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VOLUME XXII. 



JANUARY-NOVEMBER, 1900. 



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Rev. STEPHEN D. PEET, Ph. D., Editor. 



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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



VOLUME XXII. 



January and February. 

PAGE. 

FRONTISPIECE. Grand Canyon at the Foot of the Toroweap. 

THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. Illustrated. 

By Stephen D.Peet i 

THE ART OF BENIN CITY. Illustrated. By Frederick Starr 17 

CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS. Illus. By Mrs. I. P. Wilson. 25 
THE WORD FOR MAN AND CHILD IN DIFFERENT LAN- 
GUAGES. By C. Staniland Wake 33 

THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF THE EXPOSITION 

OF igoo 35 

IN MEMORIAM OF DR. D. G. BRINTON. By A. F. Chamberlain 37 
correspondence- 
Orientation Among the Mounds. N. A. Chapman 41 

The First Discoverers of America. Juul" Dieserud 44 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. . . 46 

NOTABLE PAPYRI. By Rev. W. C. Winslow 50 

EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES 51 

EDITORIAL — Is It Civilization, or Extermination ? 52 

ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES 59 

LITERARY NOTES 6l 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Man: Past and Present. By A. H. Keane.' 63 

Solomon and Solomonic Literature. By Moncure D. Conway... 64 

My tlis of Greece and Rome. By H. A. Guerber 65 

History Primers— Classical Antiquities I., Old Greek Life. 

By J. P. Maliaffy. Edited by J. R.Green 65 

History Primers — Clas-^ical Antiquities II., Roman Antiquities. 

By A. S. Wilkins. Edited by J. R. Green 65 

Memoirs of the .Vmerican Museum of Natural History. Vol. II. 

Bv Harlan I. Smith 66 

Myths of Northern Lands— Narrated with Special Reference to 

Literature and Art. By H. A. Guerber 66 

Myths and Let^ends of our New Possessions and Protectorates. 

By Charles M. Skinner 67 

Historic Mansions and Highways Around Boston. ByS.A.Drake 67 
Tlic Puritan Republic of Massachussets Bay m New England. 

By Daniel Watt Howe 67 

Nancy Hanks. Bv Caroline Hanks Hitclicock 67 

Don't Worry Nuggets; Fducational Nuggets; Philosophical 

Nuggets; Patriotic Nuggets 68 

Standard Englisli Poems. Selected and edited by H. S. Pancoast 68 

BOOKS RECEIVED— 

The Old Northwest: The Beginnings of Our Colonial System. 
The History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule, 
Young Puritan Series: The Young Puritans in Captivity. — A 
Year Book of Colonial Times. — Plantation Pageants. — The 
Legends of the Rhine. — Triumphs and Wonders of tJie 
Nineteenth Century 68 



iv. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

March and April. 

PACB. 

FRONTISPIECE. Scenes in South Africa. 

THE EVOLUTION OF ETHICS. By Charles W. Super 69 

A RELIC FROM THE GLACIAL CLAY OF BRITISH COLUM- 
BIA, By James Deans 75 

PREHISTORIC WORK BY PROF. PETRIE. By W. C. Winslow. 76 

PREHISTORIC KNIVES. By Theophilus L. Dickerson 78 

THE SYMBOL OF THE HAND. By Lewis W. Gunckel. Illus. ... 83 
THE EARLIEST CONSTRUCTED DWELLINGS AND THE 
LOCALITY IN WHICH MAN MADE HIS FIRST HOME. 

By Stephen D. Peet. Illustrated 85 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain... loi 

NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. By Rev. J. N. Fradenburgh 106 

MOSAICS OF CHALCHUITE. By William P. Blake. Illustrated. 108 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN NORTH VICTORIA 

COUNTY, ONTARIO. By G. E. Laidlaw. Illustrated in 

CORRESPONDENCE- 
MONITOR PiPHS. W, J. Mackev. Illustrated 116 

A Peculiar Relic. W. A. Chapman. Illustrated 116 

CONTINUITY OF THE PAL/EOLITHIC AGE. By S. D. Peet. . . . 117 

editorials- 
South Africa 1 19 

Sir J. William Dawson . 124 

President Edward Orton 125 

ARCHiEOLOCICAL NOTES 126 

LITERARY NOTES 131 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Enchanted India. By Prince Bojidar Karageorgvitch 133 

Quaint Corners of Ancient Empires. By M. M. Shoemaker 133 

The History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule. 

By Joseph Wallace 134 

Tlie Old Northwest. By B. A. Hinsdale 134 

Historic Towns of New England. By Lyman P, Powell 134 

Historic Towns of the Middle States. By Lyman P. Powell.. . 134 

Roman History of Appian of Alexandria, Trans, by Horace Wliite 135 

Plantation Pageants. Bv Joel Chandler Harris 136 

History of the New World Called America. By E. W. Payne. 136 

The Divine Pedigree of Man. By Thompson Jay Hudson 137 

Zoroaster, the Propliet of Ancient Iran. By A. V. W. Jackson. 138 

The Young Puritans in Captivity. By Mary P. Wells Smith 13Q 

The Miracles of Missions: Modern Marvels in the History of 

Missionary Enterprise. By Arthur T. Pierson 139 

A Year Book of Colonial Times. By Rev, Frederick S. Sill 139 

BOOKS RECEIVED— 

Report of the Commissioner of Education for Year 1897-98; Vol. 
II., containing Parts 2 and 3. — National Educational Associa- 
tion Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the Thirty- 
eighth Annual Meeting held at Los Angeles, Cal., July 11 -14. 
1899.— Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum. 
Arrow-points, Spear-heads, and Knives of Prehistoric Times, 
Documentary History of the Campaign on the Niagara Front- 

■ icr in 1812.— Pompeii: Its Life and Art.— The Africanders: A 
Century of Dutch-English Feud in South Africa 140 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. v. 

May and June. 

PAGE. 

TRONTISPIECES— View of Orizaba, Mexico, and Mountain 
Scenery in Mexico. 

SOME RELICS OF THE STONE AGE FROM PUGET SOUND, 

By James Wickersliam. Illustrated 141 

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF ETHICAL IDEAS, By C. W. Super. ... 149 

COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. By S. D, Pect. Illus, 157 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. ... 181 

THE PROBLEM OF THE HITTITES. By Rev. J. N. Fradenburgh 185 

PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. Bv Rev. W, C. Winslow 187 

A PREHISTORIC MOUNTAIN VILLAGE. By W, P. Blake... . 191 

THE UNCONQUERABLE YAQUIS. A Selection 192 

EDITORIALS— 

The American Antiquarian and Its Friends 194 

Scenery and Architecture in Mexico 197 

EDITORIAL NOTES 201 

LITER ARY notes 209 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Diary of David McClure, D. D., 1748-1820. With notes by 

Franklin B, Dexter. M. A 211 

Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-1897.. By Frederick Jones Bliss. 211 



4H- 



JuLY AND August. 

FRONTISPIECE— Egyptian Relics in Field Columbian Mu- 
seum, 
the ethnic VARIATION OF MYTHS. By John Eraser 213 

SHRINES NEAR COCHITl, NEW MEXICO. By Frederick 

Starr. Illustrated ■ • 219 

DIARY OF ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC. By A Soldier of 

the American Revolution 224 

THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. By Stephen D. Peet. Illustrated 229 

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART IN THE MUSEUMS OF AMERICA. 

By Rev. William C. Winslow. Illustrated 245 

GREATflRELAND AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. By 

Juul •Dieserud 252 

THE NORTHERN INDIAN NATIONS. By Joseph Edkins 254 

NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. By Rev. J. N. Fradenburgh 258 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By A. F. Chamberlain 262 

EDITORIALS- 
CARE FOR Cliff Ruins .... 268 

Why Amerind ? (F. S.) 269 

LATE DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST 270 



vi. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

July and August — Continued. 

LACK. 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Rijks Ethnograpliiscli Museum te Leiden: Verslag van den 

Directeur over liet tijdvak van i Oct., 1898, tot 30 Sept. 30, 1899 273 
Los Tatuages: Estudio Psicologico y Medico-Legal en Delin- 

cuentes y Militares. By Dr. Francisco Martinez Baca. - 273 
Pompeii; Its Life and Art. By August Mau. - - - -275 
The Literary Study of the Bible. By Prof, Richard G. Moulton. 279 
Popular Misconceptions as to Christian Faith and Life. By 

Rev. Frank T. Lee. 27S 



■>r-h 



September and Octobek. 

FRONTISPIECE— Street of. Nations, Paris Exposition. 

NUMERAL CHARACTERS: THEORY OF ORIGIN AND DE- 
VELOPMENT. By C. B. Moseley. Illustrated. - - - - 279 

ANCIENT GEMS. By Martha Adelaide Curl. 284 

THE NATIVE RACES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA. Reviewed 

by J. W. Murphy. 291 

TORTURES AMONG THE ABORIGINES. - - - - - 294 

THE DELUGE TABLETS. By Rev. J. N. Fradenburgh. - - 295 

MEXICAN PAPER By Frederick Starr. Illustrated. - - - 301 

A REMARKABLE INDIAN PIPE. By W. J. Wintemberg. lllus. 309 

ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIX'ILIZATION. By Stephen 

D. Peet. Illustrated. 3^1 

THE PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. By Rev. W. C. Winslow. 327 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. - 331 

editorials- 
China AM) THE Chinese. Illustrated. 339 

The Art Musel.m at Buffalo. Illustrated. ... - 344 
The Street of Nations. Illustrated. 345 

EDITORIAL NOTES. 346 

LITERARY NOTES. . - . - 348 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben der Menschen. Mitceson- 

deret Berucksichtigung der '* Volksmedizen " und des " judis- 

chen Blutritus." Herman I. Strack, 349 

Katalog No. i. Verzeichniss einer Ethnographischen Sammlung 

aus der Sudsee. 349 

Catalogue No. 2. Description of an Ethnographical Collection 

from Equatorial Africa. 349 

DerUrmensch: kritische Studie. By J. Beck. - - - - 350 
Osteologie. (Anthropologie Mexicaine.) Leopold Batres. - - 350 

BOOKS RECEIVED. 350 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii. 

November and December. 

PAGB. 

FRQNTISPIECE — The Grand Canal, House Boats, and Famous 
Bridge of China. 

THE DE SOTO EXPEDITION THROUGH FLORIDA. By T. 

H. Lewis. - - - - 351 

CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. By Charles 

W. Super. 358 

ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. By Stephen D. Feet. 

Illustrated. 367 

NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. By Rev. J. N. Fradenburgh. - - 383 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. By Alexander F. Chamberlain. - 387 

PHILIPPINE STUDIES-t. Place Names. By A. F. Chamberlain. 393 

CORRESPONDENCE- 
CLIFF Dweller's Ruins. C. N. Crotsenburg. - - - 400 

EDITORIALS— 

The Geography and History of China. - . . . 402 
The Bible, Heathenism, and the Chinese War. - - 408 

OUR EXCHANGES. 411 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES. 413 

BOOK REVIEWS— 

Among the Wild Ngoni; Being Some Chapters in the History of 
the Livingstonia Mission in British Central Africa. By W. 
A. Elmslie. 416 

The New Pacific. By Hubert Howe Bancroft. - - - - 417 
McLoughlin and Old Oregon; A Chronicle. By Eva E. Dey. 417 
The Bible Among the Nations. A Study of the Great Transla- 
tions. By John Walter Beardslee. 418 

Northern Georgia Sketches. By W. N. Harlen. - - - - 418 
North Carolina Sketches; Phases of Life Wliere the Calax 
Grows. By Mary Nelson Carter. 418 

BOOKS RECEIVED. 418 



viu. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



GENERAL ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



-M- 



A Prehistoric Mountain Village, - 191 
Ancient Aztec Cities and Civilization, 3x1 
Ancient Egyptian Art in the Museums of 
America, ----- 245 
Ancient Gems, ----- 284 
Anthropological Notes, 46, zoz, 181, 262, 331, 

387. 
Archaeological Discoveries in North Victoria 

County, Ontario, - - - m 

Archasological Notes, - 59, 136, 413 

Archeology of Ethical Ideas, The - 149 
Architecture in the Stone Age, - - 367 
A Relic from the Glacial Clay of British 

Columbia, ----- 75 
A Remarkable Indian Pipe, - - 309 
Art of Benin City, The - - - 17 



Books Received, 
Book Reviews, 



- 68, 140, 350 
63i >33, a". 273, 349. 4x6 



Civilization and the Ethical Standard, 358 
Civilization of the Indians, - - 95 
Coast and Maritime Structures, - 157 
Continuity of the Palaeolithic Age, - 117 
Correspondence, - - -41,116,400 

Deluge Tablets, The - - - - 295 
De Soto's Expedition Through Florida, 351 
Diary of Arnold's March to Quebec, 224 

Editorials, - 52, 119, 194, 268, ^^39, 402 
Editorial Notes, - . - 201, 346 

Egyptological Notes, ... 51 

Earliest Constructed Dwellings, The 85 

Ethnic Variation of Myths, Tne - 213 
Evolution of Ethics, The - - - 69 

Great Ireland and the Discovery of 

America, ..... 252 



Great Plateau and Its Inhabitants, The z 

International Congresses of the Expo- 
sition of 1900, . - - - 35 
In Meraoriam of Dr. D. G. Brinton, 37 

Late Discoveries in the East, - - 370 
Literary Notes, - - - 61, 131, 309, 348 



Mexican Paper, 
Mosaics of Chalchuite, 



30X 
Z08 



Native Races of Central Australia, The 991 
Northern Indian Nations, The*- • 354 
Notable Papyri, - - - - 50 

Notes on Assyriology, - to6, 358, 383 
Numeral Characters: Theory and De- 
velopment, ----- 379 

Peopling of America, The - - 339 

Philippine Studies, - - - - 393 

Prehistoric Knives, . - . - 78 

Prehistoric Work by Professor Petrie, 76 

Problem of the Hittites, The - - 185 



Progress of Egyptology, • 



187, 337 



Shrines Near Cochite, New Mexico, 3x9 
Some Relics of the Stone Age from 

Puget Sound, - . - - 141 

Symbol of the Hand, ... 83 

Tortures Among the Aborigines, • 394 

Unconquerable Vaquis, . - . xpa 

Word for Man and Child in Different 
Languages, The - . - - 



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THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

BV STEPHEN D, PEET, PH. D. 

There is a region in the deep inierior of the American con- 
tinent, to which the name Great PLileau has been given. The 
name expresses its geological character. It is, however, a 
region which furnishes a wonderful field to archeology, and 
deserves careful study on this account. There is no part of 
our great continent where more inleresling problems are pre- 
sented than by this. These problems relate not merely to the 
physical and natural history, but to human history as well. In 
fact, it is the human history which gives the chief interest to it, 
asthat history is totally unlike any other on the face of the globe. 

It appears that a portion of the human race found lodgment 
in the midst of these grand scenes of nature, but became iso- 
lated by reason of their situation. Here, they developed a 
form of society which was largely the result of the environ- 
ment, but which culminated in a type of art and architecture 
which was most peculiar. There has been a great deal of mys- 
tery thrown around the people, and a name has been given 
to them which starts a ihousand fancies— the name Cliff- 
Dwelters. The charm of this name dues not come merely 
from the fact that the people dwi.ll so high up among the 
cliffs, as from the fact, that they developed so high a civiliza- 
tion in the midst of the cliffs. 

The inquiry naturally arises, whether this civilization was 
altogether the result of environment, or was owing to some 
other influence. There are differences of opmion on this 
point, as some maintain that the Cliff-Dwellcrsand the Pueblo 
tribes were like a molten mass, which was thrown into this 
gigantic mould, and came out bearing the stamp, as thoroughly 
as a casting does thai which is found in any ordinary furnace. 
Othi-rs. however, ascribe the condition of iht Cliff- Dwellers to 
their remarkable intelligence, combined with the influence of 
inheritance and employment. It is probable that all these had 
their effect, but as the first (scenery) has been made so promi- 
nent, wc shall give our thoughts to this, thus making it a back- 
ground to the picture which we hope to draw in this volume. 
Wc do not believe that the background is the picture, but it is 
essential to it, and is always designed to set forth the picture 
more clearly. 



1 _. .WrafvAlJlBintAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

^. .-Vie 'projloSc in this chapter U> furnish descriptions of the 

;. '.jGi^it i*rateau, including the Grand Cafton of the Colorado, 

' . 'and other features; but, in doing so, shall draw largely from 

the writings of those who have sptnt time in exploring and 

surveying, but whose descriptions are buried in the midsl of 

voluminous reports and arc likely to be forgotten. It has long 

been our conviction that these ought to be brought to light. 

I. Wt! shall begin with a description of the topography of 

the entire region, and shall quote largely from the report of Mr, 

C. E, Dutton, which is contained in the Second Annual Report 

of the Geological Survey. He says; 

For convenience of geological discussion, Major Powell has divided 
that belt of country which lies between the meridian of Denver, Colorado, 
and the Pacific into provinces, each of which possesses topographical Features 




I 
I 



KUISS 



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which liiaLiii^uisli u Iroui ihe others. The easlcrnmoit, he has named Ibe 
Park Province, h is situated in the central and western parts of Colorado 
and extends north of that State into Wyoming, and south of it into New 
Mexico. It is pre-eminently a mountain region, having several long ranges 
of mountains. The structure and forms of these mountains are not exactly 
similar to those of any other region, but possess some resemblance lo the 
Alps. 

As we pass westward of these ranges we enter a region having a very 
different topography. The mountains disappear and in their stead we find 
platforms ancTterraces, nearly or quite hotiiontal on their summits or floors 
and abruptly terminated by long lines of cliffs. They he at greatly vary- 
ini altitudes, some as high as 11,000 feet above the sea, others no higher 
than S.ooo. and with still others occupying intermediate levels, ijeldom 
does the surface of the land rise into conical peaks, or into long, narrow- 
cresied ridges: but iheprutilesare long, horiioatal lines, suddenly droppini; 
down many hundreds, or eten two thousand, feel upon another Hat pluo 



» ihi> I 



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THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 



Wyoming, and rather more than half of Utah and 




a large part of 
Arizona. 

West of the Plateau Vrovinre is the 
Great Basin, so named by Fremont because 
it has no drainage to the oce^n. lis lopo- 
graphv is wholly peculiar and licars no 
resemblance to either of the two just alluded 
to. It contains a large number of ranged, 
all of which are very narrow and short, and 
separated from each other by wide Intervals 
of smooth, barren plains. The mountains 
are of a low order of magnitude for the most 
part, though some of the ranges and peaks 
attain considerable dimensions. Their ap- 
pearance Is strikingly different from the 
noble and picturesque outlines displayed in 
Colorado. They are jagged, wild, and un- 
graceful in their aspect, and, whether viewed 
from far or near, repel rather than invite the 
imagination. 

'I'he Grand Canyon District is a !..' . 
tbe Plateau Province, and to this as .1 u ; . 
e call attention. As already indic.iir'.l, 1 
lies between the Park and Basin ProuiiM^, 
and its topography differs in Ihe extreme 
from those found on either side of ll. ll is 
the land of tables and terraces, oi bulles 
and mesat. of diSi and canyons. Standing 
upon any elevated spot where the radius of 
I'lsion reaches out fiflv or a hundred miles, 
the observer beholds a strange spectade. 
The most conspicuous objects are the lofty and brillianily-colured cliffs. 
. They itrelch ihcir tortuous courses across the land in all directions, yet not 
«vilhoul system; here throwing out a great promontory, there receding in a 
at deep bay. and continuing on and on until they sink below ihe horizon, or 
Bwing behind same loftier mass, or fade out in the distant haze. Each cliff 
larks the boundary of a geogra'phj- 

-' e and marks, also, the ter- 

of Slime geological scries 
the edges of which are ex-. 

ralliof the palisades. In 
:c may be seen the spec- 
tacle of clifl rising above and beyond 
cliff, like a colossal stairway leading 
from the torrid plains below to the 
domain of the clouds above. Very 
wonderful at times is the sculpture 
of these majestic walls. There is an 
architectural siyle about it, which 
must be seen to be appreciated. The 
resemblances to architecture are not 
fancifulor metaphorical, but are real 
and vivid; so much so that the unac- 
customed tourist often feels a vague 
skepticism whether these are truly 
the works of the blind forces of 
nature, or some intelligence akin to 
human, but far mightier; ,ind even the experienced explorer is sometimes 
I brought to a sudden hall and tilled with amazement by the apparition of 
fonni as definite and eloquent as those of art. Each geological formation 





THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

exhibits in its cliffs a distinct style of architecture, which is not reproducedn 
among the cliSs of other formations, and these several sl>'les differ as mudt 
as those which are cultivated by different races of men. 

The character which appeals most strongly to the ey« is the coloring^ 
The gentle tints of an eastern landscape, the pale blue of distant tnoui^ 
tains, the green of veinal or summer vegetation, the subdued colors t' 
hillside and meadow, are wholly wanting here, and in their plat 
bells ol brilliant red, yellow, and white, which are iniensihed rather I 
alleviated by alternating belts of gray. Like the architecture, the colof, 
are characteristic of the geological formations, each series having its owitfl 
group and ranj;e of colors. 

The Plateau country is also the land of canyons, jn the strictest mealk] 
ing ot that term. Gorges, ravines, and canadas are found, and are more Q 
less Impressive in every high region; and in the vernacular of the West m 
such features are termed canyons, indiscriminately. But those long, n 
profound trenches in the rocks, with inaccessible walls, to which the exit 
iipaniards gave the name ^ayon, or canyon, are seldom found outside tl 
plateaus. There they are innumerable and the almost universal fonn c 
drainage channels. Large areas of Plateau country are to roinutelr difi 
sected by them, that they are almost inaccessible, and some limited, iSoi^ 
considerable, tracts seem wholly so. Almost everywhere the draiDS^ 
channels are cut from 500 to 3,000 feet below the general platform of Ul 
immediate country. They a'" "■' i~""i.. ;•• — 1 — 1 . 1 *■ s- > 



e abundantly ramified and every branch ii 




mvoD, The explor 
ica a place, for once caught ii 
.._. ^.^^ craft and s 



s above must take heed to his course I 
n the labyrinth of interlacing side -gorges, I 
ielt-control to extricate himself. All the 
c great trunk channel, cleft throU|;h ll 

:t of the Plateau Province for eight hundred miles— the chasm of th^ 
Colorado, and the canyons of it& principal fork, the Green River. By fop 
the greater part of these tributaries are dry during most of the year, and 
carry water only at the melting of the snow, and during the brief periodv 
of the autumnal and vernal rains. A very few hold small, perennial strcaow 
coming from the highlands around the borders of the province, and swell' 
ing til mad torrents in times of spasmodic flonds. 

The region Is. for the most part, a desert of the batrenest kind. 
levels below 7,000 feet the heat is intense and the air is dry in the extreme. 
The vegetation is very scanty, and even the ubiquitous sage {Artgmesia 
tridenlala) is sparse and stunted. Here and there the cedar {Junifienu 
occidenlnlis) is seen, the hardest of arborescent plants, but it isdwarfed and 
sickly and seeks the shadiest nooks. At higher levels the vegetation 
becomes more abundant and varied. Above 8,000 feet the plateaus are J 
forest-clad and the ground is carpeted with rank grass and an exuberant! 
growth of beautiful summer flowers. The summers there are cool andi| 
moist; the winters severe and attended with heavy showfall. 

The Plateau Province is naturally divided into two portions, a northern J 
and a southern. The dividing barrier is the Uinta range. This fiae tnonn.'T 







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THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 7 

tain platform is, in one respect, an anomaly among western mountain 
ranges. It is the only important one which trends east and west. Starting 
trom the eastern flank of the Wasatch, the Uintas project eastward more 
than i$o miles, and nearly join perpendicularly the Park ranges of Colorado. 
Of the two portions into which the Plateau Province is thus divided, the 
southern is much larger. Both have in common the plateau features; their 
topographies, climates, and physical features in general, are of similar 
types, and their geological features and history appear to be closely related; 
out each has, also, its peculiarities. The northern portion is an interesting 
and already celebrated field for the study of Cretaceous strata and the 
Tertiary lacustrine beds. The subjects which it presents to the geologist 
are most notably those which are embraced under the department of strati- 
graphy — the study of the succession of strata and co-related succession of 
organic life. Otherwise the region is tame, monotonous, and unattractive. 
The southern portion, while presenting an abundance of material for 
stratigraphical study, and in this respect fully rivalling, and, perhaps, sur- 
passing, the northern portion, also abounds in the grandest and most 
fascinating themes for the student of physical geography. The northern 
portion is almost trivial as to the scenery, while the southern is the sublimest 
on the continent. With the former we shall have little to do; it is the latter 
which claims here our exclusive attention. 

The southern part of the Plateau Province may be regarded as a vast 
basin everywhere bounded by highlands, except at the southwest, where it 
opens wide and passes suddenly into a region having all the characteristics 
of the Great Basin of Nevada. The northern halfof its eastern rim con- 
sists of the Park ranges of Colorado. Its northern rim lies upon the slopes 
of the Uintas. At the point where the Uintas join the Wasatch, the bound- 
ary turns sharply to the south, and for 200 miles the High Plateaus of Utah 
constitute the elevated western marj<in of the province. 

The Grand Canyon District — the region draining into the Grand and 
Marble Canyons — is the westernmost division of the Plateau Province. 
Nearly four-fifths of its area are situated in northern Arizona. The 
remaining fifth is situated in southern Utah. Let us turn our attention for 
a moment to the portion situated in Utah. It consists of a series of ter- 
races quite similar to those we have already seen descending from the sum- 
mit of the Wasatch Plateau to the San Rafael Swell, like a colossal stair- 
way. At the top of the stairs are the broad and lofty platforms of the 
High Plateaus of Utah; at the bottom is the inner expanse of the Grand 
Canyon District. The summits of the High Plateau are beds of the Lower 
Eocene Age. Descending southward, we cross, step by step, the terminal 
edges ot the entire Mesozoic system and the Permian, and when we reach 
the inner floor of the Grand Canyon District we find that it consists of the 
summit beds of the carboniferous series, patched here and there with fad- 
ing remnants of the Permian. 

Thus we may note that the northern and eastern boundaries of the 
Grand Canyon District arc cliff-bound terraces. Crossing the district. 
either longitudinally from north to south, or transversely from east to west. 
we find as we approach the souihern or western border, that the carbonifer- 
ous platform ascends very gradually, and at last it terminates in a giant 
wall, plunging down thousands of feet to the platform of a country quite 
similar to the Great Basin of Nevada. All the features are repeated and 
the desolation intensified in the dreadful region which is west and south of 
the Grand Canyon region. 

Here, then, we have a birds-eye view of the topography of 
this region, written by one who is familiar with every part of it. 
We can see from the description that the Great Plateau was 
isolated from every other part of the continent. It was 
surrounded by higher mountains, and beyond the mountains 
by wide valleys — the Great Mississippi Valley on the east, the 
valley of the Snake River on the north, the valley, which is 



8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

called the Great Basin, on the west, and the valley of the 
Lower Colorado on ihe south. 

Dana, ihe celebrated geologist, says that a continent is 
characterized ljy ii great valley situated between two or more 
ranges of .mountains. According to this definition we may 
conclude that the Grcdt Plateau is a continent above a 
continent, and may well be called the Air Continent; for 
it is lifted high up in 
the air, but is at the 
same timesurroundcd 
by higher peaks, and 
beyond the peaks are 
the great depths of 
air, which surround it 
as thoroughly as did 
once t h c roll ing 
d e p I h 5 o f water, 
which laved the shore 
in the ancient period 
when the mountains 
were new. 

M. We turn, then, 
to the scenery. Of ""'"' '''"'' 

this we have some very graphic descriptions, 
'mpri-ssions which are made upon educated i 




same time illustrate ihi 



These show the 

inds, but at the 

ty of coming into sympathy 

with the scene by long dwell- 

ng amid it, and becoming 

with its changes. 

The following description 

is from Mr. C. E. Dutton's 

report: 

The Grand Canyon of the 

I CoJorado is a great innovation in 
modern ideas of scenery, and in our 

beauty, and power of nature. Ai 

with 3II great innovations, ii is not 

to lie comprehended in a day or a 

week, nor even in a month. It 

muiit he dwell upon and studied, 

and Ihe study must comprise the 

slow acquisition of the meaning and 

spirit ot that marvelous scenery 

which characleri/es the Plateau 

mirss. country, and of which the 

chasm is (he superlative man 

ind mastery of the influences of that class of scenery and 

^, requiring time, patience, and long familiaritr, 

The lover of nature, whose perceptions have been 

trained in the Alps, in llalv. Germany, or New England; in ihe Appalach- 

iaos or Cordilleras. in Scotland or Colorado, would enter this strange region 

with a shuck, and dwell there for a lime with a sense of oppression, and 

Iterhaps with horror. Whatsoever thingi he had learned V 




i 
I 
I 



) regard as 



THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 9 

beautiful aod noble, he would seldom or never see. and whatsoever he 
might see would appear to him as anything but beautiful and noble. 
Whatsoever might be bold and striking. w<iuld at first seem only grotesque. 
The colors would be the very ones he had learned to shun, as tawdy iind 
bizarre. The lones and shades modest and lender, subdued yet rich, in 
which bis fancy had always taken special delight, would be the ones whlcb 
are conspicuously absent. But time would bring a gradual change. Some 
day he would suddenly become conscious that outlines, which at lirst seemed 
harsh and trivial, have grace and meaning; that forms, which seemed gro- 
tesque, are full of dignity: that magnitudes, which bad added enormity to 
coarseaess, have berome replete with strength and even majesty; that 
colors, which had been esteemed unrefined, immadcst. and glaring, are hs 
expressive, tender changeful, and capacious of effects as any others. 
Those who have long and carefully studied the Grand Canyon of the 
Colorado do not hesitate for a moment to pronounce it by far the must sub- 
lime of all earthly spectacles. If its sublimity consisted only in its dim. n- 
sions. it could be sufficiently set forth in a single sentence. It is more than 
100 miles long, from live to twelve miles wide, and from 5.000 10 6,000 feci 
' p. There are in the world valleys which are longer, and a few which 
deeper. There are valleys flanked by summits loftier than the palisades 
ot Ibe Kaibab. Still, the Grand Canyon is the sublimesl thing on earth. 
The Plateau country abounds in close resemblancei to natural carving 
of hutnan architecture, and nowhere are these more conspicuous or more 
perfect thau in the scarps which terminate the summits of the Markagunt 
and Paunsagunt Plateaus. Their coior varies with the light and atmo- 
sphere. It IS a pate red under ordinary lights, but as the sun sinks towards 
Ibe horizon, it deepens into a rich rose color, which is seen in no other rocks 
and is beautiful beyond description. The cliffs are of the Lower Eocene 
Age. consisting of lake marls very uniformly bedded. At the base of this 
series the beds are coarser, and contain well-marked, bracklsh-water fossils; 
but as we ascend to the higher beds we find the great mass of the Eocene 
to consist of fresh-water deposits. 

The TriaB is in most places separated from the Jura bv a purely pro- 
visional horiiun. which marks a change in the hthological aspect of the 
Btraia. and in the grouping and habit of the series. Sometimes the passage 
from one to the other is obscured, but more frequently it is abrupt. The 
Jurassic sandstone is without a likeness in any other formation and the 
sandstone of the Trias can ordinarily be distinguished from it miles away. 
One of the most conspicuous distinctions is the color, and it is a never- 
failing distinction. Tne Jurassic is while; the Trias is Haming red. 

Superlative cloud effects, common enough in other countries, are 
lamentably infrequent here; but when they do come, their value is beyond 
measure. During the long, hot summer days, when the sun is high, the 
phenomenal features of the scenery are robbed of most of their grandeur, 
and can not, or do not. wholly reveal to the observer the realities which 
render them so instructive and interesting. There are few middle lones of 
light and shade. The effects of fureshorlenint^ are excessive, almost 
beyond belief, and produce the strangest deceptions. Masses which are 
widely separated seem to be superposed or continuous. Lines and surfaces, 
which extend towards us at an acute an^le with the radius ol vision, are 
warped around until they seem to cross it at a right angle. Grand fronts, 
which ought to show depth and varying distance, become flat and are 
troubled with false perspeclives. Proportions which are full of grace and 
meaning are distorted .-ind belied. iJurlng the midday hours the cliffs 
seem 10 wilt and droop, as if retracting their grandeur to hide it from th^ 
aercileas radiance of the sun, whose every effulgence flouts them. Even 
Ihe colors are ruined. The glaring face of the wall, where the light falls 
npon it, wears a scorched, over-baked, discharged look; and where the 
dense black shadows are thrown—for there are no middle shades the 
magical haze of the desert shines forth with a weird, metallic glow, which 
has no color in it. Bui. as the sun declines, there comes a revival. The 
balf.tones at length appear, bringing into relief the component masses; 
the amphitheatres recede into suggestive distances; Ihe salients silently 




10 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUAklAN. 

advance lowards us; the distorted lines range ihemselvei into true perspec- 
tive; the delormed curves come back to their proper sweep; the angles 
eriivr clean and sharp; and the whole cliff arouses from lethargy and erecu 
itself in grandeur and power, us if conscious of it- own majesty. Back, 
also, come the colors, and as the sun is about to sink they glow with an in- 
tense oranse-vermillion, that seems to be an intrinsic lustre emanating from 
the rocks themselves. Hut the jf real gala-days of (he cliffs are those when 
sunshine and storm are 
warms' an even battle; 
when the massive banks 
of clouds SI nd their white 
diffuse lights into the dark 
places and tone down 
the intense glare of ihe 
direct rays; when ihejr 
roll over the summits in 
statelv procession, wrap- 
ping them in vapor and re- 
vealing cloud-giri masses 
I here and there through 
vide rifts. Then the truth 
' appears and all decep 
"' IS are exposed. Their 
CLOUD EFFECTS '^^^ grandeur, their true 

forms, and a just sense 
of Iheir relations are at last fairly presfnied, so thai the mind can grasp 
them. And ihey are very grand— even sublime. There is no need, as we 
look upon them, of fancy to heighten the picture, nor of metaphor to 
present il. The simple truth is quite enough. I never before had a realii- 
ing sense of n cliff 1.800 to Z.ooo feet high. I think I have a definite and 
abiding one at present. 

But though the inherent colors are less intense than some others, yet. 
under the quickening influence of the atmosphere, they produce effects to 
which all others are far inferior. And here language faifs and description 
becomes impossible. Not only are their ijualities cxceidinglv subtle, but 
they have little counter- 
part in common experi- 
ence. If such are pre- 
sented elsewhere, they are 
presented so feebly and 
obscurely that only ihe 
most discriminating and 
closest observers of nal ure 
ever sciie them, and they 
so imperfectly that their 
ideas of them are vague 
and but half real. There 

furnished in exjjerience, 

upon which a conception 

of these color effects anil 

optical delusions can he 

constructed and made 

tuielligible. A perpetual 

clamour envelopes the 

Undscape. Things are ni 

tell us what they are. It i , 

kiwi in the Grand Canyon from what they 

PUte«U country. But the difference in degree 

matly magnified and intensified, many characti 

«^irh elsewhere elude the closest observation. 

t» (TUlh, the tone and temper of the landscapi 
.Mktl ttt« changes in its aspect are very great. It is 



I 



I 




it they seem, and Ihe perceptions can nO 
probable that these effects are different 11 
'n other portions of the 
is immense, and being ■ 
become palpable ' 



intlv varying. 



THE GREAT PLAIEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. ii 

from day to day, or even from hour to hour. In the early morning its mood 
and subjective influences are usually calmer and more full of repose than 
at other times, but as the sun rises hi|s^her the whole scene is so changed 
that we cannot recall our first impressions. Every passing cloud, ev try 
change in ihe position of the sun. recasts the whole. At sunset the pageant 
closes am d splendors that seem more than earthly. The direction ot the 
full sunlight, the massing of the shadows, the manner in which the side 
lights are thrown in from the clouds determine these modulations, and the 
sensitiveness of the picture to the slightest variations is very wonderful. 

The rocks which are so striking in their form and size, and 
which bear so important a part in the scenery, are not all. 
There are colors in the rocks and shadows in the air which arc 
as important as these. They are less substantial, but they add 
to the impression. We seem to be in dreamland when we look 
upon this atmospheric sea. The billows roll, perhaps, at our 
feet, but they rise also above our heads. We are like the one 
who sails through the air in his dreams and puts forth his hand 
to catch the sun. Clouds above and clouds below, one hardly 
realizes that his feet are upon substantial rocks. The effect of 
the cloud .scenery, and of the color, upon the mind is certainly 
very great. Of this Mr. Dutton also speaks, as follows: 

Those who are familiar with western scenery have, no doubt, been im- 
pressed with the pecul'ar character of the haze, or atmosphere in the artistic 
sense of the word, and have noted its more prominent qualities. AVhen the 
air is free from common smoke it has a pale blue color, which is quite unlike 
the neutral gray of the East. It is always apparently more dense when 
we look towards the sun, than when we look away from it, and this differ- 
ence in the two direciions, respectively, is a maximum near sunrise and 
sunset. This property is universal, but its peculiarities in the Plateau 
Province become conspicuous when the strong, rich colors of the rocks are 
seen throuvjh it. The very air is then visible. We see it palpably, as a 
tenuous fluid, and the rocks beyond it do not appear to be colored blue, as 
they do in other regions, but reveal themselves clothed in colors ot their 
own. 

The Grand Canyon is ever full of this haze. It fills it to the brim. Its 
apparent density, as elsewhere, is varied according to the direction in which 
it it viewed and the position of the sun; but it seems also to be denser and 
more concentrated than elsewhere. This is really a delusion, arising from 
the fact that the enormous magnitude of the chasm and its component 
tiksups dwarf the distances; we are really looking through miles of atmo- 
sphere under the impression that they are only so many furlongs. This ap- 
parent concentration of haze, however, srreatly intensifies all the beautiful 
or mysterious optical effects which are dependent upon the intervention of 
the atmosphere. 

Whenever the brink of the chasm is reached, the chances are that the 
sun is high and these abnormal effects in full force. The canyon is asleep; 
or it is under a spell of enchantment which gives its bewildering ranges an 
aspect still more bewildering. Throughout the long summer forenoon the 
charm which binds it grows in potency. At midday the clouds begin to 
gather, first in fleecv flecks, then in cumuli, and throw their shadows into 
the gulf. At once the scene changes. The slumber of the chasm is dis- 
turbed. The temples and cloisters seem to raise themselves half awake to 
greet the passing shadow. Their wilted, drooping, flattened faces expand 
into relief. The long promontories reach out from the distant wall, as if to 
catch a moment's refreshment from the shade. The colors begin to glow; 
the haze loses its opaque densitv and becomes more tenuous. The shadows 
pass, and the chasm relapses into its dull sleep again. Thus through the 
midday hours it lies in fitful slumber, overcome by the blinding glare and 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

> ever/ tluctualion of lighl and shndowi 
e organism. 
Ihroughout the afternoon the prospect has been gradually growing 
clearer. The haie has relaxed its steely glare and has changed lo a veil <n 
transparent blue. Slowly myriads of details have come out and the walls arc 
flc:cked with lines of minute tracery, forming a drapery of ii^ht and sbadb 
stronger and sharper becomes the relief of each projedion. The promon- 
tories come forth from the opposite wall. The sinuous lines of strati tie at iov 
which once seemed meaningless, distorted, and even chaotic, now range 
themselves into a true perspective of graceful curves, threading the srat- 
lop edges of the strata. The colossal buties expand in every dimension; 
their long, narrow wings, which once were folded together and flattened 
against each other, open out, disclosing between them vast alcoves illuini^ 
nated with Rembraalt lights tinged with the pale, refined blue of the e 
present haie. A thousand forms, hitherto unseen nr obscure, start up wilbin 
the abyss, and stand forth in strength and animation. All things seem to 
grow in beauty, power, and dimensions. What was grand before has be- . 
come majeitic. the majestic becomes sublime, and, ever expanding and 
developing, the sublime passes bevond the reach of our faculties and lie 
comes transcendent. The colors nave come hack. Inherently lich ani 
strong, though not su[>erlative under ordinary lights, they now bejjin to dit 
play an adventitious brilliancy. The western sky is all aflame. The scat- 
tered banks of cloud and wavy cirrus have caught the waning splendoh 




and shine with orange and crimson. Broad slant beams of yellow light 
shot through the glory rifts, fall on turret and tower, on pinnacled crest aOi 
winding ledge, suffusing them with a radiance less fulsome, but akin lo thtt 
which flames in the western clouds. The summit band is brilliant yellow 
the next below is a pale rose. But the grand expanse within is a deep 
luminous, resplendent red. The climax has now come. The bla;:e of sua 
light poured over an illimitable surface of glowing red is Aung back inti 
the gulf, and. commencing with the blue haze, turns it into a sea of purpli 
of most imperial hue—so rich, so strong, so pure--ihat it makes the heaii 
acbe and the throat tighten, However vast the magnitudes, howevei 
jeslic the forms or sumptuous the decoration.it is in these kingly colors tha^ 
the highest glory of ihc Grand Canyon is revealed. 

in. This leads us to the relation of the Great Plateau to 
its inhabitants. We have spoken of the effect of the environ- 
ment upon human society, but tht' question is whether thi 
effect here is commensurate to ihe scenery. Ordinarily' 
wc might expect that the people who dwelt amid such grandeur 
would unconsciously be influenced by it, and reach a higher 
grade of character than others. We do not find this to be the 
case, except in their mythology and in their view of the super- 
natural. In this, however, we 6nd a most remarkable series of 



THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 13 

myths and legends in which all of the prominent features of 
the landscape are embodied. In them the mountain peaks, the 
deep gorges, the vast streams, the distant ocean, the many- 
colored rocks, the fleecy clouds, the glaring sunlight, the fierce 
storms, and the forked lightning figure conspicuously. The very 
things which wt regard as the forces of nature, with them were 
supernatural beings and the divinities, whom they worship- 
ped. They clothed them with different colors and gave them 
names, and seemed to be familiar with their history. These 
supernatural beings were their benefactors, and were al\^ays 
present. They dwelt within the rocks afld had their furnished 
houses there. Some of them were born upon the tops of the 
mountains where the clouds meet, and continued to dwell there. 

The nature powers were all personified, and the divinities 
were clothed and active. The lightnings were the arrows of a 
chief, who wore the clouds for his feathers, and ruled the storm 
at his will. There were sunbeam rafts, which floated in the sky, 
on which the divinities calmly sailed. There were caves 
beneath the earth in which their ancestors dwelt, but the 
divinities lightened these caves, and brought them out. There 
were floods which covered the valleys, but there were rainbow 
arches stretched above the floods, and the land became dry and 
was fitted for the abode of men. There were sacred lakes be- 
neath which {he spirits of the children, who had died, dwelt, 
but from their many-terraced homes, they sent their messen- 
gers to attend the sacred feast and to teach the people about 
the secret powers of nature. All these are contained in their 
mythologies, and will be found described in our book on 
** Myths and Symbols." 

But the question which most interests us is that which 
relates to the character of the people. Was this affected by 
the scenery, or did it remain untouched and asleep? We con- 
clude, as we study the people as they are, and were, that they 
partook far more of the quietude of the scene, than they did 
of its grandeur. This seems strange to the transient visitor, 
and especially to the uneducated mind, for it is probable that 
there are many visitors from civilized and advanced circles of 
society, who stand in the midst of these scenes and are as un- 
moved as the natives themselves. At least they fail to see its 
hidden significance. 

Of course there is an inspiration which can be drawn from 
communings with nature, when she reaches such grandeur as 
exists here, provided one is equal to the effort of interpreting 
her mystic language. Sublimity is far more difficult to interpret 
than is ordinary beauty. One may commune with the delicate 
flower which grows in the crack and cranny of the rock, and 
feel the stirring of emotion at once; for it is like looking upon 
the face of a little child, the smile is involuntary, but sweeps 
over the face unconsciously. It is easy to catch the mood ot 
nature and to feci the touch of tenderness, but where nature is 



14 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

so silent and yet so graad, the response is longer delayed. It 
is like looking at the silent Sphinx, which is half hidden in the 
sands n( the desert, and is the companion of lh<- Pyramids, 
which are as silent. 

Tlifse distant regions, liidden so far away in the deep inlcrior 
of the American Continent, have no associations to stir one's 
memories. Lofty as (he pt-aks are which surround the Great 
Pluteaii, they are silent: often covered with the white shrouds 
which have fallen upon them from the skies, liut oflener dr;iped 
in that hazy blue atmosphere which makes them so distant to 
the vision. They seem to belong to another world than ours. 

Thi- ci>lors which come from the varying tinges of the 
rocks are, indeed, very striking, and so arc the jagged rocks 
which project from Hie sides of the mountains, but they always 
cause us to fee! that some one i-; hiddi-n beyond those shadows 
and that humanity has dwelt even in this great wilderness. The 
outlines of the rocks may resemble ancient castles, and we may 
imagine manj' things, but the impression is greatly heightened 
when we discover that there are actual ruins upon the rocks, 
and that those ruins were once inhabited and were used as 
castles by the ancient people, ana a feeling of companionship 
is awakened. The enquiry at once arises; how long have these 
regions been occupied, who were the people who dwelt in these 
ruined structures, whence did they come, how long were they 
here, what was their life, where did they get their subsistence, 
whither have they gone, what was their history, and have they 
left any record? 

The scene is not merely one of nature's handiwork, wrought 
in giandeiir. and left without inhabitants: nor is it one in which 
the past is entirely covered with shadows. There must be a 
realiry back of this scene; a substance amid these shadows. 
Wc might imagine many things, and be filled with a strange 
rhapsody as we think of the unreal world. We might picture 
the unseen spirits as having dwelt here, and shadowy ghosts as 
flittine from peak to peak. This might increase our wonder 
and fill us with awe, resembling th it which the untrained minds 
of the natives have often felt as they have looked upon the 
scene; for with them the natural and supernatural arc one. 

In that case, everything would be as weird and wild as a 
dream, as unreal as any picture which poet could draw. There 
■night arise a sense of fear, and superstition might be aroused, 
and we find ourselves in the same mood as were the wild men. 
who were here before us. But this does not quite satisfy, we 
want to know about the people who fnrmerly dwelt here. 
From these very heights we have gained glimpses of ruins 
which are as real as the rocks upon which they rest. These 
niins stir our minds with new sensations, as they have the 
mindsof others, who have looked upon the same scenes. 

We are familiar with the people who dwell here now. but we 
want to know about the people who dwelt here in the long ago. 




THE GREAT PLATEAU AND ITS INHABITANTS. 15 

We know, also, many things about the history of the Creation 
as it is written in the rocks, for the geologists have read this 
clearly for us. But we want to read the history of the people 
as well. The process has been a very slow one, and centuries 
have passed; but there must have been also a process by which 
the scene was peopled. We want to place the two records to- 
gether and solve the mystery. The history of the Creation 
is a marvellous one, and must have taken many thousand? of 
years to accomplish. This history, the geologist is able to read 
and point out its periods and processes. As President Jordan has 
said, the earth's crust has been making history and scenery, with 
all the earth-moulding forces steadily at work, and has rested in 
the sun for ten thousand centuries. Mountains were folding, 
continents were taking form, while this land of patience lay 
beneath a warm and shallow sea, as the centuries piled up layer 
upon layer of sand and rock. 

At last the uplift of the Sierras changed the sands to dry 
land and by the forces of erosion the sands were torn away 




V ' "I ri- 

WMkCU^' MantaMwruflh. r«rum»mpa»ak. \ bMKaMbnaWM. ^'lUrMr (.)M,aii PMmu. 

MUwHaPIMMik llBhajntriMAM. KsmbCMnM Ksllisb HalfM. _ 

Wml KMMife n>U»a. WmlKaitebUkN^ Em! KaltabOiOW. 

GEOLOGICAL RELIEF OF THE GREAT PLATEAU. 

by slow process, until a mile or more of vertical depth had 
been stripped from the whole surface, leaving only flat-topped 
buttes here and there to testify to the depth of the ancient 
strata; if tht: swift river from the glacial mountains had done 
its work and narrowed its bounds, cutting its path through the 
flinty stone and dropped Swiftly from level to level, until it 
reached the granite core of earth at the bottom, and a view 
from the canyon rim, shows at a glance how it all w?is done, 
we wonder that we cannot tell more about the people who 
came upon the scene, and the time at which they came. 

This is the scientists' interpretation, and brings to view the 
processes of nature; but what shall we say about the people 
who have dwelt amid this scene? What is their history, and 
what was the date of their advent? From what country did 
they come? To what race and stock did they belong? What 
were the channels, by which they reached these distant regions? 

Access to this isolated plateau was originally gained by 
means of great streams, the most of which are diflRcult of 
navigation, but they ncver-the-less open a channel in different 
directions, as all of them ultimately reach the sea. There are 
mountain passes by which wandering tribes, who were accus- 
tomed to follow the paths wherever they lead, could reach it. 



i6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

These different means of access have been employed by the 
different peoples who have entered the mysterious province. 

The first white man to enter it, was a lone traveller, who 
was ship-wrecked upon the eastern coast, and passing from 
tribe to tribe wandered at length into the Great Staked Plain 
and made his way along the southern border, then passed on 
to the far west, and there made his report of the marvellous 
things which he had seen. Atter which a little band of 
Spanish cavaliers passed up from the south and traversed the 
valleys, and finally reached the Great Plateaus, and visited the 
pueblos which were scattered here and there, and at last passed 
over the mountains to the eastward and then continued their 
long wanderings in search of the fabulous land which they 
called Quivira. After the Spaniards, the Americans fitted out 
vessels and sailed around the continent, entered the mouth of 
the Colorado River, and finally reached the region by this 
means. 

The problem now before us does not refer to the means of 
access, nor to the conveniences of travelling by which we may 
reach the distant region; but it does relate to the period when 
this mysterious locality was first peopled, and to the direction 
which was taken by those who first reached it. This is difficult 
to solve, though many theories are held in reference to it. 

Some would place it as far back in a geological age as the 
time when this great air continent was, like other continents, 
surrounded by water, and raised but little above it. At that 
time the valleys, which are now so wide, were filled with seas, 
which have long since disappeared. 

Others, however, would date the peopling of this mysterious 
continent at a very recent period. Judging from the language 
which has been used by some, one might think that it was but 
a short time before the discovery by Columbus. The true date 
is between these two extremes; but it can not be definitely fixed 
until more facts are secured. 



THE ART OF BENIN CITY. 

BY FREDERICK STARR. 

No archaeological or ethnographic material has of recent 

3rears aroused so much excitement and interest in Europe, as 

Yhe objects lately brought from Benin City, West Africa. The 

bronze objects have attracted the most attention, but those in 

other materials also deserve notice. The art is so good, the 

objects represented are so varied, and the questions suggested 

^re so many, that a veritable sensation has been caused. 

The largest collection of the Benin bronzes is no doubt 

that at the British Museum; the next largest is probably at 

Berlin. Hundreds of specimens, including some choice and 

interesting pieces, have passed through the hands of Mr. W. 

D. Webster.* The material has also been actively bought by 

smaller museums, particularly in Germany. Several papers 

have already been printed regarding these objects. The 

present article must be considered merely a review of three of 

the most important of these papers.f Mr. Read and Dr. von 

Luschan consider their papers preliminary, and propose to 

publish complete studies later. 

Read and Dalton present a summary of our knowledge of 
Benin City. It was the centre of power of the Beni tribe and 
was located some seventy-three miles from the mouth of the 
Formoso or Benin river. The tribe is much like the Dahomey 
people generally. The city was discovered at the close of the 
fifteenth century. The Portuguese passed along the coast in 
1470; Sequiera visited the region in 1472; Alonzo d'Aviero 
went inland, probably, in 1487. From that time various adven- 
turers reached Benin City, and by 1550 general commerce had 
been opened up with it. Windham and Pintado's description of 
Benin was printed in Hakluyt in 1553. The first really detailed 
account of it, with illustrations, by a Dutch author, was given 
in DeBry about 1600. Van Nyendale visited it in 1602 and his 

*W. D. Webster, Bicester, England. Within a few months past Mr. 
Webster has sold Benin bronzes in the following quantities to museums and 
private parties: Pitt Rivers Museum, ^1.437; Vienna, £6\o\ Berlin, ^£465; 
Dresden, £7'i}\ Munich, £\6o\ Dublin. £72; Edinburgh, ^131; Adelaide, 
/50; Christ Church (New Zealand), ^68; Basle. £^y\ Copenhagen, ^115; 
Cambridge, £^o\ private buyers, ;t5oo. &c. We do not know tnat any of 
this interesting material has reached America. 

t Works of Art from Benin City. Charles H. Read and O. M. Dalton. 
Jour. Anth. Inst, of Great BritJ^in and Ireland, vol. xxvii., pp. 362-382. 

Alterthumer von Benin, F. von Luschen. Verhand. der Berliner Gesel. 
fur Anth. Eth. und Urgeschicte. 1898., pp. 146-164. 

Illustrated Catalogue of Ethnographical Specimens in Bronze, Wrought 
Iron, Ivoty, and Wood, from Benin City, West Africa. W. D. Webster, 
Bicester, England. Price, 5 shillings. 



t8 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



At the centre of one side 

;ome thirty to forty feet 

he tail of a gtcat cast 

1 to the ground and whose 



description was printed later. During this century several 
English travelers have been to Benin. King in 1S20, Fawckner 
in 1825. and Moffatt and Smith in 1838, al! mention the art 
work. Sir Richard Burton was there in 1862, and left a good 
description. In 1897 the city was destroyed (in large part) by 
the British Punitive Expedition under Admirai Rawson. 

From these various writers our authors gather many details 
regarding the life, customs, social organization, etc. The city 
was a rambling town, divided into two parts by a broad 
avenue. The king's quarters lay to the south of this; to the 
north were the houses of the lesser chiefs and the common 
people. The town had seen its best days before 1600. Private 
places of worship occupied alcoves at the ends of rooms. 
There were seven large enclosures for public worship, not far 
from the palace. These were surrounded with mud walls, and 
at one end of each was constructed a shelter. Under this was 
a long altar of clay, upon which stood human heads of cast 
metal, bearing carved ivory tusks. On the altars were also 
maces for killing human sacrifices, 
of the palace rose a pyramidal towt 
high. P'ixcd to the lop of thi 
metal snake, whose head came 1 

body was as large around as that of a man. When King ■ 
the palace in iSZO, he was assured that this snake figure had 
been there for centuries. In some rooms the transverse beams 
were covered with metal plates adorned with figures. Dapper 
in the seventeenth century states that these encasing plates 
were kepi ever bright. Society at Benin was distinctly strati- 
fied. The king was supreme ruler and received adoration from 
his subjects. f-Iis advisers were the captain of war and two or 
three other great chiefs. Below these were lower chiefs, from 
whom officers were chosen. Then, in succession of rank, came 
brokers, subordinate functionaries, the common people and 
slaves. Coral necklaces, a sign of nobility, were given by the 
king himself; anklets of coral beads denoted even higher rank. 
In the sixteenth century important chiefs rode led horses, on 
sidesaddles; on either side walked retainers, who supported 
their master's hands, or carried shields or umbrellas to protect 
him against the sun. Bands of musicians, playing ivory horns, 
gongs, drums, harps, and rattles, accompanied them. There 
was great diversity in the head-dresses worn. Caps were in 
vogue. Garments of skin were used, and in some cases the 
skirt stood out quite stiffly from the body. King wrote in 
1820: "The king came in, clothed after the fashion of the 
country and wearing on his head a large round hat, ornamented 
with gold lace. One of his arms was extended in a horizontal 
direction and supported by a great officer of state. The nail 
of one finger of each hand was of prodigious length to show 
that his exalteJ rank placed him above all necessity of working 
for his living," Human sacrifices were made for the benefit of 
the dead. .Some animals were venerated. 



I 



THE ART OF BENIN CITY. 



19 



We have quoted thus fully, because there is hardly a detail 
mentioned, which is not represented in the art works. An 
enormous quantity of objects have recently been brought from 
Benin. They are chiefly in four materials — bronze, wrought 
iron, ivory and wood. The most interesting of these -are the 
bronzes. 

A. These are either castings in the round or plaques, with 
designs in high relief. 'Ihe writers have quite neglected 
many of the smaller objects. Among them are finger rings, 
bracelets, and anklets. Very beautiful are maskoid pendents. 
often of delicate workmanship, and representing both human 
and animal taces. Bells of bronze are numerous and present 
pierced work and incised and relief decoration; they are usually 
four sided, with the sides straight but widening downward. 
One specimen, measuring seven and five-ejghth inches in 
height, bore a maskoid and two tishcs in relief on one side, and 
three fishes on each of the other three sides; usually, however, 
these bells bear relieves only on one side. War horns, in form 
imitating the more common ivory war horns, were made in 
bronze and adorned with relief decoration. Staves or palaver 
Sticks in bronze were decorated with lizard or leopard figures. 

All writers discuss the curious life size brass figures of 
ifowls and panthers, and the wonderful life size negro heads. 
One old writer speaks of these bronze heads as serving as bases 
for carved elephant tusks, Some of the bronze heads, which 
have lately been brought from Benin may have been so used. 
There are also some cylindrical bronze objects which were, 
quite certainly, such supports; these are often beautifully 
adorned with a band of human figures in high relief. Curious 
circular bronze supports are known, several inches high, upon 
which stand figures of warriors and leopards, worked out m 
the round and decorated with much line detail. 

The bronze objects which have attracted the most attention 
are, certainly, the plaques or panels. There are about three 
hundred of the.se in the Hritish Museum. Most of their s-ries 
Were found in an uncared-for heap in the king's palace. These 
plaques range from twenty by fifteen inches to one-fourth that 
size. The astoni-^hingly bold, high relief figures upon them evi- 
dence the greatest skill in the caster. Equal skill is shown, 
however, in the chiselling and punch-work decoration. In 
most of the finer pieces this decorative work is applied to the 
whole background and to much of the relief. As the material 
■j very hard, an excellent tool and much time and labor was 
iccessary for this chiselling and punch-work. Von Luschan 
says that workmen in Germany asserted that single plaques 
■ould cost them six or eight months or more of work. All 
Ihe writers agree that the casting was done by a waste mold 
process. The design was first carefully made in wax; this was 
covered with clay and heated until the melted wax ran out 
through an aperture, leaving a hardened clay mold; in this the 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

bronze was run, and the mold was later broken sway. With 
this process no two pieces will be just alike. 

The English writers present analyses of ihe bronzes. The 
specimens represent two types of copper alloys — one, a mix- 
ture of copper, zinc, and lead, is really a brass; the other, a 
mixture of copper, lin. and lead, is a true bronze. The casters 
apparently paid little attention to exact proportions, and souk: 
of the specimens are in a mixture of the two alloys — contain- 
ing both zinc and tin. Usually the plaques are bronze, while 
the large figures in the round— human beings, leopards, and 
fowls— are generally brass. All this material may have been 
obtained by melting down the rings and other metal ornaments 
obtained from the Portuguese. 

Whatever the source of the material, the style of the art 
itself is purely African, Von Luschan asserts that it could not 
b'i the art of a few white caplives, but an art with a series of 
workers and a period of development. The art was at its best 
in the sixlet-nth and seventeenth centuries. This is proved by 
ceitain plaques on which Europeans are represented: the dress 
and weapons of these figures date the panels quite exactly. 

Space is lacking to point out the vast amount of curious 
information regarding physical types, dress, ornaments, 
weapons, social organization, customs and religious ideas, 
which a study of the figures on these plaques yields. A hint 
of it will be obtained in reading the description of the objects 
represented in our plates. 

B, In Webster's catalogue some dozen or so objects of 
wrought iron are described. These include standards or staves 
of office, bell beaters, swords, armlets, a bell, axe and adze 
blades, and unfinished objects from the smithy. They are 
mostly modern and of little artistic pretence. Some of the 
stiwcs present rude figures of leopards and snakes wrought in 
iron. A few have fine bronze decorations — maskoids and the 
j|j{j_ worked into them, and may (though not necessarily) date 
back to the days of good bronze art. 

C. Read and Ualton dismiss the carved elephant tusks with 
hitle consideration. The decoration is elaborate, but inferior 
to that on the bron/.e objects; it "'is inferior lo some Loango 
Mivinff. Von Luschan gives them more attention. He slates 

I thai the ininll ivory carvings are usually in better condition 

N the RTcat tusks, which often show signs of neglect and are 

ihcfctl even to the defacement of Ihe patterns. The de- 

i *r« quite lil«c those on the bronzes, though less fine: 

- jjcdi subjects are more frequent: human and animal 

« often represented. The designs arc closely crowded; 

" imdecorated. as .small designs are worked in 

:t patterns, The tip of the tusk is frequently 

tifaXa bearded man, whom Von Luschan suggests 

L y^lUKiieKC '■ God. the father." As on the bronze 

iTacUy while men are represented with guns. Some- 




THE ART OF BENIN CITY. 23 

negroes are shown with bow-guns. For a long time back cer- 
tain elaborately carved tusks have bothered the museum 
workers of continental Europe. They were usually with no 
history, or with unsatisfactory histories. They have been 
labeled as Roman, Gothic, Merovingian, Indian, Spanish, and 
Old German. With Benin specimens before him Von Luschan 
queries whether all these uncertain pieces may not have come 
from Benin or its neighborhood. 

D. The wood carvings of Benin stand to the ivory carvings, 
somewhat as the wrought iron work does to the cast bronze. 
They represent a still flourishing and inferior art. Still, as some 
of the iron work may go back to the halcyon days of the bronze 
casting, so wood carving was doubtless carried on, side by side, 
with the ivory sculpturing, and the designs in the two arts were 
presumably similar. Some idols and carved drums present 
really creditable work. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 

Mask: Fig. 2 is one of the commoner and most character- 
istic types of the bronze castings. It is a hollow mask, 
some 21 inches in height. The face is notably African and 
presents the characteristic thick lips and prognathism. The 
low round cap, with upright flaps and pendent strands is curious. 
Notice the wide collar of beads, also the four elephant figures 
about the base with trunks ending in human hands, and the 
human hands clasping the base. The specimen is a fine one, 
and these elephants and hands at the base render it exceptional. 

Figures: Fig. 6. (^) Figure of a king of Benin. Notice 
the pendent cross on the breast and the elaborate decoration 
of the garments.* The skirt bears portraits of Portuguese. 
Notice the divergent lines beginning at the corners of the lips 
dnd running out into the cheeks, and the position of the thumbs. 
The figure measures 22^4 inches in height. (/>) Figure of a 
ehief blowing a war horn. The flap of the skirt is decorated 
with a leopard's head. The leopard appears to be a particu- 
larly respected animal. Height 24^2 inches. 

Plaques: Fig. i. Natives are represented as gathering 
fruit; one is cutting, the other is carrying one away. The fruit 
is somewhat melon shaped, but ribbed. The specimen is 
probably unique. Specimens of these fruits, cast in the round 
are known. The plaque measures 22^4 by 15/4 inches. 

♦In the reproductions, unfortunately, most ot the beautiful chiselled 
decoration and the punch-work background are lost. These are elaborate 
in all the plaques represented. The beautiful decoration on the dress of 
the figures in the round is lost, also. In all the plaques the reader will 
no*ice nail holes. It is plain that these panels had been nailed against some 
surface to be decoratea — perhaps rafters or pillars, or other parts of the 
house or palace. 



24 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Fig. 3. King, or high official, riding upon a horse, or mule, 
led by an attendant. Notice his high head dress and wide col- 
lar or neckband upon his naked chest and the decorated skirt. 
He rides upon a side saddle. The two supporting attendants, 
though naked, appear to be of high rank, judging from the 
bead ankle-bands. They have the hair dressed curiously, and 
one bears a broad sword or war knife. Two other attendants, 
dressed and accoutred, carry shields so as to shade their mas- 
ter's head. 

Fig. 4. A chief prepared for battle is represented. He 
wears a feather head-dress, broad bead collar, a neck-ring of 
spikes, shoulder coverings and elaborately decorated dress. 
From his neck hangs a bell. He carries a spear and an orna- 
mented shield. His legs, to the knees, are covered with rings 
or bead bands. To his right is an attendant with a broad sword 
or war knife. Other attendants blow upon a war horn and 
strike a bell. The corner rosettes, shown on this plaque, are a 
common decorative feature in this work. 

Fig. 5. Three hunter figures, similar in dress and equip- 
ment. They wear curious helmets, or head-dresses, that pro- 
tect the head and lower face. Each carries an arrow in the 
right hand, and two arrows and a bow in the left. Bows are not 
often represented on these plaques, but Von Luschan claims 
that they are "composite" bows — a type not before known in 
the Guinea region. They have had a successful chase and all 
carry game — the central one, a leopard, and the others, two 
antelopes. 

Fig. 7. An important personage, with shaved head and three 
scar swellings over each eyebrow and one long welt, vertical on 
his forehead and nose. He wears the wide bead collar, diagonal 
bands of beads upon his chest, skirt, and bead anklets. A 
carved elephant trunk is apparently attached to his dress be- 
hind. Two attendants support his hands; one of them bears a 
staff of authority, the other, a bell and knocker. Two smaller 
figures carry other objects, apparently insignia. Two curious 
little part figures occupy the upper corners. 



CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS. 

BY MRS. IDA WILSON. 

The question is often asked, is the Indian capable of 
receiving an education? And the history of the r?ce during 
the last quarter of a century warrants, we believe, an answer in 
the affirmative. 

The Indian is a human being; created in the image of his 
Maker; endowed with faculties capable of the same growth and 
development as those possessed by his brother man, and had he 
been enjoying, through the past centuries, the benefits that come 
from successive ages of Christian privilege and culture, he would 
no doubt to-day compare favorably with his white brother in 
intelligence and moral worth. But behind the Indian are cen- 
turies of darkness and superstition that must be overcome be- 
fore he can stand in the light of civilization and vindicate his 
right to equality. As a nation we have too long failed to recog- 
nize the possibilities and rights of the Indian, but at last we 
have awakened to the fact that our country is his; our rights 
and priviliges belong to him — and slowly, but surely, we are 
working to atone for past neglect. 

In 1887 a law was passed entitling the Indian to citizenship 
and to a share in his own individual right in the tribal lands. 
Indian Rights Associations have been organized in the most of 
our large cities, that arc creating in the public mind a rC'spect 
for the rights of the Indian and a desire to do him justice; giv- 
ing him a voice in the government of his own country and a 
share in its advantages. More than one hundred industrial 
schools are maintained by our government for the education of 
the Indian children. And, best of all, the Indians themselves 
are eager to take advantage of the opportunities offered them. 
They are sending their children to school; are building com- 
fortable homes for themselves and their families, and to the 
best of their ability are performing the vluties and claiming the 
rights of American citizens. 

The Indians have been the wards of our nation. They have 
been put by themselves and fed and clothed at the government's 
expense. An educated Indian chief of one of the tribes in 
Indian Territory says: "Until the tribal relations are broken 
up and the Indian owes allegiance to no man, except the great 
chief of the United States; until every Indian has his own home 
and land and is supporting himself, instead of being fattened 
like so many cattle by the government; until his children are in 
schools and collages; until they have an equal chance in the 
shop and factory; until all race prejudice is removed and they 
are treated as equals, with a fair field for growth and develop- 



3& THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ment — then, and not until then, will the great 'Indian problem' 
be solved-" When the " poor Indian " is capable of discover- 
ing his position in the world, the great and wise white man 
surely should be willing to help him attain lo it. 

The Apaches are ptrhaps as wild and savage as any of the 
tribes of Indians, and as they have invariably intermarried, or 
but seldom married into other tribes, are the best representa- 
tives to-day of the pure American Indian, and in them undoubt- 
edly lies the best possibility of proving what education will do 
for the race. While teaching in the Ramona Indian School in 
Santa Ft, New Mexico, I found my forty and more Apache boys 
and girls an exceedingly interesting study. When these children 
came to us from the Reservation they had much to learn that 
was not found in books. They had never in all their lives had 
a good bath, never had their hair combed, never slept in a bed 
or sat in a chair, or eaten at a table— had done nothing, in fact. 
but climb the mountains, wade the streams, and grow in the sun- 
shine, like the wild animals of the forest. And they were just 
as shy and frightened as these same animals, when they were 
put into a tub of water (or a good bath before being sent to bed 
at night. In the morning, the new comers were always found 
asleep on the floor, preferring nature's bfd to anything man 
had -nvcnted. It took great love and patience to win these 
wild flowers of the woods and plains to grow well in the new 
soil; but time wrought a great change and made them familiar 
with our strange ways. 

Many children from babyhood are accustomed to handling 
books and pencils: these children h.id never seen cither, but 
their eyes were sharp and their memories good, and it was won- 
derful in how short a time they learned to read and write well; 
the older ones drawing accurately any object their eyes rested 
upon. Could these children have the advantages of an educa- 
tion in some of our ait schools they would undoubtedly develop 
great talent, so ready are they with the pencil. They have a 
keen ear, and very soon arc singing our school songs and gospel 
songs correctly and sweetly. For generations the Indians' guide 
and teacher has been the eye and ear, and now they develop 
readily under intelligent guidance. Children who had been in 
the school four years were ready for the Fourth reader and had 
a very fair knowledge of history, physiology, and geography. 
The study with which they found the most difficulty was arith- 
metic; and here the simplest example, that required any reason- 
ing power, was beyond their mental ability, and only through 
infinite patience was this faculty, so long dormant, slowly de- 
veloped. 

Every summer the children went back to their reservation 
for the two months' vacation, and receiving but little help and 
encouragement from parent? and friends, they naturally lost 
much of what they had learned at school, and on coming back 
in the fall, with their blankets and moccasins, hair unkept, and 
in a generally untidy condition, it was hard to recognize the 



I 



CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS. 27 

clean, well-dressed children we had sent away a little while 
before. 

Jessie Greenleaf, a noble, true hearted lad of perhaps fifteen 
years of age, was one of our brightest scholars. He had been 
in school about four years and had made great progress. The 
children were fond of writing letters, and had many correspond- 
ents among their friends and admirers. The following is a let- 
ter that Jesse wrote to a friend in Chicago: 

Ramona Indian School, 

Santa Fe, N. M., May 28, 18— 
My Dear Friend: 

I thought I would write you a nice letter and tell you «ome- 
thing about the Indian children here at Ramona School, and about our 
people. 

Our people live on a reservation about 200 miles north of Santa Fe. 
Some of the Apaches were here to see us, and went home again about three 
days ago. They are as happy as can be to see us learn to read and write. 
Our people will wear clothes like white people and learn how to build houses 
and how to take care of themselves pretty soon. In about two months ail 
of our people are going to Amargo, and live there all together, and not any- 
body run away from their reservation again. I heaid somebody say to me 
the Apaches are going to live together tike while people. By and bv all 
our people are to take care of themselves like white folks, and after awhile, 
I think, some of the Apache boys will be interpreters, because our people 
don't like the Mexicans to be interpreters. I would like to be interpreter 
for my people, but I don't talk good English yet. because I haven't been in 
school a long time. I am only in school for a few years. If I go to school 
as long as I can, then I will be educated. But my father won't let me goto 
school again. He told me last year, you go just this time and no more. I 
think you have learned enough by this time. But I want to learn more. 
Wc are all very happy because it is almost tme for us to go home for our 
vacation. When we go home we shall tell our people what we have learned 
here in school, and also we shall tell about Jesus. I know our people don't 
know about Him and what He has done for them, and they don't know 
whether He loves them or not. They don't know anything that whiie peo- 
ple know. 

Some of the children of our school write very nice, and some of them 
don't because they don't improve in their writing every time when they 
write. Every body thinks we write very nice letters. 

Sometimes some of the boys go to the mountains, and sometimes the 
girls go too, but they don't run fast as the boys do; but some of the Apache 
girls can run fast just as well as the boys do. Our teacher reads some of 
the letters that some Dakota Indian children wrote; they are very nice in- 
deed; we can do as well as they wrote. 

We ah go to church every Sunday, and we have Sunday-school in the 
afternoon, and every Wednesdav morning we all write a letter to our peo- 
ple and to our friends in the different States. I have a friend in the East 
in the state of Ohio They write to me very often, but I haven't heard 
from him for a long time, so I wrote to him. I think he will write to me 
just as soon as he gets my letter. 

I saw one of the Sioux Indians here in our school; his face was painted 
with yellow and red. 

I think that is all I have to write this morning. 

Jesse Greenleaf. 

Realizing the need of doing something for the parents of 
the children, two of our teachers went to live on the reserva- 
tion. These two women were the oqly white persons, except 
the agent, living among these hundreds of Indians — but they 



3b8 the AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

were neither lonely nor afraid: for. as (he mountains were rouiiS 
about them, so they believed He, in whose spirit they went.wasi 
around His people. Lovingly and patiently they went amongr 
the tents .ind houses; teaching the women to cut and make gar- 
ments for themselves and their children; teaching them to carc^ 
(or their sick and to prepare their food in a more healthful and- 




in many ways helping them, as best they 
; became God's children. Whenever the 
Indians came to their little cottage they a. ways made them a 
cup of coffee, and served with it some of their good, home- 
made bread or cake, in this way helping to win their hearts, 
and creating a desire in them to know how to make things as 
good as the "white women." 

Never did they lose an opportunity to speak a word for the 



CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS. J^ 

loving Saviour, who had put it into their hearts to come and 
live among these neglected children, and try to win them to 
Himself. Our missionaries did not understand the Apache ian- 

fuage, but both they and the Indians couid speak enough 
panish to get along very well. Many of the Indians were 
eager to learn to read the book from which the missionaries 
tallccd so much, and so a class was started and they were 
patiently taught a word at a time. While on the reservation 
for a few days, I was in the missionaries' cottage when the 
Indians came in for their lesson. After they had drank their 
cup of coffee they were all ready, and I shall never forget how 
reverently they lifted the Hible from the tabic and carefully 
turned the leaves until they found their lesson, the fourteenth 
chapter of John, and with what joy they read over the few 
words with which they were familiar. Surely His words, 
"Blessed are they that hunger and thrist after righteousness, 
(or they shall be filled." shall be fulfilled in them. 

Our teachers had not been among the Indians long before a 
frreat improvement was noted. Those who owned a little stock 
look better care of it; many cultivated their land and raised a 
nice garden: not a tin can was to be found on the reservation. 
for everj- Indian'had half a dozen or more with plants growing 
in them, because the "white women" had flowers in their 
windows. 

When an Indian died his body was carried off to the moun- 
tains and hid in the rocks, and his house and belongings de- 
siroyed by fire, his friends believing that in this way they 
reached him in the spirit land, where he would need ihem- 
Kow the " white women " helped them bury their dead with 
proper ceremonies, and they no longer burned his property. 
^Surely God was honoring the work of these noble women. 
"The results obtained among these and other tribes of Indians 
^would seem incredible did we not know that God always works 
inightily through those who put their trust in Him. During 
the last twenty-five years in New Mexice and Indian Territory 
}iundreds of churches have been built, whose sweet-toned bells 
are calling out over mountain and plain to the yet unconverted. 
Sunday-schools and sewing schools have been started in many 
of the churches. Missionary societies have been organi^et!, 
presided over by Indian women, and large sums of money have 
been raised to help send missionaries among their people. The 
Indians call one of these societies " A Light on the Mountain," 
They have received the light and they want it to shine into the 
hearts of their brethren. Their desire is fast being realized, 
for the light is spreading and continuing to shine " more and 
more unto the perfect day." 

Many Christian farmers are going among these Indians to 
live, teaching them to till the soil that it may yield them good 
returns; and as the time is coming when they must depend 
more and more upon their own efforts for their support, this 
knowledge is very valuable. The Indian is quick to recognize 



30 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

when he is trusted, and responds wilh gratitude. One chief of 
Kiowas said, when a brave young missionary went among his 
people: "One white Jesus woman come atl alone among my 
people— and no scared. That is good- The Great Father 
talked to your heart; we will listen to all he tells you to tell us 
and think about it over and over. We will call you no more 
■ white woman," but ' sister.' " And that relation has been truly 
established through the bond of Christian fellowship. 

To-day there are probably 25,000 Indian children in our 
several government schools. The girls are being trained in 
cooking, sewing and all the domestic industries; being care- 
fully taught what home lite should be and how best to dis- 
charge its responsibili- 
ties. 

Systematic training 
is given to the boys in 
every department of 
farm work and in all 
trades. At Carlisle the 
course of study is very 
complete, and many of 
the students remain for 
eight years. In that 
time they acquire great 
skill in some industry, 
strong characters arc 
formed, and a desire 
for civilisation devel- 
oped. When their 
school work is over, 
many of these students 
gi> out into the world 
and fill important posi- 
tions with greal credit 
to themselves. Others 
return to the reserva- 
tions; the young men, 
enlisting in the army; 
others helping their 
parents in building homes and cultivating the soil. Many, both 
the young men and women, are employed as teachers in the 
government schools. The help these students are, in preparing 
students for citizenship and absorption into our national life, is 
beyond estimation. It is true, the old Indians, in many cases, 
will not abandon the time honored ways of their people, or 
conform to the customs of civilized life. Consequently, when 
their children return from school, having no help or encourag- 
ment, they naturally fall back into old ways of dress and liv- 
ing, but the lessons they have learned will not be lost, either 
upon themselves or the coming generations, and when the 




CIVILIZATION OF THE INDIANS. 31 

Indian owns his land and is depending upon his own efforts 

for his support he will find their value. 

The Osage Indians, in Indian Territory, are a wealthy peo- 
ple, having comfortable homes and well-stocked farms, and 
using modern agricultural implements. They have splendidly 
equipped schools on their lands, and are giving their children 
a good education. The tribes of the Cherokees, Creeks, Choc- 
taws, and Seminoles, also in Indian Territory, are maintaining 
a government of their own, with a system of legislation and 
courts of justice. They also have comfortable homes and well 
kept farms and good schools. At Tahlequah, the capital of 
the Cherokee nation, is a large Indian University, having a 
regular college course and, in addition, one year's work in 
theological studies. In the last fifteen years nearly one thou- 
sand students have shared its advantages, and are now success- 
fully filling positions as teachers, ministers, and physicians, or 
working with profit at some trade. 

Our government is doing no grander work, or appropriating 
its money for no better purpose, than that of maintaining 
schools for our Indian children. The progress they have made 
in the past gives promise of a still brighter future. A *' little 
leaven eaveneth the whole," and these brave boys and girls, 
working faithfully against many odds, will yet raise their peo- 
ple to a proud place in our nation and bring about that glad 
time when two hundred and fifty thousand Indians, having lost 
their identity as such in citizenship, shall form with us one 
people, whose God is the Lord. 



HIDERY PRAYERS. 

BY JAMES DEANS. 

It has been maintained by some people on this coast that 
none of the aborigines were known to pray, at least they made 
no such prayers as others do; that they have dances and sacred 
ceremonies, but no such thing as prayer. Having heard Hidery 
prayers, I consider myself authority on the subject and accord- 
ingly give you a few specimens. I begin with a prayer of 
the Massett Indians. It is a prayer to the sun for fair weather. 
Looking up to where the sun was supposed to be, these 
Indians would say: 

O sun shine on us; look down on us. O sun take away the dark roll- 
ing clouds, that the rain may cease to fall, because we want to be about. O 
sun look down upon us from ou high and i^rant us peace amongst ourselves 
and with our enemies. Hear us in pity, sun. 

A SKIDEGAT HAIDA PRAYER TO THE SEA. 

This prayer used to be said by these people, when caught 
in a storm at sea, in their canoes. It is as follows: 



32 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

O Thou deep! Thoo clear blue sea! (Quill cusedlos.) Still thy wild 
rolling waves; why do you want to break our canoe and swallow us up? 
We are dirty, all dirty, ourselves and our clothes. If you should drown us 
and we so dirty, we would pollute thy clear blue waters. Hear us, O sea! 
Listen to our supplication. O sea! 

A PRAYER TO THE GODDESS OF THE MOUNTAINS FOR RAIN. 

The Skidegat Indians have a salmon stream of considerable 
dimensions, which rises at or near a high mountain and flows 
southward until it falls into Skidegat channel. The name of 
this stream is Claig-a-doo (land of plenty), because, from its 
waters, every year they draw their supply of salmon, and also 
to its head waters they go for the blick slate from which they 
make their famous carvings. 

In this stream, the fish genarally begin to run toward the 
end of September. Every summer, especially a dry one, this 
stream gets low, so much so that salmon are unable to get up 
until the fall rains come, when the water rises. When the fall 
rains were light and the water continued low, they had the fol- 
lowing prayer to the goddess of the mountain, for rain, in 
order to raise the river and enable the salmon to run. The 
name of this goddess, I have lost, so I will use the expression 
Goddess of the Mountain. The prayer is as follows: 

O Thou jfreat Cioddess. whose dwelling is on the high mountain of 
Clalg-a-doO. Thou, who hast control of the storm clouds and bringeth 
them to rest on the tops of the mountains, and while resting to pour out the 
wAtcrs they carry and cause the lakes and rivers to rise and the salmon to 
run in Claig-a-doo. Hear us, Thou great and good Goddess, and send now 
the clouils and rain, because the river is low and in it the salmon can not 
run, while our supply of food is already very scant. Hear us, O Goddess, 
and grant our reijuesl. that we, having food, may rejoice and be glad. 

Allow me to to say, in conclusion, that according to the ancient 
belief of these people, everything had a spirit: The storm and 
tompcst; thr mountains, lakes, and rivers; the lightning and 
thunder. Kven the stillness of the dense primeval forest was 
often broken by the awful screams of the storm god, forboding 
the coming storm. In the forest, also, were elementary sort of 
beings representing the Dryads, nymphs, and satyrs of the 
tncicnt Greek mythology. 



THE WORD FOR MAN AND CHILD IN DIFFERENT 

LANGUAGES. 

BY C. STANILAND WAKE. 

Sometimes it is useful to be able to refer to lists of words 
conveying a common idea in different languages, and we are 
able to furnish such a list, made some years ago for compara- 
tive purposes. It covers considerable ground and, although it 
gives words for " man *' and " child '* only, the list will be 
perused with interest, and will give rise to the thought that 
there may be a language affinity between the Polynesian 
Islanders and peoples of both the Asiatic and the American 
continents. The list is as follows: 



LANGUAGE. 


MAN. 


CHILD. 




FRICAN LANGUAGES. 








Bechuana, 


monuna, 


nuana. 




Zulu, 


indoda, 


umtuana, 




Nyambana, 


wanOna, 


nton wayana. 




Sofala. 


moamuna, 


moanono. 




Masena, 


moamuna, 


modna. 




Takwani, 


moamuna, 


moana. 




Madjana, 


oalumd, * 


moan^itci. 




Makua, 


mulopoana. 


modna. 




Bengera, 


urumc^, 


umane. 




Angola, 


didla. 


modna. 




Congo. 


ydk^la. 


mo«ina. 




Mundjola, 


baro, 


modna. 




Kambinda, 


i^kalas, 


moana. 




Evo, 


okun^, 
aup, khoip, 






Hottentot, 




• • • 


Madagascar— 




• • • 


Malagasy, 

«DIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 


ouloun lah^ 










• • • 


• 

Malay (Sumatra), 


orang Idki— laki, 


anak. 




Javanese, 


wong lanan, 


anak. 




Bourn Island — 








Cajeli. 


umlanai, 


a'nai. 




Wayapo, 


gemana, 


nknat. 




Massaratty, 


anamhdna, 


naanati. 




Amblaw, 


remau. 


em III mo. 




Tidore, 


nomdn, 


ngofa. 




Gani, 


mon, 


untuna. 




Golela, 


anow, 


mangopa. 




South Celebts— 








Bouton, 


omani, 


oanana. 




Salayer, 


tau 


anak. 





34 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



LANGUAGE. 


MAN. 


CHILD. 


North Celebes-- 






M enado. 


taumata esen, 


dodio. 


Bolan^hitam, 


rorakt, 


anako. 


Sanguri, Sian, 
Salibabo, 


manesh, 


anak. 


tomald. 


pigi-neneh. 


Sulu. 


maona, 


ninkna* 


Amboyna — 






Liang. 
Morella, 


malona, 


niana. 


malono. 


wana. 


Batumerela, 


mundai. 


opolikna. 


Lariki, 


malona. 


wkri. 


Baju, 


lelah. 


aniiko. 


Saparua, 


tumata. 


anahei. 


Ceram — 






Awaiya, 


tumata, 


w^ina. 


Camarian. 


tumata, 


ana. 


Teluti, 


manusia. 


anan. 


Ahtiago and Tobo, 


mudna, 


iniknak. 


Alfuros, 


muruleimum, 


anavim. 


Gah, 


belan^. 


diiia. 


Wahai, 


ala hieiti. 


^la. 


Matabello, 


maranana. 


en^na. 


Teor, 


meriinna. 


anfk. 


My sol, 


motu, 


kachun. 


POLYNESIA; 






Polynesian (general) 


kanna, 
tana, 
angata. 
tangata, 




Hawaii, 




Tonga, 




New Zealand, 




AUSTRALASIA. 




New Guinea — 






Outanata, 


marowana, 


moetocki. . 


Triton Bay, 


marowana, 


tamanetto." 


Onin, 


iohanouw, 


janijani. 


Aru Islands, 


usi. 
camolan. 




Andaman Islands, 




North Australia — 




Port Essmgton, 


iwala, 


wararuwanji 


Popham Bay, 


koala, 


edpeddo. 


Croker Island. 


eloin, 


alalk. 


Van Diemen's Gulf, 


poli, 


oroitj. 


/ / 'est A ustraiia— 


mam ma nip, 




East Australia — 




Kamilaroi, 


kore. 


wanari. 


Wiradurei. 




won^ai 


ASIATIC LANGUAGES. 




• • • »» %^ft*KCifcl« 


Indo- China— 






Kuanchua, 


nan, 

nam. 

nam. 




Canton, 




Tonkin, 




Yeniseian — 




Inbash, 


<;et, blot 
ilset. 




Pumpskolok 




Koit, 


hatket, 





MAN AND CHILD IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES- 



LANGUAGE. 


„.». 


c„,... 






y?du, 
aino. 

tagul,' 
angut, 

dinDie, 
khanaoe. 

tan ass. 

). tchuckoop, 

tiUkham. 












Kotuche— 

Kenar. 

AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 










Behring Sea. 










Athabascans— 
Chippewyan. 
















Nootka (Brit. Col.) 
Wakaah (Vanc-yr Ul 
Tsibanti (Oregon), 






tannassis. 





THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF THE 
EXPOSITION OF 1900. 

THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF FOLK-LORISTS. 

An International congress of rolk-lorists and of all scientific 
students of popular traditions, is to be held under the patronage 
of the French government in the series of official congresses of 
the Exposition of 1900. The date of opening has been fixed at 
the lOth of September, 1900, immedialeiy following the kindred 
congresses of prehistoric anthropology and archsologv and his- 
tory of religions, and preceding that of the Americanists, This 
arrangement will allow of members wishing to take part in these 
congresses, to do so without too great waste of time. 

The honorary president of the Committee of Organization is 
M. Gaston Paris of the French academy. The acting president 
is M. Chailcs Bcauquier, president of the French Folk-Lorc 
Society, and the secretary general is M. Paul Sobillot, the well 
known writer on folk-lore and editor of the Revue ties Traditions 
Populairei. 

It is desired that the preparation of the work of the congress 
should be begun as sr)i>n as possible, as it consists largely in the 
gathering of documents. For this purpo.'-e a general program 
of questions to be submitted to the congress has been outlined. 
Since the first congress in 1889. masses of new material have 
been collected, especially in Central Africa and m various other 
savage or uncivilized countries. Much still remains to be done, 
and ceilain points of scientific (oik lore have scarcely been 
touched. Still, it is already time to try to gather together and 
compare these materials of various origin, and to draw from 
them general conclusions. The idea of the Organizing Com- 



36 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

mittee is that the congress should devote itself rather to syn- 
thetic and comparative work, than to analytic and documentary 
investigation. It is to such general studies, or to those which 
have an international character, that the full sessions will be 
given. The special meetings will be divided between two sections : 

I.— ORAL LITERATURE AND POPULAR ART. 

(a) Origin, evolution, and transmission of tales and legends. 
Exposition and discussion of the various systems which are now 
advocated. 

(6) Origin, evolution, and transmission of popular songs^ 
both from the point of view of poetry and that of muiic. Re- 
ciprocal influence of learned poetry and music, and popular 
poetry and music. 

The popular theatre; its relations, ancient and modern, with 
the literary theatre. 

(c) Origin an J evolution of traditional iconography (pic- 
tures, sculpture, etc.); its relations with classical art; mutual 
borrowing. 

((/) Origin and evolution of popular coatume. Investiga- 
tion in monuments and documents, of the parts of costumes 
which have been preserved more or less completely up to our 
own day. Origin and evolution of jewels and ornaments. 

II. — TRADITIONAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

(a) Survival of customs connected with birth, marriage, 
and death (marriage by capture, "bundling," funeral offerings, 
etc ). 

{/f) Survival of animal worship in the customs of modern 
peoples. Survival of the worship of stones, trees, and fountains. 

(r) Traces of ancient lociil cults in the devotions to saints. 
Popular hagiography (ntcs and traditions). 

((/) Popular medicine and magic (amulets, rites for preserva- 
tion, laying spells, fascination, and the evil eye. etc.) 

(leneral survey of the folklorist movement from 1889 to 1900. 

French will be the oflficial lancuage of the congress. Com- 
munications may be made in Knglish, German, Italian, c.nd 
Latin, hut thi-y nuist be accc.nipiinicd with a resume in French. 
The\ slum 1(1 be in the hands ol the secretary general before the 
fir>t of July, 19<K). The Ungih of such communications is 
irslricled to a quarter hour's reading. No tale will be read at 
the general sessions, but those which have universal interest may 
Ik* printcii in the report 

Memberslu'p subscription is fi.xed at 12 francs. Members 
•^«*xr the printed reports of the scs-;ions of the congress and 
aiiv •X'h^'^ jMiblications which ma\' be issued 

Tho A'^^lirs'i t>»" the secrcrary-gLMieral is M. Paul Scbillot, 80 
Sv^.^s^v^r,". >4itU M.ucel. P.iris. 



IN MEMORIAM DR. D. G. BRINTON 

WITH A SKETCH OF HIS ARCHiEOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES. 
BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Extended obituary notices of the late Dr. D. G. Brinton 
(bom May 13, 1837; died July 31, 1898), whose death has been 
a distinct loss to all departments of anthropology, have appeared 
in Science (Vol. X., N. S., pp. 193 196) and Xh^ Journal of Ameri- 
can Folk- Lore (Vol. XII., pp. 215 225). Nevertheless some 
notice of his archaeological studies is not out of place in the 
pages of The American Antiquarian, to which he was a fre- 
quent contributor, and of which he was for some years one of 
the associate editors. The first book Dr. Brinton ever published, 
was "The Floridian Peninsula; its Literary History, Indian Tribes, 
and Antiquities" ^Phila , 1858, pp. 202), and his last contribution 
to the science appeared in the first number of the New Series of 
the American Anthropologist (January, 1899), an article entitled 
••The Calchaqui: An Archaeological Problem" (pp. 41 44), treat- 
ing briefly of one of the most interesting subjects in American 
prehistory — the ancient civilization of the vales of Catamarca, in 
the Argentine. From 1884 ^o the time of his death he held the 
position of Professor of Ethnology and Archaeology in the 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and from 1886 on- 
ward he was Professor of American Archaeology and Linguistics 
in the University of Pennsylvania His archaeological writings 
are more numerous and extensive than is commonly believed. 

To The American Antiquarian Dr. Brinton contributed, 
as follows: 

1. The Probable Nationality of the Mound-Builders. Oct., 

1881. 

2. The Chief God of the Algonkins in His Character as a 

Cheat and Liar. May, 1885. 

3. The Taensa Grammar and Dictionary. A Deception 

Exposed. March, 1885. 

4. The Taensa Grammar and Dictionary. A Reply to M. 

Lucien Adam. Sept.. 1885. 

5. The Phonetic Elements in the Graphic System of the 

Mayas. 1886 

6. The Study of the Nahuatl Language. Jan., 1886. 

7. On certain supposed Nanticoke Words. Shown to be of 

African Origin. 1887. 

8. On the Words " Anahuac " and " Nahuatl." Vol. XV, 

1893. pp. 377-382. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. ■ 

Characteristics of American Languages. 

1894. PP- 33 17- 
. Accadian and Turanian (Brief Note). Ibid., p. 1 13. 
. An Obstetrical Conjuration. Ibid., pp. 166 167. 
. Aztec Creation Legends (Note). Ibid., pp. 31 1-312. 
. On certain Morphological Traits of American Languages. 

Ibid., pp. 336 340. 
. Notes on European Archeology. Vol. XVIII., 1896, 

pp. 37-38; 106 107; 169 177, 
. The Battle and Ruins of Cintla, Ibid., pp. 259 268. 
. Native American Stringed Musical Instruments, Vol. 

XIX., 1897, pp. 19 20. 
. Recent European Archaeology. Vol. XX., 1898, pp. 

349-352. 



Some of the above papers were elaborated to form part of 
" Essays of an Americanist," published in 1890. 

Among his other publications (exclusive of books) of a more 
or less distinctly arch^ological and antiquarian nature are the 
following: 

1. The Shawncesand their Migrations. Histor. Mag,, Jan , 

1866. 

2. The Mound-Builders of the Mississippi Valley. Ibid., 

Feb., 1866. 

3. Early Spanish Mining in Northern Georgia. Ibid., May, 

1S66 

4. Artificial Shell Deposits in the United States. Rep. 

Smithson. Inst., 1S66. 

5. A Notice of Some MS. in Central American Languages. 

Amer. Jour. Sci. and Arts. (New Haven.) March, 
1869. 

6. The Ancient Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan. Amcr. 

Histor. Mag., [870, 

7. Notes on the Codex Troano and Maya Chronology. 

Amer. Naturalist, Sept.. iSSl. 

8. The Graphic System and Ancient Records of the Mayas. 

Contrib, N. Amer. Ethnol., Vol. V., 1882. pp. 17-27. 

g. The Books of Chilan Balam, the Prophetic and Historic 

Record.^ of the Mayas cf Yucatan. Penn. Monthly, 

March, 1882. 

10. Recent European Contributions to the Study of Ameri- 

can ArchEEology Proc. Numism. and Antiq. Soc. 
Phila., March, 1883. 

11. American Archieology. Amer. Suppl. Encyclop. Bri 

1883. 

12. The Archeology of Northern Africa. Science (New 

York), Nov., 1884. 




IN MEMORIAM DR. D. G. BRINTON. 39 

13. On the Cuspidiform Petroglyphs, or so-called Bird- 

Track Sculptures of Ohio. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
(Phila.). Oct., 1884. 

14. On Fire Stones and Prehistoric Implements. Ibid,^ 

Nov., 1884. 

15. Impression of the Figures on a ** Meda Stick." Wdf., 

Nov., 1884. 

16. The Lineal Measures of the Semi-Civilized Nation^ of 

Mexico and Central America. Proc. Amer. Philos. 
Soc. (Phila.). Jan.. 1885. 

17. Did Cortes Visit Palenque? Science, March, 1885. 

18. The Sculptures of Cozumalhuapa. Science, July, 1885. 

19. On the Ikonomatic Method of Phonetic Writing, with 

Special Reference to American Archaeology. Proc. 
Amer. Philos. Soc, 1886. 

20. A Review of the Data for the Study of the Prehistoric 

Chronology of America. Proc. Amer. Adv. Sci., 1887. 

21. The Subdivisions of the Palaeolithic Period. Ibid. 

22. Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality ? Proc. Amer. 

Philos. Soc , Sept.. 1887. 

23. On an Ancient Human Foot-Print from Nicaragua. 

Ibid., Nov., 1887. 

24. On Early Man in Spain. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv Sci., 1888. 

25. On a Limonite Human Vertebra from Florida. Ibid, 

26. The Taki. the Svastika and the Cross in America. Proc. 

Amer. Philos. Soc. Dec. 1888. 

27. On a Perroglyph from the Island of St. Vincent, West 

Indies. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. (Phila.), 1889. 

28. On the ** Stone of the Giants '* near Orizaba. Mexico. 

Proc. Numism. and Antiq. Soc. (Phila ), 1889. 
29 On the System of Writings of the Ancient Mexicans. 
Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1892. 

30. Measurement by Weight among the Peruvian Indians. 

Proc Numism. and Antiq. Soc (Phila.), 1892. 

31. On Anvil Shaped Stones. Proc Am Ass. Adv. Sci., 1892. 

32 Remarks on Certain Indian Skulls from Burial Mounds, 
in Missouri. Illinois, and Wisconsin. Trans. Coll. 
Phys (Phila.), 1892. pp. 217 219. 

33. On an Inscribed Tablet from Long Island. Archaeologist, 

Nov., 1893. 

34. .The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico. 

Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. Nov., 1893. • 

35. What the Maya Inscriptions Tell About. Archaeologist, 

Nov., 1894 

36. The Alphabets of the Berbers. Oriental Studies, 1894. 

37. The Proto- Historic ChronoU^gy c»f Westtrn Asia. Proc. 

Amer. Philos. Soc, April, 1895. 



40 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

38. Carib Art and its Significance. Science (New York), 

New Series, Vol. II., 1895, p. 265. 

39. On the Remains of Foreigners Discovered in Egypt by 

Flinders Petrie. Proc. Amer. Phiios: Soc, Jan., 1896. 

40. Left Handedness in North American Aboriginal Art. 

Amer. Anthrop., Vol. IX., 1896. pp. 175-181. 

41. On the Oldest Stone Implements in the Eastern United 

States. Journ. Anthr. Inst. (London), Vol. XXVL, 
1896-7, pp. 59-64. 

42. The Missing Authorities on Mayan Antiquities. Amer. 

Anthrop., 1896. 

43. The So-called ** Bow Puller.'* Bulletin. Free Mus. of 

Sci. and Art, 1897. 

44. Note on the Classical Murmex. Ibid, 

45. The Latest Discoveries as to the Antiquity of Man. 

Scien. Amer. (New York), Vol. XLV., 1898, Suppl 

The above list, covering almost every department of arch- 
aeology, shows that while Dr. Brinton won lasting fame by his 
special studies in American linguistics, mythology, folk-lore, 
and religion, his archaeologic and antiquarian contributions are 
of a most varied and valuable sort. 

But besides these minor studies there are the archaeologic 
data in his books (which are not themselves specially archae- 
ological in scope or nature): " Myths of the New World, new 
edition, Phila., 1896; certain volumes of the "Library of 
American Aboriginal Literature," Phila., 1882-1890, especially 
those relating to the semi-civilized peoples of Mexico and 
Central America; ** Races and Peoples." New York; **The 
American Race,' New York. 1891; "Religion of Primitive 
Peoples," New York, 1897. To this again must be added such 
Hp(*cial volumes and treatises of an archaeological nature as: 
"The Annals of the Cakchiquels," Phila., 1885; "The Chron- 
icles of the Mayas," Phila., 1882; "Lenapt^and Their Legends," 
Phila., 1885, '* General Prehistoric Archaeology," Iconographic 
Kncyplopiedia, 1885; *' Kssays of An Americanist," 1890; " Re- 
port Upon the Collections Exhibited at the Columbian Histori- 
cal ICxposition. Madrid," Washington, 1895; ** -^ Primer of 
Mayan Hieroglyphics," Boston, 1895. Not less, then, than the 
linguist and the folk-lorist, has the archaeologist to mourn the 
loss of a master-mind, in him who has departed. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



ORIENTATION AMONG THE MOUNDS. 

EniTOR OF The American Antiquarian: 

Dear Sir. — I have endeavored to get the intormation you 
desire in regard to the orientation of the circles in Greenup 
county, Kentucky. At o her visits here, I have viewed most 
of the works mapped by Dr. Hempstead, and some of them 
many times, but his "Temple Mound" I did not find until 
recently; partly for ^\ant of time, and mostly from misdirection 
by the people, who mistake river ridges for parallel walls, and 
natural elevations for mounds. The "Temple Mound'* I 
found about 5^^ miles up the Ohio river, or east of South 
Portsmouth (Springville), after tramping over most of the 
fields this side of these and between the river and hills. 

The "Temple Mound" is built on the third terrace, while 
the other works in this direction are all on the second. I 
could find no trace of parallel walls, circles, ditch, or the spiral 
graded way to the top of the mound as Dr. Hempstead de- 
scribed. Mr. D. R. Walker, who is 76 years of age and who 
has spent most of his life near the mound, says he remembers 
the circles, ditch, and parallel walls from the river to the 
mound, and that the 1 arallel walls were six feet high, covered 
with trees the same in all respects as the surrounding forest. 
He could not say to what point of the compass, the openings 
in the circles were directed. 

Dr. Hempstead says:* "The top is not round, but truncated 
and elliptical, longest north and south.*' I found this as he 
describes, and my measurements, as nearly as I could make 
them, are as follows: Diameter of level surface on top of 
mound, east and west, about 45 feet, and north and south 66 or 
70 feet. The sides of the mound are quite steep or abrupt, and 
12 feet high at least, in the lowest place, and 14 in the highest, 
caused from the land on which it is built sloping slightly at the 
north. Dr. Hempstead gives the height at six feet, and when 
first surveyed at 20 feet. I can not account for the difference 
14 feet in a few years, and the mound does not show it, besides 
an accurate survey would make the mound higher than my 
figures represent it at the present time I found no spiral, 

•" Mound Boilden" (1883), page 4. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

graded way, nor trace of one, to the top, but did find one from 
the south directly northward to the top by an easy grade, and 
127 feet in length. Al its southern end it lerminates rather 
abruptly in a round over, or drop, of about two feet lo the 
surrounding level on which the work rests. The width of this 
graded way on the top, is hard to determine accurately, from 
the edges being much rounded by plowing and the elements, 
bul is about 1^ to 16 feet; the base is considerably less in 
diameter than the base of the mound, and the sides more slop- 
ing, probably from more cultivation. This graded way has 
every appearance of being of the same age as the mound, and 
no reason can be given for a later origin, as no return could be 
had for the labor Perhaps if this field had been recently 
plowed I might have traced the circles and parallel walls, to 
some extent, by the color of the earth and slight rise in the 
surface, as I have been able to do m other places, where, when 
covered with grass, as in this case, I could find nothing. Mr. 
Walker says there was a well between the parallel walls, about 
one-quarter mile from the mound towards the river, when he 
first came there, and that it took twenty cords of wood lo fill J 
it (wood being easier to gel than any other materia! for the ] 
purpose). I 

Dr. Hempstead is entitled to much credit for his efforts to ] 
preserve a knowledge of the ancient works in this vicinity; | 
many of which have now entirely disappeared; some can be 
traced with difficulty; while a few are in a fairlv good state 
of preservation at the present time. Now, while Dr. Hemp- 
stead's map and description of the works here are valuable 
and perhap.s substantially correct, yet, in my opinion, there is 
not that completeness and minute accuracy tliat there should 
be. for a sufficient study of their significance and use to their 
builders, c-r comparison with works in other parts of ihc world. 
My reasons for thinking so, are as follows: He does not men- 
tion a graded way from the south and gives six feet as the 
height of the " Temple Mnund," which is at least twelve feet 
high at the present lime. This mound he locates on his map 
as somewhat to the northeast of the other works in this direc- 
tion, but by my observation with a common compass, with six- 
inch needle, I make it almost exactly east of the first mound, 
which he marks on the map as eighteen feet high, and in the 
text as nineteen feet (his destription of thi.i mound is about ■ 
right). In addition to the four works mapped in this direction I 
by Dr. Hempstead, there are five other mounds from two to ' 
six feet high, and two others have been removed, one to make 
a fill, and the other so as to build a house on the site. On page 
7, last column, 17th line ("Mound Builders," 1883), he says: 
"A short distance west from the Temple Mound will be found 
three small structures — a mound, ditch and embankment — the 
whole about fifty feet in diameter, with a ditch twelve feet deep j 
from from the top of the embankment three feet high on the | 
outside. A mound in the center six feet high, with a gateway J 



I 

I 




CORRESPONDENCE. 43 

of approach from the south, rises above the surrounding^ sur- 
face." 

My observation of the above-mentioned work, is as follows: 
It is one of the best preserved works here, which is probably 
due to the fact that the ditch prevented plowing, and it was 
allowed to grow up with trees. Apparently the original forest 
was cut away, as those present are second growth. Two wild 
cherry trees grow in the ditch, two feet in diameter, and an oak 
over two feet in diameter was growing oh the mound, a little to 
one side of the center. Many other trees grow on the works, 
but none in other parts of the field; this field is quite large and 
almost perfectly level. The work at the present time measures 
as follows: The mound is about 3J^ feet high, and 30 feet in 
diameter at the base, which restr on the original surface as 
level as the surrounding fieM; this level extends around the 
mound from the base, for a width of 10 or 12 feet, forming a 
platform. Surrounding this platform is a ditch 30 feet wide at 
the top, and six feet deep from top of outside embankment, 
and about 12 feet wide at the bottom. Outside the ditch is the 
embankment, about two feet high and 35 feet wide, highest 
near the ditch and growing gradually less to the outer edge; 
evidently much spread out by plowing. About 18 degrees to 
the east of south from the center of the work is a gateway 
through the embankment, across the ditch to the platform 
around the mound. The entrance across the ditch is about 
eight feet wide, and three feet above the bottom of the ditch; 
this was evidently the original surface, not removed in exca- 
vating the ditch; therefore the surface surrounding the work, 
the platform, and connecting way across the ditch, were all on 
the same level, while the mound and embankment were raised, 
material being obtained for building them by using what was 
obtained in excavating the ditch. By the way, nowater ever 
accumulates in this ditch, though there is no outlet, the earth 
being very sandy and porous, below the surface particularly. 
The whole of this work Dr. Hempstead makes 50 feet in dia- 
meter, while I make it 115 feet at least. It seems to me that 
the Doctor's estimate of the height of this mound is also too 
much, as the oak tree so near the center and over two feet in 
diameter would show the removal, if any great amount had 
occurred. 

I have spent some time in trying to locate two old maps of 
these works, one by F. Cleveland, civil engineer, and the other 
by Dr. Galbraith, formerly a civil engineer, of Greenup, 
Greenup county, Kentucky, but, up to this time, I have been 
unable to come up with either of them, but I believe they are 
in existence somewhere. There is, I think, much need of a 
new and accurate survey of the works here, that will locate all 
the works and rectify past mistakes. Squier & Davis, Prof. 
Lewis, and Dr. Hempstead, and, perhaps, others, have made 
partial surveys of the.^se works, but I hope that there may be 
one more that will do the works justice. I will say in regard 



44 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to the Animal Mound on the Hayman farm, located in the 
northwest on Dr. Hempstead's map: This animal mound is 
inside a square, instead of a circle. The square is mapped as 
having square corners, when in f.ict they are rounded, Thi 
front end and body of the animal look much like a tapir or an 
elephant, but the tail is even larger than the body and curls 
or curves upwards, the end of which is al an angle of about go 



] 




(.ENTRAL GROUP OP PORTSMOUTH WORKS. 

degrees with the back of the animal. The works nearer Ports- 
mouth are more nearly accurate. 

In conclusion. I will say that I think it not possible, at this 
day, to definitely ascertain at what point of the compass the 
gateway in the circles opened toward the "Temple Mound." 
Very truly yours, 

N. A. Chapman. 
Sj E. id SIrett. Portsmouth. Oiiio. 



THE FIRST DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA. 
Editor of The American Antiquarian: 

Dear Sir. — In the last number of your journal Mr. C. W, 
Super writes as follows: " I suppose that it is admitted by all 
scholars thai Hcrjulfsen, on a voyage undeitkaen from Iceland 
to the new Colony, was driven out of his course, by stress of 
weather, and saw the New World; still further, that Eric's son 
Lcif. about the year 2000. discovered parts of the coast of New 
England." 

This statement should, in the interest of truth, not be 
allowed to stand unchallenged. The ablest treatise by far on 
the Norse discovery of America, is a prize essay bv Professor 
Gtlitil\ -Slorm, of the University of Christiana, Norway, in 



CORRESPONDENCE. 

onclusi 



I 

I 



4S 

he comes to the conclusion that the story of Bjarni 
Herjulfsen is, to all appearance, fictitious, the true discoverer 
of the American continent being the above-mentioned Leif 
Ericson. and the only explorer of the country, one Thorfin 
Karlsene; while none of them, judging from the text of the 
sagas, were farther south than Nova Scotia. This view was 
substantially adopted and corroboraled by Mr. Reeves in his 
splendid edition of the Sagas (1890) — a photographic repro- 
ductiod of the manuscripts, with Icelandic text and English 
translation — and these two weighty contributions certamly 
ought to have put an end to the exceedingly uncritical rehash 
of the exploded New England theory. We find it again set- 
forth in the December numberof Popular Science Monthly, by 
Miss Cornelia Horsford, whose father. Prof. E. N. Horsford.in 
well-meaning enthusiasm did so much to mislead the public by 
his extremely unscientific and illogical Ircalment of the whole 
subject. 

This persistance in upholding an impossible cause, would 
seem rather harmless; but the fact that Mr. Keane in his 
recent book " Man, Past and Present," lakes it for granted that 
the Norsemen met Eskimos in New England in the year lOOO. 
proves that it Is not after all a mere matter of innocent patriot- 
ism. This is not the place to enter in o any discussion of the 
subject, and, if I am not mistaken, the nine hundredth anniver- 
sary of the Norse discovery will see some valuable essays on 
this much abused question. Permit me to say. however, that 
there is not in the best version of the story the slightest indi- 
cation that the Norsemen effected a settlement on the Ameri- 
can coast, or built anything but booths (budir) or temporary 
houses in Vinland, They, according to authorities like Prof. 
Storm and Prof. Fiske, mosl probably met with Indians in [hat 
region, and every indication, except one — ihe incidental men- 
lion ot sandy shores — clearly points to Nova Scotia; while the 
Boston theory is utterly untenable, for the simple reason that 
the explorers evidently sailed for days and days southward 
from Keel Cape, before they reached the true Wineland, and 
Keel Cape can. if we make them pass Cape Breton and Nova 
Scotia, only be identical with Cape Cod. 

JUOL DiESERUD. 
rielii Coinmhiiin Mmaim. Dec. 2. iSqq, 





Arch^ologv OF THE Akaucanian REGION. To the Attalcs 
de la Univcrsidad (Santiago, Chile) since November. 189S, 
Tomas Guevara has been contributing a study of the history 
of culture among the American Indians ("Historia de la 
Civilizacion de Araucania"), which covers all branches of 
anthropology, ethnology, somatology, mythology and folk- 
lore, and archaeology. Chapter III. (pp. 279-306) of Guevara's 
study deals with " the age of stone," and is illustrated with four 
plates containing many figures of stone objects. It seems cer- 
tain that the Araucanian tenure of the district in question goes 
back to prehistoric times. Among the chief sources of the 
oldest relics are the kitchen-middens of the coast from Biobio 
to Chiloe and the mines of Fuchoco, Lebu, etc; the caverns of 
the Andean regions, the alluvial deposits, and the ancient 
burial places. The most characteristic stone relic of the 
Araucanian region is the disc-shaped (sometimes spheroidal) 
pierced stone, the exact employment of which is not certain 
(many may have been club-heads), but Guevara thinks they 
were wrigicts for digging sticks, or something very similar. 
Their places have not been taken by other implements. It is 
worth noting that the idea that certain stone axes are preserva- 
tives against lightning-stroke has been imparted by the Span- 
ish immigrants into Chile, and. by way of the lower classes of 
the population then.', to the Indians. The influence of the 
Spaniards was not confined to the introduction of the horse 
and the use of brouKC and iron, which worked so many changes 
in the life and habits of the aborigines. Certain large stones, 
or rather rocks, with cup-shaped excavations, have been thought 
by some to indicate human sacrifices in the past: by others, to 
have been used in playing certain games. Guevara inclines to 
believe that they have some religious significance. The author 
describes, with a full-page plate, the sacred stone of the 
Pehuenchcs, called Retricura. on the road from Curacautin to 
Lonquimai, of which an account (quoted by Guevara) is given 
in Dr. Rodolfo I.enz's " Estudios Araiicanos," On the face of 
this stone are several cup-chaped hollows, in which offerings 
were put. The stone, really the end of a rocky elevation, is 
about six metres high by five broad. Guevara believes that 
this. like other stone-cults of the Araucanian Indians, came to 
them from the Peruvians. Certain of the objects disinterred 
in the Araucanian region — stone figures, and stones with a 
heart pierced by a cross— are doubtless the work of Spanish 
captives, or of modern make. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 47 

Stone Implements from South and Central America. 
Under the title '* Imanufatti litici di Patagonia" (Stone Imple- 
ments from Patagonia), Dr. Michele del Lupo contributes a 
rather extensive article to the Archiviopes TAntropologia e la 
Etnologia (Vol. XXVIII., pp. 289-353), the scope of which is 
by no means confined to the extreme southern portion of the 
South American continent, but takes in the Argentine Republic, 
Bolivia, Brazil, Equador, Colombia, Honduras, Mexico, and 
even North Dakota, the collection of the specimens deseribed 
being due to the activity of the Salesian, Franciscan, Jesuit, 
and Benedictine missionaries in these different regions of the 
globe. From Patagonia, between 38. degrees and 54 degrees 
south, 314 hatchets, spear-heads, arrow-heads, etc., are de- 
scribed in detail; from the Argentine, 10 hatchets; from 
Bolivia, 8 hatchets, a club and a hammer; from Brazil, a single 
diorite axe; from Equador, 5 hatchets; from Colombia, 2 hat- 
chets and 3 other specimens; from Honduras, 5 hatchets; from 
Mexico, 19 axes, spear-heads, arrow-heads, etc.; and from 
North Dakota, three stone casse-tdtes. Dr. Del Lupo notes 
the great change brought about by the introduction of the 
horse in this region of South America, the lazo, the boleadoras, 
the libes, and the bolas de luso taking the place of the older 
arrows and spears; the last two implements going back to the 
Neolithic Age. 

In a subsequent article, '* Contributo agli Studii di Antro- 
pologia del TAmerica,** in the same journal (Vol. XXIX., pp. 
55-69), Dr. del Lupo gives some further account of the stone 
implements of the Patagonian region, with figures of the bolas, 
boleador,. libes, etc. Dr. del Lupo considers that there is no 
evidence of pre-Columbian intercourse between the inhabitants 
of South America and those of Polynesia, Japan or China, the 
absence of the employment of iron, known, with other metals, 
in China for ages, practically settling the question, so far as 
that country is concerned. The jadite implements, he thinks, 
are of American origin and not imported. He is inclined to 
take, also, a higher view than most writers of the Patagonians. 

Ethnology at the Turin Exposition of 1898. In the 
Archivio per TAntropologia e la Etnologia (Vol. XXIX., 1899, 
pp. 19-32) Dr. Enrico Giglioli gives an account of the ethnolo- 
gical exhibit in the Exposition of May-November, 1898, at 
Turin; a display representing the'activities of Italians in ex- 
ploration and discovery in all parts of the globe. Among the 
specimens on exhibition were stone objects (noted elsewhere 
in these pages) from various regions of South and Central 
America, besides others from Africa, Asia, and Australasia. 
The Bororo of Matto Grosso, Brazil, ?ind the Chiriquanos of 
Southern Bolivia were represented by rich collections of 
weapons, ornaments, musical instruments, etc. The catalogue 
of objects from the various Indian tribes of the region of the 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Amazon contained some 500 numbers, embracing clothing and 
pcri^onal ornaments, furniture and house utensils, fishing, hunt- 
ing and warliJcc implements, etc., besides a small coUeclioo of 
human crania from the little known Caraja and Cayapo tribes 
of the Araguaya and Upper Locartins. The Fuegians, also, 
were represented by a good ethnological exhibit, some verj- 
rarc specimens of arrow-heads of stone being included. The 
personal ornaments of the Bororo were likewise very notably 
1 represented. Many of the objects exhibited at the Exposition 
I were acquired for the Florence Elthnalogical Museum. 



^ 



Stone Age in China. In his article on " The '^tonc Age 
in China," in the Archivio per I'Antropologia e la Etnologia 
(Vol. XXVII., pp. 361-379) Dr, Enrico Giglioli, after noting 
the rarity of stone implements in China, cites the references to 
them In Chinese literature and in the writings of the earlier 
European travelers and historians, besides giving, witii several 
figur-s, discriptions of implements in his own collection. The 
words for cut, cleave, pierce, scrape, break, strike, and split, 
reveal their relations to stone weapons and instruments by the 
fact that their ideograms contain an element, which, by itself 
signifies " stone." Nevertheless, by the time ot Confucius, 
stone implements were very rare in China, and the reference tc 
them in the Chinese books relate to the quasi-savage popula- 
tion of the basins of the Hoang-Ho and Vang-tse-Kiang, or the 
frontier Tartar tribes. Much of interest on these and kindred 
topics is to be found in Dr. Carlo f uini"s learned volume, " Lc 
origin della civilta sccondo la tradixiune e la storia nell' Es- 
tremo Oriente." published at Florence in tggi. Df. Giglioli 
describes eleven stone hatchets of Neolithic type from Moniicn 
in Vuman, figures of all being given. Descriptions and figures 
of other stone implements — hammers, pick-axes, mill-stones, 
earth-crushers, etc — from various parts of China, are also 
given, and the author promises other articles dealing with stone 
objects still in use in China as ornaments, etc. 



The Calaveras Skull. In the January-March number of 
the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science, of Phila- 
delphia, W. H. Dall discusses (pp. 2-4) thi-, celebrated cranio- 
lo(ricai specimen. Mr. Dall was one of those who examined 
the skull in June, 1866. in thq oiBce of the State geologist, and 
places on record his personal evidence. The conclusion 
arrived at is that " the attempts on the part of unscientific per- 
•onv of the vicinity to discredit the authenticity of the skull, 
after it had attiacted general attention, were due to that spirit, 
unfortunately too common among ienorant persons, which 
le.ids theni to disparage that in which they have no share.'' 
The ueniiine character of the skull and situs below the lava, 
Mr. Dall thinks are beyond doubt, though "the question ot 



d 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 49 

the coexistence of man and the extinct mammals, whose re- 
mains have been found in the same gravels, is entirely distinct, 
and may reasonabty be left open." Mr. Dall's recollections 
form an interesting contribution to the literature of this much- 
controverted subject. 

In an extended study entitled " Preliminary Revision of the 
Evidence Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California/* 
which appeared in the American Anthropologist for January 
(pp. 107-121) and October, 1889 (pp. 614-645), Prof. W. H. 
Holmes discusses the evidence in detail, concluding that " the 
so-called Calaveras skull exhibits nothing in its character, con- 
dition, or associated phenomena incompatible with the theory 
of recent origin, and very much that may be justly construed 
as favoring that theory ** (p. 640). From Prof. Holmes* article 
we learn that Prof. F. W. Putnam •* has now in view the publi- 
cation of a paper giving his views and an exhaustive chemical 
and comparative study of the skull." If the Calaveras skull 
is only that of a Digger Indian, it has created a great excite- 
ment in the world of science. 

Dyeing in Costa Rica. In the Verh. der Berliner Ges. f. 

Anthropologic for 1898, E. von Martens describes the process 

of cotton-dyeing in use among the Indians of Costa Rica, a 

devk:e apparently pre-Columbian, for it is mentioned by very 

early authorities, and traces of its use have been found all over 

the Caribbean region. The dye-substance is the material 

excreted, upon irritation, by the Purpura patula, common in the 

Antilles, varieties of which are also found on the Pacific. One 

method of dyeing in use in Central America seems to have 

been simply to pass the fabric through the opening of the 

shell of this mollusic; another way was to gather the shell-fish 

in a bowl and collect the liquid excreted, which was applied to 

the cotton. This liquid is at first greenish-yellow, but changes 

in drying to purple. A bluish dye was also produced by a 

different treatment of the same liquid. The purple robes of 

the Zapotec women in Southern Mexico, and certain fabrics 

£rom ancient Peruvian graves appear to have been dye^l in the 

way here described. 

[Correction: On page 46, line 19, read weights. — Ed.] 



NOTABLE PAPYRI. 

BY REV. \V. C. WINSLOW. 

Among the papyri recently deciphered are two which I will 
briefly describe. The first relates to the victors in the Olympian 
games, and the other concerns the date of the birth of Christ. 

The papyrus contains a Detailed list of the winners in all the 
thirteen events which formed the Olympian games for a series 
of about seven years. We know how carefully such a list was 
kept at Olympia for reference and to perpetuate the names of 
the victorious athletes. Even an Aristotle valued such data. 
We have various dates of the victors through the .scholiasts of 
Pindar and of Pausanias, the topographer, to the latter of whom 
the excavators at the site of Olympia owe much for his exact 
details. But the chief value or interest in the papyrus is that 
no complete list of all the events for even a single Olympiad 
has hitherto turned up. 

This papyrus, too, covers the time when Pindar and Bacchy- 
lides were composing odes, yet extant, in honor of the Olymp- 
ian victors. Thus we have independent testimony fOr assign- 
ing accurate dates to these famous compositions. To illustrate 
the point: Odes ix., x., xi. of Pindar are now shown to have had, 
commonly wron.: dates. As for Bacchylides, some twenty of 
whose poems from a unique papyrus were edited in 1897 by Dr. 
Kenyon, Mr. Cotton writes that "the poetical activity of 
Bacchylides is given an extension of no less than sixteen 
years" by this papyrus. On the whole, however, our list in 
question confirms the record of the scholiasts. 

This papyrus affords a bit of evidence for the history of 
Greek plastic art of that period. Near the end of our second 
century, according to Pausanias. many statues of Olympia bore 
the names of victors and sculptors; and the German explorers 
at that site confirmed his statement. Our papyrus fixes the 
year of a victory and. consequently, of the sculptor whose 
plastic art commemorated it. Thus, Polycleitus, the Argivc, is 
now shown to have been living in the middle of the fifth cen- 
turv r>. c. and to have flourished only a little later than Phidias. 
P\ iha^^oras. a celebrated statuary, can be shown to have con- 
tinued his work down to about the same period in that century. 

The other papvrus throws light upon the disputed point of 
the you ot the birth of Christ, St. Luke states '*that there 
went out a decree that all the world should be taxed " (cn- 
vHeJ.^; that Joseph and the Virgin Mary went to Bethlehem 
to he on-rolled, and that "while they were there" Christ was 
born. Pid such enrolments occur, and were there any enrol- 
ments under Cesar Augustus and in the reign of Herod the 
i^ireat " 



NOTABLE PAPYRI. 51 

Historical evidence of enrolments earlier than A. D. 63 
under Nero have been wanting. The papyrus shows that such 
an enrolment occurred in A. D. 20, and also under Caesar 
Augustus B.C. 9-10. We have, therefore, now, for the first 
time, proved that enrolments took place when Augustus was 
emperor and Herod reigned. Hence we have evidence relat- 
ing to the assertion of St. Luke that a decree for enrolment 
was made, and also to that of St. Matthew, that ** Jesus was 
born in the days of Herod the king.'' 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 

Egyptian History and the Israelites. It was in the in- 
fancy of Israel that it was called out ot Egypt. The Egypt- 
ians were only very remotely connected by race with the 
Hebrews. The Egyptians made very inaccurate historical 
records. We receive more information and confirmation about 
the Bib^e from Babylonia and Assyria, than from Egypt, and 
naturally so, because Israel was on an equality in those 
countries; but was in captivity in Egypt. [See article by Prof. 
J. F. McCosky in Homiletic Review for November.] 

• 
Plumes in Egypt. Prof. Hommel, of Munich, has written 

an article on the plumes represented on the head of the God 
Bes and the Goddess Anuket. He shows that there are sev- 
eral Babylonian cylinders in existence in which an Arab, who 
fights a lion, is represented with a crown of feathers on his 
head exactly similar to those worn by Bes and Anuket. He, 
therefore, considers them as an Arab head-dress, and he de- 
duces from this that the worship of both Bes and Anuket was 
imported into Egypt from Arabia. 

The Earliest Absolute Date in History. A new find 
of papyri, now in the Berlin. Museum, which seems to have 
formed part of the archives of. a temple and to include a sort 
of day book, in which the priests recorded events, has given 
us the earliest absolute date in history. In it is mentioned that 
in the seventh year of Usertesen III. the star Sothis (Sirius) 
was for the first time in the horizon at daybreak on the six- 
teenth day of the eighth month. Working back to this, Dr. 
Borchardt was able to announce that the seventh year of 
Usertesen III. must have fallen between the years 1876-1872 
B. C, and this, he claims, as the earliest absolute date in history. 




IS IT CIVILIZATION OR EXTERMINATION? 

One of the most serious questions has been brought up in 
connection with the events of the past year, especially by the 
two wars which have arisen in the extreme parts of the globe; 
no less a question than this: Is the progress of the civilized 
races destined to overcome and ultimately destroy the uncivil- 
ized? This seems to be the fear of uncivilized tribes in many 
cases, and the result is the desire for complete isolation. Iso- 
lation, however, is contrary to the spirit and progress of the 
age, and cannot be maintained. The preventative against the 
evil feared, must be sought in some other way. The problem 
is a difficult one and needs to be studied carefully by philan- 
thr^ists and scientists.. 

There are Bomc who maintain that the law of the survival 
of the fitiest will inevitably result in the destruction of the 
lower races, and are inclined to uphold the law, us if it were 
one which is in accord with the Providence of God. There 
are professing Christians who are coldly arguing in this way in 
reference to the Philippines, and there arc others who also talk 
in the same way about ihe Boers- It is a position which has 
been maintained in reference to the North American Indians 
for the last fifty years or more, and the common saying is "the 
opIv good Indian is the dead Indian." just at present the 
sentiment has changed, and it has become quite a fad to pic- 
ture out the wild Indian in all his accoutrements, and express 
admiration for the bold and manly forms, as though these were 
not the same Indians who, a few years ago, were not only 
treated as dangerous, but despised as degraded creatures. It 
may be »ell, then, in view of this persistency of the thought 
in one case and the changes in the other, to review the history 
of the Indians in the past and sec whether it is not better to 
take our lessons from peace, r.ilher than from war. and make 
up our minds to civilize, rather than destroy- Christianity 
ought to reach as high a standard in this respect as paganism. 
The car of progress is not a mere machine which is travernng 
the earth, even if we imagine that war is the impelling force, 
for the hand of providence is directing and controlling the 
world, and will overthrow a civilization which is built up on a 
false basis, and lift up and preserve those who recognize his 
hand. If it is maintained that climate, soil, physical traits, and 
resources, are the only factors to be considered; that moral 



EDITORIAL. 



S3 



influences, social life, and religious teachings are altogether in 
vain when compared with these, we should lose all hope; but 
the contrary was taught by our fathers, and we arc not inclined 
to yield the point. There arc a few lessons taught by our own 
history and the history of the Indians, as well as by that of the 
negroes. Neither of these races have been exterminated by 
the progress of our civilization. War, to be sure, has threat- 
ened to exterminate the Indians, but it has, on the other hand. 
freed the negroes. Ultimately we beiieve Christianity and 
civilization will be able to overcome all difficulties and elevate 
the whole of the human race. 

Let us consider the history of the Indians. Have they 
actually been injured by contact with civilization, and are they 
likely to become exterminated? It vvili be acknowledged that 
a great change has come over these wild tribes, and that the 
most of them have disappeared from their original haunts, and 
are now occupying very limited districts, compared with those 
which they claimed as their original possessions; but does this 
prove extermination? We claim that it was perfectly natural 
thai the Indians should occupy a more limited territory than 
they did originally and it was right that they should, if civil- 
ization was to advance at all, for it would be impossible for 
civilization lo extend when the people were as widely scattered 
as they were here at the time of the Discovery. There was a 
native civilization where the population was dense and where 
agriculture prevailed, but the wild tribes were actually exter- 
minating them. 

We may take the Iroquois as an illustration. These tribes 
situated in the state of New York, where everything was 
favorable to their progress and where they were isolated from 
other tribes, made considerable advancement toward civiliza- 
tion, but they soon proved to be the terror of all other tiibes, 
and between the times of Cartier and Champlain made the 
region around them entirely desolate, so that the north shore 
of the St. Lawrence was uninhabitated and Ohio was called 
derelict country. The French and English maps show this. 

