonic aids. 

On the mummies were garments made of wool and of 
cotton, illustrating the style of dress and ornamentation. 
Numerous bags contained coca, coin, meal, and similar sub- 
stances, were buried with the mummies. 

Mummies of v\omen are accompanied by spindles, looms, 
and other implements used in their handiwork. 

The forms of pottery differ considerably in different locali- 
ties. In some of these, comparatively simple forms prevailed, 
while in others imitations of natural objects were most fre- 
quent. 

At Chapen, Peru, many vases in the form of human heads 
were found, and others representing frogs, lions, fish, shells, 
and other animals. 

Specimens of beautiful ware in great variety of form and 
color are here exhibited. 

Elaborate ornaments in shell and feathers were worn by 
the nobility. A remarkably well preserved series of these is 
shown in this case (the gift of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan). 

A wealth of material was procured from the large grave- 
yard at Ancon, Peru, not far from Lima. A number of com- 
plete mummy bundles from this place are exhibited. The 
Peruvians were in the habit of placing over the mummies false 
heads, some of which were elaborately decorated. A great 
variety of utensils and implements used in the industries of 
the people were found with the mummies. 

The burial-grounds of Cuzco and Pachacamac, Peru, yield 
material of similar description. A number of feather head- 



45^ THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

dresses, complete work baskets, black pottery ware, and 
pouches, deserve special mention. 

A number of excellent pieces of pottery, and false heads 
of mummies, are exhibited. 

A well-preserved mummy from Ancon, Peru, and two 
work-baskets which were buried with it, are exhibited in Case F. 

A remarkable collection of beautiful specimens from 
various parts of Peru, made by Dr. E. Gaffron, was recently 
secured by the Museum, and is temporarily exhibited. The 
collection contains the most exquisite specimens of pottery, 
weaving, work in metal, and of inlaid work. 

North of the empire of the Incas was the territory inhabited 
by the Chibcha and allied tribes. Their culture differed con- 
siderably from that of the Peruvians. Pottery, stone-work, and 
beads, that were obtained from ancient burial-places in north- 
ern Colombia from a region that was under the influence of 
Chotcha culture are exhibited. 

The east coast of South America never attained a culture 
as high as that found on the western plateaus, but the pre- 
historic inhabitants of the region around the mouth of the 
Amazon River left behind them masses of pottery of a peculiar 
type, differing from that made by the more recent inhabitants 
of that area, and exhibiting excellent workmanship. 

The Peruvians were in the habit of deforming the heads of 
the infants by means of bandages. In cases of sickness they 
frequently resorted to trephining. Specimens are exhibited 
which illustrate these customs, and show that enormous por- 
tions of bone were sometimes removed. 

A number of beautiful pouches were found in a stone chest 
near Lake Titicaca. The colors and designs are remarkably^ 
well preserved. In the same case are seveial ponchos made 
of feather-work. 

Coverings of mummies, two elaborate false heads of mum- 
mies, and a number of exquisite specimens of Peruvian pottery 
collected by E. G. Squier, are exhibited. Anon. 



CAVE PAINTINGS IN WEST AUSTRALIA. 

BV JOHN FRASER, L. L. D., SVtlNEY. 

Sir George Greywas one of the Pro-consuls who have done 
so much to build up ihe British Empire in distant lands. 
Whether as Governor of an Australian province or of Cape 
Colony or of New Zealand, his energetic spirit found employ- 
ment both in the field of action and in the field of letters. His 
"Library of Philology" is an example of ihc one direction, 
and his '^Two Expeditions in Norlh-Wisl nnd ll',s/tTn Australia. 
iSjj-jg." in the other. While leading one of these expeditions 
— Capt. Grey he was then— he lighted nn the Glenelg River 
(Long. i25°io'K and 15° 45' S.) which fallsintoihe Western 
Ocean near that latitude. The ridges and rocks on the river 
are mostly of sandstone formation, and there are numerous 
caves. Of these, one which he discovered and entered, pre- 
sented to the eye and the mind a startling and mysterious 
appearance. "It was a natural hollow in the sandstone rock; 
its How was elevated about five feet from the ground, and 
something like steps of rock led up to it. The roof was a solid 
slab of sandstone, nine feet thick, sloping rapidly towards the 
back. The cave was eight feet high at the entrance, thirty 
feet wide, and sixteen feet deep. 

The cave itself was of little significance, but the flat sur- 
faces everywhere in it — above or end sidc,^were covered with 
painted fieures, chieflv human, in brilliant colors, red, yellow. 
blue, black, white. The principal figure was painted on the 
sloping roof in bright red and white; the neck, shoulders and 
arms were bare, but the body from the arm pits was clad in a 
loose gown, like a Saroiiff. with a figured pattern on it, the eye- 
balls were colored black and surrounded with a yellow oval; 
there was the outline of a nose, but then' iva^ no mouth. Another 
remarkable thing was that this human figure had the face down 
to the neck surruunded by something like a hood in bright 
red, and from all parts of the edge of this hood streamed a row 
of short, sturdy, wavy lines, as if meant to stand for hairs or 
days. On the left hand side as one entered the cave, were two 
similar figures with faces, necks, arms and bodies pourirayed 
as the other, but not so nicely done; and on the heads of 
these two were two other faces and heads superimposed. These 
tour faces were each surrounded by narrow hoods in red with 
a yellow line for a margin, but around this was somethmg like 
the front view of a wide coal-scuHlc bonnet, with a border 
lined in red. Another like figure, but merely in red outline, 
is carrying on his hooded head a kangarco whose body and 
head and tail are well drawn, and these are carefully and 
neatly patched all over with red lines. The number of draw- 
ings in this cave was about fifty. In the dark recesses at the 
back of the cave was the outline of an arm and hand in black. 
but thrown into vivid relief by the rock in the back ground 
being painted pure white. 



458 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Since Sir George Grey's time, other travellers and explorers 
have found many cave paintings in that region as well as in 
other parts of Australia; in Queensland for instance. But my 
purpose to-day is to tell that only last year the Government of 
Western Australia sent out an expedition to explore the north- 
west part of the Kimberley Division of that State, and a nar- 
rative (with illustrative plates) of that expedition has just been 
issued. They left Freemantle April 13. fully equipped wiih 
pack-horses, stores, astronomical instruments, etc., and were 
absent nearly seven months. The Naturalist of the party re- 
ports that, at a spot near their camp marked FB. 25 on their 
map, —that is about 7c miles south east from Sir George Grey*s 
cave — they found native drawings on rock-faces in the bame 
style as his. A specimen of the^e is given here. 

He says: "The place was one which had been used evi- 
dently for a great number of years for depositing the bones of 
the dead. It will he seen that the figures are clothed, and all 
in a similar kmd of garment, with what appears like a neck-tie, 
just below the throat. Curiously this same style of figure 
similarly dressed, occurred wherever pair.ting's of any extent 
were foufid. In all there is the absence of the mouth, and 
there is what appears to be a halo round the head. These 
figures agree in these particulars with those found by Grey on 
the Glenelg in 1837. The colours used are red, yellow, black 
and white, the black being charcoal and the other colours 
argillaceous earths, packets of which we found carefully 
wrapped up in paper-bark parcels in most of the native camps 
which had been vacated hurriedly owing to our approach. The 
drawings are finished with greater care and attention to detail 
than one would expect to find in such a primitive race, and 
they apparently value them considerably, choosing places, as 
far as possible, where they will not be injured by the weather. 
In all the more elaborate drawings the colors appeared to 
have been simply mixed with water and could be smudged by 
rubbing with the fingers, but in one or two places on the 
Glenelg I saw smaller drawings and marks in red, which were 
made with some other pigment, and were not effected even 
bv wet.'' 

At Camp FB. 49 — about fifteen miles south east from Sir 
George Grey's cave — on Bachsten Creek which flows into the 
Calder River, they came upon another rich find of drawings of 
the same kind. The one given here very much resembles another 
cave painting a long way off, in Queensland, called the 
Lake of Fire, from a fancied nofon that the hands and arm> 
stretching up from the depths are the supplicating members 
of bodies writhing in pain below. 

No sufficient explanation of the o-igin of any of these 
paintings has yet Incn liivrn In m\ next conununical:oii I 
will offer my views of the whole question. 



COPPER AGK IN THE UNITED STATES. 



BY PUBLIUS V. LAWSON. 

In North America is found the only pure copper age in the 
world. The stone a^e in- Europe was followed by the age of 
bronze, a compound always artificial, metal usually made 
up of nine parts copper and one of tin. Sir John Lubbock re- 
marks, that the absence of implements made either of copper 
or tin. proves that the art of making bronze was introduced into, 
not invented in Europe. Sir Charl'^s Lyell thinks the copper 
period was short if any. Most European copper implements 
have been found in Ireland, and yet of 1,300 articles of the 




V 







/V^ 



^/•Si^-pjET^/^T^yt 









r 




"'^^ 





CHAMPLAIN MAP i63L\ 

bronze age in the Dublin Museum only thirty celts and one 
sword were made of pure copper. The Roman bronze con- 
tained lead. The Etruscans, Phcenicians and Carthaginians had 
bronze; and Egypt had bronze more than 6,000 years ago. 
The student of antiquity seeks in vain for the country where 
the metal worker first changed copper into bronze, or rather 
seeks the original copper country and the author of Atlantis 
suggests America. 

