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I 


Utb.   Rolazid  WoodhaxiB 


,t,7eCT,GOOg[C 


.  A; 


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AMEEH  Ay    CTCLOPJEDIA. 


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THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOEEDIA: 

A 
OF 

GEl^EAL   KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BT 

GEORGE  raPLET  md  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


WITM  SUFPLEMSNT. 


VOLUME  IL 
ASHES-BOL. 


NET    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AKD    COMPANY, 

1,   S,   iND   0    BOND    STBSET. 

LONDON:     16   LITTLE    BBITAIN. 

1883. 


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EniRKD,  Kcoordtng  to  Act  of  CoDgresB,  in  tha  year  IBB8,  bj  D.  APPLETON  AND  COHPANT,  id  tha 
Cleric's  Office  of  the  DiBtrict  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Soathem  DiBtrict  of  Kew  Torlc 

Ehtcrid,  according  to  Act  of  GoagreM,  in  the  jear  1878,  bj  D.  APPLETON  AUD  COUPANT,  in  the 
Office  of  the  Ubrariaa  of  CoDgiesi,  at  Washington. 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  hi  the  year  1S80,  b;  D.  APPLETOX  AND  COHPANT,  in  tha 
OiBce  of  the  Librarian  of  CongrcBB,  at  WashingttKL. 

EmoiED,  according  to  Aot  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1888,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COICPANT,  In  the 

Office  of  the  LibraHu)  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


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Am&ng  the  CorUributora  of  Neva  Aii,idea  to  ths  Second  Volume  of  the  Hevised 
SSiHon  are  the  following : 


WiLUBD  Bartlktt. 


Prof.  C.  W.  BsKsen,  U.D.,  Syracuse  Uqi- 

DiKoa.  HDnl  BniLnuil,  D.  D.,  LI.  D. 


Fuscia  C.  Bo  WAX. 

BEmncT,  Bra  Jcutta. 
BnimT,  Bn  WiLUUi 

TtujAK  T.  Bbiobam,  Esq.,  Boston. 

•^  oCliB  botanlaa  utliik*. 
Editard  L.  BcBUNauoE,  Ph.  D. 

■Dd  utldM  Id  hktory,  bCognpb]',  lod  geogniphr. 


Prof.  E.  H.  CuKKB,  M,  D.,  Harvard  Univerfflty, 

•ad  other  nitlclga  ot  msterti  nwdis. 

Hon.  T.  M.  Cooi«T,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

BuiKBirrT. 

udotber  Icgil  utlde*. 

Prof.  J.  C.  Dalton,  M.  D. 

BucnAB.  a»HE  CDrm,  M.  D,, 

■od  nrioo*  medlAl  *bA  i>li]r>ti>lagSc«l  utlcloi. 

Eatojt  8.  Dbone. 

ud  other  iirtides  In  Ameilcu  ^eognphj. 

B.  A.  Fixekuthx. 


BLun.  Wiuua. 

i.  w.  nAWBB. 

ATLAVtA,  Qt^ 


Cqaeles  L.  Hoobboom,  M.  D. 


■ud  other  shemtcM  uticto*. 


BuHD  Fnu, 

ud  other  irtlclei  In  utonl  Uitoiy. 

Jaukb  F.  Ltman. 

Bektor.  Thomai  HAKt. 
BnxAinnn,  Jitx  UArnm  Jdus. 

Coant   L.   F.    db   PonKXALis,    V.   S.    Coast 

Barvey. 

R.  A.  Pbootob.  M.  a.,  London. 

Ad  (OKA  BiWKAua. 


G.  W,  SoRBTT,  Esq, 


ud  other  le^  utIclM. 

P.  H.  Vaiibbb  Wbtde,  M.  D. 


I.  DE  Vbitellb. 


C.  8.  Wkymak. 


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AlVtEBICAN    CYCLOPEDIA. 


kSBES*  the  solid  remains  after  the  barniag  of 
.^^  combustible  eabBtancet.  When  a  vegeta- 
bVe  or  animai  anbatanee  is  burned  with  free  ac- 
c«aB  of  air,  part  of  it  ia  resolved  into  volatile 
coTttpoonda,  chiefly  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
free  nitrogen,  while  the  other  and  generally  the 
smsUer  portion  is  left  as  inoombnatible  reaidae 
or  ash-  If  the  Habstsnce  be  deoompoeed  with 
ezdosion  of  the  air,  a  different  set  of  componnda 
results;  and  the  residue  maybe  charcoaJ,  bone 
black,  or  some  other  aobatanca,  depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  material  taken  for  the  ex- 
periment. Of  wood  ashea,  even  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  plant  fnmisb  different  qnanti- 
tjes,  and  ashea  of  different  compositions.  The 
soil  itself  has  an  inflaence  upon  the  tdnd  and 
amonnt  of  materials  taken  np  by  the  plants. 
Nearly  all  the  anbstances  founa  in  the  soil  enter 
into  the  composilJon  of  vegetable  matters,  and 
are  foond  in  their  ashea.  Alnmina  ia,  however, 
■very  rarely  met  with.  No  inorganic  snbstances 
found  in  the  ashes  of  plants  come  from  any 
other  source  but  the  soil.  Of  the  portion  of 
wood  aahes  solnhle  in  water,  and  removed  from 
them  by  leaching  or  liiiviation,  the  greater  part 
consists  of  the  carbonate,  silicate,  aulphate,  and 
chloride  of  potas^om.  Of  tbe  insoluble  portion 
(leached  ashes),  carbonate  of  lime  commonly 
forms  about  one  half;  the  remainder  is  mostly 
silicate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and 
aalta  of  magnesia.  It  is  not  supposed  that  the 
bases  were  combined  with  carbonic  acid  in  the 
plants,  bnt  with  organic  acids,  and  that  these 
wore  replaced  by  carbonic  acid  in  the  process 
of  combnstion.  Plants  that  grow  in  and  near 
salt  water  contain  soda  instead  of  potassa, 
deriving  it  from  sea  salt.  The  following  ex- 
smples  show  how  the  quantity  of  ashes  varies 
-witJi  the  wood:  From  1,000  parts  by  weight 
of  oak,  welt  dried,  Kirwan  obtained  of  ashes 
1 3'B  parte ;  from  elm,  23-5 ;  willow,  28 ;  poplar, 
12-2;  ash,  5'8:  pine,  3'4.  The  bark  furnishes 
more  ashes  than  the  solid  wood,  and  the 
brancbeA  than  the  tnmk.    Peat  and  coal  aahea 


contain  a  large  proportion  of  alumina ;  oxide  of 
iron,  carbonate  and  sniphate  of  lime,  are  also 
found  in  them.  The  principal  uses  of  wood 
ashes  are  for  making  soaps  and  for  enriching 
land.  The  soluble  salts  of  potash  are  dissolved 
out  from  them,  and  oil  or  fatty  matters  added 
to  the  alkali,  to  produce  the  soap.  The  residue 
is  a  valuable  manure,  but  evidently  inferior  to 
the  ashea  before  the  potash  was  extracted.  Pot 
and  pearl  ashes  are  the  salts  of  potash  extract- 
ed from  wood  ashes.  The  name  potash  is 
traced  to  the  method  of  its  preparation  from  the 
extract  of  the  ashes  boiled  down  in  iron  pots. 
Barilla,  or  soda  ash,  is  a  similar  product  of  sea 
plants,  soda  replacing  the  potash.  It  was  for- 
merly largely  imported  into  this  country,  but 
ia  now  excluded  by  cheaper  preparationa  of 
soda  direct  from  aea  salt.  Aebes  are  aome- 
times  used  with  lime  and  sand  to  increase  the 
strength  of  mortar,  and  prevent  its  cracking. 
— Bone  ashes  contain  much  phosphate  of  lime, 
the  cause  of  the  fertilizing  properties  of  bones. 
Fhoephorio  acid  and  phosphorus  are  prepared 
from  these  ashes.  They  are  also  used  to  make 
the  cupels  in  which  argentiferous  lead  is  melt- 
ed and  oxidized  for  obtfuning  the  pure  silver. 
The  cupels  are  merely  bone  ashes  made  into  a 
paste  with  water,  or  beer  and  water,  and  then 
moulded  and  dried. — In  distilleries,  ashes  find 
an  extensive  use  for  the  rectification  of  the 
alcoholic  liquors,  the  alkaline  matters  neutral- 
izing any  acids  IJiat  may  be  present,  and  thus 
preventing  their  volatilization.  It  is  a  com- 
mon impression  that  their  great  consumption 
in  American  diatilluriea  is  to  ^ve  strength  to 
the  liquora  after  their  dilution  with  water,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  violent  caustic  quality, 
not  nnlike  that  of  the  ley  of  ashes,  for  which 
much  of  the  common  whiskey  of  tlie  country 
ia  remarkable.  Aahes  mixed  with  salt  make  a 
strong  cement  for  iron  pipes.  Cracked  pipes 
repaired  with  it  bear  as  heavy  pressure  as 
new  pipes.  The  cement  seta  on  application  of 
heat  of  600'.— Shaiwr  of  Aslrts,  a    '    


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6  A8HF0ED 

which  frequently  accomp&niea  the  eruption  of 
a  volcano.  QaantitioB  of  matter  resembling 
fine  graj  or  black  ashea  ore  thrown  alofl;  from 
the  crater  to  prodi^ons  heights,  and  home  b; 
the  winds  to  an  aBtonishing  diatouce.  On  the 
emption  of  the  volcano  Tomboro,  in  the  island 
of  Snmbawa,  east  of  Java,  in  the  year  1816,  a 
shower  of  ashes  fell  for  19  hours  in  succession. 
An  English  cruiser,  100  in.  awa;  from  the 
island,  was  surrounded  hj  the  clond,  and  re- 
ceived from  it  an  addition  to  its  ireight  of 
several  tana'  weight,  and  a  Malayan  ahip  was 
covered  S  feet  deep.  The  ashes  fell  upon  the 
islands  of  Ambojnia  and  Bands,  the  latter  800 
m.  to  the  eastward,  and  this  apparently  in  the 
face  of  the  S.  E.  monsoon,  which  was  then 
blowing,  but  really  carried  by  a  cotmter  cur- 
rent, the  eiistcuce  of  which  in  the  higher  re- 
gions of  the  atmosphere  was  then  first  estab- 
lished. A  similar  phenomenon  was  observed 
in  the  eraption,  in  January,  1836,  of  the  vol- 
cano Ooseguina,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  gulf  of 
Fonseca  in  Guatemala.  Its  aahes  were  carried 
to  the  eastward,  over  the  current  of  the  trade 
winds,  and  fell  at  Truiillo,  on  the  shorea  of 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Ashes  from  Etna  were 
deposited  in  Malta  in  1829 ;  and  in  A.  D.  T9  the 
cities  of  Herculanenm  and  Pompeii,  which  had 
16  years  before  been  visited  by  an  earthquake, 
were  buried  beneath  the  ahowers  which  fell 
from  the  neigiiboring  volcano  of  Vesuvius. 
Volcanic  ash  ia  a  mechanical  mixture  of  min- 
erals and  rocka  abraded  by  trituration  against 
each  other,  and  consequently  exhibits  great 
difference  of  structure  and  composition.  Not 
being  a  product  of  combustion,  it  can  hardJy 
be  called  a  true  ash. 

18HF0RD,  a  town  of  Sent,  England,  4fi  m. 
S.  E.  of  London;  pop.  0,600.  It  has  damask 
manofactories,  and  the  population  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  consequence  of  the  favorable 
situation  of  the  town  at  the  junction  of  three 
railroad  lines. 

JlSHLUD.  L  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ohio ;  area, 
840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  £1,933.  It  is  crossed 
by  the  Ohio  and  Feimsylvania  and  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  railroads. 
Its  surface  is  hilly  and  undulating,  and  the  soil 
is  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  In  19T0  the  county 
produced  467,694  bushels  of  wheat,  687,798  of 
Indian  com,  661,245  of  oats,  117,418  of  pota- 
toes, SS,674  tons  of  hay,  S44,187  Iba.  of  wool, 
668,478  of  bntt«r,  416,011  of  cheese,  783,655 
of  fias,  and  110,742  of  ma^e  sugar.  Capital, 
Ashland,  n.  A  new  K  W.  county  of  Wis- 
consin, bounded  N,  by  Lake  Superior,  and 
separated  on  the  N.  E.  from  Michigan  by  the 
Montreal  river;  area,  about  1,600  sq.  m.;  pop, 
in  1670,  221.  The  county  is  dramed  in  its 
southern  portion  by  atBuents  of  the  Chippewa 
river.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  a  ridge  called  Iron 
mountain,  which  is  1,200  feet  hi^h. 

iSHLEI,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Arkansas,  border- 
tog  on  Louisiana,  bounded  W.  by  the  Sabine  and 
Washita  livera,  and  mtersected  in  the  west  by 
Bayon  Bartholomew ;  area,  870  sq.  m. ;  pop. 


ASHMUH" 

in  1870,  8,042,  of  whom  8,764  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  highly  fertile. 
In  1870  the  connty  produced  201,905  bushels 
of  Indian  com,  34,269  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
7,85S  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Fountain  Hill. 
ISHMOLE,  Etta,  an  English  antiquary,  found- 
er of  the  Aahmolean  museum  at  Oxford,  bom 
in  Lichfield,  May  S3,  1617,  died  in  London, 
May  18,  1692.  He  was  a  chancery  solicitor. 
In  the  civil  war  he  quitted  London  and  settled 
at  Oxford,  adopted  the  royalist  cause  and  be- 
came captain  in  Lord  Ashley's  regiment  of 
horse,  and  afler  the  battle  of  Worcester  with- 
drew to  Cheshire.  On  the  restoration  Charles 
II.  bestowed  upon  him  the  offices  of  Windsor 
herald,  commiseionei'  of  excise,  and  secretary 
of  Surinam,  with  other  appointments.  He  was 
for  a  time  the  intimate  associate  of  the  astrol- 
ogers and  alchemists  Lilly,  Booker,  Sir  Jonas 
Moore,  and  Wharton,  and  in  1650  translated 
and  published  Dr.  Dee'e  Faicicultu  Ckymicvs 
and  Arcanum  (on  the  Hermetic  philosophy, 
&c.).  He  compiled  a  collection  of  the  varions 
unpublished  writers  on  chemistry,  which  in 
1662  he  published  under  the  title  of  Theatnim 
Chymieutn  Britannieun.  In  1658  he  an- 
nounced that  he  had  abandoned  ostrology  and 
alchemy  in  his  "Way  to  Bliss,"  a  treatise  on 
the  philosopher's  atone.  In  1660  he  had  made 
a  catalogue  of  the  coins  in  the  Bodleian  libra- 
ry, and  in  1669  obtained  from  the  younger 
Trndcscant  the  museum  of  coins  and  cnrioai- 
ties  which  he  and  his  father  had  collected  at 
their  house  in  Lambeth.  In  1672  he  presented 
to  the  kiiw  a  history  of  the  order  ol  the  gar- 
ter, for  which  he  received  a  grant  of  £400. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  "History  and  An- 
tiquities of  Berkshire,"  and  of  an  autobiogra- 
phj.  In  1679  his  chambers  in  the  Temple  were 
burned,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  library, 
with  9,000  ancient  and  modem  coins,  de- 
stroyed. The  rest  of  his  valuable  collection 
of  coins  was  presented  to  the  university  of 


the  same  institution  according  to  his  will. 

18BMCH,  Jchmdl,  agent  of  the  American  col- 
onization society,  bom  in  Champlain,  N.  Y., 
in  April,  1794,  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn^ 
Aug.  26^  1828.  He  graduated  at  Bnrlington 
college  m  1816,  and  after  preparing  for  the 
ministry  was  chosen  a  professor  m  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  Bangor.  Removing  soon  after 
to  tiie  District  of  Colombia,  he  engaged  in  the 
service  of  the  colonization  society,  at  first  as 
editor  of  a  monthly  journal,  but  sailed  for  Af- 
rica, June  IB,  1822,  to  take  charge  of  a  reen- 
forcement  for  the  colony  of  Liberia.  Upon 
his  arrival  he  found  himself  called  upon  to  act 
as  the  supreme  head  of  a  small  and  dis(»^an- 
ized  community  surrounded  by  enemies.  In  a 
ahort  time  he  reanimated  the  spirit  of  the  col- 
onists, and  restored  their  discipline.  Three 
months  after  his  arrival,  by  the  aid  of  some 
fortifications  he  bad  constructed,  and  his  own 
extraordinary  bravery  and  conduct,  they  re- 


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ictnries  of  1878.)        V^lT*"'^       3* 


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'  pelled  a  snrpriie  from  s  partj  of  600  savagea, 

■nd  defeateii  tiiem  entirelj  s  few  daje  later. 

I  Vhen  obliged  b;'  ill   health   to   abaadon  the 

'  eoQDtrj,  March  26,  1S3S,  ho  left  a  communitj 

of  1,200  freemeD. 
I  ISffTUnj,  a  N.  E.  conntj  of  Ohio,  border- 

ing oD  lake  Erie  and  Pentiaylvania ;  area,  420 
sq.  m. ;    pop.  in   1870,  32,617.     The  Borfece  is 
I  lerel,  the  soil  claje;  and  adapted  to  grazing 

,  parpoees.    It  ia  drained  bj  Grand  and  Coime- 

ant  rivers,  and  traversed  by  two  railroads.  In 
1870  the  county  pro  da  ced  190,191  bushels  of 
wheats  657,632  of  oats,  382,669  of  Indian  corn, 
863,967  of  potatoes,  68,878  ton§  of  hay,  197,- 
464  Iba.  of  wool,  1,134,877  of  butter,  1,193,089 
of  cheeso,  and  146,308  of  maple  sngar.  Capi- 
tal, Jefferson. 

ISffrON-miBIK-LTHE,  a  mannfactnring  town 
and  pariah  of  Lancashire,  England,  on  the 
Tame,  6  ni.  E.  S,  E.  of  Manchester;  pop.  in 
I87I,  82,030.  The  estensivo  factories  for  cot- 
ton spinning  and  weaving,  calico  printing,  and 
other  branches  of  the  mannfactare  of  cotton 
gooda,  employ  more  than  16,000  hands. 

ISBTOEETB  (plar.  Athtaroth;  called  by  the 
Babylonians  Uylitto,  by  the  Assyrians  Ishtar, 
«Dd  by  the  Greeks  Asttffte,  and  nearly  identical 
with  the  Egyptian  Athor  or  Hathor),  the  great 
female  deity  of  the  ancient  Semitic  nations  on 
both^desof  theEnphratea,  and  chiefly  of  fh(B- 
nicia.  By  Ashtoreth  was  originally  meant  the 
moon — "the  queen  of  heaven" — and  sabae- 
quently  the  pWct  Venus.  Under  her  name  ia 
BOppoaed  to  have  been  worshipped  the  principle 
of  conception  and  prodnction,  m  contradistinc- 
tion to  that  of  generation,  variously  represent- 
ed by  Baal,  Belua,  or  Jnpiter.  According  to 
toany  critics,  she  is  identical  wit£  the  Aeherah 
of  the  Scripturea,  the  divinity  of  happiness. 
In  Phtenicia  she  was  at  first  represented  by  a 
Thit«  conical  stone;  afterward  with  the  head 
of  a  bull  or  a  cow ;  and  ultimately  as  a  human 
being  with  a  thnnderbolt  in  one  hand  and  a 
tcepti^  in  the  other.  Aahtoreth  waa  aome- 
times  worshipped  in  groves,  sometimes  in  tem- 
[des.  Cakes  made  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent, 
and  male  kids,  are  said  to  have  been  the  oSer- 
iuga  in  which  she  moat  delighted.  Ennnchs 
dressed  in  feminine  attire,  or  women,  were  her 
bvorite  priests ;  andmsnyof  the  ritesin  which 
they  indulged  at  her  altars  were  of  the  most 
laseivions  character.  The  dove,  the  crab,  and 
the  lion  among  animals,  and  the  pomegranate 
among  fmita,  were  sacred  to  Ashtoreth.  Stat^ 
Des  and  groves  consecrated  to  her  were  very 
Bomerons  in  Syria.  In  Bashan  a  town  of  Og 
was  named  from  her  worship,  Ashtaroth  Kar- 
naim  (homed  Astartea).  The  idolatry  of  Aah- 
toreth  was  introduced  into  larae)  in  the  days 
of  the  judges,  and  was  not  finally  extirpated 
till  the  reign  of  Josiah. 

ISH  WEUHiSDlT,  the  first  day  of  Lent, 
called  by  the  fathers  of  the  chnrch  caput  je- 
jtinii,  the  beginning  of  the  fast,  or  dUi  cint- 
ruiR,  ash  day,  in  allusion  to  the  caatom  of 
sprinkling  the  head  with  ashes.    In  the  Roman 


OatboUo  ohnroh,  on  this  day  tlie  priest  marks 

the  sign  of  the  cross  with  ashea  on  the  fore- 
heads of  the  people,  repeating  the  words,  M»- 
mento,  homo,  quod  ptUDit  et,  et  in  pukerem 
reterterw:  "Remember,  man,  that  thou  art 
dust,  and  unto  dust  shalt  return." 