A map published in 1 750 has a legend placed over the state 
of Indiana and Illinois: "This is the region where the Iroquois 
liunt "Boeuf (buffalo)"; also, a legend stretching over the 
whole of Lower Canada: "This is the region where the Iroquois 
liunt beavers." The result was that the Algonquian tribes, 
Avhich formerly occupied that region, were driven out, and all 
K>1 the prairie region was left desolate. The state of Ohio was 
vleserted. 

The Hurons, also, who were of the same stock with the 
Iroquois, were driven from the north shore of the St. Lawrence 
river, first to the neighborhood of Georgian bay. next to the 
forests of Wisconsin; and all of Canada, from the mouth of 
the St. Lawrence to Lake Superior, was left desolate. These 
tribes claimed a very large amount of land which they never - 
-used, and certainly never improved, A single clan would 



54 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

be often surrounded by an entire county, and would claim the 
county for its po.ssession; a single tribe would occupy an entire 
state, and disputed the rights to the Lind, both with (he neigh- 
boring tribe and with the whites, after they came into the con- 
tinent. The Iroquois occupied the state of New York and had 
their scats, which were divided into cantons resembling those 
of the Swiss; but as late as 1750 they claimed all of the land 
north of the Ohio river. Thisshows that the native civilization 
was as likely to destroy the people as to elevate. The same 
lesson is taught by the history ot the Aztecs, they made rapid 
progress for a few hundred years, but at the time of the Con- 
quest they were exterminating the tribes around them. There 
were tribes on the Gulf coast who were living at peace with one 
another, and the great Muscogee stock seems to have reached 
ii fair degree of civilization, but their northern border had been 
beset by wild tribes and the ancient villages of the Mound- 
Builders were in ruins. The Cherokees survived, but they were 
occupying a vast region. 

Dr. Worcester said of the Cherokees, before their 
" According to an estimate, the Cherokees have held more than 
nine sauare miles to every family and, estimating five souls to 
a family, this would leave about one person to every two 
square miles. They number about twelve or thirteen thousand 
persons; their territory extends from North Carolina to the 
Mississippi river .ind lie^; within the state of Tennessee and the 
northern part of Georgia, its greatest length is 250 miles and' 
width 150 miles, The whole country contains about 23.500 
square milc.-i.which would be over 1,000 acres tea single person. ' 

This argument is not against, but is rather in favor of, 
civilizing the Indians, and the same plea should be made in-, 
behalf of the races, who have recently come under our con-^ 
trol. 

There is lesson to be learned from the study of r 
There was a time when the French, English, and Spanish were 
claiming this continent. When the French possessions crossed' 
those of the ICnglish, and all the interior was claimed by the 
French; the western part of the continent by the Spanish. 
The right of the Indians to the land was only used by the 
different nationalities to support their own claims. So in the! 
disputes between the different nationalities ?t the present tim 
the native races are left out of account. The continents are! 
divided by the dilTcrenl nations, but the islands are in dispute,, 
the extreme portions of .Africa included. 

If Russia should claim all of the north Pacific ocean; Ger- 
man]'', all of the central Pacific ocean; England, all of the. 
MMtbcm Pacific ocean, and France, all of the Indian ocean, and* 
Aoold base their claims Oil the fact that these regions were in 
pvmamity to their uosjiessi ons, and w-re theirs by right of di»' 
coveiT. they would oe only repeating the arguments which were' 
ofed in this country about the right of possession 150 years' 
ago. The natives are not taken into account in the calcula 



EUITORIAL, 



55 



lion of any nations, even when their conversion was the chief 
motive with church propogandists. Their n^hls were not con- 
sidered, when Las Casas plead for the natives of the West 
Indias; nor have they during the "CciUurieti of dishonor" 
which have elapsed since that time. The Roman Catholic, the 
Greek, and the Protestant churches are all apparently very 
anxious for the welfare of the natives and are willing to work 
for their civilization, provided it can be such as they have 
sought to establish. It is not extermination that those churches 
are seeking for. nor is It the result which follows their efforts. 
That is not the fear of any intelligent mind. The danger to 
the natives comes from another side. From that vice which 
debauches the natives and sets an example of moral degrada- 
tion, which is worse than any found among the natives them- 
selves. In fact, the depths of degradation introduced by so- 
called civilized races is often absolutely appalling to the natives 
themselves, and is abhorrci by them, ihough many fall into it 
before they are aware, and the population is swept away, as by 
a blast from a furnace. The simoom is not more deadly in its 
effect than is the breath of a certain kind of civilization. This 
is the fault, however, not of the better class, but of the lower 
classes which infest the frontiers and resort to ihe neighbor- 
hood of the Indians for the purpose of gain. These prey upon 
the native tribes, as they prey upon the youth of our land, and 
demoralize whatever class they touch. Of course it is (or their 
interest to claim respectability for their vices, but they do not 
like to face the consequences. They introduce vices which 
first debauch the natives and afterwards destroy them; so that 
extermination is the result, not of the civilization, hut of the 
moral degradat'on which is carried oftentimes at its front like 
the foam before the advancing wave. 

It has been maintained that the people of the United States 
have l>een worse in this respect than the English, and thai their 
influence has been more demoralizing. The facts, however, 
prove the contrary- It is well known that the most successful 
missionary in Alaska, Dr. Duncan, was a member of the Es- 
tablished Church of England and was sustained by the Eng- 
lish Missionary Society, but he was obliged to move his people 
to a place where thev would be isolated from cont-'ct with the 
whites, just as the missionaries from the United States have 
desired to do, but have been saved the necessity of doing, by 
resisting the men who were in power and asserting their rights 
to be protected by the Government. It is the testimony of 
Mr. G. O. Dorsey that the villages situated in the British pos- 
sessions were becoming .smaller by degrees and the prospect is 
that such tribes as the Salish will ultimatelv become extinct. 
The policy of the English government has been quoted as an 
example to the United States, and a contrast has been drawn 
between the two nations, especially in their treatment of the 
Indians. Thecirciimiitances. however, have been very different, 
for the native population of Canadaand the British possessions 



56 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



were always very sparse and the progress of settlement slow. 
It would be interesting and instructive, too, if any one would 
take the statistics of the populaiion of the two regions and 
compare them. U has been the effect of war with the whiles 
that whole tribes are exterminated; but shall we say that 
this is the inevitable fate of the tribi^s which remain, especially 
after they have adopted a new type of society and new form of 
religion. 

The Sioux furnish an example; they were at one time 
situated on the Atlantic coast. Ti ey gradually moved down 
the Ohio and up the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. They 
were hunters and warriors, and claimed a vast amount of ter- 
ritory as their own; like the Iroquois, they had their .hunting- 
grounds as wel' as their permanent villages. Parkman, the 
great historian, followed a band of the Sioux to the mountains 
and studied their habits and customs. They claimed all of the 
region between the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains, 
and extended fu m the borders of Canada almost to the Gulf 
of Mexico, covering a territory which is now occupied by 
eight states. Tliey requited about fifty square miles to sup- 
port one person, and a few thousand held the region which 
is now occupied by millions. They remained in possession 
until the war of the Rebellion, but owing to the revolt and 
massacre, they were removed and were shut into remote reser- 
vations. The Pagan Indians were at that time the source of 
danger. The Christian Indians were a means of defense to 
the whites and saved many families. The reformation came to 
those Indians when they were in prison and away from the 
influence of the shamans. Paganism lost iishold upon ihepeo- 
plc and Christianity has come in to take its place, and the 
result has been peace and p^ogre^s. The last great outbreak 
was a travesty on Chrisiianty. The medicine men and chiefs 
introduced and encouraged the Messiah Dance, which resulted 
in a crajie worse than any that had prevailed before. It was 
more fanatical than the Paganism itself. The Shawnee 
prophet who encouraged Teciimseh in his revolt had no such 

Rower over the people, as had the chiefs who introduced the 
lessiah Dance. The war under Tecumseh and the conspiracy 
of Pontine had a military character, and were led by warriors, 
but the Messiah Dance was purely religions in its nature, and 
resulted in the worst form of fanaticism; it w:s an actual 
crarc. which spread (rom tnbe to tribe. The impelling motive 
was the desire among the Indians, to recover their old pos- 
sessions and restore their former estate and bring back the 
condition of their fathers. It WTtn in reality a revolt against 
civilisation. The craw subsided when the Indians found that 
their dances were of no .ivail and their prayers not heard. The 
Messiah was not the divinity which they had worshipped. 
The craze had spent its force tn the wild dance and the people 
found that they had heen dece ivod by their leaders. 

What was needed with them in order to secure peace, was 



I 

I 




EDITORIAL. 57 

not a change of location, nor of government policy, nor of 
rations or annuities, or of Indian agent, but a change of religion. 
When that came they were in a fair way to settle down to the 
peaceful, ordinary state which the Christian Indians had 
already reached, and the problem was solved. 

The effort to civilize the Indians, we maintain, will be suc- 
cessful when Christian civilization has its proper influence and 
is put in its true light, exactly as the efforts to elevate the 
masses, will be succe^hful. The policy of the Government is 
now to divide up the reservations and to give them property in 
severalty, and to make citizens out of them; but at present it 
is an experiment. If the grasping spirit of unprincipled men 
is allowed to have sway, and if the vices of the whites are 
allowed to spread, the result will be that the Indians will drop 
to a low level and be exterminated. The process will be 
silent, but sure; the degradation will be unknown, and the dis- 
appearance will be unnoticed. The wrongs which the Indians 
will suffer are likely to be even greater than those which have 
Called out so many and so eloquent protest from good citizens. 
Mrs- Helen Hunt Jackson portrayed in her beautiful story 
of Romona the straits into which the Indians of California 
Mrere driven. The picture of that hero in disguise driving his 
fleet ponies far away to the mountain tops, in order to get 
^way from contact with the whites, is a touching one, and 
veals the spirit which has prevailed, But there is a worse 
lainity than this, it is that the Indian should be in love with 
his chains and. wrapping the delusion about him, should lie 
<lown to dreams, become debased and die. 

It is true that there are many tribes scattered throughout 
Xhis country, who are peaceable and prosperous, and have 
already reached a civilization which is encouraging. They are 
mot surrounded by walls of defense, but are protected by their 
own purpose to improve, and by the love which they have for 
^heir own families and homes. The Indian Rights Association 
has not been called upon to defend these bands, but it may 
have a new work to do in ths luture. 

It was a woman — Mrs. Harriet Beeclier Stowe — who entered 
a p ea in behalf of the poor slaves of the South and prepared 
the way for their freedom. It was a woman — Mrs. Helen Hunt 
Jackson — who made an eloquent plea for the Indian, who was 
oppressed by the policy of the Government, in taking the 
reservations from the Indians and changing their homes. They 
prepared the way for the change of policy, but the work 
remains to be don^-. It is to see that permanent homes are 
secured, and that the same attachment to the land which has 
been so strong in the past should be encouraged in the future. 
The danger will be to the Indians that they will become scat- 
tered and lost to sight. 

The question now is whether civilization is destined to ex- 
terminate the lower races. The history of the Indians in the 
past has shown three stages: Contact between the Indians 



S8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and white men was the first; the obtaining of Indian lan<!s by 
purchase or war was the second; subjugation was the third. 
It remains to be seen whether the end will be extermination. 

In the West Indies the Indians have been entirely extermi- 
nated, there is scarcely a survivor to be found. In the United 
States there are many tribes still remaining neai their old 
seats, but confined to limited districts and quietly following 
domestic pursuits, and at peace, having a rude civilization ot 
their own. and one adapted to their peculiar nature. They are 
found in Maine. New York, Florida, Wisconsin and in all of 
the western stales. Capl. John G. Bourke. a noted Indian 
fighter, but a friend of the Indians, has written a paper called 
"The Vesper Hour of the Stone Age." He says, after twenty- 
five years of service since h-s first acquaintance with the wild 
tribes of the Gila and the Colorado, he has seen them " not 
only subjected to a condition of peace, but notably advanced 
in the path of civilization; their children trained in the white 
man's ways, and all traces of earlier modes of life fast fading 
into the haze of tradition." 

In New England there was an effort made to civilize and 
Christianize the Indians, of which John Elliot's Indian bible is 
the perpetual monument, but the Pequot war and King Philip's 
war resulted in sweeping away the majority of these people. 
The same was tl.e case in the history of the Jesuit missions in 
Canada. It would .seem that a stage had been reached, in 
which the effort to civilize the Indians might prove successful, 
at least their subjugation is complete, and there is no reason to 
desire their extermination. Humanity and the Christian reli- 
gion furnish arguments in favor of civilizing. The elements 
which are calculated to destroy remain. These consist of:;; 
First, the injustice which has been practiced by the Go 
ment; second, in the grasping covetousness of men. and third;] 
in the vices which flow out as an undercurrent of civilizatioik 
The barriers against these are law. the protection of the Gqvi 
ernment. and education and Christianity. The key which nw^ 
lock"; the door of opportunity to the nations, hss been in oiig 
hands, can be used in our new possession; will it be usedfl 
Will we see the lower races fading away under the blightin 
effect of contact with Americans? Or will our civilization b^ 
bestowed upon them and elevate them to a higher stale. 



ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 



Education Among the Philippines. The report of the 
Commissioner of Education for 1897 and 1898 has some very 
interesting facts in reference to the Philippines. It appears 
that this pegple had been subject to feudal chiefs and submitted 
very easily to the Spaniards. They were not in the .Stone Age, 
but had iron-pointeJ spears and arrows, and had smelted cop- 
per. They had alphabets of their own. They are distinguished 
by a higher capacity for education than the so-called civilized 
Indians of Central America and Peru. The number who attend 
the schools and the university is very large; two-thirds of the 
Tagalcfs can read, and about half can write. Art, and especially 
music, is their passion. They know very little of Spanish, but 
read in their language whatever comes in their way. The total 
number of graduates of the university is ll.OOO. The Philip- 
pine Islanders could read and write their own language when 
the Spaniards arrived. There are five alphabets in use in the 
archii>elago- All travelers state that there are schools in 
every village, which arc under the control of the priests. 
Good observers have noticed the aptitude of the natives (or 
instruction. The children begin very early to make their let- 
ters in thi; sand or on the leaves. They copy maps with grtat 
exactness. Instruction is far from being backward when com- 
pared with the lower classes in Europe. There are several 
public printing offices in Manila. The liteniry work proper 
consists mostly of poems and tragedies in Tagalo language. 
There are, also, short poems and songs of which both words 
and music arc national, and the Indians can write the music 
with wonderful ability. They are all musicians, and some of 
them can play five or six instruments. As to their religion — 
they were originally very superstitious. They worshipped the 
sun. moon, lightning and thunder, birds, and even rocks, but 
they had no priesthood. Ancestor worship was, and still is, 
practiced. The surprising facility with which Christianity 
spread over the islands, even in the beginning o( the conquest. 
leads one to suspect that it only served as a cloak for the 
ancient religious customs, and, indeed, partly amalgated with 
ihem. Trustworthy monks still complain that the same men 
go to church one day (o pray to their Christian God, and the 
next offer sacrifices to their heathen idols or "Amitos" for a 
good harvest. In some places there has been a backsliding into 
the old heathen times. 



Moi;nd Pipes. Mr. J. D. McGuirc in his article on pipes 
and smoking customs of the American aborigines, published 
in the Smithsonian Report, treats of the Mound pipes, me 



6o 



THE AMERICAN AN'TlyUAKlAN. 



J by thai 



" the 1 



ulia 



which ; 



: found i 



t term, ' 

mounds oj Ohio, and which consist of a curved, flat base, wiih 
a bowl in the center of the base, and arc smoked without any 
separate stem- He distinguishes between the Mound pipes 
and the Monitor pipes, though it seems to be a distinction wlth- 
oul a difference, lor the only difference is that the bowl is in 
the shape of a cylinder; while the other pipes are carved 
with animals, birds, and human heads. He claims that these 
pipes arc comparatively modern, and were the result of con- 
tact with the French, thouiJ;h they belonged to the Algonquin 
Indians. This is a mere theory, and one that will be disputed 
by many. In the first place there are, according to Mr, Hoyle. 
the archseologist of Toronto, no Monitor pipes in Candida, 
where the French came in contact with the Algonquins at the 
earliest date; second, the places where the Mound pipes are 
the must ntimerous are near Chillicothe, Ohio, and Davenport. 
Iowa, though a few have been found in Illinois and Wisconsin; 
but none to speak of in the regions where tlic French had their 
first settlcmcnt^Kaskaskia. He claims that the pipes are too 
good in shape and too well wrought in detail for the Indians to 
have made It is an old claim, which has often been disputed. 
Gen. G. P, Thurston has shown that the pipes of Tennessee are 
as well wrought as those of Ohio; so that, if one class was too 
good for the Indian,';, the other class was. Idols are somewhat 
common in Ohio and Illinois, as well as in the southern slates. 
Mr McGuirc argues that the French did not favor making 
idols, so virtually contradicts himself, Mr. Henshaw discussed 
the subject of Mound pipes, several years ago. and took the 
ground that no animals or birds found outside of the Ohio val- 
ley are represented, but he failed to convince anyone of this, 
who has made a study of the pipes. The problem of the age 
of the Mound-Builders of Ohio is involved in this study of 
pipes, and one will need to reason closely, if his conclusions 
arc to be accepted, for there are many factors to be considered. 

Mexican AN*riQi;iTiES. The Museum of Natural History 
in New York has just thrown open a fine collection of casts of 
Mexican and Maya fculptures, and of copies of manuscript in 
the Mexican and Maya hieroglyphic writing, so that now, per- 
[ haps, for the first time, the student is enabled lo compare a 
Vlarge number of inscriptions, and in this way, probably to dis- 
cover the key by means of which they can be interpreted. 

^ The Canvon of the Rio Grande, Prof. Robert T. Hill, 
I of the United States Geological Survey, and four companions 
[ bavt made a trip through the caflon of the Rio Grande, the 
[ tecond successful one ever attempted. He says: " At some 
. places the perpendicular walls ri^e to a height of several hun- 
""^d feet. There arc positive indications that they had at one 

e been occupied by Cliff-Dwellers. Veins of gold and silver 

wfound cropping oui in various places." 



M guiu HtlU^tlbl J. 



LITERARY NOTES. 



The Tale of the Two Brothers. The distribution of 
the tales which were so familiar to us in childhood seems to 
have been a common inheritence with the children of all lands, 
at least lands where the Indo-European races dwell. It appears 
that the tale of the Two Brothers, in " A Thousand and One 
Nights/' has its counterpart in Egypt Russia, and Lapland; 
among the Norsemen, among the Tartars, and among the 
Samoyedes. The story of a spirit which was hid in the seven 
boxes, the boxes in seven chests, and the chests put in the sea; 
the soul being destroyed when the chests and boxes were all 
opened. The variations of this story are numerous, but the 
same conception of a charmed life, or an enclosed spirit, is 
common all over the world. The North American Indians 
have a similar story, though the nests and boxes and chests 
and boxes are not mentioned. One story, called "The Sing- 
ing Bulbul," common in Central America: Two golden lilies 
were given — if they were fresh, the absent ones were well; if 
they should fade, they were ill. A variation of the story is 
that the rose would fade if the person should die. Prof. 
Renouf thinks that there was a transmission of these stories 
from continent to continent, though he says, no doubt every 
race has its own stories. It is impossible without the aid of a 
more critical apparatus to assign each story to its own origin 
and date, as the local coloring is absolutely delusive. 

Memory Among the Aborigines. Prof. Max Miiller takes 
up anew the question whether what we call literature could 
have existed in any land before the invention of the alphabet. 
He takes the affirmative side, and points to the custom among 
North American Indians of oral transmission of the tribal 
records, the historians aiding their memory by a numeral sys- 
tem formed of wampum beads. The late Rev. W. W. Gill 
found a considerable mnemonic literature in the i«^lands of the 
South Pacific. Still more extraordinary is the preservation of 
Finland's epic poem, the *! Kalevala." by oral memory alone. 
This system of oral tradition was brought to a still higher 
degree of perfection in Mesopotamia. China, Egypt, and India, 
and led on, in the last-named country, to a complete written 
literature. 



62 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The Congress of Orientalists at Rome. The Congress 
met at Rome, Oct. 3, 1899. Some very interesting papers were 
read. The folio iving notes are taken from the ** Proceedings 
of the Society of Archaeology " for November : 

Mrs. Emmeline Plunket, a member of this Society, read a 
paper on ** Vedic Astronomy " to the Indian section. Her con- 
tention is that the Accadian Calendar, which depends on the 
Zodiaca* constellations, was constructed not less than 6,000 
years B. C. — a view which was first put forward by her in the 
Proceedings of the Society — and that the knowledge of it had 
very early penetrated to India* where it inspired the imagery 
of some of the Vedic mvths. The proofs offered for this are 
very difficult to summarize without the diagrams. Dr. Burgess, 
who spoke on this paper, admitted that the lunar stations, 
which are mentioned in the Rig V^da were derived by the 
Hindus from Arabia, and ultimately from Babylonia; while 
Dr. Formichi gave some proofs that Hindu astronomy in the 
6-5 centuries B. C. had reached a high degree of development. 

Prof. Haupt, of Baltimore, read a paper before the Society 
on the "Seraphim and Cherubim" The Seraphim, he thinks, 
should be considered as serpent-formed beings typifying the 
lightning, and correspond to the erect serpents found in the 
decorations of both Egyptian and Babylonian temples. The 
Cherubim originally represented the winds, and the winds 
fertilize the female flower of the palm trees, by bringing to 
them the pollen of the males; he finds it natural that the 
Assyrian cherubs should so frequently be represented as 
engaged in the fructification of palm flowers. 

M. Guimet gave an account of certain figures belonging to 
the Alexandrian Isis. Most scholars are agreed that the Alex- 
andrian religion was founded on Orphic or Eleusinian mys- 
teries which embodied the doctrine of resurrection. 

Prof. Monet read a paper advocating the theory that the 
Isradites had their first homes in Arabia, and not in **Ur of 
the Chaldoes." He argues thus from the inscriptions, which 
show that the Aramaic and the Arabic languages were essenti- 
ally the same. 

Dr. Gaster read a paper on ** Magic Alphabets." and Dr. 
Senes one on the ** Assyrian Sphinx," reasoning that it was an 
emblem of the Trinitv. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Man: Past and Present. By A. H. Keane, F. R.G. S. Cambridge: 
The University Press, 1899. 

The author of this book takes the position that the world was peopled 
by Prehistoric man. a generalized protohuman form prior to all later racial 
differences. That the four primary divisions are iithiopic, Mongolic, 
Americar, and Caucasic; but that each had their Pleiocene ancestor from 
which each sprung independently, by continuous adaptation to their several 
environments. He holds that the remains found by Dr. Dubois in the 
Pleicene beds of East Java, point out the original home of mankind; and 
represent the long sought for " first man." He held that before the close of 
Palseohthic times all the great divisions of mankind had already been 
specialized in their several geographic areas; that the primary varieties had 
been fully constituted in the intermediate period between the old and new 
Stone Ages. When the Neolithic man reached Western Europe, he found 
his Palaeolithic predecessor already settled there. This occurred during 
the Geologic Age. As to the obscure interval between the Stone Age and 
the strictly historic epoch, we are indebted to the services of the European 
archaeologists. That Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages were successively in- 
troduced; that copper was worked by the Egyptians, perhaps 5000 to 3000 
B. C, and in Chaldea about 4,000 yzars; that it is the characteristic metal of 
a distinct culture in Hungary, and also in the Mississippi valley. 

The transition from copper to bronze in Europe, took place from two 
to three thousand years B.C. The author holds that the Iron Age was in 
Africa contemporaneous with th^t of other metals in Europe and Asia. The 
Prehistoric Age comprises the vague period prior to all written records; 
dim memories of which linger in the myths and traditions. "Winter Counts 
of the American Indians" were the first step toward picto^raphic 
records. The Akkadian, Cuneiform, and Egyptian hieroglyghics are the 
later stages. 

The term '* Race " means a group of human beings whose type has 
become mingled by assimilation. He treats of the African negroes and 
the Oceanic negroes as different divisions of the same race. The Negritoes, 
as well as the Papuans, belong to the Oceanic branch. The Mongols are 
divided into Southern, Oceanic, and Northern. The primiiival home of the 
first was the Thibetan Plateau; of the second, or Oceanic, was Hindoo 
Chiaa. and of the Northern was the Central Asiatic Steppe, near the 
Altai Mountains. 

The .\merican Aborigines constitute the third race, divided, according 
to geography, into inhabitants of North America, Central America, and 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



South America. The origin 
norlh of ^ioudan; ine prcM 

Armenia to Arabia. 
As to the 



e oE the Caucasic peoples was Africa, | 

ge la from Japan to India, and atio 



I AboiigJDes. he says: "The abundani traces of 
primiiive man strewn over the coniineni, from Alaska to Fuegia. show thai 
America forms no exception lo the general statement that all the habtiable 
parts ot the globe weie occupied by man in Pleistocene times, that is, dur- 
ing the early Stone Age." I'he American Aborigines are not indigenous in 
the absolute sense, but reached the Western Irom the Eastern Hemisphere 
in the primitive stale, priorlo all strictly cultural developments. A study 
of their physical constitution, substanlially but not wholly uniform, with, 
indeed, two marked sub- varieties, leapeciively represented m the norlh by 
the Eskimo long-hrads and the Mexican roundheads; in the south by the 
Bolocudo long-heads and the Aiidean lound-faeads— i>oints at two streams 
of immigrants [torn the 0!d World. The Eskimo-Bolocudo section has 
been traced to the long-headed Pdlfolithic manol Europe, which continent 
geology has shown lo have been connected with North America through 
the Faros Islands. Iceland and Greenland, down to poil-glacial times. The 
other section, which probably greatly out-numbered the nrst, came ap- 
parentW later (during ihe New Stone Age( from Eastern Asia, by the 
bchring waiers. and are now represented, allowing for greatinter-mivlurc. 
by the still prevalent round. headed element. The autnor holds that the 
evidence of a Pal;EOlilhic A^e is conclusive, but gives no apparent hcid to 
the aiscussions which have been carried on. but takes Major J. W, Powell 
and the members of the Ethnological Bureau as his authority on all 
points. He denies that there wtire any further arrivals from Europe or 
from Asia, and argues the point from the complete absence in Amei ica of 
any sailmg vessels, from the absence of dogs, sbccp, horses, oxen, poultry, 
and wheat; also the absence of Chinese, hgyntian, Ph;Enician. or Baby- 
lonian hieroglyphs. This argument, however, must apply as well to Europe, 
as to America, and would prove that there was no contact whatever between 
Asia and the north uf Europe until very late in history, for there are no 
hieroglyphs either in the Mounds, Lake Dwellings, or even in the Towers. 
The book is, however, very instructive, and covers ihe whole- lield. and 
is the best work on ethnology that has been putili^hd. 

Solomon and Solomonic LiTBRATtiRE. By Mtincure Daniel Conway, 

Chicago; The Open Court Puhiishing Co. London: Kegan, Patil, 

Trench & C3., :Kog; pp. 148. 

The author of this book undertakes to show the analogies between the 
stories coniamed in the Bible about Solomon, and those which are common 
in the Orient;il Ijnds. He ihinks he tinds the: judgment ol Solomon in Ihe 
case of a Urah man wise woman named Visakna, who commanded that a boy 
should be placed in the hands ol two women, with the idea ihal ihemuiher 
would naturally pull the harder. This might be a mere coincidence, and 
dues not furnish as strong a resemblance as the older siory of Moses in the 
bulrusbts, which has its counterpart in an earlier stcry in Babylonia. 

The author compares the finding ol the book of the law. in the time of 
Josiah. to the finding of the book of Mormon by Joseph Smith. Bui his 



I 






>s and lark of s 



ii<d U.I 



line 



i shovL, 



in the fan that 



BOOK REVIEWS. 65 

siders the Queen of Sheba was one of the queens of the seven of Persia; 
whereas, it is well known that she was from Arabia. He compares Solomon's 
anthorship of the Book of Proverbs to Boccacio, whose tales are contained 
in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline," Dryden's "Cymon and Iphigenia/' and 
Tennyson's "Falcon." The Spirit of God "brooding over the waters" is 
identified with Wisdom, who " builds her house " and has hewn out her 
seven pillars. 

The author quotes Dr. Inman's " Ancient Faith," and suitably, for his 
views are similar. The " Song of Songs " he regards as a collec- 
tion of unconnected hymns, and suggests the idea that it was virtually an 
opera, containing a chorus. The love of the Church to Christ has been read 
into the songs of Solomon by many clever persons, but that a love song was 
sung out of it, as out of an opera, is a new idea. The last chapter on 
Solomon and Jesus is the straugest of all, as it is directly contrary to the teach- 
ings of history, as well as the opinions of scholars. That the descent of 
Christ was through an illegitimate line, and was by illegitimate birth, is a 
most blasphemous charge, which only Tom Payne or Robert Ingersoil 
would be guilty of, and is unbecoming such an author as Moncure Con- 
way. Ruth the Moabitessand Bathsheba the mother of Solomon, and Mary, 
the mother of Jesus, are regarded by the enlightened people of the world 
too highly, for such a charge to stand unchallenged. It is similar to the 
charge that King Solomon and Jesus Christ were alike the objects of 
idolatry- each in his own age. The book is full of blasphemous assertions 
and reflects no credit upon the author. 

IK 

Myths of Greece and Rome— Narrated with Special Reference 
TO Literature and Art. By H. A. Guerber, Lecturer on Mythol- 
ogy. New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: Americrn Book Company; 
pp. 428. 

History Primers. Edited by J. R. Green. Classical Antiquities L Old 
Greek Life. Pp. loi. By J. P. Mahafify. New York, Cincinnati, and 
Chicago: American Book Company. 

History Primers, Edited by J. R. Green. Classical Antiquities IL 
Roman Antiquities. By A. S. Wilkins, M. A., Owens College, Man- 
chester. With Illustrations. New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: 
American Book Company. 

These three books cover about the same department, but are written 
from dififerent standpoints. The first treats of Mythology; the second of 
Social Life, and the third of Antiquities. In the book on Antiquities the 
Roman dwellings are described at considerable length. Some interesting 
facts are brought out: That the men reclined on couches at their meals, the 
women never did; the beds in the sleeping chambers were often in 
alcoves; the equivalent for "Grandfather's Chair" was common. The 
walls, even in the poorer houses, were drawn with fresco paintings. The 
floor in all the better dwellings were of mosaic work. The inside of the 
house contrasted with the outside. It was Greece which gave direction to 
Rome in its later house-life. The Greek inns offered very bad accommo- 
dations, but the Greek household was a model. No household could exist 
without the master, if he died his widow became the ward of her father. 



66 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Slaves were numerous in everv household. There were domestic animals, 
such as the horse, doj; and cat, and birds. The girls of the house were 
broujsfht up to see and hear as little as possible, but the younjj men passed 
out from the control of their parenib early in life. The oldest banks in 
Greece were temples, but treasures were deposilcd in tombs; and was con- 
sidered the most important kinci of wealth. 

The book on the Greek and Roman M\lhs is splendidly illustrated, 
and contains a good summary, with occasional snatches of poetry. The 
old Roman names, instead of the Greek, arc used— Jupiter and Juno, 
Venus and Hercules. Perhaps this is as well, for they are familiar. Of 
the plates: The Abduction i)f I-.uropa, Appollo Ik-lvidere. \'enus de Milo, 
Aurora Fourth Hour of the Ni^'ht, I\r-eus and Andromeda, Aeneas at the 
Court of Dido, Parting of Ikclor and Andromeda, are very interesting. 

-;; 
-> * 

Memoirs of thk A.mkkicxn Misklm «>i- Natikal Histokv. \oI. II. 
Anthro[M)logy I.; The jc"-up Niirih }\u nir l-.xpctiilion Hi.; Archeology 
of Lytlon, British Coluiiiltia. \\y Harl.in I. >mith. May 25, i8(/). 

Mr. H. I. Smith, who is a Western man and has th(* Western pluck and 
energy, has done some thorough work in connection with the Jcsup Ex- 
pedition. He was assisie<l by .Mr. J Hill l\)Ut, the author of "Later Pre- 
historic Man in Hrilisli C"oluinl)i.i. ' J^c\eral village sites were explored. 
These were situated 011 the 'I lionij)Soii liNtr. (Hiariies of rtd paint and 
large quantities of ^Teeii stone abouiui in ilie neigliborhood, but the re- 
sources are varietl. linpleiiieiit^ nl tcetli and l)unes are common, also 
many wooden andcopj)rr ini[>lenieiiib. be>iile> stone and shell; but no pot- 
tery, (juartz cryst.ils were u^ed lor charnis. f.\rL,'ilnie was made into 
knives and arrows. Glassy l)asalt, opiils. .iiul chalcedony were used for 
chipped arrows. Copper was made into brac:tlets and ankleis; bones, 
into awls and needles: the skins ot animal> into >^^arnunts; deer antlers, 
into harpoons. Handles of di^'.unn;^^ slicks perioraied m the middle -were 
made fr(»m bone; pestles troin tine ^^tound boulders or pebbles, an<l anvils 
trom Hat boulders. Tne^e lia\e a tlepri s-K.n in the center, but large, flat 
stones were used for hand mills. Spool > weie made from clam-shells; 
fish knives, from slate; wtii;.'('-<. and -j-.ittil.r, and celts from nephrite; 
arrow slrai«.'hteners. Ironi j^r(<»\td st«»iie>. I'erlurated disks and scrapers, 
with wooden handle>. awJs and r.eedUs are < oininnn. Co|}per war-cluhs. 
resembling the slublict^ of New /tal.ind; (dpper ornaments; pendants or 
bangles made from mic.i; dice made lioin leith; pi|)es or lubes made from 
steatite, and a few car\ircl ^l>e( iniei.s in llie >iiape of animals were found. 

The culture ol this rri^mii w.is i|uui siinihir to that of the tribes around 
l*>alsam Lake in Ontario, but ilie resouK t •^ more varied and the people 
more prosperous. Several \illa^e ^ites were ixplon-d and some houses 
discovered. 

Myths of Nokjiu-.kn Land^ NaivKati;!) wriii Si'f.(mal Rkfkrenck 
to Litkkatikk AM) Akp r«\ II. A. (iuerber. New York Cincin- 
nati, and (. hicago: American Book Coin])any, J895; pp. 319. 

The Northern mytholo;^'v is Lonnecti-d with that of Greece and Rome 
as it sprung from ihe s;niH* soun e; but is \cr\ dilYeienl in its character and 
imagery. Odin is tlie chief god. .nid answers to Jupiter, but is a sturdy 
warrior. The triumphant siie of hosts, the taimd in arms; all the chosen 
guests of Odin, daily ply ihe trade ol war. Frigga, ucnldess of the clouds 
and of conjugal and inolherJ\ love, the Uiuen ot Hearts, is superior in 
character to Juno; not so jeaious, or so dictatorial. Thor is the "great 
thundejer," .and the ( liief dixinitv. lie resembles Hercules in many re- 
spects, boki is the '• great mix liief maker." and has no Greek equivalent. 
Balder, the "beautiful." I rev. the "Sun God," good and pure and bright, 



BOOK REVIEWS. 67 

was loved of all, as all love light. Brumhill and Sigurd are prominent 
characters in the "Twilight of the Gods." The illustrations represent 
these divinites in all their characteristics, and convey the same impression 
as do the descriptions in poetry and prose, which are so numerous in the 
book, and are so graphic. All of these volumes published by the American 
Book Company are very attractive. 

Myths and Legends of Our New Possessions and Protectorates. 
By Charles M. Skinner. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 
i8g(>; pp. 154. 

This book is attractive in its appearance and fascinating in its style, 

but lacks the accuracy which would be required if it had been designed as a 

scientific record. It is a contribution to mythology, although the authbr 

has not drawn a distinction between myths and legends, and has embraced 

almost ever\ thing under the head of Folk-Lore. He begins with the Buc- 

eancers and Smugglers of the West Indies, and speaks of the Holy 

Hermit, who resided in the cave where the Caribs buried their dead, and 

devotes a few pages to the mermaids and the aborigines; and describes the 

sacred shrines and the tobacco and the witches, as if all were to be em- 

!:> raced under the same head. He has culled fnnn a great numl)er of fields 

-f^nd has furnished a variety of stories, which are interesting. The last half 

c:>f the hook is devoted to the myths and legends of the Pacific, including 

» lie ancient faith of the Hawaiians. About fifty pages are devoted to the 

cz^ld beliefs of the Philippines, also to the animal myths; all written in a 

^v^ery interesting style. 

* 

TEHfisTORic Mansions and Highways Aroind Boston. Being a new 
and revised edition of "Old Landmarks and Historic Fields of Mid- 
dlesex." Bv Samuel Adams Drake. Illustrated. Boston: Little, 
Brown t't Co., 1899. Pp. 440. 

The revised edition of "Old Landmarks " brings before us, in its illus- 
trations as well as in its descriptions, a great many familiar scenes, and 
^DCipetuates the view ot buildings which were conspicuous fifty years ago; 
fcut are now lost to sight amid the great number of modern buildings. 

^The Puritan Replblic of The Massacihssets Bay in New Eng- 
land. By Daniel Watt Howe. Indianapolis: The Bowen-Merrill Co. 
Pp. 422. 

The literature on the Puritans is voluminous. This contribution from 
the Interior treats of them from a different standpoint. The chapter that 
interests us the most, is the one on the Puritans and the Indians. The 
author justifies their treatment in the following language: "All efforts to 
induce thom to adopt the methods of civilized life, were unavaihng at that 
time, as they have been since. Soincthini^ in their nature made them pre- 
fer the freedom ol the forest, to the restraints and burdens of civilized life. 
It was very soon manifest that the Indians looked with unkindly eyes on 
increase of their white nei^^hbors and were planning their extermination. 
The situation of the CoI.)nisis was precarious. Only their possession and 
knowledge of the use of fire-arms enabled them to hold their own, against 
the vastlv superior numbers of the Indians." 

Nancy Hanks. By Caroline Hanks Hitchcock. New York: Doubleday 
&' McClure. Price, 50 cents. 

This litte Primer is designed to clear up the reputation, of the mother 
of Abraham Lincoln, and answer the unjust cliarges against her character. 
The auther has taken great pains to search out the family record, and has 



68 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

shown that Lincoln came from a good family on his mother's side. It was 
backwards life, but there was the exercise of womanly traits, combined 
with fortitude, which impressed the mind of the great man, so that he was 
led to say that what he was he owed to his mother. 

Don't Worry Nuggets.— Educational Nuggets.— Philosophical 
Nuggets.— Patriotic Nuggets. New York: Ford, Howard & Hul- 
bert. 

These books are attractive and practical, and so convenient in form that 
they may be carried in the pocket and referred to at one's leisure. The 
publishers deserve credit for getting them in such excellent style. 

Standard English Pr)EMs— Spenser to Tennyson. Selected and 
edited by Henry S. Pancoast. New York: Henry Holt & Company; 
1899. 

Messrs. Henry Holt & Company have met a long felt want in issuing 
this attractive and well-selected collection of standard English poems. The 
poems are arranged in chronological order, and embrace nearly all the 
most familiar and valuable poems which the ordinary reader would desire. 



BOOKS RECEIVED. 

The Old Northwest; The Beginnings of Our Colonial System. ByB.A. 
Hinsdale, Ph. D., LL. D. Revised edition. New York, Boston, and 
Chicago: Silver. Burdett & Co; 1890. 

The History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule. By Joseph 
Wallace. M. A. Second edition. Cincinnati: The Robert Clark Co.: 
iSgg. 

Young Puritan Series — The Young Puritans in Captivity. By Mary P. 
Wells Smith. Illustrated by Jessie Wilcox Smith. Boston: Little, 
Brown & Co.; 189Q. 

A Year Book of Colonial Times. By Rev. Frederick .S. Sill, D. D. New 
York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Plantation Pageants. By Joel Chandler Harris. Illustrated by E. Boyd 
Smith. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin \' Co.; 1899. 

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin No. IV : On 
the Building and Ornamental Stones of Wisconsin. By Ernest Robert- 
son Buckley, Ph. D. 

Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1896-7. Vol. H. 
Washington; 1898. 

The Legends ol the Rhine. By H. A. duerbcr. Third edition. New 
York: A. S. Barnes & Co.; iSrx). 

Triumphs and Wonders of the Nineteenth Century. By James P. Boyd. 
Philadelphia: A. J. Halman. 



^mcricau ^utxc{nnxx^n 



Makch and Ahril, 1900. 



THE KVOIX'TION OF ETHICS. 

BV CHARLES \S". SUPER. 

Out of political economy has grown, by a natural process 
of evolution and expansion, that larger science known as 
sociology, a science that deals with the entire psychic life of 
man iu so far as the forces that underlie it are called into 
activity by his civic life. Almost up to the present time it has 
been held by the great majority of Christian people that in 
order to better the condition of men, both at home and in 
foreign lands, it was only necessary to preach the Gosp(fl to 
them; while those whose condition could not be improved here 
below were taught to anticipate compensating happiness in 
the next world in an inverse ratio to the privations suffered in 
this. Now. however, few persons are content to wait until 
another life shall furnish them the means of enjoyment; the 
great majority want their full share as they live from day to 
day. Here, too, the felt need has provided the supply, in part 
at least, and the promise of it in greater abundance as the years 
shall go by. 

This state of things, though by no means to be deplored, 
has like every good brought in its train a number of evils. It 
has engendered a widespread desire on the part of many, 
amounting often to a demand, that they should be allowed not 
only to decide for themselves what sort of enjoyment and how 
much, this world shall provide for them, but also who shall 
provide it. The proverbial modern rush after riches is the best 
evidence of this on the one part, and the various schemes pro- 
posed by which all may have an equal share of this world's 
goods, on the other. Whether the relations between employer 
and employed are at present more "strained" than they ever 
were before, is a question that no man, unless he is as old as an 
antediluvian, can decide fairly; but certain it is that these rela- 
tions are receiving an unwonted share of attention, both at the 
hands of the law-making powers and the general public all over 
the civilized world. An element of confusion has been intro- 
duced into the traditional conceptions of right and wrong, 
justice and injustice, except as they may have been set forth in 
the treatise of some philosopher, who found solace in the crea- 
tion of an imaginary realm in which it was made plain how 
mucb better this world would be if only it were different. One 



70 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of the most marked signs of the times is the enormous incre. 
of legislative activity. Tlie popular cry is: Let us have a law 
for this, or a law against that. The trend of the times is 
toward state socialism, and a great many persons arc of the 
opinion that men would be all their neighbors wish them to be, 
if only the proper legislation could be had. Both the move- 
ment toward communism and that toward socialism arc uncon- 
scious attempts to revert to a condition of things either tried 
or advocated millenniums ago. They are advocated by men. 
who for the most part know little of history and probably care 
less. Movement and agitation are not necessarily progress, 
though there can be no progress without both. Society is such 
a complex entity, that it may grow in some parts and remain 
stationary or retrograde in others. Or it may advance in the 
form of a spiral an-t repeat its former experiments under some- 
what similar conditions. It can not be thought surprising that 
the world learns so slowly. There is a large measure of truth 
in the sneering words of Schopenhauer: 






brilliantly endoi 



e the rule, fairly furnished ones ihe CKCeption, ihe 
ry rare, genius a. porUnlutn. How otherwise could 
:t that out of upwards of eighl hundred millions of 
people exisling human beines, and after the chronicled experleoce of six 
tbousa'nd vears, so much still remains to discover, lo think out. and to be 
said. By far the greater part of humanity .ire wholly inaccessible lo purely 
intellectuat enjoyments. They are quite incapable of the delight (hat 
exists in ideas as such, everything standing in a certain relation to their own 
individual will, in other words, lo themselves and their own affairs. In 
order to interest them, it Is necessary that their wills should be acted upon, 
no matter in how remote a degree. 

This is not to be wondered at. Thinking is hard work — 
much too hard for the great mass of mankind, and impossible 
to those who have not been trained to it. Men prefer, in every 
case of doubt, to fall back on use and wont, to take tradition 
for their guide and leave the results to the gods. It is so much 
casicr to do this than resolute'y to face new problems day by 
day and solve them in the light of the new knowledge that 
dawns upon the world as time passes on. More than a third 
of a century ago George Eliot wrote; 

After all has been said that can l>e said alwut the widening influence of 
ideas, It remains true that Ihev would hardly be such strong agents unless 
they were taken in a solvent of feeling. The great world-struggle of 
developing thought is continually foreshadowed in Ihe struggle of the 
affections seeking a ;ustificHtion for love and hope. 

This is not only true, but the statement is susceptible of a 
much wider application than is here made of it. In the develop- 
ment of society the intellect is like a choice plant springing up 
and growing amid a luxuriant crop of bushes and brambles that 
threaten constantly to choke it to death. It is the inextinguish- 
able, vital spark which, while it keeps Ihe body alive, can not 
secure for it a healthy and rapid growth. Notwithstanding the 




THE EVOLUTION OF ETHICS. 71 

facl that human lite is so largely governed by feeling, there is 
no article in the creed of cihnlc lailh to which civilized men 
have held with greater tenacity than that which proclaims the 
doctrine of human responsibility. It is the corner stone upon 
which every form of civic life is built up. In spile of the 
powerful counter influence- of the Auguslintan theology to 
which men still give a verbal assent, their actions, whether 
they are of the church or not, persistently belie their profes- 
sions. If men are responsible to God or to society, their 
actions must be under the control of a regulative faculty, and 
this faculty can be nothing else than the reason regulated by 
the will. But the will to do right profits hini nothing who does 
not know what the right is. If there were some infallible 
standard by which all men could determine what is right and 
what is wrong, it would be comparatively easy to reconcile all 
differences of opinion. When IJyron wrote: "Man being 
reasonable, must get drunk," he made the particular applica- 
tion to a fact of human experience that is capable of wide 
generalization. The quest after a universal standard is almost 
as old as the human race; and when even the most thoughtful 
men have been unable to find it. what wonder is it that the rest 
have been groping in the dark till row. 

There is no absolute standard of right that is capable of 
being applied to every circumstance that may arise, Right and 
wrong;, justice and injustice, are largely matters of convention; 
and, therefore, more or less variable according to the condi- 
tion of society. 

The will is but little influenced by knowledge, and the cause 
that is advocated on grounds of reason alone has a very weak 
champion. Yet time is an efficient and invincible ally that 
generally turns the scales in the end. But the men who have 
diverted the broad current of history farthest aside from its 
wonted course, were not the great thinkers of the world. They 
used their intellects and their wilts almost exclusively to put 
into effect the promptings of their feelings. That inexplicable 
power some men have over their fellows has rarely been 
founded on a rational basis. We sometimes find ourselves 
wondering at the shortsightedness and folly of both rulers and 
subjects when history tells of some great disaster that they 
have brought upon themselves. There is a sense in which all 
the evils that have come upon men as the outgrowth of social 
and civic life might have been avoided. That they are avoid- 
able is the motive that inspires every good citi;(en, who labors 
for the promotion of the public welfare. If they can be pre- 
vented in the future, they might have been obviated in the past, 
for the laws of human conduct are not undeviating, like the 
laws of the physical nature. On the assumption, then, that 
man is reasonable and that the ultimate goal of society is the 
greatest good of the largest number, it ought not to be very 
diflicult of attainment. Vet experience has demonstrated that 
it is extremely difficult- Men's aims are fairly definite and 



72 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

their judgment, in the main at least, approximately correct, but 
in practice they are swayed by all sorts of motives that lead 
them everywhere, except where they hope to go. 

Evolution is constantly throwing more and more light into 
many hitherto dark nooks and crannies of social life. This 
doctrine has shown, at least to a small number of careful in- 
vestigators, that we are much more firmly bound to the remot- 
est past than most people have been aware, or have even sus- 
pected. Social and civic institutions could be changed almost 
in a twinkling, by the united will of any generation; yet they 
drag along slowly, because fettered by tradition, which only the 
progress of time can by degrees relax. In every community 
the progressive forces are represented by the few; the con- 
servative, or static forces, by the vast majority. To the latter, 
a word that in some way has been adventitiously associated 
with a hated object often constitutes its entire content and 
thus becomes an epithet of condemnation that frequently leads 
to terrible consequences. Owing to a lack of the power of 
discrimination men can deal only with general ideas. The 
sting of many an epigram has been deadly. Royalist, 
republican, revolutionary, have at different times and in 
different countries been synonymous with traitor. In 
like manner, sueh harmless terms as skeptic, evolutionist, 
rationalist, have been used and are still used to fix a stigma on 
persons who have been among the benefactors of the human 
race. It is so hard to turn use and wont into new channels, 
because the masses, however dissatisfied they may be with the 
past, have a reverence for it, which they rarely take the time 
or the trouble to analyze. 

The conservatism of religion has become proverbial, and 
there is hardly any element of tradition that reformers have 
been so careful not to antagonize. Vet it is doubtful whether 
the clergy are more averse to innovation than the legal profes- 
sion. It is hardly too much to say that a new departure in 
legal interpretation is more (^f a rarity than a new departure 
in theology. Wlu never a people have sought a change in the 
government, retrospection has usually played an iniportant 
part; they have endeavored to show that under existing condi- 
tions they are deprived of rights conceded to their ancestors. 
This is well exemplified in the speeches which Schiller puts in 
the mouth of the aged Stauffacher in his Wilhelm Tell. 

Goethe mildly satirizes the conservatism of the legal frater- 
nity in the words i>f Mephistopheles. thus: 

For human laws anJ richts from sire to son. 

Like an hereditary ill rtow on. 

From j^eneration dra^jjed to ^jencrat'on. 

And ereepinc slow from place to place. 

Reason is chan^jed to nonsense, kiood to evil. 

All thou a grandson, woe betide thy case I 

Oi iaw thev prate, most falsely clept the civil. 

Init foT that riijht. which from our hirih wc carry, 

■ ris not a word found in their dictionary. 



THE EVOLUTION OF ETHICS. 73 

As men's ethical relations have rarely been championed for 
their own sake, they have .been slow to receive the recognition 
to which their importance entitled them. They have usually 
been side issues to law or religion, or to some other psychic 
force that in a general way expressed civic or social relations. 
Impulses, appetites, fancies, reverence for custom, have been 
so potent a factor in regulating men's intercourse with each 
other, that the virtues, properly so called, have had but scant 
room to make themselves felt. As long as the law-abiding 
citizen or the orthodox believer is regarded as the ideal man, 
the good old times of the past must take precedence of the 
better new times that are still in the future. Men instinctively 
feel a reverence for those who are scrupulous in the observance 
of law or religion, whatever else they may do or leave undone. 
Yet so long as conduct is regulated according to any but a 
purely ethical motive, it is in constant danger of becoming 
unethical. From time immemorial but very few men have 
done right solely because it was right. 

It is not denied here that there are primitive impulses 
that are purely ethical. On the contrary, they may be detected 
in the earliest records of our race, and may still be discovered 
in those tribes occupying the lowest round of the ladder of 
social progres"?. But they are so obscured by other motives 
and psychic forces, both individual and collective, that their 
advancement toward recognition has been painfully slow and, 
perhaps, in a mijority of cases, unconscious. How difficult it 
is for men to see the right and do it for its own sake, is strik- 
ingly exemplified in the case of Socrates, the purest moralist 
of Greek antiquity and one of the most lucid thinkers the 
world has ever produced. He based his mission, not on his 
innate worth as a man, or on the reasonableness of the doctrines 
he advocated, but on the inspiration of a god; in other words, 
he did not preach righteousness for its oun sake, but in the ful- 
fillment of a mission divinely imposed. Herein he merely 
followed the example of the Hebrew prophets who exhorted 
the people to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with 
God. If they obeyed His commands and lived according to 
the law He laid down for their guidance, they would be 
victorious over their enemies and dwell in peace and plenty. 

The most purely ethical standard of which we have any 
record is that set up by Christ in the words: Seek ye first the 
kingdom of heaven and his righteousness, etc., with the added 
injunction to leave the results to take care of themselves. If 
the kingdom of heaven, or of God, is synonymous with the 
kingdom of earthly felicity, to do the will of God is also to 
labor for the well-being of man.* Nevertheless, it is reaching 
one result by way of another and not directly. It seems to 



* I once heard a clergyman asked whether God commanded certain things becaucf rhey 
were right, or whether they were right because God commanded them? His answer was, "noih.'' 



74 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

admit of no doubt that ethical morality is very like a climbing 
plant that may indeed put forth leaves and flowers, but which 
is unable to rise from the earth or to attain its fullest develop- 
ment, except when clinging to some other object. As to Soc- 
rates, I admit that he may have adopted a conventional phrase- 
ology to make his teaching more readily comprehensible by 
those he addressed, but it is legitimate to take his words in 
their obvious, and not in some esoteric sense. Besides, his 
words are in harmony with those of nearly all great prophets. 

Without occupying further space with generalizations that 
may be regarded cither as preliminary to the whole question or 
as a summary of investigations on a number of particular 
points, let us examine some of the current terms that throw 
light on the development of our moral ideas. We shall thus 
be able to get much light on the question as to the extent that 
our notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, virtue and 
vice are the product of man's gregarious habits and social 
instincts. 

Auerbach says: *'Nicht die Sittlichkeit regiert die Welt, 
sondern eine verhaertete Form derselben: die Sitte. W'ie die 
Welt nun einmal geworden ist, verzeiht sie eher eine Verlet- 
zung dcr Sittlichkeit als eine Verletzung der Sitte." This pass- 
age, which can be only approximately translated mto English, 
expresses a truth of far-reaching importance. The world 
judges men by a formula that is not of their own making, but 
which comes to them by inheritance. This formula is accepted 
as a standard by which to measure individual conduct. Con- 
duct is judged as good or bad in proportion as it approaches or 
deviates from the formula. Few persons take the trouble or 
have the mental acumen necessary to enable them to look 
deeper. Many of these formuhe are fixed by statute, but this 
is no evidence that they are any longer obeyed. Others have 
become fixed by custom and are implicitly obeyed, m spite of 
the fact that everybody is at liberty to disregard them. '* You 
might as well be out of the world, as out of fashion," is the 
popular verdict upon those who refuse to recognize the bind- 
ing force of convention even in unimportant matters. This 
inexorable law of custom is undoubtedly stronger as we go 
downward in the scale of civilization, but it is potent every- 
where: it regulates the etiquette of courts quite as much as 
the religious and social observances of the Australian aborigines 
or the dress of the European peasant. Usage has often been 
the outgrowth of the environment of primitive tribes, and is 
afterward observed when it has ceased to signify anything and 
has no warrant but its antiquity. Pietas, a term that meant so 
much to the ancient Romans and which has been preserved to 
our day in the greatly attenuated " piety," was regarded as a. 
leading virtue. That man was pious who scrupulously per- 
formed the cuftomary religious rites, or who reverently cher- 
ished the memory of ancestors no matter how far removed, or 
who took pains to keep in fresh remembrance the words and 



THE EVOLUTION OF ETHICS. 7S 

deeds of departed friends. This pietas often appears in the 
conduct of Indian tribes, who, almost without exception, pro- 
tested against being removed to a region where they could not 
visit the burying grounds of their forebears or make their 
annual pilgrimages to the same sacred spot. 

** What was good enough for my father is good enough for 
me," is the reason often assigned by ignorant persons in our 
day, when they are asked to change their habits, or even the 
routine of their daily life. Frequently, too, persons, who can 
not be regarded as ignorant, feel and plainly show that they 
think they are doing an unworthy act when they leave the 
party or the church of their fathers, though the continuity is 
in the name much more than in the creed. And no matter 
how unsentimental a man may be naturally, he can not look 
upon the graves of his ancestors, or upon any family heirloom, 
though of trifling value, without feeling that their association 
gives them a certain character of sacredness, of which other 
like objects not thus associated are wholly devoid. 



A RELIC FROM THK GLACIAL CLAY OF BRITISH 

COLUMBIA. 

BY JAMES DEANS. 

A short time ago, I found an ancient spear point on our 
farm in the clay of the glacial drift. Several years ago, a 
ditch was dug in this clay, now there is no longer any use for 
this ditch, because the field has been drained. It was when 
filling up this ditch that this relic was uncovered, it ha\ing 
been dug up when the ditch was being niade. 1 think this 
coast, or northern part of Northwest America, must have been 
inhabited before the glacial period, or else this relic was carried 
by the drift from points inhabited before that time. Altogether 
it goes very far to prove that there were inhabitants ingenious 
enough to form spear points out of stone before the glacial 
period. 

A few winters ago, I was walking along near my home, 
where traces of glacial action is plainly seen on every hand, 
where every rock and hill is covered with ice grooves, and 
large tracts are so thickly covered with drift stones that a per- 
son cannot walk over them, and almost all the flat land is 
glacial clay. Walking along the bank of a little stream. I 
came to a point where the winter floods had worn a hole in the 
bank of the stream. In this clay along-side of the hole, a 
foot below the surface, I dug out a whetstone, such as was used 
by the Indians to sharpen their stone and bone implements. 
After washing it, I found it had been used to put a point on 
their implements. 



i'REHlSTORIC WORK BY PROFESSOR PETRIE. 

BY REV. WILLIAM C, WINSLOW, LL. D, 

The varied work o£ the Egyptian Exploration Fund must 
strike the most caisual observer — one. for example, who glances 
into the !ast volume of the Oxyrhynchus papjTi, or that of the 
ArchRiological Survey, or into "Dendereh" for 1S98. If he 
cares more for illustration than Cor text, he has but to scan the 
truly beautiful plates, sume in colors, in the royal quartos nf 
our volumes on Dcir-el-liahari (the temple of Queen Halasu). 
Could there be a more diversified work, under the banner of 
archeology, than the achievements of Messrs. Grcnfell and 
Hunt in our Gr^co-Roman Branch and the work of Professor 
Petrie on. behalf of knowledge respecting prehistoric civiliza- 
tion and prehistoric races in Egypt? In the former, the classi- 
cal and Biblical are concerned; in the latter, the ethnological 
and anthropological are interested. 

This is illustrated in ll.e last excavations by Prof- Petrie; 
he pointedly said at the annua! meeting of the Fund in Nov- 
ember, as a sequence of his last efforts: 

1 hope that ii is now clear what a Rreat sic [i we 
in Ihe mode of reducing the prehistoric chaos into 
in tracing changes in the civilization of such ages. 

I must anticipate the Annual Report with simply some ex- 
tracts from the type-written copy furnished me in advance. 
Dr. Petrie was assisted by Mr, Mace in the early stage of the 
work; also by Mr. Maclver. Miss Ormc. Miss Lawes, and Mrs. 
Petrie. The party settled first at Abadiyeh, and afterwards at 
Hu (sometimes spelt How), the siti of Diospolis. Professor 
Petrie says: 

Allogether, about 1,250 graves of the Prehistoric Age and abom as 
many historic eraves — mainfy about the Twelfth Dynasty — were opened 
and recorded. Now, how far does all tliis work change our point of view, 
and put us in a different position toward historical suhjccis? This is the 
rhain lest of success in excavations. We started wiih Ihe advantage of 
having an extensive corpus of ihe forms ol prehistoric pottery, ready for 
reference, the produce of niy work at Nagadafour years before. This gavi; 
a notation for 7-50 forms, and we added 150 more to that corpus during our 

Bv this means every jar in each grave, and generally even fragmenls 
of pottery, were exactly recorded. And having thus such a mass of obser- 
valiOQS. as well as those made less completely on some 2,^00 graves at 
Nagada, it was possible to deal with the best and mosl complete graves in 
a systematic manner, which had never yet been attempted tor any country. 

Proceeding upon a scientilic basis of the most exact sort, 
Professor Petrie is able to say: 



PREHISTORIC WORK IN EGYPT. n 

approximation to the origina^l order of the graves. Such a catalogue is, 
however, very cumbrous for reference, when we want to settle the relative 
positions of any fresh tombs. A portable notation lor it becomes needful. 
The whole series is. therefore, divided in, say fifty equal parts, each paft 
representing an equal amount of burials. These, for convenience, I num- 
bered from 30 to 80. Thus we have a system just as convenient as a scale 
of years, and every kind of object can be relatively dated in it. 

From the order of the graves as found, by the pottery I have obtained 
the history of the development of stone vases, ivories, and the working of 
flint and metal — for even t^^e earliest of these tombs contain copper. And 
having done that, a new piece of history becomes apparent in the great 
change that passed over every kind of work at one point of the scale, about 
a quarter through the prehistoric ape that we are studying. A new tribe 
seems to have come in with very different notions. 

Our excavator remarks further: 

One of the most curious differences is that the older people largely 
used signs which are the fore-runners of the Mediterranean alphabets, 
while the later people ignored such signs. The earlier people used no 
amuiets; the later used amulets, several of which came down to the historic 
times. The use of a forehead pendant and face veil seems also to belong 
only to the later people. The characteristic pottery of the earlier people 
is closely like the Kabyle pottery at present; the later people had some 
pottery almost identical with that of South Palestine in historic times. All 
these indications point to the earlier being a Libyan population, overlaid 
later on by an eastern migration. 

Other results are stated: 

In other lines we have also reaped a good harvest. The cemeteries of 
the Sixth to Twelfth dynasties have given us the history of alabaster vases 
and of beads. The cemeteries of the Thirteenth to Seventeenth dynasties 
have shown the development of pottery, as yet unknown, and splendid 
dated examples of Fourteenth dynasty copper work, which fix the forms of 
daggers ana axes. An entirely fresh invasion of Egypt by Libyans at the 
close of the Twelfth dynasty has been traced; several kinds of objects 
known before, but without dates, have taken their historical position, and 
we have a sample of the civilization of the Libyan tribes at about 2000 B.C. 
And coming down to Roman times, we have found the continuance of a 
longer and fuller alphabet of Asia Minor, in an inscription scratched by a 
Roman legionary at the camp of Diospolis, 

Professor Petrie refers to the ** material results " as satis- 
factory, that is in objects for the museums of En^^iand and 
America, and announces that the historical site of Abydos has 
been assigned to him by the Egyptian government. He re- 
joices — who does not? — that Professor Maspero will resume 
the post of director-general of antiquities in P2gypt. 



PREHISTORIC KNIVES. 

BY THEOPHILUS L. DICKERSON. 

In the ancient artificial mounds and in graves; about the 
bottoms and bluffs of rivers and lakes, and near springs and in 
old camping places, we find the remains of a vanished people^ 
who antedated written history, and of whom but little is posi- 
tively known. These remains are usually human skeletons, 
and various implements, untensils, and ornaments of stone, 
bone, and other imperishable materials. 

The great abundance of such prehistoric relics in America, 
and in many other quarters of the world, suggest many theories 
as to their age, their probable uses, and of the aboriginal peo- 
ple who made them for certain specific purposes. The thought 
is also suggested that among the primitive tribes who had not 
yet learned the use of metals, the implements of stone were 
the work of skilled artisans, one or more of whom supplied an 
entire village or, perhaps, the entire tribe. The stone knives 
and other cutting implements of flint, chert, or obsidian, and 
also those of shell, bone, and copper, are products of superior 
workmanship, only gained by long and patient labor. The 
knives differ greatly in form and size, and were no doubt used 
for many purposes. Some had edges as sharp as razors, and 
others were very dull; some were semi-circular in shape, and 
others were pointed at each end and when used must have been 
grasped by the hand in the middle. Then, again, some were 
finely chipped, others are very rude, and many, fashioned out 
of igneous rocks, are finely polished. It is this class of 
weapons and domestic implements, the world over, that are 
the most characteristic of the period of early man, known as 
the Stone Age. 

In studying, in museums and other large collections, the 
diverse forms and widely differing material of these antique 
stone implements, we are sometimes at a loss to properly 
classify them; but close observation will generally detect 
an identity of purpose among them that is unmistakable. 
It is well known that the Indians who inhabited America before 
their discovery by Europeans had far-reaching commercial in- 
tercourse, or exchange of commodities, with each other; as is 
often evidenced by the presence in one locality of implements 
wrought from material foreign to that region. Thus we find in 
places that abound with only rude and clumsy stone imple- 
ments, occasionally some very finely made and finished of 
obsidian, onyx, catlinite or banded slate, imported probably 
from great distances. It has been attempted in America to 
establish the distinction recognized in Europe between very 
rudely formed stone implements and those polished and of 



PREHISTORIC KNIVES. 7(> 

higher type of workmanship, classing them as palaeolithic and 
neolithic; but the prevailing opinion among archaeologists is 
that all belong to the Neolithic Age. 

Mr. Evans, in his ** Ancient Stone Implements of Great 
Britain," described flint knives, which he designated as "trim- 
med flakes," strongly resembling those of America, but differ- 
ing in material, and, also, in those of this country being simply 
chipped, while those he mentions were chipped and afterwards 
ground; both neolithic in age. 

Prof. Nilsson, in ** Prehistoric Times," states that many of 
the ancient knives found in the mounds and tumuli of Scandi- 
navia, made of the pure flint of that country, are semi-circular 
in form; some with sharp cutting edges, and others toothed or 
serrated. But in all countries prehistoric stone knives are of 
various forms, ranging from the pointed or dirk class to those 
of the broad, leaf-shaped pattern. 

In the year 1886 the writer succeeded in effecting an 
exchange of specimens with Capt. Fallion, of Melsingborg. 
Sweden, whose splendid collection consists of relics recovered 
from the mounds in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. In many 
respects the stone objects received from him resemble those of 
this country; but in general show more advanced skill in their 
manipulation. The flint there is of purer quality than ours; 
their fishing spears, arrow- points, perforators, and celts more 
finely finished; and many of their granitic axes are perforated 
for the insertion of handles, a type unknown in America. The 
209 specimens I thus secured are a valuable addition to the 
2,000 of my own collecting. 

Messrs. Squier & Davies, in " Ancient Monuments of the 
Mississippi Valley," say that knives of pure flint, and also of 
obsidian, of identical shape with those of Sweden and Norway, 
have been taken out of mounds in Ohio. This fact would 
seem to greatly extend the area of primeval commercial inter- 
course, or give color to the often-repeated legend of the peo- 
pling of North America by tr'bes from the East. 

In Vol. VII. of Lieut. Wheeler's Reports occurs this state- 
ment: 

Prominent among the stone implement finds of the ancient people who 
inhabited the islands off California and the adjacent coast are specimens of 
dagger-like blades, of flint nearly black, measuring from seven to ten 
inches in length, very finely chipped, with sharply defined edges. These 
implements, when compared with typical lance or spear heads found in 
this country, exhibit a noticeable peculiarity, from the fact that the blades 
are thickest in the middle and slope uniformly to the edges, which are very 
sharp and remarkably straight, to be chipped stone. The want of strength 
in such slender blades would seem to forbid their use in warfare in the 
capacity of spear or lance heads, although well adapted for thrusting into 
the body of a man or animal with fatal effect. 

Therefore, for want of a better name, such weapons should 
be designated as knives; probablv used on ceremonial occa- 
sions, or in making sacrifices, as did the Aztec priests before 
the conquest. Occasionally stone knives are found concave on 



8o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

one side and convex on the other; but such are rare, and' 
they do occur the edge is fo und to be on the shorter or convex 
side. In some localities knives of serpentine and of porphyry, 
highly polished, have been unearthed from the mounds, evinc- 
ing the fine artistic skill of their makers; but the so-called 
"skinning knives" were usually wrought from flint, chert, or 
obsidian. A collector in New Jltscv, who has made a specialty 
of .skinning knives, has some axe-shaped, nine inches in 
length, and also smaller ones triangular In form. Some col- 
lectors class the cells, or ungrooved axes, as skinning knives; 
but with little warrant for so doing. 

Mr. Powers figures among the stone weapons from the 
north Pacific coast, two long chipped weapons, pointed at iioth 
ends, one of which is nine inches in length. Thesf were no 
doubt knives, and when in use grasped in the middle. Such 
knives were collected by Paul Schumacher from mounds in 
Oregon, made of jasper and obsidian, measuring from eight to 
fifteen inches in length, and from two to two and a half niches 
wide at the center. 

Knives are the most common of all stone implements found 
in the valley of the Mississippi; and in design and material 
bear strong resemblances to analogous implements found in all 
parts of the world where savage man has lived in a Sli 
showing that uncultured man ev 
expedients to meet similar necc; 
wants of savagir man were cutting 

the most necessary for his very existence. The cutting tool 
was primitive man's indispensible aid in preparing food, cloth- 
ing and shelter (as it is with us); and in wars with each other, 
or in conflicts with wild beasts, was their most convenient and 
efificient weapon. The earlj' people of the Eastern hemisphere 
had. before the beginning of written history, learned the art of 
melting copper, and by compounding it with tin in certain pro- 
portions, making bronze; but the aborigines of America had 
not progressed so far. They did not know that copper could 
be smelted, and, consequently, used it only as a malleable stone, 
beating it with stone hammers into knives and other weapons, 
and also shaping it into ornaments. 

It is well known that marine shells were extensively cm- 
ployed by the American aborigines in the manufacture of ap- 
pliances for fishing; for knives and for other weapons; for 
domestic untensils, and a great variety of ornaments. Early 
voyagers, visiting the American coast, mention the use by the 
natives of various cutting implements made of shell. In his 
"History of Virginia," Strackey informs us that "when the 
omnipotent Powhattan " would punish any notorious enemy 
captured in war, he always tied his victim to a tree and with 
mussel shells, or sharpened reed-s the executioner proceeded 
to cut off his limbs, one aifter another, and cast them in the 
fire, and " with shells and reeds to carve the skin from the vic- 
tim's head and face." Early writers tell us that shell knives 



;rywhere devised the same 

sities. Among the earliest 

nplements, and they were 




PREHISTORIC KNIVES. 8i 

were used by Indian squaws for cutting of their hair, and that 
the Indian warriors used shell knives for scalping their foes. 
The Indians, in preparing a reception feast for Hudson, 
when exploring the bay that bears his name, killed a fat dog 
and skinned it with shells that they used as knives. Beverly, 
in his '* History of Virginia," published in 1723, says that be- 
fore the English supplied the Virginia Indians with metallic 
tools, their knives were either ** sharpened reeds or shells, and 
their axes were sharp stones, bound to the end of a stick and 
glued in with sinews saturated with turpentine, and by the 
help of these tools they made their bows of the locust tree." 
In Prof. Drake's " World Encompassed " (Vol. XVI., p. 74), 
in treating of the tribes of southern South America, the Pat- 
agonians, I think, the author says: '* Their hatchets and knives 
were made of mussel shells that were great and a foot in length, 
ground by great labor to a fine edge and very sharp." 

According to an old publication called Sproat's '* Savage 
Life," shell knives were used by the Indians of Vancouvers 
Island in carving the curious images placed over the graves of 
their deceased relatives. 

Dr. Schliemann found numerous flint knives in the hill of 
Hissarlik in Asia Minor, some with smooth edges, and others 
serrated. These relics were buried at a depth of twenty-three 
feet below the surface. Conected with this find were double- 
edged knives of obsidian, sharp as razors. These ancient im- 
plements bear a very strong resemblance to those found on 
^hc California islands and Pacific slope. In comparing these 
strange and very similar objects, the question of origin of the 
stone clipping art is forcibly presented. Did the primitive 
people of Assyria, Egypt, Scandinavia, and America transmit 
the art one to another; or was it developed by the struggle for 
existence independently in various widely separated localities? 
In view of all the facts before us, we are assured that the 
knife, of stone or shell was one of the most primitive and 
most universally employed appliances of man; and we have 
numerous instances of the survival of its use, made of those 
materials, among a few tribes of savages to a comparatively 
late date. The knife, in some form, was probably the first 
mechanical aid suggested to mankind, and in great diversity 
of design and material it has continued his most convenient 
and efficient implement. 



THE SYMBOL OF THE HAND. 



BY LEWIS W. GUNCKEL. 



was.— Ed.] 



: has been able to explal 



The peculiar weathering wh'ch occurs at the end of what is 
called a " box caflon " (i. e. a canon which comes to a sudden 
«nd. with the two sides closing in), forms generally a large 
cave resembling an amphitheatre, and, when of sufficient size, 
like those of Monarch's Cave, Giant's Cave, and Casa del Echo 
in Utah, the echo is deafening. 

The buildings in these caves are similar to those found on 
the ledges in the cliffs and are generally protected by an out- 
lying wall from one .side of the cave to the other, from four to 
six feet high, pierced with many loop holes and peep holes. 




The walls of the caves are in most cases, covered with paint- 
I ings or chiseled pictographs. We have found red, yellow, 
brown, green, and white paintings of the figures of animals, 
human beings, symbols greatly resembling rude hieroglyphic 
signs and many figures of the human hand. This is one of the 
most perplexing symbols found in this region. We find it in 
almost every cave, and in many cliff- dwell ings, painted or slap- 
ped on by the hand (dipped in the paint previously), in red, 
yellow, brown, green, and while colors. In some of the caves, 
almost a hundred of these symbols may be seen; in others, 
only one or two. What peculiar significance does this symbol 
have? Surely a mere caprice or childish impulse would not be 
BO widely spread over the whole region. 

One day, when returning to camp from one of the side 
canons in Butler's Wash. Utah, tired and thirsty, for water was 



S4 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



peculiarly scarce, we noticed at one place on the bare stone 
wall of the caflon, abtmt eight feet from the ground, a painting 
of the liuman hand in green. We went over to examine it 
more closely and found, much to our surprise and delight, 
directly under it, a small spring of clear cool water, which 
bubbled out from the sand-stone ledge, ran a few feet over the 
groucd and then disappeared again, the dry soil soaking it 
entirely up. Was this peculiar sybmol put there to mark the 
spring? Or was it the silent offering of thanks to some un- 
known deity for the long-wished-for water, so scarce in this 
region? What ever it was, it was always accepted as a good 
omen to our party after that incident, and we almost held it in 
reverencc- 

The symbol of the hand seems to be the most frequent of 
all the pictographs found in this region. It appears also to be 
distributed over a far wider region than this, however. George 
Smith* mentions them in his " Assyran Discoveries"; Lc 
Plongeonf finds them in his explorations among the Mayas 
and Quiches; Stephens J met them often in his travels in Yuca- 
tan, and says of them: ''On the walls of this desolate edifice 
were prints of the ' mano Colorado ' or red hand. Often as 1 
have seen this print, it never failed to interest me. It was % 



THE HAND ON POTTERY VESSELS. 



IS^ 



stamp of the living hand. * * • These prints were larger 
than any I had seen. The Indians said it was the hand of the 
' master of the building.' " The symbol is also a common one 
on the hieroglyphic tablets of Copan and Palenquc. Further 
north it also occurs quite commonly- Mt. Schoolcrafti^ says 
of it: "The figure of the human hand is used by the North 
American Indians to denote supplication to the Deity or Great 
Spirit, and it stands in the system of picture-writing as the sym- 
bol of possession of power and authority." 

In Algiers at a Moorish native dance, on one of the primi- 
tive drum used by the musicians, I saw the symbol of the red 
hand; again in the bazaars I saw gold and silver stick pins of 
the open hand, and again, on being rowed out to the ship. I 
saw that the native boatman had some charm hanging around 
his neck in a small leather bag, on which was the symbol of 
the hand. In Tunis, on the doors of an Arab butcher shop, 
the only sign was two large black hands, and further down the 
street I saw imprints of the hand on the white adobe walls. 

•■■AsiTriMDi.covrric.,'-byG.orgeSimlh. New Voik, iS;;, P^gejig: 
1 " Smcrra Myiuriti of Ih* M>va> >nd (.luichei," by Augustu> Lc PlaDRO 
■BE6. Pii<:4°. 

!"lnsldenisDf Ttmelin Vuc Htm," by John L.SWpheni. Vol, I!.; pk|«4e-7. 
Ibid [ft the ippcndii is Vol. tl. 




I 



I 



THF. EARLIEST CONSTRUCTED DWELLINGS AND 

the' LOCALITY IN WHICH MAN MADE 

HIS FIRST HOME. 

BV STEPHEN DENISON PEET, PH. II. 

Much discussion has taken place concfrning the lucality 
where the human race began its career; in other words, where 
man made his first home. The question is appropriate for us 
to consider in conneciion with the study of the beginnings of 
architecture, for in that locality we would Ijc likely to find the 
earhest specimens, and perhaps be able to identify or discover 
the stages of progress through which architecturL- passed. 
There are various opinions upon the subject, for some have 
maintained that the caves and gravel beds of liurope present 
the earliest or most ancient trace of man, and consider caves 
as being man's first abode. They base their argument upon the 
fact, that, both in the gravel beds and in the lowest layers of 
the cave deposits, the bones of extinct animals are found in 
.issociation with those of man; thus showing thit man made 
his home here at a very early date. Others maintain that the 
first home was in the tropical regions, ;'nd that man at an un- 
known date migrated to Europe, when its climate was warmer 
than it is now, and when the tropical animals were present 
there. The argument has been recently strengthened by the 
discovery uf certain bones by Dr. Dubois in the Island of Java, 
which he claims were the bones of a human bemg; or if not. 
the bones of a creature that represented the missing link 
between man and the lower animals, which he calls the 
Pithecoid Man. 

Even those who are uncertain as to this discovery hold, 
that the tropical regions were the earliest abode of man, and 
that there he made his first home in the tree tops; the abund- 
ance of wild animals compelling him to resort to such places 
for the sake of safety. These fortify their position by main- 
taining that man orginally was arboreal in his habits, and con- 
tinued a long time in this condition, as there was no necessity 
in those regions for him to construct a house for himself. 

The argument is a good one, so far as it goes, and appears 
to be confirmed by tradition. The students of scripture can- 
not particularly object to it, as the Bible itself represents the 
first "pair" as dwelling in ihe "Garden," feeding upon the 
fruit that grew upon the frees, and apparently had no house in 
which they lived, A natural conclusion is that this Eden was 
in a warm cHm^ite and in a region where nature was lavish with 
her products. Moreover, the pen of inspiration incidently 
brings in the fact that the very animal which would be the 



86 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

greatest source of danger to man in such regions was present 
in the ■' Garden," and was the lemptL-r of the " First Pair." 

The picture is a graphic one and true to nature. There Is. 
to be sure, a mora! element brought into the record which 
science docs not always recogni/e, and jet this may be correct. 
notwithstanding our theories as to the original character of man. 

It is very remarkable that the latest discoveries of science 
confirm this view. Mr- A. H. Keane, the author of "Man: 
Past and Present," in speaking of the cradle of the Caucasian 
Race, says: 

Where have we to seek the primeval homes ot this most vigorous and 

dominant branch of the human lamily? No Hnal answer can yet be given, 
but this much may be said, that Africa north oi Soudan corresponds bett 
with all ibe known conditions. Here were found in quarlernary limes all 
the physical elements which ^eologisis demand for great special growth: 
ample space, a favorable climate and abundance of food, besides continU' 
ous land connecuon at two or three points across the Mediterranean by 
which the pleistocene faunas moved freely between the Iwo continents. At 
an altitude of probably over 3,ooo feel the Sahara must havo enjoyed an 
almost ideal climate, during late pliocene and pleistocene times, when 
Europe was exposed to more than one glacial invasion and to a large extern 
covered at long intervals by a successions of solid ice caps. 

We now know that these stony and sandy wastes were traversed in all 
directions by great rivers, such as the Massarawa trending south to the 
Niger, or the Igharghar flowing north to the Mediterranean: and thai these 
now drv beds may atjll be traced for hundreds of miles by chains of pools 
or lakelets, by long eroded valleys, and by other indications of the actions 
of running waleri^. Nor '•ould there be any lack of vegelation or animal 
life in a favored region, which was thus abundantly supplied with natural 
irrigation arteries, while the tropical heals were tempered bv grcal eleva- 
tion and, at times, by the refieshing breezes from sub-Arctic tlurope. 

From these well-watered and fertile lands, some of which continued 
even in Roman times to be the granary of the Empire, came that succes- 
sion of southern animals — hippoiamus. rhinocerous, elephant, and lion, 
which made Europe seem like a ''zoological appendix ol Africa." In 
association with this fauna came primitive man himself, whose remains 
from ihe Nearderthal, Spv. La Naulette. La Denise, llrux. Podbaba, Men- 
tone, perhaps Galley Hill I Kent) show that the substratum of the 
European population was of North African origin.* 

Dr. John Evans, also, in his Montreal address in '97, main- 
tained that the region along the Indian ocean further east than 
Africa showed traces of man's presence, which antedated any- 
thing which was found in Europe. From this we judge that 
the constructed dwellings of a rude kind may have preceded 
the cave dwellings, which have been studied so carefully and 
have yielded so many relics. It is not unlikely that there was 
considerable advancement in art. and that the drawings found 
in caves and which represent animals, both of the tropical a 
Arctic regions, were made by people who had dwelt in / ' ' 
or, po.ssibly, Asia; and had migrated to Europe before tb 
Glacial Period, If we were to search (or the remains of theq 
houses we should fail to find them, as they were all of l 
perishable character. 




I 

I 

I 



THE tARLIFST CONSTRUCTKU DWELLINGS. 87 

The history of man, as a house builder and architect, will 
probably be found to begin in Africa, or in India, and continue 
afterward in Europe and America; the historic age in Asia 
overlapping the prehistoric age in Europe. There are places 
in India where men and women dwell in trees— rude huts hav- 
ing been erected in the tree tops^while elephants and other 
animals still roam upon the land below. 

Mr, A. H. Keanc speaks ot the same custom as prevailing 
in Africa. He says; 

In the wooded disiricis some of ihc natives have revetted to arboreal 
babits.takios refuge during ihe raids, in the branches of huge bamboo trees, 
converted into lemporarv strongholds. Around the vertical stems of these 
forest giants, is erected a breast-high lookout, while the higher horizontal 
branches, less exposed to the fire of the enemy, support nuts and store- 
bouses, where the family of the fugitives take refuge, with all their effects, 
including, as Nachli^al assures us, I heir domestic animals, such as goats, 
do;s, and poultry. During the siege of the aerial fortress, which is often 
successfully delended, long, light ladders of withes are let down at night, 
when no attack need be feareil, and the supply of water and provisions Is 
thus renewed from caches or hiding places round about In 1873, Nachtlgal 
accompanied a predatory excursion to the Pagan districts, when an attack 
was made on one of these tree* fortresses.* 

Mr. H, H Bancroft speaks of some of the inhabitants of 
the Isthmus of Panama as dwelling in tree-tops. He says; 

The rich and marshy tiamre of the soil semis forth Immense palm trees, 
ju the branches of which Ihe natives huild their houses, thus obtaming a 
purer air and greater sateiy from the numerous wild animals and danger- 
ous reptiles that infest that reginn. Cotion textures and the bark of a cer- 
tain tree were the materials used bvihe Isthmians tn cover ibeir nakedness, 
if, indeed, they covered it at all. When cotton was used, the costume was 
simply a small strip of cloth, which both men and women wound round 
their loins, the women pass It between their legs and fasten it with ,1 string 
around the waist. 

In Costa Kica. many of the natives live in small huts built of plaited 
rushc!'. The old Milanese chronicler, Benzoni, describes the dwelling of a 
cacique and snys, it was shaped like an egg and was forty-hve paces in 
length and nine in breadth: the sides were of reeds and the roof of palm 
leave~, all interlaced and well executed. 

Padre Zapeda, a Jesuit, in 1750, in speaking of 
says; that when the rains commerce they construct sn 
where Ihev live safe from the danger of floods. In 
'coast of Darien. the villages are built on the water, 
banks of rivers, and many of them are spacious and constructed with great 
skill. The supporting posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm trees. 
Three or four ol these are driven into the ground at equal distances, pro- 
portioned according to the intended length of the house, and across the 
lop is laid the ridge-pole; the whole is theti covered with palm leaves, lioth 
roof and sides. Other houses ate plastered inside and outside with mud, 
and these have a flooring of open bamboo- work, raised six or eight feet from 
the ground. The dwellings are divided Into two or more rooms, having no 
doors lo the entrances, which are reached by ladders. Sometimes the 
house is built without walls, in which case, the roof descends be\ov the 
level of the lloor. and the structure is left open at both ends, having the 
appearance of an elevated platform. 

During the expedition ot Caspar de F.spinosa in 1517. Diego dc 
Albilet. who invaded the province of a cacique named Tabraba, some dis- 
tance southwest from Panama, found the inhabitants protected by strong 



'ns and giirdens, 
huts in the trees, 
my parts, on the 



88 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fortifications. Their forts are built with much skill. The ground is 
enclosed by h deep trench, upon the inner biink of which trees are planted, 

and the interstices filled up with logs and rocks. In many pail» «f the 
country the Inhabitants were found living in the lops of trees, like birds. 



laying sticks a 

In i8i2, Vasi 
mouth of the Riv 






: branrh to another, and building (heir hou;e 
I the 



o Nunez de Balboa surveyed several channel' 
r Alrato, in quest of gold and plunder. The surruunu- 
ing country was low and marshy, hut the soil sent forth immerse palm 
trees, in tne branches of which the natives built Iheir houses Vasco 
Nunez, entering an affluent of the Rio Negro, discovered a large tree-lop 
village, the name of whose ruler was Abieiba. The bouses were divided 
into several apartments, each of a stie sufficient to accomodate several 
families. They were built of wood and willows, and were so pliable and 
yet so strong, thai the swaying too and fro of the branches, to which the 
elastic tenement yielded, did not in the least interfere wiih the safety of the 
occupants. Ladders, made of a single large bamboo split in two, were used 
Jn making the ascent and descent. These were drawn up at night, or in 
case of the invasion of an enemy, 

On the coast uf Veragua, Columbus discovered similar dwellings, and 
he said he could not account for ihe custom, unless it was through fear of 
griffins, which abound in that country; or of enemies, each tribe bejn|{ at 
war with every other tribe (along the coast. The true cause, however, of 
their taking lo trees for places of residence, is to place themselves beyond 
the reach o( sudden and violent Hoods, which are cau.»eil by the swelling of 



This description of the tree-top houses illustrates the 
habits of priniilive man. but suggests the thought that there 
were jjreal resemblances between man and llie lower aniitials. 
The same thought has been shrewdly set forth bj- various 
wriltrs In fact it is a favorite theory with some, that man 
began his career as a tree-climber, rather than as a cave- 
dweller, and so shows his descent from the climbing animals, 
such as the anthropoid or monkey. It must be noticed, how- 
ever, that primitive man adapts himself to the surroundings 
in an intelligent manner and is not altogether dependent upon 
nature to provide for him. If he is in the tropical regions, 
where clolhing is unnecessary, he goes nearly naked, except as 
he decorates his person with some kind of ornament, such as 
n necklace of animal teeth, a head-dress of feathers, a girdle 
of shells, a short garment of fringe, anklets and wristlets of 
metal. But in colder climales he puts on the skins of the 
fur bearing animals, and imitates these animals in their 
habits of burrowing into the niches of the rocks, or making 
the caves a dwelling place. This resemblance to tht animals 
is also manifest in the fact that certain animals go in pairs and 
have separate abodes, while others go in herds and arc seldom 
found separate frcim their species. The same is true of man. 
for in certain localities we find the family making a home for 
themselves; in other cases we find the clan predominant, the 
homes or houses being clustered into villages which arc the 
abodes of the clan. 



THE EARLlflST CONSTRUCTED DWELLINGS. 89 

Gibbon,* the famous historian, has shrewdly remarked that 
ihe savage tribes of mankind, as they approach nearer to the 
condition of animals, preserve a stronger resemblance to 
the animals and to each other. The uniform stability of their 
manner is the natural consequence of the imperfection of their 
faculties; reduced to a similar situation their wants and their 
enjoyments would continue the same. 

There is, however, this difference between man and animals: 
animals never will go beyond the ordinary powers which are 
bestowed upon them by nature, but always follow the instincts 
which they have inherited; while man starting out with the 
same gifts and, perhaps, the same inherited instincts, begins to 
make progress in house-building and tool-making, and goes on 
from that point indefinitely, leaving the signs of progress in 




the structures which he has erected. Man is, to be sure, in- 
fluenced by his surroundings. If he is living in a cold climate 
he will not only dress in skins and furs, but will make warmth 
his first object in seeking a home for himself, and will resort to 
caves, or will excavate a place in the ground and build a rude 
structure over it. which he will cover with earth, timber, or 
Stone. But if he is in a hot climate, he will build a house in 
the tree-tops, or construct a platform above the waLer, where 
the air is cool, and where there is freedom from insects. Some- 
times he will even erect high platforms of earth and stone 
on which he will place his habitation. Illustrations of this 
may be found in many localities and in different periods- 

In reference to early man in Europe, the impression is that 
he was a troglodyte and associated with wild animals, but 
made some progress in manufacturing and using tools; but had 




90 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

not learned his first lesson in house building. No such creature 
has ever been discovered in America. 

The archjEologists have built up a theory as to the delay of 
architectural skill, and have imagined that a whole period had 
elapsed between the befjinnings of art, and the beginnings of 
architecture. The fact, however, that wooden tiouses, brush 
shelters, huts made from reeds and poles, booths constructed 
for shade, thatched huts and other structures made from 
perishable material are so common among the rude tribes of 
Amcrica^all of whom are in the Slonc Age — would indicate 
that man adapted himself to his surroundings, both in his art 
and architecture, and made a virtue of necessity. 

There are different stages of progress in house building, 
even in America, but these stages follow the different belts of 
latitude, and advance from the colder to the warmerclimate; 
the highest specimens being found in the tropical regions, 
which would seem to prove directly the opposite to that which 
has been already asserted. Two processes must, then, be consid- 
ered. One of them is the result of environment; the other, of 
progress. Man, in his lower condition, provides for himself 
only that which is necessary; but, in his higher state, he un- 
consciously enters into different stages of advancement and 
surmounts necessity by convenience, and uses his inventive 
skill to provide for himself luxury and elegance. In the be- 
ginning the struggle to gain the bare requisites of life was 
hard enough, but aft^r a certain point was reached, there was 
rapid progress toward a higher stage. This progress is mani- 
fest, as we have said, in two different lines: the geographical 
and the chronological. The geographical is especially mani- 
fest in America, the chronological in Europe. The chrono- 
logical line is the most difficult to trace, and yet has been 
studied more closely, though there are many points which 
remain to be cleared up by the study of the geographical line. 

We have already established the fact that man began his 
architectural career before the Cave-Dwelling Period. In 
reference to the Cave Period, we are led to say that there was 
not as much growth in architecture, as in the period which pre- 
ceded, or in that which followed; for man depended upon 
Nature to provide a shelter for him, as well as a protection from 
the wild animals. Still, there is a record of progrcs.'^ even in 
the caves. In the the first place, man, instead of taking ihe 
low, dark caves which have narrow entrances, such as were the 
favorite resorts of the beasts, chose those which were high and 
well lighted and were comparatively easv of access. In the 
next place, he lighted a fire and conked his food, either in the 
cave or at the mnuth of it, a thing which he could not do in 
the houses which were built upnn the trfe top=. In the third 
place, he made a record for himself in the relics and remains 
which were deposited in the caves. This record in Europe 
goes back to a very carh* period, but is fi^llowed by a complete 
series, which lead up to historic times. The same is true, also, 



THE KARLIEST CONSTRUCTED DWELLINGS. 91 

of some parts of Africa, though no such continuous record is 
found in America. 

A reference to the recent discoveries will be appropriate 
here. Mr. George Leith found in Cape Colony and on the 
south coast of Africa and in the Transvaal, caves, rock shelters, 
a massive relic of an old cave floor, shell mounds, kitchen mid- 
dens, mines, gravels, brick earth, special implements, which 
together make a complete record of man's progress from the 
jPaleolithic to the Neolithic Age, up to the Historic Period. 
These, with the discoveries by Mr. J. A. Beat in Mashonaland, 
make Africa a very interesting field. 

Mr. Leith visited one cave which was occupied by three 
Hottentots, who presented a picture of prehistoric man at 
home. They were naked to the waist; one being engaged in 
Scaring the meat off of a bone with his teeth; the others being 
busy helping themselves from a pot standing between them. 
He discovered in another cave what is called "bone splinters." 
On the shore were shell mounds which contained corn, grind- 
ing stones, and perforated digging stones, also axe-shaped 
%oo1s, showing that the people had reached the agricultural 
^tage. The rough stone deposit depots of the mining districts, 
five the opinion that mining was here, at least two or three 
-thousand years old, and that waves of foreign nations — 
Phojnicians, Moors, Indians, Portugese — had all in turn visited 
that empire through the centuries. 

This record in South Africa is certainly very different from 
"that given by the caves of America; for the first begins with 
the Paleolithic Age, and shows the changes which occurred 
-during that and the Neolithic Age, and continued into historic 
times; while the latter gives only a view of the one age, viz.; 
the Neolithic. 

It will be understood that Kuropean caves were inhabited by 
man several thousand years before he appeared in America, at a 
time when he associated with animals, and was not very different 
from them in habits or appearance. No such troglodyte has, 
however, been found in America; for, notwithstanding the 
belief that man began his career on this continent in an early 
geological period, and passed through all the stages of social 
development and progress here, in parallel lines with man in 
Other countries; yet, as a matter of fact. Neolithic Man was 
the first to make his appearance here, and that, too, as a house 
builder, rather than as a cave-dweller or troglodyle. Many of 
the caves in the Western part of America are filled with houses 
which the so-callad Cliff-Dwellers had erecled, which are as 
well, built as those upon the mesas, showing that the caves 
were resorted to for the purpose of defense, and by people 
who were quite far advanced in the art of house building; in 
fact, had reached a high stage of architecture before these 
caves were occupied at all. 

There are, to be sure, caves scattered over the differ- 
ent parts of the continent; some of them in Pennsylvania, 



I ent I 



92 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Kentucky, and Tennessee ; others in Arizona and New Mexico 
and the Northwest coast and Central America. But all of 
them, so far as they havL- been explored, present neolithic 
relics, and show that man was in the neolithic stage of progress. _ 

A very marked distinction can be drawn between thaJ 
layers which contained the bones of extinct animals and lhos« 
which contained the relics of man. ™ 

Mr. Dall maintains that there was a people on the North- 
west coast, who preceded the Cave- Dwellers, and were, perhaps, 
at a lower stage. He calls them littoral or shore people, but 
Mr, II. C. Mercer, who has explored various caverns in I'ennsy- , 
Ivani.i, and the valley of the Ohio, as well as caves in Centra"' 



^ 




America, has shown that the people wlm tniiabiied the 
immigrMMis, and at once introduci d into ihe caves the i 
the New Stone Age. 

Mr. Mercer, in speaking of the advantages of cave e 
tions as throwing light on ihe history of man, says: 

In outer fields of mvesligatinn the clues were disjoinled and scallered 
the buried city, the mound, the lake dwelling, the 'juarry, excavated 
ally, failed to tell cerlainly wh ich, among many sites, was Ihe oldest. But. 
in a cave^Cormed by nature for man, often before he appeared upon thl 
scene, lasting as long as be lasted, and where the halting ground, litnltf ' 

by rock walls, light and darkness, had remained the : --'--"--' 

the whole archsological problem was buried in one s , 

Continued investigation has established Ihe fad that, of searching- 
grounds known to archeology, caves best answer the question which lies ai 
the bollom of the science, namely, the question of sequence which camt 
first and which next? When and where was the beginning, middle and 
end of the story? 



J 

:lics (dH 



But._ 




A 



THE EARLIEST CONSTXl.CI EU DWELLINGS. 



93 



We fancy ihc bone-carving Eskimo — ihe descendant of the French 
fare man— coming lo America from Europe, across a pre-glacial isihmus 
in the North AlUmic. We discuss the probability o( Asiatics brini;in(t 
jade to Central America; of Polynesians drifting to Peru in canoes: of 
Caribs coming over the Eastern .Sea: "f Mayas wandering to Alhcabv way 
<if the sunken ■'Atlantis." Still in the; dark as lo these simple questions, 
ethnology searches tor an answering refereoce in the \\fe and customs ol 
^xistin^ savage peoples; while archa:i>logy studies mounds, ransacks vil- 
Sa^e sites and graves, and photographs ruins, 6lling museums with the 

But we are learning that Ihere are caves in Pennsylvania and West 
"^'■rgtnia full nf a new and valuable evidence, and that the limestone ot 
eastern Tennessee is honey-combed with caverns which contain hearths 
^nd midden heaps, to testify lo the true relation o[ peoples and the time of 
.Kuan's first coming to the Eastern region. As far as examined, this evi- 
«dence has repeated itself and tallied with cave evidence in other parts of 
-^he world, so strengthening the inference that all savage peoples every- 
■^Bvhere, when confronted with convenient natural shelters, have gone into 
-^heni and left their trace there, (hat the question of man's antiquity in easl- 
'^ern North America seems in a fair way i)( being settled. 

Two years' study of caves in Ohiir and Tennessee valleys has simpli- 
^Fied the inquiry. A series of excaviilions at the Lookout and Nickajack 
^Ezaves in Tennessee, at Hariman's Cave in Pennsylvania, at Thompson's 
^Shelter in ^'irginia, at Cave-in-Kock in Indiana, and at Lake's Cave in 
^Kentucky had brouKhl us within reach of a solution For the North Ameri- 
can problom. It h;id fallen to my lot, in the late autumn of l8i>4. to search 
Mn human traces in the bone cave at Port Kennedy. Montgomery Coiintv. 
-fennsylvania, The bunes uf an unfamiliar race of extinct animals, rcpie- 
:^Dted by the sloth, the tapir, horse, and mastodon, had been ground lo 
-^lowder, or broken and deposited in siiaiified beds, and their appearance 
.Kave evidence of a tloofl, yet unexplained, that had overwhelmed the crea- 
"Vuret, when their day had come, or wliirled in destructive torrents their 
"whileniag skeletons. Once for all Ihe contested question of the antiouiiy 
«f the human race in North America would have been settled at this place. 
"hud we found in the interhedded layers, forty live feel below the surface, a 
jiiSper Jchip, arrow-head, hainmer-Blone, or polsheid, to ros'ivelv connect 
the fossils with the presence of man. We had clearlv gone hack one kco- 
togical step, and in some degree understood how and when those pleistocene 
l»vers, which we' had as yei (ailed to tind in other caves, might be searched 



Mr. Mercer puts the subject in the right light, for it 
remained still uncertain whether man in America was ever 
associated with the extinct animals. The celebrated caverns, 
hke the Mammoth Cave, the Grotto in Ktyria in Ohio, and 
that called Wyandotte in southern Indiana, if they had shown 
any relics of man. contained no bones of extinct animals. The 
caves which Mr. Mercer explored showed a distinct dividing 
line between the animal remains and the human relics. It was 
owinf; to this uncertainty that he undertook the expedition to 
Yucatan and began exploring the caves there. 

It is very remarkable that his explorations resulted in 
proving that man in America was considerably advanced in 
the very beginning; and that his art and architecture were 
both superior to Ihe earliest man in Europe. In fact, the 
:all the troglodyte has not been found in 



creature v 
America; 



ithe 



mtrary, the caves were occupied by those 




94 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

who lived upon the surface and built houses of various shapes 
and kinds, and only resorted to the caves for temporary 
shelter, or for the purpose of getting water. Mr. Mercer, in 
one cave, dug down fourteen feet through different layers and 
reached the rock, and settled one important point: that no 
human trace, no blackened film, showing the coming and going 
of man on an earlier cave floor, existed below the limit of the 
hearth deposit encountered near the surface. No fossil man 
antedating the maker of the superficial rubbish, by a geological 
epoch, had been found in the cave. 

Of all the underground shelters yet seen in Yucatan, the 
one at Loltun was best fitted to answer the question. He says: 

The secret o£ Ihe ruins, Ihe chronology of Ihe Mayas, ihe clue lo ihe 
Paleolithic savage lay buried beneath out feet. Either we should find 
something new there, or there was nothing new to find In Eastern Yucatan. 
The other caves had left us in doubt. Now, at last, the great question 
seemed settled, and we have a chain ot evidence, without missing or 
broken links. The bottom of Layer three marked the line of human ittter- 
ference in the cave earth. Taking the whole culture-layer into considera- 
tion, its contents, in comparison with objects found al the ruins, indicated 
the handiwork of one and the same people. Neither here, nor anywhere 



^t==,#=j^^,^ 



CAVE OF LOLTUN. YUCATAN. 

else, had we found tokens of a tribe or race of cave-dwellers. As in other 
cases, the Are builder appeared to have been a visitor. His visits may have 
lengthened into longer haltings as lime went on. He may have wailed on 
occasions for religious purposes, cr to cook food: but bis main object was 
lo get water and go awav. 

When all was summed up, the study of the trench indicated once more 
that the first comers to ihe cave were pioneer hands of Mayas. Discover- 
ing the cave in their search lor water, they had built hres upon the floor. 
At last we had evidence clear and lull to verify the work done at Oxkinlok. 
What we now knew, none oC ihe other caves contradicted, and there was 
liitle room left for doubt. A people, generally identical with the builders 
of the ruins bad come to the citve . 

Reaching Ihe region in geologically modern limes, and alwais asso- 
ciated with still existing aninnals. they' had not developed their culture 
ihrre. but had brought it with Ihem. No human visitor had preceded 

This, then, confirms what was said before. The caves in 
America were occtipied by those who had built their houses 



THE EARLIEST CONSTRUCTtD DWELLINGS. g; 

upon the surface, but who temporarily resorted to the caves; 
to those in Yucatan for water. 

The original immigrants could not have found a satisfactory 
supply on the surface, but it is certain that they must have 
ransacked the caves and have searched until they found water. 
This is confirmed by Stephens, who h;is given an account of 
several of these caves and describes the ladders which were 
used to go down into them. It is to be noticed, however, that 
the caves were used for this purpose by the poor people, and 
that artificial tanks and reservoirs were constructed by the rich, 
who built their palaces and temples, as the ruins of many of 
these tanks are still preserved. The cisterns have been 
searched and found to contain many interesting specimens of 
art, nnd so we learn from them the stage of advancement 
which had been reached. The relics found in the cisterns or 
tanks were generally of a superior character to those found in 
the caves. 

This shows the difference between the caves of Europe and 
those of America. Those in Europe were generally perma- 
nent abodes and were occupied through successive periods of 
time, and present a great variety of relics and no architectural 
features. On the olher hand, those in America were resorted 
to as temporary abodes, or, if permanently occupied, they 
always present some architectural features, as well as art 
products, which show that they were quite advanced in culture 
and architectural skill. We , give two cuts to illustrate this 
point. 

The first one represents the cave at Wurtemberg, called 
Hohlefels. There are no signs of a human habitation around 
it. It is not. a rock shelter or a grotto, but a real cave, about 
100 feet high, including some lateral galleries. Several species 
of bears, including the cave bear, the reindeer, the wild horse, 
cave lion, and human bones, bearing unmistakable traces of 
ha\ing been gnawed by wild beasts. The tools are stone arti- 
cles and were the simple tools for fashioning the articles of 
horn and bone. It appears, also, that the exceedingly primi- 
tive people were acquainted with the manufacture of pottery, 
but they were deficient in mechanical skill, for there were 
hardly any well-defined tools or weapons. It was evidently 
the home of the troglodytes. 

The cave of Loltun, represented next, contrasts with that 
at Wurtemberg in all particulars. There were no bones of 
extinct animals. Their pottery was of a high order. There is 
at present a native hut just above the entrance, which shows 
the kind of houses which were built and occupied at the time 
the cave was resorted to for water. This hut is a typical one 
of the natives, and seems to have been the primitive house of 
the Mayas. There are representations of just such huts carvel 

into the fa<;ades of the palaces, suggesting that there was a 

■ sacredness to them as the abodes of their ancestors. ^^1 



g6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. ^^^H 

We now pass from the study of tlie caves, and take up the ' 
various structures which appeared during the next period- The 
pfculiarities of that period were, that the animals, which 
abound at present, had made their appearance, and that the 
extinct animals were for the most part liuried beneath the sur- 
fare. In fact there was a change from the Paleolithic to the 
Neolithic Age. It is held by the European .1 re h geologists that 
there wore no constructed dwellings before the Neolithic Age 
came in, and though man may have existed in the tropical regions, 
he was not a house builder. This conchision would make the 
succession of people to begin with the cave-dwellers; but 
would place the beginnings of architecture subsequent to them. 

The fact is, however, that man, during the cave period, made 
very considerable progress in art, and the question is. whether 
he ] ad not acquired some skill in architecture also. As a 
matter of convenience, we may begin the series with the cave- 
dwellers or troglodytes, making them constitute one class; the 
people who left the kitchen raiadens another class, those who 
built the mounds the third class; those who erected the stone 
monument.s a fourth; those who constructed the great circles 
a fifth, and those who built the great lowers the sixth. We must 
remember, however, that some of the mounds were erected at 
the very time that the kitchen middens were deposited, and 
some of the shell heaps were formed while the people were 
occupying caves, and that the .series overlapped one another 
throughout the entire prehistoric period. We cannot make 
any hard and fast lines between them. It should be also said 
Ih;it the character of the abodes depended upon the locality, 
for those who dwelt among the mountains might be occupying 
caves long aftt-r those who dwelt by the rivers, or on the sea- 
coast, had built their huts and had begun to deposit their shell 
heaps, The fishermen on the seacoast may, also, have con- 
tinued their employment long after the people of the interior 
had begun to erect mounds for themselves, the dwellings and 
burial places of the two classes var\ ing according to circum- 
Hlani-cs, 

We niust remember, also, that the occupations and modes 
of Nubsislence of the people were influei:ced by their surround- 
ings. As at the present lime, so in prehistoric times: the fish- 
ermen occupied the seacoast. the hunters the forest, the herds- 
men the plains, and the agriculturalists the rich valleys; all 
may have been conlemporantous. If we go further and take 
In 1I.C whole history of man, we shall find that this distinction 
according to time is .somewhat misleading, tor there were fi.sh- 
ermrii on the seacoast of America long after the time of its 
dificovcry. There are at the present day hunters living in 
camp* m the the forests of America; people in the Philippines, 
_r|r«cmMinR the l.ake-Dwellers. who live in houses built over 
WHtcr, And others, who build towers on the seacoast to be 

Tu ■ "'*^'' '''""■'■s. or signal stations. 

I he history of architecture is to be written after we have 



th< 
usc<l 



THE EARLIEST CONSTRUCTPIU DWELLINGS. 97 

examined these, and have compared them wilh the remains of 
structures which belonged to the prchislori: limes. 

Let us now turn to the shell heaps and consider their char- 
acter and distribution. We begin with those on the coast of 
Denmark, for they were the first to be studied, and are perhaps 
the most ancient, and so may be supposed to have presented 
the earliest constructed dwellings. They contain evident 
remains of hearths, scattered potsherds, and traces of charcoal 
and ashes; millions of shells of eaten oysters, mussels, and 
snails, as well as countless bones of wild beasts. These are 
for the most part found near the sea coast and were left by 
those who were both fishermen and hunters. They are marked 
by rings or depressions, which show the sitfis occupied by the 
ancient huts. These were surrounded by the remains of the 
feasts which were gathered from the sea and thrown upon the 
shore, technically called the kitchen middens, though they are 
virtually nothing more nor less than shell heaps; among which 
was scattered the refuse from the kitchen or rude fires in 
which the lood was cooked. A large number of these shell 
heaps found on the sea coast of Denmark and Sweden were 
examined by the Swedish naturalists, and were found to con- 
tain the bones of animals ;ind relics which point to the close 
of an early age. Mr. J. J. A. Worsaae says of the.se: 

With the excep- 
tion oE occasional 
rare dUcoverles of 
mixed or iransitional 
objects, the contents 
of the refuse heaps 




: kitcher 



midder 



coasts, and fjords, 
present a hving pic- 
ture of ahuntingand 
fishing people, clad 
in skins alone. For 
a long time, without 
the slii;hiest change, 
developmenl.orleast 

metal. they continued 
to stand on the same 
low level as at their 
lirst arrival. The west coast of Jutland offered in amber, a material else. 
where early used for all sorts of trinkets. The first inhabitants of Denmark, 
or of Southwest Scandanavia, are. therefore, to be compared most closely 
with the long-vanished savage races, which formed corresponding refuse 
heaps on the coast of (apan and America, especially along (he river mar- 
gins of the latter; or, wilh the partlv still existing people In South America. 
oR the coasts of japan, and in the South Seas, who support themselves in 
the san.e way on shell-tish fishing and hunting,* 

Shell heaps are numerous on the sea coasts of nearly all 
northern countries. There are very (ew specimens of archi- 
tecture in them, for such buildings as once stood in their midst 



q8 



THE AMERICAN' ANTUJLARIAN. 



have long since perished. Still, as we examine ilie contents, 
we conclude that lliere was a rude type of architecture, c 
in the most ancient, and a more perfect type in the modern 
heaps. A study of the relics contained in them reveals the 
fact that primitive man was a fisherman, as well as a hui 
for a large number of the remains of shellfish and the bones of 
wild animals are found in them, as well as many fishhooks, 
stone spear-heads, and other relic.,. That he was already a fisher- 
man and hunter is shown by the pictographs and carvings found 
in the caves of Europe, for there are many figures of seals, dol- 
phins, eels, fish, and occasionally of harpoons; also, the rein- 
deer, the wild horse, and the ox, with the hunter in the midst 
of the animals. 

These shell heaps at the North continued to be occupied by 
fishermen, and the people remained in about the same condi- 
tion, dwelling in their rude huts and drawing their subsi.slence 
from the sea. using implements of stone, wood, and bone; 
while the people at the South advanced from the condition of 
fishermen and hunters to that of agriculturists, their house- 
building keeping pace with their progress in other respects. 
In fact, we find the Stone Age continued at the North, after 
the Bronze .^ge appeared at the South. 

The kitchen middens have been found in Terra del Fuego, 
Brazil, in Japan near Omori, between Yokohama and Tokio, 
and in the Andaman Islands. Mr. Archibald Blair says: 

The natives of the Great Andaman Island are probably in the rudest 
state of any rational animals which are to be found; both sexes go perfecttr 
naked; have no other houses tha-n small hulsor sheds, about four feet high^ 
They depend principally on shell fish for ttieir subsislunce. Their greatest 
stretch of ingenuity ajjpears in the cnnsiruelion of their traws, arrows, listt 
g\gi, and small nets The only apoearance of their civilization is their be- 
ing formed inlo small societies and some attention bem^' paid to a chiel, 
who, with his family, arc generally painted red.* 

The art of navigation may be supposed to have been in- 
augurated at the time these kitchen middens were formed and 
continued throughout the whole period. Probably boat building 
continued to improve even while the people were fishermen, at 
least we find some of the best models of the boats on the 
Northwest coast, in the same region where shell heaps are 
numerous. As a general rule, we may say that the houses 
kept pace with the boats, the people improved in both respects. 
We find, also, village life advancing and the organization of 
society improved. There is a contrast between fishing and 
hunting in this respect. Hunting demands large tracts of 
country and frequent change of habitation, the same as does 
the pursuit of cattle breeding. On the other hand, fishing, 
like agriculture, leads naturally to a sedentary life and favors 
the village organization, As a matter of fact, we find that the 
art of carving advanced among the fishermen of the North- 



THE EARLIEST CONbTRUCTtlU 1>\VELLINGS. (» 

west coast more rapidly tlian amont; the Cliff-DweDers and 
Pueblos of the interior, and the covenienccs and comforts of 
homf life were quite equal to those enjoyed by people who had 
Jong been agriculluraliats; in fact, there are settlements on the 
coast of Florida which present an immense quantity of shells, 
wrhich were made to piotect embanktnents and earthworks, be- 
Isind which whole villages were erected, a marvelous stage of 
architecture and of 
engineering being 
manifest in them. 
We have only to re- 
fer to the discoveries 
made by Mr. Frank 
H. Cusliing on the 
islands, to show that 
the fishermen -here, 
were quite as far ad- 
vanced as the Lake- 
the description of these 
to mind the tact that 




according to thei 



iiployments, as 



■"^■^ell as their surroundings. Fishermen and sea-faring people 
'^^M.re better navigators and build better boats than agriculturists. 
Perhaps the best place for the study of kitchen middens 
^^^ftad the architecture exhibited by them, is to be found along 
"»:zhe Pacific coast from California to Oregon and further north, 
^^lere we find the kit- 
^czhen middens con- 
^^nected with harbors 
^^nd canals on the 
^czoasl, with villages 
^d»n the mesas or rocks 
s^bove the coast, with 
'^he ancient mines, 
-^trhere ollas and 
^tone vessels were 
secured, which are 
^o numerous in Cali- 
'Sornia- There are 
wot many remains of 
iKtats, but there arc 
many sites of vil- 
lages that are marked by a great number of relics. An intcr- 
«sting place for the study of kitchen middens is found on 
the coast of California, on the islands of San Miguel. Santa Rosa. 
Santa Catalina. and others, Tfie Island of Santa Catalina 
was discovered by Cabrillo in 1542, and belongs to James Lick. 
It was explored by Mr. Schumacher in 1875, and described by 
him in the Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geo- 
graphical Survey. Vol. III. 

It appears from his account that the kitchen middens of 




GROU.VD PLAN OF KLAMATH DWELLING. 



100 THtl AMEKICAN ANTIQUARIAX. 

California were connected with pueblos and of a comparatively 
modern date, and differ from the ordinary kilclien middens of 
Europe, which are supposed to be very ancient. There arc, 
however, localities where remains of houses of a primitive 
lype were discovered. Mr. Schun.acher says: 

We found in a mound whnle bones, IndtCiiling the last resting place of 
■hose that accumulaied the kitchen stuff, but by digging into it we louod 
the ribs of whales l-j be the remains ol houses, rathtr than the maiks of 
];raves. They were planted in a circle and their natural curve so adjusted 
as to form the frame of a hui. in shape nut unlike a bee-hivr, which was in 
e well rteserved.* 



Mr. Schumacher explored kitchen middens on the coast of 
Orefion which seemed to be the site of an old deserted Indian 
town, the kitchen lefusc consisting of all kinds of shells and 
a great many bones of elk and deer, and averaging about eight 
feet in depth. Houses were discovered which resembled those 
occupied by Klamath Indians. 

We reproduce two cuts from Mr. Schumacher's report as 
an illustration of the manner of constructing hvits among the 
Klamath Indians; also, a cut which represents the depressions 
in the shell heaps, caused by the huts which have been de- 
stroyed. There are representations in the report of harbors 
along the coast, which were suitable for canoes and boats, the 
entrance to them being very narrow; but the harbor itself 
afforded protection for the boats. Mr. Schumacher says: 

The houses we examined -were square, that is to say, ihe subterranean 
pan reached to a depth ol about four feel below the surface, and nieasur- 
mg variously from six to ten feet square. The casing of the excavation 
consisted of boards, arranged tioritonlally, contrary lo the vertical position 
in the houses of the present Klamath Indians, and were kept in place. .by 
posts along the front. The general impression which the traces of an old 
aboriginal lown-site makes is ihat of a group of hu^e mole hills inverted, 
or sunk toa small rim at its base. Although the excavation was lound to 
be square— the remaining cavities, always shallow, and hardly more ihan 
three feet deep, were circular, which is attributed to the circular embank- 
ment that still surrounds it, and to ihe uanirai action of the elemfnts 
in tilling up a depression in loose ground. No doubl, the superstructure of 
the hut was of a circular shape, corresponding to the remaining embank- 
ment, and was probably placed in such a manner as lo meet conically. and 
was covered wiih earth, &c. The tire-place, we find on one side uf the 
Hoor. inasmall excavation, and the smoke escaped through a draft passage. 

We find, among the house silcE, a few well-preserved ones, exception- 
ally, with square embankment, but Ihey are, no doubt, of recent date, cod 
a modification between an aboriginal hul and a white man's shanly. such as 
we had occasion to witness among the present Klamaths at the mouth of the 
Klamath River. One of which I show in a sketch, as, also, an inner 
view, a plan, and a section. The inner view shows the depression, 
which is in ibis case pentagonal, incased by boards placed horizontally, 
with a tire-place in ihe centre. The excavation is reached by a notched 
board, after entering the house through a circular door near the ground.f 



• Sm "Bull 



ilotiul-Gcotraphici 



and Gnvct of > Fana 



i.lll., 1 



i 




BV ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

Human Activities. — Under the title " L'Activile dc 
I'Hommc" (Haris, i8g8, p. 261), W. Tenichc-ff. the author of a 
previous work on the " Activity of Animals," publishes an inter- 
esting volume, which, huwei'er. lacks something, from the 
absence of peisonal knowledge of priniiijve peoples. The 
author first eldbMrates his philosophy of human activity (pp. 23- 
144) and then illustrates it from the Eskimo, to a study of 
whose activity the rest of the book is devoted. Activity is dis- 
cussed under the loilowing heads: distinctive phy&ical traits; 
environment in relation to individuals or classes; history; folk- 
life; social disposttions, customs, and laws, relations of lellow- 
citizens; beliefs, knowledge, language, letters, and arts; family, 
lifc-liabits; sex-relations; children, birth, education, inslrnction. 
preparation for independent life; obstacles to life and their 
effects, TcnichelT treats of the Eskimc in the period anterior to 
European influence, his authorities being chiefly Kranz and 
Klutschak. The author holds that the Increase of our knowl- 
edge cf how men and women act under given circumstances is 
of great importance to statesmen, and will, moreover, " weaken 
the influence of the morbid doctrines of Schopenhauer, Hart- 
mann, Tolstoi, and in general of all thinkers who set forth ideas 
hostile to life." Perhaps only a Russian could write this book. 

Tiiii Pueblo Child. — The '■ Education of the Pueblo Child, 
A Study in Arrested Development," by Frank Clarence Spencer, 
forms Vol. VII., No, i, of the "Columbia University Contribu- 
tions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education (New York, 
1899, p. 97 f. The four chapters of the work deal with: " Geo- 
graphy and History of the Land of the Pueblos; Social and In- 
dustrial Life of the Pueblos; Institutional Life of the Pueblos; 
Education of th« Pueblo Child." From personal investigation 
and study of the literature of the Pueblos Dr. Spencer establishes 
the thesis that thi; peculiar civilization of the Pueblos, is "a 
product of their environmental condition," and that the educa- 
tional methods (the apprentice system in particular) employed 
by these Indians are " exactly suited to perpetuate a static con- 
dition." Practically no serious changes have taken place in the 
social and industrial life of these people for at least 360 years, 
and probably none have occurred for a much longer period than 
that. Priest- control, the apprentice- .system, with the almost 
entire suppression of invention to the advantage of imitation, 
together with environmental conditioas, have produced in the 




102 Ifffc. aSl^RICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

child a fd-actfcfat " arrest of development," the net result of which 
.■fS^o perpetuate the " good old way." In the industrial, moral, 
■.'^.h3 'religious spheres the method of instruclion is the same, 
' aiming at " an exact reproduction of the skill or wisdom in the 
possession of the tribe by generation after generation. Mr. 
Spencer's study is a valuable contribution to the literature of the 
psychology of primitive peoples and one of the few good 
treatises on primitive education wc possess. J 

South African Akch.eology. — In the Journal of tbm 
Anthropological Institute (London), for February-May, i8gg ' 
(New Series, Vol. I., pp. 258-272), Mr. G. l^ith, of Pretoria, 
writes about "Caves, shell-mounds and stone implements of 
South Africa." Caves on the Stormberg at Mossel Bay, at East 
London; shell-mounds on the South coast; large stone imple- 
ments near Cape St. Blaize; stone implements from the Trans- 
vaal, and various special implements are described. According 
to Mr. Leith, "the Bushman represents Neolithic man in South 
Africa, and any investigation into the habits of prehistoric races 
in South Africa should begin with him and work backwards." 
He also considers that " the existence of barbed stone arrow- 
heads in South Africa is not sufficiently established." In the 
mountain haunts of the Bushman the characteristic implement is 
the "scraper," a score of which are to be found, as against a 
single knife-shaped implement or arrow- tip. Scrapers in 
handles are rare, if present at all. Mullers, pounding, hammer- 
ing and digging stones, sharp-edged ring- stones, rimmers, etc., are 
also found, With shell-mounds " the coast from Cape St. Blaize 
to Great Brak River is literally dotted." 

" Eoliths," implements of the plateau gravels of the Trans- 
vaal, are thought to be " cognates of the implements discovered 
in the plateau gravels of Kent, in England." Correspondents of 
the American "turtle backs" were also found by Mr. Leith. In 
the discussion on this paper Mr. W. Y. Campbell maintained that 
"mining in Rhodesia was anywhere up to 2,000 to 3,000 years 
old," but that " the rough-stone depots of the mining districts of 
Monomatapa were other than depots and head kraals of a ruling 
and most probably Bantu race, he could not admit." This con- 
clusion he based upon " the multiplied evidence obtained in somcj 
2,000 miles of travel in Monomatapa, now Golden Rhodesia." ^ 

Vei Alphabet. — In L'Anthropologie (Vol. X.. 1899, pp." 
129-151. 294-314), M. Maurice Delafosse. formerly French con- 
sular agent at Monrovia in Liberia, has an interestiog article on 
"The Vei, their Language and their System of Writing." This 
West African people, of Mandingo stock, occupy a terriory some 
50 by 75 miles in extent, between the rivers Soulimah and Half- 
Cape-Mount. The alphabet possessed by these people has been 
long considered an evidence of their intellectual superiority overs 



uperiority overH 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



their fello' 



103 



J other reai 



negro | 



the neighboring tribes, there 
I Africa with a true system of writing. The 
he author's paper is devoted entirely to the con- 
sideration of. this alphabet, its origin, relations, etc, 

A valuable part of this paper is the lists of old (i. f. in use in 
184S. according to Forbes) and firtscnt (according to the per- 
sonal investigations of M. Delafosse in 1898) Vei alphabetical 
characters. This syllabic alphabet consists to day of 226 
characters in general use, many of which are of very compli- 
cated form; while, since there are no printing establishments, 
individual deformations and changes due to barl memory have to 
be taken into account. — we are not surprised, therefore, to find 
several very different characters serving to represent the same 
syllable, and used indifferently for it. The resemblances one 
with another of some of the characters for diflTercnt syllables is 
also very great. According to Foibes (and Koclle followed 
him in his belief), the Vei alphabet was " invented " about 1829- 
1839 by eight natives, whose names he gave. Delafosse casts 
doubt upon this story, pointing out that Forbes xvas none too 
conversant with the subject and had spent very little time in 
Africa — the Liberian, and not the Vei, really interested him. 
Delafosse believes that the Vei alphabet is much older, and 
instead of becoming a dead letter, is used by an increasingly 
large number every year, — there are even many Vei women 
who employ it. The Vei alphabet is put to good use by the 
natives themselves in preserving their popular tales, fables, 
/egends, songs, etc, although this use has not yet extended very 
far. As schools hardly exist, it is the father who teaches the 
Script to his child; besides, there are certain wandering teachers 
of writing. 

It is by no means conclusively proved that the Vei alphabet 
X^'as invented by the Vei people themselves, but the probabilities 
are that the alphabet originated in a fashion somewhat similar to 
the famous Cherokee syllabary of Sequoyah, from observation 
^without knowledge of their exact Iphonetic significance) of 
<~nanu5cripts, books, etc, of European or Arabic derivation. The 
Analogies discoverable between certain Vei characters and certain 
signs in the Berber, Greek, and Latin alphabets may be fortuitous. 
I -At any rate the Vei, upon whatever basis their alphabet was built 
Xjp, must be credited with evolving more than 200 syllabic char- 
► .^clers, an unparalleled feat among the negro peoples of the Dark 
<;;ontinent. This Vei alphabet deserves further investigation 
*rom the point of view of the anthropologist. 

Numismatic Anthropolocv, — In the Archiv t. Anthropo- 
logic (Vol. XXVI., 1899, p. 45) C. von Ujfaivy discusses the 
anthropological significance of the portraits oc Gneko-Bactrian 
and Indo-Scythian coins. As compared with Alexander and his 
immediate successors of Macedonian stock, the later Grceko- 




J 



1(H THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Bactn'an Kings show a higher head and forehead, less prominent 
supraciliary ridges, shorter and broader nose, less prominent 
chin. The type of GreekoBaclrian Kings is often met with in 
the natives of the Western Himalayas, Afghanistan, and other 
parts of Centra! Asia. Some of the peculiar heads, among 
the A(ghan.s, Dards, and Kafirs, may go back to the old Mace- 
donian conquerors. The Greek element in the population of 
this part of the world, although frequently noted by travelers 
and ethnologists, still awaits thoroujli scientific investigation. 

Samoan Industkial Arts. — In the Internationales Archiv f. 
Ethnographie i,Vol. XII., 1899. pp. 66 77) W. von Buclow, de- 
scribes, with considerable detail, the preparation of lapa (the 
characteristic fibre-cloth of the Samcan I.slanders) from the bark 
of the Pipturus tncanns: of Uga, or turmeric, the yellow color 
obtained from the root of the Curcuma longa; and of the black 
color obtained from burning the nut-like fruits of the Alcurites 
moluccana. The preparation of the black color, — o Ic tutu lama, — 
is a monopoly in the hands of the tattooers, whose art is said to 
depend upon it. The making of the lega. or yellow color, like 
many other arts in Samoa, belongs to the women — and thieving, 
envious, quarrelsome individuals, and slanderers behind the 
back are precluded from engaging in the work, as that would 
spoil it. Hence, before anything is done, the woman-leader 
exhorts her fellow-laborers to follow the old, right ideas. 

According to von Buelow, the Samoans are acquainted with 
at least seventetn vegetable fibres, and a considerable number of 
dyes. The author also describes the old whetstones of the 
Samoans, — hollows worn in the lava or basaltic rocks by the 
waterside, near the village. These are used by the present gen- 
eration as bowls or mortars in which to crush the fruit aad 
leaves, of which they make a hair and scalp wash. 

Age of Swi-is Lake Dwellings — Quite appropriately, "at 
the thirtieth general meeting of the German Anthropological 
Society, which took place on the shore.i of the Bodensee. Dr. 
Montelius, of Stockholm. £3.\c a brief address on " The Chron- 
ology of the Lake-Dwellings" (Correspbl , Vol, XXX., 1S99, 
pp. 8385). According to Dr. Montelius, "there can be no 
doubt that on the Budensee, iLi Switzerland, in Germany, and in 
Austria, man, with Neolithic culture, domesticated animals and 
agriculture, wap already dwelling, more than 3,000 years b. c." 
Copper, he thinks, was already known in some parts of Europe 
in the third millennium b. c , at least, — it was far older in Egypt. 
Some lake stations, e.g.. Auvernier, Morigen. Corcelettes. etc, 
belong to the latest bronze period (Murigen dates from Ii00-I200 
B. c). Many of the South German, Austrian, and Swiss 
stations belong -to the older bronze period, dating, partly, at 
]east, from the middle of the second millennium b. c. The , 
tations of the Stone Age, are, of course, much older, dating, i 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 105 

laps, a thousand years or more earlier. The most modern 
stations, belonging to tht: Iron Age, are not very numerous, 

Prehistoric Fiw~.er-Pkints. — Not content with his success 
in restoring the woman of Auvernicr, Dr. Knlimann, of Hasel, 
{Correspbl. d. deutschcn Anlhr. Ges.. Vol. XXX., 1899, pp. 86-9) 
now gives us an account of the finger-prints of the Lake- 
Dwellers of the station at Corcelcttes, on the left shore of Lake 
Ncuchatel, as rehabilitated from the finger marks on a piece of 
pottery found some twenty years ago, at this station, wiiich be- 
longs to the Rronze Age. On this piece of pottery were the 
marks of human fingers, and after a cast had been taken, through 
a happy thought of Professor F. A. Forel, the finger-ends could 
fae studied, since they now stood out in relief. The examination 
«3f these finger-prints (index and middle finger of the right hand; 
■ ndex, middle, and ring finger of the left) by Professors Forel 
s>nd Kollm^nn lead to the conclusion that the potter, the impress 
i«3f whose fingers was left on the work, was a woman. Dr. Koll- 
■^mann, also, concludes that she had narrow hands, and, by corre- 
lation, a long and narrow face ; and possessed In general the 
^jodily form of a fine, cultivated race. There is, doubtless, some 
4ancy about Kollmann's restorations, but they are always full of 
suggestion. 