The Peruvians had bronze. They obtained their tin in 
Mexico and Chili (Foster). Humboldt analysed a chisel from 
an ancient silver mine in Cuzco, Peru, which contafned ninety- 



463 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



four parts copper and six parts tin. The Mexicans had bronze, 
but native copper predominated. 

Columbus found in the Gulf of Honduras an Indian canoe; 
**in which were small hatchets made of copper, also small bells 
and plates; and a crucible to melt copper": Diaz mentions 
copper implements on the coast of Yucatan, though no copper 
exists there. He also records gold and copper trinkets on 
Cozumel Island near there. The early writers describe the 
discovery in 1552 in Mexico by Cortez of trinkets made of 
gold, silver, lead, bronze, copper and tin; bronze axes and 



Sl^fiAAK/S" 




C M IC AQO 

MAP OF NATIVE COPPER MINES. 

copper and tin axes. Cortez had cast for his use 8,ooo bronze 
arrow heads withm one week by the native metal workers. 
Copper was cast in a mould. Tuey cast axes, ear-rings and 
bracelets. Engravings have been published, of ancient Mex- 
ican carvings, of the foundry men at work. 

There is no evidence of the finding of bronze artifacts in 
the United States, except in a few instances of undoubted 
European origin. It is possible that the smithy trade, which 
is now the occupation of a few among both the tribes of the 



COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN 461 

Navajos and Pueblos, may have been handed down from vast 
antiquity; a±> these sedentary tribes of New Mexico may have 
learned from oiil Mexico. These smith'; to-day with their rude 
appliances have great skill. The rude Indians of British Col- 
umbia and Alaska who wrought gold ornaments are said to be 
allied by language to the Navajos. 

The Navajo lorge can be made upon the ground in a few 
moments by plastering mud over crossed sticks, and using a 
bellows made of a goat skin. They forge smelt, cast and 
hammer. Their crucible is made of baked clay or some frag- 
ments of Pueblo pottery, in which to melt their silver or 
bronze. Hard stones are often used for anvils, and their 
moulds are cut out of soft sandstone. For fire they use char. 
coal. (Washington Matthews in Bu. Eth. Rept. i88o-8i). 




Hendrick Hudson learned of the existence ot copper among 
the Indians along the Hudson River. Jacques Cartier in 1534 
on the Si. Lawrence River, near Montreal, met with the infor- 
mation that "red copper" came from "Saguenay," (which Shea 
says was the name for the Lake Superior region), and in 1536 
he saw a large knife of '"red copper" brought by Indians from 
that region. Ifrereton relates m l603 of the Indians of Vir- 
ginia having great store of copper, observing "there are none 
but have copper chains, ear-rings, collars arrow-heads and 
drinking cups covered with copper." Dr. Abbott reports a clay 
pipe having been found in Massachusetts covered with thin 
sheets of copper. 

In 1610 on the St. Lawrence above Montreal, Champlain 
was presented by an Indian with a piece of copper, a foot 
long, which the Indians brought to him rolled in a bag and 
informed him it was found on the bank of a river near a great 
lakf, where it was gathered in lump-* by them, which having 
melted they spread it in sheets, smoothing it with stones. In 



462 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



I63^, when Champlain tnadu up a map of the lake region, trom 
Indian information, he named Garlic Island in Lake Winne- 
bago, "Copper island," and located the lake north of Lake 
Superior, Two years later he sent Nicolet to discover the 
Chinese Empire on Winnebago Lake supposing the Winne- 
bago Indiana were the Celestials, and we suppose he intended 
to discover his copper island also. Nicolet found the lake but 
not the copper. Pierre Boucher in 1640 mentions a copper 
mine on an island in Lake Superior. Roger Williams says of 
the Indians of Rhode Island: "They have excellent art to cast 
our pewter and bronze into very neat and artificial pipes." 

Along the North Pacific Coast from Yakutet to Comox, 
"Co[.pers" were made in ancient times of native copper, said 




to have been obtained in Alaska, but now obtained of the 
whites The Kwakiull Indians made large thin sheets two 
feet long by one foot wide into a money or medium of ex- 
change, which were known as ■"Coppers," and their value was 
determined by the number of blankets which would purchase 
them. One of these "coppers" in Fort Rupert iu 1893 had 
been exchanged for 7,500 blankets, and another had a value of 
6.000 blankets. These were blanket values, while their in- 
trin-iic value was very little. 

There is negative and positive evidence that none of the 
historical tribes of Wisconsin or Michigan ever worked copper 



COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN. 



463 



in any form, but they knew of its existence and had it in their 
possession. The Jesuit Mi.ssionaries, Dablon and Allouez boih 
write of it in the Relations, and seek its source. Charlevoix 
the historian of New France also mentions it as bein^ treas- 
ured as a god, and says: '"Thev made no use of it." Allouez 
sought its source and frequently mentions it. 

None of the explorers, discoverers or missionaries of the 
Northwest mention any fabrication ol copper in any way what- 
ever. Thus it seems that forging copper was a lost art about 
the west shore of Lake Michigan, in tlie beautiful oak openings 





COHE'ER SPtAK OK LANCE POINTS. 

and praries of Wisconsin, when discovered by white men, 
though the border of lake and stream swarmed with savages 
who cherished the copper boulders as a divinity, while along 
the Atlantic sea board and south of the Rio Grande the tribes 
still knew its value in the arts. However, in pre-Columbian 
days, throughout Wisconsin the copper smiths swarmed along 
the border of evury ri/er, lake and forest, the symphony of 
the click, thud, thump of his stone hammer as he fashioned 
the copper in thousands of forms upon his stone anvil rose 



464 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with the songs of the hearth and the woodland. They, were 
the clam eater tribes, the effigy mound builder, the men of the 
fortification mounds, the builders of the truncated, temple,, 
hill and oval mounds. Their earth mounds are found in 
Wisconsin by the tens of thousands. Their population 
was numbered by the host who fed off the corn rows 
which still cover hundreds of square miles of this beautiful 
country. Their lost or abandoned copper implements are 
found in every cabinet. Their number is legion. From Wis- 
consin the copper tribes traded in their copper wares to the 
furthest limits of the United States and Canada. They were 
the Phoenicians of the New World. Mexico obtained its copper 
from them. In return these copper kings lined their cabins 
with the best of savage days; with the loot of the finest stone 
and other savage artifacts from near and from far. They ob- 
tained the Chalcedony, Jasper and flint from all parts; the 




COPPER KNIFE. 

shell and wampum from the Atlantic and the Gulf; Obsidian 
from Mexico and the Rocky Mountains, Pipe stone from Min- 
nesota. Ivory from Greenland. Thus it happens that living in 
a most beautiful land barren of most of the material from 
which to fabricate imj^lements of war, the chase and adorn- 
ment which give the savage his only chance for future fame, 
by the magic trade of red copper, they left behind them a mine 
of Archaeological wealth which is the wonder and admiration 
of all. 

Wisconsin soil contains an abundance of copper in boulders, 
stringey masses and aboriginal artifacts. Every farmer finds 
from one to a dozen pieces varying in weight from a pound to 
several hundred pounds. Every foundry purchases numerous 
solid boulders of native copper annually. Even fifty years ago 
Dr. Lapham reported j^eveial hundred pounds annually takn6 
in by foundry men in Milwaukee. Every junk dealer can re- 
late his experience with the numerous pieces purchased along 

Fig. 7. Meat chopper, one-third sice. 



COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN. 



465 



the cojntry roads. Every relic hunter has these pieces of float 
or glacial copper in abundance. Only a portion of Wisconsin 
is farmed as yet. When the Northern country, fast opening up 
to agriculture, makes its report; the annual yield will be beyond 
belief. 

The copper boulders were torn from their place in the Huronian 
trap of Northern Michigan, when the great glaciers with their 
miles of ice crushed down over Wisconsin and crumbling away 
the gangue rock left the copper free. It was spread by the 




COPPER KNIFE. 

glacier into Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and 
Michigan. But Wisconsin being directly south and nearer to 
the source retained the most of it. It is found wherever the 
glacial drift lies, and all through the drift. 

One boulder reported from Dodge County weighed 487 
pounds, and it is common to find them weighing one or two 
hundred pounds. The one in the cut weighs forty-six pounds. 
Boulders have been recovered in Michigan nearer the vein 
weighing several tons. One such weighing three tons is now 




^. 



n 



SNAKE PENDANT. 

lodged in the National Museum, having cost five thousand 
dollars to recover. 

The scuthern shore of Lake Superior presents some of the 
most picturesque scenery in the world. For one hundred and 
fifty miles it is made up of jagged bluffs composed of alter- 
nate layers of trap beds, and red sandstone conglomerate of 
the Lower Silurian age. Associate with these beds are veins 
of native or nearly pure copper, sometimes running with the 

Fig. 8. Knife, half size. Fig. 9. Snake pendent, full size. 



466 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



formation and otten cutting across. It occurs in great masses 
of pure copper, and sheets as well as strings and grains. One 
great sheet of copper opened to view in mining was forty feet 
long and weighed two hundred tons. (Dana). 