Ifill,  the  largest  of  the  recognized  conti- 
nental divisions  of  the  globe.  The  name, 
which  was  originally  nsed  in  a  much  more 
limited  sense  ttian  at  present,  comes  to  us 
from  the  Greeks,  thoogh  believed  by  many  to 
be  of  Semitic  origin ;  its  import  is  still  a  mat- 
ter of  question.  The  estimates  of  the  area  of 
Asia  differ  very  considerably.  That  of  £lis^ 
Reclns  ^ves  the  extent  of  the  continents  as 
follows,  in  square  miles;  Asia,  18,771,879; 
America,  14,902,U89;  AtKca,  11,244,968;  En- 
rope,  3,822,820  ;  Australia,  2,972,916  ;  to- 
tal, 49,725,062.  Thas,  considering  Australia  a 
continent,  Asia  comprehends  almost  exactly 
one  third  of  the  solid  land  of  the  globe,  eioln- 
sive  of  the  great  groups  of  ialanda  called 
Micronesia,  Melanesia,  and  Polynesia.  In  this 
estimate  the  Japanese  islands  are  regarded  as 
belonging  to  Asia,  oltfaongh  separated  from  the 
continent  by  considerable  channels.  Asia,  thna 
considered,  is  bounded  by  ttie  Arctic  ocean, 
the  Pacific,  the  Indian  ocean,  the  Red  sea,  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Archipelago,  the  Black  and 
Caspian  seas,  and  European  Rus«a.  On  the  ex- 
treme N.  E.  it  is  cut  otFfrom  America  only  by 
the  narrow  Behring  strait.  Between  Asia  and 
AfrioatheonlyoonDeclioniBtheisthmusofSuez, 
The  separation  between  Europe  and  Asia  is 
rather  geographical  than  physical  or  political, 
the  low  range  of  the  Ural  mountains,  which  for 
the  greater  part  forms  the  nominal  line,  being 
little  more  than  a  watershed,  and  running 
almost  midway  through  the  Russian  empire. 
Europe  is  phywcally  a  comer  arbitrarily  cut 
off  from  the  northwest  of  the  great  Asian  con- 
tinent The  bulk  of  Asia  forms  a  solid  sqaare 
lying  between  the  Arctic  circle  and  the  tropic 
of  Oancor,  and  ion.  65°  and  120°  E.  Among 
the  projections  from  this  solid  square  on  the 
west  are  the  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Arabia;  on  the  north,  the  Siberian  capes;  on 
the  east,  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Sibena,  with 
its  southern  prolongation  of  Kamtchatka  and 
the  peninsula  of  Corea ;  on  the  south,  India 
and  the  Malay  peninsula.  Asia  as  a  whole 
forms  a  great  trapezium,  its  main  axis  running 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  chiefly  through  Siberia,  the 
intersecting  lino  passing  N.  and  S.,  nearly  on 
the  meridian  of  100°,  fi-om  Siberia  on  the 
north,  in  lat.  78°,  to  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
Malay  peninsula  on  the  south,  almost  nnder 
the  equator.  Including  the  Japanese  islands, 
and  a  few  others  which  may  be  properly  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  continent,  Asia 
thus  extends  fhim  lat  78°  N.  to  the  equa- 
tor; or,  including  the  islands  of  Sumatra  and 
Java,  and  some  minor  insular  prolongationa 
of  the  Maloy  peninsula,  to  lat  10°  8.;  and 
f^om  Ion.  26°  E.  to  190°  E.,  equivalent,  connt- 
ed  in  the  other  direction,  to  170°  W.     AAa 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


thus  indndes  every  climate  of  the  globe,  and 
all  Tarietiee  of  Boil  and  prodaction.  The  coa^t 
ia  deeply  indented  on  every  Bide,  On  the 
west  it  is  cut  into  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Black  sea ;  on  the  north  by  nnmeroua  baya 
and  golfs  of  the  Arctic  ocean :  on  the  east  by 
the  Okhotsk  sea,  the  sea  of  Japan,  the  Yel- 
low sea,  and  the  gnlf  of  Tonqain;  on  the 
aonth  by  the  Kal&  of  Tonquin  and  Siam,  the 
bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  Arabian  sea,  and  its 
prolongation,  the  Persian  gulf.  Its  entire 
coast  line  is  somewhat  more  than  83,000  m. ; 
KeolUB  putH  it  at  85,886  m,— The  great  moun- 
ts ranges,  which  contain  many  of  the  lofti- 
est summits  on  the  globe,  are  arranged  in  the 
form  of  knota,  fi-om  the  central  point  of  which 
ranges  radiate  in  varioos  directions.  There  are 
four  grand  systema,  the  Altai,  the  Hindoo 
EooBh,  the  Himalaya,  and  the  Armenian, 
which  divide  the  whole  continent  into  a  series 
of  pluna  and  plateaus  of  greater  or  leas  eleva- 
tion. Thecentral  {wint  of  the  Altd  groap  is  in 
the  geographical  centre  of  the  continent,  about 
laL  60°  N.,  Ion.  00°  E.  Half  way  across  the 
continent  its  median  lino  runs  E.and  W.  upon 
the  parallel  of  G0°  N.,  splitting' into  various 
folds.  It  sends  a  branch  S.  W.,  whioh  unites 
with  the  Belur  Tagh  and  the  Hindoo  Eoosh; 
and  one  N.  E.,  which  under  the  names  of  the 
Yablotmoi  and  Stanovoi  runs  to  the  Arctic 
ocean.  The  Albu  ran^  separates  the  great 
northern  plain  of  Siberia  fVom  the  steppes  of 
MongoUa  and  Mantohooria.  The  centre  of  the 
Hindoo  Eoosh  range  lies  in  about  lat.  85°  N., 
Ion.  78°  E.  It  branches  eastward,  nnder  the 
names  of  the  Enen-lun  and  Earakorum,  into 
Chinese  Tartary,  and  westward  to  the  S. 
shore  of  the  Caspian,  where  the  range  receives 
the  name  of  Elbnrz  and  approaches  tho  ArTne~ 
nian  group.  The  Hindoo  Eooah,  wilh  its  pro- 
longations, separates  the  great  desert  of  Gobi 
ft-om  China  and  Thibet,  and  divides  the  steppes 
of  Turkistan  fivm  the  plateau  of  Iran.  The 
Himalaya,  from  the  extreme  western  point, 
where, the  Indus  cuts  through  it,  to  the  eastern 
extremity,  where  the  hills  fail  altogether  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmapootra,  measures 
2,0CM)  m.  in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
160  m.  The  western  Himalaya,  around  the  val- 
ley of  Oaahmere,  has  no  peaks  exceeding  16,000 
or  16,000  ft.  in  height.  In  the  middle  of  the 
range  rise  the  stupendous  peaks  of  Gaurisan- 
kor  or  Ut.  Everest,  29,002  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  Bhawalagiri,  20,826  ft.,  andEinchin- 
juDga,  28,156  ft.  Aconcagua  in  Chili,  now 
held  to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes,  is 
22,422  ft, ;  its  bead  is  therefore  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  below  that  of  Mt.  Everest.  Northward, 
under  the  name  of  Belur  Tagh,  the  Himalaya 
range  is  continued  between  Independent  and 
Chinese  Tartary,  where  it  is  joined  by  theThian- 
shan  mountains,  which  Btret«h  into  the  desert 
of  Gobi  and  the  upland  plains  of  Mongolia; 
and  here  and  there  connect  with  the  Altai 
systeni.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the  Hima- 
laya is  connected  with  at  least  five  chains. 


which  radiate  fsnwise,  traversing  parts  of 
China  and  Further  India.  The  Armenian 
group,  of  which  Ararat  is  the  culminating 
point,  lies  in  parallel  folds  at  the  head  of  the 
peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  between  t^e  Caspian, 
the  Black  sea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  con- 
nects N.  with  the  Caucasus,  a  somewhat  iso- 
lated chun  between  the  Caspian  and  Black 
seas,  and  in  the  west  forms  the  Taurus ;  of  its 
southern  branches,  the  one,  Libanus,  follows  the 
course  of  the  Mediterranean ;  the  other,  running 
Boutheastwardly,  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Mesopotamian  plain.  Be^dea  tliese  main 
groupa  are  many  ranges  which  claim  mention. 
Among  these  are  the  Chang-pe  Shan,  a  coast 
chain  of  Mantcliooria ;  the  Khiugan  Oola,  on 
the  E,  border  of  the  desert  of  Gobi ;  the  Pe- 
ling,  Nan-ling,  Yun-liup,  and  Yun-nan  in  Chi- 
na proper ;  and  the  Vlndhya  and  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts  in  Hindostan.  In  8.  W. 
Asia  there  ia  the  chain  of  the  Arabian  penin- 
Bula,  joining  on  to  Libanua.  A  notable  chain 
branches  off  in  the  far  northeast,  near  the 
arctic  circle,  traverses  the  coast  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Eamtchatko,  and  disappears  nnder  the 
ocean,  its  sammits  appearing  in  tiio  Eurilo, 
Japanese,  and  Loo  Choo  islands.  It  forms  the 
ocean  rampart  of  the  continent,  enclosing  be- 
tween it  and  tlie  mainland  the  seas  of  Okhotsk 
and  Japan, — Apart  from  the  mountain  ranges 
Asia  maybe  considered  as  consisting  of  two  vast 
upland  plateaus  and  ax  great  lowland  pluns. 
The  eastern  plateau  is  a  tract  nearly  as  large 
as  the  whole  of  Europe,  including  the  table 
land  of  Thibet  and  the  desert  of  Gobi,  ex- 
tending N.  to  the  Altai,  and  S.  E.  to  the  gulf 
of  Tonquin.  It  is  separated  from  Hindostan 
by  the  Himalaya  ran^  some  of  the  passes 
through  which  are  higher  than  the  loftiest 
peaks  of  the  Alps.  Cultivation  is  here  car- 
ried on  as  high  as  10,000  ft.,  and  pasturage 
is  found  3,000  ft.  higher.  Un  the  southeast 
this  table  land  is  bounded  by  the  Yun-nan  and 
other  almost  unknown  nipine  ranges  of  China. 
On  the  north  it  is  sepurnted  by  the  Altai 
mountains  from  the  great  plain  of  Siberia. 
The  western  plateau,  or  Iranian  table  land,  has 
a  general  elevation  of  about  6,000  ft.,  rising 
sometimes  to  7,000,  or  sinking  to  2,000  or 
1,200.  It  may  he  divided  into  three  parts: 
Iran  proper  or  Peraa,  Armenia,  with  Azer- 
b\jan  and  Kurdistan,  and  Asia  Minor.  Perda 
has  a  mean  elevation  of  3,000  ft.  A  large  part 
of  its  surface  consists  of  salt  plainB  covered 
with  sand  and  gravel.  In  the  Arnienian  divis- 
ion, the  table  land  is  comoressed  to  half  its 
more  eastern  width.  Asia  Minor,  the  western 
division,  is  bounded  along  the  shores  of  the 
Black  sea  by  wooded  mountains  which  rise  to 
the  height  of  6,000  or  7,000  ft.  These  sections 
present  many  diversities  of  soil  and  scenery, 
A  considerable  part  of  Persia  is  barren  and 
arid,  but  interspereed  with  beautiful  valleys. 
The  coasts  of  the  Persian  gulf  are  generally 
sandy  and  sterile.  A  large  portion  of  Khora- 
san  and  the  adjoining  re^pona  is  a  desert  of 


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chjey  BoQ,  impregoated  with  salt  and  nitre, 
varied  here  and  there  with  patches  of  verdure. 
Beloochistan  ie  mostly  an  arid  plain  covered 
vilh  coarse  red  sand.  The  mountdaona  re- 
^oa  of  Armenia,  extending  toward  the  Block 
sea,  abonitdsiii  fertile  vallej'B  setamonKrugfted 
bills.  There  are  Beveral  smaller  and  detached 
plsteana.  Imbedded  in  the  Ural  monnttuns  is 
a  Urge  plain  rich  in  minerals.  The  highlands 
of  Sjria  rise  gradnally  from  the  neighboring 
deserts  to  an  elevation  of  above  10,000  ft, 
and  slope  by  a  SDCcessiou  of  terraces  down 
to  the  narrow  coast  plain  of  Palestine,  with 
a  deep  depresdon,  the  vallej  of  the  Dead 
ees,  1,300  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  ocean, 
hi  India  the  plateaa  of  the  Deooan  rises  to 
the  height  of  1.600  or  2,000  ft.,  shnt  off  by 
the  Western  Ghauts  trom  the  level  coast  of 
Sfalsbar,  by  the  £ast«m  Ghaata  from  that 
of  Coromandel,  and  by  the  Vindhya  and 
Kalwa  mountains  &om  the  low  plains  of 
Hindostan.  There  are  sx  great  Asian  low- 
lands: 1,  That  of  Siberia  on  the  north,  which 
stretches  from  the  northern  declivities  of  the 
Altu  momttains  to  the  shores  of  the  Arc- 
tic ocean.  It  is  mostly  cold,  barren,  and 
gloomy,  hardly  fitted  for  the  abode  of  man. 
i.  The  lowland  near  the  Caspian  sea  and  the 
Aral,  s  sterile  waste,  much  of  it  lying  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  3.  The  Syro- Arabian 
lowland,  the  southern  and  western  parts  a 
desert,  with  few  green  spots.  But  wherever 
th««  is  water  this  lowland  b  wonderfully 
productive.  Its  N.  £.  section,  lying  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  known  formerly 
M  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  once  support- 
ed powerful  nations.  Though  now  sterile 
and  alraost  uninhabited,  it  needs  only  the  res- 
toration of  the  ancient  system  of  irrigation 
from  the  two  great  rivers  to  render  it  one 
of  the  moat  productive  regions  of  the  earth. 
1.  The  lowlands  of  Hindostan,  comprising 
the  great  Indian  desert,  in  the  northwest, 
loge^er  with  the  fertile  plains  of  Bengal,  a 
r^oQ  not  eiceeded  even  by  China  for  capacity 
to  support  a  dense  population.  6.  The  Indo~ 
Chinese  lowlands,  comprising  the  long  levels 
of  Bnrmah,  watered  by  the  Irrawaddy,  and 
the  low  altnvial  r^ons  of  Cambodia  and  Siam. 
A.  The  immense  Chinese  lowlands,  commencing 
in  lat  40°  N.,  and  spreading  southward  to  the 
tropic  of  Cancer.  This  plain,  containing  an 
*res  of  about  200,000  aq.  m.,  nearly  that  of 
France,  sapports  a  population  of  more  than 
109,000,000,  in  proportion  donble  that  of  Eng- 
Uod,  more  by  half  than  that  of  Belginm,  and 
much  more  than  twice  that  of  any  other  coun- 
try in  the  world,  except  A  portion  of  India.— 
1^  hydrography  of  Asia  is  regulated  by  its 
moimtun  ranges.  There  are  six  main  river 
sjatema:  1.  That  of  Siberia  comprises  the 
Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena,  each,  roughly 
faking,  about  2,600  m.  lon^.  These  carry 
off  the  waters  of  tiie  Altiu  chain  into  the  Arc- 
tic ocean.  The  Obi,  the  most  western  of  the 
great  Siberian  rivers,  is  formed  by  two  rivers 


ridng  m  the  Altai  range.    In  lat  Bl",  a  little 

N.  of  the  parallel  of  St.  Petersburg,  it  receives 
its  great  affluent  the  Irtish,  and  the  stream 
falls  into  the  Arctic  ocean  in  lat.  67°.  The 
double  basin  of  the  Obi  occupies  a  third  of  the 
area  of  Siberia.  The  Yenisei  drains  an  area 
of  about  800,000  sq.  m.,  receiving  in  its  coarse 
many  large  branches.  It  debouches  in  lat.  72° 
into  the  gulf  of  Yenisei.  The  Lena,  draining 
about  700,000  sq.  m.,  rises  in  the  mountains 
N.  of  Lake  B^ktO,  runs  N.  E.  for  half  its  course 
to  Yakutsk,  receives  in  lat.  @3°  the  Aldan,  its 
greatest  tributary,  and  thence  runs  between 
maases  of  frozen  mad,  in  which  are  found  the 
remans  of  extinct  species  of  the  elephant 
and  rhinoceros,  ^ing  into  the  ocean  near 
lat.  78°,  nearer  to  the  pole  than  the  month 
of  any  other  great  river.  The  Obi  is  the 
only  Siberian  river  navigable  for  any  dis- 
tance ■  hut,  like  all  the  others,  it  is  frozen  over 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  2.  The  Chinese 
river  system  comprises  four  minor  divisions. 
The  Hong-kiang  or  Si-kiang,  ri«ng  in  the 
provinceof  Yun-nan,  after  an  E.  S.  E,  course  of 
1,000  m.,  faUs  into  the  bay  of  Canton.  The 
Yang-tse-kiang  descends  in  several  streama 
from  the  Pe-ling  mountains,  which  divide  China 
proper  from  Tartary.  Its  length  is  nearly  3,000 
m.,  a  fifth  part  of  which  is  navigable  for  larse 
shipa.  In  volume  of  water  it  is  exceeded  only 
by  the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi.  It  divides 
China  proper  into  two  nearly  equal  parts, 
paaffing  through  the  most  populous  provincos. 
Its  course  is  very  winding,  tno  general  direction 
being  first  southeasterly  and  then  northeasterly. 
It  falls  into  the  Yellow  sea  in  lat.  82°  N.  The 
Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river,  2,600  m.  long,  hna 
its  source  near  that  of  the  Yang-tse-Jdang,  bnt 
for  a  long  distance  the  rivers  are  separated 
by  mounts  chains  which  border  the  table 
land.  They  then  approach,  and  in  1661  their 
months  were  only  lOO  m.  apart.  In  that  year 
the  Hoang-ho  burst  through  its  northern 
banks,  and  in  1853  its  lower  course  had  wholly 
changed,  its  present  mouth  in  the  gulf  of  Pe- 
chi-li  being  260  m.  N.  of  the  former  one,  Nine 
similar  changes  are  recorded  within  2,600  years, 
the  various  mouths  ran^ng  over  a  coast  line 
of  nearly  860  m.  Nearly  all  of  the  Chinese 
rivers  are  tributaries  of  these  two  great  streams, 
the  principal  exceptions  being  the  Hong-kiang 
and  the  Pei-ho  or  White  river,  which  have 
their  own  ha^e.  The  Pel-ho,  ri^g  near 
the  great  wall,  becomes  navigable  a  few  miles 
£.  of  Peking,  and  is  an  important  channel  for 
trade.  It  is  also  connected  with  the  great 
canal.  The  Amoor,  having  it«  source  in  Mon- 
golia, for  a  great  part  of  its  course  separates 
Chinese  Mantchooria  from  the  Russian  Amoor 
Country.  Its  lower  course  is  wholly  within 
the  Russian  dominions.  Its  length  measured 
along  ita  windings  is  nearly  2,400  m.,  or  about 
1,600  in  a  direct  line.  It  falls  into  the  sea  of 
Okhotsk,  in  lat  68°.  8.  Of  the  Indo-Chinese 
system,  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Irrawaddy 
and  the  Salwen,  which  water  Bunnah;  the 