Primitive Sculpture. — Dr. M. Hoernes, in the Corresp- 
^latt der deutschcn Gesellschaft fiir Anlhropologie (Vol. XXX., 
pp. 85-ii6) compares the beginnings of sculpture with the finished 
art of historical times. The latter consists of three constituent 
elements: i, imitation of nature; 3, adornment of given objects; 
3. religious or (generally) p.-iychic conlent. These three ele- 
ments correspond to three human instincts or impulses — the in- 
siincts of imitation; of ornamentation, and the instinct to sen- 
sualize the supersensual (the theomorphic or anthropomorphic 
'rtipulse of the primitive view of nature). In perfect art there rs 
a harmony of all these elements, only according as one or 
another notably preponderates, can we speak of " naturalistic." 
' decorative." " religious (poetic)" sculpture. With primitive 
titan, however, these three elements develop in their separate 
*>ay. With the early hunter-tribes we find the realistic sculp- 
tures of the river-drift, true to nature, — but neither religious nor 
tJccorative. Then comes the religious sculpture of the primitive 
'Agriculturalists and shepherd-tribes. — rich in psychic content, 
feut neither realistic nor decorative (plastic, idols, etc, ). Next, 
^e have the decorative, figural sculpture of industrial and com- 
mercial peoples, — neither realistic, nor religious, but eminently 
ornate and stylistic. In primitive art wc thus fmd positive and 
negative qualities together in every case. With keen observation 
of nature we find paired lack of psychic content; with deeper 
significance, repulsive formlessness; with a marked decorative 
style, neglect of truth to nature and coarse lack of sense. 



^ 



NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGV. 

BV REV, )■ N. FRADENBURGH. 

Magic formulae are an essential part of the religion of the 
Babylonians, Hymns of praise to the gods and earnest prayers 
are connected with low sorcery and witchcraft; and seem, indeed, 
frequently to be incidental to some nia[;ical spell. The only 
reasonable explanation is that the Babylonian religion was 
formed by the union of originally heterogeneous elements. It 
is probable that Chaldean magic was the gift of early Sumerian 
population. These religious forms, once introduced, remained 
unchanged for many centuries; but we must believe that the 
Babylonians filled them with a new spirit. According to the 
belief of these ancient people, evil spirits and witches were the 
cause of all ills. They were active and to be met with, every- 
where. No home could be protected: they would creep through 
every crevice, in spite of all precautions; they lingered especially 
about the bedside of the sick and dying, and waited to .seize 
upon the body of the dead; they skulked behind the door, ready 
to spring upon any one who passed ; they destroyed the peace of 
families, sowing dissensions and discord; they hover around 
tombs, cluster together in caves, frequent dark thickets, resort to 
dark corners, fly screaming through the air. and lake every 
chance to torture, poison, and destroy; they are innumerable — 
every person is watched and pursued by a multitude of demons. 
And the witches are equally malevolent — haunting the footsteps 
of the traveller, ready to cast the fatal spell, causing sufTering, 
disease and death, producing evil dreams. With such a belief, 
the people must have lived in constant terror, unless they schooled 
themselves to stoical indifference — impossible except to the rare 
few. 

It was a most serious problem, how to counteract the evil of 
the various demons and socerers Man himself seemed lo be 
helpless; but he could call to his aid more powerful good 
spirits. There came into use ma{,>ic knots, magic words, magic 
herbs and other substances, magic formula, magtc ceremonies, 
and magic chants by which the good spirits could be engaged 
and evil demons defeated. The number seven, ihe number of 
completeness, is frequently employed in these chants, prayers and 
services; and appeal is constantly made to " sympathetic magic." 

The material now available for the study of this subject is 
still inadequate, although it is receiving many welcome additions. 
Lenormant's "Chaldean Magic" has not lost its value. It 
marked out the main outlines of the subject, which later 
researches have not materially changed. The more elaborate 




NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 107 

work of Professor Sayce, in the " Hibbert Lectures, 1887," is, 
also, valuable. His translations are a mine of wealth. 1 know 
it has become fashionable in some quarters to discount the 
accuracy of the work of Professor Sayce, but the mistakes — what- 
ever they may be — are not often vital. Important, also, are Tall- 
quist's •• Die Assyrische Beschwonungsserie," and Zimmern's 
*• Die Bsschworungstafeln " — these are among the most reliable 
works. Zimmern's ** Babylonische B isspsalmen," and Reisner's 
'• Sumerisch-Babylonische Hymnen " should also be studied. 
The most valuable work in the English language is Jastrow's 
*• Religion of Babylonia and Assyria." Special works are 
Xing's *• Babylonian Magic and Socery," and Elworthy's "The 
Evil Eye." With these various volumes the student may eMKf 
upon a comparatively thorough study of the subject. F*or die 
study of modern magic there are many works. Among the 
latest we may mention Frazcr's " The Golden Bough," and 
especially the remarkable work, Hartland's '* The Legend of 
Perseus." The former is in two large volumes, and the latter in 
three stout volumes — one of which is not yet issued. 

* * * 

At a meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, 

recently held in New Haven, Dr. Talcott Williams gave a sum- 

mjry of the work ^accomplished by the Babylonian Expedition 

to Nippur, sent out by the University of Pennsylvania. The 

latest excavations have laid bare a portion of the pavement of 

Naram Sin. The walls above are being platted and drawn, and 

when this is done, the work of exposing the pavement will be 

*^ontinued. Two inscribed stone vases and a stone stela were 

found early in the work; and when the pavement was reached, 

theie were discovered a small head of yellow marble and a badly- 

fc>roken torso of black stone. In the level of Ur-Ninib, a black 

stone vase, more than two feet high, was discovered. It be^rs 

eleven lines of inscription. At the Ur-Gur level were uncovered 

a pedestal of bricks, laid in mortar rendered tenacious by the use 

c>f straw; a bronze sav, and bronze and silver nailheaJs. The 

c^ondition of the stctues confirms Dr. Hilprecht in the belief that 

"the temple was sacked during the reign of Hammurabi. In the 

Cistern corner of the temple was discovered the fragment of a 

TTiarble vase of King Lugal-zafjgisi. Two bricks contain the 

legend of Lugal-sur-su, a hitherto unknown patesi "f Nippur, 

^whD has been assigned to the fourth millennium before the 

Christian era. In the same trench was found the fragment of a 

brick of Ashur etil-ilani, son of Assurbanipal of Assyria, who 

repaired a portion of the temple, in about the same level, or 

perhaps the very same, as Naram-Sin were brought to light a 

polished disk of marble with an arcSaic inscription, and another 

of bluish-gray stone, bearing an inscription of Game; a copper 

knife blade below this level ; a prism of lapis lazuli, with a low 



io8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

relief human head, and other objects of arch geological interesl 
Many tablets have been unearthed and added to the formei 
stores. For the future everything is lull of promise. 



The German Expedition under Dr. Koldeway has mat 
two important discoveries in the Kasr Mound of Babylon. Tlic 
first is a stela of dolorite found in the east corner o( the ruin?. 
On one side is the image of a Hittile god. He is bearded, oae 
foot in advance, both arms raised from the c!bows — the left 
carrying a trident and the right a hammer — and a sword carved 
on the left side. He wears a Phrygian cap, the hair hangs in a 
long braid, the outer garment is decorated and extends to the 
knees, and the shoes arecurved at the pointed toes. It has been 
suggested that this is the Hittite god of thunder. Tishub. (Jo, 
the other side of the stela is a Hittite inscription of six lines, 
Another stela found not far distant bears a relief — Ishtar am' 
Hadad, and other images. Over the worshipping man a 
words: " Image of Shamash-Shaknu, the man from the lam 
Shuchu and Maru," Between the worshipper and the image 
Hadad are words that have been translated: "A measure ol 
meal, one measure of wine I have appointed as a settled matter 
by this slone tablet ; he who guards the palace shall enjoy t^cse." 
An inscription of five columns rehearses what Shamash-Sh^knu 
has done for his country to insure its security and prosperity.- -It 
contains, also, much new geographical material. The work i 
being prosecuted with great vigor by the German Expcditioi 
and we await with confident expectation most important results 



MOSAICS OF CHALCHUITE. 



In my paper* upon .indent mining for turquoise in Arizoni 
reference wiis uiade to various pieces of mosaic work of lurquoi&i 
of prehistoric origin. In further illustration of the estimate il 
which chalchuite was held for decoration and ornament by thi 
ancient races of Arizona I am now able to present oth^^ 
examples. 

At Flagstaff, Coconino County, Arizona, recently, I found U 
the collection made by Mr. Love from the ruins of an ancten 
ctiflf dwelling on Oak Creek, fifteen miles from Jerome, Yarapa 
County, an ornament or relic encrusted with a wide border a 
chalchuite mosaic. 

The figure from the photograph represents the object at quartc: 
size. It measures 3^^ inches long and 3)^ inches in width. I 



MOSAICS OF CHALCHUITE. TC» 

is composed of a centra! object made from a large clam shell, 
cut into the form of a cross, but with very wide and short arms. 
It has the general form of a Greek cross, and appears to be the 
object of chief value, the marginal decoration or border leing 
the setting, like the frame of an enamel or gem of value. This 
cross is surrounded by a border of mosaic work in chalchuite, 
about three-fourths of an inch wide. The tesserK are oblong 
and rectangular, and are about one-eighth to one-quarter of an 
inch in length They are squarely cut or ground down so as to 
present sharp edges and angles. They are set or mounted in a 
pitch-like substance upon a back ground, the nature of which 
was not exactly ascertained, owing to the fact that the whole 
object has been mounkd by the collector with cement upon a 
board, the better to preserve the specimen. 

The object and use of this relic is a mailer of conjecture and 
surmise. A critical examination shows that the shell cross was 



fashioned out of one of the large marine shell.s. probably one of 
the massive peclens. The surface has been ground off and 
roughly polished, so as to nearly obliterate what appear to have 
been costx or ribs in low relief. The inner angles of the cross 
are sharply cut. but the outer angles at the ends of the arms are 
smoothed off and rounded, as if worn away by long use, probably 
as a pendant worn upon the breast, and before the mosaic work 
was added. Addilioiial evidence in support of this view is 
found in the fact that at the upper end of the shell and in the center 
there is a perforation, at exactly the point where one would be 
made to receive a string or cord by which the cross could be 
suspended. This perforation, which is now filled up by a care- 
fully fitted F>ellel of the chalchuite, is oval in shape, not round as 
it would be left by a drill ; but it is elongated upwards, precisely 
as it would become by the long continued wear of a cord. 



) THK AMEKICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

I am thus led to the conclusion that ihe shell cross, or central 
figure, whatever its orii'in or int?nlion, was an object of venera- 
tion and high estimation as a relic. It was evidently worn fora 
long time, so that its outer angles became worn and rounded off- 
After years of use in this way, as an "rnament or talisman, it 
was preserved as a relic and was ornamented Dy the border of 
mosaic of the precious and much -esteemed chalchuite. At the 
same lime the hole at the top, by which the object had been so 
long suspended, was carefully filled up. 

If this shell cross is to be regarded as a Christian religious 
emblem, or token, it, of course, shows that the object is posterior 
in date to the advent of the early fathers of the church, and also 
that the art of mosaic inlaying and ornamentation survived to 
modern ticnes. This, however, we are led to expect and believe 
from the accounts given by the earliest explorers. 

According to Bjurke* " the cross was found in full vogue as 
a religious emblem amongst the aborigines all over America." 
But the peculiar form of this cross is more closely allied to the 
mysterious symbol known as the S't'tislikii. supposed by some to 
be a symbol of good-luck, a benediction, or blessing, and in use 
anterior to the introduction of Christianity, Interesting notes 
upon the Swastika may be found in the article upon terracotta 
antiquities by A. F. Beilin.t from which it appears that the sym 
bol is found in the oldest oriental countries and that both Ameri- 
can continents have produced it. The perforated terra-cotta 
spindle whorls of the land of the Incas were sometimes decorated 
with a cross of the Grecian form. 

In the Smithsonian Report for 1896 Mr. J. Walter Fewlces 
describes objects found in the Pueblo ruins and graves near 
Winslow. Arizona. One, a polished slab of lignite, wai orna- 
mented with five small turquoises, one at each corner and one in 
the center. The figure ol this ornament, given on the plate 
facing page 534, shows a perforation at one end at the medial 
line, intended, no doubt, to receive a cord for suspension. 
Another object is a mosaic frog, of which a beautiful colored 
figure is given opposite page 529. This ornament was lound 
upon the breast of a skeleton in the ruins at Chavez|Pass. Mr. 
Fcwkes states that wood. bone, and shell, incriisted with tur- 
quoise mosaic, were familiar objects to the inhabitants of the 
Chevlon. and that the women before marriage had ear-pendants 
made of rectangular fragments of lignite set with turquoise 
[chalchuite] bone incrusted with the same, or simple turquoise, 

It is also stated that the cn'ss amongst the Cibolans (1540) 
was a sign of peace.| and that it was received by the Indians at 
the time of Coronado's E."(pedition{i54o) with deep veneration. 

.l.lX..r.*«= 

Vol. XX: , p -ni- In Ihc nhnnee u Rr. ThM. Wluo'* 

iDun Report r^r iS^ !• given ai Ihi uurce. bai thlt !>■» 




ARCH^OLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN NORTH VIC- 
TORIA COUNTY, ONTARIO, 1899, 

BY G. E. LAIDLAW. 

The season just closed proved a very prosperous one in 
archsological matters, for this particular locality. The evi- 
dence of aboriginal occupation in new localities amounted to 
nine new sites being placed on record, and a large quantity of 
artifracts being secured, numbering in all, exclusive of pottery 
fragments, some three hundred specimens. This material has 
a direct tendency to show that the primitive population was a 
peaceful one of sedentary habits, which is further borne out by 
other characteristics disclosed in examining the sites. The 
artifracts recovered seem to pertain to the home life and 
domestic economy of such a people, and exhibit an extreme 
paucity of those weapons or implements that are generally 
supposed to be used by a warlike or hunter people. This fact. 
Coupled with the finding of numbers of mealing stones on the 
places of occupation, and quantities of carbonized corn in the 
ash beds, gives evidence that this cereal furnished a large por- 
tion of their food, helped out by such food products as the 
forest produced, in the shape of wild fruit,* game and nuts, 
though this is not an essentially nut-bearing vlistrict, and the 
Same was probably scarce on account of the density of the 
p^opulation,! together with quantities of fish easily obtainable 
from the different magnificent systems of lakes and rivers that 
'^he country abounds in; the varieties of fish being mascalonge, 
ass, salmon, trout, pickerel, >^hitefish, and the smaller sorts,^ 
s trout, herring, perch, suckers, eels, catfish, etc.; all within 
each of a day or two's journey. 

These newly recorded sites possess the same characteristics 
)f formerly recorded ones, with the exception of an embank- 
ent at one site, and consisted of various numbers of various 
^zed ash-beds situated near to perennial springs, in the im- 
mnediate neighborhood of soil suitable for their primitive opera- 
tions in agriculture, generally a light sandy loam. Several of 
^hese sites had graveyards quite close by, some of which being 
opened disclosed a few human bones at a depth of about two 
ieer. The graves had largely been filled up with surface 
stones, and may have been opened subsequently to burial for 

•This section is noted for larjce qua>itities of wild fruits, acres of huckleberries and cran- 
berjies, groves of wild plums and cherries, besides abundance of blackberries, goosebrriies, 
thimbleberries, ritspberries, etc., abound. 

f Parkman mentions the scarcity of game in the Huron country, owing to the density of 
population. 



ni3 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. H^H 

I the removal of remains to some other place for tribal burial, 
as (he bones remaining in these single graves were few in num- 
ber, generally the smaller bones, and did not seem old enough 
to warrant one believing that the missing ones had decayed 
from lapse of time. 

Almost all of these sites have been subsequently grown 

over with a heavy growth of pine, standing on ash-beds, graves 

and cache pits. This growth ha;' been removed in the last forty 

or fifty years; some of the remaining stumps have a diameter 

up to five feet; others average from three and one-half to four 

and one-half feet. The five-fool '.rees, "ilh an average of six- 

■ teen annual rings or cortical layers to the inch, which is the 

smallest of a series of averages of pine grown in this section, 

twenty-two inches being thi; largest, would show an age of 

four hundred and eighty years, or [hereabouts; three hundred 

and eighty-five for a four-foot trt-e, and three hundred and 

thirty-six for a three and one-half foot; twenty-five lo fifty 

years must be added to give their approximate age, and as it 

is two hundred and eighty-five years since Champlain passed 

I through this region, and mentioning nothing of these towns, 

[ it is reasonable to suppose that they were abandoned or 

, destroyed by enemies ( Iroquois) before his advent. 

The only one attempt at embankment in thirty examined 
sites in an area of twenty by twenty-five miles, precludes any 
idea of defensive arrangement, and indeed these places are so 
straggly, and in several case.s immediately commanded by high 
hills, that there would be hardly any use in endeavoring to pro- 
tect them with palisades, the construction of which would cost 
an immense amount of labor with primitive methods. Palisad- 
ing does not seem to have developed much until the Hurons 
were driven to the northern portion of their peninsula (Simcoe 
county) by the Iroquois, where they were found by the French 
occupving and building close, compact palisaded towns; the 
labor being lessened by the people being more concentrated 
and possessing European axes. 

The herein meniinned sites, show a great affinity lo the 
Huron towns west of Lake Simcoe. both in the shape of some 
of the ash-beds— suggesting "long houses"— and in the pro- 
portion of similarity of relics contained therein; but lacking 
the ossuary style of burial, which may have been more fully 
eloped where the Hurons made their last stand. The 
absence of o.ssuaries and palisaded villages, and the occurrence 
of single graveyards with extensive site.«, are particularly noted 
. along this portion of the Huron " drift," (ill they come to and 
round the southern end of Lake Simcoe, when gradually the 
single graves give place to ossuaries, and the loose, straggling 
villages to the close, compact, densely occupied towns in the 
northern part of the peninsula, which were occupied when the 
French came in contact with them. This fact is borne out by 
the gradual appearance of European articles in the sites in the 
northern portion of the county of V'ork.and increasing greatly 




AUCll.V:oLOi;iCAI. IJISCOVIvRIKS in ONrARIO. M3 

in numbers the further north one goes in Sinicoe County,* until 
one comes on them in large quantities (especially French axes) 
in the ossuaries and towns noted by the Jesuits. 

I'hough the sites under discussion have not furnished any 
article, or artifract, denoting European contact, it does not 
mean that we do not get such in this district; several isolated 
graves of the Algonquins have yielded such, and occasionally 
some are found along trails and water courses as surface finds. 
It forcibly strikes the writer, from known facts, that the 
Huron nations, drifting westward, separated at some point east 
of this, presumably at the junction of the Scugog River with 
the Trent system of waters; the main body following up the 
Scugog waters— river and lake— then ascending the valleys 
draining to Scugog Lake on the west side: crossing over the 
divide, which is not very pronounced, into the dniinage basin 
of Lake Sin-.coe, rounding its southern extremity, changed 
Iheir route north to their last possessions In Ontario; all this 
route was through a fertile, well-wooded and watered, undu- 
lating country- The other branch, at the point of separation, 
followed the northern route through a more rocky, hilly and 
less fertile country, bordering on the granitic formation to the 
north, from which they may have taken their name "Aren 
d.Trrhonons," or " Rock Nation," as their territory when first 
visited bv the Jesuits was the most norlh-easterly of the 
Kurons contiguous to the sterile granite hills; but this may 
not be so. and their name may have arisen from the fact that 
they controlled the deposits of Hiironian slate, sleatite, 
syenite, etc.. in the above formation (Laurentian). Be this as 
it may, other aboriginal peoples have designated themselves 
■•rocJc,"'or "stone," from some reason or other; notably the 
Oneidas and the Assinaboins, the latter having a branch of 
Iheir tribe in the Canadian Rocky Mountains called " Stonles." 
It seems to have been the rule not to have had these villages 
directly on or near water-courses, but in localities having local 
features of defence, such as swamps, hills, or approaches 
through rough country, which were the natural and perhaps 
the main defenstve means. Again, the land is generally better 
suited fiifiiboriginal cultivation a little distance back from the 
lakes, than immediately on their shores. Those small sites on 
the shores are now conceded to he tishing camps and the ends 
of portages; sojke may say that the places for occupation that 
were chosen wtfrfc suitable for cultivation nearest to bodies of 
water, yet not too close to be observed by enemies travelling 
by water, and not too far away to be inconvenient to the 
inhabitants. 

There is some doubt about the afore-mentioned embank- 
ment, but there is no doubt that it is on an aboriginal site, for 
there are ash-beds between it and a creek several hundreds of 

Cintilinn lB"<"utt. Sepl, isTiagi. mnd '■ Ftoch K.liciliDin° VilT.gc "siie"™? 'ht'H'urDiu,'-'%«d 



Ill THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

feel to the east of it; though its connection with them may 
be accidental, for there is a local legend, derived direclly from 
the Indians (Missiasagas and Algonquin tribes) occupying the 
district when the white settlers came in. that French, coramg 
from the west by way of Lake Simcoe, crossed over to ihis 
place and fought the Indians, constructing this embankment 
totdefenaive purposes. The Indians defeated the French, who 
borkd their dead by the embankment, while the Indians used 
mother place fur their dead. I here is no doubt that there arc 
t«o burial places; one immedi.itely north of the en^bankment, 
the other being on the summit of a 
conical hill, sixty feet or so in height, 
some hundred yards west of the em- 
bankment. The writer opened a grave 
in each. The grave on the hill having a 
pine stump of large size, three and one- 
half feet in diameter, standing over it. 
If this earthwork was constructed for 
defensive purposes, it seems strange that 
the site selected should be commanded 
by several high conical hills, fifty to 
s(^venty-fivL- feet high, within 150 yards. 
This place has been known to the 
whites for lO/ years, and at that time 
the cdfjes were more distinct. Length, 
220 feel; breadth of ditch and embank- 
ment, ten to twelve feet each; height. 
from bottom of ditch to lop of embank- 
menl, 2% to 4}^ feet; showed no traces 
of supportmg palisades on examination 
by the writer; general direction north 
and south, but curved out to the west, 
Ihi-- ditch being on the outside. 

The preponderance of artifracts on 

ihcsc sites arc pottery fragments, and 

next in order bone articles, including 

those of teeth and horn; then comes 

clay pipes; after those, hammerstoncs, 

both hand and degraded celts; rubbing 

. stones probably outnumber celts, chisels 

and gouges. On some sites quantities 

[ «( stone and pottery discs in all stages of manufacture 

f tbound. Shell articles are very tew. being limited to mussel 

shell scrapers and small shtlls perforated for suspension. 

Chippd tlini implements arc e.xtrvmcly rare all through this 

* s*cw>n, though an occasion.-*! knife or airow-head is picked 

„i. Stone pipi-'s are also raro. Mealing •'tones occu/ quite 

■ a rii ■ It t W** " *^'** *"** ^'*^^ **** ** M»<k tak^i&tOBt prpt; tJo«*J Bfl )S ^vaK ft^Q i% * 

*^!S^IS^ii^aiw4 <i»i i-i-Jw*" B a*' k»»^ fc«" "*•»•"' ■> !»■• "c^, «»,*• 




ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN ONTARIO. us 

frequently; and what are particularly noticeable are large num- 
bers of spheroidal and ovoidal stones of various sizes, some 
natural and others artificially shaped, which are found in and 
around the ash-beds. Articles of polished slate are ext-remely 
rare and are generally knives and gorgets. 

Notwithstanding the easy facilities of catching fihh, very 
few fishing implements have been recovered from these sites, 
and these only comprise several barbed fish hooks of bone, and 
bone and horn harpoons. The bone harpoons are small affairs 
with small barbed notches on each side, while horn ones pre- 
sent two varieties; but neither are numerous. One sort having 
two deep barbes on one side, with a perforated base for attach- 
ing a thong. The other kind being a tine of deer's horn, sharp- ' 
ened at the point, with a hollowed base socket for inserting a 
shaft; the sides being produced to a barb, on each side of the 
shaft; then a hole is completely pierced through the imple- 
ment, about one-third of its way up, either for a pin to firmly 
fasten the head to a shaft, or for an attached line, Esquimaux 
fashion; a transverse section of this harpoon is oval or round. 
The hollow socket, for inserting a shaft, is also observed in 
horn arrow-heads. 

The long, one-barbed, square-based harpoons, occurring in 
western Ontario and south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, have 
not been noticed here as yet, as neither have the notched stone 
sinkers, or the elaborate permanent fish weirs and traps noted 
in other places. Though there are fish stakes occasionally 
recovered from the ** narrows," between Lakes Simcoe and 
Couchiching, where Champlain halted with his Huron warriors 
for a few days, to replenish his stores with fish for their war- 
like journey against the Iroquois. The Jesuits mention fre- 
quently the dependence placed on dried fish for food, the 
descriptions of fish, and the manner of taking them by nets 
and through the ice; also the peculiar customs indulged in. 
such as the marriage of the nets to virgins, offerings of tobacco 
to propitiate the gods of the water, aftd such like. Without 
doubt the people that we are dealing with used the same 
methods, and would depend on the " runs " of fish in the dif- 
ferent seasons to lay by a large stock of food. 

eighth inches broad and three-eighth inch thick. It is leaf shaped, of slender-pattern material, 
and of a dark grey, translucent, quartz-like material; the other implement is eleven and one-halt 
inches long, of chertz limestone, and shows signs of dig^ng, for the ridges between the flakes 
are worn down slightly. This one is thicker in proportion than the former, but has the long, 
leaf shape, being p*ore ovate; both come from near eacia other. The latter being in the James 
Dickson collectior, Ontario Archaeological Museum. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



MONITOR PIPES. 

TIQUARIAl 





He 



Editor of The Ameri 

Dear Sir. — Referring to the article on "Mound I'ipes" in thi 
January-February niimher of The American ANTiQUAKiAN.it 
may be of interest to note that, 
whik' Mr- Hoyle claims there are 
no Monitor pipes in Canada, they 
have been toiind not farfrom there. 
My brother has in our collection at 
Niagara Falls, N. Y.. a Monitor 
pipe (see cut), which was found 
on ihe Vogt farm at Niagara Falls. 
The materia! is grayish stone; fine 
texture, well-wrought, and highly- 
polished. One end of the base 
shows where it wa.s broken while 
drilling the stem-hole; the worl 
m.Tn then commenced at the othi 
end. with better success. 

In April. 1SS5. while Mr. Vogt'' 

was clearing a portion of his farm, 

he uprooted a white oak stump, 

which measured thirty inches in diameter at the point where 

severed from the trunk. The pipe was found eighteen inches 

below the .surface and underneath the stump. Yours truly, 

W. J. Mackav. 

A PECULIAR RELIC. 
Editor of The American Antkjuarian: 

Dear Sir, — Dr. Frederick H.William's paper "Prehistorj 
Remains of the Tunxis Val- 
ley," published in the Ameri- 
can ArchiEologist, gives a cut 
(P'E- }?■ paRC 203) in th 
August number, 1S98. of 
peculiar relic of prehistoric 1 
workmanship, which I think I 
should receive further notice. 
Dr. Williams was the first (so 
far as I am aware) to bring 
this beautiful and almost 
unique relic to the notice of 
archa;ologists. In my cabi- 
net I have an almost exact 
duplicate, and singularly 
enough, it was found in the 

same county (Hartford County, Conn.), exact locality 1 
known, about 1854, and has been in my possess-on over forty? 






CORRESPONDENCE, 117 

two years. I enclose a drawing "(see cut), front view and 
cross-section, respectively; size of nature- It is, apparently, 
made from a dark-colored, hard, and fine-grained sand-stone, 
\vith edges nicely rounded, and a well-marked groove between 
the circular part and the main section, as seen in the cross 
section. The back is slightly convex, as is the center of the 
circular front. It is of fine workmanship, nearly symetrical, 
and has the appearance of a greasy polish over almost the 
whole surface. 

I enclosed drawings of my specimen, with full description, 
to Dr. Williams, and in reply he says: " Your picture is almost 
a perfect representative of my relic; so much so that, had I 
lost mine, I should have thought that you had it. It is almost 
exactly the same size. Mine appears to be sand-stone; but 
the polish isso perfect that I am not sure. I dislike to mar 
the beauty of it by cutting into it, to ascertain its real nature. 
It would be interesting to know when, by whom, and for 
what purpose they were made; but it is perhaps fruitless to 
inquire. We may, however, learn if they have been found in 
any other part of the world, or are confined to the Connecti- 
cut valley and, perhaps, to Hartford County. 

My relic came from a small collection in Hampshire 
County, Mass., in 1857, that was said to contain a duplicate; 
but. besides Dr. William's relic, I know of no others. Sus- 
pended upon the breast by a cord passing around the neck 
and fastened in the groove, it would have made a fine orna- 
ment, or a badge of distinction. Was it so used? Was it a 
charm, or had it a religious significance? Who can tell? 

W. A. Chapman. 
Irvinsburg, Ohio. 



CONTINUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 

The Krench and Belgian archsologists are divided as to 
the separation of Paleolithic from the Neolithic periods. 
Mortillet and Cartailhac have asserted that a great break exists, 
while Quatrefagcs, Dupont, Joly. and others maintain that they 
were continuous. 

The evidence on this point may be classed under three 
heads; ist, that which testifies to the geological changes; 3nd, 
that which relates to extinct animals; 3rd, that which depends 
upon the shape of the relics. 

As to the first Prof. Prestwitch maintains that there was a 
period of submergence between the two ages which possi- 
bly corresponded with the deluge, or gave rise to the tradition 
of the deluge. As to the second point, nearly all geologists 
claim that there must have been a change of climate, for the 
bones of the reindeer are found in the cave deposits above the 
remains of the tropical animals, such aa the rhinoceros, hippo- 




118 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

potamus and the mastodon. The archaeological evidence is to 
the effect that the relics found in association with extinct ani- 
mals were all used in the hand and without handles, and arc so 
rude as to be hardly distinguished from natural bonlders and 
large pebbles, or "accidental fractures"; while those of the 
Neolithic Age were so shaped as lo show that they were 
wrought, and some of them were designed to be fastened by 
withes, or wrapped in hides. There are double-bladed axes, 
with a suspension between them picked and sometimes ground, 
which were far better wrought than the Neolithic weapons. 

On the other hand, there are archnsologials who hold that 
there were intermediate stages, in which the Paleolithic* 
were chipped in such a way as to show that a handle was 
placed around them, and they were used as a compound Instru- 
ment, resembling an axe with a handle. Spear-heads with a 
marked depression, showing that they were designed to be 
placed in the shaft and bound to it. were characteristic of the 
Neolithic Age, 

Mr. Allen Brown says: " It is remarkable that the hafling 
of stone, with a bent or split bough to form an axe or hatchet, 
or held in the double coil of a withe, should have origi- 
nated in the earliest period nf man's history and continued 
down to our own day among existing savages, such as the 
Australians and the North American Indians." 

That this mode of hafting was continued from the Paleo- 
lithic into the Neolithic is shown by the fact that ground celts 
have been discovered with the decayed, bent brush coiled 
around them. 

General Pitt Rivers has drawn attention to the gradual 
evolution of the iron axe from its prototype in the earliest 
Stone Age. 

A large number of coarsely-chipped, rudely-finished imple- 
ments have been found at Cissbury, England. It is difficult lo 
assign a use for them, though they may have been employed 
as a kind of bolus, covered with skin and with thong attached. 

The relics from the caves seem to have undergone a similar 
process of improvement, as the older implements, on the 
higher level river gravels, are formed from nodules of broken 
stones; whereas in other layers the relics are made from pre- 
pared nodules. Spear-head flakes, often six Inches long, are 
found. 

The natural conclusion is that the relics of man shade into 
another through all the ages, even when the animals change in 
character, habits and appearance. 



I 



L 



EDITORIAL. 



SOUTH AFRICA. 

The interest which a few months ago was concentrated in 
our New Possessions has been directed to South Africa, and 
makes it appropriate that we should consider the ethnology 
and archeology of that region. 

We might say that the English have furnished much in- 
formation about the prehistoric antiquities of South Africa in 
the past, and we are still dependent upon them, for no one else 
is especially interested. The majority of readers will be in- 
clined to say: what of it! we care nothing for the past of 
South Africa! What we want to know about is the present and 
the effect of the war upon the future. The fact is, however, that 
struggling humanity is found in all of these remote regions of 
the globe, and our sympathies naturally go out toward those 
who are oppressed and in danger of being exterminated, rather 
than civilized. War is, so far as it goes, an exterminator, and, 
if it continues long, is likely to drag down the best standards 
which civilization and chrititianity have established, and lay 
low that which it has taken so many years to build up, and to 
waste the wealth which has been accumulated after much toil 
and hardship and self-denial. Our sympathies naturally go 
toward those inhabitants who have by degrees been brought 
out from savagery into a partial civilization. 

Here, the question again arises, as before among the Philip- 
pines, whether the result is civilisation or extermination? 
The newspapers are publishing cartoons representing the 
Zulus as throwing off the garments borrowed from civilization, 
and donning those which were worn when they were savages, 
thus virtually expressing the thought that savagery is better 
than civilization. We do not believe, as some profess to do. 
that all the so-called heathen ought to be left alone and 
allowed to work out their own system, independently of 
Christianity and the civilization which it brings in; but we do 
believe that Christian nations should be held to the same 
standards and motives that individuals are. There may, 
indeed, be a difficulty in the way of incorporating the lower 
races with the higher and giving them the common rights of 
humanity. There seems to be, also, as much difficulty in the 
way of incorporating the partially civilized with the more 
advanced, and the tendency is toward a centralization of 
power throughout the whole globe. 

It is with these intrrogations that we present a view of 
South Africa as represented in the Frontispiece, also a list of 
the tribes which are situated near the seat of war. The first 



u 



l» THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

may be familiar, but the second is not so well known. Fifty 
years ago. tnis whole region was familiar to Christian philan- 
thropists as the place where the Missionary Livingstone began 
his life-work and where his falher-in-law, the celebrated mis- 
sionary. Dr. Robert Moffat, began his labors. The picture of 
Africa as it was, is represented in the lower part of one of the 
plates — that part which shows the group of l.uts surrounded 
by a fence, and the river flowing in its wildness through the 
mountain scene. The progress, which can be recognized as we 
look upward from this and see the wagon bridges and the rail- 
road biidgts and the villages, and then, still further on, notice 
the larger villages and the city with all its public edifices, has 
been made as a result of Christian civilization; but to make 
the picture more expressive, we take the face of the general, 
whom nobody knows, out from the centre and put in its place 
that of Dr. Livingstone, whom everybody knows, and see that 
all this has resulted from the peace-loving spirit which con- 
quered even the fiercest savage by the law of kindness. A 
peace-loving man as he was, he needed not a military escort to 
secure safety and to win the attachment of the people and the 
admiration of the world. It is with professional pride and no 
admiration for recent military exploits that we look upon this 
peaceful scene. 

The change which has come over the nations does not 
move us from the feeling and conviction that this is the true 
way of civilizing the world, and is so much better than the 
effort to civilize it by war. The names on the map of South 
Africa are expressive — Natal, Zulu, Bechuana Land — and are 
associated with missionary work and the memory of Moffat 
and many others. The name of Colenso is associated with 
that of the scholarship of the first Bishop of Africa. The 
Orange Free Slate gives rise to the thought of our own great 
republic, and of the efforts to establish a free state in Africa, 
and at the same time brings up the name of William, Prince 
of Orange, who struggled so long for the deliverance of the 
Netherlands from the dominion of Philip II. of Spain. Lady- 
smith, Utrecht, Dundee, Kimberly, Amsterdam, Richmond, 
and Bulwer, are also all expressive names. 

Is it because diamonds have been discovered in Africa that 
the change has come, and that there should be such a contest 
for dominion? The words of the immortal Lincoln, in his 
second inaugural address, remind us that the gain which has 
come from the discovery of diamond mines, may be counter- 
acted by the loss which has come from so expensive a war, 
and whatever wrongs have been committed, may come back in 
suffering upon those who are indirectly responsible. 

The year igoo is to be commorated by the great Exposition 
at Paris. What will be the display from South Africa? Will 
it be the cannon and military equipments, and the steel guns,. 
all of which seem so hard and cold and cruel; or will it be the 
native fruits and products and the fabrics, which come from 






EDITORIAL. Ill 

peaceful pursuits, and the thousand and one improvements 
which come from the civilization which was gradually spread- 
ing among the natives. 

^ An expert statistician asserts that there are many distinct 
tribes and nations in South Africa south of the Zambesi River. 
Rough guesses place the number of natives at from 2.000,000 
lo 10,000,000, but no one knows what it is. The Kaffirs, the 
Zulus, Ihe Basutos, the Bechuanas, the Swazies, the Amalongas 
and the Matabeles are the chief or best known tribes. The 
Kaflir. in his uncivilised state, is an overgrown child; but when 
he imbibes a little learning and knowledge of English, he 
bcromes all that is worst in a human being. He is very unlike 
the American negro, as is the Zulu. The Zulu is pure-bred, 
and is the real Ethiopian of the ancients; the cuticle is trans- 
parent, so that the red blood can be seen coursing beneath it. 
The flat feot and the bowed legs of the American negro are all 
missing. The Zulu is extremely virtuous. Infraction of the 
law of morality is punished by death. On the other hand, the 
Hottentot, having been a close companion of the white man, 
is the most immoral and depraved human being, perhaps, in 
existence. The Matabales are moral, so are the Basutos and 
Mashonas. The Bechuanas are less so, but the Bushmen rank 
next to the despised Hottentot; the Zulus will not work in the 
same mine with one, or sleep in the same room or kraal. The 
most advanced tribe is the Basuto nation, in which there are 
50.000 Christians, with 144 schools. For more than 100 years 
the tribe has been undergoing a process of forcible civilization. 
Basutotand, while nominally independent, is yet a British 
colony. The native chiefs adjudicate all disputes between 
the natives, but an appeal can be taken to the magistrate's 
court, while cases between whites are tried. Whites are not 
wanted in Basutoland, the land belongs to the natives, and the 
unutilized soil is allotted lo householders for grazing purposes. 
The chief allots fields to each householder who cannot sell the 
land, but whose descendants get it on his death. Several 
limes a year the chiefs of the nation hold a national assembly; 
any native can freely express his opinion without fear. He 
would take refuge behind his status as a member of the 
Basuto Parliament, or "Long House." In this respect, the 
Basutos are like the Iroquois: they are in advince of the other 
tribes, the most of which are chiefs, who are more renowned 
for their appetites for blood, than for anything else. Civiliza- 
tion without Christianity seems to have a degrading influence 
upon the natives here, as it has had upon the natives in 
America. 

It will be acknowledged that civilization has gone on 
rapidly, since this country was open to the A'hite man. The 
nations of Europe have all sought to establish their claims. 
Spain, perhaps, by the right of discovery, has the best claim, 
but the least territory, including only the territory designated 
as Rio de Oro, just south of Morocco; but the dnmicion o( 



122 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

France extends from Algeria and Tunis around to the west t 
the Gulf of Guinea, and south to the mouth of the Congo, 
covering 3,CXK), OCX) square miles— equal to the entire area of 
the United States, the Moors at ihe extreme norih, the 
Ilerbers further south, and the Negritic population in the 
Niger and Congo valleys. 

Portugal, the earliest nation to make discoveries and 
establish stations, has about Soo,COO square miles, with a popu- 
lation of S,ooo,ooo. Argola is on the west coast, Mozambique 
on Ihe east. Her possessions are separated by a space of 6cO 
miles, the extreme distance across the continent being 1,800 
miles. 

Italy claims the territory which fronts the Red Sea and has 
an are of 100.000 square miles, Turkey holds Kgypt and 
Tripoli and the Soudan, with an area of 1.750,000 square miles. 

The British possessions in Africa are widely scattered. 
Cape Colony is the farthest south; northeast of this is Natal; 
directly north is Bechuanaland; north of that Rhodesia; 
farther north, beyond Ihe German possessions, is British 
Central Africa, also Uganda and Hritisli East Africa, which 
stretch northward until they merge into the Egyptian Soudan 
virtually under British influence. They end with the Medi- 
ternnean. The British really occupy the entire distance from 
the Cape to Cairo, except about 600 miles, and that is reduced 
200 miles by the waters of Lake Tanganyiki, Through this 
British territory the plan now is, to extend a railroad from the 
Cape to Cairo, a distance of 5,000 miles. Of this railroad 
1,360 miles from Cape Colony northward has already been 
built, and another portion from Cairo southward lo Karloum 
of 1,100 miles, was recently completed; so that half the dis- 
tance has already been opened. 

It is remarkable, however, that there are more republics in 
Africa, than in any other continent. These are, as follows: 
Congo Free State in the heart of Africa, recognized in 18S5, 
with a population of 5,000.000 and an area of 900.000 square 
miles; Liberia lies on the west coast, has a population of about 
1,500,000 natives, with 25,000 colored emigrants from America. 
Abyssinia, known as the ancient Ethiopia, is an African Em- 
pire; it has an area of [8o,coo square miles, and a population 
of 3.500,000 It occupies the highlands, or extensive table- 
lands, fram 6.0C0 to 10,000 feet above the sea. diversified by 
mountains and river gorges, and being thus comparitively in- 
accessible has been able to maintain its independence for many 
years. There are two Boer republics, which arc nearly sur- 
rounded by British territory; situated entirely in the interior, 
without a port on the ocean, and separated from the Indian 
Ocean by about two hundred miles. Thev were originally 
populated by Dutch, who first settled in Cape Colony and 
Natal, but who became disatisfied with British rule. Those 
now called liners quitted Cape Colony in 1836. and established 
the Orange Free State in 1854; its area is estimated at 48,326 



EDITORIAL. 

square miles; its population is a little over two millions. The 
great Kimberley diamondQmines are located just west of the 
territory of the Orange Free State. The Transvaal lies north 
of the Orange Free State, and is a republic founded by the 
Boers, who left Cape Colony in 1835; established their inde- 
pendence in 1S52, and were annexed by the British government 
\n 1S77; took up arms in iSSi ; self government being restored, 
an agreement was signed in 1884, by which the State was to be 
known ai the South African Republic. The seat of govern- 
ment is Pretoria, with a white population of ten thousand- 
One-third of the population of the republic is engaged in 
agriculture, the lands outside of the mining districts are ex- 
ceedingly productive, and the demand for farm products is 
great. The gold mines are the most productive in the wor'd; 
they have already turned out gold to the value of more than 
three hundred million dollars, and. according to experts, have 
still three billion five hundred million " in sight." 

Foreign goods for the Transvaal reach it through several 
ports: Natal and Cape Colony (English), Lourenco-Marques 
(Portuguese); but they are in telegraphic communication with 
the surrounding states. Great dissatisfaction has been felt 
among the British residents of the republic because of the 
heavy taxation imposed upon them by the government of the 
State, and their inability to participate in the government. 
owing to the long term of residence required to obtain even a 
partial right of franchise. 

The gold production in the Transvaal has increased from 
2aS,i22 ounces in 1888 to 3.699.908 ounces in 189^. The total 
quantity of diamonds found in i8g8 in the Transvaal were 
valued at S2 12.8 13. 

The greatest interest centers in Rhodesia. This occupies 
the territory known as British Central Africa and lies directly 
Oonh of Bechuanaland. The territory was originally con- 
trolled by the British South Africa company, Hon. Cecil John 
f^hodes. manager, and includesthe country known as Mashono- 
land and Matabelaland, with a population of two hundred and 
forty thousand. These are the localities where very interest- 
ing; antiquities have been discovered. The total area of 
-Hhodesia is about seven hundred and fifty thousand square 
»Tii!es — equal to about one-fourth of the United States— and it 
^as a population of from one to two millions; six thousand of 
■%hem white. 

The Kimberley diamond mines, which are located in British 
Territory, just outside the boundaries of the Orange Free State 
and about six hundred miles from Cape Town, now supply 
ninety-eight per cent, of the diamonds of commerce, although 
their existence was unknown prior to 1867. and the mines have 
thus been in operation but about thirty years. It is estimated 
that three hundred and fifty million dollars' worth of rough 
diamonds, worth double that sum after cutting, have been pro- 
duced from the Kimberley mines since their opening in 1868-69; 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and this enormous production would have been greatly in- 
creased, but for the fact that the owners of the various mines 
in that vicinity formed an agreement by which the annual out- 
put was so limited as to meet, but noi; materially exceed, the 
annual consumption of the world's diamond markets, 
plentiful is the supply and so inexpensive the work of pro- 
duction, that diamond-digging in other parts of the world has 
almost ceased since the South African mines entered the field. 
The gold mints of South Africa are, as we have slated, the 
richest in the world. Recent discoveries lead to the belief 
that these wonderfully rich mines are the iong lost " gold 
mines of Ophir" from which Solomon obtained his supplies; 
making "a navy of ships in Ezion-geber, which is opposite 
Elath. on the shore of the Red Sea. in the land of Edom; and 
Hiram sent in the navy his servants, shipmen that had knowl- 
edge of the sea, with the servants of Solomon; and theyc 
to Ophir and fetched from thence gold and also talents and 
brought it to King Solomon," 



SIR. J. WILLIAM DAWSON. 

Sir J. William Dawson was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, 
in 1S20. Me graduated at Kdinbiirg Uriiversily, and returning 
home devoted himself to geology and paleontology. In 1843^ 
he began contributing to scientific periodicals. He Wfotfi a 
monograph on the Devonian Carbonferous Floras of North 
America. His work on "' Acadian Geology" appeared in 1855. 

He became known as a discover of what was called Eozoon 
Canadense. which he maintained was the earliest relic of ani 
mal life. Considerable discussion arose about it. This led 
him to write his book on "The Dawn of Life." He was op- 
posed to the Darwinian theory, and wrote "The Story of 
Earth and Man " to refute the theory. He held to the marine 
origin of the drift deposits, and at the meeting of the Ameri- 
can Association at Minneapolis argued in favor of " water ice," 
rather than "land ice." His work on "Fossil Man "was about 
the only purely archaeological book he ever wrote; it was based 
on the discovery of the remains of the ancient village or city 
called Hochelaga, on the site where Montreal now stands. In 
it he described the prehistoric relics, and compared them with 
those of Europe, but (ailed to make as close a distinction as 
many other archasologists would consider desirable. 

His work on " Eden Lost and Won; or. The Studies of the 
Early History and Final Destiny of Man. as Taught in Nature 
and Revelation," as well as the work that followed it: "The 
Historical Deluge," and another on " Modern Ideas of Evolu- 
tion as Related to Revelation and Science." were written with 
the idea of reconciling science and religion. In these he held 
the traditional view. The last-named work reached a sixth 
edition, and had great influence over the public mind. 



EDITORIAL. 125 

His best books were perhaps "The Meeting Place of 
Geology and History," "The Chain of Life nnd Geological 
Time," and "Egypt and Syria; Their Physical Features in 
Relation to Bible History." 

As principal of the Magill University for forty years, he 
assumed a prominent position as an educator and built up the 
institulion into permanent success and influence- He was 
appointed president of the Royal Society of Canada in 1882, 
and in the same year was elected president of the American 
Asssociation, In 1886, he was president of the British 
Association. He received the honor of Knighthood in 1884. 
He died at Montreal, November [9, 1899. 

Principal Dawson will be remembered by those who knew 
him, as a gentleman of kindly spirit, modest and courteous; a 
good pattern of a Christian gentleman, who never failed to 
secure the respect, even of those who differed with him in 
opinion. His convictions were decided and he was free to 
express them on public occasions, when opportunity offeied. 
There are some points which the consensus of opinion has 
settled contrary to his conclusions, but his position as to the 
Bible as a work of revelation, which can endure the light 
which advancing science might throw upon it, won for him the 
confidence of all thoughtful men of all Christian lands. His 
works have been read extensively, and will survive him. 



I 



PRESIDENT EDWARD ORTON. 

Another gentleman, who, like Principal Dawson, was 
educated as a theologian, but became prominent as a scientist 
and made his mark upon his generation, by the breadth of his 
views and catholicity of his spirit, has just passed away, 
namely. President Edward Orton, of Columbus, Ohio. 

It has been often said that clergymen, by reason of their 
profession or education, were unfitted to become scientists, but 
facts show that it is a mere presumption. 

President Orton was the son of a clergyman. Samuel D. 
Orton. D. D.; a graduate of Hamilton College; studied 
theology under Dr. Lyman Heecher and Dr- Edward J. Park. 
He was best known as a geologist, but was at the same time in- 
terested in archeology and history, lie served on the Geo- 
logical survey of Ohio under Prof, J. S, Newberry, and after- 
ward was State Geologist for many years. He was elected 
president of the American Association, when it met in his own 
city (Columbus), and gave an address on the "Wonderful Cen- 
tury an! the Progress accomplished in it." 

Prof. Orton was most useful as a teacher; a calling to which 
he-was devoted for more than half a century. From our personal 
acquaintance, we arc glad to give testimony to his courtesy 
and kindly spirit. 



t 




ARCH/HOLOGICAL NOTES. 




Discoveries in Nicakagua. — An article published in the 
Chicago Tribune, furnished by Mr. Henry VV. Fischer, describes 
ihe finds in Nicaragua. Thej' are important because they show 
that there was contact between this country and Asia in pre- 
historic times. Among others was an image resembling the 
Chinese Buddha, with almond-shaped eyes, pjgtaiiand all. It 
was in the shape of a vase, seven inches high, and beautifully 
enameled and polished; it was made from Nicamgiia clay and 
represents Buddha has silting. 

"There are many places in Nicaragua where mementoes of 
ancient American civilization of Asiatic origin arc to be had I 
for the digging. One is the Province of Nicoya, and anothcF'l 
on the slopes of the Volcano Irazu, S.OCXD feet above the seaJ 
level. Mr. Chablc also found several islands in Lake Nicaragua! 
rich in buried treasures of clay, gold, silver, and semi-precious 1 
stones. These islands lie almost on the line that will be (ol-f 
lowed by steamers crossing the lake from the mouth of the. 
San Juan Rivel to the canal at Las Lajas. 

"Mr. Chabic also dug up gold and jade amulets and all sortsil 
of pottery of ethnological value in the Solentiname group oil 
islands, while the Island of Ometepe. with the two volcanoe*:! 
of Ometepe and Madera, yielded him fine specimens of stonea 
carving and remnants of household goods of former races tbatS 
were buried with their owners. Pottery of a rough and un-fl 
couth sort is found everywhere about the route of the canal. 

" Local tradition has it that the buriers of these pots and.1 
jewelry were A/tecs, who came by seas as far south as Nicara-'l 
gua, where they took the name of Mangues, and after a time ' 
drifted into Nicoya. Those who hid their dead in the Volcano 
Irazu were probably anolher Aztec tribe, who paddled through 
the .San Juan River and up the San Carlos River, then pro- 
ceeded along the crest of the mountains until they reached . 
Irazu. Thus it will be seen that the Aztecs, who supposed lyr-J 
came " from the far north," practically followed the route laid I 
down for the proposed twentieth century canal. ^ 

"The existence of a race far superior to the aborigines from 
which the present Indians have sprung, is attested by their 
buril places. They had three kinds of graves - some walled 
in, with flagstones on top and bottom; some partially walled, 
and others without top or bottom, scooped out in the earth. . 
In all of them the diligent arch^ologist will find potteJy made | 
of a coarse, raw clay, that the modern artisan would not touch. 

" Mr. Chable, who open ed hundreds of these graves, says he 1 
rarely came across remains in the shape of bones. The graves j 
are situated from five to six feet below the surface, seldom \ 
more, the heavy laja or top stone, five by six feet in size, rest-^ 



ARCH/KOLOGICAL NOTKS. 

ing firmly on the flagstone side walls. When the lid is lifted 
with crowbars, it remains to remove the dust which has sifted 
through the interstices of ihe stone in centuries past. 

'■'This done, you begin to look for reward." says Mr. 
Ciiable. 'All the bodies are laid out facing the rising sun. 
and as a rule two pieces of pottery are found at the head, one 
on either side of the cranium that was. At the side, within 
reach of Ihe hands, there is more pottery, some of it contain- 
ing a mould, an analysis of which showed remnants of cocoa 
or toasted corn; and more pottery at the feet, and above the 
neck some precious ornament of jade, olithuclase, or gold, if 
the grave be that of a rich man.' 

"As to the Asiatic-American's pottery, no living man can 
make ils equal to-day. The fowls of the air. the beasts of the 
land, and the fish of the sea— they limned them all on their 
bowls and jars and vases. The birds are full of motion, as 
thouijh a Japanese arti.st had painted them with a stroke of his 
never failing brush- It was evidently the artisan's chief aim 
to depict the animal world. 

•■ Among the articles dug up by Mr- Chahlc, and which New 

York scientists are gloating over, are cups and jugs, household 

^lte^:^ils and bells, jewilry, idols, and musical instruments of 

-quaint design. Here are frying pans of clay, varying in size 

-and of ruddy color, in ochre and Titian reds. The handles 

;are shaped after a hundred patterns — snakes, duck and alliga- 

X.or heads. Rshtails, caciques' heads, human forms, and what not- 

jEveii the clumsiest of household pieces were carved in some 

ude manner. The large stone used for grinding corn, lor 

nstance. is often found in beautiful shapes, the commonest 

%eing that of a tiger carved out of volcanic stone. On the 

[icara, a gourd-shaped drinking vessel, the arliat mu.st have 

spent months of patient toil. The tracery is delicate, the 

shape full of careless grace; the colors are subtle, yet full of 

■warmth. These vessels, having round bottoms, required stands 

'fashioned like napkin rings wherein to place them when not in 

land. 

■■ Love of children must have been one of the traits of the 
Asiatic-American Indians, for Mr, Chable found numerous 
specimens of toys for children, articulated dolls, too, all of 
-clay — clumsy, some of ihem, as if they had been fashioned by 
youngsters. Arms, legs, and the head work in sockets and are 
fastened to the trunk by pita fiber passed through holes in the 
two pieces. 

"Many musical instruments were found: whistles in the 
shapes of birds, men's heads, frogs — all clay, all grotesque, all 
with the five holes of the ociavc. Here is a small duck of 
black earth, with beryl wings and gaping beak. Blow through 
the aperture in the folded winjjs and you will hear the five 
tones of the Chinese lute— F, G, A, B flat, li natural. Two 
jars of enameled clay, stained red and brown, make up the 



128 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



twin whistling vases. Each ts ten inches high, with long, 
straight neck and full, round body- A narrow duct connects 
the necks, and the bodies are also joined together. In the neck 
of one is a stopper pierced with five holes. Pour water into the 
open neck, and as the first fills the air is expelled from the 
second through the perforated stopper. It conies out whistl- 
ing softly— again the five tones of the Chinese lute. If you, 
apply your fingers you can play all sorts of melodies. Hut 
that isn't all. The striped clay tiger sings when you blow- 
through his tail. Who will explain it all— the Buddha, the 
Chinese musical scale, and the rest?" — Chicago Tribune. 



An interesting anthrqpologicai. "find" will soon be 
announced by the American Mustum of Natural History.- It 
is nothing less than the discovery, on a lonely island in Hud- 
son Hay, of a lost tribe of Eskimo — a community which has 
been without inlercoursc with other representatives of the 
human species for centuries, and whose members never saw a 
white man until a few months ago. They are still in the Stone 
Age. knowing no metals; they grow no plants, and their houses 
are built of the skulls of whales. The tribe comprises only 
fifty-eight individuals, about equally divided as to sexes, U» 
members speak a dialect peculiar to themselves, and quite un- 
like that employed by any other Eskimo. A strait about thirty , 
miles broad separates Southampton Island from the western 
shore of Hudson Bay, where there is a colony of Eskimo, and 
once in a very long while it freezes clear across. This hap- 
pened, it is said, seventy-five years ago. and then a few hunters 
came over from the island to the mainland, where they were 
much surprised to encounter other human beings like them- 
selves, having doubtless imagined that they were the only peo- 
ple in existence. This is now a tradition with the natives on 
the mainland, who say that the strangers brought two sledges 
with them, but went away again and never returned- Neither 
before nor since has anv news come from the lost tribe. 



Another vkry strange ethnological "riND" has just 
been made by Mr- George H. Pepper, who is connected with' 
the American Museum of Natural History. This is nothing- j 
less than the turning up in Northern New Mexico of deposits | 
representing memorials of ceremonials which were conducted 
perhaps one thousand years ago by the ancestors of the modern 
Moki Indians. Of late years many descriptions of the Moki 
snake d.inccs have been published, exciting no little attention, 
and hence the interest attaching to evidences of the great 
antiquity of so remarkable a mode of religious observance. 
The Pueblo Bonito, where the discovery was made, is the 
largest of the many prehistoric ruined cities found in that part 
of the country. Last summer Mr. Pepper started digging 




ARCH.-EOLOGICAL NOTES. I2g 

lerationa, one result of which was the partial uncovering of 
nest of human artifracis that is certainly pre-Columbian, 
and, in all probability, were older than this term would imply- 
The deposit was in the floor of a kiva, and consisted of cer- 
tain charms, which possibly were worn by the medicine men. 
"Dicy have been reported as commemorating "fossil snake 
dances, but the imagination of ordinary reporters is always vivid. 



P'lNDS IN Ecu.'VDOR, — Near Manti, Ecuador, is a remarkable 
arch;cological relic, one of the most inleresling monuments in 
South America of an unknown and extinct civilization. Upon 
ft plaltorm nf massive blocks of stone, upon a summit of a 
low hill in a natural amphitheater and arranged in a perfect 
circle, are thirty enormous stone chairs, evidently " The Seats 
of the Mighty," Each chair is a monolith, cut from a solid 
block of granite, and they are alt fine specimens of stone 
carving. The seat rests upon the back of a crouching sphinx, 
which has a decidedly Egyptian appearance. There are no 
backs to the chairs, but two broad arms. This is supposed to 
have been a place of meeting— an open-air council of the 
chiefs of the several tribes that made up the prehistoric 
nation, which was subdued by the Incas of Peru several hun- 
dred years before the Spanish invasion. Tradition teaches 
with more or less obscuiity that the territory now known as 
Ecuador was divided into several independent but allied king- 
doms, and that the people reached a high stage of civilization, 
They worshipped the sun and the moon, lo both of which they 
raised temples. They had a knowledge of astronomy and 
were skilled in other sciences and art, but they had no written 
language, and the only records that tell of their existence arc 
mute monuments like the chairs described. 



Geometrical and Human Figures.— The following in 
reference to human figures on pottery, is from a private letter 
written by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes: " I did not find in my col- 
lection of pottery from the Upper Gila ( Pueblo Viejo) a single 
specimen of decorated pottery with human or animal designs 
painted on it, but there were two specimens with a human 
figure in relief. On the Little Colorado and its tributaries, 
Four Mile, Chevdon, Komoloti, etc., there were many bowls, 
vases, etc., decorated with animal and human pictography, but 
no human figures in relief. The geometrical patterns on the 
Gila and Little Colorado pottery are very similar, probably 
have like meaning. As a rule animal and hnmau figures on 
black and white ware arc rare, geometrical designs predomi- 
nate. Whether that means that this pottery is more ancient 
or not, is as yet unknown. It is very hard to obtain any in- 
formation as to the age of pottery from its texture, color, or 
decoration. 



130 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

American History on the Stage. — In reading of the 
early history of the South one cannot help noticicg that in the 
young days of the republic there was much romance and a 
love of chivalry below what has so long been known as Mason 
and Dixon's line. A great portion o! Virginia was a one time 
colonized by representatives of aristoratic faniilies from Eng- 
land and France, and they brought with them many of the 
customs, habits, manners, and fashions of the old world. 
Many of their home were built entirely with materials im- 
ported from the mother country, and they were a people 
unused to business and to whom the thoughts of trade were 
obnoxiousi This, it must be remembered, was long before the 
gospel of work and progression had reached the ears of the 
Fairfaxes of Fairfax and the Carrolls of Carroiiton, The 
young men rode their thoroughbreds up the broad oaken stair- 
cases for the slightest wager, and history bears witness to the 
fact that it was a time when many a woman was wooed, won, 
and married in the saddle with her lover's arm around her. It 
is with these people and the social conditions that existed in 
Virginia during the early days of the present century that 
Eugene W. Presljrey s comedy, deals. 



Expi-oRATtoN IS THE FoKUM. — A (rieze belonging to the 
age of Antonines has been found in the Via Sacra- iMghteen 
layers of the Via Sacra have been laid b?.re; near the Arch of 
Titus it has undergone a violent disturbance. A fine mosaic 
pavement, of the time of Minerva, has come to light, in the 
Court of the Vestal Convent, and a much more magnificent 
one in the Forum, probably belonging to the times of Justinian. 
The buildmgs of Vespasian and Maxentius can be seen side- 
by -side. 



A Roman pavement near Dorchester, England, has been 
discovered; it lies about two feel beneath the surface and con- 
tains a central octagonal ornament, surrounded by scrolls, 
guiilochcs, and flanked by oblong spaces, with a centre vase 
with two small handles. 



Thk Moon Symbol. — The symbol of the curved nonde- 
script crflRturc pictured on the pottery by Dr. Fewkcs in the 
^^itttftonian Report for '95, is interpreted by Rev. Mr. Voth as 
k«^«U>i«l of the moon. 




M 



LITERARY NOTES. 

The Overland Monthly is one of the most valned of all our ex- 
changes. During the last year it has contained a great many finely- 
iJlu>trated articles, some them on archaeological subjects; amon^ these we 
may mention the article by Cunyngham Cunningham on "A Picturesque 
Pueblo, near Soro Monte, Mexico "; another, ** A Trip to Mt. Adams,*' and 
another on "The Pajjodas of China.' The article on "The Literary De- 
velopments of the F ar Northwest," by Herbert Bashford, is also very in- 
structive. 

* ^ * 

The Journal of the Polynesian Society is another of our 
'valued exchanges which treats largely of archaeology and ethnology. The 
September number had an article on '* Polynesian Native Clothing,*' by 
JRev. Samuel Ella; another on "The Fire Walking in Fiji, Japan, India, 
^nd Maritius." 

* * * 

The Bulletin of the American Geographical Society has a 
£nely-illustrated article on "The Great Lakes and Niagara." by Ralph S. 
Tarr. The view of Niagara Falls, as given by Hennepin, Kalm and other 
^arly visitors, as well as the photographs of the Falls as they are to-day, 
Ihelp us to understand the changes which have occurred. It has been 
1>ointed out by Hensen, that thirty independent estimates of post-glacial 
"«ime, based upon dififerent date, give results of between 5.000 and 12.000 
-years; so the age of the Niagara Gorge would be from 7,000 to 10,000 years, 

out the problem is by no means solved, as some make an estimate of from 
30.000 to 50,000 years. The region about the Niagara Falls has been rising 
■about one foot and a quarter in a century. Gilbert believes that the Great 

Lakes will discharge into the Mississippi past Chicage, from five to six 
liundred years from now, and that in 3,500 years Niagara will be dry. The 

change amounts to six inches in a century at Duluth, and nine inches at 

Toledo and Chicago. 

Prof. J. H. Deforest, D. D., has an article in 7^Ae Independent ioi 
February, on " Japan." and Capt. Alfred T. Mahan one on " The Philippines 
and Transvaal." The question raised, is whether the ricrht to landed 
property, either conquered or purchased by one nation from another, 
transfers the people on the land to the purchasing nation, and whether 
allegience is due. Ethnologists will understand that originally there was 
no nation in these islands, the land having been occupied by clans and 
held in common by the clans. The conquest of an island may have 
secured a title, which can be transferred; but as long as the native system 
of clans and tribes continues, it will be difficult to convince the natives 
that such a transference is possible. 



Harper's Magazine for September, '99, has an article on "The Cen- 
turies Progress in Experimental Psychology." The same number has the 
famous article by Mark Twain concerning the Jews, and begins the series 
of articles on "The First American," which contains pictures of his homes 
and household. Harper's keeps up to the standard, even though the price 
has been lowered to $3.00. 



133 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Appleton's Popular Science Monthly for September, 'qq, has a: 
intereEling article on "The Survival ol African Music in America," by 
Jennetle Robinson Murphy. The author takes the position that the greater 
part of their music, their methods, their scale, their type ol thought, tbeir 
dancing, their patting of feel, their clapping oC hands, ibeir grimaces and 
pantomine, ana their gross superstition, come straight from Africa. Some 
of the later songs we may call modilietl African; but it seems hardly just, 
to call the genuine Negro songs, the folk songs of America. The slock is 
African, the ideas are African. The veneer oE civilization and religious 
furor and Bible truth is entirely superRcial, the African is under it all. 
This imported music, the strange, wierd, untamable barbaric melodies. 
have a rare beauty and charm. The November number has an article on 
" The Wonderful Century," by W. K. Brooks, who compares the conduct of 
modern na.tions, who call themselves civilized, with that of Ihe Spanish 
conquerors. They use their vast arnaments for their own agrandisemeni 
and for the injury of their neighbors, bui their Christian governments do 
noi conduce to the improvement of the nations. 



W.G. Irwin has a description of old Fort Ancient in the ScUtilifie 
amcrkan for February 17. As 10 the a(>e of the fort, the weight of opinion 
is that i.coo years will cover nts existence; there are many evidences of 
long occupation. The fort is divided into three section:^, has terraces 
twenty feet wide, and what are called stone pavements between the walls. 
The skulU thai have been exhumed are of two classes, the long heads and 
the broad heads, thus corroburating what the editor of this journal has 
stated and what Prof. Putnam conhrms: that there were a noilhern and a 
southern race, which occupied this region in southern Ohio; one of which 
may be called Mound-Builders, the" other Indians; though neither term 
exactly expresses Ihe thought. 



pHOF, Maspero has completed his great work "The Dawn of Civili- 
zation.'' and has brought the history of the Orient down lo the time of the 
Shepherd Kings of Egypt. The second volume, called "The Struggle of 
the Nations," brought history down to the reign of Shalmanezer. The 
third comes down to the conquests of Alexander the Great. In dealing 
with the subjects the author makes use of the Greek historians, the 
Hebrew scriptures, the recovered writings of the Assyrians, Babylonians, 
Egyptians. Hitiiies. Persians, Armenians, and others. The book is pub- 
lished by the Appletons. Edited by Prof. A. H. Sayce. 



New Era has an article on the question " Can While Mi _. 
e in the Tropics?" The author lakes the ground that they Ci 
s opposed by many eood authorities. The same magazine ' 
ted article on " Life Among the Cannibals." 



The American Architect and Building News for February _,. 
has articles on "Italian Gardens" and ".Ramsey Abbey." The Abbey was 
founded by the son of King Alfred; many Roman coins have been found 
there. Both articles are well illustrated. 



^ 





BOOK REVlEWb. 



EvcHANTED India. By I'Hnce [iojjdar Karageoraevilch. New York 
aui London: Harper & Bros, publishers (1X99); pp. J05. 

yLMiST Corners of Ancient Empires: Southern India, Burma and 
Manila, By Michael Meyers Shoemiker. author ot "The Southern 
Se*s'' and ■' Pjlaccs and Prisons of -Mary Queen of Scotls." Illus- 
irated. New York and London; G. P. Pulnara's Sons, the Knicker- 
bocker Press (iSqgl; pp. 212. 



These two books should be read toReiher, for ihi 
general view of India, as seen by a. native princ 
tion not only of the varied architecture of the cr 
scenes ot human activity which everywhere pi 

:enes' of disease and di 
e of these d< 



first contains a 

descnp- 

nlry, but the more lively 

vails, with an ciccaslunal 

h with which that 

rly pathetic 



and contract very strangely with the columns, ^^teways, statues of the 
gods, bas-reliefs i/f the must bcwilderini; perspective, which repreaent the 
an of the past. The 1.452 gods of the jam Paradise are represented on a 
tculplured pyramid under a paeoda. " Around one pagoda, towering over 
a wrelched village that lay huddled in the shade of it* con-iecraled walls, 
a proud processional of stone bulls stood out against the sky. visible at a 
great distance, in clear outline, through 'he heated, q^uivering air." 
"Ancient buildings, the remains of still majestic magninretice. Thotn 
breaks cover supporting walls as broad as crenellated terraces; fragments 
of light and fantastic architecture stand up from golden blossoms; totter- 
ing colonnades overhang tanks, all green at the bottom with pools of brack- 
ish water. Native lancers maneuvering, charged at top speed in a swirl of 
golden dust, which transfigured their niovements, mitkiiig them look as 
though ihey did not touch the earth, but were riding on the clouds; their 
lances quivered for an instant, a flash of steel sparks against the sky — a 
salute lo the Maharajah. A long train of wailing women, loud in iamenta- 
lions, came slowly out of a house where one lay dead. A dangerous mad- 
man behind a grating which shut him into a kind of hovel, A tame white 
antelope, wandering about the garden of the old Rajah's palace, under a 
shower of gardenia-like flowers. A temple, carved and pierced and over- 
loaded with ornaments. Stations for prayer stood all along the road, where 
fool-prints, are worshipped. Elephants come along, stepping daintily, hut 
filling the whole width of the street. Beggar women came up, to sing 
from door to door, asking alms." 

It is an enchanted land and is described in a charming manner. The 
book contains a series of word pictures which show a marvelous command 
of language. It contains no illustrations, and one needs to read it care- 
fully 10 get the real scene fixed in the mind. 

The second book supplies the delicieocv, for ii is full of illustrations 
and gives an idea as 10 the art and architecture which prevail. The lank 
of the golden lilies at Madura; theslately procession of elephants at Tanjore, 
and the stone bull; the seven hundred and fifty pagodas at Mandalay, and 
the golden palace: ihe famous pagoda on the r-jcking stone at Moulmein; 
the City of Pazahn: pagodas and enshrined Gautamas at Rangoon; Ihe 
cathedral of Manila; earthquake ruins in foreground, and the oldest church 
in Manila, are the titles of a few of the en^jravings. 

The style of Ihe author is by no means as brilliant or magical as that 
of the Hindoo Prince, and yet it sets off the events which occurred, and 
furnishes many good descriptions of ihe scenes and objects of interest. 



134 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The History of Illinois anu Lc uimana Under the French Rule; 

EMBRACING A GENERAL VIEW OF THE KkFNCH LOSJINION IX NORTH 
ASI ERICA, WITH SOME ACCOl^NT OF THE ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF 

Illinois. By Joseph Wallace, M. A., auiLor of ihe " Life of Colcnel 
Edward D. Baker." Second Edition, with maps, etc. Cincinnati: Ihe 
Robert Clarke Company (1899); pp. 433. 

The Old Northwest; The Beginnings of the Colonial System. 
By B. A. Hinsdale, Ph. D.. LL. D. RevL-ed Edition. Boston, New 
York and Chicago: Silver, Hurdette & Company (1899); PP* 430- 

These t^vo volumes supplement one another. The first gives the his- 
tory of the discovery and exploration of the interior. The second gives 
the history of the settlement and the conquest of the same region; con- 
quest, first, from the Indians; second, from the French; third, irom the Eng- 
lish, as the colonies of the English were continued even after the colonies 
on the Atlantic coast had asserted and maintained their independence. 

The local history and u.t descriptions of particular localities are given 
in the book by Mr. Wallace, and are so graphic and complete that they 
form a good background for the picture which is drawn by rrof. Hinsdale; 
the political history being given by the laittr very fully. To the archaeo- 
logist and the antiquarian, both books are exceedingly valuable. It seems 
to be positively criminal for any one, who may live in the Interic r, to be 
ignorant of the region, so long as such inter esiing books as these are at 
hand. 

Ot course it is expected tVat the residents of the Atlantic coast will be 
familiar with the localities where great events have taken place, for the 
very namts of cities, lakes, rivers, and railroad stations are so suggestive, 
that one almost unconsciously lookir out of the car window at their announce- 
ment, and, perhaps, the younger the traveler is, the kec ner the interest. The 
traveler in the West, however, hears such names as La Salle, Joliet, Hen- 
nepin, and Marquette and hardly thinks of the places as having been trod- 
den by the early explorers. He may even enter into excellent hotels and 
cross over parks which bear these time-honored names, and never think of 
history. When, however, such books as these are in our public libraries, 
and can be on our tables, there is no excuse for ignorance. It is to be 
hoped that with the anti(juarian discoveries that have arisen in so manv 
localities in the Eastern States, with the tracing out of genealogies, and 
with the large number of splendidly illustrated books which represent 
local scenes and events, that the historic spirit will be aroused throughout 
the entire country. 



Historic Towns of New England. Edited by Lyman P. Powell. 
Illustrated. Second Edition. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's 
Sons, The Knickerbocker Press (1899). 

Historic Towns of the Middle States. Edited by Lyman P. Powell. 
Illustrated. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, The 
Knickerbocker Press (1899). 

These two beautiful volumes originated In a novel way. The author 
in 1893 escorted a body of students to historic spots in Philadelphia, 
Germantown. Battlefield of the Brandywine. and the site of the winter 
camp at Valley Forge; and in 1894, conducted excursions to Hartford, Bos- 
ton, Cambridge, Lexington, Concord, and other places of historic interest. 
Among the parties were some of the most distinguished writers, such as 
Col. T. W. Higginson, Dr. Edward E. Hale, Talcot Williams, C. C. Coffin, 
Hezekiah Butterworth. and many others. The result was that Dr. Lyman 
P. Powell, the projector of these excursions, became the editor of a series 
of historic sketches, which were written, for the most part, by residents of 
ese noted places, and who were familiar with all the historic events and 



BOOK REVIKVVS; 




DCS. They were fo fami iar wiili thi 
e iboughl of writing abijul ihem, excep 
"Shrough ihese excursions, 

I here IS an inspiriilinn in the sketches, for they brioR beiore us the 
vames and cliaraciers of ihnse persons who have been the prominent 
actors in American historv, bul wfio'e home life is almost unknown, ll is 
like taking a series of pori rails of prominent men and puiting them into a 
fumework which would represent the very scenes wiih which ihey were sur- 
rounded, and making one set uff ihe other. The places are ciowded with 
a tbronK whirh knows little of ihe past, and cares less; hut there are those 
who look with difterent eyes, and who recall thai life which once throbbed 
with such pulsations as to effect the remotest parts of our couoirv, and 
have the abilty to tetl the story of the exploits which make the places 
memorable. 

II is nut. then, merely a description of a few historic houses, or relics, 
or local surroundinRs, wiiich makes the res'ling in these biioks so fasci- 
naling. but it-is the fact ihat everythini; is tilled with the memory of the 
great and good men, who once lived in Ihem; they seem lo have been 
bro>ighi to life ai;aiD. It is not merely the cilies and the show places, but 
many out-of-the-way and quiet mrjl lonni are described, and events which 
»te almoit forgotten are totd, with Ihe scenes in which they were enacted 
hr.iu<bt clearly before the eye. Noihiug can be more gratifying to the 
lovers of history than this. It is taking archfcolog)' and hislorv and mak- 
ing them both apeak with eloquent words. The artist may paint the scenes; 
the historian may wiile them; but here the two are united in one. 

Such places as Portland, Salem, Boston. Concord, Plymouth. Provi- 
dence, Newport, and Cambridge, come in for the lion's share; but such 
liltle places as Rutland are mentioned. This was the dwelling place of 
Kev. Manasseh Cutler, who was a great man and who did more inan any 
other man to securr all the Northwest territory against the extension of 
slavery, and for Ihe sctiling frtc industrious people from New England. 
The place is called the cradle of Ohio, because from it went out the men 
W'blch first settled al Marietta, which was the forerunner of all those bands 



sand colonies which so rapidly hlled the Mississippi Valley 
' Wfith an intelligent population, and carried into the West New England in- 
stitutions. 

The battles which occurred in the State of New York and made such 
ices as Saratoga and Schenectadv and Newburgh historic, because of the 
victotiesthat were won. are as graphically described as though the writer 
'Was an eye witness of the events. The balilrlields were visited, and every 
locality is described, as the scene where each particular struggle look 
' place. Even the houses, the springs, and the hills arc brought into the 
Skccount. and the part which men ana women took in each event is shown. 
If the Interior could be visited in the same way, hy parties who arc 
well informed, and everv historic place could be described, it might take 
ray the ignorance which now prevails, atid bring citizens who dwell un- 
nsciously near theie places to realize the importance of local history anti 
awaken more patriotism, which now is looking so far away for ils inspira- 
tion, and make it closer and more practical. 

We commend the two volumes to the reading public, and hope that 
%hey may be found in all the libraries. 



The Roman History of AI'pian of Alexandria. Translated from 
the Greek by Horace White. M. A., LL.D .with maps and illustrations. 
Vol. 11.— The Civil Wars. New York and London: The Macraillan 
Company, Limited |i8q>)). 

ll is very remarkable that a man who is as industrious as Mr. Horace 
'Vhile bas been in other lines should find time lo prepare a translation of a 
Creek book, which is out of prim, but which will be very useful to scholars 
and literary men. The book was first published a, d. 15a, during the reign of 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Samuel Musgl 
lerial for iranslation 
volumes There wa 
letter; another one t 

Mr. While has 



>, Hgl. 



ot Appia 






given by 



, the English scholar, in 1780, began to gather ma- 

Piof. Sonweighaustr published il in 171^5, in three 

in EnKlisb iranslatiun in i;;5. in old Ecigl>sh black 

i made by John Davies, and published in folio form. 

. ibjected his translation to Prof. Theodore Lyman 

Wright, Professor of Greek Liltrature in Bcloit CoSleiie, for revision. The , 

portraits us,ed as illuslraljons were selected by himself iti Rome, a 



very excellent, especially that of Julit 
to Vol. 11.; and Scioio Africanus, which i 



Rom 



\\ facsimiles oi Vatican r 



. ihich form 
found in the lirsl 



a frontispieci 
lume. Then 



The aulhoi 
those of Polyb 

ably bi 

comes under the Lalin depm 

sequenlly a Greek book is 



lies on Roman history 

the works oE 
;r been read : 



osed 



, lis follows; the works of Cicero, 
i of the third Punic war; Ca:sar's 
Ilu4t, and the works of Livv. Appian s 
much as that of uther Latin writers, prob- 
Greek. The history of Roinr, naturally 
nt. and is taught by Latin professors; con- 
a text-book, and the style of Appian 



o attractive as thnt of Livy and other writers; but judj-ing from Ihe 
translation, it has the same general characteristics, and, in fact, is In some I 
tespFcIs even better than theirs. 

The book is dedicated to Prof Joseph Emerson, D, D , LL. D., Profes- 
sor of Greek in Beloit Co'lege, r.s the late-coming Iruits of his instruction, 
and is published by the MacmilUn Company in their usual elegant iorm. 



Plantation Pagbahts. By Joel Chandler Harris, author ol "Uncle 
Remus," etc, lllusirntcd by E. Boyd Smith. Boston and Ntw Voik; 
Mifflin & Co., The Kiversi.ie Press. 

The writings of Joel Chandler Harris are valuable because ihev con- 
t»in thi-. folklore and myths nf the Africans in their own dialect, without 
any interpolations from the white man. The present volume on " Planta- 
tion Pageants" does not contain as much dialect as the others, but is mainly 
given to the narralive of events which occurred after the war. . 

"The Story of a Strange Wagoner" is one that gives a picture of the I 
character and a turn out, which could only be found in the South. The [ 
talk about fox-hunting brings up another scene peculiar to that regio 
There is, however, an undercurrent of negro superstition which tiiakes the ^ 
anicnals to be like human-kind and enables the negroes to understand tbeit 
language— a quality which is possiessed by them alone. 

It is interesting to take such books and compare ihem with the bonks 
on folklore and mythology of the Indians, for bv this meaus we learn ihe 
peculiarities of each class of myths. Those of the negroes leading 1 

mainly to such animals as frequent the inhabited placi 

the negroes, like the fox and the rabbit and the c 
Indians were generally wild animals, such as the h 
■eagle, etc.. who were regarded not as companions, but 

HiSTciRV OF THE New World Called America. By Edward John ,' 
Payne. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Vols I. and 11. 
Oxford; The Clarendon Press (i8qq). 

There are several lespects in which this history of America will in- 
terest the arch;eologist5 and ethnologists of this country: First, it is about i 
the early history of America, which has taken advantage of the discoveries ' 
and investigations in Iheir line of ^ludv. or has ever given Ihe results which , 
would help to solve the problem of the peopling of this r 
work begins with the usual account of the discoveries which preceded- 



oon. Those of the 
'olf, panther, raven, 
as totems, and pet- 



BOOK RtVIEWS. 137 

C^lnmbus, including the journey- of Marco Polo to- China; the 
voyajje oF the Norseraen to Iceland, and the fabulous and uncertain voy- 
ages and journeys which gave rise 10 various traditions which prevailed, 
and which led 10 the placing on the map certain names which were signifi- 

There wasa iradilion atnon^Ihe Romansabout the Ogygian or Kronian 
Contnem, and among the Greeks at the [sland of Atlaniis, There were 
cerlaia names, such as "5l. Brandon." -Antilles," "Ule at Ihe Seven 
Cities," and "Ultima Thule." which kept up the expeclalion that a conti- 
nent would yet be discoveced beyond the preat western sea. When the 

continent was discovered, it was fouo'' "'■ 

as many pans of the Old World, and n ^^ .. 

gold and Ihe grandeur of its cities. So the des 
India were almost re: lized in America. 

The name " New World " (Nova Terra> soon began to be wonderfully 
expressive, bul the impression conlinued for a long lime, that it was a pari 
of the Old World-lndia-Land of Cathay, and the eSorl was continued for 
many years to pass through it and reach the regions which were familiar. 
It seems strange on this account that, after it was once ascertained that ihe 
"New World.called America," was a separate continent, and that the separa- 
tion should be regarded as so great and -distinct and long continued as 
many historians and archaeologists have been inclined to make it. 

The great merit of this book, is that after the account of the discovery 
and 3 description of the character and resources of the continent, thai 
nearly the whole of ibe second volume should be given 10 the discussion of 
subjects which relate to the geological, geographical, ethnographical 
studies. These subjects are treated in a scholarly way, and give results 
which are unfamiliar to even American scliolars. bul which, nevertheless, 
are worthy of consideration. The English scientists, as a general thing, 
lake the ground that America was separated from Europe, but uniied witn 
Asia, in geological times, and it was peopled bv Asiatics. The animals and 
the people of the two continents coiresponded very closely with one 
another. Mr. Payne, the author, thinks that there was a pre-glacial race — a 
race of pigmies— of which the Eskimos are. perhaps, the survivors, and 
that ihey were followed by post-glacial tribes, who entered by Behring 
Straits and made their way down as far as Central America and Peru. He 
does not hold to contact during the late historic limes. 

The discussion of these topics is very candid and ought to secure the 
confidence of American readers. Il may be that after reading the volume, 
the archaeologists, who have become so healed over certain mooted 
points, will became more charitable to those who differ with them, and see 
that there is another side to the shield — "that t^ere are people who live 
heyond the mountains." 

** ^ ^ 

The Divine Pedigree of Man; ob,The Testimony op Lvolution 
AND PsvcHOLOGY TO THE Fatherhood of Cod. By Thompson 
Jay Hudson. LL. U. Chicago; A. C. McClurg & Co. (1899.) 

This book treats, as its title would indicate, about the character of the 
human mind as independent of the body, and so traces " the divine pedigree 
of man." The author holds that there is a subjective and an objective mind. 
" Materialistic scientists have succeeded in demonstrating, that the objec 
tive mind is a function of the brain, and that it is' inherent in the brain.' 
tlut II docs not necessarily follow Ihat Ihe subjective mind is inherent in 
any one or more organs of the hodv; on the contrary, all Ihe facis tend to 
I>rovc that it exists independently of any speciaiizeti organ whatever. The 

(tiuscle. On the other hand, the subjective mmd can and often does take 
entire control of the whole body ana wields it at its will. This is universal 
law in the supreme hout. Therefore after the brain has forever ceased to 
perform its lunclions. and the objective mind is totally extinct, there is an 
Interval belore the soul lakes its tinal departure, in which it shines forth 



138 Tt\ii AMERICAN" ANTIQUARJAS. 

with (ihenamenal luslre, to give assurance lo Ihe world, that the 61 
the body is but the birth of the soul into a higher and a more perfect lite. 
■' Ihe cmotihns'' of man arc obviously identical with the "animal pro- 
pi luities '■ of his lower ancestors; and as (hey anie-daie ihe brain, they are 
nriesiarily faculties of the subjective miod. It follows that with man. as 
with animals, the subjeciive mind is the siori- house of ancstral tnemories, 
anil when we add lo these, Ibe perfect memory of individual experiences 
and of acquired knowledge, we may begin to approach a realiialion of 
wh.it a vast store-bouie of latent intelligence, is the subjective mind at the 
average civiliied man. The fundamental issue resolves itself inio this 
queslion: does mind ante-dale physical organism? If the affirmative is 
true, it necessarily involves the iheislic interpretation of the origin of 
nJnd and life; if the negative is true, physical organism necessarily origi- 
nated mind and endowed it wilh its wonderful powers. How? By an 
accidental juiiaposilion and subsequent union of cenam chemical Eub< 
St iiices protoplasm was formed, nnd protoplasm originated mind. This, in 
plain lernis. is the atheistic hypothesis ol the origin of life and mind.'' 

These quotation, taken at r-mdom, will show the character ol the I i>ok 
and its method of trealmcnl. The sciologists may not all of them accept 
Ihe reasoning, >el it is well that this side should tie presented. The Irrnd 
of ihe argument will be not to show that God is infinitely human, but lo 
firove that man is potentially divine: that the soul of man is made in the 
image of man. 

ZoROASTKR. The Prophet of Ancient Iran. By A. V, Williams 
Jackson Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages in Columbia College 
L'niversity. Published for ihe Columbia University Press. New York 

and London; Macmillati & Company. Limited. 

Zoroaster, it is believed sprang up in the seventh century before Ite 
Ciriitian era, somewhere in the land between the Indus and the Tigris. 
IJuring the very life-time of Zoroaster— if we accept Ihc traditional dale; — 
the J'^ws were carried into captivity in Babylon, and tbcir return from exile 
to Jirusalem lakes place less than a generation after his death. I]e be- 
came the lounder of the Persian religion, and is regarded as one ol the 
greatest mai>iers of the world. A great many legends have gathered about 
him. which convey the idea that there were as many miraculous evenlf con- 
necieil wilh his biith. life, and death, as there were with those of CI rist. 
These have been put logelher bv the author, but in such a way as to make 
it uijcertain whether he believes them to have arisen in a period subsequent 
to the birth of Christ, and thrown back 10 the earlier days and applied 10 
Zoroaster: or considers them as genuine and as reliable as those contained 
in the New Testament. 

The biographical sketch shows thai Zoroaster was totally unlike Clirisi, 
in his personal character, life-work and means of accomplishing it, There 
can be but little doubt thai much of his lime was spert in the care of ihe 
sacred fire, or in the furthering of the special cult throughout the land, 
Tradition counts that one of the most important features of Vishlaspa'i 
conversion was his active agency in founding new places in which the holy 
flame might be worshipped. Fire worship existed in Iran before Zo oaslcrs 
time. Ihe Spread of the lire cult by Zoroaster is ihc chief result of his 
life. 

There was an ancient enmity between Iran and Turan. which broke 
out into a war of creeds, but which ended in battles. Victory led to other 
attempts at universal conversion, but the conversion was to be accomplished 
by force. Thus we see Ihe contrast between Christ and the Persian 
Zoroaster. 

The dealh of Zoroaster occurred about B. C. 583. The 1 
" His Is no ordinary end. He perishes by lighining, or a flame frrm heavf n, ] 
which recalls (he descent of the fiery chariot and the whirl * ' " 
apotheosis of Elijah"; yet he says: "the accounts of /oroj 
seem lo be legendary. According to Iranian tradilion, bii 



I 
I 

I 
i 




' irir. 



bOOK KKVltWS. 
Occurred al hand of a Turanian, whose n 



s preserved t 



The book conlains an itppendix of about i ;o pages atid a plalc repre- 
senting a very remarkable sculpture, in which arc four h^ures, one oi which 
is supposed to be '/.oraaiter. The appendix and the biography, as well as 
the leKeods and traditions nbout Zoroaster, are worthy of close study. 
There is no other book which contains them in such lulln'ess. The science 
til archaeology will need to be called upon belore these religious founders of 
ihe East can be placed on a level with Christ, the Great Redeemer Thus 
far it has set baclt the dales of history and confirms the traditionary view. 

The Vot;sG Puritans in Captivitv. By Marv P. Wells Smith, author 
of "The Young Puritans of Old Hadley," "The Young Puritans in 
King Philip's War," and " The Jolly Good Times Series " Illustrated 
by Jessie WilcDX Smith. Boston: Little. Brown 8: Company. 
This is one of the stories which are founded u(>on the local histor;; of the 

Valley of the Connecticut in the time of King Philip's War, and incidenlly 

fives many details of Indian customs. The worst barbarities of the 
iidiati treatment of prisoners are not pictured, but there are enough to 
give an idea of the sufferings and dangers through which the early settlers 
passed. The best side of the Indian character is not seen in any of these 
books, only the dark side. In this respect they can hardly he called his- 
tory, for history takes a broader view. 

The story of Capt. Smith and Powhattan is certainly different from 
any of the sroiies in this book. It shows the (riendliaess of ih? Indians 
and the favors wh ch the white men received, while this book dwells on the 
airocit es on one side and sufferings on the other. The author appears 10 
be familiar with the scenerv. and has presented the story in its proper set- 
ting hv way of scenery and natural surroundings. The engravings illus- 
Irale Ihe narrative. 

No doubt the volumes will be sought for because of the tragic events 
ibai are described, and on account of the local history which is in a manner 
tecordcd. 

The Miracles op Missions— Modern Marvels in the History of 
Missiu.SAHV Ekteki'B1?!K. Bv Arthur T. Pierson. Third Series. 
New York and London: Funk & Wagnall's Company 11899). 
There is one fact brought out in this book which will interest our 
readers: a missionary among the Indians of Canada, so remote from civili- 
zation ihat the word bread was unknown, was endeavoring to teach them, 
but found it difficult; at last he invented a series of ideograms. He made 
a character which he pronounced ma; another, ni, and another, /ao. The 
three characters were then read together, making the word manitoo. With 
this be went on, until in less than three weeks some of the Indians could 
re*d ihc Bible in their own language; and in a full year, over eighty per 
cent, of those in the village were reading the Bible. '^^-'- 



famous John Ev.. 
been niiblished. 



i, who accomplished so much and whose i 



the title of a chapter which is very ii 
f the work of civilizing and christianizing the degraded 
I. The author of the book, Mr. Arthur T. Pierson, is a 



A Year Book of Colonial Tuies. Compiled by the Rev. Frederick 
S. Sill. D. D., member of the Society of Colonial Wars, New York: 
E. P. Dmton & Company (1899). 

This book is printed with every other page left blank, probably with 
> the idea that the calendar, which is continued from the beginning to the 

«nd, may be made to embrace events in the Colonial times, which may 



MO THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

come to the knowledge of the reader, and so may be recorded under the 
day of the month, the year varying according to circumstances. Those 
who are interested in this period will find it very useful. There is a quota- 
tion attending each record of events, which the author has ordered to be 
printed. If the purchaser follows the pattern, the book will prove in the 
end a literary treasure, which will vary acccrding to the taste of the owner. 
It is a novel way of publishing a book, but may prove helpful and sug- 
gestive. 



BOOKS RECEIVED. 

Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1S97-98. Vol. II., containing Parts » 
and 3. Washington: Government Printing Otfice, 1898. 

National Educational Association Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the Thirty^ighdi 
Annual Meeting, held at Los Angeles, California, July 11-14, 1899. Published by tht 
Association. 

Triumph and Wonders of the Nineteenth Century; the True Mirror of a Phenomenal En. A 
volume of original, entertaining, instructive, historic, and descriptive writings,*showin|( ih% 
many and marvelous achievements which distinguish an hundred years of material, intel- 
lectual, social, and moral progress. By James P. Koyd, A. M. L. B. Copiously and magnK 
liciently illustrated. Philadeldhia: A. J. Holman & Co. 

Smithsonian Institution United Statev National Museum. Arrow-points, Spear-heads, and 
Knives of Prehistoric Times. By Thomas Wilson, Curator, Division of Prehistoric Archm- 
ology, United States National >iuseum. Washington: Government Printmg Office, 1899. 

Documentary History of the Campaign on the Niagara Frontier in i8ia (with maps). Parts. 
Collected and Edited for Lundy's Lane Historical Society by Major E< Cruikshank, author 
of " The Story of Butler's Rangers," &c. Welland: Pnnted by the Tribune. 

American Journal of Archsology. Second Setie^. The Journal of the Archeological Institu- 
tion of America. Issued bi-monthly. Illustrated. Vol. III., No. 6, November-December, 
1899. Norwood, Mass.: Published for the In&titution by the Norwood Press. 

Pompeii; Its Life and Art. By Augn.st Mau, German Archsrological Institution, Rome. Tran»> 
lated into English by Francis W. Kelsey, University of Michigan. Illustrated from original 
•irawings and photograph.s. New York: The Macmillan Company. 

The Africandeis; A Century of Dutch-English Feud in South Africa. By Leroy Hooker, 
author of " Enoch, the Philestine," " Baldoon," Kc. Chicagu and New York: Rand,. 
McNally j(: Company. 



■^(^ 



TllE 



Vol. XXII. May and June, 1900. No. 3. 

SOME RELICS OF THE STONE AGE FROM PUGET 

SOUND. 

BY JAMES WICKERSHAM. 

The State of Washington is divided into two widely differ- 
ent regions by the Cascade mountains, which extend north and 
south through the center of the State. West of this range, the 
country is a vast forest into which the natives penetrated 
seldom in pursuit of game, and through which they traveled 
only along a few trails. They lived along and traveled upon 
its highways, avoiding its interior forests as much as possible. 
They were distinctly a maritime people, whose front door 
opened just above high tide and looked out upon natural 
oyster or clam beds, or a salmon fishery. The wilderness be- 
hind the house was the gloomy home of Seatco. the demon of 
the dark forest, with whom was associated a host of minor 
imps. Its impenetrable thickets and gloomy recesses pre- 
vented the prospector from finding whatever of stone was 
there suitable for implement making, and it is certain that this 
region presented the poorest opportunity of any in the United 
States for the development of the arts of the Stone Age. It 
is really doubtful if any cjuarry of stone suitable for implement 
making was known in this region. 

It is too early, however, to announce any conclusions upon 
the archaeology of western Washington. The shell heaps and 
other sources of archaiologic wealth have not yet been fully 
examined; the village and grave sites are generally covered 
with dense thickets of timber. We know, too, that upon the 
death of the owner, all his implements were formerly destroyed, 
or placed in his buried canoe, that he might have them for use 
in Otlaskio, the underground land of the dead. Having no 
quarries of stone, he made his implements of bone, shell, or 
wood, and these soon decayed. In short, the conditions which 
surrounded the Puget Sound tribes gave them the minimum 
supply of stone relics, and the conditions which yet confront 
the inquiring student afford him also the smallest return for a 
vast amount of hard labor in searching for them. 



I 
I 



143 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

When the archaeologist of the future examines the miles of 
shell heaps and kitchen refuse along the Pacific and Puget 
Sound beach, he will conclude that the tribes that buill them 
were extremely poor in personal property, In this conclusion. 
however, he will be mistaken, for these people buill large, warm 
wooden houses; carved great canoes out of cedar logs; made 
trunks, boxes, cedar-root baskets, beds, images, spears, paddles, 
bows and arrows, war clubs, water buckets, food trays, totem 
sticks, nets, fish-hooks, traps, bowls, cups, spoons, plates, pipes, 
drums, blankets, capes, skirts, coats, caps. hats, and masks, out 
of the cedar tree and its side products, bark and roots. A large 
Indian village containing a thousand persons might exist for 
years in peace and plenty on Puget Sound, without an imple- 
ment of stone among them; the dearth of stone relics in this 
region is no evidence whatever^f a low state of civilization, or 
the want of aboriginnl wealth. 

Labor among the Indians of Puget Sound was specialized. 
While all were carpenters, in a broad sense, yet there were 
those who were specially skilled in canoe making, and who, 
from working under masters in planning and adzing out these 
great war boats, became highly technical in that line. Others 
made paddles, while some were devoted to the manufacture of 
bow.s and arrows; others were skilled only in the manufacture 
of images which were used in religious rites or myth<dogical 

Eerformanccs, while there was always in each tribe a skilful 
uildtT of the ancient barrier fish-trap. No man was more 
highly respected than one skilled in working metal, of which 
they seemed always to have had a limited supply. The last of 
the old Nisqually Indian bow and arrow makers died some ten 
years ago and I obtained his last old Scythian bow and a hun- 
dred fine arrows, and no better workmanship can be found in 
all Intjian-land. 

The Columbia river region, east of the Cascade mountains. 
presents a complete contrast to western Washington in soil, 
climate, and archasology. It is largely an arid region, without 
covering for its rolling hills and rich valleys; long ago quenched 
volcanic fires threw upon its surface vast fields of molten mat- 
ter, which on cooling left exposed the richest and rarest treas- 
ure for an aboriginal workshop. The most precious arrow- 
making material is there flung with reckless prodigality to the 
native artizen, and here it was that arrow making reached its 
highest perfection. Along the Columbia river are found the 
most perfect arrows, the rarest forms and most beautiful speci- 
mens of the arrow maker's skill known to archreologists — 
thousands of them but half an inch long, and others a foot in 
length. If there can be .said to have existed a fine art in arrow 
making, it was here. Not only were the forms varied, unique, 
and perfect, but the material was chosen with an artist's eye. 
Silicified woo-l, agate, crystal and rose quartz, and the rarest 
and most beautiful stones were sought and worked to the great- 
est advantage from an artist's standpoint; obsidian and other 



SOME RELICS OF THE STONE AGE. 1*3 

forms of silica, mixed in many colors in nature's crucibles, were 
manufactured into very jewels in arrow and knife patterns. 

Mrs- Helen A. Kunzie, who resides at the junction of the 
Umatilla and Columbia rivers, has, with the spirit of an enthus- 
iastic archiEologist and many years labor, made a collection of 
these upper Columbia river relics, which has certainly never 
been equalled in richness in that region. Her splendid knives, 
bronze macana, and three-legged carved metate, would be 
prizes in any Aztec cullection, yet they were all found within 
twenty miles of Umatilla. 

The artizans of western Washington fashioning their imple- 
ments from the most abundant and easiest worked material are 
fairly classed as aboriginal carpenters; the distinctive feature 
of archeology in the upper Columbia basin was the skill of 
the natives in working precious stones— they are, of all the 
natives in this region, entitled to be known as lapidaries. In 
a much lesser degree the carpenters were workers in stone, and 
the lapidaries were hewers of wood. 

SOME TYPES FROM WESTERN WASHINGTON. 



There were two stone implements in constant use by the 
carpenters— the pestle and the adze blade. The pestle was 
from three to ten inches long and weighed from four to five or 



«A 




SIONE PESTLES. 

six pounds, and was used as a maul or hammer in cutting and 
splitting logs, driving pegs, and generally all purposes for 
which a hammer would be used. With it and the elk horn 
wedge they cut down Immense standing cedar trees and split 
out such timber and boards as they needed, which were 
fashioned afterwards by the adze. VVith this hammer they 
built the house, the bed, the boat and the great fish trap. The 
Nisquallies call it "pud-di." and attribute Its origin the divine 
Doquebatl, the Changer. There were at least five forms of 
this implement from British Columbia to Oregon; beginning 
with British Columbia, we find an unique type, with the hand 
hold on top and a guard on each side of the hand; the Puget 
Sound type was round, with an ornamented head, and a flaring 



144 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

base; the Columbia river type presented an enlarged base, with 
a square shoulder; the coast type was square in cross section, 
without the flaring base; while the common round form was 
found both on the Columbia river and Puget Sound. The 
Indians had many superstitions concerning this implement 
and its manufacture; it was made from the common grey river 
worn boulders. While the above forms are types in the locali- 
ties mentioned, yet trade and traffic often carried the type of 
one region over into another. 

ADZE BLADES. 

With the adze the aboriginal carpenter made his splendid 
great carved canoe, with its gracefnl lines and immense 
capacity. I have seen the old canoe maker burn and split out 
the interior of the canoe, and then adze away day after day, 
with one hand on the other side to measure the thickness of 
the gunwale; he adzed industriously, measurmg with his eye^ 
until the boat was finished, its sides three-quarters of an inch 
in thickness — the most graceful and useful boat made by un- 
civilized man. From Alaska to Rogue river this maritime peo- 





STONE ADZF.S AND HANDLE. 



pie made the most bouyant and seaworthy boat in America; 
while the natives unon San Francisco bay rode upon a raft of 
reeds. With the adze our carpenter made j^reat boards, which 
he set up behind his bed and which passed from father to son 
as heirlooms. I have seen them five feet wide, twelve feet 
long, with a uniform thickness of one inch and a half, straight 
and true, but marked over both surfaces with the small chip 
marks of the stone adze blade. In the great communal houses 
at Neah Bay and on the west coast of Vancouvers Island I have 
seen large house timbers forty feet long, round, eighteen inches 
in diamefer at each end and twenty-four inches in diameter at 
the middle, entirely hewn out with the old adze blade. In some 
of these large villages there were many such houses, with many 
thousands of feet of these large, long, squared, and rounded 
timbers, and great quantities of lumber, boards and studding, 
joists, posts and rough boards, all hewn out with the adze. 

Stone adze blades are found all over western Washington, 
even along the rivers inland, where the canoe makers and 
hewers of wood plied their trade. When new they were about 
six inches long and three inches wide, aud only sharpened at 
one end. They were fastened into a wooden or bone handle 



SOME RELICS OF THE STONE AGE. US 

by green thongs or hide or bark, which on drying became yet 
tighter. Some of the handles were only the forks of a small 
tree, one branch of which was fashioned into the handle and 
to the other the adze blade was bound; others were carved in 
wood or bone with the adze bound on the bottom. The Indian 
adze man always cuts towards himself with an adze, or other 
cutting instrument. Many of these stone adze blades are 
much shortened by sharpening, while many places shovv that 
the blade was sometimes broken on hard knots or by accident. 
The stone from which these blades are manufactured resembles 
a fine whetstone, and seems to come from the vicinity of 
Frazer river; it may, of course, be found in the neighborhood 
of Puget Sound, but I do not know its situs. I have two 
specimens in my collection from the Frazer river, made from 
a nephrite; one is a chisel, sixteen inches long, such as the 
Indians in that region used, and the other is an adze blade; 
both are highly polished, as nearly all the adze blades are. 

ARROWS AND KNIVES. 

I have found some rough specimens of arrows in the kitchen 
refuse and shell heaps which seem to be of local manufacture. 
Some of these were probably used as skinning knives, but 
others were certainly arrow or spear heads. These rough and 






ARROWS. KNIFE. 

local forms are rare, but so distinct in character from others, 
[which are so clearly traced to eastern Washington, as to admit 
^of but little doubt as to their local origin. The shell heaps 
furnish but few arrows, the types of which are shown in the 
following forms: 

Specimens of the arrow and knife maker's art were formerly 
imported into this region from the upper Columbia river — from 
Wenatchee, Yakima and Klickitat, via. the passes of the Cas- . 
cade mountains. These eastern tribes were traders and travel- 
ers, and made their way over the mountains down into the 
prairies lying midway between Puget Sound and the summits. 
Here they camped, and sent out parties to reach the different 
tribes on the Sound, from whom they purchased supplies, pay- 
ing in those things which they brought along for barter. In 
time intermarriages and even permanent settlements in these 
midway prairies resulted from this inter-tribal commerce; but 
the prairie bands were always more closely united to the tribes 
east of the mountains, than to those on the Sound. It resulted 
that the arrow maker's art was imported, with a supply of ma- 
terial, to these prairie settlements. 



1*6 



THK AMERICAN ANTIQUAKIAN. 




Snoqualmie, Tenalquot or Connelis prairie. Nisqually plaioa ^ 
and Cowlilz prairie, were the largest of these beautiful g:rcen 
prairies, set like jewels in the great forest covering of western 
Washington. In these and some smaller prairies the tribes met 
on neutral ground for trade, marriage and inter-tribal inter- 
course; and in these prairies the archaiologist finds the stone 
implements of eastern Washington, and often the rough ma- 
terial just imported- At Connelis prairie, on the old Klickitat 
trail from Yakima to the Sound, are found many arrows, pipes 
and other stone relics of tlic Yakima type- We find here the 
beautiful small points so common on the Columbia river and 
which have become known as Oregon points. These upper 
Columbia river arrows are found on Cowlitz prairie and down 
on Gray's harbor and Shoalwater bay, where they seem to havt 
been carried in trade. The Makah people say that they form- 
erly made arrows of stonc- 

WAK CLUBS. 

Another stone implement found in western Washington i» 
the war club. It is known to the Makahs and more northern 
tribes, whence it seems to have reached the Sound, as " chee- 
toolth," and to the Nisqualiy bands, as "slubbets." It is the 
Mexican " macana," and splendid specimens have 
been found from Alaska to Mexico, on the Columbia 
river and in western Colorado. There are two forms 
of this implement, the most widespread being about 
eighteen or twenty inches long, three inches wide at 
the broadest part, and three-quarters of an inch in 
thickness. This is the "macana" type, 
and beautiful specimens were made from 
whale bone at Neah Bay and northward, 
several of which I have in my collection. 
Specimens of this form in stone have also 
been found ; one at Olympia, and another 
on Whidbv's Island; and a specimen in 
copper on 'Hood's Canal. In the Kunzie 
collection is a beautiful bronze macana. 
found in a grave on the north bluff of the 
Columbia river m Klickitat County, Wash- 
ington. It is the same size and bears the 
same ornamentation as one of stone, found 
in a mound in Bent County, Colorado, and 
immediately recognized by Kit Carson as '^'^'1'! y^*" 
a common form among the Indians of that 
region. Another form of this stone war club is 
shorter than the macana type, and is diamond shape 
in cross-section. Like the former, it was hung to the 
wrist with a deer hide thuiig and hidden under the 
warrior's cloak until he was in striking distance of 
an unsuspecting victim, when suddenly the blow was 
given, as with a policeman's " bil'y." and with about the same ■ 
effect. These clubs are made of a dark graj' stone. 



SOMJfe RELICS OF THiE STONE AGE. i4'7 

STONE PIPES. 

In Alaska the natives embiellished their pipes with a wealth 
ot mythological carving; but in Washington they are quite 
plain, though highly polished. Few are found along the coast 
or on Puget Sound; many more are found on the midland 
prairies, having once belonged to Yakima or Klickitat owners. 
The Nisqually Indians of Puget Sound not only obtained the 
highly-ornamented pipes from the Tlingits of Alaska, but I 
have a beautiful red pipestone peace pipe from the Dakota 
Sioux, Which was found in the kitchen refuse on the shore of 
Puget Sound near Olympia. The pipes figured here are in my 





STONE PIPES. 

collection. The one from British Columbia was obtained from 
a coast native, and it is made of a dark sandstone; the next 
one, from Connells prairie, is a beautifully polished serpentine; 
the n^xt seems to be a dark soapstone, which hardened by 
smoking^; while the Wenatchee specimen is a yellow limestone 
or marble. 

STONE AXES. 

It is quite probable that other stone axes will be found in 
this reg^ion, but so far I have seen but one found on Puget 
Sound or the Pacific beach, and that one was taken from an 
ancient grave at Twentv-fourth and East Dock Streets, Tacoma. 

It is at rifle less than four inches long, and has the 
handle groove cut deeply on both sides and the 
front, but is straight down the back. It is well 
polished, and is a beautiful and well-finished 
specimen, but a slight imperfection on one side 
shows that a water-worn pebble was utilized as 
the basis of the implement. It looks very much 
like an Ohio or Illinoi*? implement far away from 
STONE AXE. home. In the large Kunzie collection, gathered 

with so much care, and covering so wide a 
region on the central Columbia river, I do not remember to 
have seen one stone axe. 

STONE MAT PRESS. 

This implement will, I am sure, be new to most Eastern 
archaeologists, yet it is not at all a rare form on Puget Sound, 
where the natives made as many kinds of mat work as the 
Japanese. Every household has one, but most generally it is 
madj of hard wood. It is about three or four inches long, and 
the bottom part is fashioned into a half circle, and the working 
edge deeply grooved. The outer ends are frequently carved 




K- 



148 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



into an animal or bird head. When the mat maker had forced 
her needle and bark thread through the tule stocks or softer 
leaves, thus fastening them together side by side until she made 





STONE MAT FKESS. 



WOOD MAT PRESS. 



a mat many feet long, she used the grooved under face of this 
tool to press the tule fibre flat and even with the rest of her 
work* I have one black slate and many wooden presses in my 
collection. 

STONE IMAGES. 

n^ Many stone images are found along the Columbia river, and 
the Kunzie collection possesses some rare specimens. Many 
implements are ornamented by the natives of Puget Sound 
with animals and bird heads, and frequently the human fea- 
tures are carved in wood and whale bone, but stone images are 
rare. The State University has one large specimen from Sumas 
prairie, near the British Columbia line: it is a human figure, 
roughly outlined on a large stone, and very nearly resembles 
the figure of the small one from Neah Bay in my collection. 
The Sumas figure must be three feet or more in length, and 
weighs several hundred pounds. 

In a collection of Neah Bay workmanship, 
brought down to illustrate the fishery in- 
dustry among the Makah Indians at our 
Inter-State Fair, some years ago, was the 
stone image figured here. It is carved out 
of a soft sandstone, and seems to be the out- 
line figure of a human being, with a flat- 
tened head and folded arms, in a squatting 
position. The image was given to me, and I 
learned its history, which may be of interest 
to those who see an object of worship in 
every image made by uncivilized man. It 
seems that the Indians of Cape Flattery visit 
the halibut banks off the Cape, as they have 
done from time immemorial, and that at 
least one man had *' poor luck"; to secure 
better results he made this image, and upon 
reaching the fishmg ground he lowered this 
** good-luck " stone near his hooks, and the 
inevitable result was a greater catch of 
halibut. At his death this stone with his baskets and fishing 




STONE IMAGE. 



*■ /\ \ 



SOME RELICS OF THE STONE AGE. I49 

tackle waf placed on his grave, from whence it came to the 
Inter-State Fair. The image is ten inches lonjg and weighs 
five or six pounds. 

If, now, it be conceded that the artizans of Puget Sound 
were deficient as stone workers, yet they must be given the 
highest praise as workers in wood. They felt little necessity 
for stone tools or implements, and were possessed of more 
wealth and comforts than the tribes east of the mountains, who 
exhibited such skill as lapidaries. 

Pestles and adze blades are quite numerously found, but all 
other stone implements are very rare on Puget Sound. All 
kinds of woodenware and basket work of the finest variety 
were common to every family. I know of but one stone axe, 
four stone images, and four stone war clubs found so far — they 
will always be rare, as compared with the Columbia river region. 



THE ARCH/EOLOGY OF ETHICAL IDEAS. 

BY C. W. SUPER. 

In a former article I tried to show briefly that the develop- 
ment of ethical ideas is intimately connected with the experi- 
ence of the race, especially the experience gained by living in 
a more of less organized society. In the present, it is proposed 
to examine certain terms that embody this experience, with a 
view to ascertaining what light they throw on the moral his- 
tory of mankind. 

All modern languages contain a considerable number of 
words that have been in use for ages with but little change of 
form, but of which the ethical significance differs widely from 
that which it originally had. Even in the case of a language 
whose history is so brief as that of the English, the unwary 
translator is in constant danger of reading into a modern word 
a meaning which its ancestor of a few generations ago did not 
embody. The danger is doubtless the greatest with the Eng- 
lish words of Latin origin, where similarity of form suggests 
identity of content. Because such terms as virtus, conscientia, 
humanitas, honor, and many more are evidently the progenitors 
of virtue, conscience, humanity, and honor, why not translate 
the former series of words by the latter? Yet every person, 
who has studied Latin with any care, knows that the process is 
rarely so simple. Words that have a more or less abstract 
meaning are interpreted by their users in the light of their 
environment. How widely do persons differ as to the mean- 
ing of so common a word as "religion! " Again, if I were to 
ask the first score of individuals whom I might chance to meet 
to give me a definition of a "good man," I am sure I should 
find a considerable difference of opinion, though there might 
be some essential qualities in which they would all agree. If 
then the definition of a familiar expression at the same date in 



ISO THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the same community shows such a diversity of views, it folT 
as a matter of course that simitar divergences in the same class 
would be found if we took different periods in the history of 
the same community or the sanie social group. 

It seems certain that some peoples are incapable of raising 
themselves by their own unaided efforts above a certain level 
of progress, while others again seem unable to do so with the 
assistance of superior races. The attempt to elevate them has 
resulted in their extermination. We see the same thing in the 
case of individuals. Some will "get along' no matter how 
adverse the conditions under which they begin life; while others 
a{,'ain come to a standstill as soon as the elevating and instruc- 
tive forces are withdrawn. It is related of a certain chief on 
one of the islands of the Pacific, who had two wives, but who 
had been taught by a missionary that it was wrong for him to 
have more than one, that he came to his instructor one day to 
inform him that he had only one wife now. When asked what 
had become of the other, he replied that he had eaten her. 
The anecdote, whether true or not, illustrates the workings of 
the uncivilized mind. The ideas of right and wrong are so 
circumscribed that their whole content can not be compre- 
hended at once- The same characteristics may be noted in 
children. They will yield to their avaricious instincts and take 
what does not belong to them. When charged with theft, they 
will lie to clear themselves, even when they are not under the 
fear of punishment. In like manner we find men whose com- 
mercial integrity is beyond question indulging in breaches of 
the law against chastity or profanity. The idea of moral obli- 
gation is circumscribed, further, by the nearness of the person 
with whom it comes into relations. In the primitive state this 
idea of obligation does not extend beyond the family or clan. 
Ti.e Latin language, though far from being primitive, has the 
same word for stranger and enemy. By many persons it is not 
regarded as a crime to steal fiom a member of another tribe, or 
to kill or belie him, whose fidelity to a friend is unimpeachable. 
This feeling was very strong among the ancient Jews, and the 
early Apostles had great difficulty in persuading their brethren 
that the new religion recognized no difference of race, condi- 
tion, or class. 

The case was not different with the Greeks. They held that 
all men who were not of themselves were barbarians, however 
high their civilization might be in same respects. The word 
barbarian did not, it is true, originally convey the siigma now 
contained in it; nevertheless, it implies the notion of inferioriiy. 
On the other hand snmc of the more thoughtful among the 
early Hebrews had arrived at the conviction that God is no 
respecter of persons; that who doe.s right is acceptable to 
Him, no matter where born or whence descended. Hut the 
doctrine gained ground very stowlv. So, too, among the 
Greeks, Socrates taught that moral obligation and the laws of 
right conduct are of universal validity, yet few of his country- 



THE ARCR.EOLOGY OF ETHICAL IDEAS, IS' 

men accepted his teachings. In general, their recognition of 

obligations did not extend beyond the narrow limits of their 
own territory, or their real or imaginary kindred. We see the 
same moral myopia in the doctrine that faith need not be kept 
with heretics. Even now there are few persons who arc ready 
to admit that, man for man, n foreigner is just as good as one 
of their own countrymen. To the majoritj' outlandish is 
synonymous with barbarous. The same statement is true, or 
has been true until lately, of the attitude of the various religi- 
ous denominations toward each other. Identity or similarity 
of creed has sometimes bridged the chasm that separated 
nationalities from each other, thongh it has often been power- 
less when stronger passions were excited. Jew has fought 
againsi Jew: Rominist against Romauisl; Protestant against 
Protestant; nevertheless it is perhaps not doing violence to the 
etymology of the word nligioii to connect it with obligation, 
and to assume that originally it served as a bond among men 
that were separated by tribal lines. 

It must be plain to every one that the experience of the 
race has constantly operated to enlarge the sphere of moral 
obligation. It has followed slowly, very slowly, indeed, the 
course pointed out by many of the moral philosophers ages 
ago- In this great work the slate has been on the whole a 
potent agent. If we no longer hold that faith must be kept 
with friends, but need not be kept with heretics or foreigners 
or enemies, it is because the ever-widening sphere of states 
and their relations with each other have taught men by experi- 
ence that "honesty is the best policy." The commercial in- 
tegrity of the most advanced nations is the highest. What the 
most enlightened philosophers could not have taught men by 
argument, they have learned in the school of practical life. 
We not care to have dealings with men who can not be trusted; 
and if we are constrained thereto by the exigencies of circum- 
stances we call upon the law. that is, crystalized public opinion, 
to aid us. 

Most children have by nature the evil propensities of 
Savages, but experience soon teaches them that it is often in- 
expedient to indulge these propensities because of the penal- 
ties which the law inflicts on convicted transgressors. It is 
>leither prudent nor wise to act in contravention of usage. 
^Jeither can we conceive of man as living in isolation. He is 
Slot only a social, but a political animal. It is the political 
instinct that raises him far above gregarious brutes. 

Albeit, while the state is a promoter of morality in a large 
■^vay, there is a sphere within which it can not and does not 
attempt to regulate man's conduct. It may be able to make 
liim pay a note, but it can not and does not try to make him 
Iceep a verbal promise. It punishes the slayer of a fellow man 
fcy direct means, when the crime has been dected and proven, 
l>ut it attaches no penally to murder by various indirect means, 
such as criminal neglect and the infliction of mental anguish. 



iSi 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



The law is in truth a clumsy device, but until some method is 
discovered for laying bare the hearts and motives of men, there 
can be no better. The highest private morality is always in 
advance of the public standard. The intrinsically good man 
is always a law to himself. History furnishes many examples 
of men whose zeal for what they felt to be right carried them 
beyond the limits set by their fellows and brought upon them 
great sufferings. 

The most general term for moral excellence is our word 
virtue. In modern English it is rarely applied to a material 
object, but in the older language its use was more general. Its 
ancestor, the Latin virtus, did not necessarily, or even gener- 
ally, mean moral goodness, at least as we now understand il. 
In the second and third odes of the Second Book, Horace has 
clearly in mind two types of virtues, one of which has the 
modern signification, the other the ancient meaning, which may 
be translated courage or fortitude. The Greek correlate is 
&(n-n\. In Homer this word has only a faintly discernible 
moral content. It has regard solely to what has value in the 
eyes of men in a comparatively low stage of civilization. Some 
of the commentators on certain passages of Thucydides are at 
a loss to understand why this author should use the term as 
applicable to such men as I'eisistratus and Antiphon. But 
there i.s nothing surprising in this to the student who is careful 
not to read into ancient writers what they did not intend to put 
into [heir text. A man may be liptr^ which is the attribute 
corresponding Jto .tyaflw from tlie standpoint of liis clique or 
party, and yet from a more general point of view be a bad man. 
This truth may be illustrated by the case of the Jesuits. 

We have not yet ceased to niake a distinction between per- 
sonal and public virtue. In popular opinion a man may be 
patriotic, that is, devoted to the welfare of his country, and to 
this extent a good man; yet he may at the same time be pro- 
fane or vulgar in speech, unchaste, careless of pecuniary obli- 
gations, and more things of the same sort. The German word 
Tugend corresponds to thf Greek optr^. It is probably de- 
rived from taugen, to be efficient, and expresses the idea of 
Tueehtigkeit, closely connected with which is tuechlig, and the 
English word doughty. The course of its development is' 
almost exactly paralled by that of virtue. 

The poet says. "An honest man's the noblest work o( 
God." Let us examine somewhat closely this word hottest. 
It is directly derived from the Latin lioiicstas. a word that rarely 
if ever means honest in the modern sense. Us close relation to 
honor is evident. But honor in Latin means a public office. It 
seems clear that a man was in remote times regarded as 
honcstiis when honored with a public office; with a position 
where the real of supposed interests of the clan or tribe could 
be most effectively served. This was the highest mark of 
esteem that could be conferred nn a man. In Germany we 
find the corrcsponoing leim Ehrc. from which Is derived 



L 



THE ARCHiCOLOGY OF ETHICAL IDEAS. 153 

ehrwuerdi^, honorable, now a mere title. From it ehrlich has 
been differentiated to designate personal uprightness. In'like 
manner the aristocracy were originally the best in their own 
estimation, just as the nobility were the best known, though 
neither might possess any good moral qualities. 

Aristotle says of the Odyssey that it is ethic because the 
character of the patient and resourceful hero is displayed in 
action guided by reason. Yet the most cursory reader of the 
poem will find little in it that is ethical in its modern sense. 
No teacher of ethics will put before his pupils as a model such 
a character as Ulysses. He was almost anything except a moral 
man. As I have just used the word moral, let us examine some 
of its etymological and psychic congeners. It is derived from 
moralisj which in form seems to have been coined by Cicero 
from mores. It has reference to outward conduct, conformity 
to the usages of the community. Mores and manners are, as 
often used, convertible terms. The Apostle says, "Evil com- 
munications corrupt good manners." We still say of a rude 
person, that he has no manners, that he is an unmannerly fel- 
low, by which we evidently, though unconsciously, take for 
granted that there are certain ways of doing things that are 
right and proper. What society approves and sanctions ** goes." 
Shakespeare had this trait in mind when he wrote: 

** F it for the mountains and barbarous caves, 
Where manners ne'er were preached." 

In ** politeness " and "civility" we have two more words 
that have a wholly social origin. In fact civilization is con- 
stantly used to designate a certain social status as compared 
with another, and has reference almost solely to conduct and 
not to underlying motive. As the word is commonly used, a 
people may be highly civilized, as fur instance the ancient 
Athenians, but have a low moral standard, and vice versa. Yet 
civilization is inconceivable as existing among men living in 
isolation. 

Our word ethics has a curious and almost inexplicable 
origin. Homer uses its plural form rjOta to designate the 
customary haunts of animals. Its shortened form I0o% 
designates use and wont among men, and is etymologically 
connected with lOil^ta '* accustom." The journey from its 
original to its modern signification is a long one, and one that 
would scarcely be deemed possible but for the light that is 
thrown upon the concept by comparative linguistics. The 
German word Pflicht, duty, is derived from pflegcn, the meaning 
of which corresponds almost exactly with the passive form of 
Wil^m, It may seem strange that one's duty should have 
an)' necessary or even close connection with use and wont, but 
the evidence is irrefragable. Contact with their fellows taught 
men the first rules of conduct, and from this lowly origin was 
gradually developed the concept of duty and obligation wholly 
apart from and often in direct opposition to the opinions of our 



Ift THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fellow men. Aristotle says justice consists in giving to every ' 
man his due. How shall we ascertain what is a man's due. 
except by taking a consensus of public opinion 1'' If one man's 
due is greater than another's, it is because his merit is recog- 
nized by a judicious environment. In their own opinion few 
pefions receive all that is due ihem, but as society is now and 
has always been constituted, there is no remedy. In orderly 
communities the individual submits, just as Socrates did when 
unjustly condemned to death. In the same category is the 
term rights. It is only the slate that can decide this question, 
or its antecessors— the tribe, the clan, and the family. There 
is no unvarying standard. 

However strongly we may condemn the so-called Jesuitical 
doctrine, that it is right to do evil that good may come, there 
is a sense in which most men endorse it. The danger is that 
the basis of measurement be made too short, that the circle of 
interests be too circumscribed. There is no more binding 
moral law than that which forbids the putting of a human be- 
ing to death. But it only holds good as between man and man. 
Comparatively few men refuse to sanction the putting of a man 
to death when the good of the community seems to demand it. 
The Jesuits committed lesser crimes, as they thought, i/i via- 
j'onin gloriam Dei, but they often overlooked the fact that the 
greater glory of God must take into account not only the 
church, but the entire community; yea, atl the morally 
responsible creation of God. Regarded in itself the sacrifice 
of a hand or a foot is an evil, but it is often the only way to 
save the rest of the body. Not always, it is true, but ofttn a 
relative evil may becomtr a good. Sometimes, too, questions 
of mere expediency or inexpediency are wrongly interpreted 
as questions of good and evil. These must be decided accord- 
ing to the conditions where they are to be applied. A multi- 
tude of acts are prohibited in a city, that arc permitted in a 
town; others may be done with impunity in the rural districts, 
that are not allowed in the town. We can not travel about in 
our country without being frequently reminded how greatly 
laws written and unwritten vary, and if we pass into foreign 
countries the difference becomes still more noticeable. But 
the inhibitions are always more or less closeiy related to the 
body politic and social. The command generally take^ the 
form " Thou shalt not," and it is only men in the mass that can 
enforce such commands. While it is true that the highest law 
is individual add subjective, comparatively few men are wholly 
influenced by it: the vast majority must be kept in same sort of 
subjection to it by the pressure brought to bear upon them by 
their social relations. They do not steal or kill or bear false 
witness, because of the danger resulting from detection, though 
sometimes under the influence of strong passion the danger is 
disregarded. 

The ancients believed the Cyclops to have been a turbulent 
and lawless race, living in caves without laws or social institi^a 



Cldl lll^llll^a 



THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF ETHICAL IDEAS. 15s 

^ions of any kind. They had no more respect for human life 
'%;han ferocious beasts. They did not till the land, but lived on 
che natural products of the soil, and put men to death wiih as 
little compunction as they slew wild animals. We have no 
record of men so low in the scale of civilization, though the 
Fuegians and some of the aborigines of Australia are but little 
elevated above it. The influence that a fixed habitation has 
upon the moral standard of a people may be inferred from what 
the Greeks have left as a record for us about the ancient 
Phoenicians. These sea-rovers of antiquity may have con- 
ducted themselves well enough when at home, but abroad they 
had no regard for what have generally been recognized as the 
natural rights of man. Like the pirates and man-stealers of 
more recent times, they carried off property and human beings 
without the slightest compunction. Unable to adjust them- 
selves to the conditions ot a progressive state they were in 
time swept from the earth, until only a few recognizable 
remains of them have come down to our time. 

On this continent ther6 seem to have been two countries 
where an original civilization was generated — Peru and Mexico; 
Vucatan being a possible third. Though high in some respects, 
it was narrow, and from the standpoint of practical politics, 
exclusive. When then, the Spaniards, though a mere handful, 
offered to make common cause with the subject races, these 
were deluded into supporting a cause that overwhelmed all in 
^ common ruin. The Greeks had long before met a similar 
fate, and chiefly for the same reason. It was not till the 
Romans appeared upon the scene ready to put in practice the 
Xessons learned after centuries of strife and experiment, that 
men's relations to each other must be based not on kinship, 
l3ut on equality of political rights. I believe all the evidence 
^oes to prove that the primacy has always rested, for the time 
Ijeing, with that government or those governments that most 
iully recognized the essential equality of man according to the 
standards of the age. It was by appealing to this considera- 
tion in the breast of every man, that Christianity made such 
rapid progress in earlier churches of our era. 

It is very questionable whether any man before Socrates had 
seriously turned his mind inward and asked himself: Who 
am I? Whence came I, and whither am I going? How shall 
I regulate my conduct so that it may be a standard for all time 
to come? When he answered these questions we see how far 
he was in advance of his time and how w'dely his answer dif- 
fered from that given by most men. His countrymen lived 
like children, always regulating their conduct by the most 
shortsighted rules of expediency We all know the result. 
Though they had called into being marvels in literature, in the 
plastic arts, in architecture, and in science, they had never 
learned to control their passions. Their career is typified by 
their own Alexander the Great, who, though he knew how to 
conquer the world, could not rule his own spirit, and as the 



\ 



156 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

story goes, died from the effects ot a drunken debauch. They 
could not save their commonwealths and their commonwealths 
could not save them. This gifted people expiated their tollies 
by more than two thousand years of suffering and, saddest of 
all, their recent quixotic enterprise has proved conclusively 
that they have even yet learned little from their past. They 
carried individualism to extreme. 

If the foregoing deductions, drawn from the history of a 
number of words in the Aryan tongue are correct, — and they 
can hardly be doubted, — it must be evident that a careful 
analysis of the same kind applied to other languages would 
give us an insight into certain aspects of the human mind, such 
as we can get from no other source. Unfortunately, so far as 
the writer knows, not much has yet been done in this direction. 
Not only have the Slavic tongues received little attention, but 
almost nothing has been done for the languages of uncivilized 
races. Many of the tribes who once spoke them have entirely 
disappeared from the face of the earth, while of others com- 
paratively little is known, except so far as a knowledge of 
them has served a practical purpose. While it may be com- 
paratively easy to translate the New Testament into Mandingo 
Hottentot, it is highly improbable that an uninstructed native 
who reads it will understand it in the sense of the interpreter. 