Keweenaw Point (which extends into the lake from Nor- 
thern Micnigan) and Ontonagon are the great mining centers, 
eighty miles long. Isle Royal near the opposite shore, is the 
same geologically. Native silver, chemically pure, is fre- 
quently embedded in the copper in the form of white blotches 



filM? 




a 





i^ 




/c 



// 



JAVELIN, NEEDLE, AND FISH HOOK. 

or fibres or grains, not alloyed, sometimes an inch or more 
across. Some specimens are spotted white with the more pre- 
cious metal. Native copper is not mined elsewhere in the 
United States, and no other location on this continent fur- 
nishes copper with visible silver. For this reason, the native 
copper for the hundreds of specimens discovered in the mounds 
as far south as Florida which contain visible silver was ob- 
tained at the lake. By extensive analyses caused to be made 
by Mr. Clarence B Moore, of specimens of the copper art 
obtained from aboriginal graves in the mounds of Florida; 
Little Etowah mounds of Georgia: stone graves of Tennessee^ 

Fif. lo. Lance point, full size. Fi/.iz. Sewing needle, many found in tand dunes on 
Lake Michif an. Fif. 13. Fish hook, commonly found with needles. Fig. 13. Lance poiat, 
vrith thirteen fecord marks. 



COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN. 



467 



the Hopewell mounds of Ohio; float copper of Illinois; and 
numerous specimens of mined copper from Lake Superior, it 
was well determined that the undoubted source of most of it, 
and the probable source of all of it was the native copper de- 
posit of Lake Superior. Lake Superior native copper alone^ 






•i' 




I* 



// 



/ 



/ 



COPPEK LANCES KNIFE AND BRACELET. 

contained all the characteristics of mound copper. All the 
specimens contained copper, silver and iron, and no lead. No 

Fig. 18. lavelin with long tang, half size; Fig. 19. Remarkable knife 18 inches long. 
Fig. 14. Fragment of bracelet with incased dots. Kig. ai. Pencil lance with zig-zag deco- 
ration. 



THE AMERICAN ANMQUAKIAN. 



bronze or brass has been discovered in the United States of 
aboriginal origin. (Moore, Copper from Mounds, St. John 
River, Fla.) All other copper in the United States is an ore, 
which must be smelted, and no evidence of smelting is met 




with in the United States or 

Mexico, Although melting was 

practiced in Mexico, no evi- 

I dence of it exists in the United 

t.' I States. Ore is usually siiJphide 

\' and cannot be hammered or 

» ' melted or worked without first 

\l bei"g smelted, which seems tn 

have been beyond aboriginal 

COPPER FISH SPEARS. attainment. 

In 1H48 the evidence of aboriginal mining was discovered. 

It has since been found to have been carried on extensively 

along one hundred miles of the shore and on Isle Royal. Most 

modern niinc> were first opened by aboriginals. They worked 

surface veins in open pits and trenches. They excavated vast 

quan tities of rock, reaching in many pits to a dept h of sixteen 



COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN. 



469- 



and twenty six feet, and olten sixty feet. These mines were 
excavated in the solid trap rock. Heaps of rubble and dirt 
surround them. On cleaning out there are found copper 
uteniils, knives, chisels, lances and arrow points: stone ham- 
mers to break away th'c matrix; wooden bowls to bale the 
mines, wooden shovels to clean them: props and levers for 
handling the rock; and ladders to enter the mines The gangue 
or trap rock was broken away by alternate heating, and cool- 
ing with water, as shown by nia-ses of charcoal present. The 
copper was then worried off by hammering and bending. The 
marks of the hammer is found on fragments rem fining in ihe 
abandoned mines. In some of these ancient mines were found 
masses of copper which were too large for the pri'iijuve miners 
to secure. One mass of native copper ten feet long, three feel 
wide, two feet thick weighed six tons. It rested on hitlets of 
oak, which rested on sleepers, and had been r^isjiJ five feet,. 




I Krom an ancient pit of Mesnard mine, a mass of copper had' 

I been taken out and moved forty tight feet which weiglied 

36,000 pounds. In some mines were left pillars and props for 

the overhanging wall. Ten cart loads of hammers and mauls 

I were taken out of one mine- They were made of greenstone 

and porphyry boulders. The modern excavators used iheui to 

I curb up a well. 

All of the hundreds of ancient mines were complet--ly filled 
; with wash from the surrounding soil, vegetable mould leaves 
and rotten trees. Over the debris of one there grew a hem- 
I lock tree with 396 concentric annual rings. From appearances 
![ Prof. Foster thought they had been abandoned at lea>t five or 
■ six hundred years, and possibly much longer; Mr. Henry Gill- 
man estimated seven or eight hundred years; and Pmf. Win- 
I chell concludes they are later than the Champlain Sea. As 



I 



470 



THK AMtKlCAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



stated above the Indians did not know of them and no tradi-l 
tion survives them. The ancient miner has left no traces of f 
his domestic activities about tha^ counlry. which has the most I 
delightful weather in summer, but excessively inclement lafl 
winter, as the thermomett-r often reaches fifty and more belowl 
zero. From the thousands and tens of thousands of the^ 
111 a nil fact u red coooer articles (ound and being constantly gat h- 
~~ ' 1 L-red in Eastern and Southern 

Wisconsin, the number of which 
far exceeds all those (ound in 
all Ihe balance of ihe United 
Slates. (The writer has a list of 
13,000 fashioned coppers found 
Ml Wisconsin) it is supposed . 
that the ancient miner occupied J 
these lands with his villages^l 
and domestic relations, and" 
made summer excursions of 
three and four hundred mies 
either by portage in Northern 
Michigan between the head 
wstcrs of rivers running nor.h 
into Lake Superior and south 
into Green Bay; or made I'le 
long canoe voyage via 1 he 
Sault Ste. Marie. The copper 
knives and other articles (ound 
in the mines resemble those of 
Wisconsin. Theamountof cop- J 
per taken trom these lake mines! 
is simply incalculable. It mustB 
have reached into the millions ^ 
of pounds. Dr. Butler supposes 
enough to sheath the British 
navy: Donelly. more than 
twenty vears of modern min- 1 
ing; and Mr. Henry HamilioaJ 
I estimates enough to fabricaie| 
millions of articles. As scicn- I 
tific men and relic hunters 
e.xcavate more of the mounds, 

~' the cupriferous art comes to 

light, and it is foimJ in ihe stone graves of Tennessee. It 
not found in the Marine shell heaps, nor among the stone ar 
of the River Drift man of the Delaware, nor as a part of thi 
remains of the Cliff Divellers. The first aboriginal man w 
followed the receding glacier could have found this native 
copper and easily hammered it cold into nearly aiy desired 
form. It was tar easier to work thin diorite, porphyry, or flint 




COPPER RELICS IN WISCONSIN. 47» 

\\hich lay beside it on the river bank. No possible economy 
in ihe selection of materials could prevent the comingling of 
stone and copper in their handiwork, the moment that the 
migration of primitive man had reached the boulders of the 
drift. 

Fronr* native copper, primitive man has hammered out the 
adze, celts, axe single and double, gouge or spud, chisels^ 
drills or gravers or awl made square and often long, lance, 
spear or javeline knives or daggeis or swords, gads or wedges^ 
pendants, bracelets, beads, gorgets, and a great variety of 
trinkets. They used copper rivets to patch or enlarge their 
sheet copper (Moore); to attach extremities of bracelets 
(Putnam); and to attach shaft to lance, and many lances still 
retain the rivets. The copper chiefs of Wisconsin seem to 
have been peaceably inclined as no evidence of copper shields 
have been reported, while most of the mounds from Ohio to 
Florida abound in beautifully figured shields made of sheet 
copper hammered into bowl shapes and etched with mytho- 
logic figures, or carved with geomeirical figures hammered in 
repousse or figure the Swastika. Even the warrior who sleeps 
in the stone graves had his -copper shit-ld. Copper hammered 
into ihin sheets was made into beads; and beads made of 
wood shell or stone were covered with it. Jaws of animals 
were covered with it. Copper effigies of serpents, turtles, the 
cross and other figures were made of sheet copper. There 
were copper plumbobs (Squier). There were mechanical, do- 
mestic, hunting, fishing tools, and aims for war, and articles 
for per.-onal adornment. The crescent shaped articles so fre- 
quently met in Wi>consin are supposed to have been used to^ 
arrange the headdress. From Connei mound, Ohio, over 500 
copper beads were taken; some cut out of sheet metal and 
rolled, not joined, others were solid with a hole bored in them. 
There are found long square and round rods (one was three 
feet long), and fragments of flat copper. Many pieces of bulk 
copper, exhibit hammer marks, and cuts of ihtir former owner. 
The bulk copper boulder in the Figure, has a hatchet cut in one 
end. Many of the implements have a sharp tang to enter the 
shaft; and many of them have the .^idesor butt end rolled over 
to form a socket for the shaft or handle Some tangs are ser- 
rated for the thong used to attach the handle. There are fish 
spears or harpoons with one or more barbs. The fish hooks ctften 
have their ends bent over for strings but no barb. The needles 
with holes for the thread are interestin<r. In Wisconsin both the 
name shaped and long pencil lances were frequently decorated 
with mdentations in parallel lines. A gouge or spud (which 
5ome think was a tanner's tool lor scraping hides, and others 
suppose a carpenter's tool), which is deposited in the Mil- 
waukee Public Museum, is also decorated with these indenta- 
tions. Dr. Perkins supposed these were record marks, but 
they seem more like similar decoration effected by aboriginals,. 