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10  Af 

Uenflm,  which  travaraeB  Siam ;  and  the  Ue- 
kong,  or  Cambodia,  which  flows  through 
Anom.  Thsse  rivers  traverse  rcKions  litUe 
knowo.  4.  The  Brahmapootra  and  the  Gaa- 
ges  form  a  double  system.  The  Brahmapoo- 
tra, acoordiDg  to  the  still  doubtful  assumption 
which  makes  the  Dzaug-botzia  its  npper 
course,  tises  in  the  lofty  table  land  of  Thibet, 
its  hea!d  waters  being  not  far  from  those  of  the 
Indus.  After  watering  the  long  vuUey  of 
Thibet,  it  makes  a  sadden  bend  to  the  sontb, 
cuts  throueh  the  Himalaya  chain  near  its  £. 
end,  and  fs^  into  the  bay  of  Dengal,  its  waters 
near  the  mouth  sometimes  interiocking  with 
those  of  the  Ganges.  The  latter  rises  on  the 
Bonthem  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  after  run- 
ning 8.  E.  through  the  plains  of  Bengal,  and 
receiving  in  its  course  IS  large  rivers,  falls  into 
the  bay  of  Bengal  The  Brahmapoutra  and  the 
Ganges  drain  an  area  of  about  GCH),000  sq.  m., 
and  there  is  eoaroely  a  spot  in  Bengal  more 
than  20  m.  distant  from  one  of  their  tributary 
streams,  navigable  even  in  the  dry  season.  5. 
The  Indns  rises  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Dzang-botdu,  but  breaks  through  the  Huna- 
l^an  chain  toward  the  N.  W.  end,  and  after 
a  course  of  1,800  m.  folia  into  the  Arabian  sea, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Hin- 
do8tan.  It  drains  about  SSO.OOO  eq.  m.  6. 
The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  rising  in  the 
mountains  of  Armenia,  flow  for  some  distance 
close  to  each  other,  but  after  descending  into 
the  plwn  diverge  to  a  distance  of  more  than 
100  m.,  again  approach,  and  finally  unite,  falling 
into  the  Persian  gulf  under  the  name  of  the 
8hat-el-Arab.  The  region  between  them  is 
the  Mesopotamia  of  the  ancients.  The  length 
of  the  Euphrates  is  about  1,S00  m. ;  that  of  the 
Tigris,  which  pursues  a  more  direct  course, 
abont  1,150.  The  bann  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  occupies  about  260,000  si],  m. — The 
lakes  of  Asia  are  of  less  importance  than  those 
of  America  or  Africa.  The  Caspian  and  the 
Aral,  however,  commonly  called  seas,  may 
more  properly  be  regarded  as  lakes.  The  for- 
mer. Too  m.  long  and  200  broad,  lies  83{  ft. 
below  the  level  of  the  Black  sea.  Although 
it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Volga,  the  largest 
river  of  Europe,  it  has  no  outlet,  and  its  wa- 
ters are  salt.  The  Aral,  300  m.  long  and  at 
its  centre  160  broad,  lies  abont  40  ft.  above 
the  same  level ;  its  waters  are  salt,  but  leas  so 
^than  those  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  probable  that 
these  two  lakes  were  once  nnitea.  Lake  Bai- 
kal, in  S.  Siberia,  has  an  area  of  about  18,000  sq. 
m.,  being,  nest  after  Superior,  Michigan,  and 
Huron,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on  the 
globe,  and  lies  about  1,400  ft,  above  the  ocean 
level.  Lake  Balkosh,  or  Tenghiz,  250  m.  long 
and  TO  broad,  has  an  area  of  npward  of  6,000 
aq.  m.,  approaching  that  of  Erie.  China 
has  six  condderable  lakes,  of  which  the  two 
largest,  Po-yang  and  Thung-thing,  have  each 
an  area  of  about  8,000  sq.  m.,  a  third  of  that 
of  Erie.  The  Tengrinoor  in  Thibet  is  of  about 
Xhe  same  dimensions.    In  Turkish  Armenia 


is  the  great  salt  lake  of  Van.  In  Persia  are 
the  large  salt  lake  of  TJrumiah,  the  small 
fresh-water  lake  of  Hamnn,  and  the  little  salt 
lake  of  Bakhtegan.  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  the 
Dead  sea,  in  Palestine,  is  notable  for  its  great 
depression  andtbe  exceeding  saltnessof  its  wa- 
ters.— The  proportion  of  Asia  practically  nnin- 
habitshle,  either  on  account  of  extreme  cold  or 
the  absence  of  water,  is  very  great.  A  conrad- 
erable  part  of  Siberia  lies  north  of  the  zone  of 
cultivation.  The  great  sand  plain  of  Gobi, 
larger  than  France  and  England,  is  practically 
a  desert,  E.  of  the  Caspian  lies  the  large 
sandy  desert  of  Xhiva  in  Turkistau  ;  mid  a  still 
larger  one  occupies  the  centre  of  Iran.  The 
great  peninsula  of  Arabia  is  raunly  a  desert, 
which  stretches  northward  and  includes  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  plain  of  the  Euphrates, 
having  altogether  an  area  of  nearly  1,000,000 
sq.  m.  Between  the  plains  of  Hindostan  and 
the  left  bank  of  the  Indus  lies  the  Indian  des- 
ert, 400  m.  broad.  Probably  fully  a  quarter 
of  Asia  may  be  considered  a  desert  region. — 
The  climate  of  Asia  embraces  every  general 
variety  and  every  local  incident:  the  rainless 
and  riverless  plains  of  Gobi,  and  the  super- 
abundant moisture  of  the  Indian  seacoast;  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  Siberia  and  the 
steppes;  the  more  equable  and  agreeable  cli- 
mate of  Asia  Minor ;  gradations  of  temperature 
indicated  both  by  a  latitude  ranging  trom  iJie 
equator  almost  to  the  pole,  and  by  a  range  of 
elevation  from  several  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  eea  to  29,000  feet  above  it  In  no 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  are  the  modifications 
of  temperature,  and  consequently  of  products, 
more  strongly  marked ;  while  in  some  spots 
the  inhabitants  behold  at  one  view  in  tiieir 
valleys  and  hillsides  tiie  animal  and  vegetable 
life  of  the  tropics,  of  the  temperate,  and  of 
the  frigid  zone.  The  vast  plains  of  Siberia  arc 
exposed  to  the  extremes  of  temperature.  In 
Tobolsk  the  thermometer  for  weeks  during 
the  summer  remains  at  ft'om  80°  to  00°,  while 
the  mean  winter  temperature  is  below  zero. 
At  Yakutsk  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
13-48'',  while  in  the  summer  it  rises  to  80".  The 
reason  for  this  extreme  variation  is  the  distance 
of  these  plains  from  the  ocean.  The  veil  of 
mist  whioh  in  more  equable  climates  moderates 
the  intensity  of  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun  is 
wanting;  while  in  the  winter  no  breeze  laden 
with  moisture  is  present  to  temper  the  extreme 
cold  natural  to  the  high  latitude.  The  prevalent 
winds  are  from  the  southwest.  These  reach 
eastern  Siberia  afl*r  having  traversed  wide 
stretches  of  land  covered  with  ice  and  snow, 
and  being  thus  deprived  of  their  caloric  and 
moisture,  they  become  cold  land  winds.  This 
applies  to  the  whole  of  Asia  N.  of  lat.  8S°. 
Compared  with  the  maritime  portions  of  En- 
rope,  the  difference  is  striking.  In  Peking, 
lat.  SB°  04',  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
9°  lower  than  at  Naples,  which  lies  a  little  to 
the  north ;  and  4'G°  lower  than  at  Copenha- 
gen, which  is  17°  nearer  the  pole.     The  rain- 


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less  plain  of  Gobi,  jast  N.  of  and  oonsiderabl; 

loa  elevated  than  Thibet,  ia  expoaed  to  such 
eitremes  of  temperature  that  only  the  hardiest 
jhrabs  con  exist.  The  nestem  plateaa  is  also 
eices^vely  cold  in  winter  and  excesstvelj  hot 
ID  sommer.  In  northern  India  the  great  dif- 
farences  in  elevation  occasion  great  variations 
of  climate  within  vary  moderate  dlatances. 
Over  an  immense  region  one  maj  pass  in  a 
rin^e  day  through  all  the  range  of  climates ; 
torrid  at  the  foot  of  the  monnttdns,  temperate 
on  their  sides,  arctic  at  the  top.  In  sonthem 
India  regular  rainy  and  dry  seaaona,  occasioned 
by  the  monsoons,  greatly  modify  the  climate. 
The  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  also  afleots 
the  temperature.  On  the  southern  declivity 
of  the  Uiixialnyaa,  in  lat.  S0°  45',  the  snow  line 
be^s  at  the  elevation  of  12,982  ft. ;  on  the 
nurthern  declivity  the  warm  winds  from  the 
Thibetan  plateau  raise  the  anow  line  to  16,630 
ft.— Asia  is  rich  in  minerals.  Gold  is  widely 
difiised  in  the  Ural  and  Altai  monntaina,  Chi- 
li^ Persia,  and  Japan;  Bilver  in  Siberia,  Co- 
cbia  China,  and  India;  copper  and  iron  in  very 
miny  localities;  mercnry  m  China,  Japan,  and 
India.  The  island  of  Banca  vies  witA  Corn- 
wall in  the  production  of  tin.'  Coal  has  been 
found  in  northern  China  and  Japan;  the  area 
of  its  production  is  not  ascert^ned.  Fetro- 
leom,  in  its  varioos  forms,  is  abundant  in 
parts  of  China  and  India,  in  Siom  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Enphratea,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  Salt  is  common  all  over  the  conti- 
nent. Precioos  stones  are  more  widely  dif- 
fused in  Asia  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe:,  every  variety  being  found.  The  mines 
a{  India  have  produced  nearly  all  the  great 
dufflonds  discovered.  The  most  valuable 
pevls  are  those  found  on  the  ooasts  of  Ceylon 
and  of  the  Persian  golf. — The  geolo^oal  fea- 
lores  of  Asia  are  conudered  under  the  special 
heads  of  the  different  countries  and  mountain 
ranges.  The  continent  presents  fewer  traces 
tliaa  any  other  of  volcanic  action.  Volcanoes 
sre  confined  mainly  to  the  peninsula  of  Kam- 
tchatka,  many  of  tJie  mountains  of  which  are 
only  masses  of  lava.  The  peninsula  of  Cutch 
ud  the  delta  of  the  Indos  present  here  and 
there  traces  of  volcanic  action,  and  are  often 
agitated  by  subterranean  forces.  Ht.  Ararat 
is  also  a  volcanic  peak.  Bat  the  long  line  of 
islaifds  forming  a  prolongation  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  is  the  great  volcanic  ref^on;  and  tlie 
Japoneee  islands  are  also  volcamc.  The  bro- 
ken isthmaa  which  connects  the  Indo-Chinese 
p«ninsala  with  Australia  is  a  great  line  of  fire. 
From  Papna  to  Snmatra  every  large  island  is 

Iierc«d  with  one  or  more  volcanic  outlets, 
avti  has  the  largest  nntnber. — The  flora  of 
Asia,  while  in  general  similar  to  that  of  the 
olber  continents  in  corresponding  latitudes, 
jet  presents  some  peculiarities.  Asia  is  espe- 
cially the  land  of  spices,  odoriferous  gums,  and 
medicinal  plants.  North  of  the  60th  parallel, 
the  ground  is  perpetually  frozen  at  a  very 
small  depth  below  the  snriace.     Here  and 


[A  11 

there  trees  are  found  as  high  as  T0° ;  bat  for 

the  most  part  the  stnl  is  covered  with  anow 
and  ice  for  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year. 
When  this  melts  the  plains  are  clothed  with 
mosses  and  lichens,  raiited  with  dwarf  willows, 
and  tlie  swamps  and  morasses  with  coarse 
gross,  sedges,  and  rushes.  In  the  far  north  the 
plants  live  between  the  air  and  the  earth,  their 
tops  scarcely  rising  above  the  soil,  while  their 
roots  creep  upon  the  very  aurfhce.  The  few 
woody  plants  trul  along  the  ground,  rarely 
rising  an  inch  or  two  above  it.  The  talii:  la- 
nata,  the  giant  of  these  miniature  forests,  never 
grows  more  than  6  inches  high,  while  its  st^m, 
10  or  13  feet  long,  lies  hidden  among  the 
protecting  moES.  Somewhat  further  south,  > 
beautiful  flora  makes  its  appearance  in  tJie 
brief  hot  summer.  Potentillaa,  gentians,  saxi- 
frages, rannncnli,  artemisiaa,  and  many  others 
apnng  up,  blossom,  ripen  their  seed,  and  die 
in  a  few  weeks.  The  Siberian  steppes  are 
bounded  on  the  south  by  forests  of  pine,  birch, 
and  willow.  The  upper  courses  of  the  great 
rivers  are  bordered  with  poplars,  elms,  and 
maples.  The  Siberian  pine,  with  edible  seeds, 
reaches  the  height  of  126  feet ;  the  pinvt  eem- 
bra  grows  around  Lake  Baikal  almost  np  to 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  greater  part 
of  Thibet  is  sterile.  Frost  begins  early  in  Sep- 
tember and  continues  till  May.  In  some  parts 
anow  falls  every  month  of  the  year.  There 
are,  however,  many  sheltered  spots,  heated  by 
radiation  from  the  bare  mountain  flanks,  where 
Brains  and  fruits  of  every  kind  flourish.  Wheat, 
barley,  bnckwheat,  and  rice  are  native;  maize 
has  been  introduced,  and  is  successfully  culti- 
vated. There  are  olivea,  pears,  apples,  peach- 
es, apricots,  grapes,  mulberries,  and  currants; 
the  various  species  of  melons  are  noteworthy 
for  their  quality  and  quantity.  The  Himalayan 
mountains  form  a  distinct  botanical  district. 
Immediately  below  the  snow  line  the  vegetation 
is  of  an  arctic  character;  lower  down  there 
are  forests  of  plno,  oak,  walnut,  and  maple; 
the  flowers  are  mainly  species  of  rhododen- 
dron. At  an  altitude  of  about  6,000  feet  the 
transition  from  a  temperate  to  a  tropical  flora 
takes  place.  The  transition  zone  lies  between 
theSGthandSTth  parallels  of  N.  latitude,  where 
the  tropical  flora  becomes  mixed  with  that  of 
the  temperate  zone.  The  prevailing  plants  on 
the  Chinese  low  grounds  ore  glycine,  hydran- 
gea, camphor,  laurel,  the  was  tree,  cleroden- 
dron,  rose  of  China,  thvja,  and  oka  fragrant, 
the  flowers  of  which  are  used  to  flavor  the 
finest  teas.  The  India  pride,  paper  mulberiT, 
and  other  plants  cover  many  of  the  hills.  Of 
the  tea  plant  there  are  two  main  siiecies.  The 
one,  bearing  small  leaves,  fiirnialies  the  tea 
consumed  at  home  and  exported  to  Europe  and 
America;  the  other,  with  larger  leaves,  fur- 
nishes the  brick  tea  consumed  mainly  in  Thibet 
and  N.  E,  Siberia;  as  used  it  is  mixed  with 
butter,  forming  a  soup  rather  than  a  beverage^ 
Rice  is  here  the  most  important  cereal.  The 
pldns  of  Ilindostan  are  so  completely  sheltered 


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13  AS 

from  tile  cold  northem  viDds,  and  heated  and 
watered  b;  the  moosoona,  that  the  vegetation 
earlj  assumes  a  tropical  character.  In  tlie 
Jnngtea  amoDg  the  lower  ridges  of  the  Ilima- 
iaya  ferns  and  orohidaceoau  plants  aboimd. 
Trees  of  the  fig  tribe  are  a  Bpeoial  characteris- 
tio.  Some,  as  the  banian,  throw  otf  shoots 
from  their  branches,  whieh  take  root  on 
reaching  the  groand,  and  become  independent 
tmnka,  sending  off  other  branches,  which  also 
take  root,  until  a  forest  ia  formed  around  the 

Cent  stem,  Paims  of  many  kinds  abound  in 
ia;  of  some  upecies  every  part  is  nseful  to 
man.  Cotton  is  of  spontaneoas  growth.  The 
native  ftuits  of  India  are  numerons.  The 
orange,  the  plantain,  the  banana,  the  mango, 
and  the  date,  areca,  palmyra,  and  cocoannt 
palma,  are  all  of  Indian  origin.  The  flowers 
are  notable  for  their  brilliancj  of  color.  The 
island  of  Oejlon,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Indian  penin- 
sula, ia  the  home  of  those  species  of  lanrel  of 
which  the  bark  oonstitntes  cinnamon  and  cas- 
sia. The  flora  of  Arabia  is  peculiar,  being 
chiefly  marked  by  the  nnmber  of  the  plants 
producing  odoriferons  and  medicinal  gums. 
Oceans  of  barren  sand,  dotted  here  and  Uiere, 
wherever  water  is  found,  with  oases,  like  isl- 
ands, cover  a  great  part  of  Arabia  and  the  ad- 
jacent Syria.  The  prevalent  vegetation  con- 
aiats  of  grasses  growing  under  the  shade  of  the 
date  palms;  while  plants  of  the  acaoia  tribe 
spring  ap  scantily  m  the  arid  sand.  Coffee, 
originally  brought  from  Abyssinia  to  Arabia, 
has  thence  been  widely  diffused  ;  the  produc- 
tion in  Arabia  is  small  compared  with  the 
whole  amonnt  The  chief  features  of  the  Asia- 
tic flora,  exolading  the  arctic  regions,  may  be 
thns  summed  up:  The  principal  forest  trees 
are  aloe&  bamboo,  bircli,  ohestnnt,  cypress, 
ebony,  flr,  gutta  percha,  iron  wood,  larch, 
mangrove,  maple,  myrtle,  oak,  palm,  pine, 
poplar,  rosewood,  sandalwood,  t«ak,  and  wil- 
low. The  fruits  are  almond,  apple,  apricot, 
banana,  banian,  betel,  cashew,  citron,  cocoa, 
date,  flg,  grape,  gnana,  guava,  lemon,  lime, 
mangosteen,  mulberry,  olive,  orange,  pandanua, 
peach,  pear,  plantain,  plum,  pomegranate,  shad- 
dock, tamarind,  and  walnut.  The  moat  im- 
portant spices  and  condimente  are  camphor, 
cBBsia,  cinnamon,  clove,  mace,  and  nutmeg. 
The  tea  and  coffee  plants  furnish  the  balk  of 
the  non-alcoholic  beverages  of  the  world.  The 
leguminous  plants,  such  as  the  bean,  pea,  and 
lentil,  present  a  great  variety  of  species.  The 
yam  supplies  the  place  of  the  potato.  Oeresla 
are  widely  diffused  in  their  proper  localities. 
Tobacco  has  been  introduced,  and  is  extensive- 

S  cultivated.  The  sugar  cane  is  Indigenous. 
Bmp  and  flax  are  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Among  the  native  drugs  are  aloes,  anise, 
camphor,  datura,  jalap,  myrrh,  opium,  and 
sarsaparilla. — The  zoOlogy  of  Asia  covers  a 
wide  fleld.  It  includes  the  whole  class  of  do- 
mesticated animsK  The  ass,  camel,  goat,  hog, 
horse,  and  oz  came  team  Asia.    Of  tlie  deer 


tribe  there  are  niany  species,  ttam  the  antelope 
to  the  reindeer,  llie  Asiatic  elephant  difiera 
considerably  from  its  African  congener.  Be- 
sides some  special  anatomical  peculiarities,  it 
is  distinguished  by  the  smaller  uze  of  the  ears 
and  tasks,  the  latter  being  often  entirely  want- 
ing. In  AlHca  the  elephant  has  probably 
never  been  domesticated;  in  Asia  it  nastrom 
time  immemorial  been  made  the  servant  of  man 
in  peace  and  war.  Of  oxen  there  are  at  least 
fonr  distinct  species ;  the  Indian  ox  (hoi  In- 
dieut),  remarkable  fur  its  large  hump,  and  held 
sacred  by  the  Hindoos ;  the  yak  (6m  ffrvn- 
nieTin)  of  central  Aua,  used  as  a  beast  of  burden 
rather  than  of  draught,  noteble  for  its  silky 
twi ;  the  bu^o  (boi  hvhaliu),  often  found  wild, 
but  capable  of  domestication ;  and  the  gayal 
(boi  ganmus)  of  Indo-China.  Among  goats,  that 
of  Cashmere  is  fhmoos  for  its  silky  hair,  from 
which  the  costly  diawls  improperly  styled 
camel's  hair  are  made.  Persia  has  a  peculiar 
variety  of  sheep  with  a  fatty  teil.  Many  varie- 
ties of  dogs  exist;  among  the  nobler  species 
are  the  mastiff  of  Thibet,  used  for  carrying 
hardens,  and  the  Persian  greyhound.  Gen- 
erally the  dog  is  aceounted  an  unclean  ani- 
mal, but  a  Eanall  species  is  fattened  for  food  in 
China,  the  bams  being  considered  a  great 
delicacy.  In  India  the  pariah  dog  is  the  prin- 
cipal scavenger.  Of  the  greater  camivora,  the 
lion,  leopard,  and  tiger  are  the  chief.  The 
Asiatic  lion  is  smaller  than  the  Atrican,  and 
lacks  the  flowing  mane  which  forma  the  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  male  of  the  African  species. 
A  species  of  leopard,  the  cheetah,  has  been 
partially  tamed,  and  is  used  in  hunting.  The 
tiger  is  pecnliar  to  Aaa,  abonnding  in  the 
warm  plains  of  the  south  and  east,  never  cross- 
ing the  deserts  which  separate  India  from 
Persia,  but  sometimes  straying  as  far  north  aa 
Siberia.  Wolves  and  foxes  are  numerous  in 
the  colder,  hysnas  and  jackals  in  the  warmer 
regions.  There  are  numerous  species  of  bears ; 
those  of  the  cold  repons  are  large  and  (fero- 
cious; those  of  the  warmer  parte  are  small 
and  inoffendve,  living  munly  upon  inaeota, 
fruits,  and  honey.  Among  about  42S  species 
of  quadrupeds  found  in  Aida,  286  are  stated  to 
be  pecuUar  to  that  continent.  The  tropical 
portions  abound  in  monkeys,  of  which  the 
Bpeoies  are  numerons;  some  have  long  tails, 
some  short  ones,  others  none  at  all ;  but  hone 
have  the  prehensile  t^ls  of  some  American 
species.  The  birds  of  Asia  inclade  eagles,  vul- 
tures, and  falcons,  of  the  predatory  orders, 
with  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  game  and 
domestic  fowls,  except  the  turkey.  LiEorda 
and  other  saurian  reptiles  are  numerous  in 
the  rivers  of  the  warmer  ports  of  the  conti- 
nent ;  tiie  gaviol  is  the  largest  of  its  species. 
Pythons  and  other  large  serpents  are  found 
in  the  jungles.  Of  the  larger  venomous  ser- 
pents, the  cobra  de  capello  is  the  most  dread- 
ed. Of  flshes,  the  talmonida  are  abundant 
in  the  northem  rivers,  constituting  the  chief 
food  of  the  natives  and  their  trtun  dogs.     The 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