Note. — An interesting fact bearing on this general question is men. 
tioned in the recent book of Spencer and Gillen on " The Native Races of 
Australia." They say that infractions of the regulations governing the 
relations of the sexes are punished with death, or in some other manner, 
and that the natives assign as a reason for their severity, that this is an 
offense against the tribe and has no relation to the feelings of the individual. 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 

BY STEPHEN DENISON PEET, PH. D. 

The view which we have given of the prehistoric structures 
shows that the world had become quite thoroughly peopled 
l^efore the discovery of this continent. The means by which 
^his was accomplished and the lines which were followed are 
not by any means certain, but the supposition is that the peo- 
ple who first dwelt in caves amid the mountains, afterward 
ivent down into the valleys, and became agriculturalists; and. 
still later reached the sea coast, and gradually made their way 
along the coasts, until all the continents were reached. 

It will be interesting, then, to take such structures as are 
found upon the sea coast and the islands for special objects 
of study, and see if they throw any light upon the subject of 
migrations These structures may, indeed, carry us back to 
those which were left many thousand years ago on the coast of 
Europe; but the comparison may, perhaps, enable us to trace 
the lines of progress which were followed and the means by 
which civilization was spread over the globe. 

We shall, therefore, take these various works as our sub- 
ject, and shall classify them under the general head of Coast 
and Maritime structures, embracing all kitchen middens, lake- 
dwellings, pile-dwellings, crannogs, shell keys, and all struc- 
tures built over the water. 

Some of the structures were, to be sure, placed near the 
fresh water lakes and are hardly to be included under the term 
"maritime," and yet they may be all classed together and 
treated as if they constituted one type. The people who have 
left these various tokens are better known under the name of 
Lake-Dwellers, than by the name we have given, but they 
represent only a small part of the population which has at 
different periods, both in historic and prehistoric times, occu- 
pied the lake shores and sea coasts, and drawn their subsistence 
Jrom the water. The terms have come to us from the archae- 
ologists, and are used chiefly by them, but are generally ap- 
(:>lied to prehistoric structures, some of which are regarded as^ 
ihc earliest tokens of prehistoric man. 

There are, to be sure, maritime structures and pile-dwellings^ 

>vhich are quite modern in their origin and are still occupied. 

These, for the most part, are found in the islands of the sea; 

some of them in the Philippine Islands, the Caroline Islands, 

"^he Caribs, and in Java and New Guinea. Still, the three 

classes of structures — shell mounds, pile-dwellings, and mari- 

*time structures — may be said to fill up the whole gap between 

the cave- period and the historic period, though there were 

many other structures contemporaneous with them. 



158 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

By taking the maritime structures w*hich are still in exist- 
tence, and by studying them altogether, we are able to ascer- 
tain what the condition of society was in prehistoric times. 
We must remember that all three classes of works were once 
peopled by those who were exercising their skill in making foi- 
themselves comfortable habitations, and were laying the founda- 
tions of society for the future. A large proportion of the peo- 
ple who have left these various monuments have passed away 
and are unknown, f xcept as we are able to study their works 
and relics; but those who built the maritime structures have 
their representatives still living, and from these we may learn 
their habil^, ways, and customs of the Lake-Dwellers and 
other prehistoric peoples. There is not the same mystery 
about the living people as there is about those who existed 
several thousand years ago; yet so far as the growth of archi- 
tecture is concerned or the spread of population through the 
earth, these rude structures, which, for the most part, "were built 
by sea-faring people, are as instructive as any monuments 
which exist. 

Of one thing we may be sure: namely, that these so-called ; 
lake-dwellings and various maritime structures were occupied 
by a sedentary people and were erected (or domestic purposes; 
while of many of the stone monuments it is still a mystery as 
to what their object or use was. There may have been, indeed, 
other works, such as the so-called Pit-houses in Japan, which 
were occupied by the Ainus or their ancestors, but these are 
not of general distribution. 

The three classes of works illustrate one point: namely, the 
effect of environment upon the habits of the people. It would 
seem that, as long as the people were dwelling in the forest, 
they continued in the low condition of savagery; but, as soon 
as thev came into the open plain, they commenced their on- 
ward march toward civilization. Their progress was hastened 
as they approached the sea and made their homes on the sea 
coast. There was undoubtedly an expanding influence in the 
very si>;ht of the sea and a development of the consciousness 
of power, when man began- to be a navigator of the sea. The 
narrow character of forest tribes, or even of mountain people, 
is well known, for the limitations of their surroundings have 
an inevitable effect to shut them in and keep them back. It 
will be interesting, then, to enter into the study of these maritime 
constructions, and show their position among the prehistoric 

' Moil —The Plitc npteHKii i»o maun ill il Panyi Hiynu on OJd Timpa Biy. Figure i u 
■n oviUhnped mound, ■ton! five feel h[gh, inlo which ■ dirch iboui Iwo (eel d«p uj nfioD 
rtet wide runs. Al the oppDlile end ii a raadocay ohich may ^ folluwed lereral huadted 7Ud> 
iota ihe himiDOck Fie • >> > secden acrou the mound, logking down inlo the diutl. Fig. ic 
rep™«nu the ro.dw»y leading 10 the mound. Anurher luonud. aoofcei looE. iwenl;r-ni>ie ha 

(l^.'it ii rituaud mi Biihel't Gump. Figi. 3 10114 <vill give ui idea of i» icound pten.iu 
■le»«lion, «Bd the incUoe pl»B« or n»dw»y toils •umroil. Another mound with ■ loiidwar K> 
iBinmmtlioilaiited*! Dunedini thenwenaroundlhii mound, deep diichei filled wi>h WMe'r, 

euihtl lee' wide* mnd tlie roidwuy cammencet RfW feti fmm the niound. and muliei a |anile 

. „"i't*hianian Report For 1S79, psge 394: aiticiejby S T Wnikei, 




Ftg.t. 




F,a.Z. 



PAPYS BAYOU 



Mile.IKeS/tniltd/iBriiimiiHrtinttr 
ei^laiiittoiis. 







-f'y- ■'■ 



«. / 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 

works and their bearing upon historic times. We do not claim 
(or them any architectural character, for they are generally 
rude constructions destitute of ail ornament and hardly pre- 
senting even the elements of art- Nor do we, on the efher 
hand, class them with the earliest historic dwellings, for there 
were rude dwellings long after there were kitchen middens, 
and it is probable that the huts which were erected by hunter 
tribes upon the land, may have continued lo be occupied long 
after the shell heaps by the sea. These huts, however, which 
were hidden in the forest, were built of unsubstantial material 
and soon perished. But those which were built by the sea 
were surrounded by the heaps of shell, which are very endur- 
ing, and the result is, the latter are preserved for our examina- 
tion, while the former have passed away. 

The distribution of the kitchen middens, lake-dwellings, and 
various maritime structures, has given us a good opportunity for 
examining them, especially as there are structures resembling 
them still occupied, and from them we may learn the stage of 
society which was then represented. Still, it would be well lo 
remember that what is ancient in one country is modern in 
another, and that the same structures which have been dis- 
covered on the coast of America in recent times, existed in 
Europe and Asia several thousand years ago. It may be said 
of all these structures, especially of those upon the sea coast, 
that they help us to trace the line of migration which was 
taken by the early inhabitants of the world, and throw con- 
siderable light upon the distribution of mankind throughout 
the world. 

Prof. O. T. Mason has spoken of the quest for food as being 
one cause for the distribution of the population throughout the 
globe. He has traced the migrating route which a sea-faring 
people may have taken, when passing from the islands of the 
Pacific, along the east coast of .'^sia and by way of the Aleutian 
Islands finally reaching the Northwest coast. The monuments 
which indicate their route, or the route taken by subsequent 
people, may be recognize<l in the dolmens which are found in 
India, Japan, and Peru. The kitchen middens evidently pre- 
ceded these, though it is a question whether they were left by 
a migratory people, or by a people who came down from the 
interior and made their homes on the sea coast. 

Prof. Worsaae has also spoken of the migrations which took 
place in Europe. He says: 

In the first settlement of Europe the fringe of coasts and nearest river 
courses bad everywhere played a ieatlLng pari. So lonj; as hunting and 
Ashing formed the most important resources of the settlers <ind vast 
siretchesof coast were slill unirod by human loot, the primeval inhabi- 
tants, unaccompamed by any domestic animal save the dog, would have no 
great difficulty in spreading Curther, or flitting from place to place, when 
they began lo be pinched for food. A very long lime must have elapsed 
ere the more highly developed races, steadily advancing from south and 
west, were in a condition — as lake-dwellings, stone graves, and other 
memorials show— to spread from the Mediterranean coasts over Swiizer- 



J 



i62 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

land, part of South Germany, the whole of France, Belgium, Holland, the 
British Isles, and Northwestern Germany. The last period of the Stone 
Age in the high north on the Baltic North Sea and the Atlantic was, tbere- 
(ore. even in its earliest stage most probably contemporaneous with ihe^ 
victorious advance and first independent development of the Bronte Age 
in more southern lands, pariicularly on the Mediterranean.* 

The maritime structures of the earth give rise to the inquiry 
as to the races inhabiting the sea coast and the islands, whether 
they developed from savagery in these centers and invented 
their own improvements, or received these inventions from 

other tribes, who had migrated from other parts, having been 
driven out by more civilized people. There are arguments for 
both theories. The similarities of the pile-dwellings and the 
close analogies between the maritime constructions favor the 
idea of a borrowed civilization, or one that was introduced by 
migrations. Of this Prof. Worsaae also says: 

In the SotJth Sea Islands examples have recently been met with show- 
ine that the Stone Age people, under exeeplionaliy favorable circumstances 
have raised themselves to a not inconsideiable height of culture in com- 
parison to the wretched savages io their vicinity. 

Rude stone objects identically similar in form and evidently from a 
corresponding slaee of culture can also be shown in cave, field, and coast 
finds from south l:^urope. as well as in finds from the district of Thebes in 
Egypt, from Japan and from the shell heaps of America. Neither in the 
refuse heaps of Denmark, nor in the shell heaps of Japan or America isthe 
least trace found of a fuller development and change in ornamental 
objects. Besides feathers and other trophies of the chase, usually affected 
by savage races, their ornaments appear to have been confined chieQy to 
aDimal's teeth. 

The first inhabitants of Deomark, or of southwest Scandanavia, are, 
therefore, to be compared most closely with the long-vanithed savage races. 
which formed corresponding refuse heaps on the coasts of Japan and 
America, especially along the river margins of the latter; or with the 
partly still existing inferior peoples in South America, oS the coast of 
Japan, and in the South Seas, who support themselves in the same way on 
shell-fish fishing and hunting. Certainly nowhere else have such rude peo- 
ples, as a rule, been in the habit of rearing great permanent monuments to 
preserve for thousands of years, the earthly remains of their dead. * * 

Ii is well known that the Caribs a.nd Andaman Islanders and others, 
both at high festivals and daily meals, use certain portions of their pro- 
visions, together with implements, ornaments, etc., as offerings to their 
gods. There is, therefore, nought to hinder the belief that a northern peo- 
ple on nearly the same level may have remembered their gods in a similar 
mantier. The oldest articles nf stone and bone discovered in the extreme 
north of Asia may have an apparent likeness to Stone Age objects from 
Finland, north Russia and the north of Asia, but both in material and for^i 
they differ entirely from the early Stone Age antiquities of southern Scan- 
danavia. They constitute a distinct Arctic group in the European Stone 
Age.t 

It is with these thoughts in mind that we take up the study 
of the maritime structures of the world, especially those which 
are of the ipost primitive aud rudest form, and passing on from 
these to others that are more advanced and elaborate in char- 
acter- 
shell heaps. 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 

The description of the kitchen middens of Denmark, when 
compared with those which have already been given of the 
shell heaps on the Northwest coast, will show to us how long- 
continued was this peculiar mode of life, even for several 
thousand years. It shows, also, that different classes of peo- 
ple—hunters and agriculturalists — were in prehistoric times, as 
ill modern times, in the habit of going to the sea coast and for 
a time dwelling there, leaving the debris of the camps as signs 
of their presence. The fire-beds, fragments of polteiy, and 
other relics, show that the people were accustomed to domestic 
life and were, perhaps, skillful in erecting habitations for them- 
selves. The difference between the relics in the kitchen mid- 
dens in Denmark and those on the N orthwest coast, shows that 
a higher grade of progress had been reached. This is shown 
especially by the superior boats which were constructed out of 
logs, by using rude stone axes. No boats have been discovered 
in these kitchen middens, but so many have been found in the 
mounds on the coast of Denmark and Norway and Sweden, 
and in the bogs of Ireland, as to convey the idea that they 
were a sea-going people, and were skillful navigators. Deep 
inlets of the sea, and not a few river courses, opentd a com- 
paratively easy approach from the coasts and neighboring 
islands, leading through the woods to fresh water lakes in the 
Interior, teeming with fish, and at the same time to new and 
by no means unimportant resources. On the other hand, the 
necessity of gaining a livelihood does not appear to have 
driven the new settlers far from the coasts to the islands lying 
out in the more open sea. These facts show that the inhabi- 
tants of the world were accustomed to resort to the sea for 
subsistence and became navigators at a very early date; taking 
this for granted we may learn how the population of the globe 
became distributed. 

As to the race which constructed the kitchen middens on 
the coasts of Europe. Asia, and Annerica, it is impossible to 
determine, but it is supposed that the ancient Turanian people 
who were the first inhabitants of Mesopotamia, antedating the 
Semitics, were of the same race as the Finns, and it is not im- 
possible that they made their way across Behring Strait, or the 
Aleutian Islands to the Northwest coast; while another branch 
were perhaps the ancestors of the Basques, or the Britons, 
who made their way across the Atlantic to the north coasts of 
America, and so southward. 

As to the distribution of the kitchen middens, the follow- 
ing quotation from Nadaillac will give us some information: 

The kitchen middens, or heaps of kitchen refuse— such was the name 
£iven to these shell mounds — could not have been the natural deposits left 
bv the waves after storms, for in that case Ihey would have been mixed 
with ciuantities of sand and pebbles. The conclusion is inevitable. that 
man alone could have piled up these accuraulalions. which were the refuse 
flung away day by day after his meals, The kitchen middens rotilirmed 



i64 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



in a remarkable manner the opinion of S^eenstrup, and evety where a nuin> 
ber at important objects were discovered. In several places the old beaftii 
were brought to lisht. They consisted of flat stones, on which were piK 
of cinders, with rraBmcnls of wood and charcoal, ll was now finally pt-" 
that these mounds occupied the site of ancient settlements, the inhabi 
of which rarely lett l&e coast, and fed chiefly on the mollusca whi 
abounded in the waters of the North Sea, * * • 

The earliest inhabitants of Russia placed their dwellings near rivc 
above the highest flood-levels known to or foreseen by them. Virchow h 
recogniied on the shores of Lake Burtneck in Germany, a kitchen midA 
belonging to the earliest Neolithic times, perhaps even to the close of ll 
Paleolithic period. He there picked up some sione and bone inipletneni 
and notices on the one hand the absence of the reindeer, aud on the oihei 
' as in Scandinavia, that of domestic animals. But in this case, the hotne« 
the living became the tomb of the dead, as numerous skeletons lay besid 
the abandoned hearths. Similar discoveries have been made in Poni^fa 
shell heaps having been found thirty-live to eighty feet above the sea-lei 
Here, also, excavations have brought to light several different heatths.i . 
in many of the mo-ii ancient kitchen middens m the valley of ihe Tieri 
were found crouching skeletons, proving that here, loo, the home bad be 
come the tomb. • * • 

It is, however, chiefly in America that these attract attention, for ibci' 
huge shell mounds stretch along the coast of New Fouiidland, Nova Scotil 
Massachusetts, Louisiana, California, and Nicaragua. We meet with tben 
again near the OHnoco and the Mississippi, in the Aleutian Islands, anc 
the Guianeas In Brazil, and in Patagonia; on the coasts of the Pacific, as 
those of the Atlantic. * * • The kitchen middens of Florida i 
Alabama arc even more remarkable. There is one on Amelia Island whic 
is a quarter of a mile long, with a medium depth of three feet and a breadi 
of nearly live. That of Bear's Point covers sixty acres of ground, that a 
Anecerly Point, one hundred, and that of Sama Kosa, five hundred 
Others taper to a great height. Turtle Mound near Smyrna is formed a 
a mass of oyster shells, attaining a height of nearlv thirty feet, and the 
height of several others is more than lorly feet. In all of ihem bushels of 
shells have already been found, although a great part of the sites ihey 
occupy are still unexplored; huge trees, roots, and tropical creepers having 
in the course of m^ny centuries:, covered Ihem with an almost impenetrable 
thicket. At Lone Neck Branch is a shell mound that evtends for balf a 
mile, and in California there is a yet larger kitchen midden; it measures a 
mile in length and half a mile in width, and, as in similar accumulations, 
excavations have yielded thousands of stone hammers and bone imple- 
ments The shell mounds of which we have so far been speaking are »"" 

near the sea,.bui there is yet another, consisting entf— '■■ ~' ■ — -' — ** 

fifty miles beyond Mobile,* 

We conclude, then, that the coasts of America are as gooi 
a place for the study of the beginnings ol architecture as 
Denmark, or even the ref^ions of Mesopotamia. The-peopie 
may have belonged to a different race, but it may help us to 
get a very different idea of the aborigines of our country, if 
we associate them with the fishermen of Europe, for those in 
America were even more advanced in the art of boat building 
and house building, than were the ancient people of Europe, 
We have elsewhere described the houses which were erected 
amid the shell heaps on the Northwest coast, and shall now 
turn to those on the coast of Florida. The explorations of 
Mr. W- H. Moore and Mr. A. E. Douglas have brought 
msny new facts, 



leEul 

ooJ"^ 



AST AND MARITIME iTRUCTURKS. 167 

[r. A, E. Douglas also discovered several canals in the 
shell mounds — one o( them five miles lonfj; another canal coo- 
rccted a lagoon, through which the interior waters were ex- 
pected to find an outlet to the sea. He speaks of the impos- 
ing appearance of the shell mounds and thinks that some of 
them were designed as lookouts or sites of houses. He refers, 
also, lo elevated roadways leading from the mounds to a lake 
or water course or village, thus proving that the mounds may 
have been sites for houses. 

Mr. William Hartram speaks of Mt. Royal as a magnifiifent 
mound, twenty feet high and 300 feet in diameter, as attended 
with a roadway. He says; 

A noble Indian highway leads from the ereat mound in a straieht line 
tbree- quarters oF a mile, Ihrough an awful forest o! live oakfr. It was 
terminated bv palms and laurel maj^nolias in the maie of an oblong arti- 
ficial lake, which was on the edge of a greater savannah. This j^eneral 
~ bighway was about tifty yards wide, sunk a little below the common level 
»nd the earth thrown up on each side, making a bank about two feet liigh. 

There are sand mounds on the coast of Florida, which to 
all appearances were erected at the same time as the kitchen 
middens. There are on the Northwest coast kitchen middens 
in which are canals, harbors for canoes, and the remains of 
bouses which resemble those which are still occupied by the 
Klamath Indians. These are evidently modern, but they show 
that the same mode of life and the same customs continued 
for thousands of years, even when there was no connection 
between the people. The same stage of society may have been 
reached by the people on the coast of America much later 
than those on the coast of Europe; the fact, however, that 
so much time elapsed between the kitchen middens of Nor- 
way and Denmark and those on the coasts of America, shows 
how prolonged this stage of semi-cjvilization has been upon 
the earth. 

II. Another class of coast structures has been recently 
brought to light off the coast of Florida. We shall, therefore. 
take up the description of these as excellent specimens of the 
fk'iU of the prehistoric people. They have been associated 
with [the sand mounds and shell heaps of Florida, but they 
sbow a more advanced stage, and should probably be classed 
with the mounds and earthworks of the Gulf States, lor it is 
the opinion of Dr. D. G. Brinton, Prof. F. W. Putnam and 
others that they were erected by the same people. 

The object of these remarkable " shell keys" is unknown, 
but they appear to have been walls, which surrounded the sea- 
girt habitation of an ancient and unknown people. The " reef 
raised sea walls of shell" surrounded central, half natural 
lagoons, or lake courts, with the " many-channeled enclosures," 
which, when surrounded by the dwellings of the people who 
erected them, must have made the island resemble a modern 
Venice. The houses were probably constructed altogether of 



168 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

wood, and perhaps covered with thatched roofs. The canals 
within the lagoon were dug out of low. swampy ground, and 
were lined with earth walls, which were covered with a tangled 
forest ; making the ancient village resemble the villages on the 
coast of Benares or the Philippine Islands, more than the 
European Venice. 

The islands lack the outside leefs which are found in the 
Caroline Islands, and there are no such artificial breakwaters, 
as are there; nor are there any such massive stone enclosures 
anfl shrines. 

These were discovered and described by Mr. F. H. Gushing. 
The following is his account of his explorations and a descrip- 
tion of their character and appearance: 

I was not much delayed in securing two men and a litUe fishing sloop, 
sucb as It was, and in sailing forth one glorious evening late in May. with 
intent to explore ds many as possible of the islands and capes of Chatlotte 
Harbor, Pine Island Sound, Caloosa Hay, and the lower more opt^n coast as 
iar as Marco. 

The astonishment I felt in penelrating into the interior of the very first 
encountered of these thicket-bound isIeIs, may be better imagined than 
described, when, after wadm^ ankle deep in the slimy aud muddy shoals, 
and then alternately clambering and floundering for a lon^ distance among 
the wide-reaching interlocked roKts of the mangroves, I dimly befadd in 
the somber depths ot this sunless jungle ol the waters, a long, nearly 
straight, but enormous embankment of piled-up conch shells. Beyond it 
were to be seen (as in the illustration given) other banks, less high, not 
always regular, but forming a range ot distinct enclosures of various sizes 
and outlines; nearly all of them open a little at either end, or at opposite 
■ides, as if for outlet and inlet. 

Threading this lone of boggy bins, and leading in toward a more cen- 
tral point, were here and there open ways like channels. They were formed 
by parallel ridges of shells, increasing in height toward the interior, until 
ai last they merged into a steep, s' unewhat extended bench, also ol shells, 
■nd flat on the top like a platform. Here, of course, at the foct of the 
platform, the channel ended In a slightly broadened cove, like a landing 
place; but a graded depression or pathway ascended from it and crossed 
Ihis bench or platform, leading lo and in turn climbmg over, or rather 
through another and higher platform, a sli^^ht distance beyond. In places, 
off to the side on either bank, were still more of these platforms, rising 
terr»ce-like. but very irregularly, from the enclosures beiow to the founda- 
IMOt of Kreat level-lopped mounds, which, like worn-out. elongated and 
tfUBcaied pyramids, loilily and imposingly crowned the whole; some of 
ttoem lo a height of nearly thirty feet above the encircling sea. The bare 
patches along the ascents lo the mounds were, like the ridges below, built 
■p «hotW of shells, great conch shells chiefly, blackened by exposure for 
^«3; and ringing like their potsherds when disturbed even by the light 
IcM of the raccoons and little brown rabbits, that now and then scuddled 
MCNCS them iTom covert lo covert, and that seemed to be. with the ever- 
■raent grosbeaks above, and with many liiards and some few rattlesnakes 
another reptiles below, the principal dwellers in those lonely keys— if 

Wterever revealed, the surface below, like the bare spaces themselves, 
Ht*«4 to be ilso of shells, smaller or much broken on the levels and 

" ' -■ • .and mingled with scant black tnold on the wider terraces, 

te had been tormed with a view tti cuhivation, and supplied 

the rich muck beds below. Here, also, occurred occasional 

forn valves- of gigantic clams and pieces of huge 

I have been used as hoes and picks or other digging 

__ - jRgesled the idea that at least the wider terraces — 

woved to be not level but filled with basin-shaped deprea- 



»ttM*tl 

«(ks>ifaii 

■■ifciili Md many 
%rfhiAM M^eared 1 




A 



1 COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 169- ^H 


I .^-= ^-'t- ~^v- ' 


sions or bordered by reiain- 




^'lim ti 


ing walls— had been used as 
garden plats, supplied with 
soil from the rich muck beds 




below. But the margins o£ 




these, whether raised or not. 






and the edges of even the 






lesser terraces, the sides of 






the graded ways leading up to 
.ir through them, and esplci- 








1 |«Sn| il'{ t 1 


:Jlv the slopes of Ihe greater 
mounds, were all of unmixed 




-hdl, in which, as in the 




f j^^TSfflre 


1 ..irren patches, enormous, 
m.iirly square-siied conch 






-litllsprevaiied. 


iiuf mwiiJM&a.i ) 


Siicli various features, seen 


^HK ^^fnM II t/r J 


one by one, impressed me 


^^^B flESw^lM i MM 


more and more forcibly, as 


^^^B Ba hM Hnl 


indicalintt general design-a . 


^^^F MQ mt ¥»' ■nil 


structuial origin of at least 


FTr^ 


HI ^Sk^niK Hm 


of shell »wBs so slowly and 


1 • 


r 1 "'IhJk/'M/I ■Hi 


painfully Iraversing; if not, 


1 s 


indeed, of the entire key or 


' a 




islet. Siili, my mind was 


n 




not, perhap<, wholly dis- 


D 


ptwMsS iill9u Kil 


abused of the prevalent 


^ 


opinion that these and like 


2 




■ctumulalions or capes of 


S 




the ticighbormg mainland 




were primarily stupendous 




lirVH !^^<i 




shell heaps, chiefly the un- . 






disturbed refuse remaining 


■ ' 






from ages of intermittent 






aboriginal occupation, until 








I had scaled the topmost of 








the platforms. 1 hen I could 






iIIh 


see that Ihe vast pile on 


H$ 






which 1 stood, and of which 






the terraces 1 had climbed, 








were, in a sense, irregular 


R 


WSh^HjijIg .^ 




Stages, formed in reality a 
single, prudigious elbow- 






shaped foundation, crowned 




ll^^SliJl 




at lis bend by a definite 






group of lofty, narrow, and 






elongated mounds, that 






stretched fan-like across its 






Bji, 


summit, like the thumb and 




■ meI lL^ 


f:j 


(our hngers of a mighty out- 
spread hand. Beyond, more- 








over, were other great founda- 




l)'"''^BUvHr 




tions, bearing aloft still other 






groups of mounds, their de- 








clivities thickly overgrown, 
but their summits betokened 














by the bare branches of 








);iimbo limbos, whence had 




JJ3!5^ lis 


(.ome, no doubt, the lone- 




i^ounding songs of the gros. 
beaks. They stood, these 


■UOdered ramparts of some vast and rii 


' other foundations, like Ihe 
ned fortress, along one side and 



I70 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

across the further end of a deep, open space or quadrangular court, more 
than an acre in extent, level and as closely covereii with mangroves, and 
other tidal growths at the bottom, as were the entire swamps. It was 
apparent that this had actually been a central court of some kind, had 
probably been formed as an open lagoon by the gradual upbuilding on 
attol-tike reefs or shoals around deeper water, of (hose foundations or 
ramparts, as I have called them, from even below ude level to their 
present imposing height. 

The elevation I had ascended, stood at the northern and and formed 
one course of this great Inner court, the slope of which from the base of 
the mounds was unbroken by terraces and sheer; but, like the steepest 
ascents outside, it was composed of large weather -darkened conch shells, 
and was comparatively bare oF vegetation. Directly down the middle of 
this wide inclme led, between the two first mounds, a broad, sunken path- 
way, very deep here, near the summit, as was the opposite and similarily 
graded way 1 had in part followed up, hut gradually diminishing in depth 
as it approached the bottom, in such manner as to render much gentler the 
descent to the edgu of the swamp. Here numerous pierced busycon shells 
lay strewn about, and others could be seen protruding from the marginal 
muck. A glance sufficed to show that they had all been des'gned for tool 
heads, hafted similarly, hut used for quite different purposes. The long 
colun,nell<-c of some were battered as if they had once been employed as 
hammers or picks, while others were sharpened to chisel- or gauge-like 
points and edges. Here, too. shreds of pollery were much more abundant 
than even on the upper terraces. Tbis struck me as especially signiticanl, 
and I ventured forth a lillle way over the yielding quagmire and dug between 
the sprawling mangroove fingers, as deeply as I rould with only a stick, 
into the water-soaked muck. Similarly worked shi lis and shreds of pot> 
tery, inter-mingled with charcoal and bones, were thus revealed. These 
were surprisingly fresh, not as though washed into the place from above, 
but as though they had fallen and lodged where I found them, and had 
been covered with water ever since. Here, at least, had been a waier- 
courl, around the margins of which, it would seem, places of abode whence 
these remains had been derived— houses rather than landings— had clust- 
ered, ere it became chocked with debris and vegetal growth; or else it was 
a veritable haven of ancient waves and pile dwellings, safe alike from tidal 
wave and hurricane within these gigantic ramparts of shell, where through 
the channel gateways to the sea, canoes might readily come and go. It 
occurred to me, as I made my way through one of tnese now filled-up 
channels, that the enclosures they passed through were probably other 
courts^margined by artificial bayous, some of them, no doubt. like the one 
at Key Marco— and that perhaps the longest of them, had not only been 
inhabited also, but that some were representative of incipient stages in the 
formation of platforms or terraces, and within these, as the key was thus 
extended, of other such inner courts as the one I have here described. 

As to the boats which were used by the inhabitants of 
these island keys, we have little information ; but. judging from 
those which were used in other lands, we must conclude, that 
they were as skillfully constructed as were the reefs themselves. 

It will be rernembered that large canoes were seen by 
De Soto and his followers, as they reached the "great father 
of waters," the Mississippis: Some of them capable of hold- 
ing as many as fifty warriors at a time, and were propelled 
with great force. Large canoes, skillfully wrought and of 
beautiful proportions, are even now used by the natives off the 
coast of Washington; showing a great proficiency in the art of 
boat building. They may be taken as liiarking the beginnings 
of naval architecture. No such canoes have been discovered 
in these island keys, but, judging from the highly wrought 



L 




I 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 173 

woodeo implements and curious masks which have been dug 
out from the depths of the lagoons, we may conclude that the 
people were not only capable of constructing such boats, but 
often used tncm in passing from one island to another, and 
from the islands to the shore. 

Here, we would call attention to the animal figures on the 
tablets, which were discovered on the site of this ancient vil- 
lage, They remind us of the human figures carved upon the 
fronts of the houses in the villages of the Northwest coast. 
The tablets were found in the water, but they may have origi- 
nally been attached to the house fronts. 

Mr. Gushing has described these and has given an explana- 
tion of their significance. They show a mingling ol animal 
and human resemblances, and give us an idea of the religious 
conceptions of the people who dwelt here: a religion which 
consisted mainly in the transforming of animals into human 
beings, and human beings into animals; the lines of separation 
between them being obliterated and all of them regarded as 
supernatural beings. 

We do not claim for the ancient peoples, who erected these 
massive earthworks around their island homes and faced them 
with conch shells, any superiority over the white man; nor do 
we maintain that there was any such civilization in prehistoric 
times, as prevails at the present; yet the view which has been 
givcD of this ancient American Venice convinces us that the 
aboriginal civilization has been greatly underrated. Certainly 
there is no island city in modern times, which can compare 
with these in their peculiar adaptation to the forces of Nature 
and to the prevailing animal life. Here, in the midst of the 
waves were contrivances for the rising of the tide and 
catching such schools of fish as might come from out of the 
depths of the sea, and at the same time there was an abund- 
ance of forest trees to invite the birds of the air. especially 
those which gained their subsistance from the water. Beneath 
the trees and above the lagoons the people erected there houses, 
and apparently lived in peace with the creatures of the air and 
water; understood all their ways, and found their happiness in 
communing with Nature in its different moods. Whatever we 
may say about the architecture of the buildings, which have 
perished, we may conclude that there was here the perfection 
of art, which always consists in being artless. Various opinions 

NoTt-The rollawine diicriptton •t'en lo Plalei A and B: Piute A-~'rhei< woodiD Implc- 
■inu in ■Fonhy sf nolici, far ihty rtprcnni handlci of concb-ihall (ougei or hoii or pleki, 
fit, 1: thi handlEi of caivinc ■dm, FwutE i- atia <iocte ind daublt-holed mUtlt or ipHi- 

Uidlui, comapaDdluc lo Ibi Icnith of ths ann s'l of tha tiish froin hip le knee of Ihcu* who 
axd ihen, Ki« j. Anong ihexan Iws loyunoei; one of ibim probibly u JaitsiiciD of ■ 



Cnca'nlly'vTouKhi rud na1i>iir*lly pBiniid. 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

have been expressed as to the people who erected ihes 
structures. 

Mr. Gushing thinks that these keys, with their open channel*' 
and lesser enclosures, were the rookeries and fish-drives and-fish- 
pools of a sea-faring people, who for some reason had forsaken, 
the mainland and had niade their homes on these isolated 
islands, but at the same time were agriculturalists, though ihcy_ 
were compelled to gather the soil out from ihe depths of the 
water and make artificial gardens, in which they raised such 
vegetables and plants as they used. In this respect they prob- 
ably resemble the famous Lake-Dwellers, who thousands of. 
years before had placed their homes above the waters of the 
lakes of Switzerland, and subsisted upon fish, which thei 
abounded ; but resorted to the land for raising their cereals and , 
the gathering of fruits. The wonder is, that they should have 
dared the storms and presumed to have built up their break- 
waters out of such fragile material as the conch shells and earth | 
combined, without any outside reef or sea wall to protect them 
from the furious waves. That they could, however, live here 
on these islands in security, is evident, from the fact that vari- 
ous while men have within a few years cleared and cultivated, 
as a fruit and vegetable garden, some of these very island keys. 
These white men (fishermen) have built platforms, constructed 
landings, and converted the ancient gardens into vegetable 
farms; but have not constructed any such massive earthworks 
or breakwaters as did the prehistoric people. 

The prehistoric, people who settled upon these islands and 
built these lagoons, were not so lonely as we might at first 
think, as there are many other artificial keys in the same 
vicinity — targe and small; some nearer the shore and others 
further away. Mr. Gushing says they are 1 50 in number which 
show signs of having been occupied in prehistoric times by the , 
same people. 

The reason for resorting to these isolated spots are unknown, 
but there may have been invasions from wild tribes, such a 
came down from the North and drove the Mound-Uuilders of. 
the Ohio valiey from their chosen seats and compelled them 
to mingle with the tribes further south. These movements of 
the ancient population are not recorded in history, nor are 
there any traditions concerning them; but judging from the 
relics which have been exhumed and the earthworks which 
have been examined, we may conclude that they were similai 
to those prehistoric people who built the pyramid mounds and 
chunky yards, which are now found in all the river valleys of' 
the South. 

We have shown elsewhere that some of these platform 
mounds were designed as refuges from high water, and that, 
they were occupied by an ancient people, who were thorougtiljT'' 
organized into villages and were ruled by chiefs and priests/ 
By way of comparison wc shall call attention 10 Mr. Gushing'* 
description of the platforms in the midst of ihe lagoons, to 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 



I7S 



the graded ways by which they were reached, as well as to the 
long, narrow earth walls which surrounded the lagoons and so 
made artificial enclosures; they are actually the same models 
in the midst of the sea, that are found upon the land, scattered 
through the Gulf States. Here the platforms were used as the 
foundations for the Great Houses of the ruling classes. The 
elevated mounds mark the sites of ancient temples and council 
houses. Walls, similar to the ridges, were constructed around 
the lish-ponds, and within them the houses of the common 
people were placed; an open court being left in the center 
of the village for public gathering.?, and for the celebration of 
ceremonies. 

HI. These structures, situated off the coast of Florida, 
lead us to another and very different class of works, namely, 
the pile dwellings and maritime villages which are so common 
in the islands of the Pacific. These, present specimens of 
arciiileclurc which are unique and various, but they remind us 
of Ihose which anciently existed in Europe, though they are 
still occupied. 

Such pile-villages and maritime structures have engaged the 
attention of many writers and have often been described. Of 
them Mr. Nadaillac says: 

There is really nothing to surprise us [in [he (act of buildings rising 
from Ihe midst of waters, they were known in early historic times. 
Herodious relates that the inhabltatants of pile-dwellings on Lake Prasias 
suces^fully repelled the attacks of the Persians. Alonzo I)e Ojeda, the 
companion of Americo Vespucio. spealca of a village consisting of twinty 
large houses built on piles, in the midst of a lake, to which he gave the 
Dame of Veneiuela, In honor of Venice his native town, 

We meet with pile dwellings in our own day in the Celebes in New 
Cjiinca, in Java, in Benares, and in the Caroline Islands. Sir Richard 
Burton saw pile-dwellings at Dahomey; Capt. Cameron, on the lakes ol 
Central Africa; and the Bishop of Lebuon tefls us that the houses of Ihe 
Dayaks Are built on lofty platforms on Ihe shores of rivers.* 

Dean Worcester has described some of those in the 
Philippine Islands and has given several cots of them.f 
Some of them were constructed by the Moros, a tribe which 
played an important part in the history of the Philippines, 
but who entered the archipelago from Borneo near the 
Spanish Discovery. They, no doubt, introduced a style of 
architecture from their native islands. The houses are 
placed upon wooden platforms, which are in turn supported 
by piles, but which are connected with the land by a nar- 
row bridge; they are rectangular in shape and covered with 
a peaked roof, which has a gable end and is thatched with 
straw; the sides .seem to be made of bamboo. There are 
canoes floating in the water that resemble the dug-outs of 
the American aborigines, 

Another cut represents a Moro village, placed upon piles 
so near the coast that, when the tide goes out. they are con- 



176 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



nected with the land, but at biffh tide are reached by rude 
bridges or boats. They resemble the pile-villages of Switz- 
erland in many respects. 

The houses of the Tagbuanas resemble the pile-dwellings 
of the Moros in some respects, but are built above the land, 
instead of above the water. They are perched hig^h up in 
the air and are supported by palm and bamboo piles. They 
also have a pitched roof, and bamboo sides. The Tag- 
buanas are wild, yet they have a simple syllabic alphabet 
and scratch their letters in vertical columns on bamboo 
poles. 

Tlie houses of the Magyars are very rude, for several 
families herd tofjether on a platform of poles protected by 
a rude roof of rattan leaves. These people are said to be 




head hunters. The Mindoros have more permanent houses, 
though they are very small and unsubstantial. Store houses 1 
for grain are placed upon rude frame-works above old i 
stumps, and are mere thatched roofs which cover a plat- 
form. 

Village life prevails in tlie Philippine Islands, but the 
villages are composed of separate houses; very many of 
them elevated above the ground and held in place by poles 
which resemble piles. A Tagalog village, which is repre- 
sented in a plate, resemblew very closely a Swiss lake- 
village. The houses are situated on filatforms in a row. 
alongside of a canal, and are built in very much the same 
shape as the Swiss lake-dwellings are. Canals are very 



COAST AND MARITIME STRUCTURES. 



■79 



tcommon in the Philippines; they radiate from the rivers in 
various directions. Fishermen, canoemen. and laundrymeii 
live in huts over the low ground near the canals. 

In Tondo one finds the genuine native houses, with bam- 

' frames and floors, roofed and sided with palm. De- 

itructive fires are frequent in this quarter. Earthquaiies 

faire common, as a result one rarely sees buildings more than 

"two stories high. Living rooms are almost invariably on 

^-tbe second stories, the ground floor being used mainly for 

pabops, servants' quarters, offices, or store-rooms. 

IV. Our last point will be in reference to the pile-dwellings 
I or pile-villages of Switzerland and the terramares of Italy. 
I These very ancient structures represent a phase of architecture 
I and a style of civilization which prevailed before the opening 
I of history in Europe, but they resemble the structures which 
V seen on the Pacific coast and in our New Possessions 
\ and are still occupied. 

The discovery of these was a 



4m<>>^- 



-##^ 



surprise to the European 
archa;ologists. It took 
place in 1H53, at a time 
of long drought, when 
the extraordinary sinlt- 
ing of Lake Zurich re- 
vealed the piles, still 
standing, and between 
the piles the ancient 
hearths, pestles, ham- 
mers, pottery, hatchets, 
and implements of many 
kinds with innumerable 
objects of daily use. 
Nadaillac says: 

These relics prove that 
some of the ancient inhabi- 
tanu of Switzerland bad 
Bvett on the lake as a refuge, to which they had probably retired lo 
Pcicape iTom the altacks cf ihe.r fellow men or wild beasts. The discovery 
ft/ ihese piles excited general interesl. which was redoubled when similar 
K4iscoveries revealed the fact that all the lakes of Switierland were dotted 
1^ *ith sialions weich had been built lung centuries before. Twenty such 
Stations were made out on Lake Bienne, twenty-four on Lake Geneva, 
Htirty on Lake Constance, forly-nine on Lake Neuchatel, and others on 
Lakes Sempach, Morat, Mooscdorf, and Pfcfiikon. In [act. more than two 
bundred lake-statioDS are now known in Switzerland. 

The lake-dwellings of Switzerland may be ascribed to 
three different periods; the first is di-stinguished by small 
a.xes and coarse pottery, which had no traces of ornamenta- 
tion; that of the second period had large, well-made 
tiatchets. some of them of nephrite and jade, the pottery is 
tiner and is ornamented including chevrons and other de- 
signs, but without handles; a third, by copper weapons and 
Ltools. a few specimens of bronze, by stone hatchets skill- 




iBo THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

fully pierced, by pottery vases provided witli handles and 
covered with ornaments, bead necklaces, pendants, buttons, 
needles, horn combs, amulets made of tlie teeth of animals, 
tools fixed into handles of stag horns, by the remains of 
seeds, grains and cereals, and fruits of various kinds. 

The distance from the shore of the most ancient lake- 
dwellings vary from 131 to ■2i)H feet. Of the most recent 
stations, from 65(3 to 0H4 feet. The piles of the early age 
from eleven to twelve inches in diameter; those of the later 
epochs are smaller. Care was taken to consolidate them 
and keep them in position with block of stone and tiers of 
piles. Keller gives to these latter the name "packwer- 
bauten"; others call them "steinbergen." Keller says: 

Household utensils, beds of charcoal, ashes, hearth stones, pottery. 
'--of wild animals, and The piles show that there had once been a 



regular settlement (or villajiel The piles stand in close rows and 
covered with horizontal timbers aud boards iormed a scaffoldini; founda- 
tion fur the erection oF the dwellings. We know verv little of the shape of the 
huts, except that they were built of poles and hurdle lorwatllework). coated 
on the outside with clay. The clay was spread on the lloor inside the huts, 
in some cases mixed with gravel, forming a kind of plaster floor. In the 
middle of the hut was a hearth, made oE slabs and rough sandstone. The 
rooE consisted of Ihebark of trees, straw, and rushes, the remains of arhicli 
have been ptrseived in the sand. The occupations of ihe settlers «r«re of 
many kind*, but may be divided into the operations of lishinK. huniini;, 
pasturage, and agriculture. In some of the earlier settlements nsblng ncM 
and fish hooks made of beats' tusks have been found. The bones, which 
are found in such great numbers, show that there were domestic animatli 
among Ihem. Ilesioe Ihe lake -dwel lings were to be found stones for crush- 
ing and grinding grain, or mealing stones, and the gram itself has been 

The tilling of the land musl have been simple, and consisted in tearing 
it up by means «f stag horns or crooked clicks, as is done in America- 
Thc tillage would have to be enclosed by hedges, as a protection SRainsi 
animals. The settlers cultivated tlax of excellent uuality, which was spun 
into threads by means of spindle whorls. Use of tne loom was common. 
Large trunks of trees wpre bellowed out by fire and by stone cells, and 
used for canoes. Oak poles were used for spe.ir shafts; mallets and clubs 
were made out of the knots of trees; boards were hewn out for the dwell' 
ings; earthern vessels were found in great abundance; urns with a large 
bulge and thin sides; a few Hat plates and large pots, used for cooking, 
have been found. The vessels were ornamented with bosses, or with im- 
pressions made with the linger, or an occasional lig-zag otnamei;t. 

The oldest settlement began in that dark period when the use of metals 
was unknown, but no difference is to be discovered In the construction of 
the lake dwellings, between the earliest and latest age. The fact that the 
erections of the Transition and Bronie Ages were built more substantially, 
was owing to the use of better tools. It has been remarked that on com- 
paring the implements of the Stone and Uronic Ages from the lake- 
dwellings with those which were found in mounds and m graves and those 
met by chance on the field, we are not able to discover the smallest differ- 
ence, either in material, form, or ornamentation. The identity of the in- 
habitants of Ihe mainland with those of the lake dwellings appears slill 
more striking, if we compare the settlements (villages). Ttie endeavor of 
the settlers to live together in a sociable manner, is positive proof that they 
bad and knew the advantages of a settled (village! mode of life, and we 
have to look upon them, not as a wandering, pastoral people, still less as a 
hunting and fishing race. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTKS. 



BV ALEXANDER F. CHAMIIERLAIN. 

Mava Okiiiins. In a most inti^rcsling volume, '"A Glimpse 
of Guati-mala, and Some Notes mi ihe Ancienl Monuint-nts of 
Cftitral America" (London, 1899, pp. xvii-289), Mr. and Mrs. 
A. P, Maudslay give aD account of their travels and researches 
in the Maya regions of Central America. Mr. Maudslay 
wisely concludes that hardly "more than a mere trace of 
phoneticism has as yet been established" in the Maya writing. 
The- famous and rather doubtful " Toftecs," he inclines to think, 
were of Mayan stuck and hesitates to decide whether or not 
theorit,'inal Mayas came from Mexico or from Central America. 
As to the generel question of the origin of American civiliza- 
tions, Mr. Maudslay does not lay any stress upon the drift- 
across-the-Pacific theories, and believes that Old World influ- 
cnces-in America, if at all present are ■' few and far between," 
while, if America was populated from the Old World, the mi- 
gration antedates all culture. In "Nature" (Vol, LXL. pp. 
292-2931. Prof. A. H. Keane reviews this book and comes to the 
conclusion that the Mayas were already civilized when they 
came into Yucatan, and thai the pyramid of Papantia and the 
archaic Huastec language (of Maya stock) in Tamaulipas and 
Vera Cruz, indicate the place of their origin. Thence they 
were driven by invasion of the Nahuas from the Northwest, 
Thus, the "Toltecs" would seem to have really been the early 
Mayan cultured tribes. To use Professor Keane's wordsr 
"Safely entrenched on the Chiapas-Guatemalan plateau, the 
early Mayas continued to develop their 'Toltec' culture, 
partly assimilating the Quiches and other rude aborigines, all 
of whom now speak languages of Maya stock, and at last pass- 
ing at the apogee of their civilization into the hitherto u 
pied limestone peninsula of Yucatan." 



Racial Aspect uf Voluntary Enlistment. In "Nature" 
(London ) for December 38, 1899 ( p. 200). Mr. R. C. T. Evans 
laments the fact that "the average opinion is growing more 
and more unwarlike. less brave, and more inclined for peace at 
any price." A selection has now been long in process, by 
means of which, "in the long run. the non-fighters, such as 
commercial classes, luxurious people, and any cowards, have 
more descendants proportionally than the brave and warlike." 
He emphasizes the fact that ".of those soldiers killed during 
the last few weeks few have left two descendants." There is 
reason here for rejoicing rather than for regret— evolution is 
putting thus an end to war. 



i8i THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

Origin of the Australians. Much litt-raturt of grcal 
value concerning the Australian aborigines, their languages, 
mythology, customs, etc.. has been published during the last 
few years. One of the most interestmg of recent contributions 
to the subject is Rev. John Mathew's ■' Eagle-hawk and Crow: 
a Study of the Australian Aborigines, including an Inquiry into 
their Origin and a Survey of Australian Languages" (London- 
Melbourne, iSgg, pp. xvi-288). According to Mr. Mathew, 
Australia has been successfully invaded by Papuans, Dravidians. 
and Malays, for which he seeks confirmation in linguistic and! 
other data. He even goes so far as to suggest (hence the litie! 
of his book) that the clan-names, so wide-spread in Auslralii 
"Eagle-Hawk" and "Crow." represent respectively: "the li 
ter, more powerful," and '" the weaker, more scantily equippi 
sable" races^in other words, the Dravidians and the Papuans,' 
In "Nature" (Vol. LXl., pp. 193-195), Prof. A. C. Haddon re- 
views Mr. Mathew's book, pointing out the weakness of some 
of his arguments, taking exception especially to the statement 
made concerning certain rock-paintings in northwest Australia, 
that "it is obvious that there has been an attempt, to present 
fragments of Hindu mythology in the form which had beer 
developed by naturalization in Sumatra." 



Songs of Aijstralian Aborigines. In the "Science 




Man" (Vol. II., pp. 24-25), Mr. J. W. Fawcett gives an account 
of sixteen songs and chants collected by him in various parts 
of Queensland. The author furnishes the native texts without 
English versions. It is interesting to learn that "'when a chant 
or song has been known for a long time it is generally dis- 
carded, and gives place to a new composition, which is eithei 
original (being compostd by one of the more intellectual men 
bers of the tribe), or else borrowed from some other tribe. 
In this way some songs travel very far, and are sung by natives 
ignorant of the meaning of the words of which they are made 
up. One "fishing song," from the coast tribes between the 
Barron and Herbert rivers, is " merely a string of names of the 
various fish, which are chiefly caught thereabouts," — a ver 
primitive lesson in economic geography. In another song W 
meet with evidences of European contact in kalli-koo (calico 
3.aA gan-gitta (handkerchief). Another song "refers to rock 
and reefs and sand-banks," One song in "Aborigine-English, 
was sung by an educated aborigine employed on a ranch" t 
north Queensland, but was not his own composition. Tho 
ending "whitc-pfellah plenty rich, black pfellah die" is sug- 
gestive. 

■t-t *-» 

Maori Gods. In the "Internationales Archiv fiir Ethno- 
graphic" (Vol. XIL, pp. 223-225), Mr. S. Percy Smith of Wel- 
lington. New Zealand, publishes a "Note on Some Maori Gods," 
accompanied by a plate figuring some of these interesting 



axM 

I 



A 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



iSj 



objects, now bt^come so rare. The "gods" In question are 
tiki, which were usually stuck in iho ground .it the tu ahu or 
altar, a sncred place near each village. The figures arc wound 
round with cord, beautiful and hand-made (from the native 
fia\,—karakf/:c, or Phormiiim tenax), and although ihey are 
between 50 and 200 (ca. 150) years old, the cord shows no 
signs of decay. The carving was done with obsidian knives, 
and the eyes of the god Tangaroa are of pearl-shell. 



Matty Ornamentation, In his article on the "Ethno- 
graphy of the Matty Islands," in the Internationales Archiv 
fiir Kthnographie (Vol. XII., pp. 21S-223), Dr. Karutz of 
Liibeck discusses the weapons and implements of these people 
of the East Indies and their ornamentation, the expression of 
a rich and manifold arti.stic sense. Among other things Dr. 
Karutz points out that the Matty Islanders use plant wcft/i in 
their ornamentation, something riire among primitive peoples, 
to judge from the best authorities. 



Malay Peninsula. From the Correspondenzblatl der 
deutschcn Ge.sellschaft fur Anthropologic (Vol. XXX., pp. 
125-127). Dr. Rudolf Martin of Zurich reprints (MiJnchen, 
i8gg, p. 10) his paper on "The Primitive Inhabitants of the 
Malay Peninsula." and from the Mitteilungen de Naturwissen- 
schaftlichen Gesellschaft in Winlerthur for 1900, his popular 
address on a "Journey through the Malay Peninsula." In these 
papers the author gives an interesting account of his travels 
and investigations during the spring and summer of 1897 in 
various regions of Malacca. The so-called Malays are not the 
autochthones of the peninsula that bears their name, but only 
immigrants from Sumatra, etc. These Malay intruders have 
driven the original inhabitants further and further into the 
forests and mountains. Of pre-Malayan date are certain re- 
mains of an archjeological sort. Among these are the skele- 
tons, stone-implements, etc., of the rock-shelters (very common 
about Ipoh), the kitchen-middens and shell-heaps (very com- 
mon in the north of Wellcsley Province and in southern Kedah), 
which consist almost entirely of the edible Cardium, and are 

frobably the refuse of lake-dwellings of former times. Stone 
atchets ^called by the Malays ^tf/a/iMtoror" thunder stones") 
of several types, besides chisels, have also been discovered. 
Dr. Martin gives some valuable anthropogical data concerning 
the Sakei (or Senoi as they call themselves), who. with the 
5^wrt«^ (their own name is Mendi) form the most aboriginal 
part of the population of the penin.sula. The Semang, who 
chicHy inhabit the north, partly m the Siamese Provinces, are, 
according to Dr. Martin, related to the Negritos of the Philip- 
pines, while the Sakei or Sakai (in eastern Pcrak. Selangor and 
western Pahang) are of a different stock, being related to some 



-■« d^ 



t84 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of the little known races of the interior regions of the great ' 
East Indian Islands. The author thinks they are not geneti- 
cally related to the Malays, and ought not. therefore, to be 
styled "primitive Malays," or "prsc-Malayan," which terms 
have been used by some authorities. Dr. Martin thinks that 
the Sakaj contradict the theory of Peschel that, by reason of 
the feebleness of their thinking primitive peoples must belit;vt 
more than civilized peoples, since, wherever such beliefs {e.g. 
in spirits, etc.) arc present with the Sakai they arc to be traced 
to Malay influence, and are not original with these tribes. 
The religious ideas of the Sakai are very few and very ne- 
bulous. Nevertheless the Sakai are monogainoiis, love their 
children, are generous and benevolent, honest and faithful to 
the end. If we believe the author, the fate of manj' other 
primitive peoples awaits them— disappearance to make room 
for the clamoring press of "'higher races." and soon the forests . 
that now know them will know them no more. 



Rice Cultivation in Cambodia, hi the Revue Scientifi- 
que for January 27, igOD, M. Adhfimard Leclere continues {pp. 
109-114) from the issue of January 6, his account of "La culture 
du riz au Cambodge." The rice-threshing of the Cambodians 
has not a little in common with the old-fashioned American > 
corn-husking. It is a "bee" and Cupid overhears many words 
of love during these threshing-nights. Besides these rural 
customs there is a more serious religious ceremony of Brah- 
manic origin connected with the threshing of the rice. Cam- 
bodia, no less than France or England, illustrates the close 
relationship between harvesting and primitive religion, 



CoREAN Head-Uresses. In the Internationales Archiv fur 
Ethnographie (Vol. Xll., pp. 225-232), M. Henri Chevalier, of 
Paris, publishes a study of '" Corean Head-Dresses," based upon 
the Steanackers-Varat collections in the MusSe Guimet. The 
various classes of bonnets, caps, hats, religious head-dresses. 
etc., are described and their Corean names indicated, together 
with an account of the Chinese influence upon these articles of 
clolhing, ornament, and symbolism, and a notice of the new 
influence of the Japanese. The illustrations accompanying 
the article arc excellent. 

BURYATS OK Irkutsk. In ihe Internationales Archiv fiir 
rEthnogmphie (Vol. XII., pp. 193-218), Dr. Nikolaus Melnikow 
[ publishes an interesting account of the Buryats of the Irkutsk 
I Government, the first historical knowledge of whom dates from 
1 1 190 A. t). These Buryats do not belong to the clans of disap- 
Luearing peoples, the last census showing them to have increased 
4-3 percent., Ijetween iS";; and 1889, in spile of their unclean- 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 185 

lint-ss and lack of hygienic conditions. Besicies physical ills 
ihey havf to cnniend' with the peculiar psychic affection which 
the Russians lerni durjet {" \o hecnnitrfoolish") and the Buryats 
uaigur. Another evil of Buryat life is alcoholism.- the effects 
of the national drink tarassun (derived from milk chiefly) is 
very notable. The author discusses the effect of the contact 
of Buryat and Russian culture. Among the benefits derived 
from this contact are the spread of agricultiire, the baking of 
bread, and the genera! improvement of alimentary conditions, 
clothing, desire for knowledge, etc. Among the evils are 
sexual degeneration, lying and deceit, loss of eloquence to a 
marked extent, etc. Dr. Melnikoff takes on the whole an 
optimistic view of the situaiion. holding that all reforms oper- 
ating to the benefit of ihe Russians have also their good effect 
upon the Buryats and the other primitive people of the Empire. 
Not the extinction of these peoples, but their assimilation with 
the Russian population of Siberia is the aim of the government, 
and to that end the Russians themselves need to be lifted to a 
higher stage of culture and enlightenment. 



THE PROBLEM OE THE HITTITES. 



av J. N, FRADESBURGH. 

The problem of the Hittites still remains unsolved, yet 
great progress has been made. Save from brief mention in 
the Bible, and a few uncertain reference.-s in the classics, 
this old race was not known till monumental pictures, 
heiroglyphic texts, and cuneiform records revealed it to our 
astonished gaze. We look with reverence and awe upon 
these venerable forms. Once among the mig;htiest of the 
mighty, they have been dead and buried more than thirty- 
five hundred years; but now, having risen from their for- 
gotten graves, they stand before us, yet still covered with 
the dust of millenniums. Scripture texts, covering a period 
of more than a thousand years, represent them as a strong 
nation. 

The age in which they asserted their power, and their 
(feographlcat position on the map of the world, together 
with their influence on surrounding nations and their peculiar 
genius mark them as an important factor in the providence 
of God in the preparation of Canaan and the final establish- 
ment of the Israelites in this land, foretold by the prophets, 
Egypt was checked in her conquests, and the East delayed 
In their ambitious schemes. Their influence may be traced 
in the geographical names of Egyptian and Assyrian in- 
scriptions, stone monuments, tumuli, and bas-reliefs of 
Hittite origin, and inscriptions in strange hieroglyphics. 



186 THE AMERICAN AN TlyLiARIAN, 

Hittite monuments have been found from the EuphratK 
througli northern Syria to the ,^ig"ean, and colonies at leaatJ 
Beem to have been planted in southern Palestine. It would^ 
probably be too much to claim for them this wide dominioD 
for any {(reat length of time, or perhaps at any one time. 
They were able to obtain from the Egyptian King Rameses 
U., after the fjreat battle of Kadesh. favorable terms of 
peace. The treaty was engraved on a plate of silverJ 
and a copy in the Eg^yi>tian language is stili extant. Thel 
original was drawn up by the Hittite commander. The twM 
nations, forming an alliance under this treaty, were able to 
command the peace of the world. They were a commercial 
and warlike people, and .showed remaritable knowledge of 
military strategy. They held, also, some advanced ideas 
upon international law. 

In tlie Preface of Dr. Wrights "The Empire of th« 
Hittitea," the author says: "The object of this book is to 
restore the Emi>ire of the Hittites to its rightful |K>sition is 
secular history, and thus to confirm the scattered references 
to the Hittites in sacred history." 

This pioneer work has not been superceded by lat^ 
[inblications. It first gave to the general student copies o( 
the chief inscriptions known at the time, and its map of the 
Kmjiire far exceeds the limits here suggested. 

Mr. Sayce in his compact work "The Hittites," 
Kome original work in an effort at decipherment, and sums 
up the condition of the problem at that time. The writer 
of this note, using material, much of which had been col? 
h'fl^d previous to the appearance of these works, published 
" tUd Heroes; the Hittites of the Bible "; presenting, as Mr. 
Snyce Kays in a letter to the author, "an excellent account 
o! tlif present condition of knowledge on the subject.'' 

hieut. t'linders " Altaic Hieroglyjihs and Hittite Inscrip- 
Utni."*" identilies the language of the texts "as belonging 
111 tin- tariiiiy of Ugro- Altaic dialects, of the which the Proto- 
Metllc and the Akkadian are, perhaps, the oldest known 
I'XHiuj'U'f*." Lieut, Ctmder endeavors to show "that the sym- 
iHiiii nre the prototypes whence the cuneiform system has 
tli'vcloped,'" anil suggests connection with the Egyptian and 
t'hlni->f writinj,' and the Cypriote syllabary. 

I'liil l'.iiii|il"-ll in hi.s "The Hittites; their Inscriptioai 
iMul (h'li llisinry " (two volumes), has discovered linguistic 
vVtilriii ''•• "I Ihi-ir inlluence over nearly the whole world, 
viti'lHrn have not agreed with Lieut, Conder in his decipbor-:' 
Wi>iiV*> much less with Prof. Campbell in his work of vasf 
kfttHtl- mill leRrning. 

IVIwr hftH studied the subject thoroughly and connectl 
(hv illUUi*)t with the Turanian family. Jensen, in twg 
*AUVIv" "' ^■•■'■y iJreat value in Hic Sniuiity-Schaol Times, conr 
HWi'U (hem with the Armfuians. Cuneiform tablets discov- 
viwt «* ilouhfti Keiii would ap|icarto point to the Turanian. 



THE PROBLEM OF THE HITTITES. 



187 



We need not fear of a final solution of the problem. 
Progress has been made toward the goal, but much still 
remains to be done. Additions are constantly bejng made 
to the material available for their study. It is a fascinating' 
problem to the archasologist, but we can not hasten the work 
of its solution. 



PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. 

BY W. C, WINSLOW. D, D,, LL, D. 

That valued brochure of llie Egypt Exploration Fund, its 
Arch,eological Keiort, gives us a clear and full idea of the 
progress of Egyptology during the past Fund year. It is a 
handsome quarto, illustrated, of 94 pages, with four maps, and 
costs but 70 cents. As early as possible in each year the 
Society issues this very useful compendium of discovery and 
of the progress of Egyptology, including the entire literature 
upon the subject that has been published during the previous 
twelve months. Th<? notes upon the books and articles that 
have appeared are invaluable. This brochure is edited by F. 
L. Griffith, M, A., with the assistance of Prof. Petrie, Somers 
Clark. F. S. A.; N. G. Davies, B. U.; B. P. Grenfell, M. A.; A. 
S, Hunt, M. A.; F. G. Kenyon. M.A.; W. E. Crum, M. A., and 
W. Max Muller. Ph. D. Such specialists make such a pro- 
duction of the first scientific value, as well as of popular use- 
fulness. 

The resultsTrom Prof. Pctrie'r prehistoric work were treated 
by me in The American Antiquarian of last November, and 
again in the March number. But I will add here of the inva- 
sion of Egypt by the Libyans at the close of the Twelfth 
Dynasty, which was discovered by Prof. Petrie, that the in- 
vaders inherited many of the ways of the prehistoric people. 
from whom they were collateral descendants. Their pottery 
and beads show what was then the level of skill in Libya; and 
their curious custom of hanging up and decorating the skulls 
of oxen, goats, gazelles, and sheep, seems connected with the 
bucrania of Greek architecture. Here, too, is a point, that the 
elegantiy-formcd pottery of the West (perhaps from Italy) was 
brought into Egypt as early as 30OO b, c. 

The explorer must always be prepared for the unexpected. 
This was the case with Mr. Davies, who went to the necropolis 
of Sakkarah to study the sculptures in the tomb of Ptah-hoteh. 
He excavated, also, to find that the mastaba contained a series 
of chambers, and that (he chapel of Ptah-hotep was the only 
room dedicated to him. He then found a T-shaped chamber, 
which was entered from the central court on the west, and 
formed the mortuary chapel of one Akhet-hotep. who must 
have been cither father or son to the other occupant of the 
tomb. This was indeed a discovery. Although much dam- 
aged by incrustation and wet, the paint is still bright in many 



iSa THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

parts; the corridor has inscriptions in honor of Akhet-hotep; 
tht- choicest of the completed designs shows as good work u 
the bfst that the Ancient Kingdom affords. " In the liesurcly 
and afHucnt days which arc still to come for Egyptology," Mr. 
Davies fiah'ely remarks, " it is to be hoped that an edition-dt—luxf 
worthy of the charming chapel of Ptah-hotep will reveal its full 
beauties to the world. He says that the Akhet-hotep hiero- 
glyphs throw altogether n«w or convincing light on disputed 
points. For instance, an important geographical term in the 
inscription of Una has rL-CL-ivcd a complete explanation. Some 
of tnc little signs are crowded with architology and history, and 
carry us back in a most vivid way into thi-' details of ancient life. 

The last excavations by Messrs. Grcnfell and Hunt in the 
Fayi^m. if without dazzling disclosures, are, as a whole, of much 
interest. Some sites, too, must be examined to determine if 
something is there, Qx—notfiing. In the northwest of the district 
a sill- known as a source of papyri. Kasr-el-Banat. was delved. 
It pr.ivcd to be that of the ancient Euhemesia, or the division 
of Themistus The Fayum was anciently divided into three 
sections, called after the names of Ileraclides, Themistus, and 
Polenio, who were probably the first three governors. As the 
cxph)rer5 had previously discovered the division of Hcraclides, 
this additional discovery showed that the remaining division, 
that of Polemo,|must be placed in the southwest. The low 
mounds of Kasr-el-Banal cover an area of a quarter square 
mile. The ruined houses excavated proved very shallow; but 
an astonishing number of square and oblong liny chambersj 
turned up — book alcoves — in which papers lay thickly ^bouti 
One of these little chambers yielded about twenty-five docu- 
ment.* of the time of Tiberius and Claudius. 

But I quote a " Pompeian bit" 



contained a Uyerof ii/i4,— the pecul 
with sir*w and twigs, which, for rea 
' MiodKtcd with papyri. This layer 
il the earth uften became soft 
sense t. a kind which probably 



idfii 



; attractive ones, which ha4 
■rival; but most of the 
kind of moderately hard earth 
IS we do not profess io,'undeT5(and. is 
as Kenerally Dear the surface; below 
le {trob naim or ubakk in the limited 
,. o some chemical acuon, is barren so 
s papyri are concerned. In those houses which had been used as places 
for thruwini; rubbish, the papyri were u^uallv in a very fragmentary condi- 
tion, the best preserved documeoli bein^ discovered in buildings whicli< 
had siniplv fallen In whea the town was abandoned. Two rooms in ilwi 
richer! of these yielded upwards sf a hundred documents from the corre-' 
tpondence of its owner. Leucius Bellenus Gemellus, a wealthy Roman citi 
ten who owned an estate at Eiihemena in the reigns of Uomitian and Tra- 

^'^nl whiie the doorstep of the same house, on being turned over, proved to. 
>e an intrnplion with a petition to one oF the later Ptolemies concerniii^ 
the riitht o( nsylurn in temples. 

Another "score" for Kasr-cl-Baniit, Fayum sites have] 
vielded few ostraca; but this one daily revealed these inscribed 4 
bitM, one even containing as many as seventy ostraca. Terra- 
cottas abounded: a great variety of pots were [found; coins; J 
domestic objects in iron and bronze, a curious inlaid wooden] 



I 



» 



PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY 189 

box, and the like were among the ipolia for museums. In a few 
chambers of the local temple some demotic and Greek papyri 
showed that the shrine was dedicated to Scbek: and Isis. A 
large pot contained a bronze incense-burner and other temple 
utensils. The period was mostly late Ptolemaic. 

Messrs. Grenfeld and Hunt excavated a cemetery called 
Harit. three kilometres to the southeast. Here were three 
classes of tombs: early Ptolemaic, late Ptolemaic and early 
Roman, and late Roman, or a range in ttih> from ;8o b. c. to 300 
A. D. The details by the excavators arc interesting: 

In the first class the bodies were generally mummified and placed in 
plain wooden cofiins with rudely-carved heads, either in a bricked-up recess 
at the side of the tomb, or under an arched covering; of bricks. I.allerly 
coHins were also used in the poorer burials, and some of these had a rudely- 
shaped head. Most of the mummies had an ornamenled carlonnage over 
(be head, breast, and feet. This was somelintes composed of cloth, but 
more often of papyrus, of which in most cases several layers were stuck 
together in order 10 obtain a hrm background for the plaster, while in others 
there was only a single thickness of papyrus. The writing belonged to the 
third or less commonly to the second century B.C. No beads were found, 
but a gilded plaster scarab and disks were often placed at the head. In one 
tomb there was a painted cinerary urn and a lamp, but otherwise the only 
objects found were pots of coarse earihetiware. 

The tombs of the second class had some points of resemblance to the 
early Ptolemaic. Pottery coffins and gilded scarabs were cumnion; the 
bodies were placed under bricks, and the pottery was siinillar, though In 
much greater variety. But instances of mummification were very rare, and 
there was no cartonnage. Where wooden coffins were used there was no 
longer any attempt to give them the shape of a mummy, but 
they were painted with rude designs. Occasionally plain 
■arcophaei were used. Small red or black lamps were very ci 
in some o( the tombs bead-i and small calcite or alabaster vases were found. 
What was most remarkable, however, was the number of pots buried in the 
tombs, sometimes with the bodies, sometimes in the filling of the graves. 
Most o( these were of ordinary dark red earthenware, but there were a few 
specimens of liner black ware, and some inscribed amphorse. For studying 
the characteristics of Ptolemaic pottery, about which hitherto almost noth- 
ing has been known, a Urge amount of well-dated material is now available. 

This site was proved to be that of the ancient Theadelphia. 
The papyri and coin were late Ptolemaic or early Roman. A 
rubbish heap yielded a surprisingly large number of papyri, all 
of the second century. Two other towns, Wadfa. proved to 
be the ancient Philotetis, and Kasr Kuran. were explored. The 
position of Dionysias {near Banat) affords the locale of Lake 
Mosris. The authors fully confirm the theory of Major Brown 
that the Birkct-e!-Karun represents the site of ihat historic 
reservoir-lake. Their careful conclusion is of special value. 
The papyri and ostraca have all been brought to England for 
examination. Of the 1,000 papyri 300 are complete; there are 
thirty literary papyri, and the predominance of Homer shows 
how that poet was the classic idol in Faydmia. 

But I must pause in the very middle of our Archfeological 
Report; perhaps I will continue the story in the next number 
of The Aherjcak Antiquarian. The "Report" is itself 
science. Organization at home of ways and means is not with- 



190 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



out science— but the science in .iifu.' Professor Petne con- 
siders that Egyptian Exploration has created a new science, 
and he is right, He speaks out in the Popular Sdetuc Monthly 
for April anent the excavations by the Egypt Exploration 
Fund and the Research Account: 

At present most of the above named work is done by a corps of men wto 
have been engaged at il foi for many years. They leave Iheir homes and 
assemble as soon as the winter begins. Any dealing in antiquities or r 
conduct since the lait season excludes ihem from rejoinii-g. They c 
know Iheir work, "hat to preserve, how to leave everything intact in 
ground where found, and how best to manage dlEferenl kinds oC excavating. 
With such men it is always possible to screw more information out of a site, 
however much it may already have been wrecked in ancient ar modern 
times. And it is far safer to leave such men unnralched, with the certainty 
that they will receive a fair valu« for all that Ihey find, than it is to drive a 
gang under the lash, on bare wages, without rewards to keep thetn from 
pilfering. The English system means mutual contidence and good faith: 
the native and frcnch system offeree mcansthe destruction of bothmforma- 

And yet beside thi« there is Che essential business of observing and re 
cording. Every hole dug must have a meaning and be understood as to the 
dkte of the ground at different levels and the nature of the place. Every- 
thing! muEt be spelled out as the work advancFS; any difficulties that cannot 
tie explained must be tried with all possible hypotheses; each detail must 
either fall into place as agreeing with what Is known, or be built in as a dew 
piece of knowledge- 
Twenty years ago nothing was known of the dale of any Egyptian 
manufactures.nol even of pottery or beads, which are the commonest. Now, 
at present, it is seldom that anything is found which cannot be dated toler- 
ably near by, and in some classes of remains the century, or even Ihe reign^ 
can be stated at once without a single word to show it. The science ot 
Egyptian archaeology is now in being. 

As a bit of additional and impartial science the principle is 
enforced that all the antiquities brought from Egypt shall not 
be sold, publicly or privately, but divided among the museums 
of England and America, where they can be scientifically 
studied, and where, it is hoped, they can create more popular 
interest in the progress of Egyptology. The silent " Ramescs 
II," in Boston should here be eloquent. The oldest known 
statuary group in the world, placed in Chicago, pleads with 
those who took so just a pride in their "Court of Honor," 
presided over with such majesty by Miss Columbia. The 
beautiful palm-column in the halls of the University of 
Pennsylvania reminds all who rejoice in that expanding uni- 
versity that science can brinp even beautiful things out of 
Egypt, The sarcophagus of Tabekenkhonsut, in the Metro- 
politan Museum of New York intimates to a splendid city that 
Egyptian archaeology is a live topic, especially when it tenders 
a fresh poem by the dainty and tL-ndcr .Sappho. The progress 
of Egyptology is as sure as the progress of knowledge. 



I 
1 




I 



1 



A 



A PRE-HISTORIC MOUNTAIN VILLAGE. 

BY W. P. BLAKE. 
[Read before the Annual Meeting of Antiquarian Society at Phoenix, Arizona.] 

Remnants of ancient dwellings of considerable extent 
ccur on the eastern side of the Huachus mountains in Cochise 
ounty, Arizona. They are at the base of the ridges in the 
pen country, at the upper portion of the long, gradual slope 
xtending to the San Pedro river, fourteen miles away. The 
levation is approximately 5,000 feet above the sea. The chief 
roup of ruins recently examined by me is a few hundred yards 
ast of York's ranch, on Ramsay's cafion or creek. They are 
n the left bank of this creek on the low terrace bordering it 
here it debouches on the plain, or slope, and at about the 
;point where it seems probable that water could formerly have 
'fceen carried by a ditch. At the present time water does not 
flow in the bed of the creek so far from the cafion in the moun- 
tains, except at times of great floods from rains or rapid melt- 
m ng of the snow. 

While these remnants of habitations telling us of former 
occupations are described as ** ruins," do not appear boldly 
sabove the general surface as walls and buildings, but are rather 
«i succession of low, grass-covered mounds, which would not 
airrest the attention of an ordinary casual observer. The build- 
ings were evidently built of adobe clay. Whether laid up as 
^dobe bricks or by the cajon (box) method is not determinable, 
at least without excavating, but the general resemblance to the 
mounds of the Salt River valley leads us to the conclusion that 
the buildings were similarly constructed and occupied. 

There are now. apparently, two lines of mounds, possibly 
three, with a broad, nearly level space between them suggest- 
ing a former street or avenue between a succession of buildings, 
in a general north and south direction, for a distance of about 
200 yards and a breadth of 300 feet. There are no distinct 
lines of stone foundations for the main buildings, but such 
foundations may, perhaps, be revealed by excavating. There 
are. however, at one end of the village some lines of stone 
partially bedded in the ground in the manner shown at the 
Catalina ruins, which I have designated as the '* Paleolithic 
Pueblo," but by no means so deeply and regularly set, and not 
in straight lines. Fragments of rude red pottery of the com- 
mon kind, apparently fragments of ollas. are numerous in the 
soil, as, also, chips of flinty rocks. There are numerous old 
inetate stones of granite and of compact quartzite; some of 
them very heavy and made from large boulders. Most of these 
nietates are greatly worn and broken; some show a depth of 



192 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

not less than eight inches at the sides, thus giving evidence 
long use. 

From ihe extent of the mounds and the number of the ol 
mctates it wonld appear that there were not less than forty 
fifty families occupying this ancient village or pueblo, but thi 
may be an uiider-estimate. 

William York, who is familiar with that district of couni 
assures me that recent evidences of ancient occupation may be 
seen upon the plains at the mouths of all the water-bearing 
canons along the eastern base of Huschucas. The region thus 
becomes specially interesting to archaeologists as a center of 
former occupation by house-builders hitherto unnoticed and 
unknown. 



THE UNCONQUERABLE YAQUIS. 

The Yaqui Indians, in the mountain districts of northwest 
ern Mexico constitute, perhaps, the most remarkable tribe a 
aboriginals known to history. They differ materially from th 
numerous other tribes inhabiting this section of the globe 
While thoroughly partaking of the ferocious nature of tin 
Apaches of the American frontier, and entertaining quite a 
pronounced a hatred for all people of more civilized tastes 
they are characterized by a very distinct predilection for intelli 
gent forms of government. Hut that any restrictions or obli 
gations should be placed upon them by an alien people, sucf 
as they have ever been disposed to reg;ird all mankind not o 
their tribe, they are disposed to consider as unwarranted intCT' 
ference with their hereditary customs, and hence intolerabl 
The Yaquis have been a constant source of dread to the Me; 
icans ever since the first rttempt at civilizing the northwestern 
section of the republic, to which movement the former have- 
been most strenuously opposed. Like other North American 
tribes, they hold that the territory they hold is theirs by right 
of inheritance from their forefathers, and every foot of land 
that has from time to time been wrenched from them has ulti-J 
mately been paid for by the life's blood of the invaders. 

When the Spaniards first came to Mexico, in 1519, the Yaquiil 
nation numbered a population of 350,000. The territory con- 
trolled by them was bounded on the south by Durango, and 
stretched away to what is r.ow known as the northern boundary 
of Colorado. They were a.bso!utcly independent, owing allegi- 
ance to no government other than their own, and were looked | 
upon as the most formidable of all the tribes of Mexico. Lih 
ail uncivilized natives at that period the Yaquis were giv 
strange customs and rites, many of which were appalling i 
extreme. One of these was (heir practice of destroying, at 
birth, all puny or deformed infants, which cruel cusiorri 
claimed to account for the superior physical development 
characteristic of them even to this d; 



:!1 

id 

ry 

I'- 
ked ■ 
AktaM 
n toM 

the^ 



e first war witb^ 



THE UNCONQUERABLE YAQUIS. 193 

the Yaquis was participated in by Colorado, who, during the 
period of Spanish occupation, led an armed expedition into 
their territory. The progress of the invaders was strenuously 
opposed by the Indians, but, owing to their superior arms and 
equipments, the Spaniards eventually succeeded in penetrating 
through their country. This war lasted a year, during which 
period the Yaquis lost 20,000 of their warriors and were forced 
to abandon a large amount of their territory to the invaders. 
Their intense hatred for the Spaniards, cherished even to the 
present time, was engendered in the Yaquis at that remote 
date. Throughout the succeeding centuries they have been 
almost incessantly at war with the Spaniards and their Mex- 
ican descendants, and by degrees their once powerful tribe has 
been rednced, until at the present day it numbers less than 
1^,000 members. Of their former broad domain all the posses- 
sions that now remain to the Yaquis are a few leagues of land, 
situated in the lovyer valleys of the Rio Yaqui, in the southern 
portion of the State of Sonora. Here, during the brief inter- 
vals of peace which they have occasionally experienced, they 
have made their homes, following their natural pursuits of 
farming, stock raising and mining. This is the land that has 
been officially assigned to them by the Mexican government. 
Back of it, however, in the fastness of the great Sierra Madres, 
lies a territory that is theirs by right of their exclusive ability 
to penetrate and. when necessary, to inhabit it. This is the 
war home of the Yaquis. Here, in the conflicts of later years, 
they have proved invincible, unconquerable. It is a country 
of rugged mountain steeps, of deep, furnace-like defiles and 
desolate, sweltering mesa lands — a country inaccessable, in- 
tolerable to anything human, save only the Yaquis. Such is 
the stronghold in which this race of fighters is intrenched 
to-day. 




• 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN AND ITS 
FRIENDS. 

The American Antiquarian has tor twenty-two years I 
occupied an important Reld and one which is rapidly growing 
in interest. It represents the department of anthropology, 
which may be divided into three heads, namely. arch;i;ology, 
ethnology, and mythology or folk-lore. It treats of these sub- 
jects, not so much in a technical way. as in the comparative 
method, embracing in the field of vision and study: Oriental, 
Hiblical, and Classic lands, as well as the two continents of 

The double name is significant, for it shows that the two 
hemispheres are brought under the scope of the magazine, and 
gives an opportunity lor taking into view the antiquities of all 
lands, and especially those which may be discovered in our 
New Possessions, and in the Islands of the Pacific. 

During the time that this journal has been running several 
others have been established, each one taking a definite de- 
partment. 

The most of them design ed to be the organ of some particu- 
lar society. These, mentioned in their order of first appear- 
ance, are as follows: T/ic Jour/ml of Semitic I jin^iiage mid Litcra- 
/«rc, Chicago, 1883; The Amcriia 11 Journal of Arditeology, Balti- 
more and Boston. 1885; The Biblical World, Chicago, 1886; Tlu 
American Anthropologist, begun has the organ of the Anthro- 
pological Society in Washington in 1887. taken under the 
auspices of A. A. A. S. in 1898. but edited and conducted by 
members of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington; The 
Ji'itriiiil of Americiin folk-Lore, Boston; Biblia. cA'Wtd and pub- 
lished by Charles W. Davis, M. D.. Meriden, Conn., and a 
journal recently established in New York called Monumental 
Records. 

Towards thtsc as they appeared, the editor of The Ameri- 
can Antiquarian has made no opposition whatever, but, on 
the other hand, has spoken words of commendation. There 
. was a sense of personal loss when The Anthropologist was started 
at Washington, for the gentlemen who were connected with 
the various institutions and departments there, the most of 
them with the Bureau of Kthnology, had been valuable con- 
tributors; but they gradually wilhdrew, and gave their contri- 




THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN AND ITS FRIKNDS. igs 

butions and patronage to that journal. Scarcely one of thcra 
H now either a contributor or a subscriber to The American 
AsTiQUAKiAS. It has been a matter of principle to make no 
accusations, and we believe that no words of reproach or com- 
plaint have been published about the contributors, correspond- 
ents or subscribers, who have turned toward this or other 
journals: and we are happy to know that this policy has re- 
sulted in retaining old friends and securing new friends and 
a»iOCiatcs." 

Under these circumstances, it has been a matter of surprise 
to the editor to read a paragraph which appeared in the last 
number of T/u- Afithropologist. making charges of a serioua 
character. The following is the language: 

Peel (S. D.t— "The CItff-Dwcllers and the ^Vild.Tribei." {A-fn-ruan 
Antifuarian. Chicago, i&yct. Vol. XXI.. pp. 3^9-368.1 The author attempts 
to show the main points of difference between the wild tribes of the South- 
west and the Pueblos and Iheir Cliff-Dwelling ancestors, The paper is 
bated solely on the work of others, without regard 10 its good, bad. or in- 
different chaiacier; it contains nothing new. but much that Is erroueous. 
Those who scan the illustratrons (all of which have been used be<ore| will 
recognise Dr. Fewkes' portrait of the " Chief oi the Antelope I'riesls " at 
Moki, now doing strvicc as a ■' Navajo priest. "^F. W. H. 

Now, it will be understood that this is not a criticism of a 
book which was sent for review, nor of an article written by an 
ordinary contributor, but it is an attack from the editor of T/u- 
Atitliffpologist n^oa the edit(>r of The American AnTintiARiAN. 
with the name made specially conspicuous, and ts aimed not at 
the subject discussed m the article, but at the manner in which 
the magazine is conducted, and even at the material which is 
published and the cuts which are used as illustrations. It it 
not pleasant to be obliged to answer such a condensed para- 
graph of personal abuse and harsh criticism. Hul the readers 
of the two journals ought to urderslard the circumstances. 

First: In reference to the subjcct'of, the article. " The Cliff- 
Dwellers and the Wild Tribes," there seems to be no difference 
of opinion; for. while Mr, Hodge a ftw years ago held that 
the Navajos were the survivors cf the Cliff-Dwellcrs. be now 
holds exactly the same position as the editor of Tfie Ameri- 
can Antiquarian holds. There is no difference of opinion on 
this point. 

Sfcomi: The main criticism is that "the paper is based solely 
upon the work of other.":, without regard to its good, bad, or 




196 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

indifferent character. " Now Mr. Hodge is the editor of The 
A iilhropologisl znd at the same time custodian of the Bureau of 
Ethnology, and he knows who are the assistants of the Bureau. 
If he will take the pains to read the article again, and notice 
the names of the individuals whose work is drawn upon in 
making up this particular article, he will find that five of them 
are members of the Kurcau, and only three arc not connected 
with it. The following arc the names: Mr. F. H. Cushing,- 
Major J. W, Powell, Mr, A. S, Galschet, Mr. J. Walter Fewke| 
and Mr. Cosmos Mindcleff. The three gentlemen, not coii 
nected with the Bureau, are Mr. Nordenskjold, who has writ^ 
ten a valuable book on the Cliff-Dwellers: Mr. Carl Lumholtz. 
the well-known author and explorer, and Mr. Warren K, 
Moorehead. Now. we do not undertake to draw the lines be- 
tween these different writers and explorers, but shall leave, 
that for Mr. Hodge to do. If he chooses to distribute his a4 
jectives among his associates in the Bureau, we cannot preven 
it. If, on the other hand, he means to class his assistants i 
the Bureau among the "good," and place the other gentlei 
among the "bad and indifferent," they may object, and so 
would we; for we do not believe in the practice of setting up 
the men who are working at public expense as authority, and 
and pulling down the private explorers, who are working I 
their own expt.nse. even it Mr. Hodge does. 

Third: The next point is that the article "contains nolhi: _ 
new, but much that is erroneous." On this point we have 
something to say. We will ask Mr. Hodge to inform us 
what the object of the Ethnological Bureau is, if it is not to 
furnish "new" material and publish it in the Reports, for just 
such uses as we have made of it in this article. We wouM 
also ask what law or custom it is that bestows upon The Aiitliro- 
pologht new material which has been secured at public expense 
to be used before it has been published in the Ethnological 
Reports; access to il being denied to all other journals. 
This may give the advantage to Tht Anthropologist v>\tx The 
American Antiuuakian. But it docs not come with very 
good grace from one who is dividing his time between the public 
service as a custodian of the Bureau and the work of conduct- 
ing a private journal like Tke Anthropologist to criticise The 
American Antiqoakian as above. 

l-oitrth: In reference to the use of cuts: it has been tl 
custom heretofore tor the Surveys and the Bureau and tl 
Smithsonian Institution to furnish electrotypes lo various 
journals for Illustrating articles, and such have been used by 
the American Xaluralist and others, without being criticized. If 
the editor of 'rhc AnthropoJo^ist can secure photographs from 
parties who have been sent into the field at public expense and 
have them reproduced for that journal, it is treading on the 
borders of a disputed privilege and puts him and the journal 
he represents in a very equivocal position. 



iIU. 
K, 
be- 
ave_ 

: "P 
and 

: >jf 



h^ 




SCENERY AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO. 197 



SCENERY AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO. 

ARVELOUS PROFICIENCY OF THE EARLY INHABITANTS IN THE 

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE. 

[See Frontispiece for Illustrations.] 

Much has been written about the Province of Mexico and 

i ts history. Descriptions have also been given of its antiquities 

a&nd scenery by various authors, but very few engravings have 

been furnished which would illustrate this or give any idea of 

"Khe topography. It is fortunate that the means for securing 

^ood pictures of natural features have been increased so much, 

SLtid. that the expense has been so much lessened, for the result 

2s that many of the magazines are publishing these pictures 

SLnd making the scenery of our sister republic familiar to the 

^roin.iion people. It is a remarkable fact that the railroads have 

l3ecome educators; they not only carry tourists and intelligent 

"Cravellers to the distant place^, but they bring near to their 

own patrons and to all classes the scenes which are reproduced 

^nd published. 

All the writers who have ever visited Mexico speak of the 
-wonderful beauty and variety of the scenery, and describe the 
country as presenting ** many charming views which unfold be- 
fore the traveller's gaze; dazzling light and colors mingled with 
rich tints, and rich fertile valleys interwoven between high 
mountains." The country has been divided into three parts: 
first, the region near the coast, which is very low and hot and 
called ** Terra Caliente"; it has a tropical climate and the 
vegetation is such as grows in the tropics. Malaria prevails 
and it is unhealthy for any, except the natives. Next to this 
is the region which is called the " Terra Templada/' a temper- 
ate belt adjacent to the region before mentioned. Still further 
into the interior is the ** Terra Fria," a cool tableland. This 
is best known in history and was at an early date the seat of a 
high grade of civilization. It is a plateau raised some 5,000 to 
8,000 feet above the sea, and has several mountain peaks rising 
to a great height above it; the mountains being very conspicu- 
ous at great distances. Prominent among these mountains are 
Orizaba, '• the star mountain"; Popocatepetl, '* the mountain 
of smoke," and Izzacelhuatl, "the white woman." 

For variety and striking contrasts the climate and scenery 
of Mexico are surpassed by no region of equal extent in the 
V^orld. One rises as he passes from the sea to the interior 
from the hot borderland to a temperate belt, and then reaches 
'^he Terra Fria, or cool, elevated plateau, and may finally 
^each the region of perpetual snow. The plateau is variegated 
ith many lakes. The soil, almost everywhere fertile, is over 
pread with a variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of ever- 
i, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak stand 



iq8 the AMERICAN ANTIQUAIJIAN. 

conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no mark behind; 
or it may be said that spring, satisfied with its abode there, 
takes up its perpetual rest; the temperature Is ever mellow, 
with resplendant sunshine by day, while at night the stars 
shine wiih a brilliancy nowhere excelle.l. 

As to the native inhabitants, at the time of the conquest a 
large portion of this region, as well as a part of Central America, 
was occupied by those natives we call civilized, but even then 
there was a great difference between the people. The natives 
of the valley of Mexico are represented as tall, well-made, and 
robust. Throughout the tableland the men are muscular and 
well-proportioned. In Vera Cruz they are somewhat shorter— 
from four feet six inches to five feet in height— and clumsily 
made, having their knees farther apart than Europeans, 
walk with their toes turned in ; they are of a darker compit 
than those on the tablelands. 

The natives as a whole, have been classed by Humboldt 
"with thi: aborigines of Canada, Peru, Florida, and Brazi], 
having elongated eyes, prominent cheeks, large h'ps, and a 
sweet expression about the mouth, forming a strong contrast 
with their otherwise gloomy and severe aspect." 

According to Crescott they bear a strong resemblance to 
the Egyptians, but Violet ie Uuc asserts that the Malay type 
predominates. Kossi says that their physiogmony resembles 
that of the Asiatics. The question of race and origin has not 
yet been decided. Dr, Brinton, who held to the unity of Ihi 
American race, would, of course, class them with the tribes ol 
the North. Prof. Mason claims that the linguistic families 
may bj divided into Shoshone tongues for the United States, 
the Piman for the Sonoran area, and the Nahuan for the great 
southern groups. The Apaches, who belong to the Athapascan 
stock, are stragglers into northern Mexico, The Maya-Quiche 
stock were situated farther south in Mexico and Central 
America. Here, then, we have the race question simplified by 
names which are familiar and easily understood. The other 
tribes, such as the Miztecs, Otiemis, Scri. Vuman, Tlascala, 
and Totonaca, are smaller and scattered tribes, whose langu- 
ages have not yet been traced to their origin. 

Thtre has been, according to Mr. Walter Hough, a mixture 
of Oriental infJuences since the time of the Spanish conquest. 
and the Philippines have contributed to the products and the 
plants of Mexico, as trade and commerce was carried on by 
the Spaniards, between Mexico and Manila, and between Manila 
and China. This commerce and contact beginning as early as 
1545, in the reign of Philip H.. naturally complicates the 
archaeology of the region, for there naturally would be certain 
articles and relics mingled with the ancient in such a way as to 
be taken for prehistoric relics. 

It is probable, also, that the architecture of Mexico was 
very much affected by this contact with the Spanish on the 
one side, and A'ith the natives of the Philippines on the other, 



I 
I 



SCENERY AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO. 199 

^or a great variety appeared at a very early date. Mr. Hough 
sa.ys that all the circular houses in Mexico are of African 
origin, the style having been introduced by negroes; the native 
Houses having been originally rectangular. This may be so, 
though there are many circular huts with thatched roofs repre- 
sented in the facades of the Maya palaces. 

Charnay, to be sure, held that the Toltec house was a square 
building, and that the hieroglyph Calli became the type of a 
particular form of architecture, which everywhere prevails; 
tlie walls, cornice, and roof, always being constructed after the 
same pattern. He compares the temple at Palcnque to the 
J apanese temple, giving two cuts to illustrate his point.* 

Shall we say, then, that the Toltec type of architecture was 
i ntrodu.ed from Japan, and the ordinary style of huts in use 
ere introduced from Africa? In that case we must give up 
he idea of a native growth, of both art and architecture, and 
[lake everything foreign, or extra limital in its origin. 

The point which we make in this connection is, that in 

^lexico there is, even at the present time, a great variety of 

architecture; some of it having been introduced from Spain; 

^onrie, perhaps, from Manila; some from the United States; 

^ome from the ancient Maya races of Yucatan; some styles 

surviving from the ancient Nahua civilization, and some intro- 

<luced, as Mr. Hough says, from Africa by negroes who were 

imported. 

The question is, what was the original type and by what 
tribe was the ancient style introduced. We must remember 
that there was a great difference between the wild tribes and 
the civilized in the days of the conquest, and that the cities 
were very different from the rural districts. Take, for illustra- 
tion, the landing of Cortez and his troops and their march toward 
the City of Mexico. It will be remembered that he landed on 
the coast at Vera Cruz, but as he advanced toward the capital 
he found a tribe called the Tlascalans, who had for a long time 
contended with the Aztecs of Mexico. Surrounded as they 
were by natural barriers of mountains, with a mountain pass, 
where they had established a fort as a gate between them and 
their enemies, they were as isolated almost as if in another 
ian<J. Here Cortez rallied this people to his banner, and with 
their help was able to overcome the city. 

The following is Mr. Prescott's description of Cortez's 
jnarch from the sea: " It was the i6th of August, 15 19. Dur- 
ing the first day their road lay through the Terra Caliente, the 
l>eautiful land where they had been so long lingering; the land 
of the vanilla, cochineal, cocao (not till later days of the 
Orange and the sugar-cane); products, which indigenous to- 
A4exico, have now become the luxuries of Europe; the land 
M^here the fruits and the flowers chase one another in an un- 
V^roken circle through the year; where the gales are loaded 

* See '* Ancient Cities of the New World," page 250. 



200 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with perfumes until the sense aches at their sweetnees, and ihc 
groves are filled with many colored birds, and insects whose 
enamelled wings glisten like diamonds In the bright sun of the 
tropics. Such are the splendors of this paradise of the senses. 

"At the close of the second day they reached Xalapa, a 
place still retaining the same A?-tec name. This town stands 
midway up the long ascent, at an elevation where the vapors 
from the ocean, touching in their westerly progress, maintain 
a rich verdure throughout the year. From this delicious spot, 
the Spaniards enjoyed one of the grandest prospects in nature. 
Before them was the steep ascent, much steeper after this point, 
which they were to climb. On the right rose the Sierra Madre, 
girl with its dark belt of pines, and its long lines of shadowry 
hills stretching away in the distance. To the south, in brilliant 
contrast, stood the mighty Orizaba, with its white robes of 
snow descending far down its sides; towering in solitary 
grandeur, the giant spectre of the Andes. Behind them, they 
beheld, unrolled at their feet, the magnificent terra caliente, 
wjth its gay confusion of meadows, streams, and flowering 
forests, sprinkled over with shining Indian villages; white a 
faint line of light on the edge of the horizon told them that 
there was the ocean, beyond which were the kindred and 
country— they were many of them never more to sec. They 
had reached the level of more than 7,000 feet above the ocean, 
where the great sheet of tableland spreads out for hundretla o£ 
miles along the crests of the Cordillera*. The country showed 
signs of careful cultivation, but the products were for the most 
part not familiar to the eyes of ihe Spaniards. Fields and 
hedges of the various kinds of tht cactus, the lowering organ- 
urn, and plantations of aloes with rich yellow clusters ol 
flowers on their tall stems, affording drink and clothing to the 
Aztecs, were everywhere seen. 

" Suddenly the troops came upon what seemed the environi 
of a populous city, which, as they entered it, appeared to sur- 
pass even that of Cempoalla in the size and solidity of ita 
structures. They were of stone and lime, many of theo^ 
spacious and tolerably high. There were Teocallis in the 
place, and in the suburbs they had seen a receptacle in whicht 
according to Bernal Diaz, were stored 100,000 skulls of victims,, 
all piled and ranged in order. The lord of the town ruled over 
20,000 vassals. The Spanish commander remained in the citjr 
four or five days. Their route afterward opened on a broad 
and verdant valley watered by a noble stream. All along this 
river, on both sides of it, an unbroken line of Indian dwellings, 
so near as almost to touch one another, extended for three of 
four leagues; arguing a population much denser than at present. 
On a rough and rising ground stood a town, that might contain 
fivcorsix thousand inhabitants, commanded by a fortress, which 
with its walls and trenches seemed to the Spaniards quite on a 
level with similar works in Europe, As they advanced into a 
country of rougher and bolder features, their progress was sud- 



I 



SCENERY AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO. 201 

denly arrested by a remarkable furtification. It was a stone 
wall, nine feet in height and twenty In ihickness, with a para- 
pet, a foot and a half broad, raised on the summit for the pto- 
teclionof those who defended it. It had only one opening in the 
centre, made by two semicircular lines of wall overlapping each 
other for the space of forty paces, and affording a passage- 
way between the parts, so contrived, therefore, as to be per- 
fectly commanded by the inner wall. This fortification, which 
extended more than two leagues, rested at either end on the 
bold, natural buttresses formed by the Sierra Madre. The 
work was built of immense blocks of stone, nicely laid together 
without cement; and the remains still existing, among which 
are rocks of the whole breadth of the rampart, fully attest its 
solidity and size. This singular structure marked the limits of 
TIascala, and was intended, as the natives told the Spaniards, 
as a barrier against the Mexican invasions. The army paused, 
filled with amazement at the contemplation of this Cyclopean 
monument, which naturally suggested reflections on the 
strength and resources of the people who had raised it. 

" The fruitfulness of the soil was indicated by the name of 
the country — TIascala, signifying the land of bread. The 
mountain barriers by which TIascala is encompassed, afforded 
many strong natural positions of defence."" 

The march of the army afterward brought the Spaniards to 
a point where they could get a view of the whole region, with 
its lofty mountain peaks, which lifted their snow-covered heads 
toward the sky; also the great plateau stretched out toward the 
sea. To the west of them .stood the mysterious pair of vol- 
canoes, like sentinels watching over the scene. Below was the 
rich valley of Mexico, with its beautiful lakes and many cities, 

Prescott says: " The sides of the sierra were clothed with 
dark forests of pine, cypress, and cedar, through which 
glimpses now and then opened into fathomless deils and val- 
leys, whose depths, far down in the sultry climate of the 
tropics, were lost ic a glowing wilderness of vegetation. From 
the crest of the mountain range the eye travelled over the 
broad expanse of country which they had lately crossed, far 
away to thf green plains of Cholula. Towards the west they 
looked down on the Mexican valley, from a point of view 
wholly different from that which they had before occupied, but 
still offering the same beautiful spectacle, with its lakes tremb- 
ling in the light; its gay cities and villas floating on their bosom; 
its teocallis touched with fire; its cultivated slopes and dark 
hills of porphyry stretching away in dim perspective to the 
verge of the horizon. At their feet lay the city of Tezcuco, 
which, modestly retiring behind her deep groves of cypress, 
formed a contrast to her more imbitious rival on the other side 
of the lake, who seemed to glory in the unveiled splendors of 
her charms as Mistress of the Valley." f 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



d learne^^ 



Now. this picture, which our much admired and !i 
historian has drawn, is very suggestive, for it convinces us that 
the very scenery and topography which so impressed the 
Spaniards on iheir arrival, had also affected that remarkable 
people which had grown up in the midst of these environ nn 
and had developed so strange a civilization in these different 
regions. It was undoubledly owing to the fertility of the soil 
and the resources of the country that tht Aztec tribe, who 
settled beside the beautiful lake, had grown into a powerful 
people, and were able to usurp power over all other tribes. 
This situation had already developed inihem an aggressive spirit^ 
so that the native chiefs were in a fair way to become, like 
[helncasof Peru, the despots who held all the region unde:r 
their control, 

As to the architecture which existed in this region at the 
time of the conquest, we cannot say that this originated with 
the Aztecs or Miztccs, or any ol the known tribes of the 
Nahuas. or that they were at all influenced by the scenery oi 
the surroundings, for according to all accounts they were in- 
herited by that mysterious people called the loltecs, who in 
turn had received them from the people of the Maya stock, 
their beginning dating as far back as the Christian era 

It appears that architecture in Mexico reached during thfl 
prehistoric age, a stage of advancement quite equal to thai 
which prevailed in other parts of the world during )he early 
days of history, and yet it was an architecture which arose dur- 
ing the Stone Age— the structures which were erected, having 
been brought into their shape by the aid of stone tools alone, 
and without any of the appliances which other nations seem to 
have adopted, though a few copper implements, perhaps, 
were used for the more delicate touchingsof prehistoric sculp- 
ture. 

It may be that the architecture and the art should be 
assigned to what is coming to be called, " the Copper Age." 
rather than the Stone Age; yet even with this distinction,— it 
is a matter of wonder that a rude uncivilized people could 
have accomplished so much in this direction. Some maintain 
that there was a period in Greece and Asia Minor when art and 
architecture reached a very high stage, and that there was after- 
wards a decline: the age immediately preceding the opening 
of history being in reality in advance of that which followed; 
but here — in Mexico— there was no decline until the advent of 
the Spaniards, and the subjugation of the people to their op- 
pressive dominion, ll is not strange that the barbaric magni- 
ficence of the so-called cities of Mexico surprised the con- 
querors, and that they compared the palaces and temples which 
thev saw, to the Alhambra and other wonders of architecture 
in Europe. Nor is it surprising that their descriptions of what 
they saw should seem like exaggerations, for they were un- 
doubtedly colored and made vivid by an imagination which 
had been excited by this strange scene into which they had 



SCENERY AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO. 203 

entered. It is not easy, even at the present day, to look 
through the mountain scenery upon the modern cities, withou 
being deeply impressed. But to the discoverers, as they looked 
down upon those marvelous ancient cities which were scattered 
through the beautiful valleys and spread along the shores of 
the silvery lakes, they seemed like the visions of another world. 
Those cities were laid in ruins, and nearly everything that had 
been erected by the native races has vanished from the sight. 
All is modern and new, yet every traveler who visits Mexico, 
and who examines the remains of the glory which has departed, 
is impressed with the superiority of the architecture of the 
prehistoric races. 

It will be, then, instructive td take the testimony of a few 
of those travelers, who have visited Mexico, and give a picture 
of the scenery and the architecture as they described it. The 
archaeologists may be divided into two classes: the one class is 
disposed to magnify the excellence of the art and architecture 
o f Mexico and Central America, and to make the civilization 
of a superior character. Such take the descriptions of the 
^arly historians and writers as literally true, and do not dis- 
ci^ riminate between that which was imaginative and that which 
A-^as real. The other class take a theory for their guidance, and 
nter these provinces with the purpose to prick the bubble of 
xaggeration, and bring everything to familiar standards, and 
inclined to reduce everything down to the level of a rude 
^aboriginal culture, which had not reached even the level of the 
Voarbaric races in other countries. Among the first class we 
"vvill place M. D. Charnay, the famous archaeologist, and Mr. 
3i. H. Bancroft, the historian. In the other class, Mr. L. H 
^lorgan, the famous ethnologist, and Mr. Ad. F. Handelier. 
^Between the two we may strike a medium, which shall be near 
^he truth, and may be taken as correct. 

We begin with Mr. Charnay's description of the ancient 
ruins which he saw and the summary which he has drawn. 
He says: "We are filled with admiration for the marvelous 
burlding capacity of the people; for unlike most nations, they 
used every material at once; they coated their inner walls with 
mud and mortar, faced their outer walls with brick and stone, 
built wooden roofs, and brick and stone stair-cases. They 
were acquainted with pilasters, with caryatides, with square 
and round columns. Indeed, fhey seem to have been familiar 
with every architectural device. That they were painters and 
decorators we have ample indications in the houses of Tula, 
where the walls are decorated with Yosettes, palms, and red 
and white and grey geometrical figures on a black background. 
It is difficult to explain how. with the tools they had, they 
could cut, not only the hardest substances, but also, build the 
numerous structures which are still seen in Mexico and Central 
America, together with the sculptures, bas releaves, statues, 
and inscriptions, like those which have been discovered. 

Clavigero says that stone was worked with tools of hard 



204 THt: AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Stone: Ihat copper hatchets were used by carpenters, also t^^ 
cultivate the soil and to fell trees. 

Mendieta writes that both carpenters and joiners used cop- 
per tools, but their work was not so beautiful as that of the 
sculptors, who had silex implements. 

Charnay further says: " It is known that there are copper 
mines in Mexico, and discoveries have been made which show 
that these mines were worked in prehistoric times. In one old 
mine there was found amid the rubbi.sh, 142 stones of different 
dimensions, shaped like hammers and wedges, the edges of 
which were blunt or broken. Copper has been found in Chili, 
Colombia, Chihuahua, and in New Mexico. Before the con- 
quest, the Indians procured lead and tin from the mines, but 
copper was the metal used in mechanical arts." 

Bernal Diaz says: "In my second expedition the inhabi- 
tants brought upwards of 5oo copper hatchets, having wooden 
handles, equisilely painted, and so polished that at first we 
thought they were gold. Copper tablets, varying in thickness 
and shaped like the Egyptian tau or crescent shaped, were 
used as currency in various regions. The American tribes had 
riached the transition point between the polished stone and 
the bronie period, which was marked by considerable pro- 
gress in architecture and some branches of science. With 
them this period lasted longer than in the Old World, owing 
to their never having come in contact with nations of higher 
lliiation. or with those who possessed better tools." 
Now, it is to Ihi." development of art and architecture in 
:xico, during the Stone .ind Copper Ages, that we would 
II attention. We have already intimated that this process 
began (ar back in the prehistoric period, and in the region far 
south of Anahuac, among the famous Maya stock, but was 
transmitted by the Toltecs. As to their origin and early his- 
to«A\ we are'not at all certain, for there are many things 
wbtch show thnt they like the Incas of Peru, had brought in 
«ttk them a civilization which had been derived, or at least 
affected by that which prevailed thousands of years before on 
Ac Asiatic continent. 

The ToUcc!* were well instructed in agriculture and many 
af tlte most useful mechanical arts; were nice workers of 
aeCkb- Thev invented the complex arrangements adopted by 
Ac .\sl*C*- 'They established .their capital qt Tula, north of 
Ae Mtxicai* valley, and the remains of extensive buildings 
^HMbeW discovered by Charnay and others. The noble ruins 
SiiWricMT *nii other edifices still to be seen, are referred to 
*f/lSie whose name. Toltec. has passed into a synonym for 
* *. ^ry"-rt...v filtered the territory of Anahuac, about 600 A.n.; 
i"^???—- »••« ihi^v disappeared as silently and mysteriously as 
., Alter the lapse of another hundred years, 
. (he Chichemecs. came down from the north- 
I the Axiccs and Tezcucans entered the land 
J wild tribes, but rapidly grew into a civili» 



Eil 
i 





EDITORIAL NOTES. 



The Eihnolo^kal Bureau has lost within a few weeks Iwo o( its beat 
and brighiest assistants, Mr. F. H. Cushing and Ur. W. H. HoRman. The 

g^nllemenwercat the lime that The Aukrican ANTiywAKUS* was started 
young men just comniencing Ibeir career as arc biologists. They have 
both, made a world- wide reputation for themselves, and have won the cod- 
lidetice and friendship of all their associates and fellow. workers in Ihe de- 
partment which they represented. Mr. Cashing was always a very courteous 
gentlemen: self -sacrificing and self forgetful. He may be »aid to have 
sacriliced his life in zeal for the science of archaeology. Dr. Hoffman was 
an indelatigable worker and spent much time among the aborigines in 
collecting Ineir myths, studying their ceremonies, and interpreting their 
picture-writing. It is with a sense of personal loss Ibat the Editor writes 
this sbort notice of their departure. 



The Earliest Inscriptions from Chai.dea.— These were pictorial 
ideographs, suggested by the object represented, but with a secondary 
meaning. A star represented not only a star, but the sky, and finally the 
idea of God. A circle represented the sun, the day, and light. Rain is re- 
presented by two characters: one of which represi iits water, and the other 
sky, which equals sky.walcr. A tear is represented by the character for 
water added to that for eve, which equals eye- water. A mountain is repre- 
sented by three triangles: a range of mountains by six triangles. The ideo- 
grams of Chaldea are precisely similar to those of China made up of lines 
or wedges, read in columns Irom top to builom and from right to letl. The 
Babylonian characters are equivalent to Chaldean ideographs, though the 
Babylonian characters had a.phonetie value. The early ideographs are com- 
posed of straight lines and are rectilinear. Through such characters 
many profound truths were made known. One ideogram signifies "Lord 
is the King of Heaven"; another character means " Evil of heart"; an- 
other means " Great Lord, King of mountains and cultivated lands."— Fro- 



Sand BtJRlED Cities.— A paper on Central Asian antiquities was 
read by Mr. Rudolf Hoermle, Ph. D.. before the International Congress of 
Orientalists in Rome, October, 1890, describing Ihe sand buried cities in 
eastern Turkestan and the anliftuities and manuscripts found in them. One 
city, live miles west of the Chinese city Khotan. occupies the site of the 
Bnddhist city of Khotan in Ihe early centuries of our era. Il is buried, not 
in loose, moving sand, but in a compact stratum of loose clay about twenty- 
five feel thick. Embedded in the stratum were lound pottery, c'-" " 



figures, and other 

the place. 

Another city, called , 
proper sand buried cities, 
siupas, At this place mai 
Ihe manuscripts are of tw 

Indian •' Pothi ". written ii 

an unknown language and strange characters. The manuscript of the first 
kind belonged to the period dating about 600 A. d., and those of the second 
group were dug out from a mound circular in shape, five feet wide, two feet 
high, situated in " a sand buried graveyard '' in the desert of Takla Makan. 
probably the remains of an ancient stupa or tumulus. In the mound were 
found two small bronie figures of horsemen, a pillow bag, and in the bag a 
manuscript, with a copper rivet through it. 



Dr. Sven Hedin has given a description of 

.a Safil.or "White Battlements," Is one of the 
Here are the basement platforms of two ancient 
uscripts were found, as well as coins and seals; 
I kinds, those resembling the European book or 
Indian Sanskrit characters, and those » '"" 




THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

NBBucHADNezZAK.— A very interesting article, prepared by Prof. R. 
F.Harper of The University of Chicago, upon Nehuchadneiiar, Kidk of 
Babylon, appears in the July {'qq) number of the Biblical World. It ix 




illustrated bv three cuts which represent the cuneiform inscriplions of ihe 
times, and contains translations at several inscriptions, which were made by- 
order of Nebuchadneiiar. giving an account of his reign. Mr. Harper says: 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 



107 



" It will be seen ihai while Nebucbadoezzar is best known to us from 
fail iiucripiiotis. as a man of peace, devoted to the buildinc of temples, 
walls. canoJi, and lo the adornment of his capital city Babvfon, he was a. 
great warrior, and at the close of his reign was master of all western Asia, 
having overthrown Judah and her allies and humiliated Egypt. The chief 
sources of information about the wars are )he Old Testament, Herodotus 
Josephus and his Inscriptions. The translation of one of the inscriptions is 
loterestinK. 

"He introduces himself, as follows: ' NabQ-kudurri-ucur (Nebuchad- 
neiiar) King of Babylon, the exalted prince, the tavorite of Marduk 
(Merodach), the lofty Patesi; the beloved of Nabu, the judge; the pos- 
sessor of wisdom, who searches out the wayfs) oF their divinity, who fears 
their lordship: the untirini; officer, who thinks daily of the adornment 
Iresioralion) of Esagila andEiida, and who concerns himself continually 
with pious works for Babilu (Babvlon)and Barfipa(6orsippa|, the wise, the 
pioDs, the restorer of Esagila and Ezida, the first-born son of Nabuabia 
uiur (Nabopolassar) King of Babylon, am 1.' " 

Nebuchadnezzar was the greatest of the Kings of Babylonia, He was 
the son of Nabopolassar, and ruled from 604 to 561 b. c. His father, 
Nabolopassar (625 604 d. cl, had made Babylonia independent of Assyria in 
62J B. c and had founded 
the new Babylonian king- 
dom. It was left (or the 
son to make Babylonia a 
world power; he uas a 
worshipper of Marduk, 
and made a boulevard to 
accommodate his proces- 
sion at the b' ginning of 
the year, and built canals. 
The following is his canal 

"I sought out the site 
of Libil-hetalla, the east 
canal of Babylon, which 
bad been in a state of 
ruin lor a long time, and 
which was filled with 
drifts of sand and debns. 
and from the bank of the 
Euphrates as far as the 
Ai-ibur-sabtl street, with 
rebuilt its bed. In Ai-ibur-sabii. the street of 
n of the great lord Marduk, I build a covered 
lay broad." 
works by Nebuchadnezzar which deserve notice, but 
these are sufficient to show the enterprise and energy of the g' eat king, 
who busied himself with the cities of Babylon and Borsippa, the building 
of temples and shrines, the comtruction of walls, moats, and other forlifi. 
- -=--s, the digging of canals, the raising of streets, etc. NebuchadneHar's 
piety is shown in all bis works, and his prayers are the best thai have come 
down to us. Whether erecting a sanctuary, or building a canal, or improv. 
ing the walls of Babylon, he does not fail tO' add a prayer to some deity. 
One prayer begins as follows; 

■•Oh, Eternal Ruler! Lord of everything that exists! To the king 
whom thou lovest, and whose name thou (vast mentioned. Grant that his 
e (i.e. he) may flourish as seems good to Ihee. Guide him on the right 
path." 

Thess translations are taken from the cylinders and tablets which have 

been discovered at various times and in various places, cuts of which have 

, been made and published until they are very familiar. They generally are 

aningless, for very few are able to translate even a single sentence. It 

_ a matter of coniiratulation 10 us that we now have scholars who are 

familiar enough with the cuneiform language of these tablets to give us the 




bitumen and burnt brick, I 
Babylon, for the procession 
bridge, and made its roadi 



2o8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tr&DslBtion. These little wedgc-s^haped. arrow. head figures have become 
very significwil indeed. They furnish a new setting for an old and Familiar 
character, even the well-known Nebuchadneziar of the Bible. We think 
ihe belter of the old book because of the new literary treasures which fur- 
nish "sidc'lights" to it. Ttiere is no contradiciion, but rather new con- 
firmations. A good work is certainly being accomplished. 

Biblical Chronology.— The term year, as used in the Scriptures, 
must evidently have been different from chat which we use, or at least iis 
significance was different. In the Book of Kings the elevenrh year did not 
extend beyond tour months and nine days. The question arises whether 
there was a sacred year which differed from the solar year, as there was 
among the ancient Mayas in Central America, This might furnish an ei 
pUnation of the great age of the antediluvians. There was evidently 
chanee of method in calculating ihe years after the deluge and during tbe 
Patriarchial Age, for it does not seem reasonable that the anieduluvians 
should have lived goo years and the patriarchs only about rzo years. Thit 
subject is discussed in an article by Major-General F. E. Hastings it ' 
Proceedings of the Society ot Biblical Archeology. 

• • * 

Discoveries in the Forum,— uurin;; the month of December, i8g8 
the interior of the hemi'Cycle platform of the Rostra Julia was cleared and 
some interesting finds were made. Among these maybe mentioned certain 
remains, which seem to have marked the place were Julius Cfcsar was 
cremated, also the altar which was erected by Augustus, the emperor, and 
where Caesar was worshipped, as well as a certain pit which was called 
Mundus. The history of the cremalionis as follows: "After his assasinatic 
they carried the body from the Capitol back to the Forum, and in that plat 
gathered toeelher all the wood from the seats of the Forum and the neigh- 
borhood ana raised a magniiicent pyre, upon which, placing the body, Ihey 
■set ii on fire. 

" In that place at first an altar was erected, and ihe temple of C%sar. 
tiimself, was Duill by Octavius (Appian B.C., II. 42). Afterward a solid 
-column of numidian marble, nearly twenty feet high, was erected In the 
Forum and inscribed (Parent! Paths) lo 'the Father of His Counirv,' at 
which for a long time they sacrificed and made vows. When Augustus 
erected the temple tomb he built it up close to the rear of the rostra. The 
expiialion of 'g8 disclosed the pavement of black marble, which signilied 
a mournful place, and was supposed to mark the place of cremation. Be- 
side this there was an enclosure called 'The Mundus,' or sacred founditi*n 
pit. The history of this pit is remarkable. At the first enlargement of the 
city, a circular pit was dug, which was to receive tbe firil fruits of every- 
thing that was reckoned good; also a quanlily of earth gathered from the 
country which was visited by the citizens of Rome was thrown into it. 

The most remarkable thing about this pit was the religious tradition 
connected with it. Varro says of it: " Yel the dismal lower gods may in a 
manner open the door when the Mundus may be opened." Festus say*: 
'■ The Manaljs Lapis was thought lo be the mouth of Orcus by which souls 
pass from the inferior to the superior, who are called ghosts." 

Bronze Fishes from Ancient Egypt.— Small stereotyped dishes 
and bronze fish-shaped bottles, mummied specimens of fishes, and a bronie 
model of a fish containing a mummied tish, have been found m Egypt, and 
are now in the Natural History Museum in Carlo. 

Stone Axes as ideograms and objects of worship in Egypt and 
Chaldea furnish the subject of an article by Mr, F. Legge in the Proceed- 
ings of the Society ot Biblical Archa-ology. A Chaldean priest offers a 
sacrifice 10 an axe standing upright on an altar. Stone axes were used as 
symbols of the divinity and inscribed on Ihe megaliths of Btittany and on 
Ihe funeral caves of Scandinavia. Bronze axes were symbols of divinity 
in Mexico, but it is a question whether stone axes ever were in America. 



I 

1 

I 

I 

America. ^_ 



LITERARY NOTES. 

Tht Biblical World during Ihe past year has bad some very valuable 
articles on "Hebrew Social Life— Irom Jusiah to Eira"; also some interesi- 
ing plales and cuts representing writing in the time of Nebuchadnezzar; 
also articles on "bcientitic Bible Study, Hostile to Devolion," and "Agn- 
cuilnral Life in Palestine," with inlercsling cuts. It is one of the most 
valued of our exchanges. 

iiililia for Match contains an article on ■' The Discovery of Ophir," in 
which Dr. Carl Peters claims to have identified a place about fifteen miles 
south of ihe Zambesi, as Ihe locarion of the ancient Ophirof the Old Testa- 
ment. He says the natives are quite unlike ihe ordinary African and have 
disimct Jewish faces. He clamis to have found ancient ruins of undoubt- 
edly Semitic type, also Phallic emblems wbich were connected wilii ancient 
Semitic auo worship. The best authorities on these Zambesi and Masbona- 
li.nd ruins are Mr. J. U. Bent and Mr. Boyce. author of a volume on South 
Africa. The descriptions in these volumes are very interesting and valu- 
able. Another article is on "The -Site of Pi-hahiroth Between Migdol," 
by Otlander P. Schmidt. Mr. Schmidt thinks it was at Peluaium on the 
great high lay to Palestine, where were frontier fort ific at ions. The sur- 
roundinKS of Pelusiuni al that lime were exactly those require-i by the 
Bible narrative: we have the fca before Pi-hahirolh, the pits, water-holes, 
swamps, and marshes, and no doubt the narrow tongue of sand separating 
the sea oi one side from the treacherous, unfathomable gulf on the other. 
Above all, a itrong east wind blowing all night would certainly cause the 
aca 10 recede so that ibe hraelitcs could pass through upon dry lanil, the 
waters on each side being as " walls," that is fortifica lions. 

The open Court has an article on " The Seal of Christ." by the editor 
Mr. Paul C.irus. which treats mainly of the cross and its distribution. 
There are illustrations in it drawn from Egypt, frum the piehistonc works 
of Ireland, from the Klruscans, the Assyrians, the Greeks, and North 
American Indians. 

The leading article Jn Applelon's Popular ScUnce Monthly is entitled 
■' Recent Years ol Egyptian Exploration," by W. M. Flinders Pcrrie. The 
author says: " The great stride ibai has been made in the last six years, is 
the opening up of prehistoric Egypt, leading us back 'ifxo vears before the 
time of the pyramid builders. The present position of the prehistory of 
Egypt is that we can now distinguish two separate cultures before the be- 
ginning of the Egyptian dynasties, and we can clearly Irace a sequence of 
manufactures and art throughoui long ages before the pytamid-buildcrs, or 
from, say 6.000 it. C. giving a continuous history of B.ooo years for man in 
Egypt. Continuous, I say advisedly, for some of ihe prehistoric ways are 
those kepi up to the present time," 

The March number of The Inlemalimal Monthly contains a very 
valuable nrlicle on " Degeneration; A Study in Anthropology," by William 
W. Ireland. The auihor speaks of the large stature of the Cro-Magnon 
Race and the Menloncalso of IheGaulsand the early Greeks. He seems to 
think that the race has degenerated In physical qualities. He refers to Ihe 



Englii 



many things may be said upon ihe other side. 

Brush a»J Ptndl is one of the very best art maganinet in the United 
States, and Is a credit to Chicago, The April number contains a beautiful 
Frontispiece representing a group of hunters with their horses and hounds 
out on a sage brush plain, just taking their departure from the lonely grave 



aio THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

ol one of iheir companions. It is touching to sluUy the attitudes of the 
hunters, as ihey mount ttieir horses, especially the aiiiiude of the riderless 
horse, as with drooping head he looks around at the grave, and especially 
the Attitude of the hunter's dog. as be wiih the most lonely and forsaken air 
he stands over the grave and looks up with a mule language of farewell to 
the hunters as they depart. J 

In the past two years The Overland Monthly has been steadily im-l 
proving, until it is now one of the best edl'ed and the best illustrated magi- 1 
zincs in the United States. It contains a great variety of aitirles, but baa ' 
always something in reference to the earl;/ h.storic races of this country. 
The groups of Indians, pictures representing Spanish missions, big trees, 
early settlers, landscapes, natural scenery in California; also pictures of the 
Philippines, sketches of the Orient, scenes in China, occasional skelchei "' 
Egypt, mountain scenes, and scenes m Alaska, have formed i 
features during the last y'.ar or two. Our readers can do no better 
order this magazine along with Che Antiquakian. 

The last number of Indian Antiquary contains an article on " The Be- 
ginnings o( Currency," by our old-time contributor. Col. K. C. Temple; 
an article on "The Folklore and Legends of the Punjab." The tii 
them IS illustrated, and both are very interesting. We shall be glad i< 
vard subscriptions to any who may desire this publication. 