4-:: THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

• 

irt the notching of the edges of stone arrow points, such as 
those of Aztilctn. and similar notches on the edge of stone 
gorgets and snell. and the dotting and lining of pottery. In 
all vi^es and degrees of civilization mankind seems averse to a 
plain surface On the back of the above spud there are also 
ri^ £3Lg lines from the point to the other end, and the same 
patterns appear on a long pencil lance. There are some very 
hne markings on other implements which appear as if made 
with a file. 

Most of these articles are deeply coated with poisonous 
cop^>er acetate or verdigris which is produced by vegetable 
acids; or the green coating of carbonate gathered in damp 
places; or oxidized black; and mostly badly corroded and 
seemed with these wasting elements. Many of them are re- 
duced to mere films of green carbonate. Nearly all the sheet 
Rietal pieces are a bad wreck. 

Prescott says: **With bronze tools assisted by silicious dust 
the Aztec cut the hardest substances." The Author of the 
*\\ncient Cities of the New World," has discovered that in 
Me.Kico copper was used by carpenters and joiners while stone 
was used for carving stone. It would only be possible in the 
mechanical arts to use copper as a wood working tool. But as 
they had not then and never had any means of tempering 
the copper, it was an inferior tool. Dr. Abbot remarks: **Pure 
copper IS not so valuable for cutting purposes as ne^ly chipped 
or even polished stone." He suggests the copper celts of the 
Atlantic coast were not designed as weapons or implements, 
but intended for display on special occasions as dances or reli- 
gious festivals, and then wrapped and hidden by the owner or 
special tribal keeper. This may explain why so many coppers 
such as celts, bracelets, breast plates and evenunworked pieces 
of copper h ive been discovered enclosed in cloth. Hundreds 
ut specimens have been found in graves and mounds preserved 
in cloth from oxidation and in return preserving for our aston- 
ished admiration the excellent textile fabric of bygone ages. 
AUouez refers to the Natives of Lake Superior region having 
bulk float copper weighing twenty pounds. He had seen them 
in the hands of savages, who held them as divinities, or as pre- 
sents from the water god. Tney keep them wrapped with 
piccious things and transmit them to descendants. Copper 
vfli^ieM of snakes, turtles and spools have been found thus 
wrapped. 

Tho«e interested in tracing the territorial limits of the Tol- 
t0v mythology will note the often recurring emblems or tokens 
of the ToUec Neptune the god Tlaloc who was adopted by 
lUv- Aztecs, His symbol was the Cross. A copper Latin cross 
^ lit from sheet metal was ta'<en from a stone grave in Ten- 
4u?^*<?e, which resembles cross effiijy mounds in Wisconsin. 
Anvl the serpents so universally adopted in the mythology of 
4II \\\^ world, and so often depicted in the sculpture of Centril 



COPPER KELiCS IN WISCDSSIN. 



America where it rcprt;serts QuetzalcoatI, the god of wisdom, 
was found hammeri-d from sheet copper in Florida and de- 
signed in earth mounds in Wisconsin. So also the turtle repre- 
sented in Mexican galaxy of gods, is often cut or hammered 
from copper found in Florida and Illinois mounds, and shov- 
eled into earth effigies in Wisconsiu. 

There is a popular belief of aboriginal tempered copper. 
The only hard copper, is an alloy of tin. making bronze, which 
is not very h?,rd. Lake Superior copper in its matrix is as hard 
as the ancient implements, and both are harder than the cop- 
per of commerce, (Whittlesey). Hammering native copper 
(Lake copper) hiirdens it, to heat and plunge it in water softens 
at. In thi< it is the reverse of iron. There is no evidence, as 




we have stated, that these ancient people ever smelted copper. 
It was unnecessary as the native copper can be hammered or 
melted without smelting. Neither is there any evidence that 
the copper chiefs ever melted copper. The pottery, by recent 
experiments made by Mrs, S. S, Fracklcton of Milwaukee, has 
been shown to have bi.en burned under a very low heat. Noth- 
ing has been found wnich would answer for a crucible. There 
was no reason why they did not melt it, Wood will produce 
a heat of sooo"-'. Copper mells at 1996" and its silver buttons 
would melt at 1873" F. The supposed mould marks or sand 
ridges on corroded copper are only the result of corrosion. 
' Some of these have visible silvcrspecks in them which would 
■ fce an alloy and invisible if melted. Besides experiments made 



k 



474 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with weak acids produce similar mould ridges. There aro no 
two articles the same size, ;?hape or ornamentation; no flow 
marks of melting; no *'tags" or *'sprue" seen; no ring^s or 
bracelets attached; no round sockets to the implements: no 
sandstone moulds found; welding and lamination are found in 
ridge marked copper; wrought copper cannot be mistaken for 
melted copper. Hammering copper hardens it unequally and 
oxidation would be irregular, oxidation is even irregular in 
bulk boulders; no patterns found; chips left in mines give 
evidence of no melting, as they are best for the purpose. 

Neither is there any evidence of soldermg or brazihg,, 
though silver would have made an excellent brazing material. 

All the copper art of primitive man in the United States 
and Canada has been fabricated by hammering either hot or 
cold. Numerous breast plates, trinkets, effigies, needles and 
fish hoo,ks have been cut, hammered or worked out of copper, 
which has been first hammered into a sheet. But few articles 
made of such sheets have been discovered in Wisconsin. We 
have taken the native copper with the gangue or trap rock still 
filling its cavities, which has been obtained from the Calumet 
mines, and by carefully hammering down, cold, one of its 
ragged fingers, drawn the copper out several inches in length 
and shaped it into half of a primitive spear. The ragged 
knobs and fingers of copper were turned over into the center 
core and all beaten down together. By thus doubling the 
copper into itself, it will not weld cold, and small parts will 
scale off. By hammering cold it is impossible to obscure the 
parts doubled over and bring the instrument to a smooth 
finish in all its parts. Still a fair piece of work can be turned 
out to compare with much of the aboriginal copper. If all the 
projections are first cut off, leaving a clean core to work upon, 
the hammer can then draw it out, shaped into any desired 
design, and do so while it is cold. Many of the .designs have 
been fashioned in this way. Many coppers are too smooth 
and homogenous to have been wrought cold. They are free 
from scale or perceptible lamination and have the regular com- 
pact appearance of moulding and castmg. Actual trial has 
however proved that namniering and heating gives it this, 
appearance. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 



Earliest Sardinian Culture. — The grotto of St. Bartho- 
lomew, nearCagliari was partially explored by Orsoni in 1878. 
In 189I Patroni, superintendent of archaeological investiga- 
tions in Sardinia, instituted further researches with interesting 
results. Patroni concludes, in opposition to Orsoni, whose 
examination was incomplete, that the floor-structure indicates 
not several different "civilizations," but one nniform culture 
only, mixed with superficial debris due to recent habitations 
Also the finds belong to an epoch anterior to that of the nur- 
aghi and represent the oldest vestiges of Sardinian culture. 
The pottery is rude and primitive impasto, heavy in form, and 
ranging over a few uniform types. The stone implements, all 
of obsidian, exhibit little variety. The only ornaments found 
are some perforated shells and fish-bones. The primitive peo- 
ple of St. Bartholomew hunted the hare, boar, etc., and as the 
osseous remains show, were acquainted with certain domestic 
animals, — dog, horse, sheep, hog, ox, rabbit. No ashes were 
found in the grotto, and the "traces of incineration" reported 
by Orsoni are thought by Patroni to be the result of chemical 
alterations of the rock. Patroni's account of his investigations 
is to be found in the "Notizie dei Scavi.'* for August, 1901. A 
brief n\5//;«/ is given in "L'Anthropologie" (Paris), Vol. XIII, 
pp. 1 1 2-1 1 3. 

Bulgarian Brain-Weights. — In the *'Archiv fiir Anthro- 
pologic" (Braunschurig), Vol. XXVI, (1900), Dr. S. Watoff, of 
the Hospital at Sofia, publishes the results of the examination 
of 87 brains (men 70. women 17) of mentally and physically 
normal Bulgarians, together with certain measures of body, 
head, etc. The average weight of the male brains was 1382 
gr. (range 1185-1585) and of the female 1226 gr. (range 1095- 
1360). Dr. Watoff also examined the brain of A. Konstan- 
tinov the Bulgarian litterateur, vjho was assassinated. His brain 
weighed 1595 gr., ten grains more than any one of the others, 
and more than any Bulgarian brain yet investigated. Town, 
country, occupations, age, stature, circumference of head, etc.^ 
seem to exert no appreciable influence upon the weight of the 
brain. The tallest man (1870 mm.) had a brain of 1282 gr. A 
youth of sixteen had one of 1462 gr. A skull, with a circum- 
ference of 520 mm. contained a brain of 1450 gr., while one of 
550 mm., had a brain of 1260. The lightest and the heaviest 
cerebellum (138 and 205 gr.) belonged both to brains of 150a 
gr. The number of cases studied are too few to justify dog- 
matic conclusions, but the suggestions are of value. 