pM  fish  is  a  nstive  of  China.    Of  moIliuconB 

mimsls,  the  pearl  oyster  claims  special  notice, 
riond  chiefly  in  the  Persian  gulf  and  on  the 
coBSta  of  Ceylon. — Ruasian  Asia  inclndes  the 
rhole  of  the  continent  north  of  about  60°,  with 
ronaiderable  southern  extensionB  in  the  ex- 
treme east  and  in  the  west,  reaching  bejond 
!S°,  the  chief  of  which  is  a  strip  between  the 
fiW;k  eea  and  the  Caspian,  including  Oanca- 
sia  and  Bome  territory  acquired  from  FerBia. 
Bns^a  is  slowly  extending  her  domination 
among  the  independent  tribes  toward  India, 
nMch  it  threatens  to  reach  at  no  very  distant 
date.  Chiefly  between  lat.  50"  and  40°  lie 
Tnrkistan,  Mongolia,  and  Mantohooria,  in- 
habited by  tribes  which  are  more  or  less  in- 
dependent Chiefly  between  Jat.  40°  and  80° 
lie  Tarkej,  Per«a,  Afghanistan,  and  Thibet, 
with  China  at  the  east,  extending  southward 
to  a  little  below  20°,  and  the  main  Japanese 
idands.  Between  lat.  80°  and  20°  lie  Arabia, 
eitendinz  sonthwai^  beyond  18°,  soathern 
Persia,  Beloochistao,  and  the  northern  por- 
tioDs  of  Hindostan  and  Farther  India.  South 
of  lat.  20°  are  the  main  parts  of  the  Indian 
peninsnlaa,  the  eastern  mclnding  Bnrmah, 
SiaiQ,  and  Anam,  with  the  Malay  peninsula, 
reaching  southward  ahnost  to  tJie  equator, — 
The  popalation  of  Ada  is  estimated  at  aboat 
790,000,000,  or  nearly  three  fifths  of  the  entire 
inhabitants  of  the  globe.  It  is  very  unequally 
disDibnted  over  the  continent.  China  proper 
and  ftitish  India,  with  an  area  of  less  than 
2,500,000  sq.  m.,  have  upward  of  600,000,000; 
while  Siberia,  with  about  5,000,000  sq.  in.,  has 
left  tbsn  4,000,000.  At  least  half  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe  is  concentrated  in  China  and 
India.  Ethnologists  usually  group  the  inhab- 
itants of  Ada  into  three  great  classes;  1,  The 
KoQfolisn  race  embraces  almost  all  the  peoples 
of  the  north,  east,  and  southeast,  including 
Siberia,  Tartaiy,  China,  Thibet,  and  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  besides  the  dominant  peo- 
ple of  Turkey.  But  while  the  phydcol  cnar- 
acteristics  of  the  Chinese  are  stmilar  to  those 
of  the  Tartars,  so  great  is  the  distinction 
tween  their  languages  that  many  have  con.  _ 
ered  them  as  of  a  wholly  distinct  race.  S.  The 
Aryan  race  embraces  the  mwn  populations  of 
Hindostan,  Afghanistan,  Beioochistan,  Perda, 
AtA  Caucada,  besides  Bnsdans,  Greeks,  Ar- 
menians, and  others  in  Siberia,  Turkey,  and 
elsewhere.  8.  The  Semitic  race  includes  the 
Syrians  and  Arabians,  besides  Jews  in  variona 
puts.  The  Malay  race  appears  on  the  cor 
tinent  only  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  (9e 
Ethsolost.)  Only  a  small  part  of  the  ii 
habilanta  of  Ada  con  be  properly  designated 
a*  barbarous,  for  most  of  them  have  itom 
time  immemorial  possessed  a  literature  and 
established  forms  of  govemmenL  Nor 
tliey  be  called  half  civilized  with  much  n: 
propriety  than  the  term  might  be  applied 
to  the  andeat  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  Their  civilization,  however,  as- 
inmee  a  type  presenting  marked  differences 


[A  18 

trcan  that  of  Europe  and  America.  Up  to 
a  certain  point,  and  in  certain  directions,  the 
Asiatics  made  great  advances  in  every  de- 
partment of  thought  and  culture  ;  but  that 
point  once  reached,  the  progress  of  develop- 
ment was  checked.  In  China  the  laws,  Ltera- 
ture,  art,  and  industry  have  remained  almost 
fixed  for  ages.  So,  too,  although  in  a  some- 
what less  degree,  in  India.  The  changes  which 
have  been  wrought  have  sprung  from  without, 
from  the  pressure  of  foreign  races  or  the  in- 
fluence of  a  new  religion,  rather  than  th)m  a 
[irinciple  of  growth  from  within.  Their  very 
anguoges  show  a  lack  of  progress! ven ess.  The 
Chinese  language  now  is  the  Chinese  of  3,000 
years  ago.  The  Arabic  of  the  Koran  is  the 
Arabic  of  to-day. ^The  religions  of  Ada  fall 
mainly  within  three  great  classes:  Buddhism 
in  China  and  Japan,  respectively  modified  by 
and  mingled  with  OonfucianlBm  and  Sintoism ; 
Brahminism  in  India ;  and  Mohammedanism 
existing  in  almost  every  region,  but  especially  in 
the  Turkidi  dominions,  Persia,  and  the  anuUler 
states  of  western  Asia.  The  pagans  on  the  one 
band,  and  the  Christians  and  Jews  on  the 
other,  are  too  few  to  be  token  into  the  gen- 
eral account  The  Greek  cburcb  may  nom- 
inally number  T,500,000,  the  Roman  Catholic 
4,500,000,  the  Protestant  500,000.  Religion 
seems  to  be  almost  the  only  changeable  thing 
in  Asia.  In  two  centuries  Buddhism  became 
the  predominant  religion  of  800,000,000  peo- 
ple; in  half  that  time  Islamism  spread  from 
Arabia  to  Persia,  Hindostan,  and  Tartary; 
and  within  a  few  years  Babism,  a  new  religion, 
has  sprung  up  in  western  Asia,  and  is  rapidly 
spreading  in  Ferdo,  Turkey,  and  India.  ^See 
Babisic.) — The  political  institutions  of  Ada 
present  a  variety  of  forms,  among  which  the 
republican  and  constitntional  are  not  to  be 
found.  Strict  absolutism  is  the  prevailing 
form.  In  many  parts  of  Arabia  and  Tartary 
various  nomadic  tribes  have  a  patriarchal 
government,  nnder  their  own  chiefs,  although 
they  nominally  recognize  a  higher  author- 
ity. In  the  true  sense,  only  Turkey,  Perda, 
Afghanistan,  China,  Japan,  Burmah,  6iam, 
and  Anam  can  be  called  independent  coun- 
tries. All  others  are  more  or  less  dependent 
npon  the  great  empires  of  Asia  or  Europe. 
In  China  uie  government  is  on  absolnte  mon- 
archy. More  than  a  tiiird  of  the  continent  is 
under  the  government  of  Rusda  and  England. 
The  most  extraordinary  foreign  conqnest  is 
that  by  the  British,  which  in  a  century  and  a 
quarter  has  made  England  mistress  of  more 
subjects  than  were  ever  ruled  by  any  Roman 
emperor.  Compared  with  the  British  posses- 
sions, those  of  the  French  in  Cochin  China 
and  the  Portuguese  in  India  and  at  Macao  in 
China  are  quite  indgniflcant,  while  Holland 
and  Spain  possess  only  islands  near  the  conti- 
nent Tnrkey  should  be  conddered  an  Adatio 
power  with  possesions  in  Eiu«pe,  rather  than 
a  European  power  with  possesdons  in  Asia. 
Great  Britun,  Bosda,  France,  and  Portogal 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


14 


are  therefore  tba  onlj  Earojoean  pawem  ' 
hold  anj  portion  of  Asia.  Toe  principal  p' 
'    '   "  ■  '  -   ■   ■  y  Y^Q  olaasified  as 


1  powers  who 
,  ,  Principal  polit- 

ical divisions  of  Asia  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows, placioK  the  independent  powers  first  in 
the  order  of  their  importance,  and  grouping 
some  of  the  minor  ones  together  r  1.  China 
proper,  with  the  islands  of  lonuosa  and  Hai- 
nan. Chinese  dependencies ;  Thibet,  Chinese 
Tartar;,  Mongolia,  Mantchooria,  and  Oorea.  2, 
Turkey  in  Asia ;  Asia  Minor,  Turkish  Arme- 
nia, STria,  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  part 
of  Arabia.  3.  Japan.  4.  Persia.  6.  Arabia. 
6.  A^haniatan,  Herat,  Bcloochistan,  7.  Fur- 
ther India:  kingdoms  of  Anam,  Burmah,  and 
Siam.  8.  Turlustan :  khanates  of  Bokhara, 
Khiva,  Kokan,  and  Koondooz.  9.  Russian 
Aua :  Siberia,  Amoor  Oonntry,  Russian  Tur- 
kistan,  Caacasia.  10.  British  India  and  na- 
^ve  states  onder  British  influence.  U.  French 
possessions ;  Cochin  China,  Pondicherrj.  IS. 
Portuguese  possessions :  Goa,  Macao.  Only 
roogblj  approximate  statements  of  the  area 
and  population  of  most  of  these  divisions 
oan  be  given,  for  which  reference  is  made  to 
the  separate  articles  upon  them. — Asia  is  re- 
garded as  tjie  birthplace  of  mankind.  It  is 
the  cradle  of  all  the  great  relimous  raove- 
mente — of  Hindoo  pantheism  and  Baddhism, 
Hebrew  monotheism  and  Persian  dualism, 
Ohristianity  and  Mohammedanism — and  the 
earliest  seat  of  science  and  literature.  Here 
flonriahed  in  hoary  antiquitj  the  secluded  em- 
pire of  China,  and  the  Ar/an  communities 
which  produced  Zoroaster  and  the  Vedaa,  and 
reared  the  stupendous  monuments  of  Hindo- 
stan.  Asia  was  the  seat  of  the  AssTriau,  Chal- 
dean, Median,  Perdan,  STrian,  and  Parthian 
empires.  The  names  of  Babjlon  and  Nineveh, 
of  Jerusalem,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Palmyra,  and  Anti- 
och,  of  Snsa,  Echatana,  Persepolis,  Ctesiphou, 
and  Selencia,  of  Bardis,  Ephesns,  and  Miletus, 
keep  before  our  minds  tlie  ancient  glories  of 
Amtic  power  and  culture;  while  in  after  ages 
Bagdad,  Bassorah,  Damascus,  Aleppo,  and  even 
the  distant  Samarcaud  and  Balkh  in  the  wilds 
of  central  Asia,  bespeak  the  progress  of  Asi- 
atic civilization  and  intelligence.  Phoenicia 
was  the  great  teacher  of  Greece  and  the  oth- 
er countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
When  western  civilization  hod  been  developed, 
Aaia  Minor  was  the  theatre  where  Asia  and 
Europe  met.  Persia  and  Hellas  for  a  century 
and  a  half  wrestled  for  supremacy,  until  semi- 
Hellenic  Macedonia  established  her  awaj  over 
both.  The  Seleucidas  of  Syria  became  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  in  Uie  East,  but  finally 
E 'elded  to  the  Parthians  on  one  side  and  the 
amans  on  the  other.  Rome  extended  hor 
power  to  the  Euphrates,  and  Asian  Nicomedia 
was  for  a  time  a  favorite  seat  of  her  emperors. 
In  neighboring  Nicsa  Constantine  had  the  dog- 
mas of  her  new  reli^on,  received  &om  Jeru- 
salem, established.  But  Arabia  produced  a 
new  faith  and  a  new  race  of  conquerors,  and 
the  oalipha  triumphed  over  the  Cnsars  of  the 
East,  and  restored  power  to  its  aDdent  seats 


on  the  Enphrates,  Tigris,  and  Orontea.  ReSs- 
tablisbed  Persia  was  merged  in  their  dominions. 
Sultan  Mahmoud  of  Ghuzni  conquered  Afghan- 
istan, and  carried  Mohammedanism  beyond  the 
Indus.  In  the  west  of  Asia  the  cross,  about  a 
century  later,  began  a  deadly  struggle  with  the 
crescent,  which  lasted  for  ages,  and  terminated 
with  the  total  discomfiture  of  the  crusaders. 
Turkish  tribes,  Se^uka  and  others,  had  in  the 
meanwhile  become  tiie  chief  rulers  of  Moslem 
Asia.  But  now  a  vast  human  fiood,  under 
Genghis  Ehan,  surged  in  from  the  pliune  of 
eaatem  Asia,  overwhelmed  China,  India,  and 
western  Asia,  and  rolled  on  as  far  as  the  centre 
of  Europe,  thus  renewing  the  devastations  of 
the  Huns  and  other  northern  Asiatic  tribes 
who  desolated  the  West-Roman  empire  before 
its  fall.  The  Mongols  retired  from  Germany, 
hut  their  yoke  remained  firmly  fixed  oo  Bussia, 
where  the  Golden  Horde  held  sway  for  more 
than  200  years.  In  Bagdad  they  terminated 
the  dynasty  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs.  At  the 
same  epoch  they  establLshed  the  successors  of 
Genghis  Ehan  on  tlie  throne  of  Afghanistan 
and  northern  India,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the 
great  empire  of  which  Delhi  afterward  be- 
came the  capital.  The  great  body  of  the  Mon- 
gols thems^ves  embr^ed  Buddhism.  The 
Mongols  of  India  adopted  Mohammedanism. 
By  the  same  irruptive  movement,  the  native 
dynasty  of  the  Chinese  was  displaced,  and  a 
Mongol  line  of  sovereigns  set  up  in  their  stead, 
of  whom  Kublai  Khan  was  the  first  and  ablest. 
The  conquests  of  these  fierce  tribes,  which  had 
penetrated  from  the  Chinese  wall  to  Silesia 
and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  induced  a 
feeling  of  terror  in  Christendom.  Attempts 
were  made  by  missionaries,  sent  into  the  heart 
of  Aua,  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  tlio 
Mongols.  Marco  Polo  also  travelled  in  central 
Asia  and  Mongolia,  and,  after  residiiig  for  a 
period  at  the  court  of  Kublai  Khan,  the  con- 
queror of  China,  brought  home  admirable  ac- 
counts of  central  Asia,  China,  and  India.  The 
vast  Mongolian  empire  of  Genghis  hod,  after 
a  few  generations,  crumbled  into  pieces.  The 
tribes  from  whom  the  guards  of  the  throne  and 
persona  of  the  caliphs  had  been  chosen  had  as- 
sumed the  position  of  iudependent  conquerors, 
and  hod  founded  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1299  Otiiman  led  his  followers  into  the  anciovt 
province  of  Bitliynio,  nearly  opposite  Constanti- 
nople^  and  made  Brusa  his  capital.  Amnrath 
and  his  son  B^azet  soon  overran  the  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  crossing  into  Europe  poa- 
aessod  themselves  of  the  Byzantine  provinces. 
A  new  invasion  of  the  Mongols  under  Tamer- 
lane now  swept  over  Asia  and  overthrew 
Bqazet  (1402),  but  Amuratb  II.  restored  the 
Ottoman  power,  and  his  successor  Mohammed 
TI.  established  himself  in  Constantinople  (14S3). 
Cnder  Solyman  the  Magnificent  (1520-'66},  the 
Ottoman  empire  reached  its  present  limits, 
comprising  Aaia  Minor,  Syria,  the  country  as  far 
OS  the  Tigris,  and  a  part  of  Arabia.  A  quar- 
ter of  a  century  after  the  permanent  eatabliah- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


matt  of  Moliammedanism  in  Constantinople, 
BtnuiTdo  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
atsa).  Two  yeara  later  Vasco  da  Guna  ar- 
med  at  O&lioat,  and  aflerward  Almeida  and 
Albnqaerqne  vere  Bent  out  and  formed  Por- 
iDgnese  Bettlements,  Goa  being  captured  and 
mode  their  capital  (IGIO),  At  tliia  period 
China  was  in  the  bands  of  a  Chinese  djnaatj, 
vhich  had  be«n  establisbed  in  1358  bj  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  Tartar  mlers.  In  central  Asia 
tbe  thronea  of  Samarcand,  iBpnhttn,  Afghan- 
istan, and  Khorosan  were  filled  d;  deaoendanta 
of  Genghis  or  Tamerlane.  A  nnmber  of  petty 
cMefa  maintained  their  independence;  and  the 
Cibecks,  the  Bncceseors  to  the  conntiy  of  the 
Tnrka,  baraaaed  all  the  territories  within  their 
reach.    In  Persia  the  first  of  the  Sufi  dynaaty 


laeca,  where  be  received  the  submissioa  of 
FegQ  and  Siam.  He  also  seized  Ormuz  at  tbe 
moath  of  the  Per^an  gnlf.  A  Portngneee 
embaaay  n-aa  sent  to  China,  and  the  Portugneae 
having  gained  the  favor  of  the  coart  of  Peking 
by  extirpating  a  band  of  pirates  that  infest«a 
the  coast,  permission  waa  given  them  to  settle 
St  Macao.  From  this  point  and  t^om  Goa  they 
directed  their  operations,  and  in  60  years  were 
masters  of  tbe  Spice  Islands,  and  monopolized 
the  whole  trade  of  the  east«m  ocean.  The 
snbjagatioD  of  northern  India  by  the  emperor 
BaberinlG2B,  andasnocessionof  able  princes, 
eoc8olidat«d  the  empire  of  tbe  Mognls  in  India. 
Abbas  tbe  Great,  abah  of  Persia  (1687-1628), 
nujed  the  Pernan  empire  to  ita  highest  pitch 
of  modem  greatness. — Tbe  brilliant  snccessea 
ofthePortognese  in  India  inspired  ad ventnrers 
ef  othsr  nations  with  hopes  of  wealth.  Bnt  it 
VM  not  till  i600  that  the  English  East  India 
company  waa  formed,  and  in  1612  English 
factories  were  established  by  leave  of  the 
natJTe  authorities  at  Snrat,  Ahmedabad,  Cam- 
b^,  and  Gogo.  In  1644  tbe  native  dynasty 
of  the  Chinese  was  terminated  by  the  rebellion 
of  the  ntandarin  Li-tse-ching,  and  tbe  Man- 
tcboo  Tartars  again  ruled  the  vaat  empire  of 
China.  Abont  the  same  time  the  settlement 
of  Madras  was  fonndetl  by  the  East  India  com- 
puy,  and  snbseqnently  tbe  factory  at  Cal- 
cutta; and  in  1S61  tbe  Portuguese  ceded  to 
the  Esglish  tbe  island  of  Bombay.  Tbe  East 
India  company,  which  bad  been  unsuccessfnl 
as  a  trading  nndertaking,  was  reorganized,  and 
inlTOS  anewbody  of  adventnrers  was  formed, 
and  admitted  to  a  participation  in  ite  rights 
•ad  privilegea.  This  body  waa  destined  before 
the  lapse  of  a  centnry  to  acrqnire  and  con- 
solidate a  larger  and  more  powerfal  empire 
than  had  ever  been  governed  by  the  Mognls  in 
India.  Dntch  and  French  trading  companiea 
had  also  obt^ned  a  footing;  in  India.  On  the 
death  of  Annmgiebe  in  1  TOT,  the  affairs  of  the 
empire  had  rapidly  fallen  into  fonfutdon.  Tbe 
Tarions  r^aha  became  virtaally  independent, 
and  the  Mahrattas,  who  first  appeared  as  free- 
booters during  the  reign  of  Aumngzebe,  ex- 
94  TOL.  n— 8 


tended  their  domintons  acroat  tiie  peninsnla. 