Tne American Historical lievietv \& a very scholarly and substantial' 
quarterly, and is at the same time very inleresting in its gem ral st>le and 
~~~'" '' 'i not confined to local history, but takes suchsubjeclsa 

igrants in Further Asia." "A Study in English Border Hi«- 



i the United ; 

and valual. 

: nforinalio 



nine tliat cover 
e scattered thro 



magazine in the UDiled 
ill money expcodeC 

ileiieldof educaiio 

ne United Sutes. 

s of the Interior, as well 

, catholic and broad in it* 

itc in III style and worthy 



make up. 
" Chinese liDi 

tory."' as well as the United States and Mei 
especially inl 
States that gi 
this magazine. 

Education is a mag; 
has contributors who ar 
cognizes the work winch 

as those on the Pacitic ana Atlantic coasts, it 
spirit, even in its contents, and cultivated and chi 
of the patronage of all teacheis and educators. 

The Journal of American folk-Lore is e 
atruclive. It is di voted mainly to the mythology of the abongin 
folk-lori of the various races, and the waifs of litcratuie which arc worthy, 
of being preserved. The Society ha^ flouiished Irom the date o its orga^ 
ninnlion. and l>as gathered into its membership a large number of schotan 
and literary workmen of this country. The editor is always courteous and 
there is not a particle of bitterness or a word of harsh ciitici.^m in ih^ 

Eurnal. but the fairest and kindest treatment ol contemporaries. We ara 
ippy to recommend the journal to our readers. 

The April number of Bihliotheca Sacra contains for its frontispiece an 
excellent ponralt ol VVilliam Frederick Poole, Librarian; also an ariicla^ 
by 2, Swift Holbrook showing Mr. Poole's reverence and high regard fw 
the clergy, and especially the old-lime New England clergy, and his de- 
fense against the attacks on the ground of witchciad and other charges. 
An article, also, on " Our Debt to Missionaries." by Kev. C, Ewing. and one 
on ■' Influence of the Bible Upon the Human Conscience," by J. E. Rankia^. 
D. D., and one on " The Bible and Modern Scholarship." 

The American Journal of Philology k devoted to classic languages. 
It does not treat of any of the languages which are called aboriginal,' 
for the Aryan language with which it is occupied has passed beyond the stage' 
in which it would be called aboriginal. Still there are many things which 
may come up for comparison, especially in the matter of poetry, the early 
stages of which are found amon^ the aborigines, hut the transition stages 
among the classic *---'- 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



s War 



DiARv OF David McClure, Doctor ( 

Notes by Franklin B. Uextet, M. A. P 

bocker Press, New York. 1B99. 

This IS a book which shows the influence of thai good man and able 
educator, whofounded Dartmouth Collect, Presl. WheeTock, Up 
the prejudice wbien was raised against the Indians by King Ph 
had prevailed througnout New Lnglatid, and had paral)2ed all efforts lui 
their improvement and evangelizaiion. The establishment of the school at 
Hanover. New Hampshire, raiscO up a number uf younK men who devoted 
Ihcmselvesto tbe Inaians. Among them was Mr. Uavid Oecom, thenoted 
Indian minister and orator; also David McCIure, the famous missionary 
and scholar, who was educated d( Lebanon, Connecticut, to become a 
missionary to the Indians, and graduated at Yale College in the san.e class 
with the elder President Uwight. After graduation he took charge of a 
school Bt Lebanon, then moved to Hanover, New Hampshire, and became 
tulor in Dartmouth College. In May, 1772, he was ordained as a mission- 
ary to the Delaware Indians on the Muskingum Kiver; but owing to the 
outbreak of the Revolution the mission proved a failure. 

The diary embraces an account of his education; also of a visit to 
"Old Oneida Castle." which contained about twenty log houses; also to the 
Upper Casile of the Oneiclas. which contained about forty dwellings; also 
to Fort Sienwix, which was in a decayed condition. On his journey he 
passed through Ligonier, the site of Fort Ligonier, built in 17^8, and saw 
Captain, afterward General bt. Clair; also;saw the famons Simon Girty 
aoa Sir William Johnson. He visited the field where Colonel bouquet 
fought the Indian^ 10 I764. He arrived at Piiliourg, where he saw a num- 
ber of poor drunken Indians staggering and yelling through the village. 
members of distant tribes, who came to change their pottery and furs lor 
mm. " The tort is a handsome and strong f jtiiticailon. The village con- 
sists of ahoul forty dwelling houses made of hewed logs," He preached to 
ihc soldiers, who had lately arrived fiom Fort Charires on the Mississippi, 
and had not heard a sermon for four years. 

He visited Braddock's field and says: " It was a meloncholy spectacle 
to see the bones ot men strewn over the ground, lei I (o this day. withont 
the solemn rue of sepulture. This fact is a disgrace to (he British com- 
mander at Fort Pitt. The bones had been gnawed by wolves, the vestiges 
of their leeih appearing on them. Many hundreds of skulls lay on the 
ground. J examined several and found tfie niark of the scalping knife on 
all." He received inloimation that a war belt had been sent to Ine Indians 
inviting them to join the British, and that the British troops were dis- 
mantling Fort Pitt. He speaks of the earthworks of Uhio, and says: 
"Ditches were deep and wide and the walls high, with openings or gate- 
ways and the appearance of bastions. The works that 1 saw were near the 
banks of a stream or river, and had a passageway to the water. Another, 
about twelve feel high in the form uf a pyramid. I saw at Logslown. whith 
was once the seat of the Indians." This, perhaps, isihe hrst account of the 
mounds of Ohio. There are many otbtr things m the diary which are 
worthy of notice. The bock is of^ great value to ihe archaiologist and 
should be in all the public libraries. 

Excavations at jERU.sAt.EM, i8q4-i8c)7. By Frederick Jones Bliss, Ph 
D.; Explorer to the Fund; Author of -A Mound of Many Cities." 
Plans and Illustrations by Archibald Campbell Dickie, A. R. I. B. A. 
London* Published by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration 

The author of the book, F. J. BHss, commences with a description of 
the magniflcent work of masonry, some forty to ttfly feet high, which stood 



ai3 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

above the rock and which formed a spleodid imprcKB^ble fortification. 
which might well defy an altlempi lo take Jerusalem from ihe south. He 
next proceeds lo the lower {on a lOck platform) adjoining the Protestant 
Cemetery. Alter an alkision lo the discovery of a wall near the Pool of 
Siloam, he pjves a description of a gale, which proved lo represent foui 
distinct periods, by the different super-imposed gate-sills with Iheir sockets, 
which he unearthed. These discoveries are important enough to justify 
the expense of both the exploration and Ihe cost of the book, but other dis- 
coveries, still more important, are made known; discoveries which seem 
to give a record of the history of the cily from the earliest times up to the 
Byzantine Period and later. The history of architecture is, also, mcidenl- 
ally ^iven by the book. The style la, to be sure, somewhat complicated, 
as it IS cumbered by the details 6( measurements and the digging and dis- 
closing certain objects; but the pages reveal to the close student and the 
archaeologist many things of great value. 

A paved street and an ancient aqueduct and a chamber above the 
aqueduct give hints as to the variety of objects discovered. 

A clue 10 the chronologv is given by a mosaic, which is represented in 
a colored plate; also by a '' Ityianline tig-zag moulding ' upon a wall built 
over a Roman pavement; also by the dressing of the stones in two towers, 
which show the parallel furrowed tooling of crusading times. These are 
comparatively modern, although il must have required considerable 
archxological skill lo have identilied them with the different periods. 
Amongst the subjects of general interest are: firsi, the drainage system, 
which is bricHv deacrtbed. also the wall across the Tyropoean valley; next, 
the Roman colonnade, in or near the Damascus Gate; also the gale south 
of the Pool of Siloam, and the tower near the gale, the jambs and sockets 
for this gale give Ihe key to three different periods; the buttress system 
disclosed by the wall is described. This wall was subject lo various altera- 
tions, and thus re pre sen ted several periods; the drafted m a son rv represented 
an earlier period, the rough work being later than the double bossed stone: 
the seven lower courses are part of the base wall. The wall is in general 
eight feet thick, but rests on a base wall which is in line with the buttress 
faces, which project twelve feet, giving twenty feet as the thickness of the 
base wall. This shows the solid aiid aubsianlial character of the old ma- 
sonry at lerusalem. 

The length of ihe wall across the Tyroroean valley was about 2375 feet, 
or a little under half a mile; but the base of the wall drops 440 feet. The 
discovery in the valley included a paved street, with a fork above Ihe 
Pool of Siloam; one branch probably leading 10 the gale, and another con- 
nected by a stairway to the original pool, in regard to which several 
points were cleared up. The rock-hewn steps, cretsrd with chisel and 
pick, descending to the cauii yard in front of the original Pool of Siloam. 
mdicate the ancient approach to the pool, and seem to occupv the place 
where it is reasonable lo expect the " stairs that go down from Ihe City of 
David." The church of the Pool of Siloanu has been often referred 10, also 
a church on the Mount of Olives with the Greek mosaic. 

We may sav that the work of exploration here is very difficult and in 
reality has hardly begun to carry tlie dales as far back as is desired. Tradi- 
tion must be relied upon wholly unlil the work of exploration has been 
carried on further. 



I 





THE 



^mtxxcun ^nixqn^xxmt 



Vol. XXII. July and August, 1900. No. 4. 

THE ETHNIC VARIATION OF MYTHS. 

BY JOHN FRASER, LL. I)., SYDNEY. 

The Polynesians have a literature hundreds of years old, 
but, like the Homeric poems in their earliest stage, it is oral 
and unwritten, and has been handed down from generation to 
generation by public and private recitations. That literature 
consists of genealogies of tlieir gods and noblemen, songs in 
praise of their chiefs and ancestral heroes, mythical stories 
and folk-songs. In India, and specially in the province of 
Rajpaland, there is a class of professional bards, whose duty it 
is to treasure in their memories the genealogy of each noble 
family and the folk-lore of the race. At certain tinies of the 
year, such a bard sets out on his journey of visits, travelling 
from the court of one prince to another; and is everywhere 
received with kindness and welcomed. If, since his last visit, 
some joyful incident has happened in the family of the host, 
as the birth of a boy or the marriage of a princess, he sings a 
poetical and much embellished account of the ancestors and 
their brave deeds, and adds something new to suit the occasion. 
At banquets he gives songs and recitations of any kind that 
his patron or guests may ask for. 

Among the Polynesians something similar has long existed, 
and I shall now speak of that branch of them which occupies 
the Samoan group of islands. A very large body of native 
tradition about thmgs human and divine is preserved as folk- 
lore in the memories of certain official men, who may be called 
" legend-keepers." These are honorable men, both by morals 
and by rank, for by birth- right they are mostly (7/id, that is, 
"chiefs," and as an idea of sacredness attaches to their rank 
and their office, they are above the suspicion of falsifying the 
records which they keep, or of allowing them to be corrupted, 
for that would be sacrilege. Of course, I am now speaking of 
Samoa as it was half a century ago. I chance to have in my 
possession a considerable bundle of mvths from Samoa, writ- 
ten down, there, about that time by an English missionary, who 
labored long in that field, and who, having gained the con- 



ai4 



rHE AMERICAN ANTIyUARIAN. 



fidonce of one of these '■ hvyend-keepcrs," was allowed lo [)t» 
serve in wruJiif; to hrs ilmt.lioij m.iny of these inter _ 

records. One of tliese myths lias been chosen as my present 
theme. 

It has for title " Lt- malago iiii alu i k lagtt," that is, "The 
travelliiig-pflrly llun wctil [.up J to ihc heavens," It so mucb 
resembles the classical story ot "The war of the gods and the 
giants," ih'U it may lutcrest you to trace the local coloring 
which thfs" Pol; iit-siaiis have given to that story. And foi 
that purpose 1 will first write an oulliiie of the myth, as 
lated from the text, and will then offer some remarks. 

THE MVTH. 

In the pantheon of the Samoans, the supreme ({od js 
T;Lnj;a!oa. who dwells in the highest heavens; a region of i 
clouded brightness and unruffled calm, lie has many son^ 
who are called the Sa Tanfjaloa, for Sa in Samoan means 
"race, family." Some of these sons he permits to dwell ia>' 
the lower heavens and role there; others, the sons of thesd; 
but born of human mothers, remaining on the earth beloWi 
and many of them arc giants with such names as Losl, Pava^ 
I.e-Fdni'Hga, Moso, Ti(5-tif-a-lalanga, These giants arc not 
reckoned among the Sa-Tangaloa, but are treated as infeiiora. 
The chief of them is Losi, who was the fisherman of the god# 
and h^d charge of the sea. He is the son of Malac-La.* whtf 
is the husband of the daughter of the first human pair o| 
Samoans. 

One day the Sa-Tangaloa. the young deml-gods in the lo' 
heavens, wanted some fish to eat; so they sent down a message 
to Losi- Losi obeyed orders, went and caught some very largej 
iish, tiedlhem by the tail to a long rope, and then told the 
messengers to come and take the fish. They came, but the 
fish were lively and dragged them hither and thither, so that 
they had to call to Losi for help. lie said, "Yuu go on firatf 
and I will take up the fish." So, he went up with one hundred 
large fish; he look so many because the large house in the 
heavens, where the single young men lived, had a hundred 
doors. When he arrived there, Losi placed a fish over night 
on the threshold of each door; and in the ©arly dawn, wheni 
the young men were coming out. each stepped upon the slip^ 
pery thing and fell down. One got a broken arm. another a 
woimded head, and so on; this look away all the enjoyment 
of ihi'ir fish, and left them a grudge against Losi for his practi- 
cal joke. 

Hospitality, however, required that the young men should; 
prepare an oven of food as a compliment to their guest, and 
Losi went and stood beside them, looking at it.s preparatioiii 
In those days there was no taroioaA, or bread food or ya 




THE ETHNIC VARIATION OF MYTHS. 215 

the earth below. Losi, therefore, slily picked up and secreted 
one of the scraps of taro about his person under his girdle. 
The young[ men observed his movements, and, suspecting what 
he had done, they laid hold of him, and searching him they 
most indecently exposed his person; but they did not find his 
treasure. He went off in great indignation at the disgrace. 
On the earth below, he planted the taro\ it became very pro- 
ductive, and he got from it a fine crop. After a while some of 
the Se-Tangaloa came down to earth, and, seeing his planta- 
tion of taro, they said: "After all, he did bring down the 
things of heaven.' And so they carried off all his fruit. 
This incensed him still more, and he resolved to have revenge. 

And Losi took council with his brethren, the earth-born 
giants, who were rnen of prodigious strength and bigness. So 
they all met and went up to the heavens as a friendly travelling 
party of visitors. But the Sa-Tangaloa suspected their design, 
and» although offering the usual civility of food, they meant to 
attack the giants when engaged in eating. Losi's men were on 
their guard, and while the rest of them looked on, two of the 
brethren came forward and ate up all the offering, along with 
the yoke-sticks on which it had been brought and the baskets; 
not a thing was left. So the Sa-Tangaloa were foiled. 

Next day, the visitors were invited to share in the sports 
and trials of strength. The young men had one champion, 
Tangaloa of the-eight-livers, who they thought would conquer 
and kill all their adversaries. This was a chief, about whose 
body hung his livers— eight in number. Hut the earth-born 
Moso encountered him; the two joined in a hand-to-hand com- 
bat with clubs; they lifted up their blows and the eight-livered 
hero got a gash; one of his livers was cut off; again another 
blow caught him and another liver was cut off; the eight- 
livered became weak. Then his friends the Lava-sii came for- 
ward to pay his ransom. So again the Sa-Tangaloa were foiled, 
and earth-born Mosa got all the honor. 

Again the next day, came on the sport of floating on the 
bosom of the river, which, with its impetuous current, was 
likely to sweep away the visitors not accustomed to it. But 
Lautolo, one of them, stood in the midst of the water, and 
when any one of his friends was swamped, he took hold of 
him and lifted him out. The Sa-Tangaloa looked for drowned 
men; but, lo! the giants were there on the bank of the river, 
shaking the water out of their hair, and all safe. 

Last of all, the next day, the rain-maker in the heavens 
brought down a deluge of rain. The visitors were prepared 
for that, for Moso had caught many birds, and taking off their 
wings and feathers he had decked himself with them and, sit- 
ting down like a gigantic brood hen, he sheltered all his com- 
rades from the rain under his wings. When the rain ceased, 
the warriors came out and attacked the Sa-Tangaloa, beat 
them cruelly and made them acknowledge themselves van- 
quished. 



116 THi; AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

So the travelling party returned to earth again, carrying., 
with them the spoils of heaven— /(/to and cocoa-nut, and bread- 
fruit and kdva, and kiiva bowls in which to make that drink. 

VARIATIONS. 

There can be little doubt. I think, that this myth is of the 
same origin as the Grecian story about the war of the gods 
and the giants— the same but different. It now remains for 
me to show the analogies and ihe contrast between Ihi- two, 
and. if possible, to account for their variations. 

t. In the early days of mythology there was a coming and 
going between gods and men. — between heaven and earth In 
that, both Greek and Polynesians conspicuously agree. 

2. There were giants on earth in these days, strong enough 
and daring enough to be at variance with the inferior gods and 
to make war on them, and to conquer Ihcm The Titans of 
Hrsiod's Thfogony correspond with the Sa-Tangaloa of the 
Samoans, for they are all gods, but of an inferior kind. In 
Greece the giants and the cyclops who assisted Zeus in the war 
against these Titan-gods were sprung from the union of heaven 
(Ouranos) and earth (Gaia). In Samoa, Ihe father of Losi is 
a celestial (La, the sun), but his mother is one of the ancients 
of the human race. His comrades, too, are tremendous fel- 
lows; one of them. Le-Fanonga. that is, "Destruction," 
swijcps evLrything before him in battle, as he well may, if he 
was worthy of his name; another of them. Tic-tit, went down 
to Tartarus, fought with Mafusi^. the fire-king there, broke his 
arm and his leg, conquered him, and brought fire to men on 
earth above, 

3. The Sa-Tangaloa occupy one hundred rooms. In the 
Grecian stoiy the sons of Uranus and Gaia have each a hun- 
dred arms. 

4. In the Samoan myth the war ends on the fourth night. 
The Grecian account makes the war last for ten years. 

5. In Greece the legends about the Giants and the Titans 
and their doings are very confused; in Samoa, the whole is a 
plain, intelligible narrative, arising out of a practical joke of 
one of the giants — a pastime to which giants are considered 
rather partial. 

6. As spoils of war, laro and all other things good for food 
were brought down from heaven. Losi had at first stoU-n a btt 
of taro from the Sa-Tangaloa. Tie-tie, as a victor, carried fire 
up to earth, wherc-with to cook food. In contrast, the Greek 
Prometheus stole fire from heaven and brought it down to earth. 

7. In the Samoan language, the noun Losi means " envy, 
jealousy, emulation." This name may have some reference to 
the causes that led to the war. In Greece, the wily Titan, 
Kronos, had dethroned the aged Ouranos and set up a new 



[ 



THE ETHNIC VARIATION OF MYTHS. 217 

* 

monarchy. Perhaps ** envy and ambition " led him on to this. 
Zeus, with the help of his half-brothers, the Cyclops, and the 
giants, warred on the Titans and recovered his father's throne. 

8. The Tangaloan demi-gods are sensual in this respect, 
that they must have fish to eat and kava to drink, and thus the 
Samoans regard them as anthropmorphic; but the myths bring 
no charges of sensuousncss against them, such as we find in the 
•Greek tales about Poseidon, Hephaistos and Aphrodite. Like 
the Samoans themselves, the Tangaloans are swift to observe 
the laws of hospitality, for they at once prepare food for their 
visitors, although those have come on a hostile errand. 

9. The Grecian war is founded on brute force: Pelion is 
piled upon Ossa. and attempts are made to take Olympus by 
storm; at last Zeus launches all his stores of thunder and 
lightning and thus quells the Titans. In Samoa, it is ** diamond 
cuts diamond " in pretended trials of skill and strength, and at 
last an open fight. 

10. In the Tangaloan sports, observe In how many points 
the myths correspond with legends current in the Old World: 

i^d) The giants are prodigious gluttons. Le-sa ate up the 
whole supply of food and the baskets and the neck-yoke. 

(/^) There is single combat to settle the strife — a club- 
match. 

{c) The conquered man is admitted to ransom, and the 
conqueror is highly honored. 

(d) Some of the giants are very tall, as well as strong. 
Lau-tolo could stand in the middle of a swollen river, and 
rescue his friends. 

(c) In the Samoan language, Moso-moso is the name of a 
binj; and in the myth, the giant Moso covers himself with 
feathers. In our legends there are tales about giant birds, such 
as the Roc. 

11. But in three other parts of the sports, the analogies 
are not European: 

(//) In Australia, Polynesia and America there are profes- 
sional rain-makers, and there are rain-medicines. The Samoans 
strongly dislike heavy rain ; falling on their warm, naked bodies, 
it chills them through and through. 

(/^) Surf-swimming and floating is universal in Polynesia 
as a sport and trial of skill. 

(^) There is a river in the heavens; the Milky Way is that 
river; it is called Aniva in Samoan, 

12. The champion of the Tangaloan party had "eight 
livers." In classic language the liver is '* courage." To be 
"white-livered" is to be a "coward." 

13. The number eight is remarkable here, for it is evi- 
dently used as a ** complete*' number. I have found it 
similarly used in several other of the Samoan records. The 
word in Polynesian is vain, *' twice four.'* Now, I do not know 



ai8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

any other part of the world, except India, in which the number 
eight is so used. 1 intend some day to write more fully on this 
pointy for I think it proves that the ancestors of the Polynes- 
ians had some connection with India. 

1 5. In the Samoan pantheon the supreme god is Tanga-loa, 
which name I take to mean * the lofty {loa) encompassing '* 
(verb taa-i) heavens. The name thus corresponds with the 
Sanskrit ** Varuna," the Greek *' Ouranos.' He dwells in the 
Ninth Heavens and is a calm, quiescent being. In this he cor- 
responds with the Indian Brahma. His palace there is called 
^alc-ula, the ** bright house"; there is no noise or disorder there; 
all is calm, bright and pure. The councils of the great gods 
are held there. The upper gods have the right to assemble 
there, but the inferior gods come only on invitation. For 
analogy we have the Roman Dii consentes, the Dii majorum 
gentium, and Dii minorum gentium. 

The distinguishing name of the Supreme Tangaloa is T.-i-le- 
langi, *'Tangaloa-in-the-heavens," but there are many high Tan- 
galoes, all of them, however, being functions or attributes of 
that god. As "creator of lands," he is called T.-faa-tutu-pu- 
nuse; as the "immoveable, unchangeable one," he is called 
T.le-fuli; as "going to and fro to visit his creation and his 
creatures," he is called T. Savale or T. Asiasi-nuse, and so on. 
With all this compare the Indian Brahma and his emanations. 
Just as in the beginning the sole, self-causing spirit Brahma by 
his ikhU created the waters, so Tangaloa-i-le-langi created the 
lands and men by his will alone. And Brahma in one of his 
aspects is Brahma Prajapati, the personal creator; as the pre- 
server, he is Vishnu; as the destroyer, he is Siva, and so on. 

The whole of the Samoan conception of Tangaloa and his 
heavens is somewhat like Buddhist ideas. To show this I quote 
the following from Childers: 

Brahmaloko is the world or heaven of Brahma angels, the Brahma- 
world It is divided into two parts: (i) Rupabrahmaloko. the world of 
corporeal Brahmas, and (2) Arupabrahmaloko', the world of formless 
Brahmas. The first consists of sixteen heaven*, placed one above the 
other and inhabited by Brahma devas or angels of dififerent sorts; the 
other consists of four heavens and is placed immediately above the 
Rupabrahmaloko. The Brahmas are a higher order of angels than the 
dn'iis of the Devaloko, being free from kama, or sensual desire or passions, 
and insensible to heat and cold. In some of the worlds they are self- 
resplendent and have purelv intellectual pleasures; those of Rupabrahma- 
loko have a form or body, but those of Arupabrahmaloko are mere efiful- 
gences or spirits without form. The dn^as of Devaloko are super-human 
beings or angels, living a life of happiness and exempt from the ills of 
humanity. 

Note — In another Samoan myth which 1 have cited — the Story of Creation — majiy parall* 
to the&e Samoan behefs about Tangaloa and his heavens, come out more clearly than in thtsooe 
In fact it would be easy for me to enlarge every one of the the fifteen parallels I hare fivvB, but 
the space I have at my disposal fotbids. And so, at present. I give only an OtttJiae of what 
might be said of this myth about the Samoan roalaga na alu i le Ugi. 



SHRINKS NKAR COCHITI. NEW MEXICO. 

BY FKEDKKICK STARK. 

In a recent visit to Cochiti, I desired to visit all the 
shrines or sacred places in the immediate vicinity of the 
pucblo. Some of these I already knew, but most of them 
were new to me. Apparently there are ten of these places. 
We visited eight of them: secret sacred dances were in pro- 
gress near the others, and our guide dared not go with us thither 
at that time. 

Cochiti is one of the seven Oueres pueblos. It lies upon 
a gravel terrace, west of the Rio Grande at a short distance 
from that river. Hack from it stretches a little plain, behind 
which, to the north and west, rises a series of gravel hills and 
rrdges. These occupy a broad strip of country, and behind 
them rise the great rock fncsus and potrcros of the Rio Grande 
Cafion. The Rio Grande flows past the pueblo in a flat alluvial 
valley, nearly a mile wide, at a level of some fifteen or twenty 
feet below the town. P>astward from the river the gravel hills 
givj way to a high plain, which stretches east and north to the^ 
rock mass forming the eastern side of the great cafion. The 
cultivated fields of the pueblo begin at the village and lie in 
the river valley, extending some distance up the river. 

All pueblo Indians reverence the points of the compass. 
From the cardinal points come helpful or harmful influences. 
Toward them propitiatory offerings and prayers are made. To 
the Cochiti there are six cardinal points — North, W^est, South, 
East, Up, Down. The usual offering to the cardinal points is 
corn-meal, and in every household a little dish of sacred meal 
stands ready for use. A pinch sprinkled toward the points in 
the order named secures favor. Pounded sea-shells may be 
mixed vvith corn meal to be used in this wav. On some occa- 
sions a special meal — the pollen of corn — is used. 

To a sacred place, to the influences of the place, or to the 
beings who are supposed to show their power there, objects 
are given. Commone.-^t of these offerings are "prayer-sticks" 
or "prayer-feathers." To a little stick, of a size and character 
precisely regulated, feathers are tied. Single feathers are tied 
to bits of string. Two or more feathers are tied together. 
Any of these, properly placed at a sacred place, is at once a 
prayer and a sacrifice. All of them are prepared with attention 
to ceremonial details. 

The nearest shrine to Cochiti lies a short half mile north* 
of the village, to the east of the road to Bland. It is at the 
base of the gravel terrace and at the edge of the alluvial flat 

* The directions here given may not be accurate, as no compass wa^ used in determining them. 



SHRINES NEAR COCHITI. Ml 

on which are the village fields. It is at the lower end of a rain 
furrow upon the fan-shaped deposit of sand and gravel. Here 
there is a circle or ring of stones, which measures about ten 
feet and a half in diameter. The enclosed space is cleared of 
stones, but at the centre is a bowlder a foot or so across. The 
circle is open at the east, the opening being toward the culti- 
vated fields which are near. This is a favorite shrine, much 
frequented, and buried in the sand under the stones of the 
circle were many feathered strings- Under the central bowlder 
were feathered strings, a feathered stick, and a flat bit of schist, 
which had been rudely chipped to resemble some ancient stone 
tool. From the fact that this is the only stone ring here- 
abouts which does not open toward the pueblo, and from the 
tact that it docs open toward the planted fields, it is inferred 
that the favorable influences of the place were to be directed 
to the fields. (Fig. i.) 

A little to the west, upon one of the nearest gravel hills, is 
the second shrine. It is a pretty line of stones, arranged in 
the form of a horse-sl.oe, opening toward the village. It 
measures about five feet and a half across in either direction. 
At the center is an irregulac, sub-angular bowlder, perhaps 
fifteen inches in diameter, and of a curious reddish-brown 
color. It must contain a considerable amount or iron. This 
stone ring (Fig. 2) is situated on the sloping southern end of 
the gravel hill, and is in sight from the pueblo. It is especi- 
ally visited by hunters who wish for luck, and feathered strings 
were wedged in between the stones, buried beneath the larger 
stones of the circle, or (and especially ) below the large, central 
bowlder. 

The third shrine is near the last, on a similar ridge or hill 
^-^fK in almost identically the same position. It is a small 
hur.ii-slvn' shaped line of stones, with an unusua'ly wide- 
opening, ^^llich is toward iht- town. It is neatly constructed, 
but has no central bowlder. It measures but two feet and nine 
inches in either direction. No feather offerings are lefi here, 
but sprinklings of meal ate made. After the pinches have been 
sprinkled to the cardinal points, a trail of meal is laid, leading 
out through ihe opening toward the pueblo. (Fig. 3.) 

Near here, in a run hollow between hills, is the moccasin 
stone. At the base of the hill a few stones are arranged to 
partly surround a little space, upon which is laid the flat-lopped 
stone in question. It is, perhaps, a piece of sandstone. Upon 
its upper surface iron has segregated into a regular outline, 
curiously resembling in form the sole of an Indian's moccasin: 
by the weathering away of the surrounding sandstone this is 
left slightly in relief, To this place those come, who are about 
to make moccasins, and pray with sacred meal that the moc- 
casins here cut out may be durable. (Fig. 4.) 

The fifth and finest of all these shrines lies at a little distance, 
following along the base of the gravel hills, near a much-used 
trail. The shrine is now little visited, as Mexicans passing by 



dolighl to disturb the offerings. The well-constructed circle 
oi stones must oieasure nearly fifteen feet across. (Fig-5-t 
The stones of which it is built are of quilt uniform size and ap- 
parently were carefully selected. The opening is toward the 
pueblo: the sandy space within the enclosure is kept well 
cleared. There is no bowlder at the centre, but at the rear, 
opposite the opening, is a carefully placed group of five stones, 
all of unusual and striking character. One is brown in color, 
with curious streaks of blood-red jasper; anollier. nearly round, 
is composed of concentric shells, alternately while and yellow ; 
the third is a mass of black, bladed crystals of hornblende, with 
a speckling of white here and there; the fourth is a badly- 
weathered, coarse-grained, light-colored, cryslalline mass, from 
which project dozens of brownish nodules perhaps garnets; 
the fifth is coaled with beautifully clouded white and flesh-red 
chalcedony. In the construction of the ring itself, near this 
group, several striking and curious stones were used. No 
offerings were found deposited here, but we were told that they 
were of the usual sort, 

To the west and south, and beyond a gravel ridge, at the 
mouth of the canada, is a shrine once famous, but now in dis- 
repute on account of Mexican disturbance, it is at the side, 
of the dry stream bed, at the base of a slope covered with a 
heavy down-wash of gravel and bowlders. There is no ring ol 
stones, or anv clear evidence of construction. A roundish 
bowlder lies upon a Httle surface of sand; several stones form 
an irregular line near by; all are partly inbedded in the sand. 
Among them is a triangular gray stone, which is said toHje the 
important object. A small cypress (?) tree stands near these 
stones. No offerings were found, but formerly pairs of plume- 
sticks and little rattles of gourds were placed here. The latter 
were hidden among the stones, hung upon the treft. or laid 
upon the ground below it. 

Between here and the village, near a little wash on the level 
terrace, is the dterfoot stone. ( Fig. 6.) It resembles purple 
jasper; it is a water-worn, though not round, bowlder; it con- 
tains a deep depression, which looks strikingly like the print 
of a deer's hoof. It is considered to be such an impression, 
and hunters who are going in search of deer, sprinkle sacred 
meal at this stone. 

Slill nearer to the town are tlie coyote stones. One of them 
lies near a trail; three others are together at a place some little 
distance out upon the plain: that near the trail is a foot or 
more across; it is light in color, and in texture like a sandstone 
or a tufa; the upper surface is quite flat and bears a number of 
pits or depressions, like the hollows in Kentucky " nut-stones." 
Of the other three, the larger much resembles that just de- 
scribed: a second, ditTers in material, and bears one deep aad 
one shallow cavity; the third is smaller, of different material, 
and bears several pittings. In the great communal bunts the 
procession of participants goes in a body from the pueblo to 



SHRINES NEAR COCHITI. 223 

these stones; they then spread out and seek their game. They 
make this visit to these stones ** because coyotes are swift run- 
ners " and they wish to be the same in their expedition. 
Probably they sprinkle meal at these stones, but of this I am 
not certain. (Fig. 7.) 

The other two shrines were not visited. The ninth is a 
place on the east bank of the river, probably where there are 
rocky banks. It is called "where the shiwana speak." The 
shiwana are the chief divine bein^js of the Queres. Offerings 
are here made to the water, although it is said that no con- 
struction has been built there and no objects are buried. The 
ispot is near the grove where the masked or "katcina " dances 
take place. 

Beyond the river, at some rock faces or cliffs, is the last of 
the shrines near Cochiti. The usual offerings are made. 
*^pecial offerings also are there placed, particularly by hunters. 
Miniature bows and shields are hiddc^n among the rocks. The 
latter are made of thread wound around and around upon little 
supports made of splints or twigs. After killing a mountain 
lion, bear, wolf, or eagle, the hunter cuts off the head, deco- 
rates it. and then buries it together with a pair of plume-sticks 
and a little rattle. 

Thf r»ative names for these ten shrines with their meanings 
are: 

I. Ki-(" ti no: north. 

2 /Xiwitya-inc-yu: where ihe people about to hunt ^f^ther. 

3. 1 )sa pa-ci6-niu: a house. 

4. Hero-ta ka-cn 1110 nl-ciV. fix I ?) your moccasin. 

5. ^'{>-ni- cku-ri ts;i nilc: stones in a ciirle placed. 

6. L' -ya-tsi-satc tslr-ctl-nilc: rattle placed. 

7. Ki-an-l-kar-ctL- tiiVuc: (leer its foot hi re has. 

8. Cio-tzu-nu ko-wi-tsi-a-pc-vu: covote lure made water. 
(;. Ko-lac-ku-lO hu tc.in yit-sc: where the shiwana are. 

10. (iltc cu-ko: to the north. 

I Note. —The system of transcription is mainly that of Major Pt)wcll: 
ft is as in Spanish. The author ^ives the^e names and translations as he 
understood them; he cannot vouch for their accuracy, as he does not know 
Queres.) 

Of course the JCochiti have many other sacred places 
among the mountains, remote from the pueblo. Only those 
near the pueblo are here considered. 



t 




DIARY OF ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC. 

BV A SOLDIBR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

[Thn lolJeirins atHcli hit b«D faninhtd bv Mi. Jimn Wickenhim. cf Ticwu. Il j> u 
Eimct lakm fran ■ lillle old. bfowa-cavind book wblcb bu b«n dcpniwd nib tba Ststi 
HiiKiTical SooiaiT of Wuhinnoo br Chapliln R. S. Stubbi, Snpiriiinndcnt of ih* Suiaca'i 
Battaal. uDd wupnisnlcd lo bioi by Mn. L-'olliDi. of Colllni Lindiiig. Ilpurpant id bem diuy 
of tuldMiaf ihi Amtri»D Rival uiiDnanr Anry. wmten in 17;; and 1776. Il conuiat KM^ 
ihirlr finly-wriluo pint. Tli> niimdvi bcfini ibrnptlv wilh iba opcDini of ih* wu. It da- 
•eilbu (h* Sfbl u Bonkar Hill and lfa> lighu abaui Boiion. Elavan pago af Ibe diary aic la 
vcrruiallicripl vith the deliiliof Ibc oemonble jouniEy r>am Boiloa 10 Qutbec Bf i.wDHMa 
of tba BntOD anay contkiEnt, and □( tha icmfak piatch ihrou|h tha wildaniaH of iha Kaaaa- 
b«e rim, Maiat. Tb* Darralin ibowii Ihat Iha aulhoi wai a man ol nan Ibaa srdlDary intet- 
lifaooa, who fiilLy apprecialad (ha imponance and niaeniiuda of tnc conuar la arhieb ih« Aa«v 
caa coloDieiaran eacaEed, and he erapblcaLly daicnbvi tb« peri Lt and privatEonaandurad by iba 
imiU force Hnl by GenaralWaihinEion undar Colnnal Banedici Arnold to auiii General Scha*lM 
and Monlvomary'i forcei, who h^ld Monifaal, in the ariack upon Qocbac, rhe tttong Ibnlnc^ 
dona of wnich wera held by the Briliih In Ibe annala of modem warfare then arc lew jourDcya 

In the year of our Lord 177r>, April — , the kind's troops 
came to Concord to take the province stores at that place, 
assaultinK Americans. When they met them upon the road, 
fired upon them and killed eij^ht of tliem. Then the battle 
beffaii. I was one of them; drove them and killed about 
four hundred of them aad lost thirty of our men. 

An alarm beinfr made immediately, when our army was 
gathered and stationed around Boston and there remained, 
preparinfT for the work. Then on the niffht of 16th of June 
our men did intrench upon Bunker Hill in Charlestown. 
The next morning thej' saw us and came out against us and 
burnt Charlestown. Another party landed under cover of 
the amoke. Then a battle, and a tierce battle it was. for the 
bullets tieu- as thick as hail from heaven. They drove us 
from what little intrenchmeuts we had made the night before 
and they drove us from the hill, and they kept in possession 
until now. and they killed about 135 of our men. However, 
they met with much sorrow and trouble, for we killed of 
their men more than 1,00) by numbers. 

Before this tight at Cliarlestown we had a scurmig (skir- 
mish) with regulars at Clielsey (Chelsea) and beat them, and 
burnt one scooner and took some plunder. 

Then a little after the fight at Charlestown our men burnt 
the lighthouse. Some time after we took the lighthonse 
guard and killed some of them, and took about forty re^- 
lars and Torys and destroyed two or three small ships. 



FROM BOSTON TO yUEBEC, 

Cambrig. Sept, 13. 1775,— Sixth instant orders came fromJ 
bis excellency General Washington for 1,30(1 men of the 
army (stationed around Boston) to march to Quebec. We 
formed our fellows into companies, myself and divers others 
from Captain Smith's company formed ourselves under tlte,u 



>ni9 
le 

rs 



DIARY OF A REVOLUTIONARY SOLDIER. 225 

command of Captain James Hubbard of Wooster. Tenth 

instant we marched from Dorchester to Cambrig and lay 

there till the Thursday following, 13th instant. We marched 

throvgh Mistie and (reached) Maiden, 7 miles. Fourteenth 

instant marched throug^h Lyn and lay at Danvers, 10 miles. 

Friday, 15th instant, we marched throu«^h Salem, Beverly, 

Wenham, Ipswich and lay at Rowley, 18 miles. Saturday, 

16th, we marched through Newbury and lay at Newburyport, 

8 miles. The Tuesday following we got sale (sail) at New- 

t>iiryport for Canabeck (Kennebec) river and landed there 

tlie next morning, which is Wednesday, the 20th inst., and 

l^iy there until towards night, and then hoist sale and come 

p the river as the tide and wind favored us. We come up 

itbin three miles of Fort Weston, but could not get any 

Earther with our scooner for want of water. 

Then we quit our scooner and come by land, which was 
t lifee miles, and arrived here on the 23d instant on Saturday 
i-n the afternoon, which fort (Weston) is fifty miles from the 
:raouth of the river. 

The night following one of Ca])tain Goodrich's men most 
:ff'oully murdered one of Captain Williams' men by firing a 
"ball through his body, by whieh wound he dyed the next day. 
On Monday the murtherer was sentenced to be hanged. 

On Munday the 2r)th instant we got up the river about one 
mile and campt down that night. On Wednesday the 27th 
instant we arrived at Fort Halifax, 17 miles from Fort Wes- 
ton. Thursday morning, 2Hth instant, we carried our battoes 
'by the falls, about one-quarter of a mile; then we had five 
miles to go to get to the head of the falls. The same day 
with much difficulty we got two miles and a half. Fryday 
morning the 29th we got off again and got up the head of the 
falls and about three miles farther. On Saturday morning 
the 30th instant we put forward and got within a half mile 
of the falls, which is the second crossing place upon this 
river, about seven miles farther. 

On Sabbath day, the 1st of October, we come up to the 
falls and crossed by our battoes, and landing mended our 
battoes. The crossing ])lace is about 30 rods and very 
wearysome we found it to be to get this far up the river by 
falls and swift water. 

Munday, 2d October instant, we got off from the 

and falls and come to the upper part of the great falls of 
Norridgewalk, 32 miles from Fort Halifax. Wednesday the 
4th instant we carried our battoes by the falls, which is one 
mile. The last house upon the river is one-half mile below 
the falls, and we have the woods to go through without any 
settlements. We got off that night and come ahead about 
two miles. 

Thursday the 5th instant we come up the river about 11 
miles; on Fryday, 6th instant, five miles and met with falls, 
where we had to carry our battoes and loading about twelve 



336 



THE AMERICAN ANTKJUARIAN. 



miles, but without much difficulty, and passed in above thip 
falls and come three miles. Saturday, 7th instant, we came 
six miles. 

Sabbath day, 8th inst., we lay still and kept ourselves as 
sly as we could in the woods. On Munday. the Uth inst., we 

arrived at the , Jive miles, which is twenty-two miles 

from the upper fall at Norrid^ewalk. 

Thursday, the 10th inst.. we quit this (Kennebec) river 
and began to carrj' towards Ded river. This day compleat's 
just one solar month from the day that we come from Dor- 
chester. It is twenty days -sense we left the mouth of the 
river, and fourteen days sense we left our scooner. Those 
seventeen days we had hard limes, for we found it to be a 
hard piece of work to get uj) this river, which we found very 
rocky, uneven, swift water and falls also. We are now 132 
miles from the mouth of the river. The general- run of the 
river is from northeast to southwest, and we have twelve 
miles to carry to fjet to Ded river, except three ponds, which 
is four miles of the distance to go by water. 

Wednesday, the 11th inst, we got over to the first pond, 
which is three and a quarter miles. 

Thursday, l-th inst,. we got over the second pond, where 
we had ime and three- quarter mHes. 

Friday. Kith inst.. we come to the third pond. Then we had 
to carry our loading two*miles and a quarter and forty rods. 

Saturday, Uth inst.. we carried from the third pond to. 
Ded river, two miles and three-quarters and forty rods. We 
put into Ded river by the Blue hills, so called — an extremely 
high mountain it is. 

Sabbath day, 15th inst. , we put in and come up Ded river 
about four miles. 

Munday we come three miles and met with falls Then 
we had to carry our battoes about six rods. We come about 
sixteen miles that day. Tbe point we steered in coming from 
the Canabeck river to the Ded river is about west. 

Tuesday, 17th. we had orders for thirty-two of our com- 
pany to go back to the carrying place to help the hindermost 
of the company. The men were taken from Captain Shaver's 
and Captain Joppin's companies. 

Saturday, 21st inst., we got back again. 

Sabbath day, '226 inst,, we got off up the river once more 
after so much hindrance for naught, which was the means 
of such times as I never saw before, for we were obliged to 
live upon a very short allowance. 

Fryday, 27th inst.. we arrived at the head of Ded river, 
about fifty miles from the grater carryingplace. 

Saterday, 2Hth inst,. we left Ded river and put into 
Chaudere. which is four and a half miles. 

J^abbath day, 29th inst., we swung our packs with what 
little food we had and marc lied to the head of Chaudere river, 
and we arrived there on Tuesday, 3!stin,st. Then we marched 



DIARY OF A REVOLUTIONARY SOLDIER. 227 

down the river as fast as we couid to the inhahitanis as quick 
as possible, for we are like to suffer very much with hunj^er, 
some of us bein<^ out of provisions already, and others not 
having" enouj^h for one meal. Some had nothing to eat for 
three days and eat dog" at last. We marched on with hungry 
bcillies until Thursday Nov. -d, and there met some cattle. 
Ci:)lonel Arnold (Benedict) having gone forward and sent 
them out by some Frenchmen, which was a very pleasant 
sight to us. 

Frvdav, 8d inst.. we came to the inhabitants. 90 miles 
from Ded river, -00 miles between inhabitants. Then we 
had 90 miles to march to Quebec. 

AT THE ST. LAWRENCE IVEK. 

On Thursday. i)th inst., we come to the river St. Laurence, 
over against the city. We was two months upon the march 
from Boston to Quebec. 

On the nig"ht of Munday, the 13th inst.. we come over the 
St. Laurence and landed at the place called Wolf's cave, and 
marched across Abram's ]ilanes and found some houses about 
one and a half miles from the city and there quartered for a 
few days. 

Saterday. l^th inst-, about 4 o'clock in the morning, we 
left our ([uarters and fled away towards Montreal. '27) miles, 
because we found it not safe to slay there for want of ami- 
nition. for w^e had lost the g'reater part of it on our journey, 
our numbers being small to their's withall. For about one- 
half of our way we were turned back upon the march, be- 
cause our provisions was forgot. So we thought best to tiee, 
.seeing our men so few and aminition so short, for we had 
certain news from a ])risoner that they were coming out upon 
us, and we stayed at a ])lace called Point of Tremi)le, wait- 
inj^ for General Montg'omery to come down from Montreal 
to assist with men and aminition. 

Fryday, Dec. 1st. he (General Montgomery) came with 
artillery, arms, aminition and a part of his army — more to 
come afterw^ards — and clothing for our army, who came 
almost naked in this cold country. Some of us lost our 
clothes in the rivers, some wore them out, and some w^ere so 
weak by reason of hunger that they could not carry them 
and so left them in the woods, and several dyed in the woods 
by reason of the cold and hunger, and some actually starved 
to death. 

Monday, 4th December, the army marched back to Quebec 
a^ain from the Point of Tremble, all but the tenders (nurses) 
of our company. My brother was sick and I stayed to tend 
him. 

Tw^enty-eighth December, about 2 o'clock, my brother 
dyed after 39 days' illness with fever and tiux. He seemed 
to be g'etting" better and went out doors, and I think he took 
cold. Sabbath day, 17th December, he was taken worse 



228 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

until he dyed at Point of Tremble, 24 miles to the south of 
Quebec Fryday, after the funeral, I came down to the army. 

THE ATTACK ON QUEBEC. 

On Sabbath day morning, 31st inst., about 3 o'clock our 
army made an attempt to take Quebec. Arnold's men went 
to the lower town and g^ot over the walls, and Montgomery's 
men went to the upper town and some of them got over the 
walls. 

Then the general was killed and the men retreated im- 
mediately. Then the enemy came upon our men in the lower 
town about 9 o'clock in the morning. They made no attempt 
to escape until it was too late, for they thought the other 
party was in the upper town. Captain Hendrake was killed, 
Captain Goodrich is wounded, Colonel Arnold was wounded, 
but made his escape. About four hundred in all was killed 
and taken, chiefly taken, not very many killed. 

Jan. 3d, on Wednesday, we left the army and got off for 
Montreal. Saterday, 6th inst., we got to the Three rivers, 
90 miles from Quebec. On Monday morning, 9th of January, 
we arrived at Montreal. 

BURGOYNE SURROUNDED. 

An entry dated October 19, 1777, says: ** About 9 o'clock 
at night Burf^oyne began his retreat. Oct. 1^, General Gates 
come upon their rere and a part of the malitia arrived at Fort 
Edward before their front." 




One of thi- most interesting subjects which can engage the 
^Lttention of scientific men. is the one which relates to the man- 
Mr* er in which the American continent was peopled. Various 
«» pinions have been advanced, but none of them are entirely 
^■atisfactory. owing to the fact, perhaps, that so little is known, 
^M.nd to the difficulty in reaching a safe conclusion. 

1. In treating of the subject wt shall endeavor to take a 
<z:omprehensive view, and shall go back of the human period 
^».nd first speak of the manner in which the cojitinent was filled 
^with animal life, and from ihis draw the analogy between the 
^distribution of animals and that of man. 

Mr. Alfred R, Wallace has given to this subject several 
o:hapters of his book entitled "Tropical Nature," and may be 
regarded as the best authority. He says: 



creeping 



The conlineDIs In their lol.ihty may be likeriL-d to 
plant whose roots are all atound ihe North Pole, whose n 
fcranches cover a large part of the Northern Hemisphere, while it send* 
out in three directions, great oS-shoots towards the South Pole. This singu- 
lar arrangement of the surface into what is practically one huge mass with 
vliverging arms, oRers great facilities for the transmission of varied formi 
«F aniroal life over the whole earth, and is no doubt one of the chief causes 
«f the essential unity of type which everywhere characterises the existing 
animal and vegetable productions of Ihc globe. There is good reason for 
believing that The eeneral features of the arrangement of continents are of 
vast antiquity, and throughout much of the Tertiary period the relative 
positions of our continents have remained the same. For our purpose it is 
not necessary to go back further than this, but there Is much evidence to 
ihow that through the secondary and perhaps the paleoj,'Zoic periods the 
land areas coincided to some extent with our existing continents. 

Prof. Ramsey has shown that considerable portions of the upper and 
lower Oolitic, much of the Trias, the larger part of the Devonian, Carboni- 
ferous and Old Red Stone formations were deposited in lakes or inland seas 
or extensive estuaries. This would prove thai throughout the whole of the 
vast epochs extending back to the time of the Devonian formation, our 
present continents have been substantially in existence, subject no doubt to 
vast fluctuations by extension and contraction, but never so completely 
submerged as to be replaced by oceans of any such depth as our Atlantic 
or Pacific. 

The Paliearctie or north temperate region of the Old World is not only 
by far the most extensive of the zoological regions, but is one which agrees 
least with our ordinary geographical divisions. It includes the whole of 
Europe, by far the largest part of Asia, and a considerable tract of NorlU 
Africa; yet over the whole of this vast area, there prevails a variety of 
forms of animal life, which renders any primary subdivision of it impos- 
sible, and even a secondarir division of it difficult. Besides being the largest 
of the great noological regions there are good reasons for believing this to 
represent the most ancient, and, therefore, the most important center of 
the development of the higher forms of animal life. Among the char- 
acteristic mammalia of this region, are the camels, now con^ned to the 
deserts of Africa and south Asia: also sheep and goals, which are found 



23o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

beyond the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains: also antelopes and 
many peculiar forms of datr, wolves, foxes, and bears. 

The Elbiopean region consists of Africa, south of the Tropic of 
Cancer, and Madagascar, and is a very small area compared vrith the 
Palrearclic: yet, owing to the absence of extreme climatic changes and the 
tropical luxuriance of a considerable portion of its surface.it supports a 
greater number of large animals than any other part of the globe.* 

Considering, then, first the zoological features of tropical and southern 
Africa alone, we hnd a number of forms of mammalia, the hippopotamus, 
tlie giraffe, the baboon, and several genera of monkeys and apes, several 
peculiar lamurs, and a great variety of antelopes. It is also characterised 
by the absence of a number of common and widely diEfused groups of 
mammalia. The bears are totally wanting m tropical South Africa. The 
deer, which arc common in the north, are totally absent from the Ethiopean 
region. Goats, sheep, and true axen (bos) and true pigs (sus) are also absent. 

The Oriental region comprises all tropical Asia east of the Indus, with 
the Malay Islands, as far as Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Its actual 
land area is the smallest region, except Australia, but if we take into 
account the wide extent of lh« shallow sea, connecting China with the 
Malay Islands and which formed the extension of the Asiatic continent, it 
will not be much smaller than the Ethiopean region. We find here, as 
might be expected, that the variety of birds and insects is greater than in 
Ihe Ethiopean region, but the families of mammalia are few in number. 
They are the flying lemurs, various apes, monkeys, and a large number of 

Now, having thus briefly sketched Ihe main features of the existing 
faunas of Europe, Asia, and Africa, it would be well, while these diScrences 
ajjd resemblances are fresh in our minds to consider what evidence we 
have of the changes which may have resulted in their, present condition. 
All these countries are so intitnately connected that their past history is 
greatly elucidated by the knowledge we possess of their tertiary fauna. 
Let US, ihcretore, go back to the Miocene or middle Tertiary epoch, and 
see what was then the distribution of the higher animals in those countries. 
Over the whole of this immense area we hnd a general agreement, indi- 
cating that this great continent was continuous. In France. Switierland, 
Germany, Hungary, Greece, Northwestern India, Burmah and North China 
there IS a general agreement in the fossil of the mammalia, indicating thai 
this great region was at that lime one continuous continent. We lind, also, 
thai the animals now confined to the Oriental and Ethiopic regions were 
then abundant overmuch of the Arctic region. Elephants, rhinoc~~~ 
girafies, antelopes, hyenas, lions, as well as apes and monkeys, ranged 
all Central Europe, 



— > — t^ 



Let us next inquire as to the changes of land and sea." 
From the presence of Tertiary deposits over the Sierra, parts of" 
Arabia, Persia, and northern India, geologists think that a con- 
tinuous sea extended from the Bay of Bengal to the Atlantic, 
thus cutting off southern India, and Ceylon, as well as ail 
tropical Africa, into a separate region; but northern Africa was 
united to Italy, while Asia Minor was united to Greece. We 
also knoiv that Ihe Himalayas and some of ihe highlands of 
Central Asia were at such a moderate height as to enjoy a cli- 
mate as mild as that which prevailed in Central Europe, durinj 
the same Miocene epoch. 

We have, therefore, good evidence that the great Eun 
Asia continent of Miocene times exhibited in its fauna a coi 
bination of all the main features which now characterized th< 
Palsarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopean regions combined; whili 
tropical Africa and such tropical regions were isolated and di 



THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. 



1 frcim the n 



■rthci 



: dividin 



tinent by the f_ 
strait, and possessed a much more limited fauna. If this 
view is correct all the great mammalia which now seem so 
especially characteristic of Africa, such as the lions, leopards, 
and hyenas; the zebras, giraffes, buffaloes, and antelopes; the 
elephants, rhinoceros, and hyppnpntamus. and, perhaps, even 
the numerous monkeys, baboons, and anthropoid apes are all 
of themcomparalively recent immigrants which took possession 
of the country as soon as the elevation of the old eocene and 
miocene sea beds, afforded a passage from the southern borders 
of the pa!a;arctic region. This event probably took place 
about the middle of the Miocene period, and must have 
effected a great change in the fauna of Europe. 

We will now proceed to examine what is known of the past 
history of the two American continents, and endeavor to deter- 
mine what have been their former relations to each other and to 
the Old World, and how the existirig geographical features have 
been brought about. The facts compel us to believe that at a 
distant epoch during the Tertiary period, the interchange of 
large mammalia between North America and the Old World 
was far more easy than it is now. In the post-Pleiocene period, 
for example, the horses and elephants and camels of North 
America and Europe were so closely allied that their common 
ancestors must have passed from one continent to the other, 
just as we feel assured that the common ancestors of the Ameri- 
can and European bison, elk, and beaver, must have so migrated. 

We have further evidence that certain groups came into 
existence much later than the other, thus the cats, deer, masto- 
dons, true horses, porcupines, and beavers existed in Europe 
long before they appeared in America. There are two probable 
routes for such migrations. From Norway to Greenland by way 
of Iceland and BafHns Bay; it is not improbable that during 
the Miocene period, or subsequently, a land communication 
may have existed. On the other side of the continent, the 
probability is greater. Here we have a considerable extent of 
lar shallower sea, which a very slight elevation could convert 
into a broad isthmus connecting America with northeastern 
Asia, It is true that elephants, horses, and deer would, under 
existing climatal conditions, hardly range as far north as Green- 
land and Alaska, but we must remember that most mysterious 
and indisputable fact of the luxuriant vegetation, including even 
magnolias, which flourished in these latitudes during the Mio- 
cene period; so that we have all the conditions of favorable 
climate and abundant food, which renders such an interchange 
of animals of the two continents, not only possible, but inevi- 
table, whenever a land communication was effected; and there 
is reason to believe that this favorable condition of things con- 
tinued in a diminished degree during a portion of the Pleioccne 
period. Abundant remains of the posi-Pleiocene epoch from 
Brazilian caves show us that the fauna of South America, which 
immediately preceded that now existing, had the same general 
characteristics, but were much richer in large mammalia. 



232 THE AMERICAN ANTKjUAKIAN. 

The same causes which Led the megalonyx and Ihe megaiheriui 

migrate to North Atnenca, led the horse, the deer, the maatodon, and many 
fehdal to South America. The animals of the southern and Donbetn con- 
tinents, are ijuite diSereat. Each continent developed ils own peculiar 
faifnal life, yet inier-mig^iations ha.e taken place at remote intervals, ihe 
same as between Europe and Africa. 

There was a time when the two oceans — the Atlantic and the Pacific — 
mingled their waters; not through an artificial Nicaraguan canal, but 
through a natural depression; the highlands ot Mexico and Guataniala t>e- 
ing united to North America, and all of South America lorming a separate 
continent. There later on was an isthmus which connected Niinh 
and South Anieiica, over which migrations took place, at great intcrvdU 
and for limited periods. One migration takiii)f place in the late Plciocene 
or early Fosl-Pleioccne epochs. Owing to some specially favorable condi- 
tions there was a remarkable development ot certain forms of animal lile 
in South America, Thrre were armadilloes as large as the rhinocerus, and 
a stork of elephantine bulk. 

Another point is to be noticed: North America has a zoo- 
logical history which is allied with that of Europe, but South 
America has one which is allied with Africa and Australia. To 
illustrate; South America has preserved examples of low and 
t^arly types of mammalian life similar to those of Australia 
and Africa, while the Philippines have mammalian life which 
is connected with Asia rather than South America, 

We see, then, that as far as animal life is concerned, 
there was a transmission frotn one continent to another, and it 
was by means of contact of the dif-ferent continents that the 
various species of animals were spread throughout the earth. 

Now this position as to the ancient migration of ani- 
mals from the pala;arctic regions to the different parts of the 
Old and New World, naturally carries our thoughts to the human 
period, and raises the inquiry as to the connection of man with 
the lower animals. 

The majority of the naturalists have decided that even if 
there was a descent of man from the lower animals, this 
descent occurred in some part of the Old World, rather than 
in the New, for there is nearer approach to man in the lower 
animals there, than here, Darwin, Wallace, Lubbock, and 
Haeckel connect man closely with the anthropoid apes, though 
Haeckel has thought it necessary to admit the existence of an 
intermediate stage between ourselves and the most highly- 
developed apes; but Vogt disagrees with his scientific col- 
leagues, and holds that different Simian stocks may have given 
rise to different human groups. The populations of the Old 
and New World would thus be descendants of the different 
forms which are peculiar to the two continents. On this hypo- 
thesis Australia and Polynesia, where there never have been 
apes, must necessarily have been peopled by means of migra- 
tion. Topinard, however, shows that there was a wide differ- 
ence between man and the anthropoids. He says: 




THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. 133 

ently. One system is as follows: First order Primates — ist. Family — man. 
2d. Family— anthropoids. 3rd. The monkeys of the Old Conliocnl— pithe- 
coid s and baboons. 4tli. The monkeys oi The New Conlineol. ;th. The 
lemur J. 

The facial angle furnishes a primary characteristic of man in the rela- 
tion to animals. Between the narrowest facial angle of the adult man and 
the widest angle of an adult anthropoid there exiits a great interval, and 
by this characteristic man is separated in the most remarkable manner 
from the rest of the mammalia, including the anthropoids. The cranial 
capacity of man differs widely from the anthropoid apes, that of man being 
I. Soo centimetres; gorillas, 531; lions. 311; New Foundland dogs. 105. 

The altitude of the body and the position as to the vertebral column 
. conilitule another difference. In man, the head is naturally in equilibrium 
upon the vertebral column. The occipital foramen occupies the middle or 
baseof theskult, In the negro, it is a little more backward. In the anthro- 
poid ape.it is still more so, and in the various quadrupeds it agains recedes, 
until in the horse it no longer forms a pan of the base of the skull. Of all 
the mammilla man has the lea>.l development of the muscles of the jaw, 
and the smallest extent cf surface lor the insertion of the muscles. The 
division of the trunk of the mammalia is into two parts, the one anterior, the 
other posterior, is another characteristic: and the absence oi this in man, 
shows the difference. 

Quatrefagea says we must place the origin of man beyond the 
last ape, if we wish to adhere to one of the laws most emphati- 
cally necessary to the Darwinian theory, and hints at the exist- 
ence of four unknown intermediate groups; while Haeckel pre- 
supposes the existence of an absolutely theoretical pithecoid 
man. in order to complete his genealogical table. This posi- 
tion has rendered the discovery of certain remains in the 
Islands of Java by Dr. DuBois so important, and yet this does 
not decide the case. 

II. The point that is of greater importance than the descent 
of man from animals, is that which relates to the origin of 
races. The general opinion favors the unity of the human 
family, and the gradual developement of stocks and races 
through natural causes. Among these causes, environment 
seems to be at present regarded as the chief, though other 
causes are recognized, such as transmitted traits, the influence 
of progress and of social life and culture. The uniformitarian 
view is very common, and all leaps and gaps in the history of the 
human race are disputed, though the impinging of one race 
upon the other, and a consequent modification, is always recog- 
nized. Still, the scientists are at sea in reference to the division 
of the human race, for there is a great variety of opinions as 
to what constitutes a race. Quatrefages says: 

Primitive mankind can have no history in the scientific sense ol ths 
word- The inier-crosaiiig of character between human groups is so great 
that it IS impoisible to identify diScrcnt human species and trace any one 
of them hack through a separate line, and say ihaC this originated from any 
particular species of animals. We have alreadv observed how closely the 
Aryan. Dravidian. Hindoos, the African or Mefanesian negroes and mani- 
(ettly Semitic populations may resemble each other in color; the same may 
be said ol the language. 

Dr. Biinton says; 



»34 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



The efforts which have been made heretofore to erect a geographical 
classification, with reference to certain areas, political or physical; or a 
craniological one, with reference to skull forms; or a cultural one, with 
reference to stages of savagery and civilization, have alt proved worthless. 
The linguistic Is the only basis on which the subdivision of the races should 
proceed.* 

Ripley, on the other hand, maintains that the shape of the 
skull IS the only criterion by which we may determine the line 
of descent, Language, color, geographical location, even the 
character of the hair, are uncertain, compared with the skull. 
He says: 

A factor which is of great assistance in the rapid identificaiion of cer- 
tain racial types is the correlation between the proportions of the head and 
the form of the (ace. Our six living types. arranged in an ascending series 
of cephalic indices from 64 to 06, make this relation between the head and 
face more clearly manifest. Our proof of the transmissibility of the many 

Ehysical peculiarities with which we have to deal must necessarily bave 
een indirect. The sources o( prehistoric archaeology afford testiinony of 
this kind plentifully. Ever since the earliest period of history made knoi " 
to us in Hgypt, there has been no appreciable change in the physical ctii 
acter of the population. t 

The European racial types are divided into TeutoD^i _ 
Alpine, and Slediterranean; the first being characterized by 
a long head and face, light hair, blue eyes, and tall stature; the 
second, by a round, broaJ head and face, chestnut hair, hazel 
eyes, and stocky build; third, with large head and face, brown 
or black hair, dark eyes, and slender stature. RipleyJ gives a 
plate§ which shows the descent of the Cromagnon types through 
the Berbers of Tunis and the peasants of Dordogne,' and says 
that the original Cromagnon race was extremely dolico cepha 
■lie, as long headed, in fact, as the modern African negroes, or 
the Australians. The prehistoric antiquity of the cromagnon 
type is attested in two distinct ways. In the first place, thi 
original people possessed no knowledge of the metals; thi 
were in the same stage of culture, perhaps even lower than tl 
American aborigines at the coming of Columbus. 

This view of the transmissibility of physical features leai 
us to consider the subject of the migration from a standpoint, 
which is somewhat different from that of language. The gen- 
eral opinion is that the peopling of America took place in a 
Geological period which antedated history, but was caused by 
migrations from some part of the Old World, probably that 
part which has always been regarded as the original home of 
man, although a few visionary persons are Still inclined lo hold 
to some other theory. A mere mention of these may be in 
place here. 

We shall first mention the theory about Atlantis. This has 
been advanced by the same author who has undertaken to 
prove that Bacon was the author of Shakespeare's plays and 



'^1 



on 




THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. 23s 

that the glacial deposits were caused by the bursting of a 
comet on the surface of the earth. Another theory which may 
be set opposite to this, is the one which is advocated so per- 
sistently by certain devout readers of Scripture, that America 
was peopled by the !ost tribes of Israel, and that ihe Ameri- 
can aborigines retained the same customs that thi: Israelites 
had. This would place the migration at a very late date, and 
so would be in contrast with those ot the Atlantis theory. 
There is. however, no foundation in fact for cither theory. A 
third theory is the one advanced by Professor Winchell, who 
maintained that Adam was not absolutely the first man, but 
was only a representative of the white race. He says: 

Kupuiable amhorities have contended that Adam was not .n white man. 
Euscbius de SalJe represented him as red; Pnchard believed him black. 
There is, indeed, a legend in existence which has obtained wlde-sprtad 
currency, according to which the first man was of dark or black com- 
plexion. 

If, as I am about to arRUL-, some bUck race first represented humanity 




This opinion cost Professor Winchell his position in Van- 
derbilt University, but it does not fully satisfy the scientific 
mind. For the color of the skin is a very small part of the 
difference between the races of the earth, and does not serve as 
the distinguishing marks of the primitive man. 

Another explanation is that which was given by Mr. Prest- 
wich. which is to the effect that there was a pre-glacial man and 
that his nature and constitution" aud history were entirely dis- 
tinct and separate from the post-glacial— a new creation com- 
ing in by a sort of cataclism. Stuart Glennie holds that there 
was a ground race which had its origin and center of popula- 
tion in the Desert of Gobi, which is the bed of an old 
sea, and is a cimtinent by itself called Eur-Asia, the name 



336 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



i 



being formed by the combination of the names Europe and 
Asia. This explanation is more in accord with that given by 
geology, for it places the starling point in the neighborhood of 
that great plateau which was raised above the waters when the 
great sea intervened between northern and southern India and 
northern and southern Africa, and between North and South 
America, and when the Pacific and Atlantic were united by a 
widu channel, which covered what is now the Isthmus of Darien, 

Another theory is the one advanced by Dr- Dawson, who 
divides the story of the Creation into two parts, separating thi 
creation of animals and that of man, to make the cosmical 
work differ from the historical. 

The theory advanced by Professors Haeckel and Peschel] 
and others, was, that the first appearance of man could bav( 
taken place neither in Southern America or Africa, but in 
continent now covered by the Indian Ocean. Peschel sajs: 

Such a conlineni is required by anthropology, (or we can (hen concei 
■bat tbe inferior populations of Australia and India, the Papuans oE the 
East Indian Islands, and lastly, the negroes, would thus be enabled to reach 
their present abode by dry land. Sutti a region would be aLso climatically 
suitable, for it lies in the zone in which we now find the anthromorpbous 
apes. The selection of this locality is, moreover, far more orthodox, than it 
niiKhl at the first glance appear, for we here find ourselves in the neighbor- 
hood of the four enigmatic rivers of the Scriptural Eden— in the vicinity of 
the Nile, the Euphrates and the Indus; by the gradual submersionof Lemuria, 
the expulsion from Paradise would be almost inevitably accomplished.* 

There is a point here on which geologists and ethnologists 
have differed, for some have taken the ground that Paleolithic 
man in Europe and in A.-sia. was very different from the Neo- 
lithic, a long period having elapsed between the two; while I 
others hold to the continuity of the two ages. ■ 

Still another theory is that man originated somewhere in thel 
Asiatic continent, but the place of separation was in the region I 
of the Plateau of Iran. The different stocks of languages re- 
ceived their names from this regicn; the Aryan. Turanian, 
and Semitic languages all having their origin in this locality. 
We may say of this theory, that it is more in accord with the 
Scripture account than any of the preceding, but it does not 
carry the date back far enough to satisfy the demands of 
science. It is based upon a single quality, namely, the langu- 
age which was spoken : whereas there are other qualities fully as 
important as this and far more deeply-seated in the constitu- 
tion of man. These are, as follows: the shape of the skull, the 
color of the skin, the character of the hair, and the proportions — 
of the human body. The language, to be sure, is (' 
noticeable fcdture, and distinguishes the tribes and races frcH 
one another, and yet it is impossible to go back far enough t 
decide what the lirst original language was. or when it wai 
spoken: so this test fails us in the time of need. 

Some are inclined to think that the Scripture gives to us thi 



THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA, 



237 



only true account, and that the ordinary interpretation is the 
correct one. There is, however, this difficulty, if we should 
grant that man came mlo existence by a special act of creation 
and had no relation to the lower animals, the question would 
then arise, where did the Creation take place and at what date? 
On these points there have been a variety of opinions. 

We may say here, that there is not much difficulty in 
reconciling the Scripture account of the Creation of Man with 
any theory as to the distribution of the races; for the Scripture, 
combined with tradition, carries back the dale to a marvelous 
antiquity, and gives abundance of time for the peopling of 
America from the Old Continent. The greatest obstacle comes 
from the interpretation of scientific facts, rather than from the 
interpretation of the Scripture, as each class of scientists seems 
to I'C iniiliiied to interpret the facts by his own special study. 




One class is disposed to erect a geographical classification, and 
to describe certain areas in which all changes occurred; the 
differencs among the taces being altogether the result of geo- 
graphical and physical surroundings. Another cla=s, studying 
the craniology, makes the skull form the test, and these require 
a vast amount of time to account for the changes to have taken 
place in the skull. A third class makes the difference in the 
races to con.sist in acculturization— the stages of savagery, bar- 
barism, and civilization having folloivcd one another in the same 
order in the different continents. A fourth class makes lan- 
guage the only basis on which the subdivisions of the race 
should proceed, and whenever they find agreement in language 
they adopt a theory of the unity of the race- 

The students of Scripture hold that the Garden of Eden 
was somewhere in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates; 
while such archaeologists as Dr. John Evans favor the Tropical 
regions of India. 

Whether we undertake to erect a geographical classification, 
with reference lo certain areas — political or physical; or a 



338 THt AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

craniological one. with reference to skull forms: or a cultui 
one, with reference to stages of savagery or civilization; 
linguistic one, making language the only basis on which 
subdivisions of race should proceed, we shall not find the 
Scripture record really in our way. In fact the greatest 
obstacle comes from the dogmatism of the specialists, who 
have adopted some one of these systems of classification and 
have based their theories as to the origin of man on that atone. 
We do not undertake to reconcile Scripture with science, but 
are content to wait until more facts shall come in. Still, we 
may say that, in reference to the starting point, there is a gen- 
eral agreement between the traditions which are evidently em- 
bodied in the Scripture and the discoveries which have beeiij 
made by scientific men. 

There have been various theories as to the starting point, 
for one class holds that the Garden of Eden was near the 
mouth of the Kuphrates. and others that it was upon the moun- 
tains of Armenia, or in the regions of Thibet; still others that 
it was somewhere in the Indian Ocean, or upon that unknown 
continent called Lemuria. Dr. Warren, in his "Paradise 
Found." holds that it was at the North Pole, and quotes a 
great m?ny traditions to support his theory. Dr. Dawson holds 
that man was produced on some recent alluvial plain, and 
quotes Haeckel's "History of Creation" and Henry Kawlinson, 
Dr. Sayce. Pinches, and Delitszch, to prove that the human 
species must have originated near the Persian Gulf. Lenor^ 
mant says: 



Now, to these theories, as to the starting point of mai 
have to add others, as to the antiquity of m?n in the Old and ' 
in the New World. It is certainly in accord with science and 
Scripture to suppose that the starting point was in the older 
continent, but there is great uncertainty as to the date of the 
migration of man to this continent. The supposition ofj 
some is, that in that geogological period when there was i 
more extensive land connection bi;tween the different conti-] 
nents. man migrated from Asia to America, by going to thi 
east; or from Europe to America, by going to the northwtst 
Mr, A. H. Keane says; 

The American aborigines are not indigenous in the absolul 
reached the Western from the Eastern Hemisphere in the primitive state, 
prior lo all strictly cuhured developments. A study of their phyiicat Cod- 
stilution, substantially, but not wholly, uniform— wUh. indeed, two marked 
sub-varieties, respectively represented in the North by the Eskimo long- 
heads and the Mexican round-heads: in the South by the Ilatocudo long- 
heads and the Andean round-heads^polnts at two streams of immigrants 
from the Old World. 

The Eskirao-Botocudo section has been traced In the long-headed 

fil^eolilh^e man of Europe, which continent geology has shown to hav" 
en connected with North America through the faroe Islands, IrelaiK 



i 




THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. 



339 



and Greenland down to post-glacial limes. The other sectir>n. which prob- 
ably greatly out-numbered the first, came apparently later (during the New 
Stone Age) (ram ea&Ietn Asia, by the way of the Behcing waters: and are 
now represented, allowing for great inter-mlxture, by the still prevalent 
round-headed element. 

This author holds that the evidence of the Paljeolithic Age 
in Atnerica is conclusive, and gives no apparent heed to the 
discussions which have been carried on during the past few 
years. He takes Major J. W. Powell and the members of the 
Ethnological Bureau as his authority on all the points which 
relate to American ethnology. He denies that there were any 
further arrivals from Kurope or from Asia, subsequent to the 
geological period, and argues the point from the absence of 
dogs, sheep, horses, oxen, poultry, and wheat; also from the 
absence of Egyptian, Phtenician, or Babylonian hieroglyphs. 

The discoveries, however, which have been made in Europe, 
in the north of Africa, in Algeria, in Egypt, in Babylocia, and 
in Eur- Asia prove that there was a wide-spread race at a very 
early date, which had many points of resemblance, and .vhich 
was in about the same cultural stage of advancement before 
the reindeer period appeared in Kurope. We judge from these 
discoveries that there was a Paktolithic man, which grew by 
degrees into the Neolithic stage, long before the time when the 
change of climate drove Ihe tropical animals from the regions 
of northern Europe into Africa, But the same PaliEolithic man 
continued in the Eastern Hemisphere, and gradually grew into 
the neolithic stage of culture. The fact that the palseolilhic age 
has been carried back into a very remote antiquity in Egypt, 
in Babylonia, in India, and in China shows that the intervening 
neolithic age must have prevailed in Europe and some parts 
of northern Asia long after the historic age had gone in 
southern Asia. It is probable that during this neolithic age 
there was a migration to America, 

It is very singular that as we go back to this neolithic age, 
which preceded the historic, and examine the races which pre- 
vailed at that time, we find so many resemblances in them to 
the American races. The resemblances consist in the shape of 
the skull and in the constitutional traits, rather than in their 
languages, and this confirms the position which we have long 
held, that language is the poorest of all the traits which can 
give us the proper data for the study of ethnology, to say noth- 
ing of arch;L-o!ogy. Arch;i;ology is the science of relics, and 
many of these are the relics of dead races, and so furnish about 
the only material from which we can learn about these prehis- 
toric periods. Ethnology is the science of the living races; 
language is one of the means by which we may at present 
classify these races. 

Now, Payne seems to depend upon the linguistic for his in- 
formation ; while Ripley and others depend upon the compara- 
tive anatomy, and especially upon the crania! index. The 
cranial index is usually grouped^ Alfred C. Haddon says, into 



940 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



three series: a skull is said to be dolichocephalic, when it* 
index does not exceed 75; to be mesaticephalic, between 75 
and 80, and to be brachycephatic, when over 83. The question 
is. however, whether it was the doHchocephajic or the brachy- 
coephalic race that was first. Ripley maintains that the long- 
heads preceded the short-heads, but Haddon says: 

Inhabitants of large areas of Asia are distiDctly brachycephalic. There 
are two main groups of people In India: ttielKll.coniparalivelv Eair, dolicho- 
cephalic Aryan invaders and the short, dark, also dolichocephalic, aboriginal 
population. The typical yellow'skinued bracbycephalics are scarcely repre* 
senled in India. 

Mr. A. H. Keene says: 

Since the world was peopled by Pleistocene man. it was peopled by » 
generalised proto-human form prior to all later racial differences. The 
existing groups, that is, the lour primary divisions— Ethiopic, MongoUc, 

Amerean, ana Caucasic— have each had there pleistocene ance ' 

whom each had sprung independently and divergently hy c 
adaptation to their several environments. If ihey still constitute mere 
varieties, and not distinct species, the reason is because all come of like 
pleistocene ancestry, while the divergences have been confined loi 
narrow limits, that is, not wide enough lo be regarded zoologically as speci- 
6c differences 

III. The question arises whether the early condition of 
man did not favor successive migrations. It will be granted that 
man is different from the lower animals, in that he was able to 
construct a boat and by this means could pass from continetit 
to continent, even where there was no land connection. Still, 
the supposition is that the peopling of the different continents 
was through a continuation of the same process which existed 
among the animals before he came on the stage of action- We 
need not go into the question as to the descent of man from 
the animals. All that we have to decide is whether man was 
created with all his faculties fully developed. On this poii 
we may quote the opinion of Oualrefages. He says; 






„ e conjectures upon the degree of ii 
lal develiipment which man exhibited at his birth and during his first 
generations. At any rate It is possible to believe that he did not enter utK>a 
the scene of the world with innate knowledge, and the instinctive induBtrieAi 
which belong to animals. Still l«ss did he appear in a fully civilized stat^; 
■■ mature in body and mind," as thinks the Comte Eusebe de Salles. AH' 
traditions point to a period when human knowledge was very small, when' 
man was ignorant of industries, to our eyes very elementary, and which w* 
see appear in succession. Upon this first point the Bible agrees with classi- 
cal mythology. The Hebrews have their Tubal Cain, and the Greeksthelr 
Triptolemug. Prehistoric studies confirm this progressive development in. 
western Europe upon every point. Tertiary industries precede quaternary., 
The whole history of races, seems to me to give, at least W- pari, a repre-' 
sentation of that of the species; and our tbouiihts go back almost irresiHl^ 
bly to the time when m:in found himself face to iace with creation, armed 
solely with the aptitudes which were destined to undergo such a marvellouft 
development. 

If we take this for granted, does it necessarily imply that 
man remained in a condition >;f savagery for any great lengtH 
of time; the evidence is that there was a migration from central 



THE PEOPLING uF AMERICA. J4r 

Asia in different directions, but that there was a progress made 
in the original seat and thai the 'ower races continued in the 
slate of savagery long after iht; beginning of history. Some 
hold that the physical barriers were so great that the civilized 
races could not follow the savage races, who had migrated so 
far away. This, however, is inconsistent, for the same aptitude 
for invention would give ability to overcome obstacles and 
reach distant points. There are evidences that this was the 
case, for there are myths and symbols, traditions, art products, 
customs, and architectural structures in .America, which so 
resemble those common in Asia, that the inference is that 
there was intercourse between the two continents since the open 
ing of history. 

The earliest date for history is about 6000 11. c. The earliest 
date for tradition in America is about 2000 u. <:. This would 
give 6,000 years difference between ihe traditionary history of 



the two continents, which would be a sufficient lapse of time 
for many migrations to take place. We must remember, how- 
ever, that there was a long period before society in the East 
became sufficiently developed to make any record in writing, 
or even erect any monuments. 

IV. The examination of the living races may assist us in 
solving this problem, or at least furnish hints sufficient for us to 
form some opinion. It is very remarkable that there are peo- 
ple in the north of Europe and of Asia whose appearance is so 
peculiar that they are by some regarded as the survivors of the 
old cave-dwellers of Europe, thus confirming the theory ad- 
vanced by Dr. Dawkins many years ago, that the Eskimos 
were the same people who erected the earliest monuments in 
the north of Europe, 

In speaking of the appearance of the cave-men of Europe 
Grant Allen maintains that they were distinctly hairy, resembl- 
ing the Ainus, who »re supposed to be the aborigines of Japan, 



242 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and refers to several sketches cut by themselves on horn. I 
in the caves, which show that they were covered with hair over 
the whole body. Prof. Dawkins maintains that the cave-men 
were physically developed to the same extent as the Eskimos, 
l^ut does not deny Grant Allen's position that ihcy were a hairy 
Kjrace. It is a very remarkable fact that the Skraellings which 
mrere discovered by the Norsemen paddling about in their skin 
■canoes, skimming the surface, like mermen, resembled the 
ancient Picts of Scotland, and the wild shaggy men described 
by Sir Walter Scott, were also not unlike the l.apps of Siberia, 
though they were, perhaps, less civilized. The Picts were as 
much at home on the sea as on the land, and in this respect 
resembled the Eskimos. The short, thick-set figure, with a 
heavy beard is perpetuated in the pictures which are so com- 
mon and are so familiar to all the children of Europe and 
North America, Santa Claus. the patron saint of the Germans. 
The hirsute qualities, which distinguished the Ainus, are shared 
by Europeans, rather than by the Asiatics, and have given rise, 
perhaps, to the idea of the hairy dwarfs, which are so frequently 
described in European folklore. 

Now, it is very remarkable that the Pict houses of Kngland 
arc supp'>sed to have been occupied by a race of dwarfs. In 
reference to these houses, we may say that there were three 
kinds; all of which had points of resemblance, and were dis- 
tinguished by the one salient feature, that there was an unob- 
served entrance to them. Etyniologically they may be de- 
scribed as burrows, barrows, and burghs. The drain-like circle 
house belong to the first class; the chambered mound belongs 
to the second class, and the burgh, which is built above ground, 
to the third. They represent different phases of one idea, dif- 
ferent stages of one type of architecture. The underground 
passages or galleries are known as Pict houses. Between them 
«od » chambered mound, such as Maes How in Orkney, the 
difference is great, and still greater is the difference between 
them and a subterranean brock, such as that of Mousa in 
ShetUnd. Yet they are so united by intermediate forms that 
I'tt is difficult to say exactly when the one passes into the other. 
KTItC question is whether they were caused by the gradual ad- 
Moce of one homogenous raci:, or by the blending of a higher 
.*ce- 

Now, the construction of these Pict houses has given rise to 
the theor>' that "they were built by dwarfs. The peculiarity of 
ti^Mi is that they are approached by a long passage-way, so 
SMiH that only a dwarf could pass through them. Let us take 
^Kchnaibefca barrow called Maes How. in Orkney. It was 
(^^^ic<| by a low, narrow passage, 53 feet in length. The first 
aeto<C«ats vwly i^o feet four inches high, and the same in 
" ■ , but 'ot thf b.ilance of the way was four feet four 
w<h^ The passage enters the middle of one of four 
K » ^«MbeT 1 5 feet square and 20 feet high in the centre 
^few^six (eet high, but they draw in toward t 



>ward to i^^^J 



THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA. 



243 



each course of stone projecting beyond the other, making a 
rough arch, until the roof has been completed, but leaving an 
opening for the smoke to escape and fur the entrance of light. 
The entrance to the passage was closed, and was only opened 
when the visitor knocked on the outside of the mound. This 
kind of house must have been occupied by a people, who re- 
sembled the Eskimos, who may have been the aborigines of 
Great Britain and the survivors of the Cave-Dwellers. 

We will call attention to a little book entitled "Man,"* 
prepared by W. E. Rotzell. M. D., which furnishes an excel- 
lent summary of the subject, and. being the latest produc- 
tion of its kind, may be suppo.sed to give the recent views 
of the anthropologist. 

This book begins with a description of the Animal King- 
dom and itsdivisions. The author takes the ]insitinTi that man 
must have originated in a region where the lii-li''--l "( llie 




lower animals existed, as it is supposed that man has de- 
scended from some of these forms. This leaves the birth- 
place of the human species at some point in the region of 
Southern Europe, Equatorial Africa, or Southern Asia. 
It also makes it probable that the majority of the races of 
men originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, and that the 
American race, even if we grant that there was only one 
such race, was a late development, much later than some 
have supposed. We recognize in the Old World several dif- 
ferent races of man, as the shape of the skull, facial angle, 
character of the hair, are different; while in this continent 
there are no such differences. 

The African, or black race of Africa, is first considered. 
It is divided into three classes: the Negrillos, the Negroes, 
and the Negroids. The Negrillos are also divided into three 

■■•Msn: Anlntra<lucIioploAi)tropaLagy."byW.E,Rat»lI,M.D. PbiUdelphi*^ Edward 



3*4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

classes; the Pig:mys, Hottentotts, and Bushmen. The Bush- 
men represent a people who are degenerating;. The Nejjroids 
are also divided into several classes: the Soudanese, the 
Bantus, of which the Zulus are a branch, and the Kaffirs. 

The yellow, or Monfjolian, race is next described. They 
had their original home in Asia, but they migrated into 
Europe Portions of the race settled in Japan, Malayanesia, 
Australasia, and Polynesia, and probably reached the con- 
tinent of America by way of Behring Strait. The char- 
acteristics of the yellow, or Mongolian, race are the color 
of the skin, which is of a yellowish tint. The hair is 
usually black and coarse, and the beard is scanty: cheek 
bones are prominent: eyes oblique; the features of the face 
may be described as broad. These characteristics are pre- 
sented in the main by the red race, which tends to make the 
argument in favor of the Mongolian origin of the American 
aborigines very strong. Dr. Brinton divides the yellow race 
into two classes: the Sinitic, which includes the people of 
China and Farther India, and the Sibiric, which embraces 
the people situated north of the Altai Mountains and the 
Caspian and Black Seas. The Thibetans constitute one 
group of the Sinitic branch of the yellow race. The Indo- 
Chinese and the natives of Burma. Siam, Annam and Cochin 
China constitute another group of the same branch. The 
Sibiric branch includes the inhabitants of Siberia, including 
the Tungus, the Kalmucks, and the Tartars, who inhabit 
the Russian Steppes. The Turks are also the original mem- 
bers of the yellow race: they include the Osmanlis. the 
Yakuts: the Turcomans, and the Kirghiz. The Finns, who 
extend from the Baltic Sea to the Obi, are of Mongolian 
origin; they are divided into different branches: tbeOstiaks 
and the Voguls situated on the eastern slope of the north- 
ern Ural. The Lapps have the characteristic Mongol face, 
though there is an uncertainty about their origin. 

Now, it is interesting to take this description of the 
races and notice its bearing on the question of the iieopling 
ol America. We may say that on the point of the descent 
of all the American races from the Mongolians, there is a 
very considerable difference of opinion. The evidence, 
however, is that whatever the ethnical descent was, the 
American races must have reached this continent by migra- 
tion, and the probability is that this migration was not con- 
fined to the geological period, but continued even after the 
beginning of history, and perhaps followed a number of 
routes, some by sea and some by land. 

The routes are uncertain and yet there are footprints 
which we may recognize, and to these we may call attention 
in the future. 




ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART IN THE MUSEUMS OF 

AMERICA. 

BY W. C. VVINSLOVV, D. D., LL. D. 

[It is the design of the Editor to publish a series of articles on the 
archieological relics contained in the various museums of America, with a 
short account of the character, the location from which they came, and the 
date and age to which they belong. The following article by Dr. Winslow 
is used as a leader. The cuts and some of the material have appeared io 
Biblia for June, they are reproduced here with others, as they represent the 
best specimens which have been secured. — En.l 

In the hall of the Library of the University at Philadelphia 
stands a tall and graceful shaft in red syenite stone of the 
Xllth Dynasty period. It is from Ahnas, the Heracleopolis of 
the Greeks, the Hanes of the Bible, and the Ha-Khenensu, or 
seat of government, of the IXth and Xth Dynasties. In the 
University Museum is the colossal statue of Rameses 11., with 
finely cut hieroglyphs, partly in color. Among our *' objects'* 
in Chicago is the oldest known group of statuary in the world,* 
of the remote Vth Dynasty, and as such is of priceless value 
in the history of art. And why? 

In his ** History of Greek Art " Professor Tarbell says that 
" Egyptian sculpture in the round never created a genuine 
integral group, in which two or more figures are so combined 
that no one is intelligible without the rest; that achievement 
was reserved for the Greeks." (p. 22). The Curator of Classi- 
cal Antiquities in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts remarks of 
the Monument of Kitylos and Dermys at the National Museum, 
Athens, '*that the work is a primitive attempt to compose a 
group, by putting together two figures of the early athlete 
type. They stand chest to chest and leg to leg, the outside 
arm of each hanging rigidly at his side. The difficulty of the 
inside arms the sculptor has tried to overcome by placing that 
of each around the shoulder of his companion, making it visi- 
ble on the outside.*' The word primitive I have italicized. 

But one group presented to the Haskell Museum, Chicago, 
antedates this " primitive attempt** by about 3,000 years. It 
has much freedom of poise and is not without grace; "the 
outside arm ** of the wife, not ** hanging rigidly ** at her side, 
reaches across her breast to clasp gently her husband's arm; 
and " the difficulty of the inside arms " is no difficulty at all to 
the husband, for his left arm is in full view, with his wife rest- 
ing against its shoulder. The date of Professor Tarbell's book 
and of the descriptive catalogue of the Curator is 1896; our 
volume on the site Dcshashch, in the Fayum, in which this 
group is among the discoveries, dates 1898. As a poetical fact, 

* See lUuitradon page 946. 



346 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



our discovery was being made while the foregoing critics were 
commenting as quoted. The translation of the un-rhythmical 
name of Nenkheftek is soothing and ethicai, ''No enemy of 
thine"; and Professor Griffith poetically and grammatically 
supplies "existeth." 

The colossal statue of Rameses II.. from "the fields of I 
Zoan," presides in the Egyptian Hatl of the Boston Museum of ! 




Nenkheftek and His Wife. 
(Pteicnicd by Ihc I^Eyplian Eiplutilii 

Fine Arts, but the graceful shaft from Ahnas dominates it, and 1 

rivets at once the eye of the visitor who seeks for art pnd , 

beauty. Here Rameses does not reign— or at least his rule is ] 

not oppressive. The simple hieroglyphs upon the statue afford f 

excellent practice for beginners in a singular language, but of j 

plural sounds, pictures, and variants. Indeed, all the tens of ' 
thousands of "'objects" of every kind now in our museums 



ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART IN THE MUSEUMS. 



2Ay 



from the Egyptian Exploration Fund, afford a richly varied 
opportunity for study, in history, sculpture, art, ceramics, epi- 
graphy, and ethnology. They are a splendid objective lesson. 
There is inspiration in " originals." An incident is appropriate. 
A prominent member of Congress was shown Harvard. Mt- 
Auburn. and St. Gaudens lions on guard in the Public Library. 
and how much more. He walked the Hellenic halis of the 
Museum and entered the Egyptian halls, "Why, these aie 
originals! This is an inspiration. This is worth more to me 




MetTOpoliun Mi 



lid this practi- 



than all else that I have seen in your city.' 
cal law-maker to a friend of mine. 

Observe the illustration of the sarcophagus of Tabekenk- 
honsul. m this article, now exhibited in the Metropolitan 
Museum of New York. On the lower shelf is this outer coffin 
of "a lady of quality." In the upper shelf arc various inter- 
esting objects, but one of which I notice. It is the foot-board 
of the lady's inner coffin (see illustration), made of wood, cov- 



248 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



ercd with stucco and painted. The scene represents the de- 
ceased in a white garment, holding a red heart in her hand, 
being led by Thoth to Osiris and Isis. The figure of Nut, who 
ptrsonifies the heavens, is about the vignette, and the winged 
sun-disk is just above the group. The inscription explains the 
scene: 

Royal offering of Seb (the father of Osiris) god of gods, may he bestow 
otferiDjfs of bread^ wine, cattle, geese, iiicen»e, apparel, all things good and 
fitie, all lyings sweet and delightful to the A J of the Osiris, the lady ol the 
house, the noble Tabekenkhonsul, the justifird one. Her mother was the 
lady of the house, the noble Ta-ma. revered, Osiris. 

The second and third coffins (see illustration) are described 
in detail by Professor Gillett in his " Hand-book of Antiquities 




Meiropiili 



in the Egyptian Department," but we will quote only his ac- 
count ol the outer coffin or sarcophagus: 

"The coffin is rectangular, with a square post at each corner. 
It has a vaulted top, nearly semi circular. A line of text runs 
on the two sides of the coffin near the top, beginning at the 
foot end fright side): 

O Atum, eveilastitie lord, of An (Heliopolis), Ra-Harmachis. the great 
god, rulet over gods, may they grant offerings of bread, wine, beeves, geese, 
divine incense, garments, all good things, pure things, all sweet and pleas- 
ant things, divine life to the A'^ oE the Osiris, the lady of the house, the 
honorable, Tj- lend of line) -htkenkhonYut. daughter of the priest of Menlh, 



ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART IN THE MUSEUMS. 



lord of Thebes, deceased, son of • • * " 
Thebes, Mtr-Amon, [Uflified; her mother wa 
honorable, Ta-ma, justitied, honored (by) Osiri 



priest of Menth, lord of 
Ihe lady of the house, the 
, lord 01 Abydos, 



" On each side of the coffin are five vignettes, each showing 
a mummy (with white legs, yellow body, green face. and black 
hair) on a red and yellow ground. At the head-end, Osiris, 
erect, and dressed in white, stands before a table of offerings 
on which is a full-blown lotus. At the foot is a mummy, like 
those on the sides, Hanked by symbolic eyes and a checker- 
board ornamentation, 

"The cover has a band 
of text down the center with 
a repctililion of name and 
pedigree of deceased. At 
the head-end Is a sun-disk 
flanked by uracj and Be- 
hutet, the name elsewhere 
on cover given to the god 
Sopt. At the foot is the 
"good" sign, flanked by 
seated, lion-headed deities 
and shoi amulets (signify- 
ing protection). At the four 
corners of the covers are 
figures of Sopt (Horusas a 
crouching hawk") seated on 
"lord" sign, and having 
symbolic eye behind and 
above each. On each side 
are four other vignettes. 
Those on right side (begin- 
ning at head- end) are as fol- 
lows: (i) The deceased 
(dressed in white) pays 
adoration to a hawk-headed 
deity with disk (Osiris) be- 
hind whom stands Isis. The 
blanks above, for names of 
deceased and deities, never 
were fiUfd in. (2) A hu- 
man figure stands in centre with arms extended to Chnum 
(ram-headed) and Anubis (jackal-headed), who stand on either 
side. Nut, representing the heavens, over-shadows and sur- 
rounds the vignette on three sides; her feet and finger-tips 
resting upon the ground. (3) A human figure in red, faces 
Anubis and a uraeus-headed deity. Behind is a hawk-headed 
god (Horus'r). (4) The vignette nearest the foot-end of the 
cover, contains the judgment scene. Thoth ( ibis-headed) leads 
the deceased into the presence of Osiris, who is here repre- 
sented as a hawk-headed deity (with disk on head) holding a 
£/i7j-sceptre. The four vignettes on the left side are as follows; 




RAMESBS II. XIXTH DVSASTV, 
(PHARAOH OF THE OPPPKSSlori.) 

Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 

(Gift si thf Egypi EiplDMtioa Fund.) 



J 



aSO THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

(I) Nearest head-end, the deceased, in white, her name is 
written above and in front of her, stands btfore " Osiris, lord 
of heaven." Behind deceased is "Chnum" with ram's head 
and disk. (2) The Bark of Ra; the deceased adores hawk- 
beaded Osiris, who sits on a throne under a canopy. A hawk- 
headed deity, with double crown of Egypt, acts as steersman, 
and the youthful Horus, seated, acts as lookout at the prow. 

!3) The deceased, as a mummy, stands before Hapi (dog- 
headed and Anubis or Tuaniutef (jackal-headed), while the 
Utter anoints the mouth of the deceased. (4) The deceased 
(in white) adores the four genii of the dead, who stand in the 
following order; Amset (human-headed), Hapi (dog-headed), 
Qebbsennuf (hawk-headed) and Tuamutef (jackal-headed)."* 
The foregoing detailed description will illustrate the value 
of technical studies based upon the "originals" in a museum. 
Even the uninitiated in hieroglyphic art can use the hand-books 
bo advantage. Plaster casts can lid us. but they cannot teach 
OS. wty/crc us, as can the genuine "objects" themselves. Be- 
sides, many of the antiquities, like these coffin cases, cannot 
be copied in cold plaster Should not all who contribute to 
OMT archaeological societies consider how important it is to 
aecoK originals for our museums? Here "Egypt" and the 
Inpt Exploration Fund eloquently answer the question, in 
glHn Eaglish text. How to obtain Antiquities. Our mu- 
mms eloquently attest the answer, and will continue to wit- 
■osit. if the successful explorations by us in Egypt are sup- 
y li 1I by our public. 



ftNCIENT AND EGYPTIAN FELICS IN CHICAGO. 

h addittoo to the articles from Egypt, which Dr. Winslow 
H dcscnbed. there should be nnentioned others, which are 
^ ^ the museums of Chicago. Among these, we should 
^^Hx die collection in Haskell Hall, which has already 
^K^Bcnlbed in this journal; further description is reserved 
K^Hd^tiae. Next to this in importance and variety is the 
^^^^K ftcb«ted in Egyptian Hall in the Field Columbian 
^^^■L^ sbicb we give a picture in the Frontispiece. 

*^^E;«»catlections are near one another. The one in 
^^^^^Aisthe University of Chicago grounds, the other 
^^K^r^ACrfiiBbiui Museum in Jackson Park; both of them 

^ , r-Bigi^t ia eases and classified by Dr. Breasted, who 

:,>^ist in the United States. 

: MRsU collection in the Art Institute, which 

.ike front, about seven miles north from 

_ * collection is noted for the fact that there 

_>"-.in siMr.ibs, the most of which can be 

— — ~~ ' . s.iid to be the largest collection of 

=^_ _^ : -- ^L ; 1.V and, perhaps, in the world. They 



ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART IN THE MUSEUMS. 151 

are placed here as works of art, rather than antiquities, and 
can be studied in that light. They were the gift of Mr. C. L, 
HutchinsoD. In the same case is a large collection of beads, 
the most of them strung as necklaces; many of them very 
beautiful in pattern and color, and some of them made of very 
costly material. These beads are very interesting, for they 
show the artistic taste of the Egyptians and bring to light the 
objects with which Egyptian ladies adorned themselves many 
thousands of years ago. 

We may say of all of these collections, that they are for 
the most part gifts to the museums, either from the citizens of 
Chicago, or from the Egypt Exploration Fund, to which the 
citizens have contributed, or from Dr. Flinders W. Petrie, of 
London, who has generously bestowed those gifts in acknowl- 
edgement of the funds wTiich have been furnished him from 
Chicago to aid him in his explorations. The following are the 
names of the gentlemen who have contributed; Edward W. 
Ayer, William. G. Hibbard. William F. Blair, William J. Gun- 
ning. Daniel W. Burrows, Mr. Higgenbottom, C. L. Hutchin- 
son, Dr. Keeley, and others. 

The objects in the Field Columbian Museum are arranged, 
according to their material rather than according to their age; 
the object for which they were composed being the most im- 
portant feature, although the gifts of individuals have been 
kept together as far as possible. The most conspicuous object 
in this collection, at least the one that occupies the largest 
space, is, the ancient Egyptian boat, the gift of Cyrus A. 
McCormick; and next to this, are the mummies — twenty in 
number^ — which occupy cases arranged along one side of the 
room; also a wall-case of small mummies. There is, also, a 
large case full of grave tablets, varying in size from one to 
three feet in height, dating from 2000 b. C. on. Casts of hiero- 
glyphics and picture-tablets, dating from 3000 to 2500 b. c- are 
arranged against the wall; also a relief, from an ancient mas- 
taba, or tomb, and the side of a door-way from Memphis en- 
gage attention, as they illustrate the architecture, as well as 
the art of Egypt. An interesting collection of bronze vessels 
and tripods, the gift of Mr. William G. Hubbard, is worthy of 
attention, as the tripods are decorated with elephants" heads 
and trunks, which are skillfully wrought. A collection, also, 
of largir alabaster vases from Thebes, also smaller vases of 
remarkable beauty and finish. Ushabti figures from ancient 
tombs, two seipenls on glazed earthenware—blue and green, 
one of them coiled on a tablet and another, a double serpent 
with head raised in relief, above what might be called a weight. 

Another case, full of bronze objects, contains a bronze sis- 
trum of large size and of great interest, because it shows the 
kind of musical instruments that were used; it is supposed to 
have been used in the Temple of Ammon at Thebes. Among 
other bron/es, is a large statue of Osiris. There are various 
sacred symbols in the collection: the images of Osiris and of 



SS2 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



the god Bess being the most numerous. There are, also, 
winged beetles and scarabaei without wings; also sacred 
hawks, sacred cats, sacred taus, symbol of life, made of pot- 
tery, bronze, gold, and silver; some of them finished in the 
round and very artistic. — Editor. 



I 



GREAT IRELAND AND THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA. 

ISY JUUL DIESERUD. 

In the closing year of the 19th century, when the Norweg- 
ians are preparing to celebrate th,e 900th anniversary of the 
discovery of America, it wou.ld be interesting to have it settled 
once for all, if within historic time Leif and his crew really were 
the first Europeans to set foot on American soil. I am not pre- 
pared to take up the question in its entire length, but would like 
to say a few words of the loose statements frequently met with, 
that the Norsemen most likely were preceded by the Irish. 

If I am not mistaken, this claim almost entirely rests upon 
a couple of narratives incorporated in the Icelandic Sagas and 
upon a paragraph in the geographical work of the Irish geo- 
grapher Dicuil, entitled: " De Mensura Orbis Terrarum," writ- 
ten in the year 825. Mention is here made of the Thule of 
Plinius lying six days' sail to the northwest of Great Britain, 
and it is stated that some thirty years ago, monks, who had 
stayed at that island, from February i to August i, told him 
(Dicuil) that a little before and after the summer solstice the 
sun. Eo to say, merely hid behind a hill, so that it did not get 
dark at all. 

As a matter of fact this locality must have been Iceland, 
where according to excellent authority the Norwegians, on 
their arrival, found "books, bells, and crucifixes." etc., from 
which they judged that it had been previously inhabited by the 
Irish. The Norwegians called the Irish monks "paper," and 
the still existing local names Papey and Papafjord are ample 
evidence of the truth of this early tradition. 

It is, however, certain that the Irish settlement in Iceland 
came to an end some time before the Norwegian discovery of 
the island in 860. And when in the following century the 
sea-roving Icelanders made frequent visits to Ireland, the 
natives seem to have retained only a very vague idea of the 
Thule of their grandfathers. They, according to the ingenious 
suggestion of Professor Storm, seem to have failed to sec that 
it was identical with Iceland, and they gradually placed it 
farther and farther south; so that it finally became a settled 
belief, both in Ireland and Iceland, that there was in the ocean 
six days' sail west of Ireland an island, which once had been 



I 



I 
I 



GREAT IRELAND AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 153 

to some extent settled by the Irish. The Icelanders accord- 
ingly called it "Ireland hit mikla" (Great Ireland, comp. 
Magna Graecia.) 

When, therefore, later Icelandic vessels (the Irish were no 
longer a sea-faring people | got lost with their crew, it was easy 
to nurse the belief that they had been driven to this mysterious 
island in the Atlantic Ocean, and this is what really happened 
in the case of Are Marsson and Bjorn Asbrandsson, as told in 
Landnamabok and Eytbyggjasaga. 

The first-mentioned story reads in part as follows: "' He 
(Are) was driven by storm to the White Men's country, which 
some persons call Great Ireland. It is situated in the ocean, 
not far from Vinland the Good. It is said to be six days' 
(^thrcc days and nightsj sail west of Ireland. He was not 
permitted to leave, but got baptized there." This, the saga 
says was told to an Icelander by the Irish in Limerick, Aie 
Marsson is known to have lived in Iceland as late as gSo. 

In Eyrbyggjasaga it is told how Bjorn Asbrandsson ca 997 
in sailing to Norway was driven out of his course. He had not 
been heard of for some thirty \'ears, when another Icelander 
met with the same fate and came to a great country, where 
they found some people, that spokea language, which they did 
not understand, but thought was Irish. The Icelanders were 
made prisoners; but soon a great many men came riding, 
headed by a tall, old man carrying a flag. He spoke to them 
in their own language, and proved to be the long missing Bjorn 
Asbrandsson. He prevailed upon his comrades to release their 
prisoners. The name of the country is not given, but we evi- 
dently have to do with the same mythical Great Ireland. 

These are the slender threads out of which the legend of 
the Irish discovery of America has been fabricated. |;Uncritical 
writers, like Professor R, I!. Anderson, Rafn and others, have 
not hesitated to place this white men's country in Florida, or 
some other part of eastern United States. Professor Gustav 
Storm, to whose excellent treatise " Studies on the Vinland 
Voyages" the reader may be referred for a fuller treatment of 
the subject, does not, however, hesitate to designate the ac- 
counts quoted as unreliable sailor-yarns, and I am confident that 
history will finally adopt this verdict. 

The Iclandic sagas, of which none was reduced to writing 
before the beginning of the I3th century, cannot but suffer by 
being uncritically treated as a gospel that contains nothing but 
truth. Some of them have proved to be good reliable history, 
others were mere fiction. The story of Great Ireland evi- 
dently belongs to the later category. 




i 



THE NORTHERN INDIAN NATIONS, 

BY JOSEPH EDKIN5. 

The connection whicli may be shown to exist between the 
northern languages of Asia and America, very decidedly 
favors the theory that America was peopled from Asia. The 
Kuro Slwo current " coming; up from the Philippine Islands 
and passing Japan on the east, would convey derelict boats 
to the point where it strikes the Pacific coast in British 
Columbia. The marks of resemblance in language point to 
early Mongolian immigration into North America. 

Assinme, a stone, in Cree, is chilagon in Mongol. The root 
is sin in Cree, and til in Mongol, The Mongol word has, also, 
the root lag. Tim deep in Cree, is the Chinese shim deep 
(root Hm), and the Manchu shumo. The root of tomahawk 
in Cree is torn, as in utomntahum, he beats it. But tang in 
Chinese is beat, not tam. In the Cree expression, nin kck 
ancmah, I know him, the order of the words agrees with that 
of the corresponding Chinese zvo kok i, I perceive him; of 
this the roots are n^o ox gwa, kak and i. First and second 
personal pronouns are ultimately developed from demonsta- 
tivea. Boots with guttural initials are ultimately developed 
from labials through the tooth aeries. By giving attention 
to the evolution of sounds from lip to throat and back again, 
it is to be hoped that as linguistic study proceeds all roots 
will be accounted for in a reasonable manner. 

Fortunately the order of words in Cree is subject to cer- 
tain laws which assist us in comparing that language with 
Asiatic languages. I kill him. is tie nippaltow. The root kill 
isnippah. He kills me, Ksniuippakik. Nat, is fetch; wappam, 
is see. I fetch him, is ni nutow. He fetch me, ni natik. I see 
him, is )ii wappamoiv. He sees me, is ni wappamik. 

In the Mongol language the order is: he beats me, I him 
beat. In Chinese the order is: I kill him, he kills me. 
Hence, it may be concluded that the Cree had first the order, 
I kill him. At that time the Indian languages of North 
America were contem]iorary with Chinese speech. A change 
in order came while, as it may be supposed, the ancestors of 
the Crees were in Asia. They adopted the reverse order, as 
the Tartar nations did, but not in the same way.f 

The Chijipeway word hiini is the Chinese nin. man, and is 
also the Hebrew enoski (forenot). and the Greek ai^p. This 
may be regarded as certain, because no words are sporadic 
in origin. All roots are primeval. Thus the Chippeway 



I 
I 



THE NORTHERN INDIAN NATI0N5- 



*5S 



ujickog. spirit, is the Mongol ckUgur, spirit, ghost. The Chip- 
peway roots are tit and tog. but this race added a third root, 
gur. The Chinese have sui for lot. meaning a spirit which 
has taken possession of a person. The Chippeway and Cree 
word for God, munida. is, I suppose, composed of two roots, 
the Latin manes and muni; the Sanscrit honorific title for 
sages. The other root, ned, is our Dcus; the Mongol, ijin, 
ejin. ijid* Lord; the Hebrew, adimai, and the Chinese ti. On 
the principle that no roots in any language are of sporadic 
growth, but that al! are truly primjeval, this identification 
cannot fairly be called in question. 

I do not see how it can be denied that dissyllabic and 
trissyllabic roots in Cree and Chippeway speech are formed 
by the apposition of two or three monosyllabic roots. The 
Cree nin gekanemiih, I know him, is formed niii I ah hini. For 
knowing, we have three roots— ^fi, kan and nem.. Kan is our 
root kcH in the English language. Tcm is the Chinese tung, 
(for torn) understand. Unless we make this analysis ety- 
mology becomes hopeless. By reducing the root to its 
primary monosyllables we are able at once to point out its 
derivations. 

It is necessary, also, to identify some of the Cree and 
Chippeway roots with those of the Semitic languages. 
What can we do with ked, thou, in Chippeway, but compare 
it with the Hebrew kem. ka, ken, ye, thou, thee, you? One is 
in Cree peyak, while in Chippeway it is pazkig. The roots are 
/a/ and dig. Pal is the Bask bal, Turkish bir. Zhig or dig 
is the Mongol nig. one; the Kuzi (in Central India) nekor; 
the Tibetan chig; the Sokpa nega. 

All roots are indestructible because of their intrinsic 
si^ificance and the great extent of the continent of Asia. 
The evolution of labial to guttural, and a to i and u allows 
of fifteen or twenty forms. These are all to be found in 
some language. In the Chippeway />a.;Ai^, one, we find two 
roots meaning one in apposition. The significance of roots 
prevents their total disappearance. Thus the Chinese cliit 
or tit, one, is the Greek m, Iv, or it, tin. This is no other 
than mius and one. both of which have really lost the initial 
t, but so long ago, that it is quite wanting in ancient docu- 
ments—Gothic or Italian. 

To sit is appa. he sits; u is he. The initial in the Cree is 
lost. It is recoverable from the Hebrew yashab, for yatab, 
sit. The Taksya dialect in Nepaul has tupa, sit. The Abor 
Miri in Eastern Bengal has dupu. sit. 

The Cree word for straight is Quimkissu. In this word 
the roots are kil and sak. The Chinese is dik; the Turkish. 
doghru. The Turkish then has two roots in apposition, 
deg 2i.TiA. gar. The Japanese say ^na suga. straight, and this 
word contains the roots ?nat and sug or tug. 



A 



as« 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



I have made use, in these comparisons, of Howse's Gram- 
mar of the Cree language, with which is combined an 
analysis of the Chippeway dialect. Both are prominent 
examples of Algonquin speech. They belong to Canada, 
and part of the United States, from Hudson's Bay to 
Pennsylvania, through twenty degrees of latitude. From 
the Atlantic to the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, 
the Algonquin dialects extend through sixty degrees of 
longitude. I have also nnade use of Sir William Hunter's 
■'Comparative Dictionary of the Languages of India and 
High Asia." 

My own theory is simply this: the present diversity of 
roots sprang out of original unity. The number of roots is 
limited by changes, which take place in the mouth in the 
transition from lips to throat and back again. The vowels 
are limited by the width and narrowness of the mouth aper- 
ture The length of time during which their evolution has 
proceeded is not known, but probably it is not more than 
20,000 years. 

It is easier to compare the Algonquin languages with 
Mongol, Mancheu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Japanese, than it 
is to compare Mexican and Peruvian languages with the 
speech of Asia, because in all probability the Algonquin 
race left Asia much more recently than the Mexicans. The 
Mexicans and Peruvians, with their advanced knowledge, 
would possibly reach America by the South Pacific- At 
least their traditions and remarkably peculiar civilization 
would arrive in that way. As to the Algonquin tribes, the 
problems they present receive a truly wonderful light from 
Asiatic speech. The Algonquin languages, with the Dacota, 
form a separate group, like the Tartar and Japanese group, 
the Chinese group, the Tibetan group, the Indo-European 
group, and the Semitic group. 

The Cree and some interior dialects possess the sounds 
th and dli like English and Arabic. There is no language in 
Asia, except iuthe Southwest, which possesses these sounds, 
so far as I know. It is foreign to the genius of Tartar, 
Tibetan. Japanese, and Chinese speech. This habit of tooth- 
letter modihcation probably grew up in Western Asia, at 
least five thousand years ago. The Goths received it from 
the Arabs. It is likely, therefore, if the Crees learned it by 
imitation, that they were at that time on the borders of the 
Semitic area in Western Asia. It is surprising in how few 
languages this aspiration occurs, as compared with the fre- 
quency of the use of / the corresponding labial aspiration. 

In the Cree sentence sapun igun uchi, with a needle, the 
roots are sap (needle), dig (one), se (from). Needle is the 
Chines chen (from), tim (needle). Igun is the Mongol nig 
(one). Uchi is the Mongol eche (from), the English' se in 
hence, and the Latin se in separate, to separate. It was 
originally a pronoun of the tliird person. In the Cree Ian- 



I 

I 
I 




THE NORTHERN INDIAN NATIONS. 257 

g'uag^e sapun i^un uchi may be varied to'uchi sapun ig'un. 
In Dacota, only the tirst order is possible. In the Tartar 
lan^^uag-es the law is as in Dacota. It may, therefore, be 
concluded that the Dacota is g^rammatically nearer to the 
Tartar lan»ruages than is the Cree. So, also, the order is in 
Finnish variable. It is agreed generally among philologists 
that Finnish belongs to the Ural Altaic family. The word 
Altaic means Turkish, Mongol, and Manchu. The word 
Ural means Finnish and Hungarian. It follows at once that 
Dacota and Cree, but especially Dacota, should be carefully 
compared with Mongol. 

The vocative is expressed in Cree b}^ ak. ik, ok. This 
we learn from Howse. page 1^4. Our vocative is in, and 
this was also in use by Greeks and Italians 3,000 years ago. 
The Hebrew^ is be in ben (within). We have probably lost 
the initial /;, preserved in penitus, penes, and in ben in the 
expression "a butt and a ben,'' made use of when the 
Scotch people wish to describe a small house, with only a 
living room and a bedroom. The Mongol vocative is dotora. 
The /they always aspirate. The Chinese vocative suffix is li. 
The vocative prettix in Chinese is li or tsai. The root of li 
and tsai is dat, the s^me with the Mongol dot. The English 
in, if it has not lost the initial h, has. in my opinion, lost d. 
The Japanese for within, say uchi and naka. This last is 
the Cree word. Howse, a half century ago, did not venture 
to call the Cree vocative tk, or g, a word; he speaks of it 
as an affixed sign. By comparison with the Japanese naka 
we may learn its history. Nakaba is middle: nakadachi is 
a middleman: nakagai is a broker: nakarai is a marriage. 
This root being originally a demonstrative, is also exten- 
sively used as a negative, as a natural result of its pro- 
nominal origin. Nakari means *'is not"; nakare is *'do 
not." These meanings may all be derived from one root, 
nak.» But naki, to weep, in Japanese should be explained 
as belonging to a different root; it is lacrima and tear. 

It is not to be expected that languages spoken to the 
south of the Dacota and Algonquin area possess any such 
close analogies with Asiatic speech, as those which have 
here been pointed out. Their antiquity must be enormous, 
if they also, like the Algonquins, reached America by way 
of British Columbia or Behring Straits, 

Shangaiy April ^o, igoo. 



NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 

BY REV. J. N. FRADENBURGH. 

To recover a language that had been lost, written in an un- 
known and difficult syllabary, is a task to challenge the genius 
and patience of the best scholarship: yet this, to a large extent, 
has been accomplished. Egyptian hieroglyphs and Assyrian 
cuneiform characters have found their interpreters. Extensive 
vocabularies are already known, and additions are being made 
constantly. The main points in their grammars have been 
satisfactorily made out.- Notwithstanding the enthusiasm dis- 
played in these studies, the mass of unworked material is 
almost appalling. 

We recall the interest with which we received Norris* con- 
tributions toward a dictionary of the Assyrian language as they 
appeared in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. The 
small dictionary of Delitzsch was a later contribution, and is 
of great value to the student; and we have tried to exercise 
patience as the parts of his large dictionary have appeared, 
after too long intervals. We now look expectantly to the early 
completion of the "Concise Dictionary of the Assyrian Lan- 
guage" by Dr. W^ Muss-Arnolt, the ninth part of which, 
recently issued, reaches the middFe of the alphabet. The defi- 
nitions are given in both German and English. 



The German Expedition under Dr. Koldewey continues its 
work at the mound El-Kasr. Babylon was a city of temples 
of which Nebuchadnezzar was the great restorer and builder. 
In the building inscriptions, the goddess Nin-Makh, "the great 
lady," is frequently mentioned. Her temple and statue in terra- 
cotta have been discovered. Application has been made for a 
firman to explore Warka, the biblical Erech, whose temple was 
looted by the Elamite conquerors about B.C. 2280. It is to be 
hoped that ample provision will be made for the continuance of 
the work of exploration in the mighty ruins of Babylon and 
other cities by our allies in the recovery of lost empires. 



The Exploring Expedition under Prof. H. V. Hilprecht, sent 
out by the University of Pennsylvania, continues its successful 
work. Its latest achievement is the discovery of the library of 
the ancient city of Nippur. The site of this library is an ex- 
tensive group of hills southwest of the temple of Bel. Many 
tablets were found still lying on the shelves of clay, where 
venerable hands had placed them more than four thousand 
years ago. The library has yielded more than 25,000 tablets, and 



NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 259 

nearly i8,000 belong to the present year. The subjects 
treated in these clay books are varied and numerous. Especi- 
ally valuable fcr the full recovery of the most ancient form of 
the Sumerian language are the lists of words and cuneiform 
signs. We look forward with lively interest to the publication 
of the full results. 



The work of exploration at Tello has been conducted by 
M. de Sarzec in a most thorough manner. A series of magnifi- 
cent volumes present the results to the world of scholars. The 
work continues this year, with promise of important discoveries. 
One district of Tello was Gir-su, or Su-gir, Sun-gir, in which we 
may recognize " the land of Shinar," and whose dialectical form 
may be Sumer^ concerning which there has been so much dis- 
cussion. 



America has taken an honorable part in recent explorations 
in Eastern lands. The expedition conducted by Professor 
Hilprecht is to-day easily foremost in the field of Babylonian 
exploration. It is with peculiar pleasure that we announce the 
organization of another expedition "for the purpose of exca- 
vating the sites of Ur of the Chaldees and other ancient Baby- 
lonian cities." The president is W. R. Harper, LL. D., of 
Chicago University; the secretary and acting-treasurer, \V. H. 
Hazard, Ph. D., New York, and the director, Edgar James 
Banks, Ph. D., Cambridge. There is a strong list of vice- 
presidents, and an advisory board. Among the latter we note 
the names of William Hayes Ward, D. D.; John P. Peters. Ph. 
D., D. D., and Prof. Paul Haupt, Ph. D. In the field, besides 
the director, who will be the Assyriologist of the party, there 
will be one general assistant, one engineer, and one naturalist. 
The naturalist will work up the flora and fauna of Babylonia, 
which has never been done by an American. This feature 
promises to be of especial value. The results of the expedi- 
tion are to be given to the Smithsonian Institution at Washing- 
ton by special arrangements. For two years §50,000 will be 
required. It is proposed to publish illustrated quarterly reports, 
describing the excavations, containing translations of important 
inscriptions, and articles on the flora and fauna. These reports 
will be issued to subscribers of S5.00 or more to the fund. 

The field selected is one of the most promising. Ur of the 
Chaldees, the birth-place of Abraham and Sarah, was a great 
city, and at one time the political and religious centre of the 
greatest empire of the Orient. Its history dates back to a 
period perhaps as early as four thousand years before the birth 
of Abraham. Doubtless the remains of this early period are 
still preserved beneath the soil. 

In 1854, J. ¥.. Taylor, the British Consul, dug among its 
ruins, identified the place, and published valuable results in the 
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. His excavations were 



^6o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

.slij(ht, but remarkable. He made out the construction of the 
t<'mplc of the moon-^od; recovered an inscription of King 
Nahonidus of Babyh)n, who mentions Helshazzar, celebrated in 
Daniel by his carousal in the palace; uncovered the walls of a 
house, and brouf^ht to liji^ht two jars filled with inscribed tablets. 
There was also a multitude of miscellaneous objects of great 
value to a knowledge of the times. These only serve to indi- 
cate the richness of the treasures that must still lie beneath the 
soil. "The walls of the buildings may be covered with bas- 
reliefs and inscriptions, illustrating and recording the history of 
Abraham's people; their acts in peace and in war. The ruins 
must certainly conceal images of the gods, furniture, dishes, 
ornaments of costly metal and stone, and the graves of royalty. 
Upon the inscriptions we shall read history now unknown; the 
beginnings of the people who gave us our religion may now be 
cleared up, we shall know their manners and customs, possibly 
the origin of many religious ceremonies and beliefs which have 
come to us. We can hardly conceive the pcxssibilities which 
excavations in these ruins may realize." 

W'c art- more than surprised that this work was not inaugu- 
rated long ago. We owe it to ourselves and the cause of truth 
that thr work shall be no longer neglected. It is to be confi- 
dentl)' ho|)e(l that the Ur I^xpedition will receive prompt and 
liberal encouragement. Those who are willing to contribute 
$5.00 or more to this important work are lugetl to correspond 
with the director or secretary at once. The former ma\' be 
addressed at 10 Appian Wa\'. Cambridge, Mass.; and the latter, 
at 13S \\ . iiith .St., New York. They will be pleased to send 
the plan (>f the Ivxpedition and all informaticMi. 



My introduction to Hurritt's ** Geography of the Heavens," 
in my early school days, was a delight. I now recall with 
pleasure the evenings spent in reading charming mythological 
tales, star-gazing, efforts to trace the forms of heroes and 
monsters and much wondering. 

To the popular fancy of the Babylonians the stars were 
pictured designs on the fixed vault of heaven. At a later date, 
under scholastic influence, they became the ^'writing of heaven." 
Early writing was pictorial, and the characters were "likenesses" 
after their resemblance to pictures had been lost. A distinction 
was easily made between fixed stars and planets, and it was early 
observed that the latter did not "wander" beyond certain bounds. 
To assist memory, stars were grouped, and the lines joining them 
suggested the forms of real or mythological objects. Here was 
a connection between the early Babylonian script and the figures 
that imagination helped to place in the heavens. 

The paths of the heavenly bodies were marked out, and the 
ecliptic was fixed as the standard for describing the location and 
motions of stars and planets. It was called the "Way of Anu." 
The sun and moon were looked upon as deities, and this deifica- 



NOTES ON ASSY&IOLOGY. 261 

tion of heavenly bodies soon extended to certain planets and 
stars. Jupiter was identified with Marduk, Venus with Ishtar, 
Saturn with Ninib, Mars with Nergal, and Mercury with Nabu; 
while Anu was identified with the pole-star of the ecliptic, Bel 
with the pole-star of the equator, and Ea with a star in the Con- 
stellation Argo. The sun was the shepherd of the ** sheep," the 
flock of heaven. The twelve signs of the Zodiac, except the 
Bull, were the monsters of Tiamat. The twelve months were 
devoted to gods: as Nisan to Anu and Bel, lyar to Ea, Sivan 
to Sin, and Kislev to Nergal. They had also special names: as 
Sivan, "the month of brick-making"; Tammuz, "the month of 
taking seed"; Marcheshvan, "the month of opening dams"; 
Ramman, "the month of destructive rains," and Adar, "the 
month of grain-getting." The great divinities were associated 
with numbers: Ramman with 10, Shamash with 20, Sin with 30, 
Anu with 60, and Bel with 50. The study of the heavens for 
astrological purposes was pursued with enthusiasm. 

In all this we find popular beliefs, theology, agriculture, 
science, and superstition wondrously mingled. In some cases 
there are discovered reasons for these relations; in others there 
seem to be non». Several writers have made veritable contri- 
butions to a knowledge of Babylonian astronomy. We may 
name Lenormant, Hommel, Jensen, Strassmaier, Epping, Sayce, 
Robert Brown, Jr., and Jastrow. 

These remarks have been suggested by the publication of 
"Star-Names and Their Meanings," by Richard Hinckley 
Allen, a stout octavo volume of xxii and 563 pages. The work 
which the author has devoted to this subject must have been 
stupendous. He has drawn from a great mass of literature, 
and has delved in many mythologies — Greek, Roman, Norse, 
Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Chinese, Japanese, Hindoo, Egyptian, 
Arabic, Babylonian, and Assyrian. He treats of the Zodiac, 
the Lunar Mansions, the Constellations, and the individual 
stars. We have their names and their meanings, as the title of 
the book indicates; and these in many languages. We have, 
also, interesting mythologies, learned references, matters of 
astronomical biography and history, popular nomenclature, 
and quotations from modern literature. The poetical quota- 
tions are especially apt; indeed, many of the names or con- 
stellations and stars are condensed poems, gems of rare beauty. 

The work may almost be callecl a record of recent discov- 
ies in strange literature. It is not to be adequately reviewed 
in any comparatively brief writing. The work itself is its only 
proper review. Lovers of knowledge for its own sake will find 
the book, purchase it, and then prize it. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

North African Arch^^iology. In the Rcvuc mensuclle 
dc TEcole d'Anthropologic dc Paris (Vol. IX , 1899, pp. 41-v), 
M.Zaborowski discusses chc**Neolilhic Period in North Africa." 
He gives a resume of the discoveries of worked flints, etc., in 
the Sahara (there is a relative poverty of Neolithic remains, 
and one is struck by *'the contact which seems to exist with 
Egyptian remains of like nature"), in Algeria (there are not a 
few grottos, as e. g., at Pointe-Pescade, Guyotville, Ternifine, 
etc., containing evidences of occupation by Neolithic man), in 
Tunis (here, as in Algeria and the Sahara, there is the same 
apparent rarity of tools in polished stone), and Egypt. The 
author calls special attention to the rock-inscriptions, or pctro- 
glyphs, of northern Africa, especially Algeria. These petro- 
glyphs exist at Tyout, Moghar-Tatani, near Tibesti, near Bar- 
day; at El-Hadj-Mimoun, near Figuig, on the River Oudeno; 
at Sous in Morocco, etc. With these picture-writings are. to 
be compared the graffiti on the rocks of Upper Egypt, in the 
desert, between Edtou and Silsilis, etc., — these graffiti are 
probably anterior to the appearance of hieroglyphic writing; 
and it would seem that the North African petroglyphs, gener- 
ally, are of a high antiquity. Human figures (hunters, often 
accompanied by women ) and the animals of the north African 
region are the characteristic features of many of these pctro- 
glvphs. According to M. Zaborowski the ancient Egyptians 
were not Asiatics, who supplanted a negro population (the 
presence of negroes in ancient Egypt is largely accounted for 
by the slave-trade, which is of incalculable antiquity), but be- 
longed to the Mediterranean stock of Brinton and Sergi, who arc 
responsible for the development of all the first great human 
civilizations. One interesting proof of this affinity is to be 
found in the custom of vase-burial, which seems in some way 
connected with the coming into use of copper. The very early 
contact of ancient Egypt with Nubia and Negro Africa is im- 
portant. 



Egyptian Origins. In the Revue mensuelle de I'Ecole 
d'Anthropologie de Paris (Vol. IX., 1899, pp. 201-226), M. Jean 
Cl^dat discusses the difficult and dangerous problem of **Egypt- 
ian Origins." According to M. Cl^dat, the fellah of to-day 
hardly represents the true ancient Egyptian type, which already 
in the time of the great Ramses had come to be quite mixed. 
The autocthones of Egypt, M. Cl^dat thinks, were negroes upon 
which "Ethiopians,/.^. Egyptians, intruded." M. Cl^dat be 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 263 

licves that the results of the latest researches confirm the ideas 
to be drawn from the investigations of De Morgan, Kosquet, 
etc., which link the Egyptian to the Mesopotamian type. 



Algerian Archeology. In the January-February number 
of L'Anthropologie (Vol. XL, No. I, pp. 1-21) M^ Boule dis- 
cusses the "Station pal(^olithique du lac Karar," — a palaeolithic 
"station" near the village of Remchi, or Montagnac, in the 
Province of Oran. The animal remains discovered at Kar^r 
illustrette *' the contrast between the quatenary fauna of Algeria 
and that of Europe," a difference previously pointed out by M. 
Boule (Vol. X., p. 563). With the exception of a few extinct 
species ie. g, EUphas atlantiais), the majority of the quaternary 
s^^c\t,s fossil in Algeria are still living in the south of the con- 
tment; just as many quaternary species of the European "sta- 
tions" survive still in the extreme north of Eurasia or America. 
The worked stones, not counting chips, etc., examined by the 
author number some 200, — collected by M. L. Gentil, a young 
geologist, who handed them over to M. Boule some four years 
ago. Some of the larger specimens resemble the amygdaloid 
and lanceolate flints of Chelles, Saint Acheul, Toulouse, and 
other "stations" in France, etc. Some small specimens, 
dredged from Lake Karar, resemble closely some palaeolithic 
Egyptian flints figured by De Morgan. M. Boule inclines to be- 
lieve in the contemporaneity of these two forms at Karar. The 
lake itself appears to have furnished no neolithic specimens, 
but a few (among them a polished axe) such were found in the 
immediate neighborhood. The fauna discovered and the worked 
flints are, according to the author, of the same age, and the 
"station." taken altogether, resembles considerably that of 
Ternifine (near Mascara), described by Pomel and Pallary, as 
well as other Algerian "stations," at Ouzidan, Aboukir, etc. 
M. Boule comes to the general conclusion that "at a very dis- 
tant epoch, in comparison with which the 7,000 years of Egypt- 
ian history are as nothing, there existed over a great part of 
the earth's surface men using stone tools of a very uniform 
nature, yet already so special and of such perfection, that ex- 
perts can readily distinguish them from later makes." 



Nile Valley Flint Implements. In "Nature" (Vol. 61, 
No. 1590, pp. 597-599) for April 19, 1900, appears an abstract 
of a profusely illustrated paper (on the collection of stone im- 
plements from the Nile Valley, made by Mr. Seton Karr in 1896, 
and now in the Mayer Museum), published by Dr. H. O. Forbes 
in a recent number of the Bulletin of the Liverpool Museums. 
The collection consists of bracelets (illustrating 9II stages of 
manufacture), axe-like tools, leaf-shaped flints, knives, hoes, 
fabricators, scrapers, cores, flakes, and nondescript stones. 
Most of the specimens are of " a yellowish-brown or pale-grey, 



j6* the AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Opaque earthy chert," and the great bulk of them come from 
the region of the Wady-el-Sheikh, a tributary of the Nile. 
There is a remarkable resemblance between some of the knives 
and corresponding specimens obtained by Mr. Petric from 
Kahun (Twelfth Dynasty), and also of some of them to "the 
finest of thosi.- from Scandinavia." The age of these imple- 
ments, and of the flint workings of the Wady-el-Sheikh, is 
" from 3900 B. C, but more probably from the Twelfth Dynasty." 
Dr. Forbes wisely refuses to believe that '" identity of form in 
the stone implements is sufficient evidence of unity of race, or 
of close connection between the races who made them." He 
doubts, also, the "palKolithic" character of many Egyptian 
flint implements; holding that the only flint implement "authen- 
tically pala;olithic are the flakes and very rude scraper-like flints 
found by General Pitt-Rivers m the stratified, indurated, gravelly 
debris from a wady near the Tombs of the Kings." Along the 
banks of the Wady-el-Sheikh cores and flakes were found in 
thousands, and the question naturally arises; '"Why so many 
thousands.— all perfect as flakes,— should have been struck off 
and never carried away?" The use of the numerous "long 
bars of stone, partially worked, is also a matter of conjecture. 
Dr. Forbes' paper is altogether a most valuable and interesting 



Man 0I-- THE Reindeer Period in France. Under the title 
"Les Stations de I'age du Renne dans les Valines dc la \'(^iere 
et de la CorrSze." Laugerie-Basse. Industrie, sculptures, gra- 
vures (Paris, 1900, 4to, no plates), MM. Paul Girod and EHe 
Masst^-nat have published a very interesting monograph on one 
of the most noted "stations" of prehistoric man in France, 
dating back to a time anterior to tht- possession of domestic 
animals by the human beings who populated this region. Pot- 
tery, too, is absent from the remains of their culture. As a 
hunting people, their sense of art was considerably developed, 
as their animal-sculptures show. Hut these things are not specials 
to them. fl 



Arch.eologv of British Columbia. From " Monumental 
Records" for March, 1899, Mr. Harlan I. Smith reprints (pp. 
75-S8), an abstract of his valuable and detailed paper on the 
" Arch.'eology of Lytton, British Columbia," which appeared 