476 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Magyars and Dkavidians. — In his "Tamulische (Dravi- 
dische) Studien," Balint sought to demonstrate some gram- 
matical and lexical identities between Magyar and Tamul, — 
between the Finnic and Dravidian tongues. Dr. H. Winkler, 
whose valuable article on "Das Finnenthum der Magyaren" 
appears in the "Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie" (Vol. XXXIII. 
1901, pp. 1 57- 171), holds that all that Balint has succeeded in 

B roving is that Magyar contains a number of loan-words from 
dravidian, — there is no evidence that Magyar is a Dravidian 
tongue, or that the Altaic and Dravidian linguistic stocks are 
closely related. These have been borrowed during the resi- 
dence of the Magyars in the Central Asian steppe-region. 
During the steppe-hfe of the Magyars they borrowed likewise 
from Uigur-Turkic, Mongolic, and Iranic sources. Traces of 
contact with the peoples of the Caucasus are also present in 
the language of the Magyars. The ''Tamul" words in Mag^yar 
are thus, evidence of historic contact not proof of linguistic 
relationship. They are culture-data rather than language- 
phenomena. The Magyars are, physically and linquistically a 
Finnic people. The Magyars of Alfoid represent according to 
Dr. Winkler, the pure type of the race. 



CORRESPONDENCE BY REV. JOHN MACLEAN. 



MANITOBA HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 

This Society whose museum is located in Winnipeg has 
been doing good service in the history of the North- West by 
the publcation of papers relating to noted places, old inhabi- 
tants, trading posts, mounds, and the native tribes. Some of 
the members are living in the far north and by their observa- 
tions are enriching the archives of the Society. Among the 
trinted transactions may be mentioned ** Madame Lefe- 
moinere,, the first white woman in the Canadian Northwest" by 
Abbe Dugast; '*The Old Crow Wing Trail." and "A Longfor- 
gotten Fortress" by Sir John Schultz; "Notes and Observations 
of Travels on the Athabasca and Slave Lake Regions in 1879," 
by W. J. McLean, "Lake of the Woods*' and other interesting 
papers by Rev. Dr. Bryc*i. In connection with the library 
there is an excellent Northwest Department devoted to works 
relating to the country and the tribes, in which are to b^ found 
some rare volumes. The museum is still in its infancy, but 
lately there have been added some old coins, stone-pipes, three 
steel discs from old Hudson's Bay post at Michipicoton, a num- 
ber of articles illustrating Blackfoot life and customs, some 
relics commemorating the regime of the Northwest Fur Trad- 
ing Company in Fort William, and a good collection of Eskimo 
articles from the far north. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES, 



REVISING THE CREE BIBLE. 
The British and Foreign Bible Society is going to issue an 
edition of the Bible in the Plain Cree, the former version of 
the Cree Bible being in the Swampy Cree, which is not well 
suited to the western Indians, whose dialect is the Plain Cree. 
During the past year a committee has been at work translat- 
ing the Bible, based on James Evan's syllabic characters, which 
were used in the former translation. On August 26th the 
committee met in St. John's College. Winnipeg, for the pur- 
pose of examining the manuscripts already finished, and pre- 
paring them for the printer, also to arrange for the completion 
of the enterprise. The sessions lasted about a week. It is 
expected that the translation of the entire Bible will be ready 
for the printer in a year from the present time. The Bishop 
of Athabasca presided at the meetings, and the Rev. Rural 
Dean Burman was secretary. The members of the committee 
are: The Metropolitan of Rupert's Land, the Bishop of Atha- 
basca, the Bishop of Moosonce, and others. The Pres- 
byterian Church contributed a manuscript of Luke's Gospel in 
Roman characters by the late Rev. &. McVicar. Different 
portions of the Bible have been translated by the respective 
members of the committee. The Rev. E. B. Glass who had as 
his portion of the work, the books of Isaiah and Jeremiah, is a 
good Cree scholar, and the author of a "Primer and Language 
Lessons" in English and Cree syllables of forty lessons. This 
work is intended for students of the language and missionaries 
who wish to learn the language by means of the syllables. The 
lessons embrace all words and expressions necessary in com- 
mon conversation and ordinary business, every lesson being in 
Cree with the English explanation. When the Plain Cree 
translation is completed, another version will be printed in the 
dialect of the Cree, which is used in Southern Moosonee- 
using the extended Syllabarium employed by the late Bishop 
Horden. 



NEW DISCOVERIES. 
Neolithic Workshop— An interesi 
maim bits been made near Calais. The si 

revealed the presence of ancient soil, with many evidences of aDclent man, 
e g. a Neolithic Station and Workshop for making flint swords, knives, jave- 
lins and arrows. 

Druidic Circle called a Bull Ring has been recently explored near 
the village of Dove Holes, in Derbyshire. It proves to have been a Neoli- 
ihic Stalion resembling Stonehenge. 

Baalbec— The work of exploring this Temple under the patronage of 
the German Emperor is Dearly completed. In the centre of the whole is a 
great rock altar— rock-hewn, but the later buildings are constructed In the 
Roman style- a magnificent colonnade being the chief object. 

The Lion op Cheronea— This monument erected in honor of the 
heroes who fell in the battle of Thebes against Phillip it 10 be restored 
fay the Greek Government. 



FOUNTAINS AND AQUEDUCTS, ANCIENT AND 
MODERN. 

The comparison of the ancient and modern art and archi- 
tecture is very instructive. It appears that modern art has 
come to us from the East, but ancient art and architecture had 
a separate development and starting points which were as wide 
apart as the continents of Europe, Asia and America. The 
American archseoloffists realize this more than the European. 
We give below cuts which exhibit specimens of sculpture 




placed near certain modern fountains, aiso specimens of arches j 
found m Spain. These are in great contrast with the sculptured 
figures and arches which abounded in America in Prehistoric 
times, and illustrate the point very clearly, 

The fountain of the Moor, in Rome, has a group which was 
sculptured by Bernini, who has been called the "modern 
Michael Angelo"; he has been criticised in the following : 
language: i 

"Leaving behind him true principles of art as seen in the 
antique sculptures and in nature, principles of purity and 




FOUNTAINS AND AQUEDUCTS. 479 

simplicity of design, he rushed onward at his own will, mistaking 
facility and ingenuity for genius, and, wishing to carry §race 
-and beauty beyond their proper Confines, his work became full 
of affectations. The same is true of other artists. 

As one critic says, "he suffocated beauty with the luxury of 
of useless ornamentation." In his later years the sculptor 
himself acknowledged his mistake and confessed that his early 
work, before he became so lavish and extravagant in his ideas, 
was his best. 

Sculptured ornaments which adorn the fountains in many 
■of our cities are borrowed from ancient heathenism. There is 




AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA. 

very little thai is modern, and even less that is historic, or has 
any tendency to awaken the historic sense. 

The cut illustrates this point. It shows a modern style of 
Architecture in the buildings, but the figures which are seen in 
the group are so complicated that an ordinary person would 
not understand them. More simplicity would undoubtedly be 
an improvement, or if complicated designs are to be used they 
should be such as would be understood, and at the same time 
awaken the historic sense among the people. 

The aqueducts of the ancients, however, have a lesson for 
us. The atjueducts of this country are so plain that they arc 
rarely noticed and arc often an offense to the public taste. 

The Romans exceeded all other nations in their skill in 
connecting such works. There were under the Emperor Neroa, 
no less than nine different aqueduct's, which were afterwards 
increased to twenty-four, with several channels placed one 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



above the other, one of which was sixty-three miles in extent. 
The Aqua Martia contained nearly 7,cx>D acres. Strabo said 
that whole rivers flowed through the streets of Rome, The 
Romans built other aq^ueducts in their provinces. That of 
Metz in Belgic Gaul, is among the most remarkable. The 
aqueducts on the Island of Mitylene. of Antioch, ofScgovia of 
Spain, and of Constantinople, are to be mentioned. The cut 
represents the aqueduct of Segovia, and shows the manner in 
which such structures were erected by the Romans. 

The comparison of these fountains of modern times withi 
those adorned, by the ancient sculptors is instructive. There 
were in America, fountains and aqueducts which attracted 
the attention of the early discoverers, some of which have- 
been described, as follows: 

"Water was brought over hill and dale to the top of the mountalD, by 
means oE a solid stone aqued'jct. Here it was received ma lar^e basin, 
having in its center a great rock, upon which were inscribed in a circle the 
hiero^lipbics representing the years that had elapsed since Nezahual- 
coyotl's birth, with a list of his most noteworth)' achievements. * * • 

From this basin the water wa.s distributed through the garden in two 
Straams, one of which meandered down the northern side of the hill, and 
ihe other down the southern aide. There were likewise several towers or 
columns of stone having their capitals made in the shape of a pot from 
which protrude plumes ol feathers, which signitied the name of the place. 
Lower down, was the colossal figure of a winged beast i~al!ed by Ixtlilxo- 
clietl, a lion lying down, with its face toward the east, and having in its 
mouth a sculptured portrait of the king; this statue was generally covered 
with a canopy adorned with gold and feather work, 

A little lower yet there were three basins o( water, emblematic of the 
great lake, and on the borders of the middle one three female figures were 
sculptured on the solid rock, representing the heads of the confederated 
stales of Mexico. Tezcucoand Tlacopan. 