In  1748,  war  having  broken  ont  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  Labonrdonnme,  the  French 
governor  of  Maiiritins,  conducted  on  expedi- 
tion against  Madras,  the  chief  British  settle- 
ment in  India,  which  oapitnlated  on  the  nnder- 
atanding  that  it  should  be  ransomed.  Dnpleix, 
governor  of  the  French  settlement  of  Pundi- 
cberry,  conceived  the  scheme  of  consolidating 
the  states  of  Hindoetan  into  one  mighty  empire, 
and  with  the  aid  of  native  ailies  was  at  firet 
sncoeasfnl  against  the  English ;  bnt  Clive  saved 
the  menaced  existence  of  the  East  India  com- 

Cy,  and  by  1780  the  British  had  subdued  the 
at  provinces  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and  part  of 
Oriaaa.  From  that  time  the  limits  of  the 
Britiah  empire  in  India  have  steadily  increased. 
A  great  revolt  of  the  natives  waa  put  down 
in  lB67-'8,  and  the  government  was  imme- 
diately aflerward  tranaferred  from  the  East 
India  company  directly  to  tbe  crown. — In  tbe 
north  a  few  Cossacks  brought  Siberia  nnder 
Rnstdan  dominion  toward  tbe  close  of  the  ISth 
century,  and  Peter  the  Great  obtained  a  fbot- 
hold  in  aentral  Asia  by  ashling  tlie  shah  of 
Persia  against  the  Afghans.  A  plot  concocted 
with  Turkey  for  tbe  dismemberment  of  tbe 
Persian  kingdom  was  defeated  by  the  energy 
of  the  usurper  Nadir  Shah,  who  for  a  bri^ 
space  restored  the  waning  glories  of  tbe  Persian 
name,  and  paasmg  the  Indus  pnraued  a  career 
of  conquest  as  far  as  Delhi.  During  hia  return 
he  wasmurdered  by  mutineers  (174T),  and  again 
the  Pernan  empire  was  dismembered,  Afghan- 
istan being  erected  into  an  independent  king- 
dom by  Ahmed,  one  of  Nadir's  followers.  Tbe 
Busdans  have  during  the  present  centnry 
gradually  extended  their  power,  consolidating 
their  rule  over  the  Caucasian  re^ona,  and  ac- 
quiring new  poasessions  on  the  Aras,  tbe 
Amoor,  and  the  Jaxartea.  Turkey  boa  had 
couflicto  with  Rnsna,  Persia,  and  her  own 
vassal,  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt,  bnt  baa  es- 
caped without  a  conaiderable  loss  of  terri- 
toiy.  Peraia  has  been  constantly  declining, 
and  has  lately  suffered  a  terrible  depopulation 
A-om  famine.  China  baa  seen  foreign  enemies 
in  her  capital,  and  half  her  territory  ravaged 
by  a  powerM  insurrection.  Japan  has  been 
compelled  to  open  her  ports  and  citiea  to  tbe 
i  abhorred  occidentals.  Afghanistan  has  been 
torn  by  foreign  and  domestic  wars.  Arabia 
has  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  Wahabites, 
and  aeveral  minor  conflicts,  but  is  on  the  whole 
as  isolated  and  unsubdued  aa  ever.  What  waa 
formerly  Independent  Tartary  ia  now  half  re- 
duced by  Rnsaia,  Tbe  political  infinences  of 
Aaia  are  balanced  by  British  supremacy  in  the 
south  and  Busrian  in  the  north.  These  two 
great  powers  have  long  antagonized  each  other 
at  the  court  of  Persia,  the  key  to  centra!  Asia 
and  northern  India.  In  China,  Russian  intlu- 
ence  is  perhaps  greater  than  that  of  any  otlier 
nation.  In  the  west,  Turkey  keeps  up  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  great  power,  but  her  influence  in 
general  Asiatic  aSurs  is  a  cipher. 


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16 


ASIAGO 


JSUCO,  a  town  of  N.  E.  Italy,  in  the  prorinee 

and  17  m.  N.  of  Vioenza;  pop.  6,140.  It  has 
imuiafactorieB  of  straw  hats,  Asiapo  is  the 
foremost  among  the  "seven  German  commu- 
nities" of  Venotia. 

ISIi  mNOK,  a  peninsala  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  Asia,  forming  a  large  part  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  between  lat  SB"  and  42°  N.  and  Ion. 
26°  and  41°  E.,  and  bounded  N.  W.  by  the 
Dardanelles  (the  Hellespont  of  the  ancients), 
N,  by  the  sea  of  Mannora  (Propontia),  the  Bos- 

Eoras,  and  the  Black  sea  (Pontua  Euiinna),  E. 
y  the  Armenian  mountains  and  their  8.  W. 
froloDgatiODB  to  the  gulf  of  Iskanderon  (of 
Has),  8.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  W.  by  the 
Archipelajro  (..Slgean  sea) ;  area,  about  212,000 
eq.  m.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  district 
consists  of  an  elevated  plateau  &om  which 
rise  mountun  ranges  of  considerable  height, 


ASIA  MINOR 

among  them  the  Taurus  and  Antitaarna  (see 
Taubcs),  culminating  in  the  extinct  volcano 
of  Aijish  Dagh  (Argffins),  about  13,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  more  than  S,000  above  the 
plain.  Between  the  abrupt  edges  of  the  high 
table  land  and  the  sea  N.  and  8.  of  the  penin- 
sula intervenes  only  a  narrow  strip  of  low, 
level  coast  land.  But  on  the  west  this  strip 
is  wider,  forming  an  extenwve  and  very  fertile 
plain — that  portion  of  the  country  to  which 
the  name  of  the  Levant  was  several  centuriefl 
I  ago  UrBt  and  properly  appHed,  though  the 
'  term  has  since  been  indefinitely  used,  often  of 
'  the  whole  peninsula.  The  rivers  are  small; 
I  the  chief  are  the  Sakaria  (Sangarius),  Kizil 
j  Irmak  (Hslys),  and  Teshil  Irmak  (Iris),  which 
flow  into  the  Black  sea,  and  the  8arabat 
(Henuus)  and  Heinder  (Uieander),  whidi 
I  empty  into  the  Archipelago.     On  the  bar- 


ren plateau  the  climate  is  dry  and  very  hot 
in  summer,  but  in  winter  cold  ;  the  N,  and  S. 
coasts  are  less  subject  to  extremes  of  tem- 
perature ;  while  the  coast  plain  has  one  of  tlie 
pleasantest  climates  in  the  world.  The  fruits 
of  the  fertile  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  were 
celebrated  in  ancient  times,  and  ate  still  the 
most  important  nrodnctions  of  the  country. 
— During  the  earlieflt  period  of  its  history  As'ia 
Minor  appears  to  have  been  inhabited  by  a 
number  of  dilTerent  tribes,  and  even  by  entirely 
diltcrent  races.  The  names  of  these  tribes 
gave  rise  to  most  of  the  designations  afterward 
given  to  the  divisions  of  the  peninsula.  The 
boundaries  of  these  were  not  well  defined  until, 
under  the  successors  of  Alexander,  they  be- 
came separate  states,  generally  under  the  rule 


of  Macedonians  and  Greeks.     The  divisions 

on  the  N.  coast  were  as  follows :  Bithynia, 
with  the  towns  of  Pruaa  (now  Brusa),  Sico- 
media  (Ismid),  and  Niciea  (Isnik),  a  country 
first  inhabited  by  the  Bebryces,  a  Mysian  or 
Piirygian  tribe,  and  afterward  eonnuered  by 
the  Bithyni,  who,  according  to  Herodotus, 
came  from  Thrace ;  Papblagonla,  with  ita  chief 
city  Sinope  (founded  by  a  Greek  colony), 
named  from  tlie  Paphlagoniana,  from  whom 
it  was  conqoered  by  the  I.ydians,  after  which 
it  was  ruled  socce-'sively  by  Persians,  Mace- 
donians, and  Greeks;  and  finally  Pontua,  witli 
TrapezuB  (Trebizond),  first  occupied  by  savago 
tribes  of  which  little  is  known,  then  colonized 
''      "      '  ■■     ~      f^j^  (ii^  kingdom 

On  the  W.  coast 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASIA  UINOR 

Fen  three  other  dlvimons :  Mjsla,  Inclodiiig 
tbe  plain  of  Tro7  snd  the  rojal  oitf  of  Per- 
pmoB,  in  the  district  of  Teuthrtuia ;  Lydia 
(capitiil,  Sardis),  whose  founderE,  the  Lydi- 
wi,  were  probably  a  Semitio  people,  who 
tstablished  the  first  endaring  empire  of  which 
re  have  authentic  record  in  Asia  Minor ;  and 
Ciria,  settled,  according  to  Herodotus,  hj  col- 
cnistB  from  tbe  islands  of  the  .lEgean.  On  the 
W.  coast  also,  and  within  the  boandaries  of 
the  three  divisions  just  named,  were  the  &mous 
Greek  colonies  of  ^olig,  Ijing  principally  in 
S.  W.  Hysia,  Doris  in  southern  Oaria,  and  he- 
tws^  the  two  Ionia,  with  its  confederation  of 
twelve  eitiea  (Phocsa,  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Mile- 
toM,  &c.),  peopled  by  Greek  colonists,  accord- 
ing to  tradition  emigrants  from  Attica  in  the 
obscure  time  of  Godrna,  who  here  maintained 
the  reputation  of  their  race  for  progress  and 
drilizatjon.  On  the  8.  coast  were  Lyoia ; 
Pimpiiylia,  so  called  from  the  nnmber  of  tribes 
oomposing  its  inhabitants  (nd/t^v^  people  of 
*11  races) ;  PisidJa,  parallel  with  and  just  N.  of 
tbe  narrow  coast  strip  of  Pamphyha ;  and  Cili- 
eia,  with  the  city  of  Tarsus,  in  ancient  times 
peopled  by  the  most  formidable  pirates  of 
the  East.  The  inland  districts  were  Pbrysia, 
whose  inhabitants  claimed  to  be  antochuio- 
noas;  Galatia,  named  after  the  Gauls  who  de- 
serted the  army  of  the  later  Brennna  to  settle 
here;  Gappadooia  (capital,  Hazaca,  now  Eai- 
sariyeh),  first  roled  by  the  Hedes,  afterward 
by  the  Pernans ;  Isanria,  peopled  by  a  tribe 
of  monntainaers  dreaded  as  daring  robbers ; 
and  Lycaonia,  first  mentioned  by  Xenophon, 
and  inhabited  by  an  ancient  tribe  from  whom 
it  toi^  its  name. — In  reviewing  its  history  Asia 
Uinor  cannot  be  treated  as  a  onitei} whole; 
for  details  concerning  its  different  divimons  the 
titles  jnst  given  are  referred  to.  Tbe  follow- 
ing outline,  however,  may  serve  to  show  how 
inextricably  its  fortunes  are  complicated  with 
thoae  of  the  great  nations  which  for  3,000 
years  contended  for  its  domimon.  Tbongh  the 
traditions  regarding  its  first  settlement  are  ob- 
Kore,  it  appears  that  the  Lydians,  coming  from 
the  east,  were  among  the  first  inhabitants  of  the 
<Mantry.  Their  government  is  at  all  events  the 
first  of  which  we  hare  any  detailed  record.  It 
fioarished  nntil  King  Crcesns  was  defeated  by 
Cyrna,  and  tbe  Persian  empire  gained  the  do- 
minion of  the  peninsola,  holding  it  from  about 
fiSi  to  333  B.  G.  The  campaign  which  in  the 
last-mentioned  year  ended  with  the  battle  of 
IssQB  now  added  the  conntrr  to  tbe  conqneats 
of  Alexander.  It  remained  under  his  various 
scccessors  until  the  victories  of  L.  Scipio  (1 90) 
and  Uanlins  (189),  followed  by  the  treaty  with 
Antiochns  in  168,  the  bequest  of  the  kingdom 
of  Pergamns  to  Rome  by  Attains  III.  (138), 
and  the  overthrow  of  Mithridates  (66  B.  0.) 
gave  the  territory  to  the  Romans,  in  whose 
hands,  aDd  those  of  their  followers  of  the  By- 
zantine empire,  it  continued  till  its  conqneet  by 
the  Turks  in  the  18th  century. — Asia  Minor 
now  forms  a  part  of  Turkey  in  Ama ;  its  lai^cr 


A3M0NEAN8 


17 


portion  oonstitntes  tbe  district  called  Anatolia, 
or  Natolia,  from  the  old  Greek  name  given  to 
Asia  Minor — 'AwiroJjJ,  the  east  or  land  of  tbs 
rising  sun.  Ofiicially,  it  includes  several  eya- 
lets,  but  the  name  Anatolia  is  generally  appUed 
to  the  whole  region.  Fur  detniis  as  to  its 
present  condition,  see  Tdbebt. 

iSINAlS,  a  tribe  of  Indians  on  Trinity  river, 
Texas,  frequently  mentioned  in  occounts  of 
La  Salle's  expedition  and  early  Louisiana  hie' 
tory  under  the  noma  of  Cenis.  They  were  a 
branch  of  the  confederation  known  as  the  Tex- 
as, were  sedentary,  cultivating  rudely  muze, 
beans,  squnshes,  melons,  and  tobacco,  and  mak- 
ing mats  and  earthenware.  They  lived  in  largo 
beehive-shaped  cabins,  each  holding  15  or  20 
families,  and  at  a  very  early  day  procured 
horses  from  the  Spaniards  to  nse  in  war  and 
banting.  La  Salle  vidted  them  in  ISSQ,  and 
the  French  subsequently,  under  La  Uarpe  and 
St.  Denis,  tried  to  gain  them ;  but  tbe  Span- 
iards  established  missionH  and  posts  among 
them  in  ITIB.  Before  the  close  of  the  oentnry 
they  ceased  to  be  noticed  as  a  separate  tribe, 
and  are  now  apparently  extinct,  unless  thej 
are  represented  by  the  Arapahoes. 

ISKEW,  iaMuiit  or  iyiwmgb,  Aue,  an  Eng- 
lish Protestant  lady,  a  native  of  Lincolnshire, 
who  was  burned  at  Snuthfield,  July  16,  IGIS. 
Her  hnsband,  named  Eyme,  was  a  strong  Cath- 
olio,  and  tamed  her.out  of  doors  because  she 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  reformers.  She 
went  to  London  to  sue  for  a  separation,  and  at- 
tracted the  sympathy  of  the  queen,  Catharine 
Parr,  and  many  of  the  court  ladies.  Her  denial 
of  the  corporeal  presence  of  Ghrist's  body  in 
the  eucharist  caused  her  arrest  and  committal 
to  prison.  Burnet  says  that  after  much  pains 
she  signed  a  recantation,  but  this  did  not  save 
her.  She  was  recommitted  to  Newgate,  and 
asked  to  disclose  who  were  her  corres|)ondenta 
at  court.  She  refused  to  reply,  though  she 
was  racked  in  the  presence  of  the  lord  chan- 
cellor. As  she  was  not  able  to  stand  after  the 
tortare,  she  was  carried  in  a  chair  to  the  stake, 
and  suffered  along  with  fonr  others,  nnder- 
going  this  last  trial  with  signal  fortitude. 

ASMUJSSHICSEN,  a  village  of  Prusaio,  prov- 
ince of  Besse-Nassau,  on  tlie  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  2  m.  below  Radesheim ;  pop.  about  600, 
It  is  famous  for  the  wine  of  Asmaunshaosen, 
one  of  the  best  red  Bhenish  wines. 

iSMODXUS,  or  Intdl  (lleb.  Athmedai,  from 
Mhamad,  to  destroy),  an  evil  demon  mentioned 
in  the  later  Jewish  writers.  In  the  book  of 
Tobit  he  is  described  as  murdering  the  seven 
husbands  of  Sarah,  one  after  the  other.  In 
consequence  of  this  he  has  been  facetiously 
termed  tbe  evil  spirit  of  marriage,  or  the  de- 
mon of  divorce.  In  tbe  Talmud  he  figures  as 
the  prince  of  demons,  and  is  said  to  have  driven 
Solomon  oat  of  his  kingdom.  Tobit  got  rid  of 
him  by  prayer  and  fasting.  AsmodeeuB  is  the 
hero  of  Le  Sage's  novel  Le  diabU  boUeux. 

iSMONUiNS,  or  Bmmwuus  (Eeb.  •Ifrukmo- 
naim),  the  name  of  a  Jewish  priestly  family 


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18 


ASNIERES 


which,  ouder  its  founder  Uattatbioa,  the  great- 
grandaon  of  Aamonsus,  and  his  five  souk,  lib- 
erated Judea  trom  tlie  yoke  of  Antiochns  Epi~ 
Ebenea  and  his  successors,  and  Bubaequently 
eld  both  the  hiKh-prieatly  and  the  princely 
dignity,  until  supplanted  by  Herod.  They  are 
also  known,  thoagh  not  properly,  as  Macca- 
bees. Mattathisa  rused  the  standard  of  revolt 
in  167  B.C.,  dying  soon  after.  Hisflflb  son 
Jonathan,  and  bis  grandson  John  Hyrcanns, 
folly  eatablisbed  the  independence  of  the  conn- 
try;  and  the  son  of  tbe  latter,  Aristobnlns  I., 
aasmned  the  royal  title  (106).  The  rivalry  of 
Hyroanos  II.  and  hia  brother  Aristobnlus  II., 
nephew  of  Aristobolas  I.,  bronght  about  the 
intervention  of  Rome,  and  the  diagnised  eab- 
Jection  to  her  nnder  Herod.  Antigonns,  the 
sou  of  Aristobnlua,  who  was  tbe  last  to  flgbt 
for  the  riehts  of  his  house,  perished  by  the 
hand  of  tbe  Komana  (ST),  ana  Herod  succea- 
eively  extirpated  the  rest  of  the  house,  inclu- 
diag  his  own  wife  Marianme  and  bis  two  sons 
by  ner.     (See  Hebbbws.) 

iSHI^RGS,  a  Tillage  of  France,  in  tbe  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  on  the  railroad  from  Paris  to 
St.  Germain,  nearly  i  m.  N.  W.  of  Paris;  pop. 
in  1866,  6,466.  The  kings  pf  France  formerly 
had  a  castle  here.  Tbe  place,  with  its  snr- 
roundinga,  was  very  conspicnous  in  the  fights 
of  the  Paris  communists  with  the  government 
troops  in  tbe  early  days  of  April,  1871. 

ISOPCS.  I.  A  river  of  Bceotia,  now  called 
the  Oropo.  It  rises  about  6  m.  N.  of  ML  Ela- 
t«a  (anc.  CUharoti),  flows  E.  through  Bwotia, 
and  empties  int«  the  channel  of  Egripo  in  the 
territory  of  Attica,  near  the  town  of  Oropos; 
length  about  26  m.  ■■•  A  river  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, now  called  the  Hagios  Georgios  (St. 
George).  It  flows  from  the  monntaius  S.  of 
Phlius  N.  E.  through  Argolis  into  tbe  bay  of 
Corinth.  HI.  A  river  gou,  identified  in  le^nd 
with  each  of  the  above  described  rivers.  Tlie 
legends  coimecting  him  with  tbe  Asopns  in 
Peloponnesns  trace  hia  descent  from  Neptnne. 
He  married  Metope,  danghter  of  Ladon,  and 
by  her  had  two  sons  and  twelve  or  twenty 
daughters.  Jupiter  bore  off  bis  daughter  ^Egi- 
na,  whereupon  Asopus  revolted,  but  was  struck 
by  a  thunderbolt  and  reduced  to  submission. 

iSP,  a  name  ^ven  to  more  than  one  species 
of  the  venomous  serpents.  By  naturalists  it  is 
confined  to  the  vipera  atpU  (Sclil.),  which  is  a 
native  of  tbe  European  Alps.  Tbe  historical 
asp,  with  which  Cleopatra  is  believed  to  have 
destroyed  herself  after  the  death  of  Antony,  ia 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  tbe  eeratUt 
Sattelquittii.  From  many  circumstances,  how- 
ever, and  mora  especially  from  the  description 
of  Pliny,  it  is  evident  that  the  asp  of  the  Bo- 
man  writers  generally,  and  therefore  doubtless 
the  asp  of  Cleopatra,  is  the  common  and  cele- 
brated Egyptian  species,  the  naya  haye  at  the 
modem  Arabs.  Thia  reptile  was  chosen  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians  as  tbe  emblem  of  the 

Sood  deity,  Cnepn,  and  as  the  mark  of  regal 
ignity.    It  ii  closely  allied  with  the  cobra  de 


capelto,  naia  Iripvdiaru,  called  n^  by  the 

Hindoos,  which  is  still  worshipped  in  some  of 
the  temples  in  India.     The  Uindooa  believe 


that,  in  sagacity  and  ita  malicious  tenacity  in 

treasuring  up  a  wrong  to  avenge  it,  this  ser- 
pent is  in  no  wise  inferior  to  a  man.  The 
Tiaya  is  of  a  dark  greenish  hue  marked  with 
brownish ;  is  hooded  like  the  cobra  when  it 
espands  itself  in  rage,  but  wonts  tbe  peculiar 
mark  on  the  back  of  the  neck  which  character- 
izes the  Asiatic  species,  and  which  has  been 
compared  to  a  pair  of  spectacles.  It  varies  in 
length  from  three  to  five  feet,  and  is  one  of  the 
deadliest  serpents  known.  The  bite  prodncee 
acute  local  pain  in  tbe  first  inatanr*;  then  a 
sense  of  deadly  sickness;  after  which  the  suf- 
ferer falls  into  a  comatose  stat«,  w  ith  convnl- 
Siva  fits,  each  less  violent  than  the  preceding 
one.  In  the  last  of  these  he  dies,  usually  not 
many  minutes  after  being  struck.  Owing  to 
the  almost  instantaneous  dispersion  of  the  poi- 
Bon  through  the  blood,  it  ia  not  believed  that 
excision  oonld  be  of  the  slightest  utility ;  nor  is 
any  certain  antidot«  known  against  tbe  deadly 
fluid  when  once  in  the  veins. 