as Volume II,, Part III., May 25, 1899, of the "Memoirs of the 
American Museum of Natural History" (New York). One of 
the most striking facts brought out is the similarity of the mode 
of life of the prehistoric people whose remains and relics have 
been studied to that of the Indians of the same region at the 
present day. The author discusses; Resources, food, tools (of 
which illustrations are given), war-implements, dress and orna-^ 
ments, art, and burial-methods. 



ss ana orna-^H 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



26s 



Arch-?iOlogy of Ontario. The Ontario "Archaeological 
Report" for iSgg (Toronto, 1900, pp. igg), is another evidence 
of the zeal and activity of Mr, David Boyle, the Curator of the 
Provincial Museum. Pages 2 to 17 catalogue some 2,400 speci- 
mens added during the year to the Provincial Archaeological 
collection, and pages 17 to 51 contain notes on certain of Ihese 
specimens, among which arc included clay pipes, bone articles, 
and articles of Iroquois folk-use in games, ceremonies, etc. 
The "rattlesnake shell gorget," figured on page 24, is of great 
^ interest, being, so far as known, '■ the only specimen of Its kind 
■ found in Ontario." and possessing, moreover, "identity in de- 
sign with the gorgets described by Professor Holmes," — an un- 
suspected point of contact, perhaps, between Ontario and the 
southern States. This gorget appears to have been found "in 
a large bed of ashes, fully two feet below the surface, on the 
Sealey farm, Brantford township." To this Report Mr. G. E. 
Laidlaw contributes (pp. 41-50), an account of archaeological 
investigations in North Victoria County, and Mr. A, F. Hunter 
(pp. 51-82) a detailed description of "Huron Village Sites in 
Tay, Simcoe county," a continuation of his valuable archaeo- 
logical monographs on this region of Ontario. Mr. Laidlaw 
concludes, concerning the region between the waters of Georg- 
ian Bay and those of Lake Ontario, of which Victoria County 
'1 a part, "there was a large [peaceful] semi-sedentary popula- 
tion extending along this ancient highway of waters to Lake 
Ontario," In Mr. Hunter's paper some forty-six village sites 
are described, and in the introduction, the author points out 
iomc popular errors respecting the region in question. Accord- 
ing to the author, Victoria Harbor, to which the forest trails so 
noticeably lead, "was the commercial center of the Hurons, as 
it has also been of later Algonquins." This, too. was "the 
heart of the country that was smitten iti 1649," when the Hurons 
were dispersed. Mr. Hunter's paper is followed by a briefer 
account by W. J. Wintcmberg (pp. S3-Q2) of "Indian Village 
Sites in the Counties of Oxford and Waterloo." some twelve 
I sites having been examined during the past four or five years 
I by the author in this part of the Province. Village site No. i. 
I in Blenheim township, Oxford, is noteworthy on account of the 
I copper awls there discovered. The remainder of Mr. Boyle's 
I excellent report is made up of an interesting paper ( pp. 92-123) 
>n "The Wyandots" by W. E. Connelly, a translation by Mrs. 
H. E. Rose Holden of M. Benjamin Suite's "La Guerre des 
^Iroquois" (pp. 124-151), some "Notes on Some Mexican 
L Relics" (pp. 152-163) by Mr. Wiiliann Stuart, a detailed and 
I valuable account of the " Music of the Pagan Iroquois" (pp. 
J 166-189) by Mr. A. T. Cringan. and a "Study of the Word 
f Toronto" (pp. 190-198) by General John S. Clark. The last 

f>age of the Report is occupied by a brief appreciation of the 
ate Dr, D. G. Brinton. 

Mr. Connelly'a paper, which contains much of value con- 
cerning the clan system and sociology of the Wyandots, is a 



266 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

• 

little too dogmatic in places, and such statements as the one 
that the original home of these Indians was in the Ungava dis- 
trict of Labrador, need more proof than is yet forthcoming. 
The list of clan and personal names given by the author is very 
suggestive. Mr. Cringan's paper contains the musical notation 
of forty-seven pagan songs, all belonging to the Seneca division 
of the Iroquois, which were recorded oi\graphophone cylinders. 
It is interesting to learn that the modulation in Dr. Dyke's 
beautiful "Vox Dilecti" and in a Seneca "After Scalping Song" 
is accomplished by precisely the same means, "by a leap of a 
major sixth from the fifth of the minor key." And the author 
brings out many other curious points of resemblance and dis- 
agreement between the music of these aborigines and that of 
civilized peoples. General Clark's attempt to prove that 
"Toronto is an abbreviated compound word, somewhat dis- 
figured, but based on kaniatarc, 'lake,' and iokarotitc, *a gap, 
breach, or opening,' " can hardly be looked upon as successful, 
although the ingenuity of the author is much in evidence. 



Trepanning Among the Servians. In the Correspbl. d. 
deutschen Gcsellsch. fiir Anthropologie (Vol. XXXI., 1900, pp. 
18-23), Dr. S. Trojanovic discusses the custom of trepanning 
among the Servian population of the Balkan peninsula. Since 
in northern Albania twenty-five per cent, of all deaths occur- 
ring are due to blood-revenge, trepanning, as a treatment for 
wounds of the skull, attains considerable vogue. Another 
reason for the existence of the custom is the belief that it is a 
remedy for many diseases and affections of body and mind: 
Neuralgia, lunacy, headaches of violent sorts, brain-fever, &c. 
In Montenegro, Herzogovina, and Albania trepanation was car- 
ried on by certain folk-doctors called " medig," or " doctor," 
whose only occupation seems to have been that of healing 
(wounds especially). In Montenegro this art is hereditary in 
certain families, e.g. Ilickovic. Since 1856 trepanning has been 
forbidden by law in the Principality, but the practice still goes 
on in secret, the Montenegrin "medig" resorting to Albania, 
etc., where he is unmolested by the Turks, in Servia, itself, 
aecording to the author, the practice does not appear to have 
been common, although the "over the border" visits were 
known there also. Exact details as to Bosnia are lacking. Dr. 
Trojanovic gives a detailed account of the operation, with com- 
parative notes. 



The "Fire Walk." To Volume XV. (pp. 2-15) of the 
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, Andrew 
Lang, the well-known folklorist and litterateur, contributes a 
paper on "The Fire Walk." Under this head are grouped the 
te ufHu-ti, or fire-walking ceremony of the Society Islanders and 
New Zealanders; the vilavilairevo of the Fijis; the fire-cere- 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 267 

mony of Central Australia; the fire-walking over red-hot char- 
coal of the modern Japanese; the fire-rite in Mauritius; the 
performances of the Bulgarian fiistinares, or fire-walkers (a 
faculty regarded as hereditary); the human fire-extinguishers 
of Spain; the Hindu fire-walkers of Benares, and some, at least, 
of the "passing through the fire" of Semitic, Celtic, and other 
peoples — a dim shadow of which last lingers in the midsummer 
ceremonies of western Europe. These ceremonies, Mr. Lang 
thinks, deserve examination by medical experts, since **all 
these usual theories, whether of collective hallucination (photo- 
graphic cameras being hallucinated), of psychical causes, of 
chemical application, of leathery skin on the soles of the feet, 
and so on, are inadequate." Suggestion is, however, a possible 
explanation. 

4-I- 

Aryan Theory. M. Andr(^ Lefevre publishes in the Revue 
mensuelle de I'Ecole d'Anthropologie de Paris (Vol. IX., 1899, 
pp. 84 91 ) his lecture on *' The Indo-European Theory." Much 
of the discussion on this subject has, he think?, been sheer waste 
of brains and ink, the result of a misunderstanding between 
ethnology and philology. Dr. Lefevre thinks also that the 
Aryan primitive home was somewhere in the region of the 
Caspian. *' where still vegetate the degenerate debris of the 
original Indo-Europeans, driven back and forth by Mongolian 
invasion and Turkoman barbarism." The author seemi a little 
too conservative on the whole. 

In his " Herkunft und Urgeschichte der Arier " ( Heidelberg, 
1899, PP- 58, 8vo), L. Wilser argues ably for the Scandinavian 
origin of the Aryan peoples, with which seems to be bound up 
the theory of the superiority of the blond dolichocephalic 
section of the European white race. The author r^sum^s in 
brief the facts in favor of the location of the primitive home 
of the Aryans in Scandinavia from the points of view of 
anthropology, philology, history, etc. Wilser considers the 
much-discussed Etruscans to have been a people of Aryan 
stock, closely related to the ancient Hellenes. 



Origin of New Race Types. The report of the remarks 
of Dr. Kollmann, of Basel, upon this subject at the Lindau 
Anthropological Congress, appears in the Corrcspbl. der 
dcutschen Gescllsch. fiir Anthropologie (Vol. XXXI., 1900, 
pp. 1-5). According to Dr. Kohlmann, the first group of man- 
kind, the primitive horde, originated somewhere within the 
tropics. The history of the development of mankind may be 
summarized thus: I. Period of the development of the Species 
Homo sapietis prcglacialts (the primitive horde increases; all in- 
dividuals possess the same characteristics). II. Period of the 
development of the Species Homo sapiens pre glacialis (variation 
becomes active; races begin to be formed; migration from the 



268 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



primitive home). III. Period of the development of Homo 
sapietts intraglacialis and prcglacialis (through the effects of 
variation and of milieu several races have arisen; after migra- 
tion into the various continents variability still continues, until 
the morphological race-characters are completely developed). 
IV. Period of the development of Homo sSpiens (from the end 
of the Diluvium down to the present feeble variability in form 
of fluctuating changes; no longer arc new races or types 
formed; constancy of morphological characters). The author 
holds firmly lo the doctrine of the essential permanence of 
race-types since their origin in the dim past of mankind, and 
makes ^ood use of the recent investigations of Dr. Livi in 
Italy, and Dr. Boas in America, to strengthen his theory. 
Crosses and wieftj-forms arise, but no nciv races and no tiew 
types -no tteio varieties or species of man; not even the many 
■'fluctuating characters" of the modern European races seem 
capable of producing these — no six-fingered, four-nippled, or 
twelve-incisored race of man has yet appeared. And doubt- 
less will not. 



EDITORIAL. 



CARE FOR CLIFF RUINS. 

The women of Colorado have begun a wise movement. 
They have organized an association for the preservation of the 
cliff-dwellings, which are so numerous, and it has been regu- 
larly incorporated under the laws of Colorado. Il is now the 
intention to acquire a title to the ruins, either by purchase or a 
grant from the State. The movement began in 1S97, when the 
President of the State Federation of Woman's Clubs, Mrs. M. 
D. Thatcher, appointed a committee. 

The association is formed on the lines of the Mt. Vernon 
and Mary Washington Associations. The initiation fee is S2, 
and annual due.s Si. The officers are as follows: Regent, Mrs. 
Gilbert McClurg, Colorado Springs; first vice-regent. Mrs. W. 
S. Peabody, Denver; recording secretary, Mrs. J. D. Whitmorc, 
Denver; corresponding secretary, Mrs. C. A. Eldredge. Colo- 
rado Springs; treasurer, Mrs. Mahlon D. Thatcher, Pueblo; 
auditor, Mrs. George T. Sumner, Denver, The charter mem- 
bership of the association will be held open for six months. 
Committees will b.; appointed, and the association will set to 
work at once to raise money, secure membership, and lay the 
foundation (or a Stale park. 

The area of prehistoric ruins in the Southwest cover.'! a 
tract of 6,000 square miles, extending from '" the four corners " 
into Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. Therefore, 
the tract of land most valuable for a park has been a grave 
question at issue with the committee. They have had an accu- 
rate and comprehensive map made of the section called Me; 



EDITORIAL. 260 

Verde, the green tableland, in the southwestern corner of 
Colorado. It is their wish to include in the park that portion 
of the mesa and adjoining canons which contains the most 

It should be understood that Mesa Verde, the probable 
location of the future park, is a strikingly singular divide be- 
tween the Mancos and the Montezuma valicys. Throughout 
its extent it is gashed and seamed by innumerable deep cafions 
and ravines. The uplands are crowded with forests of pinon 
trees in such close array that one finds it difficult to pick a 
passage through them. Ruins of the houses of the mesa- 
dwellers are thick upon the plateau. 

The cafions which split the divide into tongues and islands 
of prccipitious rock, are lined with the houses of the Cliff- 
Dwellers. The sides of the caflons are sheer walls of yellow 
sandstone, ranging in height from 500 to i.ooo feet. Asa rule, 
the dwellings stand fifty or a hundred feet below the rim of the 
heights, in a sheltered recess overhung by beetling masses of 
rock. In a great many instances it is impossible to climb to 
the houses from the bottom of the canon. Most of them have 
to be entered from the top of the cliffs. There are no definite 
roads or trails leading to them, and the difficulties to be over- 
come and the dangers to be dared in visiting the cliff-houses 
are many. The difficulties and dangers only show how neces- 
sary it is to budd roads and trails and a rest house, so that peo- 
ple with great enthusiasm but little strength may visit the ruins. 

The Cliff-Palace and the Spruce Tree House are two of the 
cliff-houses included in the tract set aside for the park. The 
Cliff Palace is 450 feet long, eighty leet high, eighty feel broad, 
and contains \2j rooms on the ground floor, and accommoda- 
tions for probably I.OOO people. The Spruce Tree House is 
only a short distance from the Cliff Palace, and is one of the 
most finished specimens of prehistoric architecture yet found. 
A visit to one or both of these ruins would repay one for 
almost any amount of fatigue, and the Colorado Cliff-Dwellers' 
Association intends to be the path-finder for the delicate en- 
thusiast as well as for the brawny relic hunter. 



WHY AMERIND? 

A recommendation, apparently serious, has recently been 
made to replace the name American Indian by the especially- 
coined word A>iiiri/iii. This word has been made by the novel 
method of uniting the first part of the two words American 
and Indian. A single word for characterizing our American 
aborigines is certainly desirable. Ann-rUan is indefinite, being 
commonly applied to the white inhabitants of the United 
States, as well as lo the "red man." Indian is bad. perpetuating 
an error. American Indian is, perhaps, clumsy and awkward. 
But by what right do we suggest a term like Amtrtiidf Is the 



I But by wha 



270 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

intention to give the term scientific authority? Do we hope 
to first have it adopted by scientific men, and then extended to 
popular use? If so, let us follow ordinary rules. Two demands 
are rightly made of words seriously proposed for scientific pur- 
poses: the first is that they shall not be coined from the verna- 
cular of the proposers; the second is that, taken from Latin or 
Greek sources, they shall be constructed by sensible methods, 
grammatically correct, and that the compound shall be descrip- 
tive. These rules are simple and reasonable, and have been 
recognized in all sciences. 

If anthropology is to rank as a science, it should conform 
to scientific usage. Amerind does not follow these rules. We 
should justly object to Russian or Japanese students, who 
should construct at pleasure scientific terms from words of their 
vernacular and urge their authoritative use; in science we have 
no right to follow, any more than Russians or Japanese, a prac- 
tice which would lead to confusion and inconvenience. As to 
its mode of formation — where else in science is there an ex- 
ample of the deliberate making of a term by chopping off un- 
meaning initial parts of two words and then uniting them? 
What does ^/;/<r mean? What is the significance of ifidf And 
what can Anicrifui vn^^n, if neither /7/;/ir nor /W mean anything? 

There has been some discussion over the derivation of the 
word America; if it comes from a certain navigator's name, it 
certainly has no value in the suggested compound. If ind has 
any meaning— if, for example, it means the inhabitants of 
India — the error of using it in composition is as great as that 
of using it alone. But, one of the chief reasons assigned for 
coining the new word was the error in the word Indian. We 
dislike to differ with our fellow-workers, we dislike to appear 
refractory to a well-meant suggestion, but the word Amerind 
appears to us bad. Until a term is derived, which conforms to 
good scientific u.sage, we — personally — shall struggle on with 
the inconvenient (?) expression American Indian. Life is 
Hhort, but even in America we may find time and strength 
enough to speak what words may be necessary to adequately 
and unmistakeably express our thoughts. F. S. 



LATE DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST. 



A NEW ALPHABET DISCOVERED. 

The discovery of Myceiicean antiquities and the ruins of an ancient 
city, or capital, in Crete by Mr. Arthur J. Evans has been announced. The 
following description is taken from the New York Independent : 

"A palace of Mycenaean kings of perhaps 1300 or 1400 b. c. was found. 
Nothing of that age previously found in Mycenae excels the fresco painting 
and stone carving. The royal bathroom, with its central throne, is pre- 
served like a piece of Pompeii, and shows a luxury unknown to Mycenae 
itself. But the most important discovery is that of a number of clay tablets 
with the ancient Mycenaean writing. Th.e inscriptions are in a eharacter 
which is neither Babylonian nor Egyptian nor Hittite nor Cypriote nor 
Phenician, and they prove that a literary culture of indigenous production 
existed in Crete at that earlv period. The characters read from left to 
right, and not boustrophedon like the Hittite, and they are less pictorial a'ld 
more hieratic than the latter It is too soon to express any detailed views 
as to the affinities of this Mycenaean script, but it suggests comparisons 
with forms of the Cypriote syllabary, as well as with the Lycian and Carian 
characters. Mr. Evans suspects that many of them refer to palace ac- 
counts. The fact that they are clay tablets itself proves a relation to 
Babylonian culture." 

Dr. vVard of Tne Independent says that it displays a system of syllabic 
writing quite unlike any previously known. Among the finds was a written 
tablet in old Cretan character, if we should not rather call it Mycenican. 
We presume that it was known throughout all the regions occupied by the 
earliest Greek culture, five hundred years before the Phenician alphabet 
was adopted, and by its simplicity drove out the earlier Mycenaean, Hittite 
or Lycian scripts. 



THE DELUGE TABLETS. 

The museum at Constantinople contains various tablets which give the 
Babylonian account of the Deluge, some of which date back to the reign of 
Amnis-Zaduga King of Babylonian, 2140 b. c, or about the time of Isaac 
and Jacob, seven centuries before Moses. The discovery by George Smith 
of the tablets of the Deluge in the library at Nineveh, written in Assur- 
Banipals' reign, 600 b. c, was startling, but did not carry the date back. 
These tablets, however, show that the story of the Deluge was familiar to 
the common people of Babylonia and, perhaps, of all the East, from 
Assyria to Persia, long before the days of Moses. 

The most remarkable feature of it, is that there is no record of the 
Deluge in Egypt, except that which is given in the wHtings of Moses. The 
Deluge story in Babylonia was compiled in twelve books — one lor each 
month, showing how thoroughly the tradition was incorporated into the 
religious systems of the Babylonians. 



EGYPT BEFORE MENES. 

Maspero. in his " l^awn of Civilization," declares that Mcncs was a 
mythical king, but the discoveries by De Morgan and Amelineau of the 
bones and seal of .Menes, proves the correctness of history. More than 
this, recent discoveries have shown that before Menes there was a people 
living in the Stone Age: they were a white, blue-eyed Libyan race, and had 
already remarkable skill in making tools, dishes and ornaments out of 



272 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

flinl, obsidian, and other sloaes; but they had no metal tools and did not 
understand how to erect buildings of brick. There came down the Nile, a 
race of conquerors, who had prob ably crossed over from Arabia, but whose 
origin was in Babylonia. 



AN ANCtENT GREEK FOUNTAIN FOUND. 

A cable dispatch from Athens tells the New York IndepeHdent that 
Professor Rufua B. Richardson, Director of Che American School at 
Athens, in his excavations at Corinth, has so far laid open the PropylKa as 
to restore the topography of that city, besides finding so much valuable 
sculpture that the Greek Goverment has provided a special museum (or 
preserving [he monuments that have been recovered. The latest unique 
discovery was in the Agnra, where, at the depth of twenly-fi*e feet, an 
ancient Greek fountain was found, with the bronze lion-headed spouts still 
in their original position. 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 

Through the liberality of Mrs, Hearst the University of California has 
supported two exploration parties to Egypt, and has prepared a museum, 
which will contain such relics as are secured in that region, as well as those 
of the prehistoric relics of America. Messrs. Grenfeld and Hunt have 
transferred their allegiance to this Institution. They have secured from a 
cemetery of Coptos many papvri, mummies, and curious frescoes, most of 
them of Ptolemaic date. 

DISCOVERY OF A CITY GATE AT KARNAK. 

The fall of nine columns last year, against the pylon at Karnak. dan- 
gerously unsettled the huge mas<i of masonry, and now threatens to over- 
throw all of the columns of Hypostile Hall. M. Maspero has taken every 
precaution to avert the catastrophy; the expectation is that the wall of the 
pylon will be rebuilt, tier by tier, though there is some danger that the 
Nile flood will undermine the whole. 

Egyptologists are rejoicing. The season h 
for them. In addition to the discovery of the ml 
the Pharaoh of Exodus, "another valuable disc 
Sayce, " has been made by M. Legraui while exi 
setting up the fallen columns of the temple M, Legrani came upon a city 

fate, Itie first that has been found in Egypt, The gateway is of very great 
eight, is made of large blocks of squared limestone, and is double, having 
one gate within another. Two chariots could easily have passed through it 
abreast. It was erected by Amenbotep II . of the eighteenth dynasty. 



I 



nmyof King Menepthah, 
very." to ouote Professor 
avating al Karnak, While 



A .SCHOOL FOR ORIENTAL RESEARCH. 

A school for Oriental research has been established in Palestine. This 
is an iffiporiani movement, for it will result in correcting maity of the 
errors which have crept into so many books on Palestine and the H»l]r 
Land. 




BOOK REVIEWS. 



RijKS Ethnugrafhisch Mcjseuu te Leiden: Verslag van dek 

UlKECTEUR OVER MET TIJDVAK VAN I OCT. l8i)8 TOT 30 SEPT., I899. 

8". pp.34; 4 plates. 

For little Holland to maintain and d^-velope one of the best ethno- 
graphic niQieunis of Europe is no light undertakiag. Vet she does so, and 
does so nobly, at Leiden, in the Royal Ethnographic Museum. Che last 
annual report of which is al hand. During the year two permanent assist- 
ants have been added to the Museum staff— one in the newly-established 
deparlmeni of Physical Anlhropologv, the other in the section of East 
Indian Ethnography. Eur a pan of the year a special assistant, Shinhichi 
Hara. was at work upon the Japatiese collections. 

The Museum is still pleading for a new building, a plea amply justified 
b^ the scholarly and important nature of the work it is conducting. A con- 
siderable portion of (he report h devoted lo the list of accessions. Among 
these IS a magniticeni collection ol somatological material from the Philip- 
pines, including nearly four hundred skulls — the gathering of Dr. Schaden- 
berg. This rich material is being studied bv Ur. Koeie, and will he pub- 
lished by the Museum in the first volume of its Transaitioni.sooa lo appear. 

From August gth to September 30th the Museum arranged a special 
exhibit of its Japanese collection. " hich was visted by almost three thous- 
mnd persons. This collection contains the extensive and historically inter- 
esting gathering ol Van Siebold. together with many later additions. The 
Guide to this exhibit, prepared by the director of the Museum, Dr. J. E. D. 
Schmeltz, is a handsome piece of work, which not only well served its pur- 
pose as a guide, but also is important to students of Japanese ethnography. 
Not only has Leiden this magnificent ethnographic series in its Museum; 
in the University is, perhaps, the most valuable library of Japanese books 
in Europe. The Museum is a much-used centre for study and work. Dur- 
ing the year eminent specialists from Bohemia, Germany, Switierland, and 
the United States have made use of its opportunities. Classes of students 
have found its colonial collections useful. On May 24th, al the meeting of 
the Society for the Advancement of Scientific Study of the Colonies, Dr. 
Neuwenhuis exhibited and explained his Bornean collection, which is at 
present deposited with the Museum. During the present year two import- 
ant works are to be printed by the Museunn — one a monograph upon Javan, 
the other an album of African, ethnography. The Museum is certainly 
making great progress under Dr. Schmeltr's direction. F. S. 



Los Tatuaces: EsTUOio Psicologico v Medico-Legal en Oelin- 
CUENTES V MiLlTARES, By Dr. Francisco Martinez Baca, Mexico: 

i&jQ. 8°. pp. vii. 2g2; 7 tables: 18 plates, with qq figures. 

We have already, else where (Am. Jour, Soc, vol. iii , pp. 13- 17), described 
the laboratory of criminal anthropology in the State Penitentiary at Pucbla. 
Mexico, and the work there done by Drs. Baca and Vergara. We now have 
before us the published results of a study made there upon tattooing, as 

rracticed among Mexican criminals and soldiers, Lombroso and Marro in 
taly and Lacassagne in France have studied tattooing among criminals in 
Europe. With other writers they have reached some results of Interest. 
They find the practice of tattooing much more common among criminals 
thfto among " normal " men. Tbey made an especial study of the designs 
in themselves and in their relation lo the character, occupation, and life of 



274 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



those who bear them. For Lombroso, tattooing among criminals is atavis- 
tic: the criminal — a man born out of the time to which he is adapted, tat- 
toos because his remote barbaric ancestor tattooed. 

In Dr. Baca's book we find interesting matter for comparison with 
that from Europe. The treatment is divided into three parts. In the first 
part, after a discussion of tattooing in general, the material gathered among 
Mexican prisoners is presented; in the second part, that from soldiers \% 
examined; in the third, various theoretical and practical questions in legal 
medicine are propounded and discussed. 

Most of these prisoners were pure Indians. They proceed from three 
sections geographically different— the mountams, the rather densely popu- 
lated plateau district, and the lower hot lands. Out of some five hundred 
persons examined fifty-seven were somewhat tattooed — not a large propor- 
tion, as compared with the European. Of these none came from the north- 
ern mountam district. In Europe the criminal is often tattooed with designs 
related to his trade, or connected in some way with his crimes: these often 
give useful hints, aiding in identification. In Mexico the facts are curiously 
different; out of tifty-seven tattooed subjects, not one bore designs relating 
to his trade; out of the one hundred and seventeen designs upon these sul^ 
jects, but four even remotely suggested the bearer's crime. Left to him- 
self, the Mexican Indian of Puebla — even of criminal tendency — shows 
little desire for tattooing; it is in the jail or prison that the idea of being 
tattooed presents itself to him, or is urged upon him; out of the fifty-seven 
subjects, fifty were tattooed in prison, five in the barracks, and two outside. 
Compared with the criminals ot Europe, these Mexican Indians show little 
taste for obscene or indecent representations. On the whole, the designs 
are simple and crudely done. The soldiers and criminals of Mexico show 
little difference in the designs they tattoo. However it is quite clear that 
among the criminals religious designs preponderate, among the soldiers 
erotic figures are more common. 

We present herewith that part of the author's general table in which the 
one hundred and seventeen designs observed on criminals are classified: 



Symbols 



Religious 



1 



\ 



Erotic-Religious: 

r 



Erotic 



\ 



Signs 



Simply decorative 



Crosses 

Saints 

Monstrances 

Hearts with crosses 

Hearts 

Women — clad 

Women — nude 

Initials of sweethearts 

Names of sweethearts 

Initials of the criminals 

Names of the criminals 



Decorative 
Representative 



Men 
Dates 



Animals < 



21 

14 
5 

ID 

6 

7 

3 
6 

6 

6 

I 

8 

3 

2 

5 



I 



Anti-religious: Devils 



Deer (liberty) 
Dogs (fidelity) 
Lions, tigers, &c. 
(sanguinarv 
instincts) 4 
Eagles (liberty) 2 
Doves (love) i 

5 



It will be seen that Dr. Baca's material is interesting, not only to the 
cri minologist and psychologist, but also to the ethnologist. We have 
lea rned, within a few days past, that Dr. Baca has been appointed to a posi- 
tio n in the magnificent new prison at the City of Mexico, similar to that he 
ha s held at Puebla. He will then have an even greater opportunity to carry 
on his investigations. Fortunately, the work he has founded and conducted 
at Puebla willnot be discontinued, but will be earned on under competent 
direction F. S. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 273 

Pompeii; Its Life and Art. By August Mau, German Arch.eulogical 
Institute in Rome. Translated into English by Francis W. Ketscy, ut 
the University of Michigan. With numerous Illustrations Irom original 
Drawings and Photographs. New York: The Macmillan Co. London: 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.; 1899. 

The de:>tiuction of the city of Pompeii in the year 79, by ihe eruption 
of Vesuvius, has preserved up to the present time nian> of the ani.quities 
and archiieciural works of that early period. The c ty was situated on me 
Bay of Naples and was the chiei seai of power at ihe time. \v hen it was 
founded is not known. The oldest building, the Done temple in the Forum, 
is of the style of the sixth century b. c. The founders wtre Oscans, but it 
was the city of the clan of the Pompeys, as Tarquianu was Ibe city of the 
Tarquins. 

The architecture of the early period was Greek. The subjugation and 
Romanizing did not come until the social war, 90 B c. As a result we have 
a great deal of Greek architecture rather than Roman. Up to the present 
time about half of Pompeii has b en excavated. ArticKs of furniture, 
objects of art, statuettes, and sculpiurea have been taken to the museums 
at Naples and at Pompeii. The author of this book has treated the subject 
from the archaeological standpoint, lather than tne artistic. He describes 
the masonry according to the periods. One style ot masonry seems very 
rude, as it is composed of lime-stone frame-work, filled in with rubble; 
built without mortar. The corners and door-posts were built of hewn 
blocks. Slabs were placed upright in the walls to held the masonry in 
place. This style belongs to the early years of the Roman colony. The 
Uoric temple was built in the sixth century n c The second period was 
that of the lime-stone Atriums. A third is called the Tufa period, in which 
the climax of Pompeiian architecture appeared. It has a pronounced 
artistic character. Buildings are adorned with colonnades of the Doric, 
Ionic, and Corinthian orders. Wall paintings are lackings. but pictures of 
rare beauty arc found in the mosaics of the floors. The fourth period covers 
the earlier decades of the Roman colony; but falls far below that just pre- 
ceding. 

The Forum is, perhaps, the most interesting feature in the citv. This 
was very common in other cities, and is, perhaps, the survivor of the en- 
closed court, which was an important feature to the earliest villages. It 
was surrounded by temples, markets, and buildings devoted to civic pur- 
poses. No private houses opened on this area. The remains of a colonnade 
are seen on each of the three sides, but the colonnade is nowhere intersected 
by a street passable for vehicles. You descend the area by several steps. 
Only pedistrians could enter the Forum; carts and wagons were excluded 
The area of the Forum was paved with flags. Originally there were 
many statues, which were of three classes: those of citizens, equestrian 
statues of life size, and statues of emperors, or members of the emperors* 
families; some of them colossal in size. Among them a statue of Augustus 
and an equestrian statue of Nero and Tiberius. In the Forum the various 
styles of columns have been preserved: one of Doric style, with the upper 
part fluted; another had the Ionic order; but the earlier period was the bet- 
ter of the two. The most important religious festivals were celebrated in 
the Forum. 

In Greek towns the market place was laid out in the form of a square, 
but in the cities of Italy the Forum was, like an amphitheater, adapted to 
gladiatorial combats. It was used for games and contests. After the 
buildings in the Forum, there were three temples: one devoted to the 
Lares — the Temple of Jupiter— which dates from the pre-Roman period. 
It contains six Corinthian columns and had Etruscan characteristics. The 
arrangement of the steps is peculiar. An altar stood in the middle of the 
platform. At its left we see the arch, a strip of wall, and a platform wjth 
an equestrian statue. Within was the wall with decoration in tne Pompeiian 
style. A head of Jupiter was found in the cella. This head is compared 
to the bust in the Vatican Museum, and is described as follows: the face 
seems to suggest great force of will — great force of will is seen, also, in the 






376 THE AMERICAN ANFIQUARIAN. 

face of ihc Pompeiia.n go6: but il is will dominaled by an alerl and all- 
embracLDg mind. Tbe forehead expands in a broad arih: the eyes -wide 
Open— look out with full vision, under sharply cui brows. Here we have 
no secret brooding; a powerful , yet clearly-delined and comprehensive per- 
sonality is stamped upon features carved in bold, free lines. The other, 
Bust of Zeus, in the V aiican Museum, seems to su^ijest. not so much the 
power of a world-encompassing and lofty intellect, as ahsorpiion in great 
unfathomable thoughts. In Ih-e lines of the massive face ir^e^istible foice 
of will is revealed, and the capability of fierce passion lurks btneath the 
projeclinB lower part of tbe forehead and uneven eye-btowj, threatening 
like a thundercloud: but for tbe moment all is deep repose, and tbe lids 
seem partly closed, over eyes that look downwards, as if not concerned 
with seeing. The sculptor has conceived of Zeus as the occult power of 
nature, alike the origin and law of all things, or as the personification of 
the heavens veiled by impenetrable mists. 

The Literary Study of th 

Forms of Literature F 

(Intended for English readers.) By Richard G. Moulton, M, H.. Pb, 

Professor of Literature in English in the University of Chicago, 

vised and partly rewritten. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co London: 

Isbister & Co. iKqq; 5(lg pagea. 

That wonderful book the Bible has received more attention than an; 
other book in existence, and is likely to receive still more in tbe future. 
There are, to be sure, several distinct schools which are devoted to the ex- 
amination of il. Of these, the one which is, perhaps, the oldest takes it up 
as purely a religious bonk. Full of maxims and teachings, all of wbii:h have 
an eoual value. The students in this school, at an early date, broke it up 
into iragments, and have transmitted it with divisions into chapters aod 
verses, but seem to have paid no attention to the connections or the history 
of the separate parts. Another school, which may be called the historical, 
treats it as a historical book, full of descriptions of ancient customs and 
allusions to the antiquities of the East, but also find confirmations of its 
truthfulness and genuineness in the discoveries which have been made dnr- 
ing the past few years, A third may be called a school of critics, which 
may be divided into two classes; the one embracing those writers who are 
studying the text and endeavoring to make it as complete as possible, the 
other take the style, language and thought, and subject that to tbe severest 
criticism, A fourth school has arisen which is interested in the archeology 
of the Bible, and is devoted to the study of the anIi<)Uities of the East and 
to the comparison of the literature which has been brought to light by the 
monuments with that which is contained in this book. As a general thing, 
this school is opposed to the co:nclusions which have been reached by many 
of the so-called "higher critics." and puis back what they are disposed to 
pull up and throw away, or, at least, they present severe tests to the theories 
of tbe higher critics. This is a department in which our readers are un- 
doubtedly much interested, and will be more so as time passes on. 

A literature has been recovered in Babylonia, Egypt, and Palestine, J 
which already exceeds in compass the whole of the Old Testament scrip- I 
tures. The records already discovered confirm, explain, and illustrate toe 1 
scripture records, and make it probable that they were contemperanous 
with the other records, rather than reductions of fragments which had long 
existed. The discoveries seem to conhrm the traditionary view of the 
Bible, and acluatly represent it as the oldest book in existence, much older 
than the critics claim. There may be inscriptions and tablets and monu- 
ments, which in their present form, dale further back than these written 
books, but they do not cover as much time or give as much variety. as does 
this Sacred World, and certainly do not furnish as good or as useful speci- 
mens of literature. No one would think of going to the Book of the Dead 
or 10 the Assvrian tablets for specimens of literature which mieht be 
brought beiore the enlightened public of the present day,: ' "' ' 

excellence. 




BOOK REVIEWS. 277 

There are specimens of Greek literature, which belong to a late date, 
comparatively speaking, but these in their moral tone and their general 
effect are not to be compared with the ancient books of the Bible. 

A fifth school, and one which is likely to be more popular and more 
efficient than any of the others, is the one which treats the Bible as a book 
of literature. This school may be said to date back to the days of Herder, 
who wrote upon the poetry of the Bible, but did not enter into its literary 
character as a whole. A work which has been left to Professor Moulton, of 
the Chicago University, to accomplish, so that he may be said to be the 
founder of the school. The particuliarity of this school is that it treats the 
Bible just as it does any other work of literature. It divides it into different 
parts and, so far as possible, assigns each part to its own period; but takes 
the different parts in thtir sequence and traces the growth of thought and 
of literature, which is so apparent. The Bible is no longer a mosaic, which 
has been put together according to individual fancy, but is i. plant, which 
has grown up and owes its beauty to the inner life. 

Professor Moulton has treated the Bible purely as a book of literature, 
and has given many specimens which convince the reader of the superior- 
ity of that book, which is at present undergoing so much criticism from the 
hands of its professed friends. This is timely, for it shows that, as a liter- 
ary inheritence, this book is beyond compare. The discoveries among the 
monuments of the East have confirmed the reliability and accuracy of the 
Bible as a work of history, but by studying ihe Bible as ancient literature 
and comparing it with such other specimens as we have inherited, or have 
recently discovered, we find it has a history of its own; that there is an 
order to the separate writings, just as there is in the Greek or Hindoo or 
Persian writings, or, in fact, as there is in the works of modern literature — 
English, German. French, &c. 

Professor Moulton shows that there is a similar progress of thought 
and of style, that may be compared to that which every student has recog- 
nized in classic literature, and which the arcbscologists are recognizing, 
also, in the buried literature of the East. He says: *' The literary study of 
the Bible is a new study. Its newness rests not upon sudden advance in 
our knowledge of Semitic people and institutions, but upon our changed 
attitude to the whole field of literary investigation." The inquiry is with 
the foundation forms of literature, such as epic, lyric, dramatic, and philo- 
sophic, and the like, all of which are represented in the sacred writings. 

There is this difference between the literary student and the critics: the 
ordinary student delights in the personality of the reputed writers of the 
books of the Bible, but the critics seem to delight in cutting up these books 
into fragments and throwing a haze over the subject of their authorship; 
very much as former critics have thrown a haze over the works of Homer 
and the writings of Shakespeare, but with no advantage to themselves, or 
to literature in general. All these books stand before the public in their 
integrity, and none of them have been shaken from their foundations. 

The especial value o} Professor Moulton's book, is that it has brought 
out the beauties of the Bible as a literary work. We are at once brought 
by it to forget all our dogmatism and to lay aside our criticism, and are 
filled more than ever with an unbounded admiration for the literary treas- 
ures contained in it. The classification of literary forms in universal litera- 
ture into epic, lyric, dramatic, etc., enables us to analyse and to discrimi- 
nate between the different parts of the Bible, and to pick out the germs of 
literature accordine to our taste. If we are fond of the dramatic, we shall 
find much to satisfy us, and will be surprised to see how superior the 
dramas are. If, on the other hand, we admire the epic stories, we ftiay take 
other parts, such as the story of Ruth, Joseph, Samuel, Sampson, and 
David, and will find much to admire. But in the midst of these epics there 
are strange tragedies in real life; some of them in the field, others in the 
palaces, and not a few in battle. The meditations and elegies in Ihe Bible 
contrast with those trag^edies, but these, again, are broken into by Biblical 
songs and by rituals, by lyrics and by dramatic prophecy.^ The doom 
songs and the rhapsodies are also in strong contrast. The wisdom litera- 
ture, on the other hand, reminds us of the plji^osophy of Socrates and the 
wisdom of Plato. Lli^^ZI^ .^^^^MK SL^ ''"^'"VT 



278 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

This work is very valuable, frr it enables us to uncersiand the char- 
acter or nature of the Bible Letier than t\er before; it is, in fact, a key 
which unlocks the d(ur ut the treasure house aiid reveals };emsand precious 
stones; some of them ^et in crowns which have tern woin by ^he worthies 
of the past, and may, pt rhaps, be made to adorn crowns m the future. 

It IS no exaggeration to say that the Hible is, on the uhole, the most 
interesting book in the worid. We shall 6i)d this to be the case, when once 
we learn its real nature and get into full sympathy with it. It is a mar. cl- 
ous literary composite. Here are myths (but how unliVe the myths of 
other people!), folklore, story, song, inipa>sioned sermon, tender id>l, philo- 
sophic meditation, dramatic poem, and pious hymn — almost every lorm of 
literary composition: and all ptnetrated with the spirit of a relit!ion that, 
however rude in its farlitsi e.vpres ions, bears in it tl'e jierm cf the pro- 
found and spiritual faith, wlnci . a> Ci ri>tiHMt>, ruKs < ur leason and our 
hearts. 



Forn.AK Mis(:oN(:i:i'Tic)NS as to Christian Faith and Life. By 
Rev; Frank T. Lee. Boston and Chicago: 1 he Pilgrim Press. 

This is a practical and useful book, wriiien b> a fcuccti-i-ful and devoted 
pastor, as ihc If Mill ol ixpeiitnce. Ii i^ full of good comnicn ^eni^e,ard 
IS at the saUiC t.mi tliou^^htfiil. It itboiii ds v^iiit illustrations, drawn Irom 
all dopjirtinents of 1 fc. some of them very vivid and instructive. The style 
is terse and forcible, aim the aiguments convincing. 

Pel haps the best chapttr in the hook is the one on •* The Popular Mis- 
conceptions as to the Bibie. ' It opens with a reference to two paintings: 
one in the Parliament Building in London, the other in the Capitol in Wash- 
ington The first represents "The Departure of the Pilgrims.' the second, 
"The Landing." In the full front of each picture 's an open volume, that 
volume is the Hible. It is a beautiful illustration. Every one knows that 
that book, which has come down to u^ from so ancient a date, is like the 
key-stone of an arch; the foundations of the arch were laid in the religious 
thought and best learning of the ancient pt opies, whose history is written 
in the monuments. The strength ol the arch has been tested, and proved 
sufhcient to bear up all that modern civilization can put upon it. It has 
borne the attacks of us tm-niies for many gt nerations, but is. as Gladstone 
said, "the impregnable rock." 







fcEV OF NATIONS 



^miixxc^n ^ntiquKximx 



Ski'TEMHEr and October, 1900. 



No. 5. 



NUMERAL CHARACTERS^ THEORY OF ORIGIN 
AND DEVELOPMENT. 



The simple characters so easily made that a knowledge of 
them is acquired so early that we seem never to have had to 
learn them have been the agents of good to the race so vastly 
great as to warrant a more thorough search than has yet been 
made to discover their origin and make known their history. 

As indicated by the name "Arabic Numerals" so com- 
monly applied to them, they were thought by Europeans to 
be of Arabian origin from the fact of their having been 
brought in with Eastern mathematics at the time of the 
Mohammedan invasion. If not for the first lime at least in a 
way to make their use so general a.s to justify the names for 
the figures to the minds of those who gave it. But later and 
more extended intercourse between the East and the West 
discovered the fact that the ciphers were introduced into 
Arabia fiom India along with the knowledge of Hindu 
Algebra. 

The question then that remains to be answered is " How 
did the Indian system originate ? " 

The aim of this paper is fi) to unfold a theory for the 
development of the digits out of a system still in use by the 
Chinese and neighboring peoples, and (2) to suggest in what 
way our system of written numbers has becomi; so widespread 
in its use. 

Before proceeding with the discussion it is thought best to 
introduce for inspection a table showing the changes that 
occur in writing the characters as the best means of indicating 
the method to be pursued. 

There are four thing? to be borne in mind when consider- 
ing such a development of our numerals: (i) That when 
writing their characters the Chinese and the Japanese, who 
make use of the Chinese ideographs, almost always make the 
otherwise horizontal line to slant upwards, so that the char- 
acters for one, two, three and others are made often at about 
an angle of forty-five degrees, or nearly so, and arc not made 



28o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to set horizontally or straight across the page. (2) When 
written rapidly with the brush — as with these Eastern people — 
the lines are almost of necessity, connected. The brush is not 
lifted clear of the paper and then put down again to make the 
next stroke, but is moved rapidly from the finishing point of 
one stroke to the starting point of the next. (3) And the 
third is the constant habit of abbreviating many of the char- 
acters as much as possible to yet leave them recognizable by 
the expert. It is quite usual in the cursive writing to give the 

Sfhi^ (hd<u/fii @i4^HAvt $MuiH^ Seti^i^u/ MlyOtMs/ 
9rnuc frrnoj ^rr^^oj Ju£jbiiU S^^^^ 



ft. 



/ / 



2. — 



3. 1^ 



^ 



i. 



*. m xT^ iTZ^ v^ H^ 



M. 



». 



2u ^ ^ t5 



•• ^^ -^ ft ■?; 6 ■^ 



^. 



e. 



-t H: -V ^ "7 7 



% fl^ fL ^- p 7 

merest hint of the original form. (4) A fourth thing which 
it is necessary to consider is the effect of writing downward 
instead of across the page, and with a soft brush instead of a 
stiff instrument. 

Now I take it that the figure one, when it came to be 
written with a stiff instrument, as the stylus, was made by a 
stroke downward as being more convenient than the upward- 
slanting stroke. And in this way of writing it the natural 



NUMERAL CHARACTERS. 281 

tendency would be to make the mark to set a little more 
straight up and down. It is quite possible that the form of 
this character, so usually seen in our copy-books and elsewhere 
with a stroke upward and then downward, was the primitive 
way of making it, and that the upward stroke is a survival of 
the earlier form or of the horizontal line of the typical Chi- 
nese figure. 

Two and three are so plain that almost anyone accustomed 
to seeing them written in their cursive form, whether in China 
or Japan, would be likely to see the similarity. In two the 
lines are united by being made without lifting the brush, and 
three in a similar way. And so when writing out your bill the 
shop-keeper, if a rapid scribe, will make them with such a 
free and rapid twirl of his brush that they frequently look 
almost identical with our figures two and three. When I first 
began to try to read the memoranda that would be brought in 
by the shop-keepers and others I soon began to notice the 
striking likeness of some of the twos and threes — which would 
sometimes occur — to our own. 

Four does not appear so evident, but if we recall what has 
been pointed out about the habit of abbreviating the characters 
as much as possible when using the cursive style of writing 
and make our comparisons with this form of the Chinese 
figure rather than with the typical form there is less difficulty, 
and the likeness becomes more apparent. The typical form 
of the Chinese numeral is made with five strokes. These five 
strokes are, in the cursive form, sometimes reduced to two. 
Here the strokes i and 2 of the first are represented by one of 
the second form ; while stroke 2 of the last form gives us a 
hint of all the remaining strokes 3, 4 and 5 of the typical form. 
In this last we have a character approaching in form a very 
common type of our figure four. 

In the figure five the similitude is much more evident ; for 
when written rapidly in the cursive form the Chinese figure 
looks always something like the so-called Arabic numeral and 
often I'cry much like it, not to say there is sometimes almost 
identity of form. 

The figure six of the Chinese system at first sight seems to 
bear no resemblance to the form of the digit as we know it, 
but not so when we have given it more close attention. Look- 
ing at the Chinese figure we see three points, one above a line 
and two standing below and a little apart from each other. 
Now let us remove the line and we have simply three dots in 
their proper triangular position. Now we simply unite these 
points by a dotted line and we have a perfect form of the fig- 
ure six. But what about the missing horizontal line ? We 
have it in the stem of the figure six as represented in the 
line above. Notice again the cursive form of the Chinese 
figure and bear in mind the principle already pointed out of 
the upward-slanting stroke and you see how the cross line tends 
to disappear. * 



iSa THE AiMERlCAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

As for seven two possible ways of development may! 
shown. ( i) that out of the typical form of the cfiaracter : (2) 
that of the cursive form. If the latter only the mere frag- 
ment of the original has survived, while the stem is the acci- 
dental line which is made by the brush in its course downward 
to the beginning of the next character which the writer would 
make below. 

Dr. Walter Hough, of the U. S. National Museum, called 
my attention to the fact thai seven is in some parts of the 
world frequently written with a short cross-line. If this were 
shown to be a very old form of the figure then a third possible 
development is suggested. 

Eight again appears to bear no resemblance to the original 
Chinese numeral, but as with six, so with eight, we need only 
to study the varying forms of the primitive character. The 
original form becomes in the cursive writing variously written. 
The last twirl is simply the natural movement that comes in 
with our way of writing from left to right. 

The typical form of the Chinese figure nine is noted in the 
table. Like the rest when dashed off by a rapid writer it is 
made without ever taking up the brush between the strokes 
but the two run together as 
I l^b-S'^yt^ °"^- ^f instead of making 
^ _ g ju. pi ^ the curved line to the right, 

"" "" ^ the writing instrument is 

•^ *■ S ^ h ^ ^ y* drawn downward, we get a 
figure closely resembling 



I I I «> u » V 1 « 



For the sake of further 
_.jmparison, another partial 
•""^l^^'-^/J /.'„";?,'.*«■ '"S^^^J'i; table taken from that of the 

■CHIPTION (INDIAN) 3— EASTERN r. r> -. a .- i xi 

AKAHic. Enc. Brit., Article on Nu- 

merals, is given here. 
It will be noticed in the above that the Nana Ghat characters 
fur one, two and three are the same as those of the Chinese sys- 
tem iind thus point us back to a time when the Chinese numeral 
characters were used in their original forms. The same is true as 
regards the next line of Cave Inscription characters with the ad- 
dilion that the two straight marks of the figure two are joined 
together by a stroke as in the form given in the column of 
frequent and accidental forms in Table No. i, while the char- 
acter for eight in the Cave Inscription forms is like that for 
eight in the column just referred to, and from which our figure 
is here derived. Again, the forms for one, two and three in 
the Eastern Arabic characters are practically the same as those 
we now use, and at the same time plainly near their Chinese 
originals ; while nine of this system is of the same form as 
that given in Table No- i for its development out of the Chi- 
nese character. 

Now should the explanation here proposed be found to be 
according to the facts, the question would be : How did the 



NUMERAL CHARACTERS. 



283 



west come into possession of these written signs? In John- 
son's Encyclopedia is this statement : " Arabian numerals or 
figures: the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, C, 7. 8, 9, o, which Euro- 
peans received through the Arabs from the Hindus." In 
agreement with this, we find in the Encyclopedia Britannica 
these statements : " Thus far, recent inquirers are agreed. 
The disputed points are : (1) the origin and age of the Indian 
system; (2) whether or not a less developed system without 
zero but with the nine other ciphers used on an abacus entered 
Europe before the rise of Islam and prepared the way for a 
complete decimal notation." (Enc, Brit., Vol. XVII. p, 626.) 

We have here, therefore, in these two sources a plain set- 
ting-forth of what is the accepted doctrine, namely, that 
ciphers with zero are from India by way of Arabia. Now upon 
this hypothesis, if the argument for the real origin of the 
digits be sustained upon fuller evidence, then the Indo- Arabian 
system was developed out of the Chinese system ; and is in 
reality a Sino-Indian system; and so the question of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica of "The Origin and Age of the 
Indian System " is answered. 

But another way of accounting for the widespread knowl- 
edge and use of this most convenient method of writing num- 
bers may not be overlooked, namely, their natural develop- 
ment out of a primitive form which has been kept alive by the 
Chinese through the stretch of centuries, but which was com- 
mon to other primitive peoples who occupied a neighboring 
territory to that of the Chinese before their immigration and 
settlement in central Asia, and by people who wrote, not with 
the brush but with a stiff instrument. 

In conclusion, 

A. THE DIGITS WERE RECEIVED BY US 
THROUGH THE ARABS FROM THE HINDUS. If 
this proposition is correct then upon the basis of the argu- 
ment, the question of the origin of the Indian System is 
answered by pushing the inquiry a step farther back to China 
for the originals of our digits. 

B. THE DIGITS A DEVELOPMENT FROM 
ANCIENT PICTURE-WRITING. If our digits are a develop- 
ment out of a primitive mode of writing pictures for the 
numerals still in use among the Chinese but developed out of 
these without special reference to the Chinese method by per- 
haps a number of different peoples (as the Aryans and others) 
who had some kind of commercial intercourse, and all about 
the same time, the knowledge of them is not necessarily 
solely from India or Arabia, but an acquisition made very 
early by our ancestors and handed down in the same way of 
other inherited knowledge, , 

In either case if what is here assumed be also a correct 
reading of the facts then not the Japanese and Koreans alone 
have profited by borrowing from this ancient dfposUum of 
practical arts and inventive genius — China, but the whole civil- 



284 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ized world by adopting and developing and turning to the 
highest practical use the digits, the art of printing and the 
mariner's compass, than which no other group of the same 
number has played so important a part in the world's progress 
from a state of higher barbarism to that of civilization and 
enlightenment. 

ANCIENT GEMS. 

BY MARTHA ADELAIDE CURL. 

In ''Archaeology" the term "gem" means an engraved 
stone of the precious kinds, and " even small engraved por- 
tions of hard and primitive rocks which have been set or worn 
as jewels by the ancients," 

The use and adaptation of gems for purposes of adornment 
and embellishment dates back to the remotest antiquity. 
Precious stones of fabulous value scintillated from their set- 
tings in the heads of Pagan gods, and their counterparts glit- 
tered and sparkled in the breast-plates of Jewish high priests. 
They are found encrusted in the mosaic and architectural work 
of excavated ruins of ancient civilization. The "Hundred 
Gated Thebes " has thrown out from the dust of its moulder- 
ing splendor half buried beneath the debris of time and tem- 
pest, carved gems — intaglios and the royal signet rings 
of long ago dead sovereigns ; and they — gems — are found 
frequently in illustration of rhetorical figures with symbolic 
significance and with connoted points of emulation in the 
Holy Scriptures. The inspired, graphic description of the 
New Jerusalem contains eloquent mention of precious stones 
among other materials — the author bringing the description of 
the construction of that apotheosis of a city within the imagi- 
native conception of the human mind. 

While the beauty of gems may be such as to appeal to even 
the primitive eye and untutored taste, which would seem to 
indicate that they were designed by the Creator to minister to 
a natural and worthy love and admiration for the beautiful 
implanted in humanity, it is nevertheless true that they shine 
most surely and variously, and meet with more intelligent 
appreciation amidst civilized environment. For it requires a 
degree of hard labor on the one hand and of artistic skill on 
the other to find, possess and perfect these rare bits of apoth- 
eosized carbon and crystalized mineral which do not charac- 
terize man in the savage or barbaric state. Not until he 
has come out of the wilderness and risen above the exigencies 
of necessity — material wants — does his mind and attention 
turn to the aesthetic values of such things found in Nature, or 
which contrivance and industry on his part can effect to 
produce— somewhat of art or its beginnings. 

The rough pebble or crude gem in its matrix shows in a 
measure the potentialities of the finished sparkling jewel artis- 
tically cut ; and some conception of its possibilities may occur 



ANCIENT GEMS. 285 

to the imagination of the untutored child of the wilderness or 
plain, as he comes upon it by accident in his roamings, altho' 
he has never seen a walled city of the Orient or an unwalled 
metropolis of the Occident, or known, or dreamed, an atom of 
urbane refinement or modern progress, or any personal deco- 
ration more rational or attractive than the trophies of tribal 
warfare dangling from neck and girdle or the plumes of an 
eagle in his crest. 

The aborigine knows one, and but one, elevating influence 
from the beginning — that is Nature's incomparable panorama 
of sky and landscape and sea. But this affords and pre- 
sents to him such an infinite variety of phases, such .an inex- 
haustible source of living interest, of food for contemplation, 
study, wonder and feeling, speculation and imagination, that 
he finds in it a god to worship — indeed a number of deities, 
each with his peculiar sphere of power and greatness and 
grace — endowed with glory and beneficence; andhe finds therein 
the inspiration and the correspondence to every possible mood 
or fancy of his own mercurial mind and superstitious character. 
Not only that, but the poet in him finds the color and form, 
the beauty and sublimity, the grace and the grandeur, the sub- 
tlety of light and shade and meaning — (all of which contrast 
forcibly, and go to prove the one step from the Divine 
Maker)— all of these he finds and meets face to face, and they 
constitute all which form the pristine material from which 
spring Science and Art when acted upon by that philosopher's 
stone — the mind of man. 

So the savage lives nearest Nature and Nature's richest 
stores — most priceless products ; and being imbued with the 
spirit that pervades it all, he doubtless has, though he may not 
be able to segregate it from the multitude of othw impres- 
sions which crowd his unsystematised, untrained mind — the 
unclassified lore which to a scientist would perchance be 
material for many books, but which only make the primitive 
man more wise without rendering him more useful. He has 
perhaps that innate appreciative understanding of the radiant 
gem which is not more opalline or irridescent than the sea and 
sky where the eternal stars and planets and suns shine and pass 
in procession and marvelous phenomena. 

But it is in the diadems of kings that the gem has found 
its crown of setting. Among the crown jewels of various 
monarchs of the earth are found the most valuable gems 
known. Church and state have appropriated them to a great 
extent in the Old World, but in republics where there is no 
hereditary royalty— no supremacy but the intellectual and 
commercial — there are found among the princely fortunes of 
a few some gems that can compare even with continental tra- 
ditional wealth in exquisite fineness and estimated value. 

There is much mention of gems in Ancient History. And 
although in celebrated collections of gems forgeries are some- 
times found, there are about 10,000 reputed to be antique — a 



286 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. } 



mere fragment of those formerly (.xisting. Among valuabl 
gems known to fame in antiquity are the pearls and emeralds 
owned by Lallia Paulina, wife of Caligula, valued at ^^320.000; 
the pearl swallowed by Cleopatra, valued at ^80,000 ; the scab- 
bard of Mithridates, 400 talents, or £y,^22 ; and one given by 
Julius C^sar to Servila, ^£4,800. 

One of tile most ancient uses of gems was as signets — seals — 
according to history and Gr<:ek mythology. 

In the minute description of Aaron's breastplate, the set- 
tings of stones were disposed in four rows, and engraved with' 
the names of the children of Israel "like the engravings of 
a signet— according to the twelve tribes." The stones were in 
order- sardius (carnelian), topaz, carbuncle, emerald, sapphire, 
dj^amond, ligure, agate, ametnyst, beryl, onyx, and jasper. 
*^ An early instance is the emerald of Polycrates about 700 
B. C. There are laws of Solon against counterfeiting signets. 
The writings of Platonists and Stoics allude to gems. The 
earliest Greek intaglios are supposed to have been cut from the 
scarabaei of Etruscan work. Later their use was general. 

Pyroteles and Appollonides were the names of two cele- 
brated engravers — the first having engraved the portrait of 
Alexander the Great. Ptolemy V, presented as a gift his por- 
trait engraved on an emerald to Lucullus. 

Earlier or contemporaneous with the Greek school was the 
Etruscan consisting of scarabs — entirely carved out of sardius, 
cornelian and agate, e.\quisite work but generally severe in 
style, with subjects derived from earliest Hellenic myths and 
occasional inscriptions in Etruscan language. The engravings 
were surrounded with a guilloche or engraved border, and the 
scarab pierced through its long axis to set as rings or wear as 
an article of adornment. These date probably from the be- 
ginning to the middle of the 3rd century B. C, when Etruria 
fell into the power of the Romans, 

The devise of Pompey was a lion carrying a sword ; that of I 
Carsar, Venus armed with a dart. I 

Passion for these charming little works of art led Scaurus ] 
step-son of Sylla, to make a collection of gems, Pompey sent ' 
the collection to Mithridates as an offering to the Capitol. 
And Ca;sar presented si.x such collections to the shrine of Veni 



r to the Palatine Apollo. 
who engraved the gems are some- 



Genetrix; and Marcellus a 

The names of the arti 
times found upon them. 

Cameos, or gems in relief, appear at the period of the Ro- 
man Empire. The term is applied to engraving on stones of 
two or more layers, such as ony.x sardonyx, and different from 
the relief gems cut out of stones of one color. Ancient speci- 
mens of these are of the greatest rarety. The most remark- 
able ancient cameos known, are those of a Vienna collection sup- 
posed to represent in engraving the Apotheosis of Augustus. 
These were worn on articles of attire . Names of the artists 
are rarely found upon these. 



ANCIENT GEMS, 



3B7 



The themes of engraving on ancient gems run the whole 
gamut of ancient art, in successive stages of development:^ 
animal forms, deities and mythologic battles, heroic exploits, 
tragedy and myths later— portraits, historic representations 
and allegories. Inscriptions were numerous and varied ; names 
of deities and persons, legends, dedications, gnomic sayings^ 
indicating amulets and charms for procuring love, mottoes and 
distichs of poetry. These were often added subsequently and 
do not always betoken the gem's first appearance. 

Owing to the production of false antique stones by skilled 
engravers of modern times, the diagnosis of gems is rendered 
so difficult that that branch of archceology requires great judg 
ment to guard against deception, 

"The general fall of arts at the period of the Byzantine 
Empire seems to have been accompanied by a decline in the 
art of engraving on gems." 

"The art which had declined at the close of the 16th cen- 
tury in Italy flourished in the 17th century in Germany under 
Rudolph II., for whom Lehmann engraved at Vienna; and in 
France where Coldore worked for Henry IV. and Louis XIII. 
In the 17th century Sirletti, who died at Rome in 1737 excell- 
ed in portraits and copied antique statues with great excell- 
ence. The two Constaniii are celebrated in 1790. Rega. of 
Naples, is said to have come nearest the antique. Natter, of 
Nuremburg. who died in 1763. is celebrated for his intaglios — 
the greatest artist of the age." 

In the dark and middle ages ancient gems were preserved in 
shrines, chasubles and other ecclesiastical vtssels in which they 
were set. Collecting them as works of art originated with 
Lorenzo dc Medici, who formed the Florentine collection and 
had his name incised on the gems. The European collections 
comprising those acquired by various monarchs, contain nu- 
merous rich and rare gems of all sorts. The British Museum 
contains a collection of about 500 stones; besides these are a 
few notable private collections. 

As to the origin and nature — the chemical analysis of the 
precious stones — we find the diamond, the hardest and most 
brilliant of substances, chemically pure carbon — crystalized 
— one might say apotheosized — thus differing from a bit of 
charcoal, which is amorphous and uncrystalized. The diamond 
is the most valuable of gems with the exception of the ruby, 
which after the weight of three or four karats is passed sur- 
passes it in rarcty and price. 

The geologic proccsi by which diamonds are formed is that 
of certain conditions: — enormous heat and stupendous pres- 
sure both brought to bear upon carbon at the same time and 
crystalizing it. This takes place in small vents known as 
"chimneys," through which great quantities of molten matter 
are expelled quickly by volcanic convulsion. The diamond is 
a product of the heat and pressure induced by this violent, 
sudden and forcible movement. 



att THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The value of diamonds is determined partly by weight and ' 
partly by tjuality; and cutting adds to their commercial value. 
The most transparent are said to be of the first water. Dia- 
monds in color are found white or colorless, blue, yellow, 
brown, rose-red. and even black. They are found in rocks and 
clay veins, as crystal or rolled grains, and imbedded in matrices. 
For equal weight the white and rose-tinted of the first water 
arc the most valuable. They increase in value vastly out of 
proportion to variation in weight. 

The first diamonds known to the Romans were, it is said. 
brought from Ethiopia; but the mines of Golconda were 
known in the ist century, and from that time till one hundred 
years ago India was the possessor of ihe most valuable dia- 
mond mines in existence- Diamonds were brought from Bor- 
neo, Malacco, and other parts o( the east until the i8th cen- 
tury. They are now found in Brazil, Australia, and the East 
Indies, and Africa, the latter now furnishing most of the 
world's supply. 

The sapphire has a distinguished attitude, and is a little 
more comprehensive than the others. The finest ruby is a 
specimen '6( the sapphire ; and a colorless sapphire of the 
finest quality may be easily taken for a diamond ; while the 
blue variety popularly known as the sapphire is a charming 
stone. It thus enjoys a versatility and range that is unij^ue and 
enviable and a supremacy that is historic and interesting. It 
was one of " the twelve that shone on Aaron's breast-plate " ; 
and so the ruby receives distinguished mention in the Script- 
ures as emblematic of wisdom and virtue. 

Of these minorstones the ruby stands first in point of value, 
rarity and appreciation, and even rivals the diamond. A speci- 
men of true pigeon blood color and of transparent purity even 
excels the diamond. It is regarded by mineralogists as a red 
variety of sapphire. The finest rubies are found in the east — 
Ceylon, Burmah, Syria and Peru. 

The emerald ranks next to the ruby. Its value depends 
much jpon its freedom from flaws, as well as color. When of 
a velvety green it is extremely beautiful. It is regarded as a 
variety of the same species as Beryl ; and again, as in the case 
of the ruby, the Oriental Emerald is the name applied to a 
fine green variety of sapphire. The finest emeralds are brought 
from South America. They are also found in Upper Egypt — 
probably the source from which the ancients, by whom they 
were highly prized, obtained them. Pliny mentions the t 
aid in his writings, and many carved ones were found in the 
ruins of Thebes. They were used by the ancients to make 
eyeglasses — Nero looked through an emerald at the contests in 
the arena; and artists in sculpture used the emerald to "re- 
fresh " the sight. 

The blue sapphire comes next. More abundant than the 
former stones, it is found in various parts of the east, partic 
larly Ceylon, famous for its rubies and sapphires. Its forr 



ANCIENT GEMS. 289 

tion is usually crystallized in six-sided prisms terminated by 
pyramids, in alluvial soils, embedded in clay^» and associated 
with gneiss and granite. Among the Greeks the sapphire was 
sacred to Jupiter. 

The topaz is much valued for jeweller's purposes. Either 
colorless, blue, green, or yellow, its crystals are translucent, 
harder than quartz and lustrous. They are found in primitive 
rocks. The finest and most prized come from Brazil. 

Amethyst is a variety of quartz, differing from common 

Suartzof rock crystal chiefly in its beautiful purple violet color, 
^wing to its comparative abundance, it is much inferior in 
value to other gem stones. By the ancients it was much 
esteemed for the virtuous properties it was supposed to 
possess, and was worn as an amulet against intoxication with 
wine. The name, indeed, is derived from the Greek word 
signifying un-intoxicated. It is found as a mineral in Europo 
and the Orient. 

The pearl, as everyone knows, is the product of certain 
marine and fresh water moUusks, chiefly the pearl oyster, and 
is owing to the fluid secretion with which they line their shells; 
coatings of this being applied in self-defence by the sensitive 
creature to cover and surround a grain of sand or other foreign 
particle that intrudes within the shell and has an irritating 
effect. Tha pearl is a detached or sometimes adhesive bit of 
the lustrous, shining, smooth substance thus formed, which is 
called when hardened nacre. 

Secured by divers, the pearl oyster shells are sometimes 
nine by twelve inches in diameter. The most famous pearl 
fisheries and finest pearls are those of the East — the coast of 
Ceylon, Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf, and India; also found 
off Panama, South America, and the West Indies. Varying 
greatly in size, pearls range from those as large as a pea, to 
minute seed pearls, and in tint from pure white through pink 
to jet black — the latter rare and costly. 

There are river pearls also; and Bavaria has a fresh water 
pearl fishery where fine specimens are found. 

All pearls have a market value — the inferior ones, small 
and imperfect, are crushed or ground to powder, and the pearl 
dust used for polishing the finer pearls, and the powder is also 
used by the Chinese in pharmacy. Imitation pearls are ex- 
tensively and skillfully made. 

The opal — ominous and enchanting stone — differs from 
quartz in containing five to thirteen per cent, of water. Its 
structure is not crystalline. It has a conchoidal fracture and 
is easily broken. The finest is called precious opal, or noble 
opal. Usually of a bluish or yellowish white hue, it is polished 
with convex surface, never cut in facets, its colors best ex- 
hibited so. 

This gem, too, was a favorite with the ancients. The Roman 
Senator Nonius ** preferred exile to giving up an opal to Mark 
Antony." Pliny mentions the same, ascribing to it a great 



290 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

value. The Imperial Cabinel of Vienna contains the most 
celebrated opal now known — five by two and one-half inches. 1 
Opals arc brought from Hungary, Saxony, and South America. 1 

SENTIMENTS AND SUPERSTITIONS. 

The sentiments and superstitions regarding precious stones 
make a theme replete with interest: ancients and moderns 
alike have entertained them. Whether one has faith or not, 
the fancies are attractive. 

Ascribed as birth-stones to the various months, one's re- 
spective ^em is supposed to serve as a mascot or talisman, its 
magical influence to guard from misfortune and evil. The 
garnet for January signifies constancy; dedicated to February 
the amethyst ensures contcnt.nent; March — blood-stone, em- 
blematic of courage and fortitude; April— diamond, innocence; 
May— emerald, love and happiness; June — agate, health, 
wealth and long life, (or else the pearl — purity); July^ruby. 
nobility of mind; August — sardonyx (or moonstone), conjugal 
felicity; September — sapphire, to prevent mental unrest; 
October — opal, hope; November— topaz, for friendship and 
true love; December— turquoise, for success in life. Allied 
with the influence of the stone is the astral influence of the 
stars in one's horoscope. 

OTHER SUPERSTITIONS. 

Opals have been long noted for being unlucky, but on the 
other hand are regarded as just the reverse when their influence 
is enlisted for, instead of against one: and among the ancients 
ihey were held in high favor, and had the reputation of giving 
courage and strength of nerve to the timid, and of fostering 
enterprises; and as potent to give one safe conduct through 
itorms of thunder and lightening. Sir Walter Scott in "Anne 
of (iierslein" is said to have suggested, if not helped along 
the cause of the opal's fame for ominous qualities. 

To pearls has from ancient times been ascribed the power 
of inspiring love— hence Cleopatra's costly beverage of her 
fincit pearl dissolved in wine for Anthony. But for better pur- 
poses, reduced to powder and mixed with milk, pearls are said 
to cure fevers and sooth irritable nerves. 

Diamonds are credited with the power of insuring in the 
individual the wise insight of intuition. And sapphire to 
clarify the mind, develop the creative imagination, and favor 
scientific research, and alsc antidotes the venom of reptiles. 
The luby is said to imbue its loyal owner with an enterprising 
spirit; also to drive away ghosts and calm anger. The tur- 
quoise "true blue" preserves from danger of falling from 
heights, and indicates the state of one's health. The chal- 
ce.lony is the talismanic stone for travelers, explorers, and 
those bent on hazardous exploits. A black agate is supposed 
to "confound the politics" of one's enemies — appropriate for 
■tatesmcn — and ensure one's personal victory Amcthyits are 
for those who need to resist temptation to drink. The came- 



i 

i 

I 



I 



I 



came- ■ 



ANCIENT GEMS. api 

' lian secures fortune's favor; but onyx is baleful to the wearer 
at night. Garnets are worn in Bombay and Brazil to ward off 
the plague and yellow fever. Jasper is antipodistic to melan- 
choly and disease. Sardonyx procures honors, wordly posi- 
tion and rising fame for the wearer. 



THE NATIVE RACES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.* 



A REVIEW BY J. W. MURPHY. 

Regarded from an ethnological point of view, this is one 
of the most satisfactory works recently published. In 
fact, so thoroughly is it done that it is probably within 
bounds to assert that a careful study ot its pages will make 
us as well acquainted with the natives of Central Australia — 
their social and political organizatian. manners and customs, 
arts and industries, traditions, myths, rites, and ceremon- 
ies — as we are with tribes that are nearer home, and with 
whose institutions we are supposed to be more familiar. 

Important as such thorough investigations are at all 
times, they have, in this case, an added interest for us in so 
far as they necessitate a radical change in the opinion we 
have hitherto held of the Australian's position in the scale 
of progress. Instead of groveling in the lowest depths of 
savagery, as we have been accustomed to picture him, it is 
now in order to assign him a place which (except, perhaps, 
in the development of a few industries) is but little inferior 
to that occupied by our own Indiana. Certainly, in the 
capacity he has shown for social and political organization 
he has nothing to fear from a comparison with his savage 
compeers here or elsewhere; and in everything that relates 
to his intercourse with his neiglibors, and with other tribes, 
to say nothing of the consideration with which he treats his 
■women and children, and especially the eld and infirm, he 
IB not behind, if, indeed, he is not, mentally and morally, 
somewhat in advance of the standard by which we assume 
to measure his progress. 

Of course this is but another way of saying that these 
tribes, like savages everywhere, have the virtues and vices 
of their condition, and consequently that resemblances more 
or less striking are to be expected in their customs, insti- 
tutions, and mode of life generally. This, we need not add, 
is apparent even to the most casual reader; and yet in spite 
of the uniformity that is to be found at the base of most of 
their institutions, there are differences existing, not only 
between tribes that are far apart, but among those in close 



2g2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

proximity to each other, so numerous and so pronounced in 
character as to call for an explanation. Take, for example, 
the question of descent, and we tind that in some of these 
tribes it is in the paternal, and in others in the maternal. 
line, and^that "it is not yet possible to say which of the 
two methods is the more widely practised" or the more 
primitive. So, too, in regard to the system of org'anization 
known as the toteraic, and to some of the obligations and 
limitations to which it gives rise. Among the Urabunna, 
for instance, totems govern marriage, and children belong 
to the mother's totem; while among their next neighbors— 
the Arunia— totems have nothing to do with marriage, 
though the tribe, like all central Australians, is divided 
into two exogamons intermarrying groups; and a child's 
totem, owing to a belief in what may be termed the theory 
of reincarnation, "will sometimes be found to be the same 
as that of the father, sometimes the same as that of the 
mother, and not infrequently it will be different from that 
of either parent." Other differences there are in the privi- 
leges and restrictions that belong to this particular system 
of organization, ju.st as there are in some of the ceremonies 
connected with the rite of initiation, and in a few of their 
arts and industries. It is unnecessary, however, to refer to 
them in detail, as they are one and all believed to be of 
degree and not of kind, and hence do not indicate a differ- 
ence in race. On this point our authors hold very decided 
opinions, for, after telling us, that ''this great continent 
was most probably jteopled by men who entered from the 
the north," they add: 

"The most striking fact in regard to these at the present 
day is, that, over the whole continent, so far as is known, 
we can detect a community of customs and -social organiza- 
tions sulticient to show that all the tribes inhabiting various 
parts are the offsprings of ancestors who, prior to their 
migrating in various directions across the continent, and 
thus giving rise to groups separated to a great extent from 
oue another by physical barriers, already practiced certain 
customs and had the germs of organization which has de- 
veloped along different lines in different localities." 

In other words, they hold, and, as we think, justly, that 
the fact of the existence of a custom, or a form of organi- 
zation, among two or more tribes is a proof of uniformity 
that cannot be gainsaid by differences that may have super- 
vened in the way such a custom or system is observed or 
followed. 

Among the other questions that are here discussed and 
have for us a special interest, may be mentioned the fact 
that, in declaring their belief in the former existence of 
group marriage among these people, our authors bear out 
Morgan's theory on this point, though the contrary opinion, 
as held by McLennan, Curr, and others, has of late, been 




THE NATIVE RACES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA 293 

much in vogue. We are also told, somewhat to our surprise, 
that ** marriage by capture, which has been so frequently 
described as characteristic of Australian tribes, is the very 
rarest way in which a Central Australian secures a wife," 
thus, or course, doing away with the accoant, once frmiliar 
to most of us, of a band of savages lying in wait by a water- 
hole against the coming of the lubras for water, when such 
of them as were rebuired were seized, **and if they attempted 
to make any resistance, they were struck down insensible 
and dragged off." So, too, contrary to what we have hith- 
erto been taught, we are now to learn that the practice of 
sub-incision could not have been instituted for the purpose 
of preventing or even checking procreation, for the simple 
reascn that it does nothing of the kind. This is proved by 
the fact that ** every man without exception throughout the 
central area, in all tribes in which the rite is practiced, is 
sub-incised. ... He must be before he is allowed to 
take a wife, and infringement of this rule would simply 
mean death to him if found out." 

Infanticide, not sub-incision, is said to be the explana- 
tion of the small size of the average family, and it is re- 
sorted to '*not with any idea at all of regulating the food 
supply, so far as the adults are concerned, but simply from 
the point of view that, if the mother is suckling one child, 
she cannot properly provide food for another, quite apart 
from the question of carrying two children about." Pow- 
erful as this practice must have been in keeping down the 
population, it was probably not so destructive in its effects 
as was the belief in sorcery. Among them, for instance 
(and the same thing will apply to our Indians), ** there is no 
such thing as belief in natural death; however old or de- 
crepit a man or woman may be when this takes place, it is 
at once supposed that it has been brought about by the 
magic influence of some enemy, and in the normal condition 
of the tribe the death of one individual is followed by the 
murder of some one else, who is supposed to be guilty of 
having caused the death." 

C In an appendix we have a table of the bodily measure- 
ments ol twenty men and ten women, the majority of whom 
belonged to the Arunta tribe. Limiting ourselves to the men 
and to what is termed the cephalic index, we find that it 
ranges 68.8, to the extreme of dolichocephalism, through 
all the different degrees of mesaticephalism to 80.55, which 
is just within the limit of sub-brachycephalism. As the 
group of which this tribe forms one, has been, for **long 
ages locally isolated " and ** shut off from contact with other 
peoples," the variation here noted would seem to show that 
there is practically no limit to the differences that may be 
found in the head-form of a people of relatively pure breed, 
and, consequently, that the cephalic index is of little or no 
value as an indication of race. 



?9t THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

In conclusion, it may not be out of place to call attention 
to the fact that, rude as is the Australians' code of morals, 
"their conduct is governed by it, and any known breaches are 
dealt with both surely and severely." 

Especially is this true of the infractions of any regulation 
governing the intercourse belween the sexes. These are 
punished by death, or in some severe manner, and, curiously 
enough, the reason assigned for such severity is that the offence 
is against the tribe, and " has no relation to the feelings of the 
individual." In thus transferring the duly of punishment from 
tlie individual to the tribe, these people may be said to have 
reached a level of development not yet attained by some of 
us who are rated much higher in ihs scale of progress. 

Generosity, we may add, is one of their leading features, as 
it is always their custom to give a share of their food, or what 
they may possess, to their fellows, and particularly lo the 
children and to the aged and infirm, who are unable to provide 
for themselves. Of courre, there were times of scarcity, and 
possibly they were frequent here, owing lo the inhospitablt 
nature of the soil. But when times are favorable the "black 
fellow," we are told, is lighlheartcd, lives in the present, and 
gives no thought as to what the morrow may bring forth. 

At night time men, women, and children gather round the 
common camp-fires, talking and singing their monotonous 
chants hour after hour, until one after the other they drop out 
of the circle, going off to their different camps, and then at 
length all will be quiet, except for the occasional cry of a child 
who, as not seldom happens, rolls over into the fire and has to 
be comforted or scolded into quietness. Granted always that 
his food supply is abundant, it may be said that the life of the 
Australian native is, for the most part, a pleasant one. 

TORTURES AMONG THE ABORIGINES. 

That torture was practised among the aborigines, especially 
at the time of the initiation of their warriors, is well known. 
Catlin has described the manner in which they inflicted these 
tortures, and has given a plate in his works which Illustrates it. J 
The custom has disappeared from among most of the tribes,] 
but survives among a tew, as will be shown from the following^ 
clipping from a Spokane (Washington) newspaper. 

"Yakima Indians on the reservation near Toppenish, 
Wash., gave a medicine dance this week. Half of the tribe, 
including Chief White Swan, is civilized. Old customs and 
dances have long been abolished. Two hundred Indians 
gathered unknown to the chief and performed the rites. Seven 
candidates for the place of medicine man underwent severe 
tests of endurance. Every day the candidates would torture 
themselves. Fire brands were applied to the bare skin until 
the flesh dropped from the bones. Gashes were cut on the 
back and breast. The one who withstood these self-inflicted 
tortures longest won the position." 



I 
I 



A 



THE DELUGE TABLETS. 

BY REV. J. N. FRADENBURGH. 

The year 1872 is memorable in the history of Oriental dis- 
covery. In the autumn of that year, George Smith, assistant in 
the Assyrian department of the British Museum, whose genius 
in this line of research has been seldom equalled, and, perhaps, 
never, excelled, discovered among the thousands of tablets 
that once belonged to the library of Assurbanipal, King of 
Assyria, the half of a clay tablet that apparently had been 
divided into three columns, and in the third column of the 
front side read: *' On the mountain Nizir, the ship stood still. 
Then I took a dove out, and let her fly. The dove flew hither 
and thither; but, since there was no resting-place there, she 
returned back to the ship." He did not find the remainder of 
this tablet; but succeeded in piecing out from many fragments 
parts of two others. These completed the text, and furnished 
several various readings. One of the copies contained the 
colophen: "The property of Assurbanipal, the king of hosts, 
the king of the land of Assyria," and also the interesting state- 
ment that this account of the Deluge was the eleventh canto 
of a series of twelve. Here, then, was a great heroic poem, 
which was afterward found to consist of about three thousand 
lines and to celebrate the exploits of an old King of Erech. 

In 1882, Sir Henry Rawlinson pointed out the fact that has 
gaitied wide acceptance, that these twelve cantos symbolize 
the course of the sun through the heavens during the year of 
twelve months. This has been worked out with great learning 
and patience by several Assyriologists, and its application to 
the sixth, seventh, and eleventh months — and, perhaps, some 
others as well — may be considered unquestionable. The eleventh 
canto in three copies is the best preserved of the series, only the 
beginning being much mutilated. 

In 1878, Hormuzd Rassam brought from Mesopotamia a 
fragment of a tablet; and at a little later date the Museum 
acquired still another, with the beginning of the story nearly 
perfect. Paul Haupt, working in the Museum, made further 
discoveries in 1882. We are indebted to this accomplished 
scholar for the publication of all the discovered material, the 
arrangement of the incidents in their order, and probably the 
most accurate translation. Prof. Jastrow. in his *' The Religion 
of Babylonia and Assyria," presents a masterly analysis of the 
work, to which I am especially indebted. 

The centre of the action in the first tablet of the series is the 
city of Uruk, or Erech, a walled city in southern Babylonia, 
known as the place of seven walls. This was the capital of a 
kingdom which was probably|contemporaneous with the earliest 



|206 



THE AMERrCAN ANTIQUARIAN 



period o! Babylonian history. In the first canto, the city has 
been besieged by some enemy for three years. '1 he greatest 
confusion prevails, and calamities, some of them unnatural, are 
multiplied. 

With the second canto appears the name of the enemy. 
GiJgamesh has entered the city and is in full control. We learn 
but little of his nationality. He is from Marada. Jastrow says 
^ihat. "as seems certain," he is a Cassite. Not from the text 
■.itself, but from his representations on certain very ancient seal 
■ cylinders, we may conclude that he belongs to an era preceding 
I the third millennium. His oppression of Uruk is very severe. 
[so that the people appeal to I he goddesss Aruru, the creator of 
I mankind, to create a hero who may successfully resist the con- 
r queror. She thereupon takes a piece of clay and creates the 
Itialf-human and half-animal Eabani. He lives in a state of 
^nature, and yet consorts with domestic as well as wild animals: 

" Eating herbs with gazelles, 
Drinking from a trough with cattle, 
Sporting with the creatures of the waters." 

^ He is ensnared by the harlot Ukhat, and accompanies her to 
Uruk. 

The three following cantos have been much mutilated, ar.d 
little can be made out of them. Gilgamesh gains Fabaniasan 
ally in a war against Khumbaba, the Elamite. who threatens 
Uruk. The account of this war is not given, yet the struggle 
► Bgainst this enemy seems to have been successful. 
I The sixth canto begins with the celebration of the victory, 
I And now Ishtar makes love to thu hero, but is rejected. He 
[ reminds her that many who have hitherto accepted her love 
r h»ve met with a sad fate, cursed by her magical power. In a 
' rage, she leils the story of her insult to her father Anu; and. 
tt her urgent request, the god creates a divine bull, Alu, to de- 
stroy the hero, but the latter, with the assistance of Eabani, 
slays Alu. Then, standing on the wall of Uruk. Ishtar utters 
the curse: 



Uenges the goddess to a per- 
contempt throws the carcass 



At this, Eabani is aroused and chal 
Bonal combat, and to express his 
of the bull into her face. 

The seventh and eighth tablets are represented only by 
•mall fragments. We only learn that a fatal disease, probably 
I jent through the wrath of Ishtar, seii^es upon Eabani, and causes 
\ hi* death. 

In the ninth tablet Gilgamesh mourns the loss of Jiis friend. 

I now the hero himself is taken with a mortal disease. He 

' heard of one named Parnapishtim, who has escaped the 

on fate of man, and in some f?,r-distant country enjoys 

»tnort,ility. He determines to visit him, and learn the secret 




THE DELUGE TABLETS. 297 

of his exemption from death. He sets out, and encounters 
many dangers. The mountain Mashu is a place of many ter- 
rors. It has two entrances, the places where the sun rises and 
sets, and these are guarded by scorpion men, 

" Of terror-inspiring aspect, whose appearance is deadly. 
Of awful splendor, shattering mountains," 

but the hero is permitted to pass. He reaches the shore, where 
are the palace and the throne of Sabitum. She forbids his 
further progress, but at length, yielding to his pleadings, she 
consents, if he can but persuade the ferryman Ardi-Ea. This 
ocean surrounds and extends beneath the earth, and beyond is 
the great gathering place of the dead. The ferryman consents, 
and he crosses safely in the venturesome boat. The hero 
reaches the home of Parnapishtim, who tells him it is impos- 
sible for mortal man to escape death. This carries us on to the 
eleventh canto, the episode of the Deluge. 

The hero of our story inquires how it is that Parnapishtim 
himself has escaped death, and this calls forth the story of the 
Deluge. There was a city, Shurippak by name, situated on the 
Euphrates, that became very corrupt, and its destruction by a 
mighty storm was determined at a council of the gods. Ea, the 
god of wisdom and creator of mankind, warns Parnapishtim in 
a dream: 

" Erect a structure, build a ship, 
Abandon your goods, look after the souls, 
Throw aside your possessions, and save your life, 
Load the ship with all kinds of living things." 

Directions are given as to the dimensions of the shif), and the 
plan of the building. Parnapishtim inquires what explanation 
he shall give when the people ask him as to the purpose of the 
building. He is told to reply that he is going to dwell with Ea, 
since Bel, the god of the earth, has cast him out of his territory, 
and is ordered to announce the coming calamity to the people: 

" Over you a rainstorm will come, 
Men, birds, and beasts will perish.'* 

Ramman the god of storms will overthrow the devoted city. 
Parnapishtim builds, according to instructions, a flat-bottomed 
boat with upturned edges, such as s*till navigate the Euphrates. 
Upon this is placed the house-boat, its width and height, each 
120 cubits, seven stories high, sixty-three apartments, carefully 
calked, pitched with bitumen within and without, and stored 
with oxen, meal, and wine, for a festival to celebrate its com- 
pletion. 

Parnapishtim places all he has in the ship — gold, silver, 
goods, ** living creatures of all kinds,'* and his whole family. 
He enters the ship and closes the door. The storm comes on — 
rain, winds, thunder, lightning — for seven days. Men and gods 
are terrified. 



2qB THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

" Brother does not look a{ter brother, 
Men care not for another, in the heavens 
Even the gods are terrified at the storm. 
They take refuge in the heaven of Ann. 
The gods cowered like dogs al the edge of the heavens." 

The storm extended beyond Shurippah to Ihc wt.ole countrj', 
and is soon beyond the control of the gods, who helplessly 
mourn and lament. But Bel. who seems alone to have been 
responsible for the unexpected extension of the storm, seeks 
the destruction of the whole race. 

The seventh day the storm ceased, one day more and dry 
land appeared, and the boat stuck fast to the mountain 
Nizir — the name means "salvatio 
remained on the mountain. 



" When the seventh day approached 
I sent forth a dove. 
The dove flew about 
But, finding no resting-place, returned: 
Then I sent forth a swaliow. 
The swallow flew alioiit 
But, finding no resting-place, returned; 
Then I sent forth a raven. 

The raven flew off, and, seeing that the water had decreased. 
Cautiously waded in the mud, but did n 



Six days the ship^^f 
water had decreased, ^^M 



Parnapishtim, who gives this account, leaves the ship, and 
offers sacrifice on the top of the mountain. "The gods breathed 
in the odor; the gods breathed in the sweet odor." They gather 
"like flies around the sacrifice." Ishtar declares that Bel shall 
not enjoy the sacrifice, since he was the cause of the greater 
deluge of waters. As Bel approaches, he is enraged that any 
of the race should have escaped. Ea remonstrates with ' 
for the destruction of the innocent with the guilty: 



'unish the sinner f( 
'unish the evil-doe 


r for his evil deeds; 


!m be: 






.ot out comple 


ie cons 


iiderate not 


to destroy 


everything." 



:iled. Says Parnapishti 



■' Bel c 



o bis s< 



Stepped on board of (he ship. 
Took me by the hand and lifted me up 
Brought up my wife. an(l caused her It 
Turned toward us, stepped between us 
'Hitherto Parnapishtim was human. 
But now Parnapishtim and his wife shi 




Gilgamesh is now permitted to eat magic food and to wash 
himself in the water of life. He is indeed healed of his disease, 
but remains mortal. There is also revealed to him "the secret 
of life," a plant that grows at the bottom or on the side of a 
deep fountain. The ferryman takes him to the place, i 
grasps the plant, but it slips out of his hand and is s 
away by a demon,' 



ace, and hegH 
is snatched ^1 



THE DELUGE TABLETS. 299 

The twelfth canto finds Gilgamesh seeking to learn the secret 
of the future life. Eabani is raised from the dead and ques- 
tioned, but can give no satisfactory answer. And thus the great 
epic ends. 

Jastrow subjects the epic to discriminating study, points out 
the various elements of different ages — historic and natural, 
popular and scholastic^that enter into its composition, and 
compares it with Biblical and other fragments. It does not 
come within the purpose of this article to enter fully into these 
interesting subjects of discussion. 

Parnapishtim is called Adra-Khasis, '* the very pious'*; in 
its original form, it seems to have been Khasis-adra-m — m is an 
emphatic termination, as Jastrow points out, thus doubling the 
emphasis. This latter epithet is distorted in the account of the 
Deluge, written in Greek by the Chaldean priest Berosos in 
the third century before Christ, and appears as Xisuthros. 

According to this account, preserved by Alexander Poly- 
histor and Abydenus, Kronos reveals to Xisuthros in a dream 
that on the fifteenth of the month Daesios all mankind would 
be destroyed by a flood. This Chaldean Noah was the tenth 
King of Babylon. He was commanded to bury the records of 
antiquity in Sippara, the city of the Sun, build a ship, take all 
birds and four-footed beasts, and enter the ship with his family 
and friends. He built the ship 9,000 feet long and 2,000 feet 
wide. The flood came, but seems to have been of brief dura- 
tion. Xisuthros sent forth birds three times; the last time they 
did not return. He made an opening in the ship, and looking 
out found the earth dry again, and his boat stuck fast on a 
mountain. He disembarked with his wife, daughter, and helms- 
man, erected an altar, offered a sacrifice, and then, with those 
who disembarked with him, disappeared. Those who remained 
in the ship called him by name, and heard a voice from the 
skies exhorting them to live a godly life, and telling them that, 
on account of his piety, he had been taken away to the gods, 
and his family and helmsman had been admitted to the same 
honor. They were bidden to return to Babylon and dig up the 
buried records. Hearing this, they offered sacrifices, obeyed 
the directions of the heavenly voice, rebuilt Babylon, and 
founded cities and temples. 

F^re V. Scheil has recently discovered a new account of the 
Deluge. This interesting document is found on a fragment of 
a terra-cotta tablet that originally consisted of eight columns, 
four on a side. Fortunately the superscription remains. When 
any literary work required several tablets, the superscription of 
each repeated its title, which consisted of a few words of the 
beginning. The superscription of this tablet shows that it 
formed the tenth chapter of the story, "While the Men Rested," 
and quite distinct from the story preserved in the previously 
discovered versions that begin with the words, "They See a 
Source," and form its eleventh chapter. Ancient mythological 
and legendary pieces wrought into various literary compilations. 



300 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

This tablet was found in Sippara, according to those from 
whom it was obtained, a city of ancient literary fame. This 
statement is partially confirmed by the name of the scribe. 
Ellit-Aya. Now Aya was the consort of Shamash, and Sip- 
para was the principal seat of the worship of these divinities. 
The scribe was a scholar in one of the many schools that 
flourished in the city of the Sun-god. The tablet is carefully 
written. ** The signs are a little worn, but legible. After each 
ten lines, Ellit-Aya has lightly marked the sign lor ten in^the 
margin of the column, and the total of the column at the foot, 
and finally the total number of lines at the end of the tablet, 
in all 439 lines." The tablet is dated **the 28th day of the 
month Sebat, in the year when King Ammizaduga built the 
fortress Ammizadugaki at the mouth of the Euphrates," ap- 
proximately 2140 B. C. 

When the ancient cuneiform scribe found the text that he 
was copying mutilated, he conscientiously indicated the fact 
by the word hibis, *' effaced." The use of this word in the tablet 
under consideration proves that it is a copy of a more ancient 
document. The date of the original must have been several 
centuries at least earlier than the copy. The main facts of this 
fragmentary account are: the punishment of man for sin; the 
flood as the instrument of this punishment; the ruin of city 
and land; the building of a ship for safety, and the intercession 
of a friendly god. The tablet furnishes the form of the name 
Khasis-Adraw mentioned above. 

It may be mentioned in this connection that Lenormant in 
his "Beginnings of History," traces traditions of a deluge 
among many peoples and tribes on all the continents and many 
of the islands in all parts of the world. This fact has not yet 
received adequate consideration. 

I had intended to compare these several accounts with the 
relation in Genesis, but the space at my command forbids. I 
will only say that the many differences seem to me to consist 
in incidentals; in essentials there is agreement. The thorough 
exploration of *'Ur of the Chaldees" and other early cities of 
l^aoylonia will doubtless bring to light other verses. Possibly 
thr original written documents may yet be recovered. 



MEXICAN PAPER ' 

BY FREDERICK STARR. 

In 1880, Dr. Ph. J. J. Valentini presented his important dis- 
cussion upon Mexican paper before the American Antiquarian 
Society.* The article is unfortunately but little known. After 
mentioning the enormous quantity of paper, paid as tribute to 
the Aztec Confederacy, Dr. Valentini investigates the materials 
from which the ancient Mexicans manufactured paper and the 
methods they employed. He quotes Petrus Martyr and Diego 
de Landa in regard to paper made from tree bark in the hot 
lands, and Gomara and Heritandez relative to paper made from 
the leaves of maguey in the plateau country. These authori- 
ties wrote shortly after the Conquest. Boturini, who came much 
later, does not refer to bark paper, but mentions that from the 
maguey, and also speaks of a paper made from palm leaves, 
samples of which in his possession, were "as smooth as silk." 
Clavijero, also a comparatively late author, speaks of silk and 
cotton as materials for paper — or, at least, as surfaces upon 
which paintings were made.j 

We cannot refer to any satisfactory ancient descriptions of 
Mexican paper making. Petrus Martyr never visited Mexico, 
and, while his account is interestmg and his description of the 
paper itself is exact, his information as to its origin is at second 
hand. Still he plainly states that the paper he saw was made 
from the inner bark of a tree. Diego de Landa describes the 
Maya paper as made from "the roots of a tree." Valentini, 
reasonably it seems to us, explains this as referring probably to 
the buttressing swellings at the lower part of the rubber tree, 
Castiloa elastica, which he asserts is still called amatl (Az.^^ 
paper) by the natives of Central America. 

Boturini describes the making of paper from maguey, as 
follows: 

The Indian paper was manufactured from the leaves of the maguey, 
which in the national language was called metlt^iiiA in Spanish ///^i. They 
threw them into water to rot and washed the fibre from them, which, when 
cleaned, they extended to make their paper thick or thin, which afterward 
they burnished for painting upon it.J 

Boturini probably never saw the manufacture of paper from 
maguey, but his account, derived from some unknown author 
or by tradition, is probably correct, so far as it goes. Regard- 



* " Mexican Paper: an article of tribute; its manufacture, varieties, employment and uses. 
Worcester: Charles Hamilton; 1881; 8^, pp. aa. 

t " Historia de Mexico." Ed. of 1883. Mexico. Vol. i., p. 273. 

\ '* Idea de Una Nueva Historia Generale." Ed. of 1871. Mexico. Page 336. 



it 



302 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ing maguey paper we have a capital early authority in Motolinia- 
He says: 

Good paper is made from /fr^//.* the sheet is as large as two sheets of 
ours, and they make much of this in Tlaxcala, which goes through a great 
part or New Spain. There are other trees from which it is made in the hot 
lands, and of these they are accustomed to use a great quantity: the tree 
and the paper are called amatl, and from this name they call letters and 
books and paper amate, although there is also a special name for book.* 

" Paper was Still made from maguey in 1580 at Culhuacan, 
near the City of Mexico, as proved by the statement of Gal- 
lego in the ms. Relacion de Culhuacan. As a matter of 
curious and bibliographic interest, we may mention the fact that 

Raper of maguey fibre has been lately made at the City of 
[exico. In 1898, Dr. Nicolas Leon reprinted Maturino Gil- 
berti's "Arte de la lengua Tarasca 6 de Michoacan" (1558). 
One hundred copies were printed, in a sumptuous large quarto 
edition, on maguey fibre paper made expressly for the work. 

But our special interest is not maguey paper. We have re- 
ferred to it because Mr. Hough has lately thrown doubt upon 
the use of maguey paper by the old Mexicans. He begins his 
note with these words: *' There seems to be a general impres- 
sion that the ancient Mexican codices were written on paper 
made from the bark of the maguey (agave species), as this 
statement appears in the works of all the writers who have 
mentioned the subject. "j This is a curious claim. Neither 
Gomara, Hernandez, Motolinia, Clavijero, Boturini, Lorenzana, 
Orozco y Berra, Chavero, Valentini, or Biart — and these are the 
only writers we have consulted in order to test Mr. Hough's 
claim — speak of the bark of the maguey as niaterial for paper. 
As Mr. Hough goes on to state — the maguey has no bark. All 
these writers state, however, and there is no reason to question 
their statements that paper was made from the leaf {Iioja or 
pcnai) of the maguey. There can be no question that two 
Kinds of paper were made and used extensively by the 
ancient Mexicans — the maguey paper on the Plateau, the bark 
paper in the low country: the former would have been more 
common among the Aztecs, the latter, among the Mayas. We 
believe that Mr. Hough's conjecture that ** the numerous ridged 
stone beaters and smoothers found in Mexico were used in 
making paper from bark," is entirely justified. They were, no 
doubt, also used in '* extending," by beating, the maguey fibres. 
This use of such stones we suggested in our teaching prior to 
1891. 

In March. 1899. Seflor Xochihua, ac educated and intelli- 
gent Indian at that time connected with the Jefetura at Tlalne- 
pantla. state of Mexico, told us that bark paper is still beaten 
at San Gregorio. in the state of Hidalgo. In our last journey 
to Mexico we looked into the matter arc found it of consider- 

* Motolinia: " Historic de los lodios de Nueva Espana." EUl. Icazbalceta. Mexico, 1858; 

p. »4C 

t " Material of the Mexican Codices," American Anthropologist, n. s, I., pp. 769-790. 



MEXICAN PAPER. 303 

5IeTnterest. While we have already announced our results,* 
we may be permitted to again present them here. We found 
that such paptT is still made over a considerable area in the 
warm mountainous parts of the states of Hidalgo and Pucbla. 
The region presents a curious condition ethnologically. Four 
tribes or peoples— Aztecs, Otorais. Tepehuas, Totonacs— are 
sandwiched in with one another in the strangest way. One vil- 
lage may be Otomi, the next Tcpehua; or one maybe Tepehua 
and the next Totonaco. Two little streams coming together at 
an acute angle may mark three tribal territories, one people liv- 
ing in the included space, and a different one on either side. 
Even in the same town two tribes may dwell side by side: thus 
Pantepec, atate of Puebla, is a Totonaco town, with one section, 




of perhaps thirty houses, Otomi, In Tlaxco, Puebla, the lour 
peoples^Aztecs. Otomis. Tepehuas. Totonacs — live together. 
Throughout the region these peoples maintain their tribal dis- 
tinctness: each retaining its own language and peculiarities oi 
dress and customs. 

So far as we know, the making of bark paper in this region 
is peculiar to the Otomis. Others who wish it, purchase it from 
them. We have certain knowledge of the manufacture at four 
towns — San Gregorio (Dist. Tenango, Hidalgo), Xalapa (Dist. 
Zacualtipan, Hidalgo), San Pablito (Municipio Pahuatlan, 

• " Ndibeudob the Ethaociaphyof SfluibBra Meidco," PrucDiTunport AcadBrnTofNalun] 



30* THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

Puebla), Ixtololoya (Muninipio Pantcpec. Puebla). " At San 
Pablito two kinds of bark are used: moral givt-s a whitish, 
xalama a purplish paper. The bark ii best gatht^red when full 
of sap, but is kept after drying. A board is used fur a founda- 
tion on which to beat. 
A stone, approximate- 
ly rectangular and 
generally with the 
corners grooved for 
convenitnt grasping, 
is used for a beater. 
The bark is carefully 
washed in lye-water, 
taken from maize that 
has been prepared for 
tortillas: it is then 
washed in fresh water, 
and finally boiled until 
it shreds readily into 
slender strips. These 
are arranged upon the 
board — first a bound- 
ary line for the'futuie 
sheet of paper is laid 
out.and then strips are 
laid near together, 
lengthwise, within this 
outline. Theyarethen 
beaten with the stone 
until the spread fibres 
are felted together. 
The sheets are dried 
in the air, folded, and 
done up in a package 
of a dozen, which sell 
for three Cf^/rtT'CJ. The 
work is done by the 
women, and usually in 
the houses with a cer- 
tain degree of secrecy. 
The sound of the tap- 
ping of the stones is, 
at certain times, to be 
heard through the 
whole village." 

We regret not being 
able to identify moral 
and xalama, with cer- 
tainty, botanically. 
The moral should be some sort of mulberry. Many persons, 
who have spoken of this paper-making, have told us that the 
tree chielly used is jonote: the Presidente at Pantepec claims 




WHICH BARK PAPER IS BEATEN. 



MEXICAN PAPER. 305 

that /lu/e—thc rubber tree — is the proper plant, which would 
agree with Valentini's claim that the ama// is the Castiloa 
elastica. But Orozco y Berra considered the aniatl to be 
Cordia Boissieri, D. C; and the judge at Pahuatlan asserts that 
the "dragon tree " is used for paper-making, as well as the moral. 
Whether all this perplexing list can be reduced to the simple 
mora/ and xalama of the Otomis of San Pablito we are uncertain. 
Valentini presents much information regarding the uses of 
Mexican paper. Much was used for writing, much for public 
decoration, but no doubt the larger part was used in religious 
ceremonies. He quotes many passages from Sahagun relative 
to religious use of paper. The temple, idols, victims, priests 
and performers were decked with paper: great sheets of paper 
were carried in processions; paper streamers were attached to 
rods and staves to be carried, or set up at designated spots; 
bones were wrapped about with paper; ears of maize, sprinkled 
with liule, were wrapped in paper: paper sacks were used for 
carrying certain objects; paper was burned with copal and hulc 
as an offering; special pieces of paper were supplied the dead 
as passports. We need not quote all of Valentini's quotations, 
but there are two or three which are, for us, of special import- 
ance. As Valentini abbreviates them, we quote and translate 
directly from Sahagun: 

In this ^diVCi^ fiesta in ail the houses and palaces they raised some staves 
at the end of which they fastened papers full of drops of hulc, and they 
called these papers Amateteuitl : this they do to the honor of the gods of 
water.* 

In the sixteenth month Atemuztli (the descent of rain) the 
ceremonies are conducted by the priests of the Tlalocs, or gods 
of rain: 

In this time the satraps (priests) of the Tlalocs were growing very de- 
vout and penitent, praying their gods for rain and expecting the showers. 
When it began to thunder and give signs of rain these satraps took their 
censers. * * * * Thus they began, then, to incense all the statues of 
the temples and of the wards. With these services they demanded and 
expected the rain: other persons, from desire for rain, vowed to make 
images of the mountains. Five days before the time of the feast they 
bought paper, huU, nequen and knives, and with much devotion prepared 
themselves by fasts and penances for making the images of the mountains 
and covering them with paper. * * * The whole night they occupied 
in cutting papers in different fashions, and they called the objects cut out 
in this way tetevitl,'\ They attached them at their base to some great staves, 
in the manner of a flag. All these papers were sprinkled with hule, and 
then they thrust this staff in the patio of the house of every man, and there 
they remained the whole day of the flesta; those who had made the vow to 
make the images, invited the ministers of the idols to come to their houses 
to make the papers with which they had to adorn the images of the moun- 
tains, and they made them in the calmecac ; after they were made they bore 
them to the houses of those who had vowed. * * * On arriving they 
decorated the images, which were made of dough of amaranth; some had 
made Ave, some ten, and others fifteen — images of the mountains upon 

*Saha||^n: " Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espana." Ed. Ruttamente. Mexico, 
1839; Vol. 1., p. 84. 

t Probably the tame as " teteuitl=teteotl "sidol. 



306 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

wbicb the clouds gather— like el Volran, la Sierra Nevada, and la Siern <j 
TIaxcala. • • * Having killed, as they say, all these images or statUM, 
(hey look off ihe papers with which they were adorned and all together 
they burned them id the palio of the same house. • * * When (he 
feast was finished ibey gathered the papers oS the staves, which were 
placed in the pitlics, which ihey called tetevili. and carried Ihem to certain 

C laces of water which were marked with some stakes set up, or to the 
eights of (he mountains.* 

In these passages, we find the use of paper in religious 
festivals connected with the desire for rain. Paper is consid- 
efL'd as a sacrifice, it is sprinkled with drops of Jaik (also a 
sacrifice), it is cut into decoi alive forms for placing upon gods 
or sacred objects, and in connection with all this a feast is cele- 
brated. 

Interestingly enough, paper still serves quite similar pur- 
poses. The paper now made by the Otomis is not used for 
writing, nor wrapping; it is employed in pagan ceremonials 
and in witchcraft. These Indians celebrate annually their 
" costumbre" (custom). This differs from place to place, but 
everywhere we find paper cut for decoration of saints or sacred 
objects, sprinkling it with the blood of a sacrifice, eating a com- 
mon meal — and all this done with specific reference to the rain 
and crops. A single case from my " Notes " will illustrate: 

Otomi Indians in the Miiiiuipio oi Tlacullotepec (al Cuaxtia for ex- 
ample) celebrate annually £1 Coslumbrc ("the custom"). They believe 
that Monleiuma will come again, and that, meanlirae. he it is who gives 
health, crops and all good to the people. They prepare a feast in his honor, 
of which he is believed to partake with ihem. An enclosure is prepared in 
a retired spot and a taule made; upon it ihcy place many muneccsot paper. 
Formerly (hey used the bark paper for these, but now they buy paper in 
the (ieniias. These figures may be so many as to cover the table two Inches 
deep, Thev shove money— usually small silver pieces — under these figures. 
Cuitjalotn (turkeys), hens, or other offerings are slain and the blood from 
the headless bodies is sprinkled over the /nKnfirf.i.' this they do that Monte- 
zuma may not be annoyed and that he may give them the things they may 
desire. After the feast the money and the figures are left upon the table, 
and the mestizos steal Ihe former.t 

As to the use of the paper in witchcraft we may quote from 
the same place: 



I 
I 

I 



tures) upon which to practict 

found upon the prisoner a li) 

him (the magistrate): it had 

through— this to prevent his 

about Ihe house or corral of 

Mr. Alfred Culin, an Americ 

has had many left at his house: he says they spot tile place of the heart 

with blood and thrust spines through them. In the cave behind and above 

San Bartolo piles ot them are sometimes left after gatherings of brujas. 

Bunches of them are left a( places in the mountain roads lo be trodden 

under by the passers. An ola man al Pantepec says they are also usefnl in 

curing d-sease; a ^rw/a will cut a figure to represent his patient patron: 

this is then worn by the subject at the place of the disease. 



(figures of persons, horses, a 
itchcrafl. At a trial in Pahuatlan the judge 
e cut in such paper intended to represent 
tji sewn through the body and the hps sewn 
ronouncing a sentence. By burying these 
enemv harm is wrought him or his animals. 

bo has lived some years at San Bartolo, 



MEXICAN PAFER. 307 

And. lastly, a word comparing this Mexican bark paper and 
the well-known Polynesian topa. Paper or cloth of beaten bark- 
has been made in America, or is now made, not only in 
Mexico, but also in Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and other parts 
of South America. 

We have already quoted Mr. Hough regarding beating stones. 
These are, as he says, among the commonest of Mexican anti- 
quities. While presentmg some variation, they are, on the 
whole, much alike. What modern beaters we have seen are 




IDDERN BEATEKS FOR MAKING I 



^ PAPER MEXICO 



smaller and cruder than the ancient ones. The specimens 
shown above are fair examples. One is of gray lava rock: it 
is almost square, measuring about two inches on a side, and one 
inch thick; both sides are smooth from use, one more so than 
the other. The second specimen, of the same material, is 
rectangular, two and one-fourth inches long by an inch and a 
half wide, and one and one-fourth inch ihick; the edge " 
grooved along 



:nds, rendering 
easy for grasp 
beating surfaces 
smooth, andthe 
most worn has 
at ihelongedjjes 
beaters are 
white man's 
suitable size for 
Indian woman. 
example of the 
is represented. 
more carefully 




des and 
the stone more 
ing the two 
arc unequally 
(int. which is 
1 ecome round 
These little 
small for a 
hand, but are of 
the hand of an 
In cut 4, a fair 
mcient beaters 
It IS larger and 
handsome, 



ade than the preceding: 
dark — almost black— serpentine; it measures three and one- 
half by two and three-fourths inches, and i.s almost one inch 
and a half thick. One side is perfectly smooth from rubbing 
and is rounded along the edges, as in one of the recent speci- 
mens; the other side is flat and divided into seven ribs by six 
grooves. The corners are notch-grooved for finger holds, or 
for passage of lashings for a handle. A little larger than usual, 
and much better made, the specimen is typical of a whole class 
in its one smooth and one ribbed side, and corner notching or 



308 THE AMERICAN' ANTIQUARIAN. 

edge grooving." These old beaters — larger and better made"] 
than the modern^suggest a question: Is it not probable that 
the old industry was imw's work? Conservative woman has 
clung to it, and with tools, in size better adapted to her hand- 
ling and quality showing the lessened importance of her art, 
still beats out the paper now used only in religious or super- , 
stilious ways. 

But there is another type of ancient paper beater found in 
Mexico, though it is much rarer than the preceding. The 




specimen illustrated above is of a fine-grained, rather heavy, 
greenstone; it isa pounding club or mallet, with handle and beat- 
ing body in one piece; it measures seven and one-fourth inches 
in length. The handle presents an elliptical cross-section, 
while the beating body is almost rectangular in such a section; 
the four almost flat faces measure a little less than two inches 
across; three are smooth, while the fourth is ribbed with ten 
longitudinal ridges produced by nine grooves. The similarity 
of this beater to the common Polynesian Uipa beater is evident 
at a glance. In cut 6 we have such a beater in hard wood. In 
cut 7. a bark beater is represented, which is almost the same in 
form and character, but is made of bone: this is from the 




Tiingit Indians of Alaska. The Polynesian and Tlingit speci- 
mens are longer and more slender than the Mexican, but all 
three are plainly one implement. All present a form of club 
with handle and beating body in one piece: all show a rect- 
angular section of the beating portion; all present three smooth 
faces, and one grooved and ribbed. Beaters for bark occur, in- 



MEXICAN PAPER. 309 

deed, in other countries, e.g. New Guinea and Africa; they are 
usually quite different from these in sectional form and in the 
mode of grooving. Personally we are inclined to see a signi- 
ficance in the the similarity of the Polynesian-Tlingit-Mexican 




BARK BEATER OF THE TLINGIT: ALASKA. 

beaters. Were there no other evidence pointing to relation- 
ship or contact between the three populations, the argument 
would be, indeed, weak; as it is, however, this similarity pre- 
sents evidence which reinforces an argument already made. 



A REMARKABLE INDIAN PIPE.* 

BY W. J. WINTEMBERG. 

This interesting and valuable stone pipe was found by the 
writer in August, 1898, on the site of an ancient Indian camp 
near the village of Bright, in Oxford county. On one side it 
has the representation of the Thunder Bird, a mythical being 
to which was attributed the natural phenomenon implied by its 
name. The drawing represents a bird with a human head.f 
The four lines coming down obliquely to the right and left sides 
of the bird's head evidently represent lightning. The simplest 
delineation of lightning among savage folk would naturally be 
by these zig-zag strokes. Even among our deaf mutes the 
gesture sign is by describing with the index finger of the hand 
its zig-zag course through the sky These zig-zag lines are also 
used by the Pueblos or Tusayan Indians to represent lightning, 
and among th^ ancient Assyrians three zig-zag " thunder-bolts "- 
were the symbol of Vul.the atmospheric god. 

It is a matter of conjecture what the upright line and the 
three cross bars on the breast signify. They may represent 
the vital organs; perhaps the heart and lungs, and, symboli- 
cally, the life of the individual. Of course all this is mere 
conjecture. Perhaps spme of our more advanced mythologists 
could throw some light on the subject. The bird's talons or 
claws and the wings are well shown, although they are dispro- 

' _ . _^^^ 

* Reprinted firom the " Reliquary and IlIuttrated'ArchaBoIogUt," April, 1900. 

t According to a description of this fabulous creature given by an Iroquois Sorcerer to the 
Jesnit missionary Brebceuf. the Iroquois thunder bird also partook slightly of the human form: 
" It is a man in the form of a turkey cock."— Relations des Hurons, 1636, p. 114! 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 
ail-feathei 



310 

portionately small. The three tail-feathers are also well shown, 
and the curious markings on the middle one may have had 
some mythic meaning to the primitive artist. The zig-zag 
mark at the right of the bird's tail no doubt represents another 
lightning stroke, or a snake ; or, perhaps, both, for among some 
savage tribes the lightning and the snake were regarded as 
identical, i.e., the lightning flash, owing to its resemblance to 
the sharp, sudden, zig-zag movpments of the snake, was often 
called a fiery serpent. Thus, some tribes of our Canadian 
Indians call the lightning a 
fiery serpent, and believe 
that the thunder is its hiss- 
ing. And if we turn to old- 
world mythology, we also 
find the lightning identified 
with the snake— the flashes 
of lightning having been 
regarded by the Greeks 
as the fiery serpents of 
Zeus, the god of the air. 

The side opposite to the I 
thunder bird bears a scries 
of incised lines, making a 
pattern often found on pot- 
tery. On the side to the right of the bird is the drawing of a 
man with an unfinished head. This figure also has an upright 
line and cross-bars on the broast, except that they are arrow- 
like in form. On the remaining side is the stem-hole, and 
above it are two deep hollows. Above these is the figure of a 
quadruped, probably a fox or a wolf. Below the stem-hole is 
the deeply-incised figure of a cross. The cross was used as a 
symbol before the appearance of Europeans on this continent, 
and it is generally believed to have reference to the cardinal 
points. 

The lines surrounding the top of the bowl were for orna- 
ment alone, and appear to have been an afterthought, as they 
cut the upper part of some of the designs. This pipe was 
found in what was at one time Neatral, or Altiwendaronk. ter- 
ritory. To the writer's knowledge it is the only specimen of 
the kind that has ever been found in the peninsula of Western 
Ontario. It is now in the Ontario Arc hreo logical Museum, at 
the Education Department, Toronto. 




ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 

BY STEPHEN D. PEET. 

Several questions arise in connection with the ancient cities 
of Mexico, which need to be answered before we can proceed 
with the description of them. They are: First, were they 
worthy of the name cities? second, are th« descriptions which 
were given by the Spanish historians correct, or must we rely 
upon the evidence or the archaeologists for our knowledge of 
their real character? third, what is the testimony of history 
concerning these cities and their early growth and progress? 
fourth, in regard to the architecture which embodied itself in 
these ancient cities: can we distinguish it from that which pre- 
ceded it, and so decide what cities belonged to the Aztec, and 
what to the Toltec period. 

I. In reference to the first question, we may say that certain 
modern writers have been disposed to reject the term city alto- 
gether from their vocabulary, when speaking of ancient places 
in America, whether found in Mexico, Central America, or 
Peru; and in its place use the term pueblo, conveying the idea 
that they were nothing more nor less than large Indian villages, 
similar to those which are still occupied in New Mexico, and 
that the people who built them were no more civilized than the 
Indian tribes of the North. We maintain, however, that there . 

was a great difference between the Indian villages and the so- 
called cities, and that this difference was an index of the stage 
of culture which had been reached. 

To illustrate: we find, even at the present time, Eskimo 
villages which arc mere collections of huts constructed of ice 
and snow, or of bone and bark, and approached by long pass- 
ageways. We find that the tribes in the eastern portion of the 
continent dwelt in stockade villages, or in inclosures surrounded 
by earthworks; their houses being constructed mainly of wood. 
There are villages on the Northwest coast, which belong to 
the fishermen and hunters, the most of which are constructed 
of wood, and are arranged in a line along the water front, and 
are marked by an immense array of totem-poles, which seem 
at a distance like masts of vessels, but are indicative of the 
history and ancestry of the people. 

In the more central districts, especially on the plateau, the 
villages are contained in great communistic houses, many of 
which are placed upon the summits of the mesas, and are 
built of adobe or of stone. 

In Peru the villages were generally the capitals, and were 
connected with roadways which passed over the mountain; 
they were under the control of the Incas, the capital being the 
centre, where were the finest specimens of architecture. 



312 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

In Mexico and Central America people seem to have been 
gathered into large places, which were laid out after a fixed 
order and were under a central government, and abounded with 
temples, palaces, canals, bridges, fountains, and gardens, and 
contained many elaborate specimens of architecture. 

These several types of native architecture represented the 
various grades of civilization, each one of which was confined to 
a separate geographical district and is suggestive of a distinct 
form of aboriginal culture. 

It should be remembered that these Aztec cities had 
a very different origin from the ordinary Indian villages of 
the North, and were built on a very different plan. They 
may have grown up out of rude villages, and the people 
may have come up from the clan life into a later social 
organization; yet so much of their art and architecture was 
borrowed from the civilization which had previously existed 
among the Toltecs, that .the signs of their own native growth 
were lost in that which had been added to it. Every people 
owes its architecture and its art to the different elements which 
have prevailed in the region, and we can no more confound the 
Mexican city with the pueblo of New Mexico, than we can the 
modern city with the little hamlet of log houses, or the houses 
of the white man with the hut of the ordinary Indian. The 
growth of society was greatly modified by the surroundings, 
and the city which grew up in the midst of the beautiful lake 
and was connected with the banks by Ibng artificial dykes must 
have had a very different history from that of villages which- 
had been erected on the summits of the lofty mesas and which 
owed their defense to the walls by which they were surrounded, 
and their conveniences to the terraces with which they were 
provided. 

There were, to be sure, other cities built upon the summits 
of mountains of Mexico, as Messrs. Holmes and Charnay have 
shown; but these mountain cities, which stretch out at great 
length and cover the entire summits, are very different from 
the compact pueblos which were compressed into one great 
house, and resembled great bee-hives with their cells occupied 
by human beings. The government of a monarch, who ruled 
over a large district and who subordinated all adjoining tribes 
to his own power, was very different from that of a village 
cacique, who ruled over a single village and had a few officers 
subject to his command, but who knew all of his people by 
name, as a father does his children. 

The Spanish historians did not stop to ask the history of the 
people before they gave the name "city " to the various places 
which they entered. They knew that they were governed by 
religious despots, and that in the midst of each, there were 
temples, where bloody sacrifices had been offered, and it^was 
very natural that they should call the places cities, and their 
rulers kings or monarchs, and their religious men priests, and 
that they should apply the very terms which were in common 



ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 313 

use among them, in speaking of the objects which they saw. 
They were accustomed to the architecture which had grown 
up in Europe during the middle ages, and their minds would 
naturally revert to feudal despots, who dwelt in their castles 
and who ruled over their retainers, who lived in the surround- 
ing forests. 

It was not to be expected of the Spaniards at this time that 
they would draw the distinction between the ancient cities of 
Mexico and the ordinary Indian villages, and certainly not to 
show the difference between the ancient cities and the pueblos 
of New Mexico, for they knew^ nothing of the latter. 

The names* which the Spanish historians used w^ould of 
themselves show very clearly that there was a very different 
condition of things among the ancient Mexicans from that 
which prevailed among the northern tribes. Consequently the 
term pueblo should not be applied to the cities, nor medicine 
lodge to the temple, nor council houses to the palaces, nor medi- 
cine men to the priests, nor tribal chiefs to the kings. Tribal 
society may have continued on a basis of kinship, but self- 
defense brought about the confederacy of the tribes of Mexico, 
and this confederacy resulted in establishing cities which were 
in reality capitals. 

The City of Mexico was divided into four principal quar- 
ters, with twenty war-chiefs, one chief representing the element 
of worship, all under one head, the "chief of men," or king, 
who seems to have been like the monarchs of the Kast, clothed 
with power of priest and king. 

II. In reference to the descriptions by the historians, it 
should be said that there were many things to account for them. 
While they have been pronounced by various critics as extrava- 
gant exaggerations, yet the latest researches are proving that 
they were in the main tjuite correct. There were certain influ- 
ences which would lead them to give a rose-colored view, and 
yet this was better than a tame and spiritless account. The 
reports of the discovery so recently made by Columbus and his 
company had aroused great expectations, and there would 
naturally be a desire in the minds of the writers who were de- 



• We take al randon* from Bandelier's report the following: " The residence of the chief ok 
MEN was called tecian, the house ok thb community; for the official family had to wait upon 
the officers and chiefs who transacted business at the TECPAN. The officer called King of Mexico, 
or EMPEKOKof Anahuac, wasTlacateuchtli; while the major domo, or keeper of the tribute, was 
called CihuacohuatI, head-chief. The lands of the official house were called tecpantalli, and 
constituted tribal stores. The council was called tlacopan. and was composed of chiefs or 
speakers and supreme judges, and sat in two different halls in the tbcpan or palace; one of which 
was called the court of nobles. The twenty independent social units composing the Mexican 
tribe were called calpui.i.i, and were bound to avenge any wrong. The holding of a particular 
territory, a common dialect, a common tribal worship, characterized each one of these calpulli; 
but the 'city' seems to have been the centre of the government, so that there was a change ^o- 
ing on from the tribal stage to that of land tenure. Each calpulli had it« particular god, which 
was worshipped as a tutelar deity within the territory, consequently each kin had its particular 
temple, and had a right to separate worship. Sahagun says that they offered many things in the 
houses which they called calpulli, which were like churches ot different quarters, where those 
of the same kin gathered to sacrifice, as for other ceremonies. 

" The great temple of the Mexican tribe was called calmecac, interpreted the ' Dark 
House.' This was the abode of such men as underwent severe trials preliminary to their investi- 
ture with the rank of chief. Each calpulli had a ' House of Youth 'joined to the temple. There 
were houses of education. Besides these, there was a special place for the education of the 
children of noblemen. Those who were trained for the priesthood dwelt in the house called 



calmkcac." 



r 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

scribing the new scenes into which they were entering to meet 
these expectations, and this possibly led iheni to exaggerate 
their reports. It was, however, perfectly natural that they 
should draw a comparison between that which they saw in the 
New World and that which was so familiar to them in the Old. 
for their minds would inevitably revert to their native country. 
and there was no better way of expressing themselves. 

It should not be considered as owing altogether to a purpose 
to deceive, that the wonderful scenes which came before their 
eyes were vividly described, for the Spaniards were a very im- 
pressible people and lived in a romantic age. and were accus- 
tomed to speak and write in figurative language. 

There is no doubt that the explorers were greatly surprised 
by the scenes which came to their vision as they landed 
upon the coast and passed into the interior, especially when 
they reached the borders of the Plateau and were able to get 
a glimpse of the beautiful valley which was encompassed by 
the mountain ridges, and in the midst of which shone the sil- 
very waters of the lake, which was to become the scene of their 
most daring exploits. The lofty snow-covered peaks of the 
great mountains, which stood like sentinels to guard the eastern 
entrance to the valley, also impressed them with a sense of the 
sublime, for they are still counted among the highest and grand- 
est of the mountains of the world. The fact that in the midst 
of this beautiful valley there were so many .so-called cities 
which were filled with a teeming population, and that so many 
of the appliances and conveniences of a nati\ e civilization were 
apparent was matter of surprise. 

This civilization has been compared to that of Europe dur- 
ing the middle ages. It might better be compared to that of 
Kgypt during the time of the first four dynasties, when the 
Pyramids were erected; or to that of Babylonia, before the 
time of its conquest by the Assyrians, when the great walled 
cities co\ered the valley of the Tigris and the ttrraced pyra- 
mids and palaces began to be built; or, stil! better, lo the civil- 
/ation of India and China, when their history first began to be 
written. The .Spanish historians were disposed to draw a 
parallel between this civilization and that of the feudal times, 
when there were so many lords and barons dwelling in castles. 
who held the land in their possession and ruled the masses by 
their power, making them their vassals and retainers. There 
were no knights errant and no tournaments, no pilgrimages or 
distant journeys, no such conquests as made the names of cer- 
tain kings of England famous. 

The magnificence of the Moorish architecture never ap- 
peared in .Mexico. The virion of the Alhambra had never 
dawned upon this rude people, there was no such mingling of 
turrets and towers with the vast expanse of the houses of great 
cities as met the eyes of Marco Polo in his journey to the 
Kast. The marvels of Cathay were not discovered by the 
Spaniards, though they were perhaps in hourly expectation of 




ANCIENT AZTEC CITiES AND CIVILIZATION. 



3IS 



finding them. There is no doubt that their minds were tinctured 
with the stories which had been told of the cities of the East, and 
the conviction that America was a portion of the Asiatic conti- 
nent had not lost its force, [t was a day of romance and 
chivalry, and the kings of Europe were satisfied with nothing 
short of romance. It cannot be laid altogether to a love of 
exaggeration, that such writers as Sahagun, Bernal Diaz, 
Torquemada,* Veytia, IxllitxochitI and Clavigcro gave such 
rose-colored views. 

The accurracy of science was nowhere exercised, and literal 
exactness could not have been expected from them. It was, 
however, fortunate that there were those who could recognize 
the beauty of the scene, and could appreciate the inventions 
and improvements which had been wrought out by this strange 
people, who lived beyond the seas, and that they could ade- 
quately describe the style of the art and architecture which 
was prevalent. 

The cities have passed away, and the scene which so won- 
derfully impressed the Spaniards at their advent has entirely 
changed. There are, to be sure, many modern cities which 
have grown up on the very sites where were these aboriginal 
towns, and some are disposed to draw the contrast between the 
ancient and the modern; but it is better to take (he picture 
which was drawn by the historians as correct, and from this learn 
what were the peculiarities of the aboriginal life, though it may 
be necessary first, to consider the history of the people who 
dwelt there, and especially the architecture which prevailed. 

III. Let us now turn to the third question and inquire 
into the history of the Aztecs, and see how rapidly they 
grew into a semi-civilized condition, and then ask about 
the influences which had conspired to produce this change. 
We hold that the Aztecs borrowed nearly all of their civiliza- 
tion from the Toltecs. that they adopted their style of 
architecture and their art, and yet there were certain peculiar- 
ities which distinguished the cities of the Aztecs from those of 
the Toltecs. 

The A/tecs, who built the beautiful cities and temples which 
so charmed the eyes of the Spanish conquerors, as they came 
to the summit of the great mountain ridge, which surrounded 
the Valley of Mexico, were a rude tribe, who had entered the 
valley from the north about the year 1300. They wandered for 
a time, seeking for a suitable place in which they might mak< 
their home, and were at last influenced, as tradition goes, by a 
sight which they regarded as a sign from heaven. A bunch of 
cactus was growing upon a rock and upon the cactus an eagle 

•Torqocin>da, a provinciil of the FnnclKin Oidir, cuh to lb< Nsv Wocld aboat tbm 
nUdl* at^Ihc liniHDth «nlaty. Ai Ihe (anitiiiiDii af Itae CBncuHrDn bid Dol then |)uh<I 



3"6 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 



was perched, and in the eagle's claw was a serpent, which was 
always an expressive sign to the natives. This sight led them 
to settle upon the shores of the lake, which was then a small 
inland sea, its salt waters having been the result of the geo- 
logical formation. The following description of the lake and 
the valley which contains it, will be interesting in this con- 
nection: 

The Valley of Mexico is an iturnense basin □< an approximately circu- 
lar shape, sixty miles In diameter, completely bounded by high mountains . 
And having only two or three passes out of it. No water drains out of the 
basin. The surface of [he valley has a mean altiiude above the sea of 7,413 
feet, and an area of about 3,270 square miles. Mountain ranges arise on 
every side, making a great coral of rock, conlaining many villages and 
hamlets with the ancient capital as the centre. The valley, thus hemnied 