Upon the northern side of the lull was another pond; and here upon the 
rock was carved the Coat of Arms of the city of Tulan, which was formerly 
the chief town of the Tollecs, Upon the southern slope of the hill was yet 
another pond, bearing the coat of arms and the name of the city of Tena- 
yuca, which was formerly the head town of the Chiehimecs. From Ihi* ' 
basin a stream of water flowed continually over the precipice, and bein? 
das bed into spray upon the rocks, was scattered like rain over a garden ot 
odorous tropical plants. In the garden were two baths, dug out of one 
large piece of porphyry, and a flight of steps also cut from (he solid rock; 
worked and polished so smooth that they looked like mirrors, and on the 
front of the stairs, were carved the years, months, dav, and hour in which 
information was brought to King NezahuatcoyotI of the death of a certain 
lord of Huexotrinco, whom he esteemed very highly, and who died while 
the said staircase was being built. The garden is said to have been a per- 
fect little paradise. Tbe gorgeous flowers were all transplanted Irom the 
distant terra caliente; marble pavillions. supported on slender columns, 
with tesselaied pavements and sparkling fountains, nestled among tbe 
shady groves ana afforded a cool retreat during the long summer days. At 
the end of the garden, almost hidden by the groups of gigantic cedars And 
cypresses that surrounded it, was the royal palace, so situated that while its \ 
spacious halls were filled with the sensuous odors of the tropii 



I 



; filled with thi 
from the gardens, il remained sheltered from the heat." 

"Montezuma's Baths" have also been spoken of. These 
were situated upon the mountain top, and were surrounded by 



h. 



1. It. t 




FOUNTAINS AND AQUEDUCTS. 481 

seats ^hich probably resembled those of the Incas in Peru. 
In connection with them there was an aqueduct that led 
across the valley. 

Th6 following is a description from Bancroft: 

"About three miles eastward from Tezcuco is the isolated rocky hill 
which rises with steep slopes in conical form to the height of perhaps 6oo- 
feet above the plain, a portion on the side of the hill is graded very much 
as if intended for a modem railroad, forming a level terrace with an em- 
bankment from 60 to 200 feet high connecting the hill with another three 
Quarters of a mile distant, and then extends toward the mountain ten or 
fifteen miles distant, the object of which was to support an aqueduct or pipe 
ten miles in diameter, made of baked clay or blocks of Porphyry.* At the 
termination of the aqueduct on the eastern slope of Tezcocingo is a basin 
hewn from the living rock of reddish porphyry, known as "Montezuma's 
Bath/* four feet and a-half in diameter, and three feet deep, which received 
water from the aqueduct, with seats cut in the rock near it." 

Several persons have described this aqueduct, amon^ them 
Brantz Mayer, and Edward Tylor; and have spoken of the per- 
fection of the work. The seats which adjoined it have also 
been described by Col. Mayer, as follows: 

"The picturesque view from' this spot over small olains. set in the frame 
of the surrounding mountains and glens which border the eastern side of 
Tezcocingo, undoubtedly made this rectss a resort for royal personages for 
whom these costly works were made. From the surroundmg seats they 
enjoyed a delicious prospect over this lovely but secluded scenery, 
while in the basin at their feet were gathered the waters of the spring. On 
the northern slope is another recess bordered by seats cut in the living 
rock, and traces of a spiral road and a second circular bath, and sculptured 
blocks on the summit." 

Bullock speaks of the ruins of a large building, a palace 
whose walls still remain eight feet high, and says that the 
whole mountain had been covered with palaces, temples, baths,, 
and hanging gardens. 

There were also other aqueducts which supplied the gardens- 
and fed the fountains which so beautified the various cities.. 
These have been described by the Spanish writers. 

Peter Martyr, describing the Palace at Iztapalapan, writes: 

"That house also had orchards, finely planted with divers trees, and 
herbs, and flourishing flowers, of a sweet smell. There are also in the same 
great standing pools of water with many kinds of fish, in which divers kinds 
ot all sorts of waterfowl are swimming. To the bottom of these lakes a man 
may descend by marble stepps brought far off. They report strange things 
of a walke inclosed with nettings of canes, lest any one should freely come 
within the voyde plattes of ground, or to the fruits of the trees. Those 
hedges are made with a thousand pleasant devises, as it falleth out in those 
delicate purple crosse alJeyes, of myrth rosemary or boxe, al very delightful 
to behold."* 

*'The love of flowers was a passion with the Aztec's, and 
they bestowed great care upon the cultivation of gardens. The 
finest and largest of these were at Iztapalapan and Huastec^ 
The garden at Iztapalapan was divided into four squares, each 
traversed by shaded walks, meandering among fruit trees, 

•Bancroft, Vol IV., p. 5^5. 
•Peier Msrtyr's Dec V , Lib. it. 



482 ' THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

blossoming hedges, and borders of sweet herbs. In the center 
of the garden was an immense reservoir, of hewn stone, four 
hundred paces square, and fed by navigable canals. A tiled 
pavement, wide enough for four persons walking abreast, sur- 
rounded the reservoir, and at intervals steps led down to the 
water, upon the surface of which innumerable water-fowl 
sported, A large pavilion, with halls and corridors, overlooked 
the grounds." 



■oo- 



JDOUBLE HEADED SERPENT AND THE MIGRATION 

OF SYMBOLS. 

"The migratioivs of symbols has been discussed by the Duke 
de Alviella who reached the conclusion that many of the sym- 
bols found in America, came originally from the Asiatic con- 
tinent; the Suastika, the Cross, being the most notable of the 
migratory symbols. One other object or symbol is found in 
America that has heretofore been considered as peculiar to 
.the continent. We refer now to the double headed serpent. 
There are however some evidences to prove that even this was 
originally derived from extra-limital sources, or if not the sym- 
bol, the idea embodied in it was. All archaeologists know 
that this is common among the tribes of the Northwest Coast, as 
well as among the more civilized tribes of Central America, 
and probably signified about the same thing. On the North- 
west Coast there are pictures of priests or medicine men, hold- 
ing the badge of their office. This represents the fabulous 
double headed snake, that has one head at each end and a 
human head in the middle, with a horn on each terminal head 
and two in the middle: 

"This fabulous monster was obtained by the ancestors of one clan 
Kwakiutl tribes as a helper to the tribe, and therefore became the crest. 
It had the power to assume the shape of a 'fish. To eat it, to 
4ouch it. or to see it, was sure death except to those who enjoyed super- 
natural help. To them it brings power. Its skin used as a belt, enables 
the owner to perform wonderful feats. It may become a canoe that moves 
by the motion of the fins. Its eyes when used as sling stones, kill even 
whales. Its blood wherever it touches the skin makes it hard as stone. It 
is essentually the helper of warriors." 

This is called the Sisiul; and is ctften used as an ornament 
to the person, for belts are made in this pattern with which 
blankets are held up; knife handles are often carved in this 
shape. Whether or not the double headed serpent of Central 
America came from the same source, the resemblance between 

•Bancrolt, Vol. II., p. 575. 

*Set Smithsonian Report, 1895, p. 513. 



DOUBLE HEADED SERPENT. 483 

the two is very striking. The fact however that it was a clan 
•emblem and a religious symbol on the Northwest Coast, helps 
us to understand its significance when seen on the facades of 
the palaces. 

It is noticeable that one ornament in Central America repre- 
sents two serpents intertwined with the head and tail projecting 
at both ends or corners of the building, with a human head in 
the mouth of the serpent or dragon instead of in the center of 
the body; still there are bars in the form of double headed ser- 
pents, with a mask in the center which form a conspicuous 
ornament over the doors of the palace. These bars have been 
noticed by all travellers in Central America, and are supposed 
to represent some inherited symbol, though they probably had 
become conventional architectural ornaments, possibly sym- 
bolizing the sun and the rain cloud. They however resemble 
the emblem of the double headed serpent which is common on 
the Northwest Coast, so closely as to suggest the idea that 
they originally came from that region, or were transmitted from 
ancestors who had migrated from the Northwest. 

It is remarkable that a figure resembling the double headed 
serpent, is used as a Coat of Arms in Sumatra. 

Here there are two serpents with their tails near together 
and tigers below the serpents. The fact however that it had 
about the same significance makes it an object worthy of care- 
ful study. Mr. Henry O. Forbes says: 

"In a very old village I was greatly interested in finding what I may 
call a "veritable Coat ot Arms," carved out ol an immense block of wood, 
and erected in the central position where one would expect an object with 
the significance of a Coat of Arms would be placed. From what 1 could 
learn it had such a significance in the estimation of the chief of the village; 
for he told me only such villages as could claim § igin from some distant 
village could erect such a carving m their Balai. I am not, however, master 
enough of the terms of blaznry current in the College of Arms to describe 
it in fitting language. The shield had double supporters; on each side a 
tiger rampant bearing on its back a snake defiant, upheld the shield, in 
whose center the most prominent quartering was a fioral ornament which 
might be a sun flower shading two deer, one on each side — the dexter 
greater than the sinister. Above the fioral ornament was a central, and to 
me, unintelligible half moon-like blazoning. Below the tips of the con- 
joined tails of the supporting tigers were two ornate triangles, the upper 
balanced on the apex of the lower. I feel mclined to assert that it is as 
good an escutcheon and as well and honorably emblazoned, as any that 
ever emanated from the College; and who dare say it is less ancient?" 