ISPIUGIIS,  a    genus  of  perennial    plants, 
of  the  natural  order  liliaeea  and   the  sub- 
order Mparoffea,  and  differing  only  in  the 
fruit     from     the 
agphodelea.     Tbe 
'  >  genus    is   distin- 

guished by  tnbe- 
'  rous  root  stocks, 

branching  stems, 
th  read-l  i  ke  lea  ves, 
Jointed  pedicels,  r 
6-parted  perianth, 
small  greenish- 
yellow  or  white 
flowers,  and  a 
spherical  berry. 
It  embraces  26 
species,  many  of 
which  become 
hardy  slirubs,  and 
climb  with  their 
spiny  branches  as 
if  by  tendrils.  A 
few  of  them  are 
common  in  the 
East    Indies  and 

er,  sboot,  wd  uicun  Sprit.       terranean ;    most 


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ASPHALTDH 


19 


of  Uiem  are  rare  &nd  of  little  impOTtanoe,  and 
voi  are  natiTea  of  Ajnerican  Of  the  wild  spe- 
(Ki,  the  most  widely  spread  are  tbe  A.  aeviyfo- 
liiatoAalbut,  the  Deeale-leaved  and  Che  white, 
th«  former  of  which  ia  commoa  in  Franca, 
Spain,  Barbarj,  aad  the  Levant ;  the  latter  U 
haai  in  the  same  oonntries,  France  excepted, 
and  ia  remarkable  for  ita  white  flesnooB  iKtugha 
and  green  codaauna  leaves;  the  jonng  shoots  of 
both  are  eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  Moors.  The 
be«t  known  member  of  the  genos  ia  A.  offici- 
mlit,  the  common  or  garden  aaparagna,  ea- 
t««med  aa  a  delicate  ominary  herb  ft^m  the 
time  of  the  ancient  tireeke.  It  ia  thoaght  to 
be  native  both  on  the  ahorM  of  England  and 
in  rooky  and  sterile  districla  in  Europe  and 
Alia,  and  when  it  haa  attained  its  full  develop- 
ment is  an  elegant  plant,  from  S  (o  4  feet  tiign, 
with  nnmerooa  branches  loaded  with  fine  and 
deticite  leaves,  and  covered  with  amaU,  green- 
iah-jellow.  bell-shaped,  and  almost  aolitary 
flovara.  The  yonng  and  tender  shoots  of  the 
plant,  cat  when  bnt  a  few  inches  ttcna  the 
groond,  before  ramification,  are  aerved  for  the 
table.  It  lovee  a  dry,  deep,  and  powerfully 
maaored  soil,  and  is  raised  from  seeds  either 
planted  in  seed  beds  in  the  spring  and  trans- 
planted the  next  year,  or  planted  at  first  where 
they  are  to  remain.  Dnring  tbe  first  two  years 
tbe  yonng  heads  should  not  be  cut;  half  of 
them  may  be  cut  in  the  third,  and  after  that 
the  (jUX  crop.  The  supply  will  begin  to  dimin- 
ish aft«r  10  or  12  years.  The  bods  for  aspara- 
Eos  ai«  osoally  abont  4  feet  broad,  and  should 
be  manured  and  trenched  at  least  %^  feet  deep. 
The  plants  are  in  rows  abont  a  foot  apart,  and 
are  thinned  out  till  they  st«nd  about  6  inches 
IriHn  each  other  in  the  row,  and  m  growing  a 
doater  of  heads  branch  from  each  root.  Tbe 
crop  may  be  reaped  aa  often  aa  it  appears,  be- 
ing cat  from  a  little  below  the  snr&ce  of  the 
grMmd;  yet  the  plant  degenerates  by  being  out 
late  in  ii»  season.  The  bed  should  be  annually, 
in  the  antniDD,  replenished  with  monnre,  dag 
in  between  the  rows  as  deeply  as  poeMble  wilh- 
oat  it^oring  the  roots,  and  covered  with  pulve- 
riied  manure,  seaweed,  or  other  litter  auiing 
the  winter,  aa  a  protection  from  the  frost. 
Amaragns  is  eawly  forced  by  the  use  of  hot- 
beda,  bnt  the  process  of  tmnsplanting  always 
funres  or  destroys  the  roots;  and  i^  instead 
of  tnnqiUntiDg,  the  bed  be  covered  and  the 
trenebea  filled  with  hot  dung,  which  mode  is 
coSdent  to  forward  the  crop  one  or  two  weeks, 
<=an  mnst  be  taken  to  give  the  plants  time  to 
fast  and  recover  in  the  later  part  of  the  season. 

iSFiSU,  a  Milesian  woman  who  fixed  her 
f^aidenee  at  Athena  about  the  middle  of  the 
6th_  oentnry  B.  O.  By  her  great  eloquence, 
ptlitie^  and  literary  ability,  and  personal  fas- 
cmatitMi,  she  at  onoe  obtained  a  commanding 
petition  among  the  leaders  of  the  state,  and 
gibed  the  aSeotiw  of  Pericles  so  far  that  he 
Mparated  himaelf-from  his  wife  and  made  As- 
puia  his  consort  as  well  in  private  life  aa  in 
poBtical  aflairs.    The  fact  that  the  laws  of 


Athens  conferred  no  rights  upon  foreign  wom- 
en,  and  allowed  no  actually  logitdmate  marriage 
with  them,  has  given  rise  to  the  impression 
that  Aspssia  was  a  oourteson.  The  many  ene- 
mies of  Pericles,  especially  the  satirists  of  the 
time,  also  conveyed  this  idea  by  their  attacks, 
but  it  seems  to  have  been  withont  foundation ; 
she  was  held  in  nniversal  esteem,  and  her  union 
with  Pericles  was  as  close  as  the  Athenian  law 
allowed,  and  continued  through  his  life.  The 
enemies  of  Pericles  attributed  to  her  influence 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Samos  and  of  the 
Peloponnesion  war;  hut  the  best  hiBtoriana 
deny  this.  She  is  also  stud  with  obvious  exag- 
geration to  have  instructed  Pericles  in  oratory; 
but  it  is  oertwn  that  she  assisted  him  greatly  in 
tbe  government,  and  that  her  own  eloquence 
was  remarkable.  When  the  Athenians  named 
Pericles  the  Olympian  Zeus,  Aspasia  was  called 
Hera  (Jnno).  Her  house  was  the  resort  of  all  tbe 
leading  statesmen  and  pbilosopbers  of  Athens; 
and  in  many  of  their  works  her  great  abiUtjes 
are  celebrated.  After  the  death  of  Pericles 
(429)  she  attached  herself  to  a  oattle  dealer 
named  Lysiclee,  whom  she  instructed  in  oratory 
and  by  her  infiuenoe  r^sed  in  position.  Her 
son  by  Pericles  took  his  father  s  name,  being 
legitimated  by  a  popular  decree,  and  became 
a  general  of  high  rank.  Be  was  put  to  death 
with  five  others  in  consequence  of  the  unsuo- 
cesefnl  result  of  the  battle  of  Arginuss  (406J. 

18PEN.    See  Poplab. 

ifiPEKH  AflD  ESSUSe,  two  vUIages  lying 
abont  a  league  wart,  on  the  K.  side  of  tbe 
Danube,  a  short  distance  below  Vienna,  which 
were  the  principal  strategic  pointa  in  a  despe- 
rate battle  to  which  they  have  given  s  name, 
fought  May  21  and  22,  190B,  between  Na> 
poieon's  army  and  the  Anstrians  under  the 
archduke  Charles.  The  Austrians  attacked 
while  the  two  bodies  of  the  French  force  were 
separated  by  tbe  river,  infiicting  a  severe  de- 
feat, and  finally  compelling  Napoleon  to  re- 
treat to  the  island  or  Loban.  Mass6na,  who 
secured  the  retreat  by  the  defence  of  Essling, 
received  fi-om  it  his  title  of  dake  of  Essling. 
The  Austrian  loss  was  4,000  killed  and  16,000 
wounded;  Napoleon's  loss  6,000  kiUed  and 
80,000  wounded.  Marabal  Lannea  wm  among 
the  mortally  wounded.  The  success  of  the 
Anstrians  was  more  than  counterbalanced  soon 
after  by  thdr  defeat  at  Wagram  (Jnly  G,  6). 

ISPHiLTmS  LACC8.    Bee  Dead  Sba. 

iSPHUTCH,  or  Agphalt  (Gr.  io^XvaO,  a  mix- 
tnre  of  different  hydrocarbons,  some  of  which 
contain  oiy gen,  by  the  minority  of  chemists  and 


mals.  It  is  also  called  bitumen,  mineral  pitch, 
and  Jews'  pitch  (ftom  Lacus  Aspbaltites).  (See 
BiTUMBK.)  It  is  more  bitnminoas  than  the  cosla, 
and  when  pure  is  of  the  consistence  of  resin ; 
bnt  the  conmstence  varies  with  the  tempera- 
ture and  with  the  amount  of  liquid  bitumen  or 
petrolenm  which  may  be  mixed  wiA  it,  hold- 
ing the  more  solid  aspbaltum  in  solution.     It 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASPHALTUM 


ie  often  intermited  with  eton^  enbittmces,  and 


SO  p 


bonato  of  lime.  Pnre  aspbatturo  is  miuble  in  oil 
of  turpentine,  naphtha,  and  carbonates  of  the 
alkalis,  bat  insolable  in  water;  alcohol  dissolves 
oat  of  it  about  6  per  cent,  of  e.  reainona  sub- 
stonne,  and  etber  takes  np  20  per  cent,  of  an- 
other resin  that  ia  not  aSected  bj  the  alcohol. 
It  yields  also  a  volatile  oil.  The  remainder  is 
a  aubtitance  named  bj  M.  Boassingault  arphal- 
tene,  the  compowtion  of  which  h  diHuOi. 
Aaphaltum  buma  raadil/,  with  a  red  srook; 
flame,  and  leaves  no  ashes  except  those  dne  to 
its  impurities.  Its  speciiio  gravity  ranges  fiom 
I  to  I'S ;  its  color  is  black  and  dork  brown, 
and  it  does  not  soil  the  fingers.  It  melts  at 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  oonse- 
qnentl;  ia  unfit  for  use  as  fuel,  and  cannot  be 
economically  used  for  gas.  Most  of  the  geo- 
logical formationa  contain  it,  but  it  is  particn- 
larly  common  in  the  secondarr  and  tertiary 
caloareouB  and  aandy  strata.  In  the  primary 
rocks  it  is  found  only  in  small  veins.  It  is  ot^- 
tained  in  large  quantities  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  sea,  rising  to  the  surface,  where  it  forms 
)  thrown  od  the  shore. 


the  island  of  Trinidad,  11  

which  is  hot  at  the  centre,  but  is  sobd  and  cold 
toward  the  shores,  and  has  its  borders  over  a 
breadth  of  three  fourths  of  amile  covered  with 
the  hardened  pitch,  with  trees  flourishing  over 
it.  The  inhaDitanta  powder  the  sspholtom 
and  drive  it  by  a  blast  upon  baming  coals; 
thus  need  it  gives  ont  as  much  beat  as  an  equal 
weight  of  the  best  English  coal.  It  is  thrown 
over  bagasse  or  wood  ftiel  in  the  mannfactnre 
of  su^r.  At  various  places  in  South  America 
are  similar  lakes,  as  at  Oaiatambo  and  Beren- 

EIb,  Peru,  where  it  is  used  for  pitohtng  boats; 
Galifbmia,  near  the  coast  of  Santa  Barbara. 
It  occurs  in  smaller  quantities,  disseminated 
through  shale  and  sandstone  rocks,  and  occo- 
sionaUy  limestones,  or  collected  in  cavities  or 
seams  in  these  rocks,  in  Derbyshire,  Cornwall, 
and  the  French  d^artment  of  Landes ;  and  at 
Val  de  Travers,  NeufchAtel,  impregnating  B 
bed  in  the  cretaceous  formation,  and  serving 
as  (L  cement  to  the  rock,  which  is  used  for 
bnildings.  Grahamite  ft-om  West  Virginia, 
described  by  Prtif.  Wnrtiof  New  York  in  1865, 
resembles  asphaltum  in  its  pitch-black  lastrons 
appearance. — A  rigorous  analysis  applicable  to 
all  asphaltum  cannot  be  given,  as  each  bed 
may  present  different  results.  The  following 
ultimate  analyses  have  been  made : 

1.  BaatfliDH,     T^'.W  H-XO  i'W       t't9       8^ 

i.  cuiw,        si-M       >'i»       iia     1-91     o^n 

Nos.  1  and  2  were  by  Ebelman,  No.  3  by  Weth- 
erill.  The  action  of  heat,  alcohol,  ether, 
naphtha,  and  oil  of  tnrpcntine,  as  well  as  the 
above  analyses,  show  tJiat  the  ao-oalled  as- 
phaltum from  different  localities  ia  very  vari- 
ous in  composition,  and  that  the  trae  compo^- 


titm  of  any  one  of  them  is  not  known.    They 

contain  volatile  oils,  heavy  oils,  resins  soluble 
in  alcohol,  solids  soluble  in  ether  but  not  in 
alcohol,  other  solids  not  soluble  either  in  alco- 
hol or  ether,  and  nitrogenous  substances. — 
Asphaltum  was  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptjans 
in  embalming,  and  appears  to  have  been  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  the  walla  of  Baby- 
lon. It  is  now  used  for  pavement,  for  making 
wat«r-ti2ht  tanks,  as  a  coating  for  tubes  of 
glass  and  iron  used  for  conveying  gas  or  water, 
and  for  various  other  purposes  of  like  nature. 
Asphalt  is  used  in  Paris  in  two  different  forma : 
first,  the  natural  rock,  nnalloyed,  with  which 
atreete  are  paved ;  second,  a  mixture  of  asphalt 
with  bitnraen  and  fine  gravel  for  the  construc- 
tion of  sidewalks.  The  rock  ia  found  princi- 
pally at  Seysael  and  Val  de  Travers,  and  is 
transported  to  Paris  by  canal  and  rail  Pure 
asphaltio  rock  is  preferred  for  streets  and 
roads.  When  this  is  heated  to  near  800°  F., 
it  crumbles  to  a  mass  of  brown  powder,  which 
when  compressed  in  a  mould  and  allowed  to 
cool  recovers  its  original  hardness  and  appear- 
ance. If  the  hot  powder,  instead  of  being 
placed  in  a  mould,  be  spread  about  two  inches 
thick  on  a  hard  fonnoation  and  pressed  or 

f lacked  by  a  hot  iron  pestle  or  roller  and  al- 
owed  to  cool,  the  surface  will  immediately 
solidiiy,  forming  a  crust  identical  with  the 
original  rock.  The  discovery  of  this  applica- 
tion was  due  to  accident.  Fragments  of  aa- 
phaltum,  dropping  from  the  carts  which  trans- 
ported it  from  the  quarries  along  the  road, 
became  heated  by  the  snn  and  were  crushed  to 
powder  and  compacted  by  the  continual  pas- 
sage of  carts,  untu-they  formed  a  hard,  smooth 
track.  The  matter  was  investigated,  and  led 
to  the  present  method  of  asphaltum  road 
making.  The  sidewalks  of  Paris  are  made  of 
mastic  of  asphaltum,  with  an  addition  of  hitn- 
men  and  fine  gravel,  and  can  be  more  properlj 
described  under  Pavkubnt.^ — ArilfrUl  l^haBaB 
is  made  from  bitnmen  or  the  refuse  tar  ot  the 
gBfi  house.  Coat  tar  is  heated  tJ)  a  degree  that 
renders  it  hard  and  brittle;  of  this  2fi  parts 
ore  mixed  with  CO  parts  slaked  lime  in  9ne 
powder  and  TG  parts  river  gravel.  These  in- 
gredients ere  thoronghly  incorporated  in  « 
cast-iron  boiler,  heated  for  two  honrs,  and 
drawn  off  into  moulds.  The  blocks  thus  ob- 
t^ed  are  treated  subsequently  like  mastic  of 
asplialt  for  sidewalks,  except  that  the  temper- 
ature is  canied  higher.  Another  patent  gives 
the  following  proportions:  Residue  of  tar  con- 
taining considerable  non-volatile  oil,  36  to  {SO 
per  cent. ;  carbonate  of  lime  in  dry  powder, 
60  per  cent. ;  rilica  and  olay,  S5  per  cent.  This 
is  stirred  in  a  bailer  over  a  slow  flre  for  tec 
bonrs  and  run  off  into  moulds.  The  mineral 
constitDentemuatbe  previously  strongly  heated 
to  expel  air  and  moisture,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  thorough  incorporation  with  the  pitch. 
Artificial  asphaltum  is  used  for  coating  gas 
pipes  to  protect  them  from  corrosion ;  also 
for  sidewalks,  roofing,  flooring,  especially  for 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASPHODEL 

tMet,  and  vster-tdght  tanks.  A  concrete 
pRpared  of  9S  lbs.  asphaltQin,  6  Iba.  bitnmeD, 
ud  160  lbs.  broken  stone,  hu  been  Hnplojed 
in  France  for  tnarine  oonBtmctiolis.  The  use 
<iS  prepared  aspbaltum  in  the  United  States 
liii  been  Urgefy  increased  since  the  discovery 
of  petrolenm  and  of  a  deposit  of  a  solid  b;dri> 
carbon  called  Grahamite,  and  also  in  conse- 
qnence  of  the  great  eiteaeion  of  gas  manufac- 
ture by  which  the  snpply  of  raw  material  has 
became  praoticaliy  inezhaostible. 

IgPflODEL  {a^hodeltu),  a  genos  of  oma- 
meotal  perennial  plants  belonging  to  the  nat- 
nrtl  order  liliaeta,  and  to  the  snb-order 
atphodelett.  They  ara  all  natives  of  the  old 
vorld,  and  are  found  abandantlj  in  Greece, 
Sicily,  Asia,  and  Barbary.  The  genua  com- 
prises 13  species,  all  of  which  have  a  bnltions 
root,  erect  undivided  stem,  long  leaves,  and 
■howy  flowers  arranged  in  clusters,  which  in 
moat  of  the  speciea  are  spikes.  The  lutetu,  or 
ooramon  yellow  species,  is  an  old  inhabitant 
of  European  gardens,  into  which  it  was  intro- 
dnced  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
it  ia  branchless,  about  2^  feet  high,  has  soat- 
1«r«daDd  almost  pili- 

fbrm  leaves  sheath-  < 

ing  the  stalk,  and  | 

doTers  of  a  bieauti- 
lid  golden  yelloir. 
It  blossome  during 
six  weeks  in  mid- 
sammer.  The  ramo- 
nu,  or  white  and 
branched  asphodel, 
bu  R  naked  stem 
rith  ramificationa 
near  the  summit, 
earh  of  which  is  ter- 
minated by  a  spike 
of  white  star-abaped 
flowers  having  their 
petals  streaked  with 
purple.  The  an- 
cients   had    a     sa- 

perstition     that    the  Whodelu.  runca.. 

manes  of  the  dead 

were  nourished  upon  its  root«,  and  they  there- 
fore planted  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  sepul- 
chres, and  made  it  sacred  to  Proserpine.  It 
still  covers  the  hills  and  valleys  of  Apulia,  where 
it  fiimishes  nourishment  to  the  sheep.  The 
affiiM,  or  upright  asphodel,  differs  from  the 
preceding  by  having  a  branchless  stem,  and 
also  by  having  its  flowers  a  little  smaller  and 
nearer  together.  The  other  speoiea  of  asphodel 
an  rooch  leas  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens. 
iSPHWU  (Gr.  oofi^fQ,  from  h  privative  and 
B<irf(c,  pulse),  literally,  a  temporary  or  a  final  ■ 
fflspension  of  the  motion  of  the  heart,  and 
the  pnlsation  of  the  arteries.  The  word  is 
now  used  exclusively  to  signiff  a  condition  of  ■ 
imperfect  or  suspended  respiration,  in  which  '■ 
the  blood  is  no  longer  arterialized  by  the  in-  j 
flnence  of  the  air,  irrespective  of  the  motion  j 
of  the  heart,  vbich  may  continue  some  lime  | 


A8PLAND 


21 


after  respiration  oeaaes.  The  immediate  bane- 
fol  effects  of  the  anspension  of  respiration 
arise  from  the  priTation  of  oigen,  and  from 
the  retention  of  the  carbonic  acid  previonsly 
formed,  whioh  becomes  a  blood  poison.  Jf  the 
circulation  be  disproportionately  augument«d, 
carbonic  acid  Is  formed,  and  being  murbidly 
retained,  convulsion  and  death  en!<ne.  If  the 
respiration  Is  unduly  and  disproportionately 
angumenCed,  the  subject  is  cooled,  for  mere 
pulmonary  respiration  is  a  cooHug  process,  by 
the  difference  of  temperaatnre  of  the  inspired 
and  expired  fur;  and  m  this  case  also  the  sub- 
ject dies,  hnt  now  from  loss  of  temperotuce. 
This  latter  is  the  case  in  the  asphyxiated  pa- 
tient, if  the  respiratory  movements  be  nnduly 
hastened.  On  the  other  hand,  if  in  the  as- 
phyxiated we  excite  the  circulation,  without 
simultaneously  and  proportionately  inducing 
the  respiratory  movements,  we  destroy  the 
patient  by  carbonic  acid,  formed  in  the  course 
of  that  circulation,  and  uneliminated  by  respi- 
ration. This  statement  oiplains  the  injurious 
and  fatal  tendency  of  the  warm  bath  which 
was  formerly  recommended  in  asphyxia,  for  it 
is  imurious,  and  has  doubtless  of  itself  proved 
fotaf  in  cases  in  which  the  patient  without  it 
would  have  spontaneously  recovered. 