in with solid walls of rock, had been an inland sea for many cycles, and 
during the early existence of man the salt water spread over a large portion 
o( the valley. The waters were gradually lessened by seepage and evapo- 
ration, and the Aztec immigrants, coming from the North in the fourteenth 
century, having received a sign th;it they were to build their city here, set- 
tled on its shores and began building dykes and combating the over-flow of 
the waters. Nearly fifty years before the discovery of America Nezataual- 
coyotl saw the necessity for a drainage canal, and CDrainenced the work in 
1450; he constructed an immenst dyke to divide the fresh water which 
came down from the mountains from the salt water of the lakes. The City 
of Mexico was at this time but a rambling Indian village built upon Host- 
ing rafls on the water and numerous islets on the borders of the lakes, but 
so arranged that In the event of the water rising, the whole city would float. 

When Cortez arrived in Mexico in 1519, he found, to his great surprise, 
the defense of the city admlrahlv arranged, and a most enchanting view 
of flowering islets formed the floating capital. Little towns and villages, 
half concealed by tbe foliage, looked, from a distance, like companies of 
wild swans riding quietly on the waves. A scene so new and wonderful 
filled the heart oflhe Spaniard with amazement. So astonished was be at 
extent of the water of Lake Tezcuco, that he describes it as a "sea that • 
embraces the whole valley.* 

The history of Mexico began with the invasion of the 
Toltecs from an unknown region during the fifth century, or 
about the time of the Roman occupation of Great Britain, and 
actually kept pace with the progress of Europe during the cen- 
turies that followed. It reminds us forcibly of the history of 
the British Islands during the middle ages; or, as Prescott 
says, during the time of A'lfred the Great. There were, to be 
sure, no signs of the presence of the art and architecture of 
the civilized world, and no such contact with Rome or with 
the historic nations of the East; but the evidence is furnished 
us from the monuments and ruins which have been discovered, 
that the Toltec civilization did not fall short of that which pre- 
vailed in the south of Europe at ihis time. This Toltec civili- 
zation continued until the end of the twelfth century, when it was 
in turn forced to give way to that of the Aztec tribe, who swept 
down from the coast of California, Oregon, and other northern 
regions. It is generally agreed that the Aztecs formerly lived 
far to the north, and gradually worked their way southward 
until they reached the flowering Anahuac. but it is not 



I 



ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 



3'7 



known what their condition was when they arrived at their final 
destination, though the general opinion is that they were like 
other wandering and migrating tribes, and were little above the 
condition of savages. Still, the fact that they so soon con- 
formed to the civilization of the Toltecs who preceded them, 
and adopted their arts and architecture, renders it probable 
that their apparent savagery was only the result of their wan- 
dering life, and that they had the elements of growth within 
themselves. 

IV. As to the architecture and its marvelous development, 
it will be remembered that the Aztecs were nomads dif- 
fering very little from other wandering tribes; and yet in the 
course of three centuries they came up to a state of civiii/ation 
which seemed to the Spaniards absolutely marvelous; showing 
that there was as rapid advancement among some of the pre- 
historic racfs as among the historic. Mr. Matthews says; 

The general characteristics of the architecture 'are those which their 
predecessors, the Tollecs, possessed, and the supposition is that their rapid 
progress was owing lo the fact, thai they borrowed the civiliiaiion of their 
predecessors. Their temples were built after the pattern of the Tollecs, 
and so were the survivals of the native art. Their palaces, so called, were 
low, one story buildiiiRS, without windows; but rested upon terraces, which 
raised them above the surface. Each was composed of a. stone basement 
aad surrounded bv a species of facade, carved in imitation of reeds and 
decorated in high relief with scrolls, monsters, and masks, such as are used 
at present on prows of battleships among the Polynesian Islanders. The 
roofs, as near as can be ascertained, were flat and the rooms were lighted 
from the doorways, which were, in some instances, widened by means of 
columns, which were ornaments as well as defences. The temples play a 
more important part than any other building. Forty thousand Teocallis, or 
'■ Houses of God," graced the ancient cities of Mexico, and many, though 
ruined, are still extant. Like the Chaldean temples they consisted, when 
whole, of huge platforms, piled one above another, which drew in as they 
ascended, and were crested with a shrine containing altars and images of 
gilded stone. 

Two remarkable specimens still stand at Teotihuacan, near the City of 
Mexico; they were called anciently the " Houses of the Sun and Moon," 
Though much ruined and over-grown with vegetation, siiflicieni yet remains 
for intelligent restoration, and the fact that these temples are believed to 
belong to the Toltec civili^ration lends them an additional interest. The 
" Temple of the Sun" rose originally to a. height of 171 feet, having a base 
of 64s square feet. That of the Moon was of smaller proportion, both had 
their faces turned toward the four cardinal points of the compass, which 
argues a knowledge of astronomy among the builders, and both were fur- 
nished with walled approaches placed at right angles to their four sides' 
which, while dedicatea to the stars, still served the useful purpose of tombs 
for the chiefs of the nation. 

Better known than these is the Teocalli of Cbolula. the most marvelous 
of Mexican monuments, as regards siie. and dedicated to QuetzalcoatI; 
rising r>nly a lew Feet higher than the House ot the Sun. yet it covers in 
area of IwiC'. the size of the pyramid of Cheops: F.ccording to some about 
twenty-six acres; according to others, sixty acres. Though so extensive in 
size, it cannot be compared architecturally with the great feat of ma.sonry 
on the Nile, since even in its palmy days it could never have been much 
more than a huge mound of clay, and sun-dried brick, pierced with subter- 
ranean passages, and surmounted by a rude sanctuary without even th« 
grace of good proportions.* 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 
Ve may say that there were many other citie 



which are now 
the 



Liins, some upon the mountai: 



leys; but the majority of them have been 



others in 



the Toltecs, and the; 



illm 



ribed 

between 



the 



llustrate the diffe 
ancient and the more modern civilization. 

It appears that the Aztec cities were originally villages, 
not unlike ihe fwltijiltes or lake villages, which were built upon 
piles over the water, and which belonged to the Stone Age. 

Rut these cities were placed on the summits of the moun- 
tains, and were constructed by a process of transforming the 
slope of the mountains into a series of pyramids and plat- 
forms, which were probably sur.nounted by palaces, or by 
temples and altars, their very sightliness making them impres- 
sive objects in the landscape. 

We are to notice the peculiar quadrangular arrangement of 
the apartments of the kings and the inclosures occupied by the 
priests, as well as the orientation of the pyramids, for there was 
a religious motive embodied in it; the worship of the sun re- 
quiring that the city be built after a certain pattern. This 
quadrangular arrangement has been spoken of by Mr. W. H. 
Holmes, who visited the ancient city of Monte Alban and traced 
out the plan after which it was built, in the arrangement of the 
great pyramidal mounds which covered the mountain sides and 
changed their summits into artificial shapes. 

The description by Mr. W. H. Holmesiscspeciaily worthy of 
attention, as his experience as an archaeologist would naturally 
lead him to be very cautious in his expressions. After speaking 
of his ascent of the mountain and cultivated terraces and the 
discovery uf well-preserved quadrangular ruins arranged about 
a quadrangular court, he describes the scene which presented 
itself: 

From tht mainland, 1 afcended ihc central pyramid, which is ihe crown- 
ing Feaiure of ihis pari of Ihe crest, and obtained a magnllirent panorama 
of the monmain and the surrounding valleys and ranges. Turniog to the 
north, the view along the crest was bewildering in the extreme. In years 
of travel and mountain work, 1 had met with many great surprises, such as 
that experienced on emergingsuddeniv from the forest -cove red plateaus of 
Arizona into a full view of the Grand Caflon of the Colorado, or of obtain- 
ing unexpected elfmpses of startling Alpine panoramas — but nothing had 
ever impressed me so deeply as this. The crest of Alban, one-fourth of a 
mile wide, and extending nearly a mile tn the north, lay ipread out at my 
feet. The surface was not covered with scattered and obscure piles of ruins 
as 1 had expected, but the whole mountain bad been removed by the hand ' 
of man. until not a trace of natural contour remained. There was a vast 
system of level courts, enclosed by successive terraces and bordered by 
pyramids upon pyramids. Even the sides of the mountain descended in a 
succession of terraces, and the whole crest, separated by the hazy atmo- 
sphere from the dimly-seen valleys more than t.ooofeet below, and isolated 
completely from the blue range beyond, seemed suspended in mid air. All 
was pervaded by a spirit of mystery, solitude and utter desolation, not re- 
lieved by a sound of life or a single touch of local color. It seemed. Indeed, 
a phantom city, and separated as it Is by half a du^en centuries from the 
modern city — barely traceable as a fleck of white in the deep valley beyond 
the saddle of the Lesser Alban— furnishes a tempting field for speculation, 

I have endeavored to convey some notion of this remarkable scene in 
the panorama which is constructed from a sketch made from the 



I 
I 




ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 



3'9 



the central pyramid seen in the foreground of the view. The point of view 
assumed is indicated by 3 crosi in the profile view of the mountain, and 
also by a cross on the accompanying map. In the foreground is the gteat 
terrace, referred to above, crowned by its two pyiamids, one placed at the 
southeast corner and the other, the main mound, situated a little to the left 
of the centre. 

Behind this group is the central feature of the ancient cily. a vast court 
or plaia, a level, sunken lield 600 feet wide and i.ooo feet long, inclosed by 
terraces and pyramids and having a line of four pyramids tanged along its 
centre. ♦ * • The chain of pyramids extending from north to south 
along the middle of the great square constitutes one of Ihe most interesting 
features of the remains. They are well shown in the panorama and map. 
In viewing these works, one is tempted to indulge in speculation as to the 
conditions that must have prevailed during the period of occupation. How 
striking must have been the effects when these pyramids were all crowned 
with imposing temples, when ihe great level ptaia about them, 600 by 1.000 
feet in extent, was brilliant with barbaric displays. and the inclosing langes 
of terraces and pyramids were occupied by gathered throngs. Civilization 
has rarely conceived anything in the way of amphitheatric-display more 
extensive and imposing than this. 

This would show that the cities at the outset, were laid out 
after a dctinite plan, and did not owe their character or shape to 
accidental circumstances, or even to the character of the site 
on which they were based. The uniformity of the Mexican 
architecture is very instructive on this account, as it shows that 
it was borrowed from an older people, rather than introduced 
by a savage race. It. however, shows what style was common 
among the barbaric races of the earth, and brings before us that 
type which was common in Asia many thousands of years ago 
The analogies are found in the cities of the East, such as 
Babylonia, Ninevah, Thebes, far more than in the villages of 
the hunter tribes of the North, and show that they were built 
afti.r an entirely different system. In this respect the early 
historians arc more correct than some of the modern archae- 
ologists; for they described the cities as they saw them, while 
the archi;ologists depend upon only the ruined cities and a few 
relics and remains which are left, from which they are able to 
trace the plans after which they were built. 

There was another advantage which the historians had over 
the archaiologists: iht-y alt describe the scenery in such a man- 
ner as to present a perfect picture which appeals to the imagi- 
nation and pleases the fancy; but the arc h.x-o legists arc held by 
the technique of their science and feel bound to give the de- 
tails and measurements of each part in turn, rather than the 
artistic character of the whole scene, For this reason we pre- 
fer to quote the historians, and shall do so without stopping to 
criticise their style or correct their statements. 

It is due to the Spanish historians that a picture of barbaric 
magnificence has been preserved and that the middle stage of 
human progress has been portrayed. The descriptions of 
costumes, equipages, house-furnishings, military equipments, 
mode of warfare, as well as of social habits and customs, and 
all the details of domestic life arc worthy of careful study on 
this account. The most brilliant and gorgeous scenes riveted 
their attention, for they were as novel and strange to them as 



JK) THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

they would be to us. Many of the objects which they saw were 
so fragile that they were easily destroyed, and so passed out of 
sight. But, the featherwork and gorgeous head-dresses which 
were worn by the warriors were as true signs of the barbarism 
which prevailed as was the strange architecture which was em- 
bodied in their temples. As Prescott says: 

Architecture is, Co a certain extent, a sensual g-talilication; it addresses 
itseK to the eye, and affords the best scope for the parade of barbaric pomp 
and splendor. Ii is the form in which the revenues of a semi-civilired peo- 
ple are most likely to be Uvished. The most gaudy and ostentatious 
specimens of it, and sometimes the most stupendous, have been reared by 
I JUch hands. It is one of the first steps in the great march of civillralioo.* 

ft The historians speak, to be sure, as if the warriors and chiefs 
■ belonged to an organised army, and of the tribes as if they were 
' great nations, and of their (arUjiics, or monarchs, as if they were 
the kings of a great empire. But this description was certainly 
as correct as that of the writers who have compared the peo- 
ple to the wild tribes of the North, and who have made the 
confederated cities of Mexico to resemble the Iroquois con- 
federacy which formerly existed in the State of New York. 
The tribes which were situated in the valley of Mexico may 
have been at one time nothing more than savages, and their 
condition may have been no better or higher than that of the 
Iroquois, when they were visited by Chaniplain, But the vision 
which greeted the eyes of Cortez. as he looked down upon the 
valley of Mexico, was very different from that xvhich met the 
eyes of Cham plain when he attacked the little band of Iroquois 
on the shores of the lake which bears his name. 

The villages, or so-called castles of the Iroquois were situa- 
ted upon the different lakes which are scattered throughout the 
state of New York, with the chief village, where the " Long 
House " was situated, in the very centre of the confederacy. It 
was owing to the fact that they were so secure in their strong- 
holds, and were so strong in their confederated capacity, that 
they became a terror to all the tribes. It did not take more 
than three or four centuries for either confederacy to come up 
to the summit of its power, but the great advance during 
the previous history of Mexico under the Toltccs had given to 
the Aztecs a civilization which was very unlike that of the 
Iroquois. And so the scene which greeted the eyes of Cortez, 
the Spaniard, was very different from that which engaged the 
attention of Champlain, the Frenchman. As Prescott says: 

Corlei, at the very time of his landing, recofiniied the vesli(?es of a 
higher civilization than he had before witnessed in the Indian islands. The 
houses were some of Ihem large, and often built with stone and lime. He 
was particularly struck with the temples, in which were towers constructed 
of the same solid n.ateriajs, aod rising several stories in height. In the 
court of one of these, he was amazed by the sight of a cross, of stone and 
lime, about ten palms high. It was the emblem of the god of rain. lis ap- 
pearance suggested the wildest conjecture, not merely to the unlettered 
soldiers, but subsei|uently to the European scholars, who speculated on the 
character of the races that had introduced there the symbol oE Christianity, 




ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 



3ZI 



The Mexicans had many claims lo the character of a civil- 
ized community, but the detestabk- feature of the Aztec super- 
stition was its cannibalism; though, in truth, the Mexicans were 
not cannibals in the coarsest acceptation of the word. They 
did not feed on human flesh merely to satisfy a brutish appetite, 
but in obedience to their religion. Their repasts were made of 
the victims whose blood had been poured out on the altar of 
sacrifice. Human sacrifice had been practiced by many nations, 
■but never by aijy on a scale to be compared with that in 
Anahuac. Scarcely any author pretends to estimate the yearly 
sacrifices throughout Ihe empire at less than 20,000. Indeed, 
the great object of the war with the Aztecs was quite as much 
to gather victims for their sacrifices, as to extend their empire. 
It was customary to preserve the skulls of the victims of sacri- 
fices in buildings appropriated to the purpose. The companions 
of Cortez counted 136,000 in one of these edifices. Human 
sacrifices were adopted by the Aztecs early in the fourteenth 
century, about 200 years before the Conquest, but it was this 
that led to their ruin in the end. 

V. With this general description of the characteristics of 
the ancient cities of Mexico, we now turn to give an account 
of the location of particular cities through which the 
Spanish conquerors passed, and which they have described 
so graphically. Various writers have drawn from the 
8paT]isb records, and have given us excellent accounts of 
the Conquest as well as the character of the cities. Our 
knowledge of the architecture which prevailed is secured 
from them, but has been confirmed by later explorations of 
the archsologists.* 

Tlascala was one of the most important and populous 
towns on the tableland. Cortez, in his letter to the Em- 
peror, compares it to Grenada, affirming, that it was larger, 
stronger, and more populous than tli& Moorish capital, at the 
time of the Conquest, and quite as well built. The truth is 
that Cortez, like Columbus, saw objects through the medium 
of his own imagination. The Tlascalans, who had been 
driven to the mountains and there hidden themselves behind 
the great wall which they had built between the mountains, 
making an artificial barrier to supplement that which was 
natural, were ready to join with Cortez in his attack upon 
the cities which were situated in the valley. The following 
description, given by Prescott, is taken from one of the old 
Spanish historians and furnishes a picture of the people: 



The crowds flocked out 
women in their picturesquei 
tbey gave to ihe Spaniards, 
horses, in the same mannc 
robes, and long mailed Iress 



:ess, wilh bunches 
r faitcned Ici the r 
as a1 Cempoalla. 



e thi 



strangers. — men and 
reatbsof roses, which 
s or caparisons of their 
riesls. with their while 
mingled in the crowd, 



yi 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



scatlerin^ volumes of incense fr 
hung wiih festoons of llowers. 
wilh roses and honeysuckle, vie 

The garments of thi 
tilude were arrayed in b 



lul I 



defend the cities, were also armed u 
character, and theirchiefs were covered will 
imposing to the sight. Each nation had ii 
whicb were painted or embroirdered t!ie i 
Thai of the Me: 



m iheirburningceniers. The housesw 
nd arches of verdant bought, intertwined 
e thrown across the streets. 

people were many colored, and the mul- 
thefs. The warriois who came forth tr 



:apons which were of superior 
plumes and head-dresses very 

: own particular standard on 
moriai bearings of the State. 

n, bortf_an eagle in the act of 
cala. a bird with its 



seizing a tiger or jaguar. That of the republic of Tia 

wings spread as in the act oi living, which some aumors cau an eagie; 
others, a bird or crane Each of tbc four lordships of the republic bad, 
also, its appropriate ensign; Ti^atlan had a crane upon a rock; Tepelicpac, 
a wotf with a bunch of arrows in his paw>; Ocotelulco. a green bird upona 
rock, and Quiahuizllan, a parasol made of green feathers. Each company 
OT command had also a distinct standard, (he colors of which corresponded 
to the armor and plumes of the chief. The great standard of the TIascaltec 
army was carried by the general commanding, and the smaller banners of 
the companies, by their respective captains; they were carried on ihe back, 
and were so firmly tied that they could not be detached without great 
difficulty.* 

The architecture of this city does not seem to have 
equaled that of the cities in the valley, such as Cholula, Te2- 
cuco. and Tenochtttlan or Mexico. Still, it was of a char- 
acter to surprise the Spanish conquerors. The division of 
the city into four quarters resembled that which prevailed 
in all of the Aztec cities. The following is a quotation from 
Prescott, which will show the degree of civilization'reached: 

The houses were built tor the most part of mud or earth; the better 
*ort of stone and lime, or bricks dried in the sun. They were unprovided 
with doors or windows, but in the apertures for the former hung mats, 
fringed with pieces of copper or something which, by its tinkling sound, 
would give notice of any one's entrance. 1 hey peculiarly excelled In pot- 
tery, which was considered as equal to the best in Europe. It is a further 
Ki>of of civihied habits that the Spaniards found barber s shops and baths, 
thof vapor and hot water, famihariy used by Ihe Inhabitants. A still 
higher proof of refinement may be discovered in a vigilant police, which 
repressed everything like disoider among the people. The city was divided 
into tour quarters, which might rather be called so many separated towns, 
since they were built at different times and sep<iraied from each other by 
high stone walls, defining their res[)ective limits. Over each of these dis- 
tricts ruled one of the four great chiefs of Ihe republic, occupying his own 
spacious mansion and surrounded by his own Immediate vassa s.t 

The next city which Cortez visited, was the ancient city 
Cholula, capital of tlie Republic of that name. It lay nearly 
six leagues south of TIascala and about twenty southeast 
of the City of Mexico. It was said by Cortez to contain 
20,000 houses within the walls, and as many more in the 
environs. It was of great antiquity, and was founded by 
the primitive races who overspread the land before the 
Aztecs, and carried back the foundation of the city to the 
Olmecas, the people who preceded the Toltecs. It had been 
reduced to vassalage by the Aztecs, and its people were 
in frequent collision with the Tlascalans, 



ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 



3»3 



The inhabitants excelled in various mechanical arts, 
especially that of working of metals, the manufacture of 
cotton and agave clothes, and of a delicate kind of pottery, 
rivalling, Herrera says, that of Florence in beauty. The 
capital, so conspicuous for its refinement, was more vener- 
able for its religious traditions. It was here that the God 
Quetzalcoatl dwelt and taught the Toltec inhabitants the 
arts of civilization. It was in honor of this benevolent 
deity that the stupendous mound was erected, on which the 
traveler still gazes with admiration, as the most colossal 
fabric in New Spain. The date of the erection is unknown, 
for it was there when the Aztecs entered on the Plateau. 
It had the form common to the Mexican teocallis — that of 
a truncated pyramid, facing with its four sides the cardinal 
points, and divided into four terraces. The perpendicular 
height of the pyramid is 177 feet. Its base is 1,423 feet long, 
twice as long as the great pyramid of Cheops. It may give 
some idea of its dimensions to state that its base, which is 
s<iuare, covers about 44 acres, and the platform on its trun- ' 
cated summit embraces more than one. It reminds us of the 
colossal monuments of brick- work, which are still seen in 
ruins on the banks of the Euphrates, and, in much better 
preservation, on those of the Nile. 

The following description is from Bancroft's "Native 
Races." Vol. iv., p. 4h4: 

From a base of about 1,440 feet square, whose sides face Ihe cardinal 
polnls. 11 TOic in four eijual sloncs 10 a height of nearly 200 feet. Traces 
of artificial terraces are noted on the slopes-, and excavations have proven 
that the whole amount, or a very large portion of it, it of artificial construc- 
tion. The material nf which the mound is constructed is n</oif.<.oi iun- 
(jried bricks, generallv about fifteen inches long, laid regularly wtth alter- 
nate layers of clay. Col. Btanti Mayer says the ailohrs are interspersed 
with small fragments of porphyry and liniestotie, but Ihe historian Veyiia 
ascertained the material to be small stones and a kind of brick of clayand 
straw in alternate layers. » • * Bernal IJiaz at the limeof the conquest 
counted [20 steps in the stairway, which led up the sleep 10 the temple, but 
no traces of the stairway have been visible in modern times. Hum- 
boldt shows that it ts larger at Ihe base ihan any n( the Old World 
pyramids, over twice as large as thai of Cheops, and a Utile higher than 
that of Myccrinus. He says: "The construction of the leocaDi recalls the old- 
est monuments lo which the civilization of our race reaches. The historical 
annals of aboriginal limes, confirmed by the .Spanish records of the Con- 
quest, leave no doubt thai the chief object of the pyramid was lo -.upporl 
a temple." Latrobe says; " Many ruined mounds mav be seen frotn the 
summit, in fact the wHole surface of Ihe surrounding plain is broken 
by both natural and artificial elevations." 

There is no doubt that this terraced mound was a pyra- 
mid on whose summit was the ancient lim-alli in which the 
Toltec priests formerly worshipped. It was probably the 
centre of the so-called city whicli Cortez entered and by 
stratagem conquered, though with great slaughter of the 
natives, and with con.siderable loss to his own troops. It 
was originally the shrine at which the nations or tribes, 
who dwelt in the Valley of Mexico, gathered for sacritice. 



324 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



P 



and resumbled the temple at Palenque. which was also ^ 1 
sacred place of the Maya race. 

Torquemada says they came the distance of 2l»0 leag^ues, 
and Sahatjun, who saw the Aztec gods before the Christians I 
had tumbled them from tbeir pride of place, has given a / 
minute account of the costume and insignia worn. He saya: 

On the summit stood a sumptuous temple in which was the image of 
the myiitic deity, god of the air, wlih ebon features, wearing a mitre oa his 
head waving with plumes of lire, a resplendent collar of gold ahoul his 
neck, pendants of mosaic turquoise in his ears, a jewelled sceptre in one 
hand, and a shield curiously paioted, the embleni of his rule over the windi, 
in the other. The sanctity of the place, hallowed by hoary traditions and 
[be magniliceDce of the temple and its services, made it an abject of ven- 
eration, and pilgrims from the furthest corners of Anahuac came to offer 
up their devotions at the shrine of Quetzalcoatl. Id no city was there such 
a concourse of priests, so manjr processions and so much pomp of cere- 
monial sacrlltce. Cholula was, Ir short, what Mecca is among the Mohain- 
iDedans, or what Jerusalem is among the Christians, ft was the " Holy 
City " of Anahuac. The Aztec gods were worshijiped and 6,000 victims were 
annually offered up at their sanguinary shrines. 

^ Nothing could be more gra.nd than the view which met ihe eye from 
the area on the truncated summit of the pyramid. Toward the west 
stretched that bold barrier of porphyritic rock which nature has reared 
around the valley of Mexico, with the huge Popocatapell and Utaccibuall 
ttanding like two colossal sentinels to guard the entrance to the encbanied 
region. Far away Id the east was seen Ihe conical head of Orizaba, soar- 
ing high into the clouds, and nearer, the barren, though beautifully shaped 
Sierra de Mjilinche throwing lis broad shadow over the plains of TIascala. 

At the elevation of more than 6,000 feet abave the sea are (he rich 
products of various climes, growing side by side, tields of maize, the juicy 
aloe, the chilli. Aztec pepper, plantations of the cactus; the land Irrigated 
by numerous streams and canals, and well shaded by woods that have dis- 
appeared before the rude axe of the Spaniards. The Spaniards were 61led 
with admiration at the aspect of tfae Cholulans; Ihey were particularly sduck 
with the costume of the higher classes, who wore line embroidered mantles, 
resembling the graceful Moorish cloak, in texture and fashion. They 
showed the same delicate tastefor Ifowersas theother tribes of the Tlaieau, 
decorating their persons with them, and lossing garlands and bunches 
among the soldiers. Immense numbers of priests mingled with the 
crowd, swinging their aromatic censers, while music from various kinds of 
instruments gave a lively welcome to the visitors. The Spaniards were 
also struck with tbe cleanliness of Ihe ciiy, the width and great regularity 
ol tbe streets, which seemed to have been laid out orf a seltled plan; with 
the solidity of the houses, and the number and size of the pyramidal 
temples. At night, the stillness af the hour was undisturbed, except by the 
occasional sounds heard in a populous city, and by the hoarse cries 01 the 
priests, from the turrets of the /f-firnZ/f']. proclaiming through their trumpets 
the watches of the night. 

The city of Mexico, called in the native language>l 
Tenochtitlan, was the larf^est and the most powerful of all! 
the Aztec cities. It occupied, as we have said, an islan^f 
near tbe centre of the lake, which was reached by thre* 
artiUcial dykes, one of which connected it with Tlacopan«il 
capital of an allied tribe; a second with the city of Tezcuco.I 
and a third with Xochimilco. These various cities were*! 
destroyed by the Spaniards, scarcely a fragment of tbeU 
remains. The following description, gathered by Prescoi 
from the early historians, is worthy of our notice; 




ANCIENT AZTEC CITIES AND CIVILIZATION. 



32 s 



They also saw as they passed along several towns resting on piles and 
reaching afar into the water, a kind of architecture which found great favor 
with the Aztecs. The water was darkened by swarms of canoes filled with 
Indians. The army kept along the narrow tongue of land, which divides 
the Tezcucan from the Chalcan waters, and entered on the great dyke which 
connected the island city with the mainland. It was the same causewav 
which forms the southern avenue of Mexico. The Spaniards had occasion 
more than ever to admire the mechanical science of the Aztecs, in the pre- 
cision with which the work was executed, as well as the solidity of its con- 
struction. It was composed of huge stones, well laid in cement, and wide 
enough throughout its final extent for ten horsemen to ride abreast. At a 
distance of half a league from the capital, they encountered a solid work, 
or curtain, of stone, which traversed the dyke. It was twelve feet high, and 
was strengthened by towers at the extremities, and in the centre was a bat- 
tlemented gateway, which opened a passage to the troops. After this the 
army reached a drawbridge near the gates of the city. It was built of wood, 
thrown across an opening in the dyke which furnished an outlet to the 
waters, when swollen by a sudden influx. 





SERPKNT WALL IN MEXICO. 

The architecture of the city of Mexico is interesting from 
the fact that it shows how a village, which resembles the lake 
villages of Switzerland in being placed over the water and built 
upon piles, grew up to be a great city, with streets, houses, 
palaces, temples and market-places, and yet continued to be 
reached by canoes. The growth was rapid, and no specimens 
of the early stages have been preserved. This growth was due 
to contact with a Toltec civilization, which had preceded the 
arrival of the Aztecs, as well as to the resources which the val- 
ley afforded, but mainly to the occupations of the people. 
Mr. Prescott says: 

Agriculture was the chief employment, and this resulted in the rapid 
development of commerce and art. There was scarcely a spot so rude, or 
a steep so inaccessible as not to possess the power of cultivation. * * * 
From the resources thus enlarged by conquest and domestic industry, the 
monarch dtew the means for the large consumption of his own numerous- 



326 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

household, and for the costly works which he i 
and embellishmenl of the capital. He filled i 

nob Icfl, whose constant altendance he was aoxious to secures! his court. 
He erected a magniticent pile of buildings, which might serve both for a 
royal residence and forihe public offices. It extended from east to weii 
i,zi4 yards, and from north to south ifjZ yards. It was encompasied by a 
wall of unburnt bricks and cement, six feet wide and nine feet high, for one- 
half of the circumference, and fifteen feel high for the other half. Within 
this enclosure were two courts. The outer on^ was used as the great mar- 
ket'place of the city; and continued to be so until long after the Conquest, 
if, indeed, it is not now. The interior court was surrounded by the council- 
chambers and halls of justice. There were also accommodations there tot 
the foreign ambassadors; and a spacious saloon, with apartments opening 
into it. for men of science and poets, who pursued their studies in this 
retreat, or met together to hold converse under its marble porticos, In this 
quarter, also, were kept the public archives, which fared better under the 
Indian dynasty, than they have since under their European successors. 
Adjoining this court were the aparlmpnls of the king, including those tor 
the royal harem, as liberally supplied with beauties as that of an Eaitero 
sultan. Their walls were encrusted with alabasters and richly tinted 
atuccos.or hung with gorgeous tapestries of variegated feather-work. They 
led through long arcades, and through labyrinths of shrubbery, into gardens 
where baths and sparkling fountains were overshadowed by tall grov es of 
cedar and cypress. 

This palace, so Eraphically described, was a pile of low, 
irregular buildings, flatiked upon one side by the wall of ser- 
pents, ciiatlpantli, which encompassed the great leocalli, with its 
little city of holy edifices. It tnay have embraced the apart- 
ments which were necessary for the accommodation of the 
great household of the Aztec monarch; all of them arranged 
in a quadrangular shape, but built in an unsubstantial way and 
of perishable material. 

It will be remembered that this city, with all its grandeur, 
was swept out by the Spaniards in the process of a three 
months' siege. The point of attack selected by the Spanish 
general was Xochimilco, or the " field of flowers," as the name 
implies from the floating gardens which rode at anchor, as it 
were, on the neighboring waters. Prescott says; 

It was one ol the most potent and wealthy cities in the valley, snd a 
staunch vassal of the Aztec crown. It stood, like the capital ilsett. partly 
in the water, and was approached in that i|uarter by causeways of no great 
length. The town was composed of houses like those of most other places 
of like magnitude in the country— mostly ot cottages and huts made of 
ciay and the light bamboo, mingled with aspiring trpcallh and edifices of 
stone, belonging lo the more opulent classc 



I 
1 



THE PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. 

BY REV. WILLIAM C. WINSLOW, PH. D. 

The prog^ress of Egyptology during the year 1899, treated 
by the writer in the May-June number of The American 
Antiquarian, will now be illustrated by considering a few 
of the publications, including those which deal directly 
with discoveries or results from excavations. And first, let 
us note what is doing in the line of catalogues of our great 
collections. 

Two important catalogues have appeared. The Berlin 
Museum has issued an entirely new edition of its Egyptian 
collection. The papyri are no longer included; notwith- 
standing this, however, the size of the volume is doubled, 
yet without making it too bulky for the pocket. Pull in- 
dices make reference easy, the descriptions are revised to 
date, and notices of large numbers of new acquisitions are 
added. The arrangement and headings are greatly im- 
proved, so that the guide forms in itself a compendium of 
Egyptian archaeology; it is by far the most valuable and 
handy catalogue yet issued by any museum and is indispens- 
able to the archcEologist, who will find abundance of new 
ideas in the headings and descriptions. Among the new 
acquisitions we notice particularly the precious fragments 
obtained during the previous year from the temple of 
Sahura, now in course of systematic excavation (p. 42), and 
portions of an unique astronomical instrument of about the 
XXyith Dynasty, witTi an ingenious explanation of its use 
(p. 309). So, too, the British Museum has published a com- 
plete guide to the mummies and coffins which now form so 
I^rominent a portion of the collection, occupying almost the 
whole of the first and second Egyptian rooms. It is em- 
bellished with twenty-five plates illustrating an example of 
the Xlth Dynasty and other instances from the XXth Dy- 
nasty to late Roman times; it also gives a summary account 
of the smaller objects in the cases of the same rooms. The 
plates are numbered in chronological order, but are in- 
serted in the book according to the order in which they are 
described. Dr. Budge is the editor of this very useful guide. 

Mr. Quibell reports upon that gigantic enterprise, a 
** Complete Catalogue of the Gizeh Museum." It is ency- 
clopaediac. He considers that the work will make up some 
forty volumes, and besides the main inventory, three slip 
catalogues are to be made: 

(1) Catalogue of places, showing at a glance all the 
objects known to have come from the several sites. 



328 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

(2) Catalogue of names of persons, arranged alphabeti- 
cally. 

(3) Catalogue of objects dated with certainty, arranged 
in order of dynasties and reigns. 

Indexes of previously existing catalogues and of refer- 
ences to Egyptological literature are being prepared. 

The organization and plan of the work are due to Herr 
Borchardt, who was engaged on the cataloguing of the 
statues for nearly a year before he was joined by any of his 
colleagues. 

About 10,000 numbers out of perhaps aO.lWO have been 
done. Herr Borchardt has described the statues and Old 
Kingdom monuments, and is now working on architectural 
models. Herr Reisner has catalogued the boats and can- 
opic vases and most of the amulets. Mr. Crum has dealt 
with the Coptic monuments, M. Chassinat with the sarcoph- 
agi of the two great Der el Bahri hnds. Freiherr von Biss- 
ing with pottery, faience and bronze, and Mr, Quibell has 
been engaged with the archaic monuments. Several volun- 
teers have worked on the catalogue; notably Messrs. Gren- 
fell & Hunt on its Greek papyri. Prof. Wilcken on the 
ostraca. and Dr. Miller on Greek inscriptions. 

"A History of Egypt under Ptolemaic Rule" and "A 
History of Egypt under Roman Rule" are remarkable and 
timely publications, essential to every student and reader 
of GriKCo-Roman Egypt. Between the first volume, by 
Prof. J. P. Mahally, and the second by Mr. J, G. Milne, 
there is a wide difference of treatment in the use of ma- 
terial. Mahaffy usually fails to give his authority, while 
Milne cites references by the wholesale. The former may 
be more readable, but the latter is more useful. We are 
assured that Mr. Mahaffy is largely occupied with the for- 
tunes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the characters and compli- 
cated matrimonial relationshijis of the several sovereigns, 
while he nowhere gives any detailed and comprehensive 
Hurvey of the administrative and economical organization 
o( the country. Indeed he frankly abandons it as impos- 
lilhle (p. !*3); but this is surely to overlook the success of 
tj\inil>ro.si>, and since the appearance of that admirable 
work the availabe materials liave been increased by the 
^rt>a( discoveries of the last ten years. No doubt many 
ditTlciillii's and obscurities remain: but this is equally the 
cam' with every part of the history of the Ptolemies, and 
would only provide the greater scope for Mr. Mahaffy's tn- 
liniullV. boldness and resource. In any case, a collection 
Aiiil silting of tbe existing materials could not fail to be 
iiseful lo the student, both for the purpose of reference and 
UN « starting point for future research. This is what Mr. 
Mlluf ha« attempted for the Roman period, and it is the 
most vwlujihle portion of his book. His summary of 
KlfVlitliin annals is somewhat dry and barren; but his 



THE PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. 3a;9 

tabulation of administrative and economical details, which 
occupies chapters i., viii., ix.. x., and the appendices, will 
be most gratefully welcomed by those who have hitherto 
had to collect the evidence for themselves from scattered 
documents, and who can appreciate the labor involved in 
such a work. 

Mr. F, G. Kenyon gives us a very valuable work on "The 
Paleography of Greek Papyri," for which he has great apt- 
ness and brilliant acquisitions. Its scope may be indicated 
by specifying the heads of the various chapters; {1) The 
Range of the Subject; (2) Papyrus as Writing Material; 
(B) Non-Literary Papyri; (4) Literary Papyri of the Ptole- 
maic Period; (5) Literary Papyri of the Roman Period; 
(6) The Transition to Vellum. To these are added appen- 
dices, giving a complete catalogue of the literary papyri 
hitherto discovered (up to and including the first volume of 
the Oxyrhynchus papyri), a list of the principal publica- 
tions of non-literary papyri, and a table of abbreviations 
used in papyri. The book is illustrated by twenty photo- 
graphic plates and a table of eighteen alphabets of literary 
hands. The whole ie an attempt to marshal the evidence 
which the recent discoveries have furnished with regard to 
Greek palaeography of the papyrus period (a period of 
which our knowledge was of the scautiest till within the 
last ten years), and to suf^gest the leading principles to 
which that evidence points. 

Mr. W. E. Crum has a very scholarly and useful chapter 
in the ArchiEolo^iical Report oi the Egypt Exploration Fund 
on "Coptic Studies." To turn to matters ecclesiastical, we 
find that M. Revillout has published a very elaborate 
volume of 4U0 pages on the Coptic texts relative to the 
Nicene Council. Such texts throw much light upon the 
accepted status of a council that composed the famous 
creed of the Catholic World. It will be recalled how Mr. 
Groff made some startling and interesting discoveries of 
the names of Jacob and Josejth in the Karnak lists. Mr. 
Crum says that Mr. Groff believes himself to have recog- 
nized in the London and Leyden Gnostic Papyrus— in that 
part of it which he terms "a magician's formulary " — ^tbe 
names Jesus. Nazarene, John and Peter, as well as "father 
in heaven" and "prince of this world," or something corre- 
sponding thereto. The forms are, he holds, transcriptions 
from a Semitic language— an argument for Egypt's very 
early acquaintance with Christianity. That the authors of 
such texts drew upon still older sources is doubtless prob- 
able; whence the introduction of the names in question 
might have taken place in an extremely early time. Such 
discoveries, if substantiated, would certainly be of great 
interest. 

There are many interesting points discussed in the 
review cited. As far back as the Xlth Djiiasty tattooing 



330 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, 

was practiced, as Dr. Fouquet demonstrates and illustrates 
by a plate of figures. Lieblein draws attention to medical 
treatment by inhalation in the Ebers- Papyrus, and Schafer 
reports upon a maffic formula afrainst burns. One of the 
legal bits is that Mons. Capart thinks that he can prove 
beheading as a punishment in the early days from a scene 
in the tomb of Merruka at Sakkarah. 

Mr. F. W. Green, a pupil of Dr. Petrie's, comes to the 
front as an explorer. How he did his work at Hierakon- 
polis is told by Dr, Petrie in that invaluable publication. 
the Archteological Report: 

The main affair was an i^xliaustivc clearing oC the ground of ihe 
temple sue, and much of the lown enclosure around it. The raised mound 
on which the temple was huilt proved to be almost circular in plan; a mats 
of sand with chips oF prehistoric pottery in it. held up by a reveiment of 
rude steps of stone. It probably belongs to the earliest dynastic a^e. In 
the area was found a pordon oE a large stele of king Kha sekhem; this is 
very valuable as proving the exact reading of Ihe name, which has been 
before doubtful, owing lo its roughness on the statues and great stone jats. 
This stele is the mo!<t monumeDtal work of these early dynasties that we 
have yet seen, and links on to the style of the rock carving of the IVth 
Dynasty. 

A piece of a great porphyry vase with the ,<-ii-nanie ol kia[; Kha- 
sekhemui was also ftiund; and part of the base of a statue with apparently 
a double .i'a-name, which is, therefore, probably of the same king. 

In the town was found another important piece. As yet we only know 
of the three Min statues of Koptos and the kneeling figure of Hierakon- 

fioljs as archaic carving on a laige scale. Now a lite^size figure has been 
Dund, of the same very archaic style, but dressed differently from any 
Egyptian hgure, and retailing the early Babylonian style. A long robe 
reaches to below the knees; it is thrown over the left shoulder, and held by 
the left arm across the breast; the right arm hangs down the side, and the 
hand was pierced, like those of the Min statues. Unhappily, the head and 
feet are both lost, and the block has been often re-used for a threshold and 
door socket, down the lelt side, 

A large quantity of llint tools and flakes were found In the town, some 
in the temple, and a few from the cemetery. They are of every quailty, 
from finished knives to mere flakes, and include a ereat variety of tools, 
A large mass of minute wrought flakes, the so-callea "midgets" of India 
and Euiope, were found together in one place, some thirty pounds weight 

On the desert edge a long mass of prehistoric cemetery proved to have 
been almost entirely plundered by dealers. Some fine flint work and a 
good deal of pottery was recovered. But the main result here was the 
painted grave of the middle prehistoric age. The figures are of boats, 
men, and animals: scenes of both hunting and fighting are shown. It Is 
the moi't important drawing yet known of the prehistoric age. it clenches 
for certain the meaning of the boats on the vases, and shows many details , 
of the prehistoric life. The whole was very carefully copied full a' 
colors by Mr, Green; and he then spent much time and labu 
the rotten mud coating bearing the drawings, and fixing i1 
plaster. Thus it traveled safely to the Caiio Museum. Mr. Green t 
pleted his work by adctailed plan and map of the temple and neighborhood. 

The importance of training students practically as ex- 
cavators cannot be overstated. There should be an Anglo- 
American School of Egyptian Studies and Excavation at 
Cairo. The sine qua non is an endowment. Who will begin 
it? We notice that Mr. James Loeb, of New York, has just 



I 



THE PROGRESS OF EGYPTOLOGY. 331 

enriched the School at Athens by a gift whose assured in- 
come will be 8600 a year. Such generosity deserves to be 
followed by wealthy men in our country, who appreciate 
the great work yet to be done in Egypt to cast light upon 
the history of our race. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN 

Samoa. In the Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographic 
(Vol. XIII., 1900, pp. 55-70), W, von Buelow continues his 
studies in Samoan ethnography. The author describes and 
figures a curious stone implement, new to him, although resi- 
dent for some eighteen years in Samoa; nor does it seem to be 
familiar to the modern Samoans. The rest of the paper is de- 
voted to the consideration of the peopling of the island of 
Savaii — native texts and translations are given of certain 
legends relating thereto, and many explanatory notes added. 
Not all of the Samoan islands seem to have been peopled 
from the west (as Savaii and a part of Upolu were), there be- 
ing traces of a migration also from the eastward. The first 
inhabitants probably belonged to the same race as the van- 
guard of the great Malayan migration. 



German New Guinea. In the Internationales Archiv fiir 
Ethnographic (Vol. XIII., 1900, pp. 18-54. with eight plates), 
Mr. R. Parkinson writes of the ethnology, sociology, language, 
etc., ot the Berlinhafen region of the New Guinea coast. The 
good qualities (and these savages incline to that side) are not 
few, and their friendliness and hospitality are marked. On the 
bad side, lying, theft, laziness, passion, cruelty, etc., are to be 
noted. The position of women and children is by no means of 
the lowest. The population, as a whole, appears to be slowly 
decreasing, — this is due to wars, disease, unhygienic methods of 
living, immorality of a sexual sort, etc. The enormous frisures 
of the men are in marked contrast with the shaved heads of 
the women. Ornaments for the hair are much in use, and old 
and young of both sexes are fond of wearing the red blossoms 
of the Hibiscus. Characteristic of this region is the Parak or 
** spirit-house," upon which the natives expend all they are 
capable of in building, decorating, painting, carving, and other 
arts. The author gives a detailed description of the Parak. 
Interesting, also, is the less carefully constructed Alol (village- 
house, council-house, bachelors* house), after which come the 
ordinary houses still less carefully built. In the mythology of 
these people figure: Mokrakun (a female deity), protective 
deities {genii ioci) called taputi^ and Mohs, an evil spirit. In 
this region of New Guinea, as on that island generally, langu- 



332 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ages and dialects fairSy pullulate. According to Mr. Parkinson, 
"the little island of Tamara, containing only some 2S0 to 300 
people, has its own language, divided into two dialects" (p. 48I. 
So also have the islands of Ali, Seleo, and Angel, the languages 
of which differ from that of Tamara about as Dutch does from 
German. Other parts of the region in question also have their 
particular language. Consonantal interchange and euphonic 
addition are current to such an extent in Tumleo. the language 
spoken on Tamara, that the author assures us that the word for 
"speak," may be pronounced: Kapal, napal, tapal. rapal, ma- 
kapal, manapal, matapal, or marapal. The differences in the 
two dialets in use in Tamara consist in the use of a number of 
entirely different words, vocalic divergences, etc. 



Javanese Poppet-Plav. In the Internationales Archiv fiir 
Ethnographie (Vol. XIII.. 1900, pp. 4-17). Dr. H. H, Juynboll, 
of Leiden, describes (with ten plates) the M'tjjang Kelttit. d. 
Javanese puppet-play of considerable antiquity. The name 
■wajang is somewhat inaccurate, since it signifies not '"puppet," 
but ".fhadow," — kclitik seems to mean "small." The play, in 
which the figures are flat wooden dolls, deals with the htroic 
deeds of Damar Wulan, Sijung Wanara. and other personages 
of the I'adjadjaian and Madjapahit periods, the last of which 
extends from 1216 A. D. to 1390 A. U. The author promises 
another (concluding) part of his very interesting study. In 
the Wajaiig Keli/ik not the shadows of the dolls, but the ^gures 
themselves are used. 



Malay Magic, Mr. W, W, Skeat's " Malay Magic: being 
an Introduction to the Folk-Lore and Popular Religion of the 
Malay Ptninsula" (London, 1900. pp. xiv., 685), is a well- 
written volume upon a topic which must be of considerable 
interest to Americans at the present time, as an excellent ac- 
count of the mythological and religious life of a people now 
becoming profoundly modified by the influences of modern 
civilization. Mr. Skeat, as an English official in the federated 
Malay states for many years, writes as one having authority 
concerning the things that are passing away. For the Malay 
"magic" is the one thing in life, that can keep man safe amid 
the vicissitudes, troubles and accidents of the spirit-moved and 
spirit-haunted world. Consequently rites and ceremonies are 
legion in number, and the best part of the book is taken up 
with their description. Amid all the overlaying of Mohammed- 
anism, Brahmanism, etc., the vastly older spirit- worship still 
survives in a quaint and curious fashion. ^sorcery, witchcraft, 
dcmonology are oftentimes older than religion, and the seven- 
fold soul even more ancient still. The Malays have been 
much influenced by Arabic and Hindu culture and literatui 
more, probably, than has hitherto been recognized. 



I 



I seven- ^H 

en very ^H 

— - ^^1 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 



333 



Bamboo Manna. In a brief communication to Nature (Vol. 
LXII.. pp. 127-128) for June 7, [900. Mr. David Hooper, of 
Calcutta, calls attention to "the recent occurrence of a sweet 
secretion on the stems of bamboos growing in the Central 
Provinces," It is at least curious, as the author notes, that 
"this is said to be the first time in the history of these forests 
(of Central and Southern India) that a sweet and gummy sub- 
stance has been known to exude from the trees.' ; As the present 
famine-scarcity is most keenly felt in the Central Provinces, 
this "bamboo manna" is being consumed as a (food by the 
natives of the region in question. The fact suggests at least 
an effort of Nature to overcome the famine-evil. "Bamboo 
manna" is known of old time, as the Sanscrit name ti'ak-kshxra 
("bark-milk"), whence our medical term labashir, indicates. 
The appearance of the "manna" in the Chanda district seems 
to have been reported last March, the forests concerned con- 
sisting of the male bamboo, Dcndrofalamus slrictm:. 



iRANO-lNniAN ICONOGRAHHV AND ANTHROPOLOGY. In L'An- 

thropologie (Vol. XI., 1900, pp. 23-56), M. Charles de Ujfalvy, 
whose previous studies have been noticed In an earlier issue of 
The American Antiquarian (Vol. XXII., p. 103). presents the 
first part of a detailed discussion of the iconographical anthro- 
pology of ancient Iran and India, a paper in which the im- 
portance of numismatic anthropology is again demonstrated 
Among the topics treated are: The genealogical past of the 
Irano-Indians; the physical type of the ancient Persians; the 
monumental glyphs and other figures. The author, in passing, 
calls attention to the Hellenic type of Bagaraz (300 B. C.),king 
of Persepolis. and the Greeko-Macedonian mixture in the 
Bactrian king Eucratides (180 B. C). With De la Lapougc, 
Ujfalvy believes in the anteriority of Iranian over Indian civili- 
zation, placing the separation of the Irano-Indian stock at 
somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B. C, an estimate which 
does some injustice to the Aryans of Hinduslan. He also 
holds, with Fergusson, that there was (as the Greeko- Buddhistic 
sculptures indicate) an invasion of India from the region of 
Tibet, before the Aryan migration took place. The bas-relief 
of Behistun, the great sarcophagus of Sidon, the bas-reliefs of 
Darabguird and Shapur, the cameos, intaglios, medals, coin.*, 
etc., of the Achimenidte and Sassanidae, covering a period of 
some one thousand years, "enable us." M. Ujfalvy thinks, "to 
show the slow but constant transformation of the Iranian type-" 



L 



Orihin Of THE Bronze-Cui.ture, In the Correspondenz- 
blatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft (Vol. 
XXX., 1899, pp. 146-150), Prof. R. Virchow writes about the 
origin of the Bronze culture in connection with the German 
expedition to Armenia under Drs. Belck and Lehmann. Dr. 



334 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Virchow notes how the old chroniclers, poets, etc., have looked 
upon the land of the Chaldeans as the original home of the 
bronze-culture, while, later on it has been attributed to the 
** Caucasian race," in the formula of old Blumenbach. If an 
independent bronze-culture ever arose in the Caucasus, it must 
have been in the southern portion, the Transcaucasia of the 
Russians, and not in the region north of the mountains which 
have given their name to this part of Eurasia. According to 
Dr. Virchow there seems to be no connection between the 
"Caucasian" and "Assyrian" cultures, a fact rendered more 
important by the recent discoveries of Lehmann and Belck, as 
to the character of the Assyrian inscription in the Armenian 
country — a foreign language in the Assyrian script. The 
bilingual stele of Topsana examined by Dr. Belck is of the 
greatest possible interest to ethnologists. 



Neolithic Pigmies. In the Correspbl. dcr deutschen An 
thropologischen Gesellschaft (Vol. XXX., 1899, p. 145), Dr. 
J. Nuesch, of Schaffhausen. reports briefly on a new discovery 
of the remains of pigmies of the neolithic period at Dachsen- 
biiel, near Herblingen, in the Canton of Schaffhausen. The 
new ** station" lies between those of Kesslerloch and Schwei 
zerbild, and seems to have been examined in 1874 by Dr. Franz 
von Mandach, and the skeleton remains deposited in the town 
museum of Schaffhausen. These skeletons, examined again 
by Dr. Nuesch in the spring of 1899, turned out to be pigmy 
remains strikingly like those of Schweizerbild. The author is 
about to publish a detailed account. 



4-f -l-f 



British Origins. An interesting, if not althogether con- 
vincing book, is Mr. N. C. Macnamara's " Origin and Character 
of the British People (London, 1900, p. 242), in which the 
author seeks to explain the peculiarities discoverable locally in 
British Isles, as hereditary phenomena due to the various races, 
which, from time to time, have settled in that part of the globe 
— Iberians (descendants of palaeolithic man), Aryans (the 
Cro-Magnon race represents the first stream), Mongolians (re- 
presented by the tall brachycephalic folk of northern Europe 
in prehistoric times, and by the short brunette brachycephalic 
people of the Bronze Age, etc.). 



Aryan Philology. One of the most interesting of the 
Temple Primers, published by J. M. Dent & Co , is Sweet's 
*'The History of Language" (London, 1900), a book well- 
worth reading by all students of comparative philology. 
What is of most importance for us here, is the author's view of 
Aryan origins. According to Sweet, Scandinavia is the primi- 
tive home of the Aryans. There the "Ugrian" immigrants, 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 335 

who conquered the aboriginal population, were absorbed by 
the latter, and the resulting mixture of tongues gave birth to 
the Aryan speech. Mr. Sweet's acquaintance with Finnish 
gives to his opinion added weight. 



Eskimo Brain.. In the Proceedings of the American 
Medico-Psychological Association for 1899 (pp. 393-397). Dr. 
A. Hrdlicka publishes a very interesting account of an Eskimo 
brain. The brain is that of Kishu (aged about forty-five), one 
of the Peary Eskimos, who came to New York in 1896 from 
Smith Sound, dying afterwards of tuberculosis. Of this Eskimo 
group, four have died since their arrival in the country, one has 
been sent back to Smith Sound, and one — a boy — is living yet. 
Kishu appears to have been a sort of chief and intellectually 
superior to the two other men with him. Dr. Hrdlicka found 
the brain of Kishu ( i,i;03 gr.) to be, as a whole, heavier and 
larger than the average brain of white men of his stature 
( 1,640 mm.), and also found that *' in external conformation, 
the Eskimo cerebrum exceeds that of an average white male 
in the number, extent and depth of the sulci and complexity 
gyrations." As a consequence, it may be inferred that the 
Eskimo cerebrum had *' attained a very fair degree of develop- 
ment and differentiation not inferior to the average white." 
Dr. Hrdlicka considers that *' the zoological inferiority" of 
Kishu's cerebrum is "compensated for by the advanced evolu- 
tion of the cortex." The two hemispheres of the brain of 
Kishu seem to differ widely; the development of Broca's 
speech-center is noteworthy; the centers of sight, hearing and 
smell are "largely developed," and, except sight, "more de- 
veloped in the right hemisphere." The details of Dr. Hrd- 
licka's examinations are very valuable, and the promised 
account of the other three Eskimo brains will be awaited with 
great interest. 



-»►+ •»-> 



Baby Atavisms. Under the title "Human Babies: What 
They Teach," Mr. S. S. Buckman writes in Nature (Vol. LXII., 
pp. 226-228) for July 5. 1900, of the "quasi-quadrupedal" gait 
of early childhood (due to the necessity of unlearning the 
quadrupedal before acquiring the bipedal gait of man); the 
*• semi-clasped position of the hands" (reminiscent of bough- 
grasping); the "inability to fully extend the fingers" (also 
suggestive of bough-grasping ancestors); the child's way of 
grasping a flower-pot, of clinging to a rope, of turning the 
soles of the feet, its "climbing instinct "; the " monkey habit" 
of bird-nesting in later years. Mr. Buckman also calls at- 
tention to facial expression (mandril-like, sometimes, conven- 
tionalized as pleasureable symptoms), — tattooing and face- 
coloration among savages may find, in part, its explanation 
here. Pain-expressions (the peculiar square mouth, the tight 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

closing of the eyes, — seen also in certain animals, e. g. tht cat | 
reveal the past history of the race. Mr. Buckman's brief but 
interesting article is illustrated by three figures from photo- 
graphs. A somewhat detailed, and. .it times, rather fanciful 
discussion of "monkey traits in man "will be found in Dr. J, 
Quantz's paper on " Dendro-Fsychoses," in the American 
Journal of Psychology, Vol. IX., pp. 449-506. 

Nature Feeling. Under the title " Primitive Nature 
Study" the writer of these notes contributes to the SemJ-Cen- 
tennial Memorial Volume (1849-1899). of the Canadian Insti- 
tute {Trans., Vol. VI.. pp. 313-344). an essay on the feeling 
towards nature of savage and barbaric peoples. Evidence of 
interest in and love for nature is derived from consideration 
of their songs and dances; their folk-lore and proverbs; their 
priestly rites and ceremonies; their prayers and other religious 
literature; their games and the songs therewith connected; 
their secret societies and their modui opcrondi: the nomencla- 
ture of the plant and animal world, — the botanical and zoologi- 
cal knowledge of primitive peoples; their arts and art products; 
their inventions and industries; their calendar-systems and 
other records.— names of the seasons, months, points of the 
compass, etc.; their agricultural operations, so clo.sely related 
to primitive religion. Like other ideas of savage and barbarous 
peoples their nature-feeling indicates "a knowledge of the 
immanence of God and a hope of the permanence of man." 



Lanc^uage and Religion. In the same volume (pp. 273- 
284), Rev. John Maclean writes of " Language and Religion." 
For the author "language is the handmaid of religion. ' and 
some conception -of the religious ideas and ceremonies of a 
tribe or a nation may be obtained by the study of words and 
forms of expression. Dr. Maclean points out that the study of 
Indian languages amply reveals the fact that the different 
stocks had different religious beliefs; also that not a few of the 
words for God now in use are the result of missionary teach- 
ings. He notes also the .irrcst of language due to political in- 
fluence, and the development of national unity through kin- 
ship of speech. Dr. Maclean seems to look with favor on 
Horatio Hale's theory of the origin of linguistic variety by 
reason of the language-making instinct of children. A very 
interesting fact is noted; "The Blackfcet, Blood and Picgans. 
speaking the same language, when separated give di£[erent 
' names to the same things introduced by the whites" (p. 2S1). 





EDITORIAL. 



CHINA AND THE CHINESE. 



The so-called ■'Celestial Empire" is receiving at present 
much attention from the "Civilized World." The terms 
ciUsHal and civilised, however, express a contrast which i;. 
worthy of our attention. China is cfilled the Celestial Empire 
because of the conceit that has long: held sway there, that the 
Emperor reigns as representative of the celestial world, and 
occupies the very centre of terrestrial and celestial kingdoms. 
The very throne on which the Emperor sits is covered with 
celestial banners, and the lower, which is representative of its 
government, is surrounded by terraced circles, which arc sym- 
bols of the nine worlds, or spheres. The tower itself is a great 
cone, which suggests a 
a pivot on which the 
heavens revolve, and is 
divided into three 
stories, to represent the 
celestial, terrestrial .and 
human sovereigns. 

This conceit some- 
what resembles that 
ahich formerly existed 
,imong some of the 
aborigines of America. 
especially among the 
Zi.nis and Pueblos. 
Their conception is that 
there were six points of the compass— east, west, north, south, 
zenith, and nadir — and both the sky and the earth are divided 
into six parts. Various animal divinities rule over each; but 
the centre, which made the seventh or thirteenth point, is the 
place where the gods and men meet together, though with that 
people there is no man, either chief or emperor, king or priest, 
who occupies the centre, but everyone, who is properly initialed 
and is friendly with the gods. 

In China, the centre was occupied by the Emperor, and he 
ruled in the name of the gods. The throne was an imaginary 
centre, and moat of the Chinese temples were built so as to 
express this thought. It was an ancient belief of Chinese 
writers that there had existed a period of 2,267,000 years 
between the time when the powers of heaven and earth first 
united to produce man. as the possessor of the soil of China, 
and the time of Confucius. 




338 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

It was necessary for the early historians to invent long lines 
of dynasties to fill up the gap between the Creation and the 
historical period. There were dynasties in which appeared 
certain inventions, which resembled those spoken of by San- 
choniatho, the Phoenician historian. In one of these dynas- 
ties, the people were taught to make huts of the boughs of 
trees; in another, the use of fire; in a third, the making of 
knots on thongs, by which events were recorded; next comes 
the discovery of iron. 

In 2852 B. C, Fuh-he and his seven successors arose, who 
separated the people into tribes and invented the eight dia- 
grams, the ninth point being the centre of the empire, the 
foundation of the Yiaking. His successor invented the ploiigh 
and introduced civilization, such as it was. 

In the year 2356 B.C., Chinese history emerged from the 
mist, 2,000 years later than the beginning of Babylonian history 
under the Accadians. About this time Yaou established marts 
and fairs throughout the land, and canals to drain off the water 
of the flood. In 936 B. C, the Tartars are for the first tjme 
heard of, when they made predatory excursions into the terri- 
tory. 

Confucius was born in 551 B. C. and devoted his life to the 
promulgation of virtues and the right principles of government, 
but diecl in retirement, a neglected and disappointed man. 

In 255 B. C, the empire extended from the 33rd to the 38th 
parallel of latitude, and from the io6th to the 119th degree of 
longitude; and the first universal emperor appeared, who built 
a magnificent palace at Se-gan Foo, and led 300,000 men against 
the Tartars. 

In 65 A. D., Buddhism was introduced from India into China. 
About 220 A. D., three usurpers divided the empire between 
them, and established the "Three Kingdoms." This period of 
disorder was brought to a close by the establishment of the 
Suy dynasty in 590, under Vang Keen, who added 5,000 volumes 
to the Imperial Library, making the number 15,000. The Tar- 
tars and Corcans were defeated and the frontier was extended 
as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea. In 635, a Nestor- 
ian priest established a Nestorian church. In 643, ambassa- 
dors came from Persia, Rome, Nepaul and Magadha. The 
Tang dynasty in 841 abolished all temples, closed the 
monasteries and nunneries, and subjected foreign priests to the 
same repressive legislation, including Christians, Buddhists and 
Magi; but Buddhism very soon revived. 

The Mongols began to accjuire power in Eastern Asia about 
the beginning of the Twelfth century, and under Genghiz 
Khan invaded the Chinese provinces and destroyed over 
ninety cities. He sent 300,000 men to ravage the country bor- 
dering on the Caspian Sea; 600,000 men to subdue the power 
of Sung. In the reign of Kublai Khan, Marco Polo visited 
China. In 1436, Cochin-China rebelled and gained her inde- 
pendence. In 1542, a Japanese fleet appeared off the coast, 



3W 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



invaded Corea, defeatsd the Chinese army and destroyed th?l 
Chinese fleet. 

In 1620, the Maiichu Tartars led an army into Chins,! 
jjained a victory over the Chinese, and introduced the Manchtfl 
dynaaty. This dynasty cut through the dykes of the YellowJ 
River ("China's Sorrow"), flooded the whole country, andj 
200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood. 

In 1721, Thibet was added to the empire, which extendet 
from the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China and from the ChinaJ 
Sea to Turkestan. 

The principal religions of China are Buddhism, Taouism, 
and Confucianism, to which may be added Mohammedanism. 
Christianity havinfj been introduced during the last century. 
The old religion of China was a sort of spirit worship and 
magic, which might be,called_ff£j;«tfrtf)', corresponding with thej 
system of necromancy; as it was supposed that the earth (^«](^ 
was possessed by a subtle influence, which shoots through th^ 




air in straight lines, and must not be interrupted by buildings 1 
or any other obstruction. The doors of the houses must bej 
arranged so that it can pass through. Combined with this is! 
the old system of dragon or serpent worship and the commonl 
system of ancestor worship. 

The ideas and customs of the Chinese are just contrary tol 
ours. The needle of their compass points toward the south.T 
and every house in China faces the same way, as well a 
state seats in all reception rooms. The left of the host is tbeM 
place of honor. In 1862, attempts were made to introduce^ 
railways and telegraphs, but, until foreign powers took posses 
sion, were resisted, because they disturbed the sleep of theifi 
ancestors. 

The Chinese village life has been described by Rev. Arthur! 
Smith, a missionary from the Congregational Church. Hel 
says the Chinese village is the empire in miniature, and man/a 
of the capitals are merely large villages with government^ 



EDITORIAL. 341 

bureaus. Nearly every village is surrounded by a wall and has 
a street, and, perhaps, a net-work of thein, but no two are 
parallel and no one of them is straiEiit. 

The architecture of the Chinese has been not inaccurately 
described as consisting essentially of two sticks placed upright 
with a third laid across them at the lop. The shape of Chinese 
roofs suggests the tent as the prime model. Owing to the 
national reluctance to erect high buildings, almost all Chinese 
cities present an appearance of monotonous uniformity, greatly 
in contrast with views of large cities to be seen in other lands. 
The houses are generally built on the north end of a court- 
yard, so as to face the south; if the premises are large, the 
front wail of the court-yard is formed by another house similar 
to the one in the rear, and, like it, having side buildings. The 
houses are built in divisions of small rooms, which can be con- 
veniently covered by timbers of one length, owing to the 
scarcity of long timbers. Nn division of a house will 



ceed tiM 



■ fcrt i 



Tb'Tr' 



.■iling, and the 



■* -rf ■■: ■-■- - -^li^^^^^^^^^^^^W 



. ABOUT PEKIN. 



roof, which is not lofty, is in full view. The dwellings are cold 
in winter, hot in summer, and smoky all the year round. 

The city of Pekin has been the capital since 1282, when the 
country was conquered by the Mongols, under Kublai Khan. 
It consists of two parts: the Chinese city, covering an area of 
fifteen square miles, and the Tartar city, with an area of twelve 
square miles. Both are inclosed by a wall thirty feet high, 
twenty-five feet wide at the base, and twelve feet at the top. 
Square towers project forty or fifly feet from the outside at 
distances of about sixty yards, and outside the walls there are 
ditches, which are crossed by bridges at intervals. The prin- 
cipal relief from the monotony of the dead wall, is the watch 
towers over the gates, the flagstaffs over official residences, and 
a few pagodas. The gates are formed by arches, each sur- 
mounted by a wooden tower, generally five stories high, with 
embrasures upon which are painted bull's eyes, which have the 
appearance of guns. 

The Tartar city consists of three inclosures, one within 
another, each surrounded by its own wall. The innermost con- 



342 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tains the imperial palace and its surrounding buildings; the 
second is occupied by the several officers appertaining to the 
government, and .by many private residents, who receive 
especial permission to reside within its limits; and the outer 
one, for the most part, consists of dwelling houses, with shops 
in the larger avenues. 

The present uprising under the Boxers is the result, in part, 
of the usurpation of the government by the Empress Dowager, 
who is an unprincipled woman and has risen to her position 
by poisoning all her rivals, and imprisoning the Emperor him- 
self. 

These Boxers are a secret society, the members of which 
go through a drill, in which they invoke certain spirits by incan- 
tations, and then beat their bodies with bricks to harden them, 
so that they can endure the pounding of knives without injury. 
They call themselves " The Society of United Boxers," and are 
supposed to have an incantation consisting of nineteen char- 
acters. Those who know eight can fight lo.ooo men, and those 
acquainted with sixteen or seventeen characters can pull down 
foreign houses as easily as ihey can move a tea box. The 
name "Boxer" in Chinese is **I Ho Chuan," or "Righteous 
Harmony Fists." The poem or incantation which is the source 
of their inspiration runs as follows: 

God assist the Boxers. 

The patriotic, harmonious corps; 

It is because the foreign devis disturb the Middle Kingdom. 

Urging people to join their religion, 

To turn their backs on heaven. 

Venerate not the gods and forget the ancestors. 

The earth is getting dry, 

Tnis is because the Churches stop the Heaven. 

The gods are angry, 

The genii are vexed; 

Bath are come down from the mountains to deliver the doctrine.' 

This is not hearsay. 

The practice will not be in vain 

To recite mcantations and pronounce magic words. 

Burn up the yellow written prayers; 

Light incense sticks: 

To invite the gods and genii of all the grottoes; 

The gods will come out of the grottoes. 

The genii will come down from the mountains, 

.Vnd support the human bodies to practice the boxing. 

This poetry shows the constitutional defects of the Chinese; 
there is no poetry in their nature, and scarcely any music, for 
their theaters are places where the most hideous noises are 
made, and their literature is a mass of rubbish. As to what 
the future of the nation will be. it is difficult to prophesy. There 
are certain inventions and material works of art which show 
plodding industry and the type of their education, which con- 
sists in plodding, and is attended with unbounded conceit. 

The missionaries have come in contact with all this, and the 
world has lately come to see what inane and senseless super- 
stitions still prevail. There is no hope that the Chinese will 



EDITORIAL. 343 

rise to any higher civilization until the introduction of modern 
ideas, and the supplanting of old customs and superstitions by 
the advance, education and religion of the more civilized 
nations. 

STATE RELIGION OF CHINA. 

In the "Journal of the American Oriental Society" (Vol. 
XX., 1st halt ), there is a most interesting article on the ** Wor- 
ship of Heaven and Earth by the Emperor of China," by 
Henry Blodget, D. D. He says the state worship of the earlier 
kings of Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia, Assyria, Babylonia, 
and India, no longer exists in real life; but we have the ancient 
worship of China preserved in the living form to the present 
time. The "Altar to Heaven" is located in the southern 
suburb of Pekin, three miles from the Palace; the ''Altar 
to Earth," in the northern suburb, two miles from the Palace. 
This is in accord with the dual principles, Yin and Yang, the 
latter meaning light and heat, the former cold and darkness; 
the first at the south, the last at the north. The " Altar to the 
Sun" is on the east side; the "Altar to the Moon," on the 
west. Each of these four altars is situated in a large park. In 
the southern part of the enclosure is an altar for prayer, 
crowned by a dome-shaped pavilion, with three successive 
roofs, covered with azure tiles; the two lower roofs extend out 
in widening circles around the dome, the upper roof covers the 
dome and is surmounted by a gilt ball; the whole is designed 
to represent the vault of heaven. 

The Altar to Heaven is built of white marble and stands 
under the open sky. The structure is in three circular terraces, 
rising one above another, surrounded by a marble balustrade. 
The upper terrace is paved with white marble slabs, arranged 
so as to form nine concentric circles, with a circular stone in 
the centre, upon which the Emperor kneels for worship. The 
innermost circle has nine slabs, and each receding circle has a 
multiple of nine, the outermost having the square of nine. 
The altar is round and represents the circle of heaven. The 
ascent to the altar is by three separate flights of steps, on each 
side — that is north, east, south, and west,— each flight having 
nine steps. 

Answering to the Altar to Heaven is one to Earth. This 
altar is square and is made of dark-colored marble, to represent 
the dark principle — Yin, The top of the altar is paved with 
slabs laid in squares, around a central square; each of the 
squares consists of successive multiples of eight, instead of 
nine. The altar is encompassed by a trench filled with water. 
There are four bridges across the trench, connecting with four 
flights of steps at the cardinal points. The altar is separated 
from the street by four walls, which are covered with yellow 
tiles, to represent the color of the earth. 

The worship of heaven comes at the winter solstice; of 
earth, at the summer solstice. The day previous to the sum- 



3« 



THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



mer solstice, the Emperor comes forth in maenificenl 
prostrates himself before the tablets to earth and to his ances-j 
tors, and burns incense; he remains while the tabli 
removed with great ceremony from the sacred building, and' 
placed upon the square altar. He then ascends the altar in 
his robes of yellow satin, the color of the earth, and amid pro- 
found silence, interrupted only by the swelling strams of music, 
with his numerous cortege about him. worships the earth and 
his ancestors. After this, the square jade stone, the symbol o£. 
the earth, and the tablets to the ancestors are all returned tog 
their places for safe keeping. ' 

This solstitial worship is the most ancient and the most 
sacred among the Chinese; no one but the Emperor is allowed 
to perform it. The religious feelings are deeply moved in per- 
forming these aacred rites. There is a certain elevation of 
mind, and grandeur, and awe, which attaches to the worship of 
the vast heaven and broad earth, symbols of the dual system; 
and as performed by the monarch of so many millions of 
human beings it is imposing. This worship of heaven and earth 
stands at the head of the Chinese Pantheon. It includes the 
powers of nature, deceased emperors, sages, heroes, warriors, 
statesmen, inventors of useful arts, and the under world. It is 
attended with the belief that when the dual principles — y'a»g 
and r/// —unite, they produce water, fire, wood, metal, and earth; 
and when these five forces operate in harmony, the four 
seasons come to pass; the five elements combine, the heaven 
becomes male, the earth female, and all things are produced 
and reproduced without end. This is in strong contrast to the 
religion of the Boxers, whiich is a mere superstition with refer- 
ence Xo gi'oniiincY. 



THE ART MUSEUM AT BUFFALO. 



The city of Buffalo is soon to have a Public Art Gallery, 
the cost of which is S350.000. The building, which is to be- 
one of the most beautiful in the interior, is the gift of J, J. 
Albright, who is a citizen of Buffalo and a liberal patron of 
art. The building will be used as the Art Palace of the Pan- 
American Exposition. It is just within the limits of Delaware 
Park, and overlooks the beautiful park lake. It will be 250 
feet long. 150 feet wide, and will stand upon a broad terrace 
35 feet above the level of the lake. The style of architecture 
chosen is the classic Ionic Greek, both the eastern and western 
fai;ades showing rows of rich, graceful columns. A semi- 
circular colonnade forms the centre, and it has broad wings at 
the north and south, terminated by porches, which will be re- 
productions of famous architectural works of ancient Greece. 
The portico of the Erectheum, one of the most interesting of 
the ruins of the Acropolis, which dates back to the Persian in- 
vasion, 400 B.C., will be reproduced. 



i 



J 



EDITORIAL. 345 

Entering the building, one comes first to the hail of statuary, 
which is 100 by 70 feet. Directly west of this is the hcmi- 
cycle. an audience room furnished with seats and a rostrum, 
capable of holding several hundred people. North of Statuary 
Hall will be a gallery 35 by 58 feet. On either side of the cor- 
ridor are the library and board rooms; beyond will be seven 
studio rooms. In the western part of the building are two 
ante-rooms and four large galleries. 



THE STREET OF NATIONS. 

The most interesting feature of the Paris Exposition is the 
Street of Nations. This is supposed to represent the archi- 
tecture which prevails among the nations, and yet so many of 
the buildings have been finished up in a very tawdry manner 



"^ 




that it is difficult to trace the styles which are distinctive. We 
have, however, given in the frontispiece several cuts, which are 
familiar, but which at the same time are suggestive. The 
Chinese Pavi'ion, the Belgian and Norwegian Buildings, the 
Austrian and Swiss Buildings represent the architecture of those 
countries very well. The Italian seems a mixture of Moham- 
medan and Gothic; the Mexican ar.d American arc both fail- 
ures as regards representing characteristic styles — neither are 
impressive. The question is whether anything is moredi.slinctly 
American than the old Colonial style. The cuts which repre- 
sent these buildings, as well as those which give us a view of 
Pekin, its walls and buildings, have been kindly loaned us by 
Mr. Carter, Editor of The Locomotive Fireman's Magazine. 



346 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 



Prof. Doerpfrld, director of the German School at Athens, is fol- 
lowing up the explorations of Schliemann, and hopes to discover the 
palace of Odysseus, as he is a firm believer in the reliability of Homer as 
a delineator of the times. 



The American School for Oriental "Research in Palestine is to open 
next October, headquarters in Jerusalem. The director will be Prot. T. 
Cutler Torrey, formerly of Andover Seminary, now of Yale. Twenty lead- 
ing American colleges have pledged their support. 



EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Under the above title a very useful pamphlet, with illustrations, has 
just been published by the Rev. Dr. William topley Winslow, of Boston. 
A portion ot it appeared m The American Antiquarian for July-August. 
Anyone sending five cents to the Egypt Exploration Fund, 59 Temple 
Street. Boston, can secure a copy. 



RECENT DISCOVERIES IN THE EAST. 

It was stated in the last issue of The American Antiquarian that 
Messrs. Grenfell & Hunt had transferred their allegiance to the University 
of California. They are still in charge of the Graeco-Roman Branch of the 
Egjfpt Exploration Fund, but they did some work for the University of 
California last winter. 

Mr. George St. Clair claims to have discovered a key to the interpre- 
tation of the ancient Egyptian mythology. The key is nothing more nor 
less than the regulation of the calendar. This is in the right direction, for 
the calendar was of more importance to ancient Egypt than to any other 
country; but the key was hidden away by the priests and scribes, and it is 
unreasonable to suppose that Mr. St. Clair has discovered it. There may 
have been an astro-religion to Egyptian mythology, but there was no con- 
tinuous tradition or historical development, for different dynasties were 
frequently established and different nations introduced, which overthrew 
all that was before extant. 

The discoveries in Crete continue. Some superb Phoenician bronzes 
and specimens of armor, suggestive of Egyptian and Babylonian origin, 
have been uncovered. Prot. Arthur Evans, son of Sir John Evans, laid 
bare a large building on the site of the ancient Cenossus. belonging to the 
Mycenian period — 1500 to icoo B. C. Tablets bearing Cretan script much 
older than the Greek alphabet, others with Babylonian characteristics, 
have been discovered. These finds show that the Mycenaen civilization 
and Babylonian alphabet anti-dated the Phoenician alphabet, and that it 
was an ancient civilization with its centre, perhaps, in Crete, and which 
afterwards spread throughout the Grecian Archipelago. The age is com- 
monly believed to be the one sung in Homeric poetry. Scholars are dis- 
posed to believe that Prof. Evans* discovery is ot greater moment than any 
made by Schliemaen, who uncovered the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, 
the site of Homeric Troy at Hissarlik, and the house and gate of Priam. 

Prof. H. V. Hilprecht of the University of Pennsylvania, now explor- 
ing the ruins of Babylon, reports the discovery of the great temple library 
at Nippur. About 2,500 tablets were found near the temple of Bel, during its 
first exploration; the number now reaches about 21,000. A series of rooms 
is exposed, which presents no less than 16,000 cuneiform documents forming 
part of the temple library during the latter half of the third millcnium, 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 347 

or 2500-2250 B. C. The tablets were lyin^ m long rows on edges of 
unbaked clay, which served as shelves for these old Babylonian ref ords. 
It is supposed that 100,000 to 150.000 tablets were in this ancient library 
which was destroyed by the invading Elamites, about the time of 
Abraham's emigration. 

The chief discovery is a well-built wall, two stories high, which repre- 
sents the southern fagade of a large pre-Sargonic palace, which was about 
4.000 vears old. The rooms had small windows near the ceilings, and were 
paveci with excellent bricks A solidly-constructed well and a large vase 
with rope pattern were found in the western wing, and a characteristic 
drain in the eastern wing. 

THE FINNS AND FINNISH FOLKLORE. 

The Finns constitute one ot the oldest and most mtercstmg popula- 
tions of the globe. They are situated in the north of Europe, between 
Sweden and Russia, and have held their autonomy until now. The prob- 
ability is that they will be merged into the Russian empire and yield to 
Russian influences, and so end that distinctive nationality, which has con- 
tinued for many thousand vears. Thus a region of 144,000 square miles, 
inhabited by some 2,000,000 people, the last remnants of a race driven back 
from the East at a very early day, but allied to the old Accadian race of 
Mesopotamia, loses its separate existence. 

They began earlier than any other European nation to collect their 
ancient folklore; but it was after the introduction of the Bronze Age. 
They have one of the most sonorous and flexible languages, which is very 
similar to the Hungarian, and belongs to the Ugrian stock of ag-glutina- 
tive languages. It abounds with diminutives and words of endearment. 
The religion of the Finns was nature-worship. The sun, moon, stars, 
earth, air. and sea were living beings; every deity rules in his own sphere. 
The polar star governs an insigniflcant spot, but on this spot he knows no 
master. Ukko is the supreme sky-god. The gods are in pairs, yet every 
element, whether clouds, hills, mountains, sacred rive«, waves, lakes, 
forest?, gold, silver, iron*, game, has its guardian divinity. The glory of 
Finland is that wonderful poem called the Kalevala, a poem which is sup- 

Poscd by some to be 3.000 years old, and which really resembles Mac- 
herson's " Ossian," and may not be much older than it. It has been trans- 
lated into Swedish by John Alexander Castren, and done into English by 
John Martin Crawford; it is a veritable Finnic poem which has come down 
to us from the early Hays, but is so simple, that Longfellow chose its metre 
and style for his "Hiawatha." The mythology of the Iroquois and the 
Finns resembled one another in many respects. 



HUNTING SCENES AND TOTEMS IN EGYPT. 

In the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology (Vol. XXII., 
Thirtieth Session) there is an article on "The Carved Slates from Hiera- 
conpolis," by F. Leg^e, with several full-page plates. These carved 
slates are now in the Gizeh Museum and belopg to the First dynasty; they 
represent divinities with mitres and raps, also captives and headless bodies 
slain in battle; symbolic animals with lion's elaws and heads, but with 
enormously long necks; hunting scenes, in which antelopes, lions, and foxes 
mingle with hunters. On two of the plates, these symbolic animals are 
represented along with ibexes, antelopes, cameleopards, and monkeys, and 
on one of them, goats and asses, and walled towns on the reverse side. 

One of the slates (Plate II.) represents a race of bearded warriors en- 
gaged in hunting; they wear kilts with a foxtail hanging from the belt, 
also greaves, but have no helmet; a few having plumes. They are armed 
with ;spears of an early type, javelines, double-headed axes with metal 
blades, bows, and crescent-headed arrows with feathers on both sides of 
the shaft, also boomerangs; two have lassos, which are throwing at ante- 
lopes; three bear standards surmounted by hawks; four wear shields that 
are slung behind them. This illustriites the style of weapons which were 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



ing I 



e at the tim 

, n Ibat acco 

Another pla 



of the 



ipening 



if history in Egypt, and is very ii 



I primitive hui, built of reeds with a domed roof of 
malting, like the modern Bisharin huts. This is probably the earliest ex- 
tant representatiOD of a hut or house, though there are sculptured monu- 
ments in which houses are represented. Another interesting fact brought 
out by the slates, is that the walled towns all have certain animal figures 
surmounting them: above the owl-city is perched a hawk; above the reed- 
city are two hawks on standards; above the ka-city is a lion, each one 
wielding a pick, with which he is breaking into the city. Other cities con- 
tain scarabaeus. ibis, and owls, suggesting the idea that they were totems 
for the clans and for the cities in Egypt in prehistoric times. 



LITERARY NOTES. 



THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. 

The American AntkrvpologiU, No I, January- March, and No. z, April- 
June, contains many valuable articles. The most interesting are. as fol- 
lows: "The Lessons of Folk- Lore," by T. W. Powell; "Aboriginal Quar- 
ries and Shops at Mil! Creek, Illinois." bv W. A. Phillips; " Mayan Time 
Systems and Time Symbols," by Cyrus Thomas; 1' Linguistic Families ot 
Mexico." by Otis T. Mason; " Oriental Influences in Mexico," by Waller 
Hougb; ■' New Fire Ceremonv at Walpi," by T. vVaiier Fewkes; '■ Otaibi 
Marriage Customs," by H, P. Voth; " Basketry Designs of the Maidu 
Indians ot California," by Roland B. Dixon; 'A Remarkable Counter- 
feiter," by A. E. Jenks; " PreUminary Notes on Explorations Among the 
Aoioor Tribes," by Berthold Laufer, and " In Memoriam— Frank Hamilion 
Cushing." 



I 
I 



f 



This number contains a discussion of "The Australian God." by 
Andrew Lang and E. Sidney Hartland, which is really a review of the 
position taken by Andrew Lang that there is a belief in a supreme beinx. 
even among the most degraded peoples, a position which will need more 
facts and less logomachy, before it can be fully established. 

This is fallowed bv the address by the President of the Society on the 
" Foik-Lore of Great Britain," and by the review of a book bv Gen. Pitt 
Rivers, which represents the excavations made on his estate. These esca- 
vations have brought to light the contents of a neolithic tumulus with a 
Tiumber of Bronie Age instnimenls. Among the problems: one was 
whether urns containing ashes of cremated burials were in common use; 
another was whether empty barrows were cenotaphs, memorials of persens 
who died at a distance. On these points, the mounds of America may per- 
haps throw some light, for there are a great many empty barrows here, but 
very few vases which contain the ashes of the crematetl b 
ter IS a custom common among the clasi 
among the savage or barbaric races 
ashes were left on the altar or depositee 





BOOK REVIEWS. 



Das Blut m GLAur 

CBSO.VDERER BeR 

■■jUDiscHEN Blut 
Beck. Munchen: 



.AUBES DBR MbNSCHEN. MIT 
3eR " VOLKSMGDl/.lN" UND DES 

I. Strack. 8" pp, 3a6. Oskar 






This interesiinE book by the learned professor of the University of 
Berlin, is a strong defence of the Jews against the accusaiion, trequenlly 
made bytheignorant peasantry of Europe, that Jews kill Christian chiJdren 
thai they may use thejr blood in ceremonia.1 rites. The book is the seventh 
edition of a work of which many thousands of copies have been sold: the 
present editions, however, have been much expanded and contain much 
new and recent matter. Ur. Strack first makes a study of human sacrifices, 
of the use of blood in ceremonials, of the ideas held regarding blocd, and 
of the superstitious use of blood in ■' folk-medicine." This study is of non- 
Jewish peoples generally, but is particularly full in regard to European 
peasants. Our author next carefully examines Jewi&h ideas and rituals, lo 
see what probability exists for the ritual use of human blood in Judaism. 
Their horror of eating blood and their carefully-defined regulation of the 
killing and bleeding of animals to be used for food, and their rigid prohi- 
bition of murder, suggest strong unlikeliness that Jews would use human 
blood in ceremonial and suijcrstitious piacCices. 

Dr. Sirack finally reviews the long and ghastly list of accusations, 
prosecutions, tortures, and persecutions Jews have suffered in this matter. 
He examines each case carefully. In some cases the accusations have 
been actually false and no murder had been committed; sometimes the 
murder has been by non-Jews and Idue to superstitious ideas of treat- 
ing disease: in some cases where the unfortunate victims of accusation 
have confessed with much detail to most frightful practices, it is clear that 
they have done so in hope of suffering speedv death rather than endure 
further tortures; in some cases Jews, like their Christian neighbors and in- 
fluenced by ««> superstitions, have killed to secure a remedy for disease; 
in a few cases insane Jews have simply murdered Christians, as— alas loo 
often— insane Christians have murdered Jews. Dr. Strack's serious and 
scholarly investigation appears to demonstrate the absolute falsity of the 
claim that Jews have ever really used human blood in religious ritual. (F.S,) 



L 



Katalog No. I. Verzeichmss E1NER Etknogkapkischen Sammluno 
AUS DKR SUDSEE. 4" pp. 30. Plates viii. Leiden; 1897. 

Catalogue No. 11. DKSCRifTiON of an Ethnogkaphical Collec- 
tion FROM EijoATORiAL Africa. 4" pp. 14. Plates v, Leiten: 

The Illustrated Catalogue of Ethnographic objects has come 10 stay. 
Those issued at regular intervals by W. D. Webster at Bicester, England, 
are notably beautiful and have become an actual necessity to the museum 
worker, Mr. Webster's example has been followed by continental parlies, 
and the latest received are two sent out by E. J. Brill of Leiden, Holland. 
The first (priaied in German) describes and illustrates a collection of 
objecli from Melanesia, Polynesia, and Australia; the second (in English} 
similarly represents a collection from the French Congo. Both have been 
prepared by Dr. C. M. Pleyle and contain information and suggestion. 
The expenie of preparing such illustra ■ ■ . .1 .. 

gratuitous distribution, but their practical 1 
yond their nominal price. 



■ ted catalogues prevents ihei 
"' " '3 the curator is much be- 
(F. S.) 



J 



350 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Der Urmensch: KRiTiscHE Studie. J. Beck. 8^ pp.62. Adolf Gecring. 
Basel: 189Q. 

This is an admirable summary of present knowledge regarding primi- 
timc man from the conservative German point ot view. Man's origin, 
antiquity, earliest known art relics and oldest remains are critically investi- 
gated. The author is a little inclined to doubt P rench finds and views, and 
to accept too easily German finds and views. On debated questions he 
always takes refuge in the dicta of Virchow. While to a certain extent 
this anti-French and pro-German attitude is a weakness, it leads to a strong 
presentation of the German, Austrian and Russian finds, which are far less 
known in this country than the French. The work may be commended as 
a highly suggestive presentation of recent thought in its field. (F. S.) 



OSTEOLOGIE. {Anthropoiogie Mcxicaine.) Leopold Batres. S*' pp. 25. 
Mexico: 1900. 

The Inspector of National Monuments of Mexico, Seftor Leopoldo 
Batres, has just published a small pamphlet in which he studies tbe 
osteology of the Mexican Indian. The paper, which is in French, was 
read at the Pan-American Medical Congress at Mexico in 1896. Dr. 
Batres claims that the Mexican Indian skull differs in every bone fcom the 
European. He emphasizes the notable asymmetry of the Indian sknll, 
and claims that a marked degree of asymmetry characterizes also the 
other bones of the skeleton. These differences and asymmetries ht 
enumerates in detail. (F. S.) 



BOOKS AND PERIODICALS RECEIVED. 

Bibliography of Fine Art. By R. Sturgis and H. E. ErehbieL 
The Dwarf Tribe of the Upper Amazon. By. D. G. Brinton, M. D. 
Peoples of the Philippines. By D. G. Brinton. M. D. 
Plates Illustrating Report on the British Collection of Antiquities from 
Central Asia. 

Missionary Review, Vol. XIII., No 7. 

Ohio Archa?ological and Historical Quarterly, Vol. IX., No. i. 

American Historical Review, Vol. V., No. 4. 

VVashmgton Historian. Vol. I., No. 3. 

American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XL, No. 3. 

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XXIX. 

Popular Science Monthly. 

The Open Court, Vol. XIV., No. 7. 

Cumulative Book Index. Vol. IL. No. 7. 

Land of Sunshine. 

Appleton's Popular Science Monthly. 

Education. 

American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature. 

Biblia. 

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Part I. 

Methodist iMagazine and Review, Vol. LIL, No. 2. 

Iowa Historical Record 

Journal of Geology, Vol VII., No. 3. 

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. XXXII. 




k 







THE 



^mi^xxcun ^nixqnnxxKn 



Vol. XXII. November and December, 1900. No. 6. 

THE DE SOTO EXPEDITION THROUGH FLORIDA. 

BY T. H. LEWIS. 

[Prefatory Note. — There have been three accounts of this expedi- 
tion published in the English language, and there yet remains, in the original 
Spanish, another, of which John G. Shea writes: 

"Still another account of the expedition is the official report which 
Rodrigo Ranjel, the secretary of Soto, based upon"his diary kept on the 
march. It was written after reaching Mexico, whence he transmitted it to 
the Spanish government. It remained unpublished in that part of Oviedo's 
History which was preserved in manuscript till Amador de los Rios issued 
his edition of Oviedo in 1851. Oviedo seems to have begun to give the text 
of Ranjel as he found it; but later in the progress o^ the story he abridged 
it greatly, and two chapters at least are missing, which must have given the 
wanderings of Soto from Autiamque, with his death, and the adventures of 
the survivors under Moscoso. The original text of Ranjel is not known.") 

THE following is an abridged translation, giving the ethnol- 
ogy, topography, and itinerary of the narrative: 

Sunday, May 18th, 1539, De Soto and his army left Havana 
with a fine fleet of nine ships, — five full rigged, two caravels, 
and two vergantines. On the 2t;th day of the same month, 
which was the day of Pasque of the Espiritu Sancto, they came 
in sight of land on the northern coast of the province of 
Florida, and the fleet came to anchor, two leagues from land, 
in four fathoms depth, or less. The governor, with Anasco, 
and the principal pilot, Alonso Martin, departed in a vergantine 
in order to find out what land it was; being in doubt as to the 
location and identity of the port. Not being able to satisfy 
themselves on the matter, and seeing night was approaching, 
they desired to return to the ships; but the contrary winds pre- 
vented them. They, therefore, anchored close to land, leaped 
upon it, and discovered signs of many Indians; also a large 
building and some smaller ones. They afterwards learned that 
it was Ogita. The port' was now examined, and the governor 
ordered the vergantine and the caravel to he opposite each 
other in the channel as signals, so the other ships could pass 



351 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

between. The latter, which were lour or five leagues off, began 
to set sail, and it was necessary for the jjovernor to show them 
the way, as the chief pilot was in the verganiine, and because 
there were many inlets; and yet with all that two ships touched 
bottom, but as it was sandy they received no damage. The 
ships entered the port, sounding line in hand, and some touched 
bottom, and. as it was mud. passed on ahead. Thus they went 
on for five days without landing, except that some of the force 
scrambled to land to get water and gras^ for the horses. But 
the bays did not cease until the loaded ships arrived at where 
the town' stood, and they anchored four leagues beyond. And 
it came to pass it was on May 30th that they began lo land the 
horses. The country where they landed is ten leagues to the 
west of the bay of Johan Ponce, and the cacique or lord of it 
is called Ocila. Sunday, June 1st, of the same year, the army 
journeyed inwardby land to ward-s the town. Having trouble with 
the interpreters, the governor went ahead with some cavalry. 
They went twelve leagues to opposite the town, "'having the 
bay between, in such a way that they could not double it." Dur- 
ing the week the ships proceeded to the town, and little by little, 
were unloaded by means of boats of all the goods and provi- 
sions they contained. Tuesday, June 3rd, the governor took 
possession of the country. The next day he sent Gallegos to 
look for some people, town, or house in the direction of the 
setting sun, and on this occasion they met Juan Ortiz. Oo 
Friday, June 20th, Gallegos was sent to Orriparagi with 8q 
cavalry and 100 footmen. And he also sent on the same day 
Anasco in the ships' boats by the seacoast, with a number o! 
footmen, to disperse, if necessary, a rumored assembly of 
Indians, and with whom upon their arrival they had a skirmish 
on an island. 

The army left the town and port of Spiritu Sancto Tuesday, 
July 15th, 1539, and slept the same day at the river of M0C090. 
and built two bridges to cross the river. The next day they 
came to the Lagiina of Conejo, which they called from a rab- 
bit that had started up in the camp and stampeded their 
horses. After recovering their horses, they reached on the 
next day the Lake of San Johan, and the next day. under a 
scorching sun, came to a savanna. On the next day they came 
to the cabin of Gua<;oco, where (hey got some green corn. 
The next day, early, they camt- to Luca. a pretty good town, 
and here Gallegos' forces came up, and ihe governor sent a 
messenger to Urriparacoxi; but no reply came. On Wednes- 
day, July 23rd, the governor and army left, and came to Vi^cla, 
and went to sleep beyond. On Wednesday they slept at 
another pueblo, called Tocaste,' which was on an island in a 
great lake. The same day the governor, with 26 cavalry, went 
ahead on the road to Ocale, and ordered 30 cavalry to follow, 
andsent Ranjel back for them. The next day, Friday, the camp 
was moved on the track of the governor, but word was received 
to turn back to the camp again. The next day, Saturday, the 



I 
I 



I 



THE DE SOTO EXPEDITION THROUGH FLORIDA. 353 

governor found the roads broader, and a good lay of the land, 
and sent word for the army to move up in his rear, and for 30 
more cavalry, who were sent under Tovar, as ordered. The 
governor, with his 26 cavalry, arrived on the day of Sancta Aija 
(July 26) at the river or marsh of Cale,' which was broad and 
had a swift current, and crossed it with much difficulty. iVuoo 
de Tovar and his 30 cavalry crossed it the following Sunday; 
the governor and his people having arrived at the first town in 
the province of Ocale, which was called Uquelen, and they had 
not arrived in a bad time, because they found an abundance of 
provisions, and sent some back to those behind at the swamp. 
The following Tuesday all the rest of the army came up to 
where the governor was, and they all went to Ocale, a town 
with a good supply of maize; then for subsistence to Acuera. * 

On August nth the governor left Ocale, with 50 cavalry 
and 100 footmen, to hunt for Apalache, which was said to be 
very populous. Moscoso remained behind with the rest, to 
see how the advance force vvould succeed. They arrived that 
day at Itaraholata. a good town with plenty of maize. The 
next day they came to Potano. and the next day. Wednesday, 
to Utinamo-chara, and then to the town of Mala Paz (ill place), 
so named by them. The next day they came to a pretty good 
town.* where there were plenty of provisions. 1 hen they came 
to a river they called Rio de las Discordias (river of the dis- 
putes), and the next day made a pine bridge, as many trees 
grew there, and the day after. Sunday, crossed the river with 
as much or more trouble than that of Ocale. On the next day, 
Monday, they arrived at Aguacaleyquen.' On August 22nd 
they met many Indians and a well-provisioned country, so the 
governor sent word to Moscoso to bring up the array from 
Ocale; and it arrived on September 4th. On September gth 
they left Aguacaleyquen and made a pine bridge xvith which to 
cross the river of Aguacaleyquen, and slepi at a small town. 
On the next day, Friday (sic), they came to Uriutina,* a large 
town of cheerful appearance and well provisioned. There 
was in the center of it a great lodge, in the center of which was 
a large court. On Friday, September I2ih, they arrived at a 
town which they called Muchas Aguas, because it rained so that 
they could not stir out on Saturday or Sunday, and were only 
able to leave the following Monday, the 15th. After leaving 
Aguacaleyquen a messenger came from Ui;achile. They left 
Muchas Aguas, Monday, the 15th, and came across a bad swamp, 
and all the roads were very bad; and they slept at Napituca, » 
which was a cheerful town, on a pleasant site, and well pro- 
visioned. {Next comes the battle by the savanna and the two 
lakes.) 

Tuesday, September 23rd. they left Napituca. and arrived 
at the Rio de los Venados f deer river), so called by them. To 
cross it they made a bridge of three great pines in length, and 
four in breadth, and crossed on the 25th. The same day they 
passed two small towns and one very big one called Apalu, and 



354 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

arrived to sleep at U<;achile. They left there the following 
Monday, the 29th, and, having passed through a great forest, 
slept in a pine grove. The next day, Tuesday, September 30th, 
they came to Agile, subject to Apalache. Wednesday, October 
1st, they left there, and came to the swamp or river of I vitachuco, 
and made a bridge, and finished crossing over it on the follow- 
ing Friday at noon, and slept at Ivitachuco, which they found 
on fire. Sunday, October 5th, they came to Calahuchi,"and on 
the next day to Iviahica." It was eight leagues to the place 
where Narvaez had embarked." The province of Apalache is 
very fertile and abounds in supplies, — maize, French beans, 
pumpkins, divers fruits, plenty of deer, a great variety of birds, 
and near the sea there are plenty of good fish. This is a fine 
country in spite of its swamps, which, however, are hard be- 
cause they lie over sand. 

The departure from Iviahica, to go to Capachequi, took 
place Wednesday, March 3rd, 1540, and they caniped at the 
river of Gua^uca,'^ and from thence to the river of Capachequi,'* 
which they reached early next Friday. They made a pirogue 
to cross it, using chains. On Wednesday, March 9th (sic), they 
had all crossed over, and set out, and slept in a pine grove that 
night. The next day, Thursday, they reached the first town in 
the province of Capachequi, which was well supplied with food, 
and had many groves around it. There was another town be- 
yond it. They struck a bad swamp close to the town, with a 
strong current, and before reaching it they had to pass through 
a great stretch of water, the men clinging to the girths and 
pummels of the saddles; but they could not succeed that day 
in getting all the force over. On March 17th they left Ca- 
pachequi, and slept at the Fuente Blanca (white fountain ).'5 
This is a very handsome spring, and has a very copious flow of 
good water, with fish in it. The following day they slept at the 
river of Toa,^^ They twice made a bridge of pines, but the 
strong current carried them away, and they made another one 
in a peculiar form which Nuno de Tova advised. It served the 
purpose well, and the whole camp had crossed over by Mon- 
day, and they went and slept in a pine grove, though badly 
scattered and disorganized. On Tuesday, early, they arrived 
at Toa, a large town. Wednesday night of the 23rd and 24th 
the governor left Toa secretly, and travelled all the next day 
till nighttime, when they reached a bad crossing of deep water; 
but, notwithstanding it was night, they got safely over, having 
travelled that day twelve leagues from Toa. Next day, which 
was Holy Thursday (the 26th) of the supper, in the morning, 
they reached the territory of Chisi, and crossed the arm'' of a 
very broad and great river safely on foot, and quite a part by 
swimming, and came to a town which was situated on an island 
of the river, where they found people and got something to eat. 
They proceeded to other towns and had a bad time crossing a 
swamp of running water, where one of their men fell off a 
beam that crossed the current, and was drowned. That day 



THE DE SOTO EXPEDITION THROUGH F LORIDA. 355 

thej^ arrived at a town when there came leading men, ambas- 
sadors from Ichisi. On Monday, March 29th, they left there 
for Ichisi. It rained so hard, and a littlfe river swelled so much, 
that, if they had not crossed in a hurry, they would all have 
been lost. That day they came to a town of a cacique subject 
to Ichisi, which was a pretty good town and sufficiently pro- 
visioned. They rested there Tuesday, and on Wednesday, the 
last of March, the governor and his army came to the Rio 
Grande,'® where they found many canoes, in which they crossed 
the river, and arrived at the town of the lord that was one-eyed, 
who supplied their wants. They stayed here Thursday, April 
ist, and set up a cross on a hill of the town, anc sermonized the 
natives. On Friday, April 2nd, they left, and slept in a field; 
and the next day they came to a nice river, where they found 
deserted cabins, and here messengers arrived from Altamaha, 
who took them to a town where they found plenty to eat. The 
next day they crossed the river easily in canoes. The cacique 
Camumo sent word that he was continually under arms, as it 
was the frontier of another cacique called Cofitachequi, his 
enemy, and he could not come without his arms. This Camumo 
and the others were subjects of a great cacique called Ocute. 
Then word was sent to Ocute, who came there to see De Soto. 
The governor placed a cross in Altamaha, and was well 
received. The next day, Thursday, April 8th, the governor 
and his army left there, and slept at some huts; and the next 
day, Friday, they arrived at the town of Ocute, where they set 
up another cross. Monday, April nth, they left Ocute, and 
came to Cofaqui. Here the cacique Tatofa and another lead- 
ing man came to see them. On Thursday, the 15th, Perico. the 
guide, went crazy, so Tatofa gave them guides to go to Cofit- 
achequi, through an unpeopled country of nine or ten days' 
travel. On Friday, the i6th, they slept at a small river road in 
Cofitachiqui, and the next day they crossed a very great river, 
which was divided into two arms, but broader than an arquebus 
shot, had many bad fords, and a very strong current, so that no 
cavalryman dared to take up a foot soldier behind him. They 
got over, and slept in the woods beyond it. The next day, 
Sunday, they again halted in the woods, and the next day, 
Monday, they travelled without any track, and crossed another 
very great river, and on Tuesday slept by a rivulet, and on 
Wednesday they came to another very great river,'9 which was 
divided into two arms, difficult to enter and worse' to get out. 
They crossed this river with very much trouble, and arrived at 
some camping places of fishermen or hunters. In perplexity 
as to their best way now, on Friday, April 23rd, the governor 
sent out to search for roads or towns in this way: Gallegos was 
sent along the river in the flirection of the northwest; Anasco 
along the river to the southeast. Each party took with them 
ten horses and ten days' provisions. On Saturday he sent 
Lobillo, with four horses, to the north, with rations, also, for 
ter lays. On Sunday, April 25th, Anasco came and said he 



356 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



had found a town and provisions. Having left written instruc- 
tions, on Monday, April 26tb, they all left for the ford and pro- 
visions that Anasco reported he had found. On the same-day 
the governor, with a few cavalry, arrived at the town, which 
was called Hymahi, and the army stayed two leagues behind; 
the horses being worn out. On the next day the main body 
came up. On account of all the good things they found there 
they called this town Socorro. On the next day Captain Romo 
came in and brought some natives, but no other news. On the 
next day, Wednesday, Gallegos came with some more natives. 
On the next day LobiUo returned with news of roads. On Fri- 
day, the last of April, the governor, with some of the best 
rested horses and the Indian woman guide Ga'Iegos had brought, 
set out for Cofitachequi,'" and slept near a wide and deep river. 
He sent Anasco to hunt canoes and interpreters to cross with; 
and the next day the governor came to the passage opposite 
the town where the lady caciqua lived, and they crossed over 
in the canoes. Monday, May 3rd. all the rest of the force came 
up, and part crossed over that day, and finished the next day, — 
Tuesday. 



NOTES ON THE ITINERARY. 

■ The landing place is generally accepted as being al Tampa Bav, but 
ihe depth and numerous inlets as described do not conloriu ihereio. Ponce 
de Leon Bay is now believed to have been in Monroe county, on the west 
side ot the southern point of Florida, and " ten leagues west " (really oorth) 
would make the location among the Thousand Islands. Probably the real 
location was Charlotte Harbor; they having entered it from the south end of 
San Carlos Bay. Miakka river (Macaco on the old maps) enters the notth- 
west arm of the harbor, and is probably the river of Mococo. It *ill also 
be noted that twenty or twenty*five leagues of swamps and rivers were 
traversed before reaching the higher country, which would be in the south- 
ern part of Polk county. 

'There seem to have been two towns on this bay, — one on the point 
near the sea, and the other som« four leagues above, which the Inca calls 
Hirrihigua. The caciques in this vicinity, and not named in the other nar- 
ratives, are Neguarete, Capaloey. and Otriygua. 

^Tocaste was on the island in the marsh at the first crossing of the 
"great marsh," so graphically described by the Inca. 

*The river or marsh of Cale is the Inci.'s second crossing of the great 

J Evidently only a minor expedition was sent, as the army remained at 
Ocale, from which point the governor advanced towards Apalache. 

*This was Choiupaha. according to the Knight of Elvas. 

7Ca1iquen, of the Elvas. 

BQchile. according to the Inca. 

sThe Inca states that the baltle of Napituca occurred at Vilachm 
'"This name is also spelled Calahuci, and is the town of Uzela, of the 
Elvas; and the modern name may be Chattahooche. 

"The Creek tradition is that the camp (or town) was at a place known 
to Ihem as "Spanna Wakka," which was near Ochese, on the Apalachicola 
river. Their name for De Soto was " Tusianugga Hutke." meaning whi" 



I 
I 

I 




THE DE SOTO EXPEDITION THROUGH FLORIDA. 357 

««The bay where Narvaez built his brigantines was known to the 
Spaniards as Bahia de Cabalios, or Horse Bay, from the remains of the 
horses there slaughtered for food. The modern name on the maps is Bay 
Ocklockonee. According to Elvas it was eight leagues from Iviahica (or 
Apalache) to Ochete, the Ante of the Inca. 

«3 Probably the Ocklockonee river. . 

MThis was probably the Flint river. 

'5 Blue Spring, four miles south of Albany, Dougherty county, is the 
only one in southern Georgia that corresponds to the White Fountain, so 
far as I can learn. 

i^This may have been the second crossing of the Flint river, for it is a 
well-known fact that different parts of a river sometimes have different 
names given them by the Indians. 

»7 The Ocmulgee river, the Creek name for which is " Ochisi-hatchi." 
Biedma says: " Here we found a river that had a course, not southerly, like 
the rest we had passed, but eastwardly to the sea." 

<B The Rio Grande is probably the Altamaha, or it may have been the 
Ocmulgee or the Oconee, near the junction ot the two streams. The Elvas 
gives the former name as Altamaca, and Biedma and the Inca as Altapaha.- 
According to the Elvas they went up this river. 

19 Between Altamaha and 1 atofa no river was crossed, but after leaving 
the latter place they crossed three great rivers and stopped on the east bank 
of the last one. I take the two great rivers to be the Cannouchee and 
Ogeechee, and the third the Savannah. 

^Evidently Cofitachequi is located too far up the Savannah river by the 
commentators, although it could be placed well up, provided the army 
turned northward afttr crossing the Altamaha (Rio Grande), and then 
turned eastward from the Ocon*.e. It is also doubtful on which side of the 
river the town was on, for, if they crossed at Hymahi (which seems evident 
from the wording of the narrative), it would have been on the eastern side, 
otherwise on the western side. The Creek tradition is that the Spaniards 
did not go east of the Oconee river. 

[To be Continued.] 

SL Pau/, Minn., September, igoo. 



CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 

BY CHARLES W. SUPER. 

WHEN one looks upon the remains of ancient civilization 
as they lie scattered over the plains of Mesopotamia, or 
along the Nile, and tries to interpret their meaning, he 
can scarcely prevent his mind from harboring melancholy 
reflections. No wonder that Professor Huxley felt constrained 
to say, " I know no study which is so unutterably saddening as 
the evolution of humanity, as set forth in the annals of history. 
Out of the darkness of prehistoric ages man emerges with the 
marks of his lowly origin upon him. He is a brute, only more 
intelligent than other brutes; a blind prey to impulses, which 
so often lead him to destruction; a victim to endless illusions 
which make his mental existence a terror and a burden and fill 
his physical life with barren toil and battle. He attains a cer- 
tain degree of comfort and develops a more or less workable 
theory of life in such favorable situations as the plains of 
Mesopotamia, or of Egypt, and then for thousands of years 
struggles with varying fortunes, attended by inflnite wicked- 
ness, bloodshed, and misery, to maintain himself at this point 
against the greed and ambition of his fellow-men.'* 

Mephistophiles in Faust is less compassionate, and adopts 
a more flippant tone, bvit his verdict is not more favorable : 

" Better he might have fared, poor wight, 
Had'st thou not given him a gleam of heavenly light, 
Reason he names it, and doth so 
Use it, than brutes more brutish still to grow. 
With deference to your grace, he seems to me 
Like any long legged grasshopper to be 
Which ever flies, and flying sprmgs, 
And in the grass its ancient aitty sings. 
Would he but always in the grass repose ! 
In every heap of dung he thrusts his nose." 

In striking^ contrast to this sentiment are the words ot 
Hamlet: "What a piece of work is man! how noble in 
reason! how infinite in faculties! in form and moving, how 
expressive and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in 
apprehension, how like a god ! the beauty of the world ! the 
paragon of animals ! " 

With all his shortcomings; in spite of his fearful lapses 
from a standard of virtuous living; notwithstanding his flippant 
disregard of what is highest and holiest, I can not but hold man 
as an inherently ethical being. In this he differs from all other 
creatures. The mere fact of his living in communities does not 
make him what he is not by nature. Communal life may 
strengthen his moral qualities; it can not engender them. Of 
the sub-animals, many exhibit a relatively high degree of intelli- 



CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 359 

gence, but they do not develop moral traits. They make no 
progress. A study of their nature and habits throws but little 
light on the early history of man. It is probable that under 
unfavorable conditions he has degenerated. We see many 
instances of this in the case of individuals. Again, under the 
influence of great men, who have sporadically appeared, certain 
peoples have made remarkable and unexampled progress. The 
great moral teachers of mankind belong to this class: they have 
left on record lessons, the validity of which time does not im- 
pair. They are beacons, pillars of fire, in the dim distance 
toward which the best men have been ever looking and striv- 
ing. The canons of prudence as deduced from experience 
have great weight, it is true. Such a dictum as, *' Honesty is 
the best policy," must be traced to this source. No great 
moralist ever maintained, or even admitted that he who lived 
an upright life would be the loser by it. "Godliness is profit- 
able to all things." If we assume that our moral powers are 
nothing more than a congeries of psychic energies having a 
material origin, it is hard to see how men ever came to acknowl- 
edge the binding force of an obligation, the fulfillment of 
which will deprive them of all that men are wont to hold dear, 
except the approval of a good conscience. 

The strongest evidence for the inherent nobility of man, is 
the almost universal detestation of the hypocrite. Hypocrisy 
is the homage vice pays to virtue. Nobody willingly has deal- 
ings with the man who says one thing when he means another 
who professes to be orie thing when he is something else. It 
is more natural to take a man at his word, than to distrust him. 
This trait of human nature is strikingly exemplified in the 
credulity of children. The honest man never voluntarily de- 
grades himself to the level of a disreputable environment; the 
rogue often raises himself to the moral elevation of those about 
him, under the stimulus of his diviner part — his better nature 
is momentarily victorious over his baser. Does the man act 
more in accordance with human nature who, when thrown 
among thieves and liars, steals and lies, than he who peremp- 
torily and persistently refuses to tell an intentional untruth or 
take what is not his own, no mattfcr how great the temptation? 
Is the homo improbus more nearly the natural man, or man in a 
state of nature, than the /r^^«^ A^;«of 

Unless I have read the recent literature of evolution to little 
purpose, a superhuman element in the constitution of man is 
more generally recognized to-day, than it was half a score of 
years ago. Or, if superhuman be too strong a word, we may 
substitute super-material, withont changing the force of the 
admission. The pendulum of human thought is slowly swing- 
ing nearer the view-point of Plato and Berkeley than that of 
Moleschott and Buechner. Some significant utterances are 
found in the recent work of a radical evolutionist: ''A First 
Book in Organic Evolution," by Dr. Shute. He says: **The 
mind is conscious of its personality; conscious of the external 



36o THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

world through the innumerable perceptions which reach it 
through the nervous system; conscious of ils power to build 
its percepts into concepts, and to reason about them ; conscious 
of its power of choice and of causing motion; and conscious 
of itself, therefore, as a cause in producing effect; and, finally, 
it is conscious of its power to adapt means to an end, — in short, 
it knows that it has the power to design." Again, "Well may 
we say with Matthew Arnold, that there is immanent Jn the 
cosmos an eternal soul, not ourselves, that m?kes for righteous- 
ness. This double assertion, that there is a sout in the universe 
outside of ourselves, and that this soul makes for right conduct, 
is the basis of fundamental importance in all religions. There 
are many religions in the world, and many creeds of the one 
great religion of Christendom. They differ in many of the 
transcendental doctrines that they teach, and in many of the 
rules of conduct that they prescribe for their adherents; but 
they all contain as their most fundamental and vitally import- 
ant basis the double assertion that there is a soul of the universe, 
and that this soul makes for right conduct. Theasseition may 
be thickly overlaid with superstitions and petty rites by the 
untrained and dull intelligence of low races, as in the Eskimos; 
or it may attain a high degree of development, as among the 
Jews. The refinement and beauty of the double conception is 
more enhanced with social evolution. Just in proportion as 
civilization advances, and men come to reason more carefully 
and entertain wider views of life, just to that extent do they 
come to value more highly the essential truths of religion, while 
they attach less importance to many superficial details." 

Perhaps the most remarkable social phenomenon to be 
observed in many communities, is what we may call psychic 
stagnation. There is clearly traceable progress up to a certain 
point, then the ruling class begins to set itself against all 
change, looks only toward the past and directs its energies 
toward the maintenance o£ the status quo. All innovation is 
discouraged, and in time all desire for it in the body politic is 
extinguished. It is as if a man settled in the wilderness, cleared 
a small plat of ground, built himself a hut, then tried to be as 
comfortable as he could, but refused peremptorily and per- 
sistently to clear more land, or to construct a better dwelling. 
We find persons thus disposed in every community, but it is 
hard for us to conceive how a whole nation can be brought or 
get into a state of stable equilibrium. Such seems to have been 
the fate of China and Turkey, to name but two contemporary 
examples out of many that might be addjced. It is doubtful 
if Europe made any progress for nearly a thousand years after 
the fall of the Western Empire. There is hardly a doubt that 
Rome was morally worse in the time of Christ, and perhaps for 
nearly a century afterward, than it was in the time of the Punic 
wars. We are amazed at the ruthlessness of the proscriptions 
and the abject servility of the optimates. We seem at times 
tobereading the annals of the king of Dahomey. We wonder 



I 
I 



I 




CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 361 

how it is possible for human nature to sink so low. Yet it can 
hardly be said of the Roman imperators that they took a merely 
fiendish pleasure in putting their enemies to death for the sake 
of seeing blood flow. The worst of them was not a ferocious 
beast, like Genghis Khan or Tamerlane. Several of them, after 
their authority was firmly established, became mild and benign- , 
ant rulers. 

In India, the caste system has confined every one so closely 
within the limits of the sphere within which he was born, that 
it is almost useless for him to attempt to break his fetters. We 
say this is the result of the caste system, but the mere state- 
ment of the fact does not explain how such a system comes in 
time to hold such unquestioned sway. We see more or less of 
this tendency to stagnation in all communities; but the expan- 
sive energy is usually stronger than the repressive force, and 
the bonds of conservatism are continually being broken, now 
here, now there. With this stratification of social relations 
there generally goes hand in hand a stratification of the 
recognition of moral obligations. The member of one class 
or caste acknowledges duties toward his fellows in the same 
class, but not to members of another. 

The ancient Jews were in a large measure helpful to each 
other. When, however, Christ held friendly converse with the 
woman at the well and commended the example of the good 
Samaritan, even his friends were horrified at his utter disregard 
of their cherished traditions. The average ante-bellum South- 
erner prided himself on being a gentleman. And he was — 
within certain limits. But toward the negro he was worse 
than a brute; and to the white man who took the negro's part, 
a bully or an assassin. In such cases we have a recrudescence 
produced by peculiar conditions, of the savagery that is a lead- 
ing trait of the lowest races, and which in its extreme mani- 
festation impels them to put to death or enslave all who are not 
of real or supposed kin. 

W. D, Habington, the author of that somewhat iconoclastic 
volume, " Fallacies of Race Theories," contends, thai no people 
is intrinsically and by its very nature unprogressive. He says 
among other things: 

Let us strive to imagine what would have happened in Enijland. if the 
examination system of official selection had been introduced in its entirety 
— not. of course, twelve cenlruriea ago, as in Cliina. for Europe was too 
barbarous at that remote epoch to possess sufficient knowledge, at least 
outside of theoloftr: but let us say that the reform which occurred under 
the Tang dynasty in China had been eff.cied under the Stuarts in England. 
The first Stuart, somewhat of a scholar himBelf, acluallv made a Imle step 
toward Chinese notions by admitting university representatives— a recogni- 
tion of learning which survives as an anomaly in our representative system, 
much deplored by advanced radicals. Suppose, then, that instead of merely 
introducing a few learned representatives into Parliament. James 1, and his 
line bad succeeded in changing the national assembly into a Wittenagemot 
of tbe learned men of the country, and that he then placed the whole ad- 
ministration of England in tbe bands of a vast corporation trained in the 
knowledge of the ancients, like the " Forest of Pencils," as the Chinese 



362 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

call their body of graduates — can we doubt that a slationarv condition 
would ha.ve ensuedl' Is it doC almnst cerlaio that the march of progress 
would have been arrested, and that we shpuld be all now engaged in labor- 
iously marking time lo the stately old music of Plato and Arisiotle? 

We shall never be able to discover the ultimate cause of 
national immobility. Kor some inscrutable reason an entire 
■ nation becomes like a bevy o( birds in a cage— lively enough 
within certain limits, but powerless to get beyond their barriers. 
Themost interesting fact about Chinese civilization is the high 
moral plane to which their sages had attained. Here there was 
no progress because there cuuld be none. The highest had been 
attained. Compare the following doctrines preached by Lao- 
tse twenty-five hundred years ago, not only with those of 
Socrates but even with those proclaimed by Christ. We can not 
but be struck with their similarity: " Man should be like a child. 
He ought to free himself from the narrow world of his own 
intelligence and repose in Lao alone. For he who holds fast to 
his own views can not be enlightened. He should cultivate 
interior calm. The virtuous man free from passions ought not 
to keep any view before him; he ought to be content witli his 
lot, but advance with a constant fear of falling. He ought to 
deny himself, to govern his body and his appetites. His body 
ought to weigh upon him as an unfortunate encumbrance. The 
other particular virtues are humility and simplicity, moderation, 
purity, justice, kindness, generosity, beneficence, gentleness, 
clemency, the absence of all particular and personal affection, 
economy, the instruction of others, and et?orls to make others 
better. All these are prescribed alike, but these last ought to 
be done by examples and not by argument. Even if a man 
knows himself to be strong, enlightened and celebrated, he 
ought to act as though he were weak, ignorant, obscure, and 
never seek to gain authority. He ought to be beneficent with- 
out seeking his own interest, charitable without considering 
those upon whom he bestows his alms, and who are under an 
obligation to him. In doing good he ought not to favor any, 
but do good for its own sake. He should pay back injuries 
by benefits." And more of the same sort. When we compare 
Chinese philosophy with Chinese practice, it is hard to decide 
whether the two are farther apart than Christianity and the 
conduct of many professed Christians. 

In Egypt, at even a much earlier period, we find the same 
sentiments promulgated. Indeed, except under a few of the 
most ambitious kings, the people of this country seem to have 
enjoyed a relatively large measure of public welfure. So far 
as we can judge they were generally less wretched than the sub- 
jects of Philip H. or of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, or of Louis 
XIV. of France, or of many other ambitious or bigoted despots 
who might be named. No wonder that Buckle concluded that 
morals have no influence upon the progress of a nation. 

The unity of the human race is now generally conceded. 
The appearance of man upon the earth was an event of such 



I 




CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 363 

an exceptional character; with all his shortcomings, he differs 
so widely from the sub-animals; in his lowest estate he is so 
vastly superior to the highest of them, that his first appearance 
can have occurred but once. Assuming that primitive man was 
unique, and without predicting anything as to the cause or man- 
ner or place of his appearance, how shall we account for the 
vast differences now prevailing in the human species? There 
is always danger that an analogy may be pressed too far, but as 
we nave, in this case, nothing better than analogy to guide us, 
to what conclusion do the facts lead us, which it puts into our 
hands? Leaving out of the question physical characteristics, as 
irrelevant here, are the mental differences between the lowest 
and highest types greater than those we find in the career of 
families whose history we can trace for several generations? I 
think not. If, then, we find such remarkable divergences in a 
comparatively short period. \ye are not doing violence to the 
conditions if we assume that in the course of many generations, 
one type would merely hold its ovyn; another would make some 
advance; a third a greater, and so on. A brief quotation from 
Dugdale's "Jukes" is here in place. The author, speaking of 
the ancestor of a family whose descendants he had traced for 
nearly 150 years, says: "He is represented as *a descendant ot 
the early Dutch settlers, and lived much as the backwoodsmen 
upon our frontiers now do.' He was a hunter and fisher, a hard 
drinker, jolly and companionable, working hard by spurts and 
idling by turns, becoming blind in his old age, and entailing his 
blindness upon his children and grandchildren." Thi.s man was 
the progenitor of numerous criminals, paupers and other im- 
beciles. Yet the surroundings amid which he lived were not 
different from those of many other pioneers, and there was 
certainly no cogent reason why his descendants should turn out 
worse than those of most pf his neighbors, or other persons 
similarly situated. Here was evidently a *' primary twist" that 
successive generations did not have the moral strength to 
straighten out, and the result was that more than half the "breed 
were disreputable. But they were not all of this stripe. Some 
of the family repudiated the inheritance of shame into which 
they had been born and became respectable citizens. I have 
recently taken tne trouble to trace the history of several 
families which afford a striking contrast to that of the Jukes, 
though the environment of the original ancestor on American 
soil was no more favorable. Some of our best citizens, as well 
as some of our most talented men, have havi an equally lowly 
origin. Not a few instances have occurred where a single mem- 
ber of a family attained prominence and even eminence, while 
all the rest never rose above mediocrity. The conditions of 
the anthropological problem require that we derive nations or 
peoples through various intermediate stages from individuals. 
Every reader of history is familiar with the vitalizing and 
energizing influence of great men. He knows equally well that 
a bigot, whether religious or political, may bring an entire 



r 



364, THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

nation into a stale of torpor or hurl it over the brink of de- 
struction. Virgil has well shown the power of the influential 
citizen, when he represents Eolus stilling the tempe=t — 

" As when oft in some vast Ihrong halh risen 
A lumult. and Ihe base herd waxeth mad, 
And brands and stones, wrath-furnished weapons, fty, 
Then if some hero chance upon their sight. 
Of weight for worth or exploit, they are hushed 
And st4nd all ear to listen: with hi^ words 
He sways their passions, soothes their ruiHed breasts." 

Every group of men, no matter how large or how small, has its 
"boss" or its leader, the man who commands for his own ends, 
or who guides for the good of the group. 

When we consider the extraordinary power of mind over 
mind ar exhibited in Its highest potency in the influence of 
supremely great men, we can hardly escape the conclusior that 
the future always depends more or less upon the "living 
present," For what the greatest men can do in a large way, 
others less great can do in a more circumscribed sphere. The 
civilized world is becoming more and more convinced of the 
value of right and universal instruction: in other words, men 
can ultimately be made to be what they ought to be. The 
rising generation must be made to feel ethically before the 
reasoning powers are sufficiently developed to weigh the ma- 
terial profits of right and wrong conduct. The intellect has not 
much influence on man's moral development. The late Dr. 
Brinton has well said,* "To apprehend what is noblest in a 
nation one must oneself be noble. Knowledge o( facts and an 
unbiased judgment need to be accompanied by a certain develop- 
ment ot personal character, which enables one to be in sympa- 
thy with the finest tissue of human nature, from the fiber of 
which are formed heroes and martyrs, patriots and saints, 
enthusiasts and devotees. To appreciate these, something of 
the same stuff must be in the mental constitution of the ob 
server." This is only anoiher way of saying, " If any man will- 
elh to do his will, he shall know of the teaching, whether it 
be of God, or whether 1 speak from myself." 

All the problems growing out of conduct ultimately con- 
verge in the question of free will. If the human will is not 
free, it is imp^.ssible for any one but a casuist to see how con- 
duct can be either good or bad, — in short, have any moral 
quality whatever. Right becomes synonymous with prudence, 
and wrong with imprudence. Man is placed on a level with 
the rat that refuses to-be allured by the bait in the trap, or the 
bird that keeps out of range of the fowler's gun. No amount 
of argument can definitively settle this question. The last 
word was probably spoken more than a thonsand years ago, 
and we moderns can only repeat. Yet every man feels that 



I 
I 




CIVILIZATION AND THE ETHICAL STANDARD. 



36s 



when two 



of condut 



I befoi 



ivilege to choose either. Nor are the motives which influ- 
ence him wholly or even chiefly exterr.al, but within himself. 
If the contention of the materialists is well founded, and 
mind is but a subtle emanation front particles of matter in cer- 
tain combinations, the case for ethics is no stronger. It is true 
that many who hold this view vehemently repudiate the charge 
of materialism, but they succeed in persuading few persons 
except themseiv(.s. They attach a mt^aning of their own to 
the term materialism. If the human body is the master and 
governor of the mind, how shall we explain the conduct of a 
man, who from youth to old age pursues a noble ideal, the pur- 
suit of which often entails upon him sorrow and suffering? The 
man who lays down his life for his country, or who brings 
misery and death upon himself for adherence to principle is 
simply making a fool of himself. The really wise men are 
those who follow the example of the notorious vicar of Bray. 
The good of the race or of the community often requires the 
sacrifice of the individual. When this sacrifice is voluntary, 
men call it noble, heroic. Such are the most cherished names 
among every people. 

Fortunately for the world, men had learned to be moral long 
before they were metaphysical. Problems of conduct are rarely 
decided by processes of intricate reasoning. He who deliber- 
ates long, when a line of action is to be decided, is likely to 
adopt the course Ihat is prudent from his individual point of 
view, but the chances are against its being the right course. 
Common sense is usually a far better guide in morals than ex- 
traordinary intellectual acumen. It can not be successfully 
maintained that the most intelligent people are the most moral, 
as a class. An intelligent Englishman said to the writer some 
years ago, "In my country there are two classes that are 
morally rotten, — the very rich and the very poor." The utter- 
ance was probably (00 strong, but all observation proves that 
there was much truth in it. One is here reminded of the 
prayer of Agar— 

" Remove far from me vanity and lies; 
Give me neither poverty nor riches; 
Feed me with food thai is needful for me; 
Lest I be full and denv thee, and say. Who is' the Lord.' 
Or lest 1 be poor and steal. 
And use profanely the name of my Cod." 

He who wishes to be regarded as a true prophet will not 
venture to predict that the present civilization can never be 
overthrown. The destructive forces which it contains within 
itself are terrible to contemplate. We find one class advocat- 
ing war for the extension of commerce, rightly or wrongly; 
another, for the purpose of redressing the grievances of the 
oppressed; still another, in order to make room for the surplus 
population of over-peopled lands; and so on. Besides these, 



A 



366 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

men may be counted by millions who stand ready to welcome 
any upheaval that will give them an opportunity to seize and 
appropriate the possessions of their neighdors. They declare 
that whatever may come, it can not be worse than the present 
order — or disorder. 

The strong nations of the earth may for a time prey upon 
the weaker; but there will be a limit. What then? Will they 
turn against each other, and all go down in one common ruin? 
Will national debts continue to grow until they can no longer 
be borne, and then be repudiated, bringing upon the world one 
terrific financial cataclysm. Signs are not wanting that point 
in this direction. 

The occurrences pointed out here are neither impossible nor 