What is still more remarkable is that there are houses 
among the Kvvakiutls on the Northwest Coast, on which the 
same symbol maybe seen. The two serpents or the double 
headed serj^ent painted over the door. The serpent is here 
seen as attacked by birds, the crane and the thunder bird on one 
side, the eagle and;the raven on the other side, two human faces 
on the body o£ the bird over the doorway. The resemblance 
of this fijTure to the Coat of Arms at Sumatra is very striking. 

•See A Naturalist's Wanderings, by H. O. Forbes, p. i8o. 



Editorial. 



MAJOR POWELL AND HIS WORK. 



The death of Major Powell has made a vacant place in the 
ranks of the scientific men of the world which will be difficult 
to fill, A self-tnade man, who came up from the humble walks 
of life, and from the home of a preacher of the Methodist 
Church, has-made his mark upon society such as few men have 
ever made. 

He was born in Mount Morris, N, Y.. March 21, 1834. His ] 




father was a preacher of the Wesleyan Church in England, but I 
came to America and settled first in New York, afterwards inl 
Ohio, later in Walworth Co., Wisconsin. His early education I 
was fragmentary, and gained mainly in the fields. At the out- 
break of the Civil War, he enlisted in the 20th 111. Volunteers I 
as 2nd Lieut., but became Major in the U. S. Army. In 1S67 1 
he was a Professor in Bloomington, 111., and with a party of 
sixteen students he crossed the great plains, to Pike's Peak. 
and aftenvards made the famou'; expedition which no man had 




MAJOR POWELL. 485- 

ever dared to undertake through the Grand Canon of the Col- 
orado. From Aug. 13 to Aug. 29, the party was lost to the 
world, but Major Powell and a few of his companions came out 
famous for the exploit. In 1871, the survey of the Rocky 
Mountains was undertaken, and the Ethnological Bureau was 
established. In 1881, Major Powell was appomted Director of 
the Geological Survey, but continued his work of Ethnology in 
connection with that of geology. 

He was a great explorer and a wonderful organizer, and was 
so enthusiastic that in the early days of his Governmental work 
he drew no salary, expended sll appropriations upon the work 
Itself. His greatest achievement was the development of a 
systematic topographic map of the United States, which became 
the necessary base for all geologic and scientific study, forestry, 
irregation and mining. He was able from his standpoint as an 
explorer and organizer and a scientific man, to turn the atten- 
tion of the Government to the scientific needs of the country. 
In the department of Ethnology he was aided by a large num- 
ber of specialists, and not only made a map showing the loca- 
tion of native tribes, but did much toward the classification of 
the native languages. 

The books which bear his name as Director of the Govern- 
ment Geological Survey, and the Bureau of Ethnology, make 
a library in themselves, and will serve as reference books for 
scientific students for many years to come. Few men have 
ever accomplished as much in the world as he. His work is 
his monument, and shows to the world how much may be 
accomplished by one man. The poverty of his early days 
never seemed to be a hindrance, for he rose from obscurity to 
the highest honors, and can be accounted a successful man in 
all he undertook. He learned self-reliance as a boy on the 
farm; he learned also the art of commanding men when a 
Lieutenant in the Army; he learned his first lessons in explor- 
ing when with a few companions, he passed through the Grand 
Can^n. His whole life work was accomplished through the 
exercise of the same qualities that received their training in 
this practical way. In his last days he was engaged in the 
work of classifying the departments of science and thought 
into a general system, but his best work was in connection 
with the two surveys. 

The portrait given above was taken some ten years ago, 
and was furnished to the editor by Major Powell himself. It 
appeared in the XlVth Volume of The American Antiquarian^ 
along with a sketch of his life up to that time. Some impor- 
tant work has been accomplished since then, and the facts are 
concentrated into this short sketch, though the actual products 
of his life are scattered through many places, and will remain 
as his monument. 



THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. 

Une of the most interesting and notable gatherings of Scien- 
tific men has just occurred at New York, in connection with 
the thirteenth session of the International Congress of Ame- 
ricanists. The object of the Congress is to throw light on the 
archaeology, ethnology and the early history of the two Ame- 
ricas. The subjects discussed related to The Native Races, 
their origin, distribution, language, inventions, customs, and 
religions; the history of the early contact between America 
and the Old World;* The Evidence of the Antiquity of Man on 
this Continent; The Decipherment of the Hieroglyphics which 
have been discovered in Central America; The Character of 
the Art and Architecture of this Continent; The Mythology of 
the Native Races, and their Physical Anthropology. 

There were present at this Congress, gentlemen who have 
been engaged in the study of these various topics from Ger- 
many, France, Sweden, Holland, Argentine Republic, Mexico, 
Costa Rica, and from various parts of the United States. The 
most notable papers were those which had relation to the pic- 
torial and hieroglyphic writings of Mexico and Central Ame- 
rica, by Edward Seler; The Rites and Ceremonies of the 
Ancient Mexicans, by Mrs. Zelia Nuttal; the Mural Paintings 
of Yucatan, by Edward H. Thompson; The Archaeological 
Researches in Peru, by Max Uhle: The Current Work of the 
Bureau of Ethnology, by W. J. M-cGee; The Folk Lore of 
Northeastern Siberia compared to that of Northwestern Ame- 
rica, by Waldemar Bogoras; Star Cult, by Alice C. Fletcher; 
The Languages of California, by Roland B. Dixon, and A. L. 
Kroeber; The Archaeology of the Delaware Valley, by F. W. 
Putnam. 

The topic that engaged most attention and excited the most 
interest was» the Discovery of the Lansing Skull. This was 
on exhibition, and discussed by W. H. Holmes, George A. 
Dorsey, Ales. Hrdlicka, and others. All agreed that the 
find was a genuine one, and that it was likely to revolutionize 
the ideas of Scientists in reference to the antiquity of man in 
America. The skull was pronounced by those who are speci- 
alists in anatomy and physical anthropology to be similar to 
that of the ordinary Indian of the northern type, as it is what 
is called Kumbo Cephalic, or keel-shaped, differing in some 
respects from that of the southern Indians, which is generally 
broader and shorter; but the uncertainty is in reference to the 
age of the deposit in which the skeleton was found. This is a 
question to be decided by the geologists rather than the arch- 
aeologists, and fortunately they have taken up the subject 
thoroughly. 

It will be remembered that the archaeologists and geologists 
met together at one session of the American Association at 
Philadelphia, and discussed the evidence of the presence of 
man, presented by the gravels of the Delaware Valley; but 



CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. 487 

there was great uncertainty in reference to the relics dis- 
covered, and still more in reference to the age of the deposits. 
There seems to be no uncertainty in reference to this skull, 
and all are agreed that the deposit belongs to the geological 
period, whieh followed the last glacial period, thus making the 
age of man to be, on this continent, 10,000 years. 

Fortunately the find came to the knowledge of such geo- 
logists as Prof. N. H. Winchell, and Prof. Warren Upham, and 
Prof. S. W. Williston, soon enough for them to examine the 
locality, and we are thus spared the uncertainty which has 
always hung over the Calaveras Skull. No one now claims 
that the Table Mountain has become a Valley, since the pre- 
sence of man; though a few years ago that was asserted with a 
great deal of positiveness. 

Another open question which was discussed at this Con- 
gress,* was the one which relates to the continued contact 
between the American and the 'Asiatic continent. New evi- 
dence was presented by Waldemar Bogoras, who is a native of 
Russia, but speaks several languages, and has explored the 
region along the northeastern shore of Siberia. He finds 
that the natives of Siberia have myths which are very similar 
to those on the coast of America. The Sedna myth is com- 
mon on both continents. He finds also that the languages 
spoken by the tribes spoken on the Siberian Coast are very 
different from those of the Mongolian tongue. They show 
some evidence of being inflected, and differ from agglutinated 
languages of the Mongolians. The evidence of contact is also 
presented as we have shown elsewhere, in the similarity of the 
symbols, especially that of the double headed serpent, which is 
found upon both continents. 

The subject of art and ornament, especially the convention- 
alism in art, was brought by Dr. Franz. Boaz, and Carl Lum- 
holtz, ar.d others. Mr. C. B. Hartnjan had a paper on the 
Archaeology of Costa Rica, and Mr. HjalmarStolpe had a paper 
on Swedish Ethnological Work in South America and Green- 
land; Mr. M. H. Saville had a paper on the Cruciform Struc- 
tures at Mitla. Other papers were read by Mr. G. A. Dorsey, 
George Bird Grinnell. W. P. Blake, J. W. Fewkes, Franz Boas, 
H. 1. Smith, A. L. Kroeber, F. W. Putnam, Prof. F. Starr, J. F. 
Hewitt, Stuart Culin. J. L. Van Panhuys, Stansbury Hagar, J. 
D. McGuire, F. S. Dellenbaugh, F. W. Hodge. 

An interesting paper was also presented by Miss Alice C. 
Fletcher, on the Star Worship of the Pawnees, which was 
followed by an account of the Sun Dance of the Pawnees, by 
Mr. G. A. Dorsey. Mr. Leon Lezeal read a paper on the 
Peruvian Vases, in which he stated that some of them were as 
elegant in form as any ever made in old Greece. A familiar 
figure was a sad feminine face, too singular to be forgotten.. 
This same face was found all over Peru. Dr. Boas spoke of 
the resemblance between the Siberian natives and those of the 



488 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

Columbian river northward, and seemed to think there was a 
race which he called the Behring Race, a position which was 
•confirmed by Waldemar Bogoras. 