AsniiVALL,  or  Mw,  a  oity  and  seaport  of 
the  United  States  of  Colombia,  the  Atlsntio 
terminus  of  the  Panama  railway,  situated  on 
the  island  of  Hanzsnilla  in  Limon  or  Navy  bey, 
in  lat.  9°  21'  23"  N.,  Ion.  7B°  68'  63"  W.,  47  m. 
by  r»il  N.  N.  W.  of  Panama;  pop.  in  1872, 
about  0,GOO.  The  island  of  Uanzanilla  (area, 
050  acrvs)  was  in  1M2  ceded  to  the  railway 
company  for  ever.  The  harbor  of  Aspinwall 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast.  The  town  waa 
founded  by  the  railway  company  in  1850,  and 
was  originally  intended  to  serve  merely  aa  a 
port  of  transit ;  but  it  has  become  a  centre  of 
supply  formany  neighboring  towns.  Theoftlce 
and  ffeight  depot  of  the  railway  company,  the 
former  of  brick  and  the  latter  a  massive  stone 
BtrDctnre  800  by  60  ft.,  are  the  only  edifices 
worthy  of  note.  The  railway  company's  wharf, 
40  ft.  wide,  extends  out  from  the  shore  upon  a 
coral  reefnearly  1,000  ft.  The  former  insalubrity 
of  the  place  has  been  in  great  pert  remedied  by 
raising  its  level  and  by  thorough  drainage.  The 
port  is  now  (1872)  visited  monthly  by  three 
steamers  from  New  York,  four  from  English, 
two  from  German,  and  two  from  French  ports. 

iSPLlND,  Ketert,  an  English  dissenting  min- 
ister, horn  in  Cambridgeshire,  Jan.  28,  17S3, 
died  Deo.  SO,  1845.  In  1799  he  entered  the 
university  of  Aberdeen,  hut  in  the  following 
year  he  resigned  his  scholarship  on  account  of 
the  change  in  his  theological  opinions,  which 
prevented  him  from  remaining  longer  a  bene- 
ficiary upon  a  Calvinistic  endowment.  For  n 
year  or  two  he  tried  to  occupy  himself  with 
trade,  but  he  soon  resumed  his  theolngioil 
pursuits,  and  in  1801  waa  ordained  pastor  of 
the  General  Baptist  congregation  st  Newport, 
Isle  of  Wight,  with  liberty  to  preach  Unitarian 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


22 


ASPROMONTE 


doctrines.  He  was  then  not  SO  jettrs  old. 
Id  1805  he  was.  installed  pastor  of  the  Gravel 
Pit  chapel,  Ilacknej,  where  he  contiuned  nntil 
bis  death.  Mr.  Aepland  stuod  for  years  at  the 
bead  of  the  active  Unit&rian  clergy  of  Englan<l. 
Id  1806  he  established  a  relij^ous  magazine, 
the  "Monthly  Repository,"  and  took  the  lead 
in  founding  the  Unitariui  fund  society  for  the 
support  of  popular  preachinft  and  the  relief 
of  indigent  ministers.  In  1815  he  established 
the  "  CaristiHn  Reformer,"  a  monthly  magazine 
of  considerable  influence.  The  list  of  his  pub- 
lications numbcrg  60,  and  since  his  death  a  vol- 
ume of  KermoDB  and  several  pamphlets  trom 
his  pen  have  been  edited  by  his  son. 

ISPEOHONm  amonntun  in  the  S.  V.  comer 
of  Italy,  near  Kegpo,  celebrated  for  the  battle 
of  Aug.  28,  1862,  betweea  the  Italian  troops 
nnder  Pallavicini  and  the  volnnteerg  of  Gari- 
baldi. The  latter,  who  had  crossed  over  from 
Sicily  to  march  on  Rome,  against  the  warn- 
ings of  the  royal  government,  was  defeated, 
woQDiled  in  the  foot,  and  taken  prisoner  with 
the  larger  portion  of  hie  men. 

iSPBOPOTlMO.    See  Aohelocb. 

iSS  (equtu  aiiniu),  the  humblest  member 
of  the  horse  family,  known  to  be  of  eastern 
origin.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  Genesis,  in 
the  history  of  Abraham,  who,  when  he  went 
down  to  Egypt  on  account  of  the  famine  in 
Palestine,  found  that  Pharaoh  was  possessed 
of  "  sheep,  and  oxen,  and  be  asses,  and  man 
servants,  and  maid  servants,  and  she  asses,  and 
camels."  At  that  time,  probably,  as  was  the 
case  during  all  the  historic  ages  of  Greece,  a 
Bpeoies  of  ass  was  wild  on  the  mountains  of 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  throughout  Persia;  and 
in  the  latter  country  and  Armenia,  in  the  re- 

f'on  about  the  sonrces  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
upbrates,  and  the  shores  of  Lake  van,  it  exists 
in  a  state  of  nature  to  the  present  day.  Asses 
arementionedinXeuophon's  Anabasis  as  occur- 
ring in  great  numbers  m  parts  of  Mesopotamia. 
These  animals,  which  he  simply  terms  wild 
asses  (SvM  iypuH,  of  which  words  the  specific 
LalJn  name  onager  is  merely  a  corruption), 
were  in  company  with  ostriches,  antelopes, 
and  bustards;  they  were  eagerly  pursaed  by 
the  horsemen  of  the  army,  and  are  described 
aa  being  possessed  of  extraordinary  speed  and 
endurance.  The  wild  asses  of  the  same  country 
are  still  possessed  of  the  some  characteristics. 
They  have  always  been  the  special  quarry  of 
the  Persian  monarchs,  and  Kadir  Shah  was  in- 
defatigable in  his  pursuit  of  them,  and  consid- 
ered Uio  running  down  of  one  with  his  grey- 
hound a  feat  equal  to  the  winning  of  a  battle 
or  conquering  a  province.  The  fiesh  was  con- 
sidered the  most  eiquisite  of  venison.  The 
wild  ass  of  Xenophon,  and  that,  probably  iden- 
tical with  it,  hunted  by  the  shaSs  of  Persia,  is 
presumably  the  dziggetai,  or  equva  hemionua  of 
Pallas,  which,  as  its  specific  name  (hemianut, 
half-ass)  indicates,  possesses  aa  much  of  the 
horse  as  of  the  ass  in  its  character  and  quali- 
ties.   The  best  breed  of  ass  comes  from  the 


East,  where  he  has  been  long  careftaDy  onlti- 
vated  as  a  saddle  animal.  The  rocky  nature 
of  the  soil  and  mountainons  face  of  the  country 
in  Paleetine  favored  the  employment  of  this 


wild  Au  (DdggtbU). 

hard-hoofed,  sure-footed,  patient,  and  eiidar- 
ing  animal,  as  much  as  it  discouraged  that  of 
the  delicate,  tine-limbed,  high-bred  courser  of 
Syria  and  Arabia.  Lieut.  Col.  Smith,  who  has 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  equine  families 
of  the  East,  found  near  Bassoran  a  breed  of 
white  asses,  remarkable  for  their  excellence, 
which  he  had  reason  to  believe  are  of  a  breed 
as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the  kings  of  Jndah. — 
The  characteristics  of  the  ass,  as  distinguish- 
ing him  from  the  horse,  are;  1,  inferiority  In 
size,  althongh  doubtless  this  in  European  conn- 
tries  is  in  great  part  in  consequence  of  centn- 
ries  of  cruel  treatment,  scanty  fore,  and  want 


Ah  (AHoni  vulgtria). 

of  attention  in  breeding,  the  animal  having 
been  for  ages  regarded  only  as  the  drudge  of 
the  poor ;  2,  a  rougher  and  more  shaggy  coat, 
capable,  however,  of  much  improvement  by 
warm  keeping  and  a  little  grooming;  8,  the 
shortness  and  etifiiiess  of  his  pastern  joints, 
and  the  hard  solidity  of  hia  sound  upright 
hoofs,  which  seem  almost  incapable  of  lame- 
ness, and  render  him  the  safest  and  most  sure- 
foot^  of  animah  in  difficult  mountain  passes; 
4,  the  extraordinary  length  of  his  ears,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  hare  more  than  those  of  his 
own  race ;  6,  the  peculiar  cross  whicli  he  bears 
on  his  back,  formed  by  a  longitudinal  dark 
stripe  along  the  course  of  the  spine,  and  a 
across  the  shoulders,  which  in- 


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ASSAM 


23 


*  £nlM  his  fiunilr  connection  with  the  nntaroa- 
ble  memben  of  nia  race,  the  zebra  uid  qoa^a, 
vbo  *Te  jnt  more  ooBspionoiialj  fitriped,  and 
of  irhose  character  and  disposition  the  aaa  poe- 
Kwe«  msDj  points.  The  usual  color  of  the  ass 
H  gray,  monge-color«d,  or  black ;  and  as  he 
tends  to  baj,  dnn,  or  oheBtnnt,  the  horse  colors, 
the  qtialitj  deteriorates.  The  dental  s7Btem 
of  the  ass  asaimilatea  that  of  the  horse,  and 
Id  like  manner  indicatee  the  age  of  the  animal 
bT  the  clianges  and  tnarkB  of  the  teeth.  The 
male  ass  is  capable  of  propagation  at  two 
jeara,  the  female  eoraewhat  earlier;  the  latter 
carries  her  foal  11  months,  prodnebig  it  in  the 
beginning  of  the  12th.  The  sexnal  ri^r  in 
both  sexes  is  eiCossiTe,  whtoh  may  explain  the 
Isct  that  in  the  hybrids  of  the  ass  and  horse 
the  oSspring  are  much  nearer,  as  well  in  organ- 
ization as  in  temper  and  appearance,  to  the 
former  than  to  the  latter  progenitor.  In  all 
U9H  the  male  ia  an  aas  modified  by  a  atrun 
of  the  horse ;  not  a  horse  modillod  by  a  cross 
vith  the  ass.  The  hybrid  foal  of  the  male  aas 
sad  ibe  mare  ia  the  trne  mole ;  that  of  the  stal- 
lioa  and  the  she  ass,  the  hinny — the  latter  be- 
ing lea  stTtmglv  tinctored  with  the  blood  and 
baring  leas  of  tne  form  of  the  ass,  owing  to  the 
laperior  infinenoe  of  the  male  in  the  physical 
torn  and  external  organization  of  tlie  progeny. 
The  mnle,  like  the  aas,  braya,  owing  to  a  pe- 
onlisr  coiistrnction  of  the  larynx;  while  the 
hiuiy  neighs,  tike  its  sire. — There  is  no  doubt 
bat  that  with  (^arefllI  breeding,  grooming,  sta- 
bling, and  natritions  feeding,  the  ass  might  be 
improved  at  least  as  mnch  as  any  other  domes- 
tic uimal.  As  it  is,  he  is  admirably  adapted 
for  a  beast  of  bnrden  in  oold,  mountainous 
B'antrie^,  in  which,  on  a  qoarter  of  the  food 
required  by  a  ltoi«e,  he  will  safely  carry  bor- 
detu  nnder  which  the  more  generona  animal 
wonld  break  down,  over  places  in  which  the 
other  coold  not  keep  its  footing.  Under  kind 
treatment,  he  is  hardly  inferior  in  docility  to 
tiie  horse  or  the  'dog.  The  female  ia  eioe»- 
STelf  fond  of  her  yoang,  and  both  sexes  are 
susceptible  of  strong  attachment  to  their  owner. 
In  elevated  conntnen,  where  the  soil  ia  light, 
■ues  are  serviceable  in  an  Bgrioultnral  point  of 
vieir;  although  in  the  United  States,  to  which 
Ihej  were  first  intrudaced  by  Gen.  Washing- 
ton, ihey  are  little  osed  except  for  the  propa- 
ption  of  mnlea.  The  best  aasee  are  obtained 
either  frwn  Smyrna,  the  island  of  Oypms,  or 
trom  Bpain,  where  the  raoe  has  been  partiooiar- 
\j  enltivat«d,  as  it  has  also  in  Pern,  with  a 
riev  to  the  bnsiness  of  mule-raising,  which  in 
iiotb  these  oonntries  is  important 

ISBU,  or  Haba,  a  bay  in  the  Red  sea,  on 
llie  coart  of  Afric*,  40  m.  N",  W.  of  the  strait 
of  Bsb-el-Mandeb,  in  lat.  12"  55'  TS.,  Ion.  42° 
t'^'  E.,  16  m.  long  and  6  m.  wide.  It  is  bor- 
dered on  the  W.  by  hi^h  Uble  land,  and  in 
iu  front  are  the  coral  islands  of  Bannabah 
SDd  DarmahiS,  the  last  forming  near  Oape  Lu- 
na a  safe  harbor  for  small  craft.  The  neigh- 
Iwring  inhabitants  are  the  Danakil,  who  are 


virtaally  goTemed  by  their  own  sultan,  thoogh 
the  khedive  of  Egypt  olwms  to  be  Qxeir  legiti- 
mate ruler.  The  bay  of  Aasab  was  purchased 
in  18Se  by  an  Italian  steamboat  company  as 
a  coaling  station  on  the  voyage  ftom  Italy  to 
Egypt  through  the  Suez  canal  to  India. 

A881H,  a  province  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  of 
British  India,  presideQcy  of  Bengal,  between 
lat.  25°  BO'  and  28°  20'  N.,  Ion.  80°  40'  and 
er°  80'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Bhotan  and  Thi- 
bet, K.  E.  by  Thibet,  £.  and  S.  by  Bormab, 
and  a.  W.  by  Bengal;  ar«a,  21,800  aq.  m.; 
pop.  varionsly  estimated  at  from  800,000  to 
700,000,  the  smaller  number  being  probably 
more  nearly  correct.  The  country  lies  between 
two  mountain  ranges,  branches  of  the  Hima- 
laya, which  are  Joined  at  its  eastern  end,  and 
rise  both  on  its  northern  and  souUiem  nde  to 
the  height  of  nearly  80,000  feet.  These  send 
out  offshoots  along  the  sides  of  the  valley 
which  forms  the  province,  and  which  ooa^tM 
of  a  long  and  level  plain,  studded  here  and 
there  with  groups  of  hills.  The  number  of 
oonmderable  streams  exceeds  60,  so  tliat  Assam 
is  supposed  to  contain  more  rivers  than  any 
other  equal  extent  of  t«rritoTy  in  the  world. 
The  Brahmapootra  is  the  chief  of  these,  flow- 
ing through  the  centre  of  the  country  from  E. 
to  W.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate 
temperate  and  agreeable.  A  regular  rainy 
BeaBon,  tike  that  of  the  tropics,  lasts  from  March 
till  October,  swelling  the  rivers  and  flooding 
great  distriots  of  the  plain,  obliging  the  inhabi- 
tants to  constmat  hign  causeways  between  tho 
towns  and  villages.  Earthquakes  are  frequent, 
but  seldom  severe.  The  ootmtrj  is  rich  in 
minerals,  otmt^ning  cool  and  petrolenm,  iron, 
and  gold  dust  in  some  of  the  river  sands.  Tea, 
silk,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  tvoir  form  leading  ar- 
liales  of  trade.  The  tea  plant  is  indigenona 
here,  and  is  largely  cultivated  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  English  "Assam  Tea  Company," 
more  than  17,000  acres  of  tea  plantations  hav- 
ing been  nnder  cultivation  within  the  last  fdw 
years.  Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  deer,  and  other 
wild  animals  abound,  and  elephants  are  very 
numerous.  The  Assamese  are  akin  to  the  Hin- 
doo races.  They  are  lithe  and  active,  thoogh 
generally  slight  in  ftame;  they  are  almost 
beardless,  and  have  unusually  smootli  skin. 
They  tive  in  huts  of  bamboo  and  mats,  and 
lead  rather  indolent  lives,  carrying  on  few  and 
unimportant  indnatries.  The  most  widespread 
religion  is  Brohminism,  but  there  are  also  man; 
Mohammedans.  Assam  was  governed  by  a  se- 
ries of  kings,  concerning  whose  origin  and  reigns 
little  is  known,  until  the  ITth  century,  when  a 
formidable  attempt  was  made  by  the  Mogul 
emperors  to  attach  it  to  thair  dominions.  This 
was  defeated ;  but  fhim  that  time  the  country 
became  the  prey  of  revolutions,  and  gradually 
declined  in  power  till  ITTO,  when  the  British 
troops  interfered  in  a  revolution  against  the 
r^Jah,  and  occupied  a  portion  of  the  territory. 
In  1826,  in  the  war  with  Burmah,  the  Britjah 
finally  took  possession  of  the  country. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


■24 

laSiSSIRS  (Arab.  Hathathinj  haahuli  mnok- 
ere),  a  secret  political  Booietj  in  Persia,  Sjria, 
and  Arabia,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  brtuich  of  the 
laraafilians,  ho  called  from  the  imam  lemael  ben 
Jafar.  It  took  its  origin  in  Ferma  alfOnt  A.  D. 
840  from  Abdalloh,  son  of  Maimnn  Ksdab,  n 
believer  in  the  ancient'  Uagion  worship,  who 
undertook  b;  the  preaching  of  his  dait  or  mi»- 
Biooaries  to  reestablish  the  old  religion,  or  at 
least  to  overthrow  the  giower  of  tLe  Abbas- 
side  caliphs.  His  followers  were  sometimes 
called  IbabiS,  "  indifierents,"  and  sometimes 
lamaSliana,  becanse  thej  favored  the  preten- 
sions of  the  descendants  of  Mohammed  ben 
Ismael,  of  the  house  of  All.  One  of  his 
disciples.  Ahmed,  called  Karmath,  ruaed  the 
Btanaard  of  revolt,  and  for  a  whole  century 
the  East  was  involved  in  wars.  Another  par- 
tisan of  tJie  sect,  the  dai  AbdaUah,  who 
at;led  himself  a  descendant  of  Mohammed  ben 
Innael,  escaped  from  prison,  where  he  bad 
been  confined  b;  the  caliph  Uoladhad,  and 
sncoeeded  in  seating  himself  on  the  throne  of 
Africa  nnder  the  name  of  Obeidallah  Mahdi, 
A.  D.  909.  This  person  was  the  foonder  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Egypldan  oahpha,  who, 
tracing  their  descent  to  Ismael  ben  Jafar  Sadik, 
and  from  bim  to  Fatima,  the  prophet's  daugh- 
ter, are  known  by  the  name  of  Fatimit^s  or 
eairi»m  IsmaSlians.  The  secret  policy  of  this 
sect  was  to  overthrow  the  Abbasaide  tiliphate. 
In  the  reign  of  Hakem-biamr-illali  a  lodge  was 
institnted  at  Oairo  called  Dar  el-Uikmet,  hoose 
of  wisdom.  Access  to  this  lodge,  and  the  use 
of  the  books  and  mathematii»l  instnunents 
kept  in  it,  as  well  as  instruction  by  the  profes- 
sors, who  were  pud  by  the  government,  were 
free  to  all.  In  tliiB  lodge  were  taught  nine  se- 
cret doctrines  dednced  from  those  of  Abdallah 
ben  Uaimon  Eadah.  In  the  first  degree  the 
mind  of  the  novice  was  purposely  perplexed, 
and  a  bidden  meaning  of  the  text  of  the  Koran 
was  suggested.  After  an  oath  of  unconditional 
obedience  the  pupil  was  initiated  into  the  sec- 
ond degree,  wnioh  inculcated  the  recognition 
of  divinely  appointed  imams,  who  were  the 
source  of  all  Knowledge.  The  third  degree 
taught  their  number,  which  could  not  exceed 
seven;  these  were  Ali,  Hassan,  Hossein,  Ali 
Seinolabidin,  Uohanuned  el-Bakir,  Jafar  eo- 
Sadik,  and  Ismael  his  son.  The  fourth  grade 
taught  that  since  the  bednning  of  the  world 
there  have  been  seven  divine  lawgivers,  or 
speaking  apostles  of  God,  each  of  whom  had 
by  command  of  heaven  altored  the  doctrine  of 
his  predecessor.  Each  of  these  had  seven 
coa^utors  in  succession,  who,  as  tbey  did  not 
appear  openly,  were  called  mutes  {to/nit).  The 
first  of  the  mutes  was  named  Bus,  and  the 
seven  speaking  prophets  were  Adam,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Muses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  and  Is- 
mael ben  Jafar.  The  fifth  degree  taught  that 
each  of  the  seven  mute  prophets  had  twelve 
apostles  fur  the  extension  of  the  true  faith,  the 
number  twelve  being  the  most  excellent  alter 
esven.    After  these  five  degrees  the  precepts 


of  Islsmiam  were  examined,  and  it  was  shown 
that  all  positive  religious  le^slation  must  be 
sabordinat«  to  the  general  and  philosophical. 
The  dogmas  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Pythago- 
ras were  adduced  as  proofs  and  laid  down  as 
axioms.  In  the  seventh  the  student  passed 
from  philosophy  to  mysticism.  In  tbe  eighth 
the  pupil  was  perfectly  enlightened  as  to  tlie 
superfluity  of  all  prophets  and  apostles,  the 
non-exist«ice  of  heaven  and  hell,  the  indiffer- 
ence of  all  actions,  for  which  there  is  neither 
punishment  nor  reward  either  in  this  world  or 
the  next;  and  thus  was  he  matured  for  the 
ninth  and  last  degree,  in  which  he  became  tbe 
blind  instrument  of  his  superior.  This  lodga 
was  closed  by  the  general  of  the  calipb  Anier 
Biakim-illah,  but  was  soon  reopened. — One 
of  the  initiated  dais  was  Hassan  ben  Babab, 
who  became  the  fotmder  of  the  eastern  brancti 
of  lanaelians,  the  Aeeasdns.  Banished  frvm 
Egypt,  be  went  to  Aleppo,  Bagdad,  and  Peraa, 
preaching  his  doctrine  and  making  proselytes. 
Partly  by  stratagem  and  partly  by  force,  he 
got  possesion  of  the  almost  impregnable  castle 
of  Alamnt  (eagle's  neat)  in  the  Persian  province 
of  Ghilan,  strengthened  it,  and  made  it  the  seat 
of  the  central  power  of  tbe  Assosnns.  Tbe 
basis  of  his  political  and  religious  system  was: 
"Nothing  is  true,  and  everything  is  lawful." 
The  knowledge  of  all  the  degrees  was  to  be 
imputed  only  to  a  chosen  few.  The  bulk  of  his 
foliowers  were  only  initiat«d  far  enough  to  con- 
f^  their  minds  and  leave  them  dependent  up- 
on their  leaders,  and  the  observance  of  all  the 
precepts  of  Islamism  was  moet  strictly  ei^oin- 
ed.  At  Alamut,  and  when  their  power  was 
extended  in  other  placee  also,  the  AssBBBins  had 
splendid  walled  gardens  with  fiower  beds  and 
fruit  trees  of  every  description,  limpid  streams, 
luxurious  halls,  and  porcelain  kiosks,  adorned 
with  Peraan  carpets  and  Grecian  stnfls,  drink- 
ing vessels  of  gold  and  silver  and  crystal,  and 
charminK  maidens  and  handsome  boys.  A 
youth  who  was  deemed  worthy  by  his  strength 
and  resolution  to  be  initiated,  was  invit«d  to 
the  table  and  conversation  of  the  grand  mas- 
ter; he  was  then  intoxicated  with  bashieb  and 
carried  into  the  garden,  which  on  awakening 
he  believed  to  be  paradise.  Sleeping  again,  he 
was  carried  back  to  the  nde  of  the  master; 
and  when  tbe  effect  of  the  drug  had  passed 
away  be  believed  that  he  bad  actu^ly  had  a  fore- 
taste of  the  bliss  of  paradise,  and  henceforth 
blindly  devoted  himself  to  the  will  of  hia  mas- 
ter, eagerly  seeking  an  opportunity  to  sacrifice 
himself  in  order  to  attain  eternal  life.  Later, 
when  one  of  tlie  grand  masters  allowed  the  en- 
joyment of  every  pleasure  to  all,  the  sect  fre- 
quently intozicatea  themselves  with  hashish, 
whence  their  name  Hashashin,  corrupted  by'tbe 
crusaders  into  Assassins,  which,  in  view  of  their 
bloody  deeds,  came  to  signify  men  who  practise 
secret  mnrder  in  general.    Jola)  ed-Bin  Haiek, 