improbable. But, one thing is certain — they are not inevitable. 
There is no law of nature that will bring them about. Whether 
men go to destruction as individuals or in groups, they do so 
by their own choice. 

Athens, Ohio, September, igoo. 



THE MEMOIRS OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF 

NATURAL HISTORY. 

BY CHAS. HILL-TOUT. 

The American Museum of Natural History has recently 
issued the fourth part of the second volume of the series. It 
treats exclusively of the Ntlakamug or Thompson Indians of 
British Columbia, a tribe of the wide-spread Salish stock. The 
notes were collected by Mr. James Teit of Spencer's Bridge, 
B. C, and edited by Franz Boas, and they form a very valuable 
addition to our knowledge of this division. They deal chiefly 
with the customs, habits, clothing, dwelling-houses, arts, manu- 
factures, and social organization of the tribe. The memoir is 
richly illustrated and contains a practically exhaustive account 
of this interesting people, which, from the fact that Mr. Teit 
has lived in close and familiar intercourse with them for many 
years may be regarded as reliable and authoritative. In con- 
sequence of the tribe being divided into several groups, more 
or less distant and separated from each other, it is not always 
quite clear if the customs or practices recorded characterize 
the whole tribe, or only the upper group amongst which Mr. 
Teit chiefly resided. From my own personal knowledge of 
them, the customs prevailing in one group did not always in 
another, or, if so, were more or less modified. Another point 
of importance, is the omission on Mr. Teit's part to state 
whether the puberty customs, which he gives with much detail, 
were practiced winter and summer alike. 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. 

BY STEPHEN D. PEET. 

The division of the prehistoric period into three ages was 
accomplished at a very early period in the history of modern 
archaeology. This division came about from the study of the 
monuments, rather than of the relics. It is owing to the ex- 
plorations of certain Scandinavian archaeologists, among the 
monuments which so abound in that country^that it came into 
vogue. They ascertained that the barrows which cover the 
surface contained bodies which were buried with the knees 
drawn up and with stone relics by their side, and other signs indi- 
cating a low grade of civilization. They found certain sepul- 
chral chambers, formed of huge boulders, in which the dead 
were deposited without being burned, and in these were stone 
implements without any traces of metal. This furnished them 
with the data for the first period, which they called the Stone 
Age. 

They also found bronze weapons in certain graves which 
contained no bodies, but the ashes of the dead, showing that 
the bodies had been burned instead of buried. This gave to 
them the name Bronze Age. 

They, with others, discovered that other monuments were 
marked by a new system of burial; the body was laid in the 
grave, stretched to its full length, and in the grave were speci- 
mens of iron and silver, traces of alphabetic inscription, and 
articles of peculiar style of ornament, all of which showed that 
they belonged to the early historic or proto-historic age. 
They accordingly gave the name Iron Age to this period. 

Professor Nilsson compared the flint implements found in 
the barrows with those of savages, and recognized the social 
condition of the people by this means. Professor Steenstrup 
discovered a striking analogy between the ancient graves and 
chambered tombs of Sweden, and the modern huts of the 
Greenlanders and Eskimos, and concluded that the abodes of 
the dead were imitations of the dwellings of the living; especi- 
ally as the chambered tombs had long passages leading to 
them, resembling the entrance to the hut of the Eskimo. 
This thought was seized upon by those who were exploring 
the monuments of Great Britain and the north of France, and 
found to be very useful in explaining their uses, as well as age. 

There are, to be sure, many monuments in Great Britain 
which cannot be ascribed to any particular age, the use of 
which is still a matter of uncertainty. We refer now to the 
cromlechs, or circles of standing stones, and especially to the 
allignmente which are so common in these countries. The 
fact, however, that these iare associated with dolmens would 



3fi8 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 




indicate that they belonged to the Stoiic Age, and that the 
circles weie used for religious ceremonies, and the allignments, 
perhaps, for gravestones, or monuments to mark the place of a 
fierce battle. 

Closer study has brought out the resemblance of the cham- 
bered tombs of Great Britain, and especially of the dolmens of 
France, to the houses. 
and has shown that 
there were elements 
of rude architecture 
embodied in them. 
which must have been 
first utilized in the 
houses of the living, 
and afterward in the 
abodes of the dead. 
Confirmation of this 
classification came in 
the .liscovery of the lake dwellings in Switzerland. These | 
were placed upon platforms supported by piles, which had 
been driven into the bottom of the lake at some distance 
from the shore, thus giving an isolation to the homes and pe( 
pic, which of itself insured safelj' from the attack of wild 
r enemies, f-isaminalion of the relics 
:3lli them, showed that the people had 
■al slate, nnd gained their subsistence 
ss well as from the fish of the lake and 
as grain and fruit were found mingled 
with the bonesof animals 
and various articles of 
domestic use. 

Following up the clue. 
Professor Anderson and 
other Scotch archarolo- 
gisls entered into the 
study of the monuments 
found in Scotland, They 
discovered that in that ; 
country the people of 
the Bronze Age buried 
their dead \n large pot- 
tery vases, which showed 
considerable progress in 
art. With the vases were 
deposited specin>ens of 
bronze. Dr. Monroe dis- 
covered a number of crannogs, or artificial islandi, in the mjdst 
of the Scotch lakes, and beneath the surface a large number 
of iron relics; the relics and the structure both showing con- 
siderable mechanical skill. 

Thus, it was from the study of the monuments, that the 



and of thei 
which were found bene; 
reached the agricultui 
from cultivated fields. 
animals of the forests. 



5" A "Til' 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. 



369 



divisior. of the prehistoric period into three ages occurred, 
and that a system was adopted by which both the relics and 
the moniimetits could be classified. This is a division which 
does not belong to any one country, nor to any one period of 
lime; for it is jusl as applicable to the ancient regions of the 
East, as to the more modern countries of Europe and lo 
America, although bronze was very little in evidence here, and 
iron xvas not introduced until the time of the Discovery, as the 
isolation of the continent prevented those metals from being 
introduced. The same system has been recognized in Africa and 
northern Asia, and it is probable that it wilt prove app'lcabte 
to the islands of the sea. 

I. This gives rise to the idea that there were in all these 
countries successive periods of development during the pre- 



370 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

an advanced state, that there was no prehistoric period; and 
that tokens of the Stone Age would never be discovered, 
though it has been granted that bronze was early in use, and 
afterward was succeeded by iron. 

Late discoveries are proving that there were various cultural 
states which are marked by stone, bronze, and iron, and that the 
Stone Age preceded the Metal Age in all these historic lands. 
The question comes up as to the date at which the Stone Age 
ended and the Metal Age began. This question involves an- 
other: the endurance of the Stone Age; for in the beginning 
and ending of this age, we find the preparation for the Bronze 
Age. It is a point which it is difficult to determine, and yet it is 
probable that the Stone Age in Europe and Asia began far back 
in geological times; but it is to be divided into two parts, the 
old and the new — the paleolithic and neolithic. There are those 
who hold that the Paleolithic Age dates back to the tertiary 
period, and includes the time when man was associated with the 
now extinct animals. The remains of man in the gravel beds 
and in the caves indicate that in the first age he had more or 
less skill with tools, and was able to construct houses and boats. 
The Neolithic Age was the building era, for in it nearly all 
forms of constructed dwellings appeared. This age may, how- 
ever, in southern regions, have begun at a much earlier date, 
than in the northern, and Babylonia may have had a period of 
development which ante-dated the historic period several 
thousand years. This would make the beginnings of archi- 
tecture or house construction in Asia as far back as 10,000 
cars before Christ; for history, or tradition, is supposed to 
lavc begun as early as 6,000 years B. C, and we would naturally 
cx[)ect that it would take about 4,000 years for man to develop 
from the Paleolithic, through the Neolithic, to the Metal Age. 
\>r. Hilprecht says: 

I do not hesitate to date the founding of the Temple of Bel and the 
(irnl hfttlrnicnt at Nippur, somewhere between 6000 and 7000 B. C, and 
pokHibly earlier.'*' 

Dr. I. l\ Peters says: 

We discovered written records no less than 6,000 years old. and proved 
that writing and civilization were by no means in their infancy. Further 
than that, our explorations have have shown that Nippur possessed a history 
extending backward of the earliest wntten documents found by us at least 
2,0(xj yeais.t 

As to the races among whom this civilization began, much 
information has been brought out, though no general consensus 
has been reached. The early cuneiform texts show that the 
languages had strong affinities with the Ugro-Finnish or Ural- 
Altaic. Rev. J. C. Black maintains that it was allied to the 
Chinese. The Accadians, among whom the civilization first ap- 



t; 



•Sec "Academy," 1898. 

t See '* Narrative of the Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1896." 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. 371 

peared, belonged to the so-called Turanian stock, rather than 
to the Semitic. 

This brings up the question: why should the Mongolic, or 
the Ugric people have continued so long in a savage or semi- 
civilized condition; while their kindred in Babylonia should 
have made so early and so rapid progress? The answer to this 
is found •' in the highly developed agricultural system, which 
formed the foundation of their greatness, and was maintained 
in a rainless climate by a stupendous system of irrigation works. 
Such works were carried out on a prodigious scale by the ancient 
Babylonians, six or eight thousand years ago. The plains of 
the Lower Euphrates and Tigris, since rendered desolate by 
Turkish misrule, arc intersected by the remains of an intricate 
network of canalisation, covering all the space between the 
two rivers, and are strewn with the ruins of many great cities, 
whose inhabitants, numbering scores of thousands, were sup- 
ported by the product of a highly-cultivated region, which is 
now an arid waste, varied only by crumbling mounds, stagnant 
waters, and the camping-grounds of a few Arab tent-dwellers. 

"The Mongolic people have scarcely anywhere advanced be- 
yond the hunting, fishing, or pastoral states, and still remain 
tented nomads, on the dry, central Asiatic steppe, which yields 
little but herbage, and is suitable tor tillage in only a few more 
favored districts. Here, cut off from the arable lands of South 
Siberia by the Altai Ranges, and to some extent denied access 
to the rich fluvial valleys of the Middle Kingdom, by the bar- 
riers of the great wall, they liave for ages led a pastoral life in 
the inhabitable tracts and oases of the Gobi wilderness. They 
continued to occupy the original-camping grounds, as change- 
less and uniform in their physical appearance, mental char- 
acter, and social usages as the Arab Bedouins and all other 
inhabitants of monotonous, undiversified steppe-lands."* 

Another explanation may be found in the geography of 
Asia. For we have only to suppose that there was a prehistoric 
migration in neolithic times of the proto-Mongolic or Turanian 
tribes around the west end of the Thibetan range from Eurasia 
to the North and East, and a migration of the same tribes to 
the South and East into the valley of the Tigris, and ultimately 
into the valley of the Indus and the Ganges, a migration which 
was followed by the Aryan race, and there resulted in a high 
state of civilization. 

If this is not accepted, then we have, according to traditi- 
tion, two other starting points, one of them in the Iranian 
plateau, where the Aryan and Turanian languages began to 
separate, and the other in Babylonia, where many are in- 
clined to locate the Garden of Eden. The rise of the Bronze 
Age has been attributed to the ancient Asiatic people, but the 
transmission of bronze to the Mediterranean coast and into 
Europe was late in the Stone Age, as late as 3000 B. C, and, 
perhaps, much later. Mr. Keane says: 

•See " Man: Past and Present," by A. H. Keane; p. 282.* 



372 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Wilh the progress of archsoloKical research, il becomes diilv more 
evident iha! the whole of ihe North Monpol domain, tiom Fiofand to 
japan, has passed through the Slonc and Metal Ages, like most other 
habilahle parti of the globe. 

Herr Hans Leder came upon countless prehistoric token* — kurgans 
(barrows), atone circles, cromlechs, and meealithic monumeois idolmensj 
of various types. In West Siberia, the barrows, which consist solelv ol 
earth without any stone work, are t»v the present inhabiianis called "ChU' 
dish Graves." Itioueh the term CAut/f resembles the word "Tollecs" in Cen 
tral America, as all ancient monuments are attributed to them as a vanished. 
unknown race. There are reasons, however, for thinking ihat the Chudes 
may rejjresent an earlier race,— the men of the Stone Age, who, migrating 
from North Europe eastwards, had reached the Tom valley (which drains 
to the Obi) before the e\tinciion of the mammoth, and later spread over 
the whole ol northern Asia, leaving everywhere evidence of Ihcir presence 
in the megalithic monuments now being daily brought to light in East 
Siberia, Monfiolia, Koiea. and Jaoan, ♦ * * Continuing his investiga- 
tions in Mongolia proprr. Herr Leder here also discovered earihem kur- 
gans, which, however, differed fronn tho-e of Siberia by being for the most 
part siinnoiinted either with circular or rectangular stone Sttuciurcs, or else 
with monoliths.* 

The discoveries of the three ages are not confined to 
Europe and Asia; for there arc monunients in Central and 
Southern Africa which can be compared with those which are 
well known, and which can be identified as belonging to these 
separate ages. A reference to the recent discoveries will be 
appropriate here: Mr. George Leith found in Cape Colony, on 
the south coast of Africa, cp.ves, rocW shelters, shell mounds, 
kitchen midden, mines, and special rmptenicnts which make a 
complete record of man's progress from the Paleolithic to the 
Neolithic and Uronze Ages; while the discoveries which were 
made by Mr. J. A. Bent in Mashonaland have brought to light 
structures which belong to a very early historic period, and so 
to the Iron Age. These have been described and seem to 
contain all the elements of at] advanced architecture which pre- 
vail among the civilized race. 

The evidence in South Africa is that there was an intruded 
culture, — the gold mines, which have attracted so much at- 
tention in recent times, were known to the ancients and were 
worked by a people who were allied perhaps to the Phoenicians. 
We find m the Scriptures allusion to "the gold ophyr," and 
learn that King Solomon sent ships down the west coast of 
Africa, which brought back to Jerusalem four hundred and 
twenty talents of gold, almug trees, and precious stones. 

The picture which is presented is that of a monarch, who 
introduced into his capital the wtalth of the world, and sur-» 
rounded himself with all the specimens of art and architecture 
which could be borrowed from the nationr of the East — the 
Phoenicians, the Assyrians, and th-,: Babylonians, A similar 
picture is presented to us by t he tombs of the Mycentean kings 
and the ruins at Tyrins and Hissarlik, the ancient Troy. 

The recent e-vplorations in the mounds of many cities have 
revealed many stages of architecture, some earlier, some later. 



I 



I 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE _73 

The most ancient record is that which is found at Nippur, near 
the site of the Ur of the Chaldees. The opinion of most of 
the archa;o!ogists now is that this civilization of Babylonia was 
very ancient, dating back at least 4,000 years H. C. The sup- 
position is that thise various palaces and pyramids were pre- 
ceded by rude villages which grew up on the banks of the 
Tig] is and Euphrates, and that the Stone Age had continued 
foran indefinite length of time throughout central Asia and the 
north of Africa. 

While speaking of the three ages, it is well to notice that 
in America there is in reality only one age, viz.: the Stone Age, 
though it can be divided into three parts: the first marlted by the 
presence of earth mounds; the second, by framed slab houses; 
the third, by cliff houses and pueblos, the grades of progress 
being indicated more by the architecture than by the art; 
the material which was used in constructing houses and defend- 
ing villages proving a better index than the material of which 
the relics are composed. There is in America a geographical 
division which gives emphasis to this point, for we find that the 
houses of the Eskimos were constructed out of bone and bark 




and were occupied by fishermen. The houses of the hunter- 
tribes were constructed out of poles and covered with bark, a 
rude framework giving shape to the houses. The houses of 
the people of the Northwest coast -were built of heavy timber, 
and the walls made of plank, the entrance to them being through 
a hole which was guarded by some fabulous crt-atures carved 
upon the front of the house. The totem poles in front ot the 
house furnish a genealogical tree for the family. These mark 
the different grad' s of progress which were reached by the 
Northern tribes, though the tools of some of them were made 
of shell, stone, wood, and even copper. 

Farther south, especially in the Gulf States, there were 
many villages, around which were massive earth walls, and 
within were pyramids made of earth. The houses within were 
made of wood, or of wooden posts, set upright in the ground, 
but covered with thatched roofs; the material of which the 
relics were fabricated being stone, wood, and copper, as were 
those on the Northwest coast. 

In the Great Plateau of the West, the houses were con- 
structed of slone or adobe, and were built in terraces, or were 



374 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

placed in the sides of the cliff; bul the relics within the houses ' 
were mainly from stone, wood, shell, and pottery, very little 
copper being found among- them. To the far Southwest, the 
houses were all arranged around quadrangles, and made of stone, 
which was carved into various shapes; all of them indicating 
a high grade of architecture: but the relics here are also made 
of stone, copper, gold, and silver; no bronze, bronze not having 
been discovered. The same is the case in Peru. Here the 
structures are made of stone, and the metals used were gold 
and silver; bronze not having been discovered. These latter 
people, viz.: those in Mexico, Central America, and Peru, had 
evidently reached the bronze stage of progress, but they were 
technically in the Stone Age, if we take tht relics as the index 
of the age 

II. This review of the monuments of the different ages- 
prehistoric and historic— gives to us a pretty clear idea of the 




ELLEHS' HOUSI 

progress of architecture, and brings to light the characlei 
well as date of it? beginnings. It was evidently during the 
Stone Age that the first steps were taken; bul during this age 
very considerable progress was made. 

It will be profitable to take up the study of the monuments 
and structures of the Slone Age, and to notice what archi- 
tectural elements were embodied in them. The feature which 
iw the most impressive, is the resemblance of the buried struc- 
tures to the houses which are still found upon the surface, J 
thiiui^h in regions quite remote, and in a period much morel 
recent. This may be owing to the survival of certian methods I 
of construction, or to the transmission of the patterns or types; f 
but is more likely to be the result of a law of cultural develop- 
ment, which seems to have been universal. I 

There are, indeed, varied types or forms of prehistoricJ 
monuments, which are scattered over almost the entire world." 




ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. 375 

Among these, we mention the tumuli, the menhir^ or standing 
stones, the cromlechs or stone circles, the triliths, and especi- 
ally the dolmens, which so resemble the habitations of the liv- 
ing. 

It is interesting to observe, in this connection, the law of 
correspondence which prevails in the art and architecture 
which appeared in the different periods throughout the world, 
resulting in very similar types, as peculiar to the same stages 
of progress. So similar are these types that they suggest the 
idea of imitation, but in the absence of proof that there were 
any imitated or borrowed types, there arises the idea that they 
were the result of thj common law. In the Old World, we 
find the Egyptians and Assyrians passing through the same 
stages as the Mexicans in the New. The evidence of progress 
in constructive and mechanical skill is given, however, no more 
in the sculptured images than in the shape of the structures. 

In casting the eye over a Mexican manuscript or map, one 
is struck with the caricatures of the human figure. On closer 
inspection, it is observed that it is not so much a rude attempt 
to delineate nature, as a conventional symbol used to express 
the idea. Those parts of the figure which are most important 
are seized upon and made prominent. The last point men- 
tioned is important, for the imitation of animal and human 
forms seems to have prevailed during the Stone Age, and 
formed one feature of the Stone Age architecture. This 
probably is owing to the mythology and religion of the Stone 
Age people, for the »vorship of animals and regard for ances- 
tors prevailed extensively throughout the Stone Age. Mr. A. 
H. Keane says: 

In eastern Siberia extensive tracts are strewn with kurgans, in which 
are great numbers of stone implements, objects made of bone, and mam- 
moth tusks, besides carefully-worked copper-ware, betraying technical 
skill. And with the kurgans are associated monoliths, rough-hewn, in the 
form of human figures, which are called "stone women."* 

These remind us of the stone images which are found upon 
the Easter Islands, though they are there associated with dol- 
mens, rather than with kurgans. They also remind us of the 
carved posts, so numerous on the Northwest coast, in front of 
the wooden houses, forming a prominent feature of the villages; 
all of which belong to the Stone Age. The abundance of cop- 
per relics found here, shows that it belongs to an advanced part 
of the Stone Age. 

There were, to be sure, in the early part of the Stone Age 
certain chambered tombs, which were very rude, scarcely more 
than an open cist in which the body could be placed, the whole 
being covered with earth, though the relics deposited with the 
body show the regard for the dead, and at the same time show 
that there was a belief that the spirit of the dead would need 
these relics in the future state. There are other tumuli which 

•See " Man: Past and Present," p. 27*. 



370 



[THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



contain chambers built of stone in conical shape, which prob- 
ably were in imitation of the wigwams, or huts, which were 
occupied at the time by the living, though constructed of wood; 
stone being used in the burial chambers, because it was more 
durable. In these we see the first attempts at house building. 
and learn from them that the material was not the essential 
feature; the convenience and ease of construction ruled with 
the people. It is remarkable, however, that the hearth was an 
impoitant feature, with the people, for many of the buried 
mounds contain traces of fire-beds; sometimes the bodies of 




children are buried beneath them, the mounds thus perpetuat- 
ing the customs which prevailed, as well as ser\ing as monu- 
ments for the dead. 

There are stons graves in Tennessee which were placed 
around a circle and built up in tiers, the tiers drawing in toward 
the centre, thus forming a sort of conical structure, with a 
space in the centre; the whole covered with earth, but retain- 
ing the shape of the original hut, with the lire-bed in the centre. 



The superstition of iht Indians is that the fire has never gone • 
out. These stone-graves in Tennessee remind us of the slab- 
graves found in the lowest part of the excavations at Mycenae. 
There are stone-heaps, or rcck-circles, in North Carolina 
which are very well built, but which retain the shape of a ■ 
primitive hut. Dr. Thomas says; 

They are placed upon Ibe ^ohd rock foundation, the earth having' t}eeit 
removed, and a level space left, fioni ten to thirty feet in diameier. Cen- 
trally In this was placed a layer of fial stones, wilh ihe best edge inward, 
around a circle aboul three feel in diameter. Upon the outer edge of the^e, 
others were placed with their outer edge resting upon the prepared lounda- 



ARCHITECTUUE IN THK STONE ACE. 



377 



tion. running eniirely around the circles, the stones of one layer breakine 
joinls with those below. Outside of the inner row, with the edges resting 
on it. other circles were added, until a diameter ra.n£mg from twenty to fifty 
leet, and even more, was attained. The height of ihese piles was lound to 
vai7 from four to elghl feet, sometimes ten feet: but in all cases the circular 
space, or opening in the centre, continued to the top. These stone heaps 
were built at a poml overlooking the Kanawha River, from which the valley 
could be dislinclly seen for several miles. A somewhat different type or 
these heaps have a triangular caviiy, and were undoubtedly burial places, 
d were not built up with as much care.* 

Dr. Thomas also speaks of conical stone chambers a* 




ILAL STONF- CHA 

situated in North Carolina. They were located on the farm of 
Rev. T. F. Nelson, in Caldwell County, and were covered over 
with a mound, but were placed in a circular pit about thirty- 
eight feet in diameter, which h.id been excavated to the depth 
of three feet. The stones were built up around the boiiics, 
which were found still standing;, and they showed more or less 
evidence of fire, as did the skeletons. 

Among ihe mounds of the state of Iowa has been found a 




wailed circular vault, built of flat ston es and gradually lessened 
in diameter as it arosi-, the top being in the shape of an arch 
and covered by a siHgle stone. It contained a single adult 
skeleton in a sitting posture, with which was a small earthern 
vase of the usual globular form. 

Another chamered mound is in Illinois. The chamber was 
divided into three parts, and was covered witli a roof of round 
timber. In the middle part of it were eight skeletons sitting 
in a circle, with a drinking cup made with much skill in the 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

centre,* This vault reminds us of one which has been described 
by Nadaillac, in the island of Moen. He says: 

It was surrounded by a lumulUs loo yards in circumference, twelve un- 
hewn stones formed Ihe walls, and live tar^c blocks, the roof. In reroovioz 
the earth (rom the tomb, the bones uE several individuals were found, ana 
a skeleton, doubtless (hat of the chief, lay stretched out in the middle of 
the chamber: while some bones of others were placed against the walls in 
cither a sJHing or crouching posiiion.t 

The barrows of Europe are supposed to contain the oldest 
or earliest of alt the structures, and are on this account worthy 
of especial study. Some of these contain stone cists and 
chambered tombs which are connected with the exterior by 
long passageways; some of the coiridors are forty to fifty feet 
in length. 

The ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, like the American 
aborigines, were unable to inugine a future separate from the 
present, and so buried the house with its owner, and the grave 
was literally the dwelling of the dead. When a great man died, 
he was placed in his favorite seat, food and drink were arranged 
before him, his weapons were placed by his side, his house was 
closed and the door covered up: sometimes, however, to be 
opened again, when his wife or children joined him in the land 
of spirits. 

III. This description of the structures which appeared in 
Europe suggests the thought that there must have been great 
progress in the department of architecture during the Stone 
Age; a progress which has marked its different stages upon 
the monuments, as well as upon the relics. We have already 
alluded to this fact in giving the list of prehistoric works. 

These structures, taken in their geographical distribution, 
may be supposed to begin in Europe with the cavc-dwclUngs, 
and to have ended with the dolmens and megalithic structures, 
and to have embraced between them the kitchen-middens of 
Norway ; the mounds, barrows, and tumuli of Great Britain ; the 
lake-dwellings of Switzerland; the crannogs of Scotland; the 
cromlechs, and standing-stones of Kngland; the menhirs, dol- 
mens, and allignments of France, and the lowers of Sardinia; 
all of which were erected during the Stone Age. 

it will be understood, however, that there were many 
localities where a complete series may be found in close proxi- 
mity. The record of progress is given in the monuments so 
clearly, that one can pass from the earliest to the latest in a 
single journey. 

Still, in America, the structures were more widely dis- 
tributed than in Europe, and )'et they are supposed to follow 
the same order. The rudest and earliest are represented by 
the huts of the Eskimos; the highest and best by the ruined 
cities of Mexico and Central America; between these two ex- 



ARCHITECTURE IN THE STONE AGE. 379 

tremes are the huts or wigwams of the hunter Indians, the rude 
houses of the agricultural tribe^, the great houses and pyra- 
midal structures of the moand-builders, the terraced houses 
and communistic homes of the Pueblos, the cities built upon 
the mountain summits or in the midst of the lakes of Mexico, 
and the many palaces and pyramids of the Toltecs in Central 
America, as well as those of the Incas in Peru; all of these 
were tirected during the Stone Age. 

Some of these monuments are hardly worthy of the name 
of architecture, for they are mere heaps of earth; but it 
is supposed that there were on them at one time structures 
which contained in themselves the elements out of which 
architecture ultimately grew; and so, they may be placed under 
the head of architectural beginnings. The material out of 
which the structures were made, varied according to locality; 
that which was most abundant and most convenient to secure 
and easiest to be wrought into shape was generally used. Still 
the material may be taken as an index of progress, for the low- 
est races used brush and branches of trees, and the bones of 
animals, and blocks of snow for constructing their houses; the 
hunters used poles and bark for the frame-work, and covered 
their houses with thatched roofs; the agriculturalists made 
their houses of timbers, sometimes plastering them within and 
without, and covering them with thatched roofs; the Pueblos, 
who cultivated the soil by irrigation, built their great houses 
out of stone, which abounded in the region, or of adobe; the 
partially civilized in Mexico built theirs often two stories high, 
the first story of stone, the second of wood; but the civilized 
tribes of Central America and Peru built theirs of stone, which 
was wrought into many shapes and highly ornamented by the 
use of stone tools. 

That different stages of architecture were represented by 
these structures is evident from the fact that there is an order 
of progress apparent in them; for the menhirs, or standing 
stones are very rude, mere pillars or slabs, which are undressed 
and bear the same shape as when taken from the quarry ; they were 
inserted in\o the ground and served as mere monuments, though 
without inscription or even tool marks. Next to these, in the 
order of progress, would be the cromlechs, or stone-circles, 
some of which are composed of the same kind of stone slabs 
or posts, but placed in a circle, without a ditch either inside or 
outside of it, but inclosing a level area, which may have been 
occupied as a place of worship or of assembly. The majority 
of these cromlechs are, however, composed of stones, which 
are surrounded by a ditch and earth-wall, with avenues leading 
from them. They probably mark the sites of some open-air 
temple. Next, in the order of progress, are the triliths. These 
are composed of three rude slabs, which stand in some promi- 
nent position above the ground, and are covered with a mas- 
sive slab which forms a quasi roof; the ground inclosed having 
been used as a place of interment. The roof itself was used as 




are, hoi 



380 THE AMERICAN ANTK^UARIAN. 

an altar, or possibly as a place for funeral or signal tires. They^ 
arc very rude, and it required but very little skill to erect thera. 
Fourth in order would be the dolmens. These are in the I 
shape of houses, for their sides are perpendicular and inclose ' 
a square room, the roof sometimes being perfecily fiat, formed 
from a massive slab; sometimes the roof is made of a number 
of thick slabs, and so resembles in shape the sloping roof of 
an ordinary house. 

III. The method of construction which prevailed during 
the Stone Age is interesting, for it suggests manv things in 
reference to the Beginnings of Architect- 
ure. This varied according to circum- 
stances of time and place. The rudest 
method was that which was practiced by 
the North American Indians and by the 
various tribes in Souih Africa. It consists 
in twisting or bending slim poles over a 
circular space, and covering them over 
with matting of reeds, or thatching them 
with grass. Such hiils may have been com- 
mon in Europe and Asia at an early date, 
but they must have soon perished. There 
-, huts in Greenland and among the Eskimos which 
are made of blocks of ice, or whak- and walrus bones, laid la 
tiers, and placed upon a foundation of stone, which show con- 
siderable skill in the art of constructing houses, and probably 
shows the style which was used by the 
neolithic people of Europe. There are 
long passages to these huts, which remind 
us of the passageways to the dolmens of 
France, which are among the earliest neo- 
lithic structures. 

There were also huts in Florida which 
were made by placing in the ground 
wooden posts around a circle, so as to 
form a sort of small stockade, and then 
covering these with a roof or dome made 

of bent poles, and thatched with grass and reeds, leaving the 
space in the centre for the fire and the sleeping apartments. 
Houses similar to theseare common among ihe Pimas of 
Arizona, and among the poorer classes of Mexico. Rev. J. G. 
Woods speaks of the houses of the Bechuanas. which are 
formed by posts placed in a circle and iirmly fixed and con- 
nected with beams fastened at the top, and rafters on the posts; 
the roof, made of reeds, is placed upon the rafters, but extends 
beyond the outer circle of posts. This makes two compart- 
ments, the family living in the central and the servants inhabit- 
ing the outer portion, and the roof projecting far enough to make 
a veranda. Around the house is a high paling, made of posts 
and thorns, within which cattle are kept. The space between 




UOI.MEN IN PKANCE, 



I 
I 




ARCHITKCTUKF. IN THE STONK AGE. 



381 



t!ie inner chamber and the outer wall extends all around the 
hut, and the wails are clay plastered on poles. 

There are dolmens in France which have the shape of a 
perfect house wiih flat roof, upright sides, squ^ire angles, per- 
pendicular doors, with stone piers and lintel. The walls within 
are covered with scroll ornaments or other symbol?. These 
show conclusively that the dolmens were designed to represent 
the house of the dead. 

There are Iriliths in Europe, North Africa, and India, which 
remind us of the chambered tombs. They arc made altogether 
of stone, arranged so as to leave an open space between them, 
and are covered also with a large stone shib. In some of these, 
there is an opening which 
resembles a door, conveying 
the idea that the chamber 
within was a dwelling place 
for the dead, and this was 
the door for the spirit to go 
in and out. 

There are dolmens in 
France which are con- 
structed out of stone slabs, 
and have within them a 
square ch.imber with a 
sloping roof; the doorway is also made of stone slabs, which 
form regular door posts and door caps. 

We have spoken of the pile-dwellings of Switzerland. 
These are quite numerous, and show very considerable con- 





CLIFF-DWELLI.S 

tructive skill. They form a connecting link between the 
mounds and tombs of Great Britain and'Sweden and the Nur- 
hags. or stone towers. They are situated geographically 
between them, and belong to a part of the Stone Age which 
joined hard upon the Bronze Age. These form an interesting 
part of the series which began very early in the Stone Age and 
continued to the historic times. The nurhags follow these, but 
it is uncertain whether they belong to the Stone or Bronze Age. 



382 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

These abound in Sardinia, and have awakened a great deal of » 
curiosity. Mr. Nadaitlac says: 

They are conical lowers with very thick walls, made o' 
some hewn, others in their natural state, airaiigerf in regular 
out mottar. On entering one of them, we find ourselves in a vaulted room, 
which looks exactly like one-half of an egg in shape- In the upper stories 
are two. and someiimes three rooms, one above the other, to which access 
is gained by steps cut in the walls. The whole structure is crowned by a 
terrace. We must add that ihc entrance to the nurhag is through an open- 
ing on a level with the ground, and so low that one can onlv ) 
ing on the stomach.* 




There are cliff-houses in America which contain even more 
architectural features than these, tor ihey exhibit perpendicular 
walls, laid up in regular masonry, two or three stories in height. 
and have pecular T-shaped doors, and traces of balconies, 
some of them being reached by stone stairways. These belong 
to the Stone Age, and show the stage of architectural develop- 
ment which was reached by the Cliff Dwellers. 

The best specimen is the one which is represented in the cut. 
It shows the Cliff Palace in Cliff Cafion, Colorado. The so- 
called palace was in reality a cliff-village, which contained 
houses two- ■or three-stories high, a central lower — barrel- 
shaped, estufas, streets, courts, store-houses, and all the other 
conveniences of avillage; all situated on the ledge of the cliff, 
in the sides of the great cafion. the walls, doors, balconies and 
courts, showing a high stage of architectural skill, 

•S.c-Prthlilonc Heopk*,-' P. ■«;■ 




NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 

BY REV. J. N. FRADENBURGH. 

niHE researches of M. de Morgan in the smaller but loftier 

" mound of ancient Susa have been gratifying in their 
results. The mound was pierced by a series of tunnels, so as 
to reveal the several strata, and the first stratum showed evi- 
dences of civilization at the level of forty feet above the plain. 
Flint teeth of sickles were found in the next stratum, forty-six 
feet above the base. Cereals were cultivated at a very early 
age — possibly before their cultivation in Egypt. The evidence 
does not seem to be sufficient to determine the latter point. 
The stratum above furnished many sickles, the teeth of which 
had been worn by usage. Sixty-eight teet above the base line, 
burnt wood and traces of buildings appeared; and thirteen feet 
higher, the remains of the Susa of modern times. Still higher 
is the Elamite citadel destroyed by Assurbanipal; and then in 
succession, remains of the Persian, Arabian, and Greco-Persian 
periods. Several discoveries of archaeological importance are 
worthy of special mention: fragments of enamelled brick with 
inscriptions and decorative patterns, the work of Elamitr rulers 
of the eighth century, lessons for later Achaemenian artists; 
a large inscribed stele of yellow limestone, with a picture 
elaborately and skillfully sculptured, erected by Naram-Sin to 
commemorate his great campaign of about 3750 b. c, and a 
granite obelisk, covered by a long inscription of some twelve 
hundred lines in archaic characters. 

The room for Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities in the 
British Museum has been newly arranged and opened to the 
public. An unclassified collection is interesting — curiosities 
are always interesting — but has little value for purposes of 
systematic study. It marks a substantial advance, when the 
archaeological treasures of these old empires, long buried 
under the dust of ages,^are made available for the investigation 
of the increasing number of earnest students. 

The objects cover a period reaching from 500 a. d. to at 
least 4500 B. c; and the writing is from the most ancient 
Sumerian and Babylonian to the comparatively modern Persian 
and Hebrew. The room measures six.ty by thirty-five feet. 
The west side is occupied by inscribed bricks, gate sockets, and 
other heavy Objects. A set of boundary stones fills the centres 
of the wall cases 9-1 1. They are sculptured with mythological 
and other figures, and contain inscriptions concerning transfer 
of property and other similar. transactions. The writer in the 



38h the AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

London Times says: "Of special interest in the group is the I 
stone of Kitti-Marriuk (No. 9S) (about i lOO B.C.), who, in 
return for ceitain assistance which he rendeied to his king, 
Nebuchadnezzar I., in his war against the Elamites, was granted 
several privileges: no tax was to be levied by the local over- 
lord, the King of Namar, on Ritti-Marduk's stallions, mares, 
and other animals, and incense trees; no plantation or date 
grove was to be cut down or road made or bridge built in his 
territory without his consent; no recruits were to be drawn 
from Kitti-Marduk's city, and he and his family were exempted 
from military service forever." 

There is also a fine exhibition of bricks of the Second 
Nebuchadnezzar, called "the Great." They show that this 
great builder carried on his work in almost all the ancient 
cities of Babylonia. He provided Babylon with its mighty pro 
tecting walls. Indeed, modern discoveries have abundantly 
proved the justness of his boast: "Is not this great Uabylon, 
that I have built?" This great king was equally eminent as a 
conqueror and for his religious devotion. The bronze door 
step (No, 180) from the stairway leading to the temple of 
E-Zida is a larj^e casting. The Babylonians had already 
acquired considerable skill in the art. 

Sir Henry Rawlinson made paper squeezes of the tri-lingual ' 
inscription of Uarius — 520 B. c. to 485 b. c. — engraved on the 
rock of Behistun in the Persian, Scylhic, and Babylonian 
languages. From this a series of casts were made. Both the 
original squeezes and the casts are now on exhibition. The 
decipherment of the royal names in these inscriptions furnished 
the key to the whole field of Babylonian and Assyrian litera- 
ture. It is fortunate that the instrument used in these patient J 
and brilliant studies may now be inspected by the public. 

On the east side of the room is arranged a series of collect- 
ions of objects in bronze, marble, alabaster, glass, and other 
material. There are also much pottery and glazed porcelain of 1 
various periods. Among these is the valuable collection of * 
bronze antiquities of Van. The bronze lion weights and vessels ' 
of glass are of great interest. The coffins of pottery show one j 
of the methods of disposition of the dead; in some may still * 
be seen burnt human remains. The series of inscribed bowls, 
with their magic texts— many not yet interpreted — preach their j 
lesson of superstition. They were thought to impart to adraught 
of water rare medicinal virtue, if patient or magician, or both, 
but chanted the text. Many date back to the time of the i 
captivity of the Jews. 

The tables that line the aisle through the centre of the 
room are covered by objects of surpassing importance, Ninty- 
four "envelope" tablets (table case A) are inscribed with deeds, 
leases, loans, dissolution of partnerships, adoptiofl of children, 
marriages and divorces, and other business documents. They 
belong to the period of Sulula-ilu, Zabum. and other Kings of I 
Babylon, about 2300 b. c. These tablets are the most interest- 



NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 385 

ing of all. The writing of an "envelope** tablet was first 
stamped upon the prepared surface. The tablet was then 
baked, and after being covered by a clay coating and impressed 
with the seals of the contracting parties, baked a second time. 
It was then ready to be laid away. This would guard against 
any possible change in the legal instrument or other writing, 
and preserve it in duplicate. Of the same period are the *' bun " 
tablets (table case B), inscribed with lists of fields and statis- 
tics to serve as a basis for assessment of taxes during the reign 
of Bur-Sin, King of Ur. In the same case is a series of letters 
from Khammurabi to Sin idinnam. They date at the same 
period with the former tablets. They show Khammurabi to 
have been a great administrator, with large capacity for busi- 
ness details. He. seems to have looked after everything: the 
felling of timber and length of cuts for smelting purposes, the 
care of canals, the calander, as well as the administration of 
justice and great national questions. It may be opportune to 
call attention to the publication of the Khanimurati letters, 
with an English tianslation, by Luzac & Co., of London. Cer- 
tain letters of other kings of the first dynasty are added. 

The antiquarian is not a modern production. The interest 
of Nabonidus, King of Babylon, in these subjects is familiar. 
And now we have an old priest of the time of Belshazzar, who 
made a collection of tablets containing historic data concern- 
ing kings and concjuerors who lived from 4000 |b. c. to 600 b. c. 
The discovery of this rare collection is one of the triumphs of 
Professor H. V. Hilprecht; the place, the city of Nippur; the 
museum, an carthern pot. There are tablets of the first Sargon, 
about 3750 B. c: one of Ur-Gur, referring to the rebuilding of 
the temple wall of E-Kur; one tablet states that there were 
forty dinerent shrines in Nippur, each dedicated to a distinct 
divinity; a text by Ashur-ctil-ilane; and an important te.xt of 
Sin-shar-ishkun, the last King of Assyria. Other tablets are 
dated in the reigns of kings hitherto unknown. This new ma- 
terial will assist in filling a gap in the history of Calnch in the 
land Shinar. 

How much this suggests as to the triumphs of future ex- 
plorations! What literary stores await discovery! How startl- 
ing the stories told by clay tablet and inscribed cylinderl Do 
not we owe it to our age to push our conquests? What may 
we not expect when the mounds of Babylon, Nippur, Eridu, 
and "Ur of the Chaklees" shall have given up all their secrets! 
Truly, the harvest is ready, but the laborers are few. 



"Researches into the Origin of the Primitive Constella- 
tions of the Greeks, Phoenicians and Babylonians " bv Robert 
Brown, in two volumes, xvi,. 361, xx., and 261 pages, has just 
been issued from the press of Williams & Norgate, London. 



386 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The title well expresses the scope of the work. " Such an in- 
quiry is no mere matter of musty antiquarian speculation; it 
constitutes an important study of the mmd of the man of by- 
gone ages. It introduces us alike to the history of great centres 
of civilization, and to the triumphs and achievements of indi- 
vidual genius. It maices us ponder on some of those first steps 
upon the path of knowledge, which were so hard to take, but 
which form the foundation of our present vast acquisitions. It 
reveals to us the religious ideas in many variant and most in- 
teresting phases. And by the light of cuneiform decipherment, 
we are enabled to exchange crude conjecture and arbitrary 
fancies for general certainty and harmonious historical trans- 
mission and development." At the close of the second 
volume, the author says: **! claim to have demonstrated that 
the Euphrates valley was the main source whence were de- 
rived the primitive constellations of the Greeks. I claim, 
further, to have shown the natural line of ideas which pro- 
duced the constellation-figures; and although the research of 
the future will doubtless greatly add to the mass of material 
available for the further elucidation of the subject, and will 
enable us to correct many errors in detail and to explain many 
circumstances and incidents now obscure and perplexing, yet 
I am not afraid that the principle maintained in this w-ork and 
the general conclusions now arrived at, will be unable to stand 
the influx of more light from the East." With this brief note, 
I must dismiss this work of vast learning for the present, 
promising a more adequate review in a future number of The 
American Antiquarian. 

The mounds of Nippur have furnished a large number of 
magic bowls. During March and April one hundred and seven- 
teen, most of which were in a fine state of preservation, were 
brought to light. Usually one or more demons are pictured at 
the centre, frequently chained by their ankles. When placed 
upside down, they confine the demons beneath. Sometimes 
two are fastened together at Iheir rims, and the demons are 
thus safely confined in this magic prison. Sympathetic magic 
has certainly taken a deep hold on the human mind. 

Another important find, is a silver vase containing "several 
hundred well-preserved Cufic silver coins." Considerable gold 
and silver jewelry were gathered from the slipper-shaped cof- 
fins. A wooden coffin taken from a brick vault of the Roman 
period contained the remains of a man of the higher class. 
Professor Hilprecht says in the Sunday School limes: "Partly 
on his bones, partly scattered on the floor of the mortuary 
chamber, we discovered two diamond-shaped gold plates, each 
about four inches long; two gold frontlets; two heavy gold 
buckles, representing a lion's head, and inlaid with precious 
stones; six gold rosettes; one gold earring, and a string of 
heavy gold beads. In the northeast city fortifications were 



NOTES ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 387 

found baked clay balls, spear heads, stone maces, and arrows." 
These show what were the chief weapons of the time— the 
early Sumerian period. 

The discovery of over three thousand gold pieces, coined 
by the successors of Harun-ar-Raschid, has also been chroni- 
cled. A boatman of Bagdad exposed a terra-cotta vase in an 
ancient embankment, striking the spot with his punting pole. 
The upper part of the vase was broken off and a stream of gold 
fell into the Tigris. The boatman secured what remained in 
the lower part of the vase, but aroused suspicion and was 
arrested and compelled to reveal the secret. A search bv 
Bcdry Bey, who is an official of the Ottoman Museum of 
Constantinople, was rewarded by the recovery of the great 
horde from the stream. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN 

Sequences in Prehistoric Remains. To the Journal of 
the Anthropological Institute (Vol. XXIX., pp. 295-301, with 
plates 31-33) for November- December, 1899. Professor W. M. 
Flinders Petrie contributes a suggestive paper under this title. 
The discus>ion of the question, whether in dealing with ages 
before any written record of years, reference to time or dates 
is possible; whether the prehistoric ages can be reduced to an 
historic sequence, is one which the author is specially qualified 
to enter upon, by reason of his Egyptian researches, from which 
the data for the present argument is taken. By means of a 
card-catalogue of Egyptian graves (900 slips being selected, 
as representing the best graves out of some 4,000), Prof. Petrie 
arrives at a sequence-classification of pottery first, then wea- 
pons, tools, works of art, etc., which is fairly reliable. To use 
his own words: '*This chaosi of over 900 types of pottery, 
hundreds of stone vases, weapons and tools of flint and of 
copper, ivory work, and beads, extending over many centuries, 
perhaps one or two thousand years, has now been reduced by 
this system to an orderly series, in which we can not only state 
exactly the relative order of the objects, but also the degree of 
uncertainty and the extent of range which belongs to each ob- 
ject." Thus, prehistoric archaeology ** has made another step 
toward becoming an. exact science." It is worth noting that in 
the arrangement of the pottery of seven sucessive stages, the 
degradation of the wavy-handled type was ** the best clue to 
the order of the whole period." In the history of the slate 
palettes it appears that the rhomb is the earliest type, while 
line borders come last. Another order is quadrupeds, fishes, 
turtles, and birds. The study of the pottery specimens reveals, 
also, the fact that "torm is more important than material." 



388 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Prehistoric Bovid.^;, In L'Anthropologie (Vol, XI., 1900, J 
pp. i29-i58), Dr. J. Ulricli Duerst publishes the first pari ot an 
interesting illustrated account of "Some Prehistoric Hovida;." 
According to the author, the species of bubaliis represented on 
the Algerian rock-carvings is identical with that on the Chaldean 
cylinders,— this species (biibalus anliquHs or A', palmtidiats) 
having spread from India, where it lived in the pleistocene 
epoch, to Mesopotamia, and then to northern Africa. It may 
also, as some cranial remains from the diliiviiim of Danlzig 
seem to indicate, have spread over parts of western Europe 
also. This animal, which Assurbanipal hunted, was drivi 
back by the progress of civilization toward India, where its 
descenaants still survive in the Ami {biibalus Ami). The old- | 
est representative of the genus is the Biib/ilits stvalcnsis. whose 
remains are met with in the Miocene ot the Siwalik Hills. The | 
literature concerning fossil oxen is very large, the fluvial de- 
posits, bogs, lake-dwellings, cave-dwellings, etc.. furnishing ' 
abundant specimens, Dr. Duerst holds that the Bos primigcniiiSt 
the typical prehistoric ox, has the same geographic distribution 
as the Biibalus puhct/u/iais, and that the region of its origin is ' 
the same as that of the latter. Indeed, in the Siwalik Pliocene I 
skulls of oxen have been found, belonging to two species: Bos 
primi^cnius being one of them. The Bus (•rimigaiius must, 
therelorc, be traced back to India. This species had been 
domesticated in Greece in the Mycienian epoch, according to 
Keller, whose opinion, however, has been disputed by Krausc 
and others. It was certainly doriiesticateil long before the «isc 
of the Babylonian empires; but whether the Babylonians bid 
domesticated it themselves, or received it from alien sources is | 
uncertain. If we believe Nehring, all the short-horned breeds | 
of cattle in Europe are descended from the Bos primigejiius. 
Dr. DuersI, however, recognizes two races of primitive oxen, 
the second species finding its modern representatives to-day 
in Syria and Mesopotamia. This second race is "'the cattle of 
the lake-dwellings of central Europe, the oldest cattle in the 
world," *^ ^^ ** 

Sexual Chabacteks of Ancient Skulls. In L'Anthro- 
pologie (Vol. XI., 1900, pp. 179-192), Dr. E. Pitard presents I 
the results of a detailed comparison of some fifty male and ' 
fifty female crania from ossuaries (of various dales, chiefly 
prior to the twelfth century, a. D.) in Valais, the valley of the 
Rhone. The chief conclusions arrived at are: the female skull, 
is, as compared with the male skull, of the so-called "frontal" 
type, and of relatively greater cranial capacity (as already 
shown bj- Manouv'er); the weight of the male skull is abso- 
lutely greater, and the various segments of the skull (accord- 
ing to the curves) are greater in male skulls; the principal . 
diameter of the cerebral cranium are (relative to the cranial 
capacity) relatively greater in female skulls; in female skulls 1 
the width of the forehead is relatively larger than the width of \ 
the face, and the forehead more vertical. 




ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES, 389 

Modern JEuropean Implements of Stone. Under the 
title **Some Stone Implements Recently, or at Present, in Use 
in Europe," Dr. E. H. Giglioli describes (with figures) in the 
Archivio per TAntropologia (Vol. XXIX.. pp. 229-238) the 
stone hammers of Iceland, a stone pestle from Italy, a calen- 
dering stone from the Isle of Wight, stone polishers (for metal 
objects) from various parts of Italy, stone plow-protectors and 
plow-shares from various parts ot Europe. These survivals of 
the Stone Age are of great interest alike to the historian of 
human culture and to the archaeologist vo?n Fach. 



Ethnology of t«e Amoor Tribes. In the American 
Anthropologist (Vol. II., N. S.. pp. 297-338) for April-June, 
1900, Berthcld Laufer, under the title "Preliminary IMotes on 
Exploration Among the Amoor Tribes," gives an account of 
investigations carried on in 1898-9, for the Jesup North Pacific 
Expedition among the Ainu of southwestern Saghalin; the 
Gilyak of northern Saghalin, the lowlands of the Amoor, and 
the coast of the Liman; the Olcha and Tongus of the Okhotsk 
coast, the Poronai Valley and Patience Bay (Saghalin); the 
Tungus of the Amgun and the Gold of the Chabarovsk- 
Sophisk region of the Amoor. The peoples in question are 
all fishing and hunting tribes, and their culture has grown up 
on a basis of Yakut (and other Siberians), Chinese-Japanese, 
and Russian influence, in the order given. The Yakuts gave 
them the iron industry, their art shows many Sino-Japanese 
points of contact; while "the Gilyak in the environs of 
Nikolayevsk now build Russian houses and make stoves, wear 
Russian clothing, use Russian utensils, work togetner with Rus- 
sians in their fisheries, and bow to the images of Russian 
saints." The author notes that among the Gold and the Gil- 
yak "animals such as the bear, the sable, the otter, the sturgeon, 
the salmon, which predominate in the household economy and 
are favorite subjects in the traditions, do not appear in their 
[decorative J art, whereas their ornaments are filled with 
Chinese mythologic monsters which they but imperfectly 
understand." The Amuor people "do not reproduce the 
objects |of nature, but copy foreign samples." Of the Ainu, 
we are informed that "their ornaments cannot be compared 
with those of thj other tribes," and, while they do resemble 
the neighboring Gilyaks, " many inventions and ideas are met 
with which are their own, and are not found in anv other 
tribes," — such, c. g., are the ikioii or moustache-sticks. The 
Olcha, of Saghalin, are noteworthy on account of "a strange 
kind of amulet, cut out of reindeer or salmon skin," the art of 
making which is ancient and open to all. even women. The 
author also notes the striking fact that " nearly all institutions, 
customs, and manners, as described in the tales of the Gold, 
bear a marked resemblance to the outlines of culture as 
sketched ''n the epic literature of the Mongol an Turkish 
nations." The paper ends with a specimen of Gold folklore. 



390 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Burial Customs. In the Journal of Anthropological In- 
stitute (Vol. XXIX., [pp. 271-294) for November- December, 
1899, Mr. VV. Crooke writes about "Primitive Rites of Dis- 
posal of the Dead, with Special Reference to India,*' — the ap- 
pendix to the paper deals with ** Sepulchral Urns in Southern 
India," being a note by the late Dr. Caldwell, Bishop of Tin- 
nevelly, author of a grammar of the Dravidian languages. 
Among the topics discussed more or less at length by Mr. 
Moore are: Mummification (known in the Deccan, Bengal, 
Assam, etc., in various forms); platform burial (seemingly con- 
fined in India to the Nagas of Assam); mountain-burial (pre- 
vailing largely along the Himalaya); inltumation and crema- 
tion (found together in the Vedas), — in India earth-burial 
probably preceded cremation; mound-burial, dome or vault 
burial; crouched burial; disinterring and bone-cleaning — sur- 
viving in modern Hinduism of the higher type in the Asthi- 
Sancaya, or bone-collecting ceremony"; jar and urn burial (in 
Southern India) Very interestmg are Mr. Moore's references 
to the evidence in Indian thought and folklore to burial cus- 
toms long ago abandoned, and the taboos of burial. 

Irano-Indian Iconographical Anthropology. — In L*An- 
thropologie (Vol. XI., 1900, pp. 193-224) Charles de Ujfalvy 
continues and concludes his discussion of *' Irano-Indian Icono- 
graphy and Anthropology." The subjects treated of,«are: The 
cameos, intaglios, and coins of the Sassanidas; the craniologi- 
cal type of the ancient Persians; the anthropological type of 
the dynasties of the Arsacid.ne; metissage between Persians, 
Semites, and Turanians; resume of the works of various 
authorities, — Kbanikoff, Hprodotus, Justin, Ammias Marcel- 
linus, Bogdanoff, Duhoussett, Houssay, etc. Among the gen- 
eral conclusions of the author are the following: The type of 
ths Persians of the tmie of the Ach^emenidae seems to have 
been very like that of the Macedonians of the time of Alex- 
ander. At this period also, the influence of the Semitic environ- 
ment is very discernible. The transformation which begins in 
the period of the Achajmenidie has been accomplished by the 
epoch ot the Sassanidie, — the princes of that dynasty present- 
ing a fine type, but one far removed from that of the Achx- 
mendit. When, at the end of the epoch of the Sassanidai. the 
Arabs intermix with the Persian Aryans, the race possesses but 
"feeble atavistic traces of their Ach^menidean ancestors." 
The result of this Arab intermixture was to reihforce the 
Semitic element. Neither the Farsis nor the Doris of western 
Persia, nor the Tadjiks of Afghanistan, ancient Bactria, and 
Sogdiana, represent the type of the Persian Achiemenidae, all 
being far removed from it. The Afghans are a race inter- 
mediate between the Iranians and the Hindoos, and the primi- 
tive type of the Iranians may possibly persist in the Tadjiks of 
Kohistan. Very interesting are the results of M. Houssay's 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES. 391 

study, his "anthropological law" concerning the intermixture 
of Aryans with Mongolian, or with Mongoloid peoples: The 
latter lose their facial characters — flattening of the nose, 
prominence of cheek-bones, absence or rarity of beard, but, on 
the other hand, the former receive from the latter the form of 
their cerebral cranium. While one cannot agree with all the 
author's ideas, his paper is very useful. 



JiNNs. Prof. E. Westermarck contributes to the Journal of 
the Anthropological Institute (Vol. XXIX., pp. 252-269) a 
valuable Ipaper on "The Nature of the Arab Jinn, Illustrated 
by the Present Beliefs of the People of Morocco." The data 
upon which the essay is based are the result of personal in- 
vestigation in various regions of Morocco, with the assistance 
of natives. Belief in the j'imis forms today "a very important 
part in the actual creed of the Mahammedan population of 
Morocco, Arab and Berber alike." Those who do not practi- 
cally believe in them are very few, if any. According to 
Prof. Westermarck the Moroc^can belief, **in all its essentials, 
and in a great many of its details, is identical with that of the 
Eastern Arabs, and may be said, in the main, to represent part 
of the old Arab religion, in spite of the great mixture of race, 
which has taken place on African soil. Prof. Westermarck is 
also of opinion that "the application of the totem theory to 
the Arabic Jtmi involves a radical misunderstanding of their 
nature." The conception of th^ jiftfis "implies a generalization 
on a much larger scale" than totemism. In the discussion on 
the paper Mr. Crooke and Dr. Taylor spoke against the identi- 
cation with totem-belief. 






Armorican Arch/EOlogv. In L'Anthropologie (Vol. XL, 
pp. 159-178), A. Martin discusses "Armorican Burial Places 
Where Fine-pointed P'lint Arrow-heads are found." Of the 
burial places in question, some fourteen have been discovered 
in Armorican Brittany (Einistere ten, Cotes-du-Nord three, 
Morbihan one). Of these, five have been the subject of de- 
tailed description, with plans, cuts, figures, etc., — those of 
Cruguel (in Morbihan), Kern^-bras (in Finistere), Porz-ar- 
Soaz (in Cotes-du-Nord), Kergourogon (in Cotes-du-Nord), 
Tossen-Maharit (in Cotes-du-Nord), The nine other burial 
places, all in F'inistere, — Keruzoret. Cosmaner, P'ao-youen, 
Kergut^varec, Kervini (2), Goarillac'h, Plouvorn, Kergourna- 
dec,— have not been investigated with the same care and detail. 
Common to all fourteen burial places are: Wooden-burial- 
boards (on which the remains or the ashes of the dead were 
placed with his arms); absence of pottery; presence of a num- 
ber (sometimes as high as fifty) of delicate fine-pointed flint 
arrow-heads, of perfect design and execution; presence of 
peculiar bronze poignards. and hatchets of bronze. From this 



3Q2 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

general agreement the author concludes that "from Scorff to 
the bay of Iffyniac, along the contour of the horn of Armotica, 
there existed, at a certain period of the Bronze Age, a homo- 
geneous population, industrious, and gifted with a real sense of 
art, the treasures of which offer themselves for our study in 
these tombs" (p. 164). During this age, too, the art of making 
flint arrow-heads reached its apogee. 



Archaeology of Thompson Rivev, B. C. As No. VI. 
(May, 1900, pp. 401-453; figs. 331-380, plates xxiv.-xxvi.) of 
Vol. II. (Anthropology I.) of the ** Memoirs of the American 
Museum of Natural History," New York, Dr. Harlan I. Smith 
publishes an interesting and valuable paper on the *' Archae- 
ology of the Thompson River Region, British Columbia," em- 
bodying the results of investigations carried on under the 
auspices of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition in the country 
between Spence's Bridge and Kaniloops. The investigations 
were made in May 1897, ^^Y 1898, May 1899 and October 1899. 
Among the rubrics discussed are: Resources, hunting and fish- 
ing, root-digging, tood-preparation, habitations, tools, war, dress 
and ornaments, games and amusements, narcotics, art, burials, 
etc. These investigations corroborate the conclusions drawn 
by Dr. Smith from the previous researches carried on by him 
in the Lytton region. y\ccording to Dr. Smith, **the ancient 
culture of the whole of the southern interior of British Colum- 
bia was quite uniform, and resembled in all essential points the 
culture of the present inhabitants of this area, as described by 
James Teit in his monograph on the Thompson River Indians." 
Moreover, "the physical type cf the people of the interior is 
quite uniform, and a preliminary examination of the skeletons 
of the prehistoric people does not suggest that any change of 
type has taken place." It may be concluded also, from both 
culture and physical type, that '*the peoples of the coast and 
those of the interior developed on distinct lines, and that points 
of resemblance are due to later contact." Among the arrow- 
points figured in the text are "four beautifully chipped com- 
plex forms," possibly used in surgical operations. Certain 
slate arrow-points, some sea-shell and boneof-whale objects 
indicate coast influence. Fish-knives (of the Lytton sort) are 
rare at Kamloops.and no shell spoons were found. Wedges of 
elk-antler were numerous; so, also, green stone celts, and beaver 
teeth, the last probably as cutting or chipping implements. The 
carving of the war-clubs suggest.*? again, the influence of the 
coast-pcoplcs. There appears to be *' no evidence that moun- 
tain goat wool and dog-hair were spun and woven." Copper 
pendants and similar objects of personal adornment were very 
common; also beaver-teeth dice. Dr. Smith's paper is an 
admirable companion to his study of the "Archaeology of 
Lytton" and well deserves the fine dress in which these 
"Memoirs" all appear. 



PHILIPPINE STUDIES. 

I. PLACE-NAMES. 
BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN. 

THE study of place-names is of interest not merely from 
the philological, but also from the sociological point of 
view. 
In the Philippine Archipelago there are said to be nearly 
2,000 islands and islets, from Luzon (about the size of Ohio), 
Mindanao (rather larger than Indiana), down to uninhabited 
rocky ledges, the name of which alone allies them to mankind. 
These islands are peopled by some 8,000,000 individuals of 
more or less pure Malayan stock, perhaps 10,000 Negritos, and 
several thousand Europeans (chiefly Spanish), Chinese, Japan- 
ese, etc. The basis and core of the chief ethnic phenomena 
in the Archipelago today, in spite of all foreign influences at 
various stages of their history, — Indian, Chinese, Japanese, 
Spanish, English, and American, — is still Malay. This is 
clearly revealed by an investigation of the place-names of the 
Archipelago, the results of which prove how little, after the 
first predominance of the Malays over the earlier Negritos, 
the successive foreign elements have modified the essentially 
Malayan character of the linguistic topography. The follow- 
ing study is offered as a first attempt at the elucidation of some 
of the interesting place-names of this important region of the 
globe: 

1. Apo. The name of this volcano in southern Mindanao 
coincides with apo, the term for '"grandparent" in several 
Philippine languages. This would be an appropriate explana- 
tion, considering the place occupied by volcanoes in the native 
mythology. And it is, perhaps, a more satisfactory derivation 
than that which connects the word with apui,, the term for " fire " 
in many Malay tongues. There is an Apo island off the west 
coast of Mindoro. 

2. Babuyan, ** place of pigs," — from babuy, "pig" (in the 
Tagal and related tongues), and the locative suflfix -an. Babuy 
is the same word as the first component of the babiroussa of our 
dictionaries, the Malay name (babi, "pig," msa, "deer'*) of the 
curious "deer hog" of Celebes. The pig plays a \t:ry import- 
ant role in Malay countries, and places named after it are very 
common. Yxovci babuy \\{^ village of Babuyan on the island ot 
Palawan, the Babuyanes (the es is the Spanish plural-sign) 
Islands, situated to the north of Luzon, etc., get their names. 
The Babuyanes were long noted for the pigs found in great 
numbers upon them. 



394 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

3. Bacoor, " circle." This word seems to belong to the 
language of the Negritos of Luzon. Spelled in various ways 
Bacoor, Bacor, Bakur, etc., it was formerly the name of a bay on 
the western coast of Luzon. 

4. Balayan. *' house place/' from balay (in several dia- 
lects— Tagal bafuiy), ** house," and locative suffix -an. This is 
the name of several places in the Archipelago: a gulf and 
town in the district of Batangas, south-western Luzon, etc. 

5. Banga-banga, '* skull" (in several languages of Luzon 
and other islands closely allied to the Tagal-Ilocan, etc.). 
This name is very suggestive in relation to the former head- 
hunting propensities of many of the Malay peoples. The 
word also signifies, in some dialects, *'the shell of a fruit," 
*• gourd." There is a village called Banga-banga in south- 
eastern Mindanao. 

6. Bantayan, •* mountain place," from bantay (m several 
Luzon dialects, llocan, etc.) "mountain," and the locative suf- 
fix -an. This is the name of a small island, situated to the 
west of the extreme northern part of Cebu. 

7. Bashee, ** fermented juice of the sugar-cane." The 
group of small islands north of the Babuyanes, towards For- 
mosa, received this name (figuring most on English maps, — 
they are otherwise known as the Batanes) from the members 
of Dampier's expedition in 1687. Dampier's account of the 
voyage informs us that they were "unanimously named after 
the \\f\\xox^'~basJiC€ {bashi)^ — which the natives sold "very 
cheap," and the sailors "drank plentifully every day." This 
baslii or basi, as it is termed in various Philippine dialects, is an 
intoxicating drink made from crushed sugar-cane, which is 
made much of on social occasions and during the religious fes- 
tivities of some of the ruder tribes. 

8. Bato, batu, bato, " stone," in various Philippine dialects 
(Tagal, etc.). There are many places in the Archipelago thus 
named. A derivative Batuan or Batoan, "place of stones," 
" rocky place." There is a Bato in the island Leyte. 

9. Bai, bay, bay-bay. In several languages of the Archi- 
pelago baiy or bai-bai signifies "a body of water, sea, lagune, 
etc." Hence the well-known Laguna de Bay near Manila, in 
south western Luzon, gets its name; also the town on its south- 
ern shore (some of the earlier maps and writings spell the 
word Bahi.) Bay and Bay-bay are not infrequent elsewhere 
in the Philippines. There is a town, e.g. of Bay-bay, in Leyte 
(the northern portion of the island was formerly called Bay- 
bay). 

10. Boaan, "place of the boa, bonga, or betel-palm." 
Some of the places (islands, etc.) called Boaan seem to have 
taken their name from the bonga or boa tree, the palm which 
furnishes the famous betel-nut, Areca. catechu. 



PHILIPPINE STUDIES. 395 

11. BoAYAN. This island, off the the northern coast of 
Palawan, bears a name seemingly the same as that discussed 
under No. 13. , 

12. BoNTOC, "mountain." In Tagal and some of the 
related dialects, bontoc or bondoc signifies "mountain," and 
the district and town of Bontoc in northern Luzon have thus 
received their name. Bondog, the name of a cape, mountain 
and town in southeastern Luzon is probably the same word. 

13. BuHAYAN, BUHAYEN, "place of life," from buhay (in 
several Philippine dialects), "life," and the locative suffix -an 
or en. In Mindanao a mountain, a lake, a river, a town, and a 
district are named Bjhayan (Buhayen, Boayan). The moun- 
tain, a volcano, may have been the first recipient of the name, 
since "place of life" is a very appropriate denomination for 
such a pheonomenon. See No. 11. 

14. BuLALACAO, "rainbow" (in several Philippine dialects, 
some of the vocabularies give the same word for "comet"!) 
This word occurs frequently as a place-name: A gulf and town 
in south-eastern Mindoro; a small island to the east of the 
island of Calamian, etc. 

15. E'j'.AN, "moon" (in several dialects; buyan in the 
Negrito of Luzon, buan in Tagal). There is a town c»f Bulan 
in extreme southeastern Luzon. 

16. Bltuan, " place of bones," from butu or boto (in several 
Philippine languages. — Tagal, etc.). In Mindanao there are a 
river, bay, town, and district of this name. 

17. BuYO, "betel" (in several Philippine dialects, includ- 
ing Tagal, etc.). Several places seem to have been named after 
this favorite chewing-substance of the Malays. There is a 
town of Buyo in Central Luzon. 

18. Camotes, "sweet potatoes." The Camotes group of 
islands, between Leyte and Cebu have been named from the 
Spanish camotc (plural camotes), the ultimate source of which is 
the Nahuatl (Aztec) camotl, "sweet potato," one of the many 
links connecting the Philippine Archipelago with the Spanish 
vice-royalty of Mexico, from which they were so long governed. 

19. Carabao, "buffalo." The little island of this name, 
between the northwestern point of Panay and Tablas, is called 
diittv carabao, or native buffalo of the Philippines, known as the 
"water buffalo." The mdst wide-spread name for this animal 
among the Philippine languages is "unang" or "aunang," the 
other term "carabao" being doubtfully of native origin. The 
smaller species of buffalo, found only on the island of 
Mindoro, is called "timaran." 

20. Catubig. This name of a river and town in the island 
of Samar is derived from tubig (in several dialects, Tagal, etc.,) 



396 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

** water," and the prefix ca (kd), which indicates that the thing 
expressed by the root exists in abundance or perfection. 

21. Daligan. The reference in the place-names Daligan 
. (the suffix is the locative -an) may be to dalig (in several dia- 
lects of Luzon, etc.,) ** root," or ** Dalig," one of the secondary 
deities of the Igorrotes, inountain-lribes of northern Luzon. 
Daligan is one of the settlements of the Apayaos in northern 
Luzon 

22. DiNAGAT. Some of the place-names belonging h6re 
may be derived in the characteristic fashion of the Tagal and 
some closely related dialects, from dagat, '* sea," with the inffix 
'in (signifying ** like, resembling the thing denoted by the stem- 
word"), thus ^/-///-^^^/, " sea-like," •* in the sea." There is an 
island (with one of its towns) called Dinagat, off the north- 
eastern coast of Mindanao. 

23. GuBAT, ** forest " (in Tagal and several other dialects). 
There is a town of Gubat in the extreme southeastern portion 
of Luzon. 

24. Ilocan, ** river place, on the river," from ilog (}Xi Tagal 
and several other related languages) ** river," and the locative 
suffix -an* The Ilocanos (to give them iheir Spanish name) or 
llocans, are an important people of northern Luzon, whose 
name is borne also by part of their habitat, the Provinces of 
Noith and South Ilocos. The llocans are thus " river people." 

25. Lauag or Laoag. The name of the chief town of 
North Ilocos may be the same as *' lauag " "field," in the 
language of the Luzon Negritos, '* laoag," " country,'* in certain 
other dialects {e.g. Hontoc). There is also in Ilocan the word 
'* laoag," *' brightness." 

26. LiNAO. The name of several places in ihe Archi- 
pelago: A bay in southern Mindanao, a town in the extreme 
north of Luzon, ttc. See No. 28. 

27. Luzon. The origin of the present name of this the 
largest island of the Philippine Archipelago, is very uncertain. 
One of the etymologies suggested derives *' LOzon " (of which 
the Latinizing chroniclers of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries made "Luconia") from "lusong," "Muzong," "losong," 
*' wooden mortar for pounding rice," a word belonging to 
several dialects of the island (Tagal, etc.). The story goes 
that when the Spanish discoverers began to question the natives 
as to the name of their country, the latter answered ** lusong," 
supposing that the new-comers were inquiring about the mor- 
tars, as conspicuous then as now, at the doors of their cabins, 
in some portions of the island. This, however, is probably a 
case of '* folk-etymology." It is rather against the story that 
the accent runs ** lusong," and ** Luzon." 

28. Malinao, " bright, clear," in Tagal and some related 
dialects. There are a number of places thus named through- 



PHILIPPINE STUDIES. 397 

out the Archipelago: A lake in Mindanao, a town in Luzon, etc- 
The radical of the vyord is " linao," — the ma- is adjective prefix. 
" Linao" is probably the same place-name. 

29. Manoc or MANUC, ** bird," a wide-spread Malay word 
appearing in Tagal and many other Philippine dialects. There 
are several Manoc islands in the Archipelago, one very small 
one e,g„ between Masbate and Cebu. There is also a Mamanuc 
Island in the Sulu group. 

30. Manucan, "bird place,'' from '^manuc," *'bird,'* and 
the locative suffix, -an. There is a Manucan Island in the 
Cayagan group, situated to the west of the southern part of 
Negros. and a Manuc-manucan Island to the southeast of 
Balabac in the Sulu Sea. 

31. Mindanao, "lake country." An older form of the 
name of tht second largest island in the Philippines, " Magin- 
danao," reveals the etymology of the word. *' Magindanao " 
is derived from **danao" (in many Philippine dialects, Tagal, 
etc.), "lake," and the prefix ?nagin-, which contains the idea 
•* becoming or containing what is indicated by the root-word." 
There are a number of rivers and lakes, some of them quite 
large, which makes the name peculiarly appropriate. One of 
these, also called Boayan, bears still the name Maguindanao, 
the first location of the term, perhaps. 

32. MiNDOKO. By some the name of this large island, 
situated immediately south of the western portion of Luzon, 
is said to be a corruption of the Spanish mifia de orOy '* gold 
mine," in reference to the gold-deposits said to exist there. 
An earlier native name of the island was " Mait," related, per- 
haps, to " maitim," "black," in Tagal, and referring to former 
dark-skinned inhabitants. It is possible that " aeta, ita," and 
"eta," the name by which the Negritos of the Philippines are 
known is identical with the radical of ''maitim," ma- being the 
common adjective prefix, so frequently occurring in color- 
names. 

35. Negros. This large island, lying between Panay and 
Cebu, received its present name on account of the "black peo- 
ple, negroes (in this case, Negritos)," who seem to have been in 
former times its chief inhabitants, and who still survive in 
small numbers in certain parts of the Cordillera region. An 
earlier name was Isla de los Negros, then Isla de Negros, and 
finally Negros. Purchas, in his "Pilgrimage," in 161 3, speaks 
of it as " an Island of Negro's inhabited with black people." 

34. Panay. The name of this large island, which lies 
between Mindoro and Negros, seems to have once belonged to 
the northern portion of it only, now called Capiz. An older 
name of the island was " Oton, otong, otong." 1 he significa- 
tion of Panay is uncertain. In some dialects of the Archi- 
pelago "panay" means " plate," but there may be no con- 
nection here. There is also a small island called Panay off the 



398 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN . 

northeast coast of the island of Catanduanes. On the large 
island of Panay is a river and town of the same name. 

35. Pangasinan, ** place of salt." This word, which occurs 
frequently as a place-name in the Archipelago, is derived from 
asin, "salt" (in several dialects), with the locative suffix -<77i, 
and the prefix pa?ig-, relating to " action." Pangasinan is, 
therefore, *'a place where salt abounds, or is made." The 
name is borne by an island in the Sulu group, a district and 
tribe in Luzon, etc. 

36. Pasig. '* sand," in several dialects, Tagal, etc. This is 
quite a common place-name. There are a Pasig island, or 
shoal-bank, northeast of Palawan; a Pasig river and town in 
Luzon, near Manila, etc. 

37. Pulanglupa, " red earth," from Tagal " pula," " red," 
and ** lupa," " earth." The name of a town in southwestern 
Luzon. The word " lupa " appears also in the place-names 
Masalupa, Muntinlupa, etc. 

38. Samar. The origin of the name of this large island, 
which lies southeast of the extreme southeastern point of 
Luzon, is uncertain. "Samar" or "Samal" seems to have been 
originally applied only to the western coast of this island, 
which has had several other and older names. The whole 
Visayan group, to which it belongs, was earlier known as the 
*' Islas de los Pintados, "or "Islands of Painted (tattooed) Men." 
It has been sought to explain the present name of the island 
from "samar," a Malay word meaning "disguised," in the 
sense of " tattooed " or " painted." 

39. SuBAN, "river place," "on the river," from "suba,'* 
"river" (in some of the southern dialects) and the locative 
suflfi.x -an. There is a town called Suban in northern Mindoro. 
In the extreme southwestern peninsula of Mindanao dwell the 
Subanos, who, as their name signifies, are "river-dwellers," 
" river-people." 

40. Tagalog. This name of the most prominent people 
of the whole Archipelago is said to be derived from iiog, 
" river," and the prefix taga-, relating to action, origin, and 
signifies "people of the river," " river-dwellers." A fuller form 
of the word is Tagailog, the nam dc plume of Luna, the 
Filipino man of letters. 

41. Tambagaan, "place of bronze," from "tambaga," 
"bronze," and the locative suffix -an. This is the name of a 
small island off the coast of Tawi-Tawi in the Sulu group. 
"Tambaga, tombago, tembaga" (in the various dialects) signi- 
fies in Tagal also an alloy of gold and silver of which jewels 
are made. This Malay word has travelled far from the East 
Indies, — it is seen in the Spanish "tumbaga," " pinchbeck," 
Italian " tombacco," Portuguese "tambaca," French "tombac," 
etc. The word has even crept into English in the form of the 



PHILIPPINE STUDIES. 399 

Anglo-Indian "tombak/* "a kind of brass." It is a very 
curious fact, however, that this far-tmveled Malay term is itself 
of Aryan origin, its ultimate source oeing seen from the Sans- 
crit "tamraka," "copper." 

42. TuBiG, " water " (in Tagal and some related dialects). 
With the suffix -an is formed the derivative "tubigan," ** place 
of water,*' a term applied, on the one hand, as a river-name, 
and on the other, in the sense of **rich land," to a well- 
watered meadow. There is a Tubigan Island in the Sulu group^ 

The early Spanish discoverers, conquerors, and adventurers 
have not been forgotten in the new names added by the 
Castilian immigrants. Villalabos, Legazpi, Urdaneta, etc., are 
remembered in town-names, etc. A few names, too, have 
drifted in from Spanish-Mexico, and elsewhere; while some 
few others hark back to old Spain. But, taken altogether, these 
form but a very small fraction of the many thousands of names 
dotted here and there over this vast Archipelago. 

A fact worth noting, is the sprinkling of English names to 
be found around the coast of the long, narrow island of 
Palawan, proximity to Borneo accounting no doubt for some 
of them, and the East Indian trade for more. To the west of 
Palawan are three Pennsylvania reefs, remembrancers doubt- 
less of some vessel bearing that American name. 

The history of the general name of the Archipelago is a 
curious one. Magellan styled the islands, when discovered by 
him in 1521, ** Islas de S. Lazaro," a name which did not meet 
with general acceptance. [For a long time after the discovery 
they were known to the Spaniards, who approached them from 
the west, as " Islas de Poniente," and to the Portuguese, who 
reached them from the East, as " Islas del Oriente." Villalabos 
(1542-3) sought to make them bear the general name of 
" Neuva Castilla," — another failure. But their present name 
hails from him, too. In honor of the Infante Don Felipe, he 
named the island of Samar Filipina, and ultimately, while 
Samar lost the specific name, Las Filipinas came to be the ap- 
pellation of the whole Archipelago. The substitution was very 
slow, however. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



CLIFF-DWELLERS' RUINS. 

To THE Editor of The American Antiquarian: 

Dear Sir, — I have thought many times of my promise to 
write to you, but have waited to obtain further information 
regarding the Cliff-Dwellers' ruins of this vicinity. 

When I first came here I was able to learn but very little, 
except that this whole region abounds in ruins and remains of 
various kinds. My first exploration was made on the Mesa 
Verde, within a few miles of my home at Navajo Springs 
Indian Agency. This was on January 9, and all I found was 
the foundation of a ruined house. I have since found houses, 
more or less perfect, in three other places, and all within six or 
seven miles of the Agency. None of these have been visited 
by white men more than two or three times. The smallest one 
contains several ruined rooms, and one still perfect; while the 
largest has twelve rooms in perfect condition, and eleven or 
more ruined. 

There appears to be two distinct classes of masonry, both 
occurring in the same buildings; in one case in separate por- 
tions of the house, and in the other instance the walls seem to 
have been begun by one class of workmen and finished by 
another. 

One of the houses appears to have been destroyed pur- 
posely and maliciously by human beings. I base this conclu- 
sion on the fact that there are many fragments of pottery 
scattered about, but not a whole dish can be found. There are 
also broken stone implements. I found pieces of two stone 
axes and one hammer, which I believe were purposely broken. 
I believe in this case that the inhabitants were driven out and 
their belongings destroyed. 

Another house has been totally demolished, except one 
room. This was caused by a fall of rock from above, as was 
also the case, but in a lesser degree, with still another house in 
the same vicinity. At this latter place thre are great cracks in 
immense masses of rock overhanging the house, which could 
only have been made by an earthquake. In the first house 
mentioned, the walls have been thrown down almost intact. I 
do not believe this could have been done by any force of nature 
without causing the rock to fall from above, where it still 
remains solid and begrimed with smoke. 

What really interests me most is the burial places, which, 
so far as I can learn, are all located down on the plain; while 
the houses mentioned are probably a thousand feet above 
them, built in the sides of the cafion walls, near the top. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 401 

Dotted comparatively thickly over the valleys below the mesa 
are heaps of ruins, which must have been originally stone 
buildings, varying in size from one small room to immense 
structures, covering an acre or more of ground. In the larger 
of these are still to be seen walls ten feet high, while others 
are simply a mass of broken stone without form. 

It is near the smaller and isolated ruins that the graves are 
found. Invariably they are located fropi fifty to sixty feet 
southeast of the piles of stone, and are to be distinguished by 
a slight mound of earth covered with broken pottery. Some 
graves are shallow, while others are from four to six feet deep. 
The skeletons show that the bodies were buried in a sitting 
posture, with the knees drawn up under the chir. Surround- 
ing the skeletons are dishes of various patterns; some glazed; 
some rough; some decorated and some plain, but there are 
many graves which contain no pottery at all. 

Many of these smaller mounds are in two parts, the northern 
one being always the larger. In one of these double mounds, 
which I excavated slightly, I found quite a quantity of charred 
ears of corn. First was a layer of earth and debris about a 
foot thick; then came a layer of slag, such as might have been 
the product of a blast furnace. This slag was about eight 
inches in thickness and completely covered the corn, of which 
there must have been several bushels. It is now charred and 
amalgamated into a compact mass, although the ears still 
retain their form and the kernels can be separated from the 
cobs. It is certain that the corn could not have been there 
when the slag was in a molten condition, and the only explana- 
tion I can suggest is that this was the inside of a large furnace, 
or possibly a pottery kiln, and that after it had ceased to serve 
its original purpose, for some reason — possibly sacrifice — the 
corn was burned there, and the walls afterward fell inward. 

Climatic conditions musl have been far different then, fer 
all the cliff-houses I have seen contain corn cobs and husks, 
many of the former being imbedded in the walls. It would 
now be impossible to grow corn within twenty miles of these 
houses, as the nearest water supply for irrigation is that dis- 
tance away. Neither does it seem possible that they could 
have transported water sufficient for the erection of their 
buildings and to supply the number of people who must have 
inhabited them. 

The more I study the ruins and their location the more in- 
tricate the problem becomes, until it seems as if I must solve 
the mystery of this lost people. 

Very respectfully, 

C. N. Crotsenburg. 

Corley, Colorado, April d, igoo. 



EDITORIAL. 



THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF CHINA. 

% 

The attention of the world has been directed toward China 
and the strange people who dwell in that ancient land, and who 
call their government the *' Celestial Empire," a name which 
seems to be at the present time a travesty and a burlesque. 
There is no denying the importance of this nation among the 
nations of the earth, for it is, perhaps, the largest and most 
numerous in the world, and, unlike other nations, is contained 
in one solid body, without a range of mountains, or a sea, or 
any other geographical feature to separate the different parts. 

There are two other nations which, like the Chinese, are 
gathered into a solid body — the Russians, and the people of 
the United States; but the Altai Mountains separate the eastern 
from the western portion of Russia, as the Rocky Mountains 
separate the eastern from the western part of the United 
States, the capitals of the three great nations having been 
all situated at the extreme side of the country. 

There have been several dynasties previous to the present; 
the earliest having a date as ancient as either- Egypt, or 
Assyria, or India, and much earlier than either Persia, Greece, 
or Rome. The following are the dates, according to Bancroft's 
recent book: the Dynasty of Hia, 2205-1766 b. c; of Shang, 
1766*1122 B. c, and of Chow, 1122-255 b. c. Then came 
Chanchi, who built the wall. The dynasty of Ching, whence 
the name China came, began 255 b. c. and continued until a. d. 
149; that of Ham, a. d. 149-618, covering 469 years, the period 
when Buddhism found its entrance. During the Tang dynasty 
(A, D. 618 905) poetry and the drama arose. With the Sung 
dynasty (a. i\ 1)60-1278), philosophy. The Mongol dynasty 
(a. n. i2iK)'i34i) marks the coming of Kublai-Khan, by whom 
the Grand Canal. 700 miles in length, was completed. Next 
was the Ming dvnasty, extending down to 1644, during which 
the Manchus, a Tartar tribe, formerly dwelling northeast of the 
great wall, came down. The Manchus form the present djiiasty, 
and the present emperor is the seventh one of this line. 

China first came into notice through the travels of Marco 
Polo, who made known the "mar\els of Cathay," and his book 
led Columbus to plan his voyage to this land, which led to the 
discovery of America. Previous to Marco Polo, was the Bud- 
dhist mi:i^ionary. whose travels in 599-4x4 a. d., arc described in 
Thk Amkkkax AxTiv>i\\RL\x for januar>--Februan\ 1S99L 

The iournevs which followed Marco Polo arc too familiar 
to neevl mention here, so we will merely give the dates: Sir 
lohn Manvieville and the Moor, nicknamed the "Travcller.~ 



EDITOKIAL. 403 

1325 ; Friar Oderic, 1330; Portuguese Raphael, ,1516. The 
voyages that took place after the discovery of America were 
made first by ihe Portugutse, next by the Spanish, who con- 
quered the Philippines in 1543, and made an attempt to enter 
China in 1575. Russia sent agents to Peking in 1567. The 
Dutch opened commerce in 1622. The first Knglish vessel 
anchorL-d off Macao in 1605. Commodore Anson arrived in 
1742. Trade with Americans commenced in 1704. The Opium 
War occurred in 1S40. Such, in brief, is the history of this 
remarkable country. 

The geography is, however, worthy of especial study. 
There are three zones, which are separated by certain geo- 
graphical lines, and are distinguished by certain products, as 




Tt> "LttUi Orphi 



Tug-tu nine. 



well as by distinct peculiarities. The northern zone extends 
from the Great Wall seven hundred miles, over a plain which 
abounds with gras'^ and is very fertile, as the soil is composed 
of the loess, which is very rich. Millet and barley grow 
abundantly. The central zone stretches from the Yellow River 
to 260" latitude. Here the climate is warm and the soil is 
rich. Wheat, rice, tea, oranges, and sugar cane are raised, 
erce. The southern district is 
paralcd from the seacoast by a 
imerce must go south to Canton, 



Silk is also an articli 
somewhat m 

range of mountains, so thai 



or north to Pekin. 

The Grand Canal stretches from Pekin Jo Canton, a dis- 
tance of 1,200 miles. It is mainly a series of abandoned river 



404 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

beds, lakes and marshes, connertcd with one another by cut- 
tings, Thijt canal is one of the antiquities of the world, and 
can be compared only to tlie Great Wall of China. It was 
built lonR before the thirteenth century, and was utilized by 
Kublui-Kn»n, who made it the " River of Transport." It con- 
nects llong Chan with Tientsin, and, by the river Pei-Ho. 
with Tung-chau and Pekin. The absence of cataracts, the 
cheapness of wages, and the small value of lime-, make it pos- 
sible for the Chinese to employ this canal advantageously at 
frexent, though it is probable that if China should awake from 
er toHK sleep, railroads will be used instead of the canal, as 
there are portions of it which are already in need of repair and 
badly neRicctcd. 

The Yang-tse is the great water-course and artery for the 
Celestial Empire, It is navigable for i,600 milts, 600 of them 
for large sea-going vessels, and 720 for light-draft vessels. The 
Ho-H.ing-Ho, or the Yellow River, is called the 'Chinese sor- 
row," for it is subject to overflow, and has once, at least, changed 
its channel tor » length of 700 miles. 

The population ut China is supposed to be about 35D,ooo,cxx}. 
The population of Ihc plain, in North China, 177,000,000. It is 
the most densely pop.dated section of the whole world. 

The roads in China art- the worst in the world. Rough 
boulders were originally laid loosely beneath the soil, for a 
foundation, but these have been undermined by rain, carried 
off by the people and put into their houses, and so, great 
chasms are left and isolated fragments, over which it is almost 
impossible tor a carriage to pass. Donkeys will drag the carts, 
coolies will carry sedan chairs, others will carry freight with 
poles; but freight has to b« carried for 1,300 or 1,400 miles 
o^'cr such n road as this on the backs of men. or by beasts. 

The government of China is the most remarkable on the 
(ace of the earth. It is supposed to be based upon the family 
S)'Stem. The emperor is supposed to be the father of the 
nation, as we!! as the representative of the divinity. The gov- 
emmenl is really a theocracy, and the emperor is the great 
hi|;h priest. The groups of families constitute villages whidi 
»ir> self-governing. Villages are clustered into towns oader 
Rspective heads, which are responsible: but the ofBcial kter- 
wcny begins with a district ^bout the size of a conntjr aad is 
governed by a district magistrate. Next is a group of ckpact- 
ments, or counties, which form a circuit, aod is about as large 
as one of our territories. Each pronncc iiliniMili ii 
its own affairs, and provides its own re\cnac aad ils 
ttwa defense, but is aoder the nile of a govcraor. ap po i a at d 
fnm the capitid. 

As to tWe relative antiquity: it is supposed that the hifr- 

loty o( China be^an king befoce either thai of Gieeoe aad 

Rome, and Asia Minor, and pethun as earljr as that at aa hy 

|e«U. OvQuntion existed berc aunost as earir as k d M » 

I EcrJA. thongh thcte has been voy Gttlc pragteas. 



I 




EDITORIAL 



405 



In fact, several good authorities connect the Chinese with 
the old Accadians, a pre-Semitic pijople, who were the first in- 
habitants of Babylonia and were the earliest civilized people of 
the world. They are supposed to have given their civilization 
to the Semitics. and to have been the first to reach the art of 
writing. Their history, according to recent discoveries, may 
be said to have begun as early a." 7000 b. c. The language of 
the Chinese is supposed by Rev. J. C. Black and others to have 
been derived from the Accadian. 

The contrivances for cultivating the soil, for transporting 
freight, and reaching distant points of the empire are very 
primitive, though not any more so than are those which arc 
seen in other lands of the East, especially in the Bible lands, 
for there are some attempts at making roads and bridges, 
while in Assyria and on the Tigris no such attempts are made. 




**.- 



The people there are still plowing with a crooked stick and 
using inflated bags for their ferry boats. Buckets attached to 
poles are used for raising water. 

The cut will show the character of the bridges, though it is 
really one of the best patterns found in the country. The 
bridges in the western part of China, near Thibet, are exceed- 
ingly rude. — made of logs,^and yet they present a combina- 
tion of suspen>^ion, cantilever, and abutment bridge. 

It is the most remarkable peculiarity of China that, at a 
very early date, inventions were made which, if they had been 
improved upon, would have made them one of the leading 
nations of the earth. Among these were the invention of gun- 
powder, the mariner's compass, types made of wood and of 
metal; cantilever and suspension, as well as abutment, bridges, 
and boats and baloons; but their unprogressive character is 



i: 



406 .THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

shown in Ihe fact that baloons are used to keep male babies 
from drowning, when they fall into the water; while female 
babies are not thought worth saving. Types are used only for 
ornamental " Editions de Luxe " for the upper classes. The 
bow and arrow practice and drill is still used in the forts, or 
was a few years ago. There are no steamboats, except those 
which belong to foreign nations; scarcely any wheel carriages; 
railroads and telegraphs are of late introduction; the printing 
press and the daily paper is of but little use to the common 
people, though they have been introduced by foreigners. 

The best bridge in China, is the one at Amoy, which is the 
port of a large inland city. It is abreast with the island of 
Formosa. The native merchants carry on a'n extensive trade 
with Formosa. Manila, Malay Islards, and Siam. One would 
suppose that this bridge would be connected with railroads, or, 
at least, with good public roads and thoroughfares, but the most 
common means of propulsion is that which is furnished by Ihe. 
bodies of men, who become the beasts of burden, and railroads,; 
steam, and modern inventions are withstood. 

While others have taken these same inventions for coi 
strxicting bridges, and have gone on to the highest feats OJ 
engineering and made these bridges connect the railroads which 
cross the continent, the Chinese are plodding in the same old 
way. and are behind even the old stage-coach method of travel- 
ling, to say nothing of the canal-boats. Whether this is owing, 
to a radical defect of their mind, or to the government and 
religion which they have inherited, is uncertain. 

The frontispiece will show the character of their canals and 
their shipping. The great canal, near Shanghai, with its woodeo." 
buildings, reminds us of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland, 
which were abandoned and forgotten long before the opening 
of history. They are scarcely any better than the pile-dwell- 
ings which abound off the coast of Africa and in Manila, and 
yet they are. perhaps, among the best buildings in this famous 
city of Shanghai. 

The houseboats are Ihe most remaikable proofs of the 
social condition of the people. These boats are twenty or 
thirty feet long and are used for freight-house, store-room, bed- 
room, and nursery, all in one, and sometimes contain a family 
of fifteen or twenty persons crowded into them, who cat and. 
sleep, and fight for the opportnnity to earn their scanty wagi 
by day and night. 

The population of China swarms like ants. It is packecf 
into a bullock cart, huddled into a bamboo hut, is heaped upon 
one another in a mud-walled hovel, is crowded in the streets; 
but finds its climax in (his life in the houseboats. 

The great fault of China is that she will not improve upon 
her own inventions, but holds to Ihe old customs and continues 
to worship ancestors, making that worship a seal which shall 
keep sacred the past, and will not permit anyone to break the 
seal. The war with China is, however, likely to break up thi! 



I 



iiy 
ad^H 

m 

edH 




EDITORIAL. 407 

bondage of old customs and to bring on an awakening of 
the people. 

The literature of China is very interesting, though a very 
serious calamity has befallen it during the last few months. 
The seige of Pekin by the Boxers, who are really the Harpies 
of the land, did more damage to the ancient literature than the 
looting of the capital did to the treasures, for it was during that 
seige that the great Library was burned. The fire was set to 
the building with the expectation that the missionaries and the 
legations would be burned and destroyed, but providentially 
the wind changed and swept along the wall on the outside, 
with the result that the compound was saved, but the Library 
was burned. It is at present uncertain what the Library 
contained, but it is well known that the "Book of Changes'* 
is the oldest of the classics and was prepared as early as 
1150 B. c. 

This book gives an account of the creation of the world, 
according to the peculiar system of the Chinese, which is 
equivalent to a "sexual system," as the great male and female 
elements, Ying and Yang, were produced by Tai Keih, or the 
first great cause: the heaven, the sun, day, etc., being the male; 
the earth, the moon, night, etc., the female. This system gave 
rise to the divination which was so common, and had such 
power that it resulted in saving a vast number of books, especi- 
ally those on medicine, divination, and husbandry, from the 
fate which befell other books in the year 221 b. c. 

'It is sometimes supposed that Confucius was the author of 
letters, as well as a great philosopher; but the system of myth- 
ology and the religious books were nearly all produced before 
his day, and he only compiled the most important of them. 
The "Book of History," the "Book of Odes," the "Spring and 
Autumn Annals," the "Book of Rites," and the four books by 
the disciples of the Sage, were, to be sure, the beginnings ot 
literature; but during the Tsin dynasty these books were de- 
stroyed by fire, as the emperor, the Hwong Li, for political 
reasons ordered their destruction. There were, however, many 
preserved in the roof and walls of the houses, and even buried 
in the beds of rivers, and it is said twenty-eight sections ot the 
"Book of History" were taken down from the lips of a blind 
man, who had treasured them in his memory. The "Book of 
History "embraces the Chinese records from the twenty-fourth 
century b. c. to 721 b. c, or from the days of Noah and 
Abraham to the year of the building of Rome. These records, 
Confucius gathered and compiled into a series of volumes 
called the "Shu King." It contains the seeds of all things 
that are valuable in the estimation of the Chinese. It consists 
of conversations between the kings and their ministers in 
reference to the patriarchal principles of government. Virtue 
is the basis of good government, and this consists in procuring 
for the people the things necessary for subsistence — water, 
fire, metals, wood, and grain. 



4o8 THt; AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

THE BIBLE, HEATHENISM, AND THE CHINESE 
WAR. 

There is one feature of the great contest which has been 
going on in China, which is very significant. The Chinese 
are perhaps the oldest nation now living, which have 
reached a stage of civilization, but are heathen and hold to 
the old systems which prevailed even before the days of 
Confucius; while all of the nations that have contended 
with them are, with the single exception of Japan, nomi- 
nally Christian nations and hold to the Bible as their sacred 
book and are influenced by its teachings. The Bible is, to 
be sure, held in its different versions, as the Russians hold 
to the old Greek version and the Czar is at the head of the 
Greek church; the Germans hold to Luther's translation 
and the state church is the Lutheran; the French have a 
French translation, but also hold largely to the Roman 
Catholic church, who take the Latin vulgate as their ver- 
sion; the English still cling to the King James version, and 
the Americans take this version and the revised for their 
religious book. 

It goes without saying that the nations which hold to 
the Bible in its different versions are the most progressive 
upon the face of the earth and are destined to have the lead 
in the work of civilizing the human race, as well as estab- 
lishing and controlling the commerce of the world. 

There are a few other nations which are nearly as old as 
the Chinese, who must be classed with them in more respects 
than one, especially in the fact that they are nominally 
heathen, though they have been influenced by Christianity 
and by nations who hold to the Bible. We refer now to the 
Hindoos, to the Mexicans, and to the various nations in 
South America. In western Asia are the Syrians and 
Armenians, who were held back by Mohammedans, who can 
be ranked, i>erhaps, with heathen nations and yet differs 
from them, in that thej- adopt the Koran, which contains 
many of the teachings of the Bible. The Japanese have 
been heathen, but have bo far been influenced by missiMi- 
aries that they are in full sympathy with the Christian 
nations with which they are in alliance at present. 

The progressive nations, to be sure, are situated in the 
temperate zone and perhaps owe something of their vigor 
and progress to the effects of climate, but mind and body 
seem in this case to correspond, for they all have occidental 
ideas and type of mind, as well as the northern vigor of 
body: while the nations of which we have spoken, — Chinese 
and Hindoo.— are oriental and tropical in their ways and 
habits. 

The spectacle which has been presented of the armies 
of the Christian nations of the world beleaguering the 
capital of this ancient empire, which calls itself the Celes- 



I 




EDITORIAL. ifX) 

tial Empire, and the result has been that the fli|fht of the 
ruling powers from the capital where were the emblems of 
the ancient superstitions. It had been the strong^hold of 
heathenism and full of the emblems of a system which is 
destined to pass away. In fact, as full as was the ancient 
city of Mexico, where Montezuma reigned so despotically 
and offered his human sacrifices to the sun. 

We have spoken of the temples which stood and still 
stand in this celestial city, and which the treacherous, de- 
ceitful Empress claims has been desecrated by the presence 
of foreigners, and says that she will never return to it. The 
position of the German Emperor, of the English people, 
the Americans, and the French has been manly and noble 
and true to the principles of the past, and with less blood- 
shed than took place at the time of great Sepoy Rebellion in 
India,— a rebellion which was the result of a superstition 
about as foolish as that of the Boxers of the present day. 

There are those who have been inclined to put the 
Christian religion on a level with Buddhism, Confucianism, 
and Mohammedanism, and would class Christ as among 
religious teachers, without anj' more divinity than either 
of those who have given their names to these systems, but 
a tree is known by its fruits, and it needs no argument to 
show that the influence of the Bible has been the cause of 
the progress of the world; while other sacred books, such 
as the Vedas. the Shastras, the Shu iKings, and the Koran, 
have all failed to produce the same effect, "We do not place 
the teachings of Buddha. Confucius, and Zoroaster on a 
level with many heathen systems, nor would we place them 
even on a level with Mohammed, for their teachings were 
merciful and kindly and favorable to morals, but somehow 
the systems have not availed to lift the people to a very 
high level or to give progress. They have not even availed 
to remove the superstitions of the old nature -worship and 
devil-worship and geomancy which prevailed when they 
were savages, and before these teachers arose, and may be 
regarded as surviving from savagery. It is to be hoped 
this worst form of heathenism has had its day, and that 
the conflict which has arisen will result in the overthrow of 
such false systems. 

It is a shame that the same nations could not have com- 
bined to prevent the terrible massacres among the Christian 
Armenians by the cruel Turks and Mohammedans. 

We are to notice that the three grades of progress, 
savagery, barbarism, and civilization are represented, in a 
general way. by three systems of religion. Savagery, by 
the various systems of nature -worship, sun-worship, totem- 
ism, and fetichism: barbarism, by the various systems 
which originated with certain religious founders — Buddha, 
Zoroaster, Confucius, and Mohammed; civilization, by the 
Bible in its various vensions, — Greek, Latin. German, 



410 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUATRIAN. 

French, Byrlan, and English. Whatever merits the sacred 
IhhpUh of the East have, they have not brought the nations 
who hold them up to a higher level than that of barbarism. 

It may be said that the nations who have adopted the 
HIble as their sacred book belong to the great Aryan or 
Indo-European race— a race which has always been the 
inoHt vigorous and i>rogressive — and the Semitic race, to 
which the Bible was given, has declined and nowhere has 
any national power. This is very significant, for the 
Old Testament without the New would have failed 
to bring the world to its best hope, as it has failed with 
tile* Jew. It is true that Christ was oriental by birth 
and race, but the most remarkable trait of his character 
wan that Ihj went directly counter to all those customs, 
hui)ltH, and views, which were and are peculiar to the 
oriental mind, and represented that which is dominant 
uujong the occidental minds. To some this is a proof of his 
divinity. 

Wo may go back to the religious teachers, and philoso- 
phers, an(l great men of any nation, and see the effect of 
their inlluence ui)on the history and the destiny of the na- 
tion. lUit the difference between China and the various 
(•hrlstlan nations, shows the effect of religion, as dis- 
tlng\iished from philosophy. 

i\>nf\icius has been revered for his great wisdom, but the 
testimony is that, while he ^\as a man of great force of char- 
acter, lie was strangely devoid of imagination, and has done 
his countrymen an irreparable injury. The national mind 
Is oharaoterixed by the want of originalty, but the inflexible 
sterility of the early specimens of literature helped to 
perpetuate this traft throughout all generations. The 
multiplication of biH>ks has not increased the mental power 
of the |HH>pK\ The Chinese classics can no more be com- 
IKinnl with the Oreek classics, than can the bamboo hut be 
vVU\iv;\r\Hl with the finest specimens of architecture, such as 
the Temple of Olymina, or the Parthenon. 

The Mougv^liau race is confessedly obtuse nerved, and 
so instMxsible to suffering as to bear with stolidity what 
would rack the nerves of others. 

The principle rt*ligions of China are Buddhism. Taoaism. 
;iud Confucianism, The latter is parexcellence the religion 
of the learm^i. They assembled in temples^ devoted to 
Coutuoius. viud worship at the shrine of the throze!ess king. 
The rxxvut atrvvities are diametricallv the ootv>s:te of the 
teaCsiiui^s v^t the two systems of reliiTion — Buddhiszi and 
vVutuc.a:v,s:u, tv>:h v>f which favor tranquility rather than 
prvv:rvss. Whe:: a ruler ceases to be a ziiuister for cood 
a:ul tv^r x>:Mvx\ '?v^ torteits the title by which he holds tbe 
thr^wKU" rh,> :s the lever which Christiau uitioc> hiT^e it 
rrvs^^:xt ::x their har.vlSv i: thev have ozilv the wisdoct to 



OUR EXCHANGES. 



THE MOST IMPORTANT ARTICLES. 

American Journal of Archcsolagy.V oXMvti^ IV. — "Progress of Ameri- 
can Archaeology for Ten Years— 1889-1899," by Henry W. Haynes. "The 
Earliest Hellenic Art and Civilization," and the **Argive Hereum.** by 
Chas. Waidstein; "Symmetry iti Early Christian Relief Sculpture/" by C. 
L. Meader; " Report of Meeting at New Haven, December 1899 

Bulletin American Geographical Society, Volume XXII., No. 2 — "The 
Philippine Islands and Their People," by Pres't. J. G. Schurman; " Notes 
on Anthropology," by Roland B. Dixon. 

The International Monthly, September 1900. — " The American School 
of Historians," by Albert Bushnell Hart; "The Conflict in China " by Prof. 
Edmund Buckley. 

The Iowa Record ior July. — "Dubuque in 1820," by Henry R. School- 
craft; "Early Iowa Reminiscenses," by Gov. B. F. Gee 

The Missionary Review for .*>eptember. — "The Anti-Foreign vVar," by 
Harlan P. Beach; "China Past, Present, and Future," Dr. Ashmore's paper 
at the Ecumenical Conference. 

The Journal of the Polynesian Society, June 1900. — " Wars of the 
Northern Against the Southern Tribes of New Zealand," by Percy Smith. 

The Indian /^w/z^w^ry. September 1900. — "The Thirty-Seven Spirits 
of the Burmese," by R. C. Temple; "The Spirit Basis of Belief," by Sir J. 
M. Campbell; " Phallic Worship in the Himalayas." 

Bulletins dc la Soctetc de Anthropologic, No. 6, 1899. — " Notes on the 
Dolmens of Prehistoric Stations." 

Science of Man, for May 1900; Volume III., No. 4. — "The Submerged 
Man," "Ancient Times in Ireland," "Aboriginal Names of Places," 
" Legend as to How the Sea Was Made," 'The Races of Man," " Psycho- 
logical Anthropology," "The Sequence of the Ages to Historic Times." 

The Lar.d of Sunshine for August. — ' A Hero in Science," by Chas. F. 
Loom IS. 

Biblia for August. — "Babylonian Antiquities in the British Museum 
from 4500 B. c. to 500 A. D."; "Prof. Hilprecht's Discoveries in Nippur"; 
" Egyptian and Semitic Languages," by Prof. C. Johnson. 

The Indian Review for May 1900, Volume I., No. 5; Madras, India. — 
" Witchcraft in Malabar," " A French Critic on Indian Affairs," ** i-iinduism. 
Ancient and Modern." " Ideals of the East." 

The Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, March 1900. — "Pompeii ; 
The City of the Dead"; "In Manxland," by Rev. R. Butterworth. July 
number — "Canoeing in Canada," hy H. M. Robinson. 

The Popular Science Monthly for September.—"* The Modern Occult," 
by Prof Joseph Jastrow. 

The Biblical World for September.—" Occupation and Industries in 
Bible Lands," by Dr. E. W. G. Mastcrman, F. R. G. S. 

Education, VtQ%\.on,]\in^ 1900. — "Greek in the Curriculum," by Pres. 
J. A. Baker 

American Journal of Philology, ]2iTi\x?ixy'^dirc\i 1900. — "The Greek 
Tragic and Comic Poets," by Edward Capps. 

Folk-Lore for 1899. — " Australian Gods," by Andrew Lang; " Britain 
and Folk-Lore," by the President. Folk-Lore for March 1900 — "The 
Legends of Krishna," by W. Crooke, B. A. 

The open Courtier August 1900. — "The Position of the Earth,'* with 

Bortraits of Galileo, by Dr. E. Kreuse; "The Evolution of Angels and 
demons in Christian Theology,,* by R. Bruce Boswell. The Open Court 
for June — "The Tomb Vivibia, an Important Monument of Dionysian 
Mysteries," by Ernst Mass; "The Assyrian Monuments and the Sermons 
of Isaiah," a review; " The Theology of Civilization." a review. The Open 



412 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Court for May—*' Signets, Badges, and Medals/* by the editor; fully illu- 
strated. " A Buddhist Convert to Christianity." " The International Con- 
gress of the History of Religions," by Prof. Jean Reville. 

Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology^ February 13, 1900.— 
"Ancient Indian Astronomy," by Hon. Miss Plunket; " Notes on Ahura- 
Mazda-Ibid"; 'A Euphratean Cycle of 360V* b>r Robert Brown, F. S. A. 

The American Journal of Numismatics^ K^xW 1900. — " Ancient Greek 
Coins," by Frank Sherman Benson; "Some Coins Discovered in Old 
Rome," by Rudolf Lauciani; ** Coins of the Isle of Man," by John Evans. 

Journal of Biblical Literature. Volume XIX , Part i.— "The Council 
of Elders," by Dr. Aram; •The Sanctuary of Shiloh," by L. W. Batten; 
" Babylonian Influence on the Levitical Ritual," by Paul Huapt. 

The American Journal of Semitic Languages Chicago, July 1900. — 
"Uiin and Thummim," by W. M. Arnolt. 

The fournal of the Asiatic \Society of Bengal^ Volume XLIX., Part i. 
No. I, iQoo; Calcutta, Bombay. — "Copper Plate Inscriptions of Laks 
Mauasena," by Babu Akshay Kunrar Maitra. 

The American Anthropologist {qx September 1900. — "Obsidian Mines 
of Hidalgo," by W. H. Holmes; *' The Obsidian' Razor of the Aztecs," by 
George C. McCurdy; " Pueblo Ruins Near Flagstafif," by H. Fewkcs; 
" Sedna Cycle. A Study in Myth Evolution," by H. Newell Wardle. 

FOREIGN EXCHANGES. 

Comptes Rendus des Seanceo; Paris, 1897. 

The Asiatic Quarterly Review, Bombay; April iqoo. 

La Geographic, Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. 

Geologische und Geographische Experimente; Leipzig. 

Bulletins de la Commissione Archaeologica Comunale Di Roma. 

Bulletins et Memoires de la Society d'AnthrojJologie de Paris; Paris, 
19CO. 

Journal of the Buddhist Text and Anthropological Society, Calcutta; 
Volume VII., Part i. 

HOME EXCHANGES. 

The Literary Digest. Progress; Chicago, September 1900. 

Railroad Trainmen's Journal. Locomotive Firemen's Magazine. 

The Dial for September 1900. The Journal of Geology for 1900. 

American Homes for July 1900. Overland Monthly; June 1900. 

The Washington Historian for September 1899. 

American Anthropologist; Volume II., No. i; 1900. 

Annual Report of^ the Essex Institute; Mass., 1900. 

The Yale Review for May 1900; Volume IX., No. 1. 

Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis. 

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. 

The American Historical Review; Volume V., No. 4; July 1900. 

The American Naturalist for May 1900; Volume XXXIV., No. 401. 

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1900. 

Proce.dings of the Amertcan Philosophical Society; Volume XXIX.; 
Philadelphia, 1900. 

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society; Volume XXXIX., 
No. 162; April to June igoo. 

The American Journal of Psychology. 

Journal of the American Oriental Society; New Haven, Conn. 

The American Architect for September 1900. 

The American Historical Review for July 1900; Vol. V., No. 4. 

Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 

The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography; Volume VII., No. 4. 



ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. 



THE ROMAN FORUM. 

When one visits the Roman Forum one cannot escape regretting the 
culpable ignorance of the adventurers and princes who, in the Middle 
Ages, profaned, demolished and destroyed precious monuments which 
Roman civilization had erected during several centuries and which, after 
the reverses, the decadence, the invasions, should have remained an elo- 
quent and imposing proof of the richness and the grandeur of a people 
whose domination haa known no boundaries. 

What remains to-day is enough, nevertheless, to allow the visitor to 
reconstruct this historical region and see once more, although very imper- 
fectly, the splendors of Roman architecture, the sumptuous temples, the 
immense amphitheatres, the vast palaces and the innumerable monuments 
that a powerful and ingenious people had accumulated, from the Capitol 
to the Aventine hill. 

In the early davs of this century, when the first excavations were car- 
ried out, the level of the Forum, which was then the site of the actual mar- 
ket, had become raised about eight metres because of the enormous 
quantity of debris which had been cast into it since the Middle Ages. The 
Italian Government entrusted the excavations to men of experience and 
energy, who spared no endeavor to uncover the ruins and once more give 
to the Forum, as much as possible, its full extent and primitive character. 

The new researches, begun during the ministry of Baccelli, which are 
being carried out with much activity, are yielding very good results, 
Signor Giacomo Bon», one of the ablest of archceologists. who has con- 
ducted the successful investigations carried out between the Temple of 
Castor and Pollux and the Atrium of Vesta, has had the good fortune to 
lay hands on a small altar of the third century, and exactly determine its 
original position above the small Well of Juturna. 

The ruins of the ancient buildings which surrounded the fountain of 
Juturna have been at length freed from the soil which covered them, as 
well as the foundations and walls, much less ancient, of the Church of 
Santa Maria Liberatrice, which was built above the ruins in question in the 
course of the seventeenth century. In front of this fountain there has been 
brought to light a little structure, in the centre of which the ground-level 
is raised so as to furnish a pedestal for some statue; amongst the debris, in 
fact, has been found the lower portion of a female statue which might have 
been that of the nymph Juturna, to whom was dedicated the fountain whose 
relics have just been discovered. 

Signor Boni minutely, slowly and patiently, examined the puteal to the 
depth of fifteen feet, but only found fragments of glass and terracotta and 
numerous amphoras belonging to different epochs and of the most diverse 
styles. Here the learned archaeologist is now busy in reconstructing and 
drawing out the several objects discovered, especially the amphoras which 
wer used in dipping up the water. 

If the fountain of Juturna has been found as it was left after its last 
restoration, it is only through providential good luck: when the foundations 
ot the Church of Santa Maria Liberatrice were built, the sacred well was 
miraculously saved by the arrangement of three of the foundation-walls 
which surrounded it and enclosed it within a triangle, without tpuching it. 

Between the little structure which touches the fountain of Juturna and 
the Temple of Castor there have been found an infinity of fragments of 
columns, capitals, pedestals and marble decorations belonging to temples 
and buildings still unidentified and of various epochs, from the archaic to 
the classic. Among the most remarkable of the objects discovered in these 
excavations must be mentioned a fourth-century sarcophagus, which still 
encloses human bones, and has an admirable frieze ornamented with masks. 



414 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

palm branches, elegantly and gracefully designed and of remarkably 6 ne 
workmanship, which recalls ihe best productions of the Tuscan arlials. 

Near the fountain is an edifice the destination of wbicb seems tg have 
been—according to inscriptions and the cippi which were found with it — to 
serve as offices lor the maBisirates employed by the ivaier-service. In the 
lareesi room of this structure, in the walls of which there are enormous 
niches, have been fimnd several fragments of statues of considerable worth. 
Wiibin the limila of the central niche has been uncovered a headless statue 
of Esculapius, and further on a splendid to^^o belonging to the statue of 
Apollo, of whicti has also been discovered iheplinth, theYect and the two 
knees, one of which is still attached to the laurel-tree trunk against which 
the god is leading. There has also been found in the lower part of the 
edihce a female figure which might very well be Hygeia. 

bignor Boni proijoses to make a stratigraphical exploration of the 
fountain of Juturna, as he has already done with success in his earlier dis- 
corery of ihe laph ni^er, and he is carrying out excavations in the neigh- 
borhood of the Emihan basitica, in order to determine the exact limits of 
the early basilica and the later edifices. These researches are going on in 
the Cloaca Maxima, in the hope of red is cove ringed, section, the existence of 
which has long been suspected. 

The pupils iif the School of Applied Engineering are. under the direc- 
tion of Signor Boni, drawing an altimetncal plai' of the Roman Forum, 
and here are some of the important results which will be incoporaied in il: 

The lowest portion of the historical city is exactly at the spot where to- 
day is found the altar of Caviar (12622 metres above sea-level), and the 
highest spot is the c^lla of the Temple of Venus at Rome (33.896 metres), 

The laph uiger is at the level of 13.195 metres. 

The Temple of Vesta (indicated by the steps of the sacrarium) Is at 
the level of 14.922 metres. 

The clivium of the Via Sacra is at Ihe level of 17.397 metres, 

The Arch nl Titus is ai the level of 30417 metres, and the Coloscum 
at 23 909. — H. Meheu, in the American Architect. 

THE CAVE OF PSVCHRO IN CRETE- 

It has been known for some years that a large cave above the village 
of Psychro, in the Lasilhi district of Crete, was a repository of primitive 
votive objects in bronie, terracotta, etc. As this cave is siluaied in the 
eastern flank ol the mountain which dominates the site ol ancient Lvtios, 
and is the only impoilant cave known in the neighborhood, it was con- 
lectured that it was the-Lytlian grotto connected with the story of the 
infancy of Zeus in the legend, wliose earliest version is preserved by 
Hesiod. A thorough exploration of it, undertaken In May and June of the 
current year by Mr. D. G. Hogarih on tiehalf of the British School M 
Athetis, aided by the Cretan ICxptoration Fund, has served fully to confirm 
this view. The cave is double. On the north is a shallow grotto, the upper 
oarl of which was cumbered with immense fallen fragmenis of (be roof. 
mCained deep black earth, partly ransacked by previous 
.s thoroughly dug out this year, and when the great blocks 
up with blasting powder and removed Ihe deposit on the 
^ also searched. The result was the discovery of a rude 

D the middle of the grolto. surrounded by many strata of ashes, pot- 
tery and other refuse, among which many votiue objects in bron«, terra- 
■ '■ - - were lound, together with fragments of some thirty 
ne, and an immense number of earthenware cups used 

fs. The lowest part of the upper grotlo was found to 
partly of rude cyclopean character, and partly rock- 
s the untouched strata of deposit ranged from 
o the geometric period of the ninth century 



The loweroari c 
diggers. Thisw 
had been broker 
higher slope 



libation tables in slo 
for depositing off en r 
be enclosed by a wa 
cut; and within this 

the early Mycenaar „ , _ . 

B. c, or thereabout Ofliy very slight traces were found of later offerings 
The earliest votive stratum belongs to the latest period of the pre- 
Mvcencean Age, that marked by the transition between the "Kamaraes" 
fabric of potterv and the earliest Mycenaan lustre-painted ware, Bui be- 
low all is a tiick bid of yellow clav. containing s 



I 
I 




ARCH^OLOGICAL NOTES. ^15 

burnished black and brown pottery, mixed with bones of animals. This 
bed seems to be water-laid, and to be prior to the use of the cave as a 
sanctuary. Probably, when it was m process of formation, the cave was 
still a " Katkvothron " of the lake which once occupied the closed Lasithi 
basin; but before the Mycenaean period the present outlet had opened, and 
the plain was dry. The southern, or lower, grotto falls steeplv for some 
2CX) feet to a subterranean pool, out of which rises a forest of stalactite pil- 
lars. Traces of a rock-cut stairway remain. Much earth had been thrown 
down by the diggers of the upper grotto, and this was found full of small 
bronze objects. But chance revealed a more fruitlul field, namely, the 
vertical chinks in the lowest stalactite pillars, a great many of which were 
found still to contain toy double-axes, knife-blades, needles, and other 
objects in bronze, placed there by dedicators, as in niches. The mud also 
at the edge of the subterranean pool was rich in similar things, and in 
statuettes of two types, male and female, and engraved, gems. These had 
probably been washed out of the niches. The knife-blades and simulacra 
of weapons are probably the offerings of men; the needles and depilatory 
tweezers of women. The frequent occurrence of the double-axe, not only 
in bronze, but moulded or painted on pottery, found in the cave, leaves no 
doubt that its patron goa was the "Carian" Zeus of Labranda, or the 
Labyrinth, with whom, perhaps, his mother, the Nature goddess, was 
associated, and the statuettes probably represent the two deities. Here 
was the primitive scene of their legend, afterwards transferred m classical 
times to a cave on Mount Ida. — The Architect, 

— \ — 



PRIMITIVE VILLAGE SITES IN MARYLAND. 

By J. H. McCoRMiCK, M. D. 

During some recent investigations in Montgomery County, Maryland, 
I discovered three Indian village sites, the collection of stone implements 
being in some respects a unique one. The first of these was found near 
Boyds Station on the Metropolitan Branch of the Baltimore &: Ohio rail- 
road, about thirty miles from Washington. The second on the Musser 
farm, near Germantown. on the same railroad, and about five miles south- 
east of the other. The third was found on the Barnesby farm, on the 7th 
street pike, about one mile south of OIney, and about twenty-four miles 
from the city, and about twenty miles northeast of the Boyds and Musser 
sites. Many implements have been picked up by farmers in their fields all 
over the county, but with the exception of these three sites and the soap- 
stone (][uarries at Sandy Spring, to be hereafter mentioned, they have been 
found in no considerable quantity in any one locality. 

That Maryland, with its Chesapeake Bay, Potomac and Susquehanna 
Rivers, on the one hand, with the advantages of easy communication by 
water and abundant marine food, both fish and oysters, vj.st acres of the 
latter being justly world-wide in fame, as the most delicious to be found 
anywhere, and the mountain in the western part of the State, on the other, 
with their wild game of great variety, afforded a most advantageous home 
for the Indian, is quite apparent; and he left evidence of his occupancy 
throughout the State, in the stone implements of a great variety of form. 

Montgomery County, touching on one side, for many miles, the Potomac, 
with numerous small streams flowing into it, was a favorite camping ground. 

The first site was found a few hundred yards from the railroad bridge, 
where it crosses the Little Seneca. My attention was first called to it by 
Mr. S. G. Burton, the bridge-tender, a gentleman who had picked up on 
and near the spot quite a collection of implements. The second site was 
found on the farm ot my friend Mr. W. H. Musser, whose land was drained 
by the Big Seneca. The implements, measuring a bushel or more, con- 
sisted of arrow-heads, spear-heads, leaf-shaped drills, metates, muUers, 
axes, — chipped, ground and polished, — a hammer-stone, a pipe and a boat- 
shaped stone. 

At the Barnesby farm, the trees had been cut down the summer of '95, 
and were oaks and chestnuts, from 2 to 2J^ feet in diameter. • A huge 



4i6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

boulder, some 6 or 8 feet across, had a large mortar cut into the top, and 
measured 22 inches across the edge and 16 inches deep The implements 
found there, were ploughed up from what had always been regarded as a 
primeaval forest. About three miles from this lay the soap-stone quarries* 
of Sandy Spring, where a similar one exists, which has been photographed 
by Prof. W. H. Holmes. These sites are situated northeast from a water 
supply, whether it be spring or stream. The first was from a stream; the 
two latter from springs. 

These collections are interesting, in that, so far as I can learn, it is the 
most corroborative evidence in substantiation of Prof. Holmes' claim of the 
contemporaneity of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages, for here are found 
side by side, the rudely chipped and highly polished implements. 

With the exception of the flints, the stone from which they are made 
are foreign to this county; some of them possibly coming from the regions 
of the South Mountain. The banner stone, the boat-shaped stone, and the 
pipe, presumably of a bear image, are of highly-polished Tennessee 
lignite or slate, and are most perfect specimens. The axes of many 
varieties, some forty in number, are both chipped and polished, and include 
some very tine specimens. A phallus, quite perfect in workmanship and 
design, of a sandstone material, has been defaced, possibly by the plough. 

In none of these sites have pottery been found, either in fragments or 
as perfect pieces of art. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 



Among the Wild Ngoni; Being Some Chapters in the History of 

THE LIVINGSTONIA MISSION IN BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. By W. 

A. Elmslie, M. B., Medical Missionary. W^ith an Introduction by The 
Right Hon. Lord Overtoun. New York, Chicago, and Toronto: 
Fleming H. Revell Co , igoo. 

The book contains three chapters which will be of great interest to 
ethnologists, for they give a history of the tribe called Ngoni. This tribe 
formerly settled on the east coast of Africa, about 4,000 feet above the sea 
level— a treeless region. Also a description of the villages, their means of 
subsistence, the manner of erecting their houses and herding their cattle, as 
well as their religious notions and customs; thus making these chapters 
another contribution to a very interesting subject. 

The following are the most notable facts that are given: the villages 
are situated near the streams and fountains, but are not permanent. Re- 
moving a village to a new site was one of the great events in the history of 
the people The cattle are the sustenance and the care of the family and 
the tribe. The huts of the people are built in circles around the cattle- 
fold. Like everything the native makes, they are circular, and he points 
to sun, moon, and horizon as a reason why they should be so. The huts are 
single- roomed; fire is made in a circular depression in the middle of the 
floor. They are arranged in groups,— walled off from each other by reed 
fences, so that each man, with his wives' huts and those of his slaves, has 
a distinct locality in the village. The description of the song and dances 
is quite interesting. The song is the principal thing — the dance is the 
accompaniment to the song. The song goes on, while the rhythmic gestures 
and beating of the ground with the feet add zest to the subject. The 
witch-doctor is the visible and accessible agent of the ancestral spirit whom 
they believe in and worship. Certain hills are worshipped, also waterfalls 
and ancient trees and certain insects which are supposed to give residence 
to an ancestral spirit. Each house has its own guardian spirit, and the 
tribe worships the spirit of a dead chief. 

In Ngoni land, the great expansive country, dotted over with number- 
less villages, built without regard to safety from attack, but located where 
the best gardens and pastures were to be had, made one realize that here 



BOOK REVIEWS. 417 

was a people powerful and free, whom to settle among and win for Christ 
was worthy a man's life. There was one royal residence; one ruler, and 
he in touch with head-men ot each tribe, with all the people under him. 



The New Pacific. By Hubert Howe Bancroft. New York: Bancroft, 
Publishers, 1900. 

Mr. H. H. Bancroft is well known as the author of the *' Native Races 
of the Pacific Coast," and of a series of histories, which tills a long shelf 
in most of the leadmg libraries; all of them histories of the states which 
border upon the Pacific Ocean and face the new empires, which have so 
recently sprung into notice 

The present book on " The New Pacific," is not only timely, but shows 
a very general acquaintance with the interests which are at stake in the 
political discussions going on. It contains a review ot the events which 
have already transpired. These began with the year 1898, vjhich. accord- 
ing to the author, is one of the most important m our history. He main- 
tains that Spain made the same mistake that England did with regard to 
her American colonies, and justifies the war with Spain. He says the only 
unjust war our country ever waged, was the war with Mexico, which was 
caused by a desire for more slave territory. The war with Spam was 
inevitable. The policy of expansion is something like the war with 
Mexico. It will bring disaster to the Republic. Not o >ly are the Malays, 
half-breeds and savages, people, whom hitherto and now. we will not per- 
mit to touch our >hores in any considerable numbers, but they cannot be 
governed by the United States at this distance. The chapter upon the 
*' Attitude of the Nations "is in the same strain. A separate chapter is 
given to "The History of the Far Ea^r, ' tspecially of China; another to 
" The History of Europe and Asia." " The Pacific Ocean and Its Borders " 
comes into line for a hastv sketch, which occupies about fifty pages. The 
book contains a great deal of information and is well worth reading at the 
present time. 



McLouGHLiN AND Old Okegon. A CHRONICLE. By Eva Emery Dey. 
Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., icjoo. 

This book contains a series of word-pictures, which are descriptive of 
Oregon, as it was between the years ot i^^32 and 1849. This was perhaps 
the most romantic and interesting period of the history. We have first an 
allusion to the expedit on of Lewis and Clark. Next, a vision of two 
beautiful women; one with goiden hair and snowy brow, and the other a 
slender, dark-eyed devotee, each ot whom had consecrated her heart 10 
Oregon, These two missionary brides were the first white women to cross 
the continent. Two bridegrooms rode at their sides. Dr. Marcus Whitman 
and Rev. Henry Spaulding, who were to lay the foundation for society in 
far-off Oregon. 

Where the Columbia break- through the Cascade Range thev looked, 
where never white women looked before; Mt. Hood, visible for miles, grew 
to life-size. St. Helen raised her graceful, tapering cone above the distant 
firs. Grander rose the mountains, four thousand to five thousand feet on 
either hand cut by livid g?.^hes of ravine, t- xposing the ribs of mother 
earth. The roaring cascades dashed tutir billows on rocks. Not a lip 
moved, not a word was spoken as the French Iroquois boatman stood at his 
post, and with a skillful dip turned the flying caroe; while on every side 
seethed and yawned the great green caves of water. 

A vision is given of Dr. McLoughlin, who was Governor of the Hud- 
son Bav Company, west ot the Rocky Mountains. Also, of Jason Lee, a 
missionary of the Methodists, who received his bride from the distant East, 
and was married to her amid the beautiful fir grove. There are allusions, 
also, to Capt. Suiter, who became so famous further south; and an account 
of many of the early voyages, among thtm the voyage of Capt. Grey, who 
entered the mouth of the Columbia River, while the British commander 
sailed by it, and by this means Orcj^on was saved to the Union. The book 



4iS THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

* 

does not discuss the causes of conflicts, which led to establishing ibe 
boundary at 54^ 40 '. 

The portraits of the notable characters are drawn very clearly, and the 
pictures of the domestic life of the families who dwelt in the wiidemcss. 
even down to the servants and the tradesmen, are very graphic, and awaken 
as great interest as any novel could. 



The Bible Among the Nations. A Study of the Great Trans- 
lations. By John Walter Beardslee. Chicago. Toronto, and New 
York: Fleming H. Revell Co.. 1900. 

This book gives a brief and interesting account of the different trans- 
lations of the Bible, Beginning with the Samaritan Pentateuch, which is 
the oldest, as it i^as prepared about 20 B. c, it includes the Septuagent 
translation, possibly 133 a. d.; the Svriac translation, 155 a. d.; the Vul- 
gate translation, 382 a. d.; the Gothic translation by Clphilas, 328: the 
German translations, 980, 1210 and 1522; the English translations, 1071. 
1324, 1524, 1335. I w. 1568 and 1604; the Holland translations, 127a 1358 
and 1 5 16; the French translations. 11 79, 1487, 1343, 1608 and 1877. 

These different translations have formed the sacred books for the 
different branches of the Christian church— Roman Catholic, Greek, 
Russian, Armenian. Protestant, and Alexandnne, with their different 
denommations. It is an excellent reference book, and will doubtless be 
useful to clergymen and Bible students. 



Northern Georgia Sketches. By W. N. Harlen. Priee.Si. Chicago: 
A. C. McClurg & Co., 1900. 

North Carolina Sketches: Phases of Life Where the Calax 
Grows. By Mary Nelson Carter. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. 

The firm of A. C. McClurg & Co. have risen Phcenix like out of the 
fire, and are putting forth new books, which are like plumes, as they are 
fresh and full of beauty. One line which is followed is becoming quite 
popular: it conr>ists of short stories from real life in the Southern States- 
Georgia and South Carolina. They carry us back to the times before the 
war. There is one interesting feature about them, there is not a word of 
bitterness or complaint; showing that the reign of peace has spread 
throughout the entire country. 



BOOKS RECEIVED. 

Russia and the Russians. By Edmund Noble. Boston and New York: 
Houghton, Mfflin & Co. — Historical Memoirs of Alexander I. and the 
Court of Russia. By La Comtesse de Choiseul Gouffier. Translated 
by Mary Berenice Patterson. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.— Songs 
of all Lands, for the use of Schools and Social Gaiherings. By W. S. 
B. Mathews. New York and Chicago: American Book Co. — Sr ience of 
Faith, with a discussion of Animal .Societies. By Dr. Paul Topinard. 
Translated by Thomas J. McCormick. Chicago: The Open Court 
Publishing Co.— Man; An Introduction to Anthropology. By W. E. 
Rotzell, M. D. Pliiladelpliia: Edward Stern & Co. — Memoirs of the 
American Museum of Natural History, Vol. \\.\ Anthropolopv 1 ; The 
Jesup North Pacific Expedition VI.: Archaeology of the Thompson 
River Region. By Harlan I. Smith. The Smithsonian Report. 



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