The exploration of this region has been sustained by gifts 
from Mr. Morris K. Jesup of New York, who was elected Pre- 
sident of the Congress. The Duke de Loubat, has also done 
much toward the encouragement of the exploration in Central 
America, and with propriety he was designated Honorary Pre- 
sident, and occupied the Chair at the beginning of the Session. 
The Duke holds that the charge which has been made against 
the monks, that they destroyed the archives, was not well 
founded; that the palaces containing them were fired by the 
Indian allies of Cortez. and not by the Spaniards themselves. 

At the close of the sessions at New York, a number of the 
Americanists took a train for Philadelphia, Washington, Cin- 
cinnati and Chicago. They spent two or three days in the 
latter city. They visited the Field Museum, the University, 
attended the levy at the President's house, and took a carriage 
ride, along Michigan Ave., and other parts of the city. They 
were entertained at the Hotel Del Prado. The majority of 
them returned to New York by special train, though Mr. and 
Mrs. Seler took the train for Mexico and Central America. 
The opportunity for forming acquaintance between the arch- 
aeologists of the two continents was a good one, and was im- 
proved by all. 



-oo- 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 



ViRCHOW. — The death of this noted man recalls the process through 
which the science of Anthropology has passed in reaching: its present con- 
dition, for no other man has been so fully identiffed with it. During the 
previous century Blumenbach and Camper had directed attention to phy- 
sical anthropology and the races of man. Virchow also made this his 
specialty, and took a leading part in forming the society of Anthropology 
and Ethnology in Berlin. 

His studies in prehistoric archaeology however brought him into con- 
tact with the students in that department and his theory in reference to the 
descent of man was very conservative as he claimed that the Neanderthal 
skull was not sufficient to prove the existence of a lower race. 

He maintained that different types of man may be combined to torm 
one race as well as one nation. 

The gradual introduction of metals into Europe and its effect upon the 
stone age people was sufficient to solve the problem of the peopling of 
Europe. 

The presence of bronze indicated that the new culture arose in the East 
but was transmitted to the West. 

Virchow's position in reference to the find of the so-called Pithecoid 
man in Java was also that of a conservative. He showed a rare combina- 
tion of critical judgment with great diversity of information. The limits of 
human types do not cqincide with the dividing lines of culture and of lan- 
guage, was a fact which he recognized everywhere. 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 



Etrrnalish. a book by ihis title has been written by Mr. Orlando 
} Smith, President of the American Press Association, and takes the 
ground that the loul of man is by Jti very Dature immortal, eternal un- 
creatable and indistructable, but by successive incarnations its qualities 
developed. A doubt comes in however 
souls continued 
surroundings do 
mic process has i 
verse is a large s 
firmly before wc 



brings out the worst qualities. The cSecis of 
mprove the character. Huxlev even says, "the cos- 

I.. — . 1 _ — ».. ■■ Andrew Lang says, "The uni- 

.t; uur scaling ladders much tnore 
peaks of the Eternal, 



o relation 

lan.cllmb the 



ral ends.' 



A Library Beforh Abraham's Time,— A library datingback before 
Ibe age of Abraham has been unearthed in Babvlonia by Professor Hilp- 
recht, and presented by him to the University of Pennsylvania, of whose 
faculty he is a member. It consists of a larj;;e number of clay tablets, in 
excellent preservation, from the Temple of Bel. A partial examination of 
the tablets leads lo the hope that they may throw some new light on the 
first eleven chapters of Genesis. 

Joseph Fr^stwich is another of the distinguished men who have 
passed away within a short time. His name was connected with the dis- 
coveries of Broucher de Perthes of 1847. He was awarded a medal bv the 
Society in 186; for his original researches in the valley deposits yielding 
weapon* of paleolithic man. The study of the drifts of the south of Eng- 
land was important. His views on the primitive character of the flinl 
implements of *.he Chalk Plateau of Kent, have opened up a new and inter- 
esting inquiry as to the age o' man. He held to the submergence of western 
Europe, at the close of the Glacial Period and to the confirmation of the 
tradition of a flood. He received the honor of Knighthood from Queeu 
Victoria, and was esteemed and beloved by all, and in this respect had the 
same position in England that Virchow bad m Germany. 

Primitive Man. An article by Taleolt Williams in the Annual Re- 
port ol the Smithsonian for i8ij6, discusses the question, "Was Primitive 
Man a Modern Savage?" and argues io the affirmative, holding that the 
lelics ol paleolithic man point to his wandering over various parts of the 
globe. Mr. G. Frederick Wright in a recent article of the Record-Heratd 
of Chicago, takes the other side of the question, holding that man in Egypt 
began with a high stale of civilization and degenerated. There is no doubt 
thai the law of progress and degeneracy have both characterized the his- 
tory of the human race, but the evidence is strong that man began in a very 
low condition, and perhaps resembled the modern savage; and yet the 
truth is that the human animal was a prime motor in the progress of the 
world. He was endowed by the Creator with the capabilities for improve- 
ment which when supplemented by the supernatural power have overcome 
all the tendencies to degeneration. 

Israel's Religion, Wellhausen declares, was gradually developed 
out of heathenism. The mountain and steppe divinity gradually develops 
into the god of the heavens and earth. Gunkel finds in the Bible, raytns 
indicative of begionings of religious ideas, Winkler identities Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, with Babylonian Astral divinities; but recent discoveries in 
the East have proved that their personal history like that of others, was as 
real as that of the Egyptian kings, such as Ramses, but their character was 



CoAL.^According to a contributor to Engineering (September 16), the 
formation of coal may be summarized as follows; Certain plants or trees 
grow in morasses; they decay and sink; more plants grow on the first layer, 
and sink in their turn. The weighted down residue decempose through the 
influence of microbes, with the generation of methane and carbonic acid; 
and when the decomposed mass is afterwards exposed to high pressure, we 
hnd, according to the age of the deposit, peat, lignite, coalor anthracite; 
graphite does not appear to have the same genesis as coal. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Journal of thk Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. LXX., Part I; 
Extra No. i.— 1901. Edited by the Philological Society, Calcutta: 
Printed at the Baptist Missionary Press, and publishgi by the Asiatic 
Society. 57 Park Street. 1902. 

This number contains a lon^ article on the antiquities from Central 
Asia, being a Report by A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, Ph. D.* The antiouities con- 
sist of manuscripts, some of which were genuine and some fabrications, 
^dating joo to 700 A, D. The pottery terra cotta objects are very interest- 
ing. Many ot these have been described by D. Sven Hedin, as they are 
in his collection. Some of them represent heads and busts, male and 
female; others masks used as ornaments; others figures made in the round 
and represent heads and bodies of the horse, boar and bull. They were 
originally handles for jars which have been broken off, and are quite artistic 
in their style and finisn. 

Ditto. Vol. LXX. Parti. No. 2,— iqoi. 

This contains an article on the symbols and devices on copper coins, by 
W. Theobald. The symbols are the vine, the threskelis; the hour glass, the 
lotus, the stupa, the elephant, winged lion, the buffalo, trees with paddle 
shaped branches, boats, swastika, wheel, trisul, bow and arrow, etc. 

Homeric Society. By Albert Galloway Keller, Ph. D. Published by 
Longmans, Green & Co., 91 and 93 Fifth Ave., New York. London, and 
Bombay. j 

This book presents an admirable picture of the Homeric Age, and will 
be welcomed by all archaeologists who desire to know the state of society 
which prevailed in that age. The first chapter is devoted to the weapons, 
relics, metals and artifats of the period; the second, to the employments^ 
hunting, fishing, agriculture; the third, the religious ideas and usages; the 
fifth to the social customs; and the sixth to the government. 

The sources of information have been drawn largely from the study of 
the text rather than the archaeological studies, but one who is familiar with 
the recent discoveries will see the general correctness of the author's posi- 
tion. We can imagine how a book on the same subject illustrated by cuts 
which would represent the art products of the times, would be welcomed by 
archaeologists, but in the absence of one. the word pictures contained in 
this book are very suggestive. 

Wigwam Stories. By Mary C. Judd. Boston, U. S. A. Ginn & Com- 
pany, Athenaeum Press. 

Myths and Tales of the Indians are always interesting, but strange to 
say, are not so well known as those of the nations of the East, This volume, 
however, entitled "Wigwam Stories,'* gives them in a brief but attractive 
way. It begins with a description of the canoes, houses, the wampum, and 
turns to Indian traits, to the Medicine men, to the Indian totems, Indian 
names for months, also the Indian games, the pottery vessels, and clay 
dishes, and then treats of the various Indian stories. The story of the First 
Man and Woman; Giants and Fairies; The Blue Heron and the Wolf; The 
Legend of Niagara Falls; Legend of Minnehaha Falls; Legend of Macinaw 
Island. There are stories about the Magic Moccasins, about Manabozho, 
about the Pleiades, the North Star, the Thunder Bird, about Hiawatha, all 
told in a short and entertaining way. Many of the illustrations are taken 
from photographs and sketches made by a young Indian artist. The book 
is calculated to interest young people. 




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