I  sultan  of  tbe  Se^nks,  having  sent  an  ambassador 
to  the  grand  master  to  require  bis  obedience  and 

I  fealty,  Hassan  bon  Sabah  called  into  his  presence 


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MTOil  tif  bis  followersL  Beckoning  to  one  of 
tbm,  ba  edd,  "  Kill  thyaeli;"  and  he  instantlr 
tUlb«<l  himself;  to  ftnother,  "Throw  thTself 
frcm  the  rampart,"  and  the  next  moment 
br  l^T  «  matilated  corpse  in  the  moat.  Then 
tDTDinf;  to  the  envo;,  the  grand  inoBber  said, 
"Go  tell  thy  lord,  in  this  way  I  ata  obeyed  by 
70,1100  futhful  mbjecta."  The  grand  master 
wu  called  tyed,  tie  lord,  or  more  commonly 
AtHIt  tl-jA«l,  chief  of  the  mountain  region 
(iDCOTTecUj  translated  old  man  of  the  moau- 
bun), 'becaoM  the  order  always  muntained 
itself  in  Mstlefl  among  the  moantainB  in  Per- 
sia, Irak,  and  Syria.  He  never  asiamed  the 
title  of  saltan  or  emir,  and  preached  not  in 
\m  own  name,  bnt  in  that  of  the  iuviaible 
hnam  who  was  to  appear  at  a  future  period. 
Immediately  nnder  the  grand  master  were 
the  dMok  el-hihar,  grand  recruiters  or  pri- 
on, his  lientenants  in  the  three  provineea  to 
vhich  hie  order  extended.  Under  tliMe  were 
tb«  daah  or  dait,  the  religions  nanoios  and  po- 
lilieil  tmiasaries,  the  initiated  maaters.  Then 
fuJlowed  the  refikt,  fellows,  who  were  advanc- 
in;  to  the  mastership  through  the  seferal 
nvdes  of  initiatjon  into  the  secret  doctrine. 
>«Tt  came  the  tedavi,  the  guards  of  the  order, 
the  warriors,  and  devot«d  murderers ;  then  the 
H«ii  (aspirants),  tbe  novices;  and  finally  the 

Cboe  or  the  people.  Hassan  laid  down  for 
dais  serea  rules  of  condact:  1.  The  <uK- 
inai^ritk  (knowledge  of  the  calling)  comprised 
the  mftTjinii  for  the  judgment  oF  character 
Decessary  in  selecting  sabjeots.  2.  The  Ueau 
lining  oonfldenoe)  taught  them  to  gain  over 
caodidiiiM  by  flattering  thwr  inclinations  and 
pSMons.  8.  As  soon  as  they  were  won,  it  was 
DeoeaBSry  to  involve  them  by  doubts  and  ques- 
tiou  «Hi  the  reli^ous  commands  and  al>snrd- 
ilies  of  the  Koran.  4.  Tba  ahd^  or  oath,  bound 
lbs  aspirant  in  the  most  solemn  manner  to  in- 
TioLslue  silence  and  submission.  5.  The  oandi- 
duea  were  tauffht  how  their  doctrines  agreed 
vith  those  of  the  greatest  men  in  church  and 
state.  (I.  The  f«wi«  (oonflrmation)  recapitnlat«d 
all  that  preceded.  T.  The  tewil  (aliegorloal 
instractiofi),  in  oppodtion  to  the  tei^  or  liter- 
t]  aense  of  the  divine  word,  was  the  principal 
KiOice  of  the  secret  doctrine,  reserved  only  to 

■  few  of  tiie  initiated.— Hassan  ben  Sabah  was 
fpeedily  attacked  by  the  sultan  Malek,  bat  bo 
tuMained  himself^  and  even  gained  new  strong- 
hoMs.  The  practioa  of  assassination  by  which 
he  became  the  terror  of  eastern  monarchs  was 
firat  tried  upon  his  early  Mend  the  grand  vizier 
Nizam  nl-Hnlk.  The  death  of  the  sultan,  ap- 
pventiy  by  poison,  soon  followed,  and  then 
enaoed  a  fearAil  seriee  of  murders  and  repri- 
ula.  Fakhr  ul-Uulk  Abnt-'HoaafTsr,  who  had 
Hicceeded  his  father  Nizam  ul-Mnlk  as  grand 
Tiner,  and  another  of  the  royal  family,  were 
!Masnnat«d.  One  of  Snlton  Sailor's  slaves, 
Tbo  had  been  won  over  to  the  Assassins,  stuck 

■  digger  into  the  ground  near  his  master's 
bead  while  the  latter  was  asleep.  Borne  days 
ftter  the  anltau  rectived  a  letter  from  Alamnt, 


3SINS  35 

Bering,  "Had  we  not  been  well  disposed  to- 
ward tlte  sultan,  we  might  have  plunged  the 
dagger  into  his  heart  instead  of  the  ground." 
Peace  was  then  concluded  between  the  parties, 
and  many  privileges  were  granted  to  the  Assas- 
sins. Hassan  ben  Sabah  survived  all  his  nearest 
relations  and  most  fiothfuJ  disciples.  He  slew 
two  of  his  sons  without  any  apparent  cause. 
He  died  in  1184,  at  tlie  age  of  BO  years,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  general  and  chief  du,  Eia 
Busnrg-Omid,  in  whose  time  hostilities  were 
reneweii  by  Sultso  Sanjar,  and  great  numbers 
of  the  AseasMna  were  put  to  death.  The  vizier 
of  Damascus  gave  them  the  castle  at  Baniao, 
near  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  which  became 
the  centre  of  their  power  in  Syria.  In  1118 
Abul-Wefa,  the  prior  there,  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem,  by 
whidi  he  bound  himself  to  put  the  city  of  Da- 
mascus into  his  power  in  retnrn  for  the  city  of 
Tyre ;  bnt  the  plot  was  discovered  by  the  sul- 
tan, and  the  greater  part  of  the  Assessiiis  and 
the  croaaders  were  attacked  and  out  to  pieces. 
At  Cairo  the  Fatimite  caliph  Abu  Ali  Mansonr 
fell  by  the  dagger  of  on  AssaBsin,  and  shortly 
after  (1136)  the  Abbasside  caliph  was  ossassi- 
nat«d  at  Bagdad.  The  Assassins  now  spread 
all  over  the  western  part  of  Asia,  Irom  the 
oonfinea  of  Ehoraaan  to  the  mountains  of  Sy- 
ria, itom  the  Caspian  to  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  In  UTl  the  last  of  the 
Fatimite  dynasty  died,  and  the  lodge  at  Ouro 
was  overthrown.  Saladin,  who  became  snltan 
of  Egypt,  proved  a  formidable  enemy  to  the 
Assosaius.  In  the  month  of  Bamozan,  116S, 
Hassan  II.,  the  fourth  grand  master,  summoned 
the  inhabitants  of  the  province  to  Alamat, 
where  he  addressed  the  multitude,  announoed 
the  day  of  resurrection  or  revelation  of  ^e 
imam,  and  commanded  them  to  break  the  &st 
snd  give  themselves  up  to  all  kinds  of  pleas- 
ure. A  nmilar  proclamation  was  made  throogh- 
ont  the  country,  and  was  received  by  a  mqority 
of  the  people  with  joy.  In  117B  the  Assassins 
made  two  futile  attempts  on  Salodin's  life,  and 
he  in  return  ravaged  their  territory,  and  only  de- 
sisted from  oompletely  annihilating  their  power 
on  condition  of  nis  being  in  the  future  safe  tVom 
their  doggers.  About  Ilfll  Conrad,  lordof  Tyre 
and  marquis  of  Montfort,  a  near  relation  of 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  was  murdered  by  two 
Assassins,  sdd  to  have  been  hired  for  that  pur- 
pose by  Richard  I.  of  England ;  and  it  seems 
that  the  imprisonment  of  the  latter  by  Leopold 
wasinreprisal  for  tbedesth  of  his  kinsman.  Ilas- 
i  son  UI.  prohibited  everything  that  his  grand- 
father and  father  had  allowed,  and  again  enforc- 
ed the  observance  of  the  precepts  of  Islamism ; 
and  no  assassinations  were  committed  in  his 
reign.  By  this  pmdent  conduct  he  acquired 
the  good  will  of  the  Moslem  princes,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  caliph  of  Bagdad  the  title  of 
sovereign  prince,  a  favor  never  granted  to  anj 
of  his  predecessors.  Under  his  successor,  Ala- 
din  Mohammed,  the  use  of  the  dagger  was  re- 
sumed.   About  1352  Hulaku,  monarch  of  the 


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26  ASSAULT 

Mongols,  captured  Roknedin,  the  last  of  ti»e 
grand  masters,  in  his  castie  of  Mumnudis. 
Rokaedin  and  his  wliole  race  were  oondemned 
to  massacre;  12,000  captives  were  assembled 
and  Blaiight«red  at  ooce ;  troops  went  through 
the  proTinces  to  ezecnte  the  sentence,  and  man; 
of  the  castles  were  demolished.  In  13T0  Saltan 
Bibars  overthrew  their  authority  in  S^ria. 
For  about  a  oentnr;  longer  the  Ismafilians  were 
numerous  in  Persia,  bat  with  dinunished  power. 
Assassins  ore  said  to  remain  still  in  some  parts 
of  the  Lebanon  and  Persia,  bat  only  as  a  heret' 
ical  sect  of  Islamism,  and  the;  seem  to  have 
lost  all  remembrance  of  their  former  power 
and  niDrderoaa  toodoa.  Borne  of  their  doo- 
trioes  and  practices  are  also  traced  In  those 
of  the  Druses.  The  Persian  Ismaelians  oon- 
sider  their  grand  master  as  as  incarnation 
of  the  Deity.  A  few  years  since  the  fact  of 
the  existence  of  the  order  in  India,  widely  dif- 
fnaed,  was  disclwed  through  a  suit  brought  in 
the  English  courts  for  the  possessitHi  of  its  rec- 
ords b;  a  person  claindng  to  be  grand  master. 
ABBIULT,  any  wilful  and  unlawful  attempt 
or  offer,  with  force  or  violence,  to  do  a  corpo- 
ral hurt  to  another.  In  New  York  it  has  been 
added  to  a  definition  of  sabstantiaUy  the  same 
import^  that  the  assault  ma;  consist  of  an;  act 
tending  to  such  corporal  iinur;,  accompanied 
with  each  circumstances  as  denote  at  the  time 
an  intention  coupled  with  the  present  abihty 
of  using  actual  violence  against  the  person. 
But  this  illustration  is  not  quite  correct,  for  to 
cover  the  cases  of  pointing  firearms,  though 
the;  are  not  loaded,  at  persons,  the  ability  to 
do  the  ii^ur;  need  not  oe  actual,  but  it  is  suf- 
fioient  if  it  be  only  apparent.  Nor  need  there 
be  an  actual  intentjon  to  do  the  violent  act; 
for  if  the  asaaolter  causes  it  to  bo  believed  that 
he  has  such  an  intent,  though  he  has  not  in 
fact,  the  assault  ma;  be  committed.  There 
must  be  some  exhibition  or  threat«ning  appear- 
ance of  force,  and  this  must  ordinarily  be  of 
physical  force.  A  throat  alone  is  noi  an  a»- 
Eanlt;  ;et  such  threat,  ^ken  under  droum- 
itances  which  of  themselves,  so  to  speak,  im- 
port restraint  or  force,  may  constitute  the 
offence.  One  who,  having  an  open  knife  in 
his  hand,  and  being  within  striking  distance 
of  another,  demanded  with  tliTeatening  words 
the  eorrender  of  a  certain  paper,  was  held 
guilt;  of  an  assault  Force  may  be  exhibited 
b;  the  rsJsing  of  the  hand  or  a  weapon  as  if  to 
strike,  or  to  hurl  something;  or  by  the  point- 
ing of  a  gun  or  pistol  within  the  range  of  the 
arm,  as  if  to  shoot  with  it,  and  even  though  it 
is  not  loaded,  if  it  is  reasonably  suppoeod  to  be 
loaded  by  the  person  assanlted ;  or  by  wilfiiU; 
riding  a  hone  so  near  a  foot  passenger,  or  driv- 
ing or  attempting  to  drive  a  carriage  against 
the  carriage  of  another,  or  even  b;  driving  it 
toward  the  other,  so  as  in  any  of  these  cases  to 
excite  reasonable  fear  of  i^jur;;  or  b;  pursu- 
ing another 'with  a  dangerous  weapon,  and 
coming  so  near  him  that  he  ma;  reasonably 
.tpprebend  danger.     But  an  assault  may  be 


ASSAYING 

committed,  even  thongh  the  violent  ehow  of 
force  is  not  aotnally  within  reaching  distance, 
provided  it  be  so  near  as  to  excite  a  fear  of  im- 
mediate harm  in  a  person  of  fair  firmness. 
Thus,  where  one  was  approaching  another 
vrith  clenched  fist,  as  if  to  hit  him,  but  was 
stopped  by  bystanders  just  before  he  got  near 
enough  to  do  so,  he  was  held  guilty  of  an 
assanlt.  The  force,  and  thus  the  assault,  may 
exist  t«  the  eye  of  the  law,  even  though  it  is 
not  apparent  on  the  face  of  the  &ctB,  and 
where  from  the  submisson  or  consent  of  the 
victim  it  seems  that  it  could  not  have  existed. 
This  is  illustrated  b;  those  cases  in  which 
schoolmasters  or  ph;sioians  have,  b;  virtue  of 
the  anthorit;  or  tbe  trust  reposed  in  them  in 
these  relations,  induced  ;oung  ^rls  to  submit 
to  indecent  maltreatment.  In  sach  cases  tbe 
consent  is  regarded  by  the  law  as  neither  in- 
telligent nor  volnntary.  Further,  the  force 
must  be  nnlawfiil.  Therefore  it  is  not  an  as- 
sanlt when  a  father  or  a  schoolmaster,  for  good 
reasons,  chastises  a  child  within  proper  limits. 
— Certain  assaults  are  described  as  aggravated 
assaults.  Such  are  assaults  upon  magistrates 
in  courts  of  justioe,  or  against  otiier  ofBcers 
of  the  law.  Bat  it  seems  that  to  constitnte 
such  an  offence,  the  person  assaulted  must  be 
known  to  be  such  an  official,  or  there  must  be 
grounds  upon  which  it  can  fairly  be  presimied 
that  he  was  known  to  be  so.— ;Assanlt  is  a  mis- 
demeanor; that  is  to  say,  it  is  of  an  inferior 
degree  of  criminalit;,  and  is  ordinaril;  pimish- 
able  b;  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  by  both. — 
Assanlt  must  be  distinguished  from  battery. 
The  words  are  commonl;  used  together,  for 
the  reason  that  the  two  offences  are  usuoll; 
committed  together;  but  the;  are  in  loot  dis- 
tiuot  and  separate.  Battery  is  the  actual  In- 
jliction  of  the  threatened  violence.  Bnt  the 
law  will  not  permit  even  the  threat  of  it,  and 
therefore  makes  that  a  substantial  (tfence, 
namely,  an  assault.     (See  Battert.) 

iSaiTE,  or  imjt,  a  villsge  of  Ilindoetan,  In 
Q)e  Nizam's  dominions,  43  m.  N.  E.  of  Anmng- 
abad,  near  which  in  September,  1808,  the 
duke  of  Wellington  (then  Gen.  Wellesley),  with 
S,000  British  troops  and  2,G0O  sepoys,  defeated 
the  much  more  numerous  combined  ftove  of 
Bcindia  and  the  nijah  of  Nagpoor. 

1SS1TU6  (old  Fr.  ataier,  mod:  Fr.  ettayer, 
to  try),  the  chemical  examination  of  an  ore,  a 
metal,  or  an  alio;,  to  determine  the  proportions 
of  its  ingredients.  The  assay  of  a  gold  ore,  to 
obtain  the  amount  of  gold  present,  consists  of 
several  operations.  Fifty  grammes  of  the  ore 
are  mixed  with  80  grms.  of  oxide  of  lead,  20 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  4  of  charcoal  dust,  and 
12  of  powdered  glass.  If  the  ore  contains  much 
silica,  the  glass  m^  be  left  ont;  if  much  sul- 
phur, 2  grms.  of  nails  should  lie  added.  The 
mixture  is  placed  in  a  Hessian  sand  crucible, 
covered  by  a  layer  of  salt,  and  heated  in  a  fur- 
nace for  half  an  hour  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  then 
for  half  an  hour  at  a  white  heat.  When  this 
crucible  is  taken  out  of  tiie  flirnaoe  and  oUowed 


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U  (noi  tad  then  broken  open,  a  batton  or 
eJattle  of  lead  will  be  fonad  at  the  bottom, 
cOTtred  b;  a  dark  giaaey  slag  and  a  lajer  of 
ail  This  bnttoD  oontains  the  gold  Emd  moat 
<tl  &e  nlrer  of  the  orig^al  SO  gnus,  of  ore. 
rb«  oxide  of  lead,  the  quartz,  and  carbonate 
of  poUsh  form  a  fhsible  glassy  slag  which  ab- 
Mte  earthy  imparities.  The  oxide  of  lead 
ffld  nitre  onite  to  drive  off  the  Bulphor  aa  bhI- 
jihnroiig  acid.  The  coal  dnst  redncee  a  portion 
of  oiide  of  lead  to  a  fine  spray  of  metallic  lead, 
vbiA  in  settling  atioys  the  gold  and  silver, 
wTTing  them  to  the  bottom  of  the  cmoible. 
The  batton  osnalty  oontdns,  besides  lead,  gold, 
uid  iilrer,  some  copper,  ni<^el,  antimoiiy,  and 
tdphnr,  if  these  substances  were  present  in 
ibe  ore.  The  process  of  separating  gold  and 
rilTer  from  the  otiier  metals  with  which  they 
tr«  aHoyed  depends  on  the  principle  that  they 
ciaaot  be  converted  into  oxides  when  heated 
in  the  air,  while  the  other  metals  with  which 
Ihey  are  generally  alloyed  can  be  oxidized  at 
1  %h  temperature,  especially  when  a  large 
qniatity  of  lead  is  nresent.  The  lead  button 
iapUeed  in  an  eartJienware  dish  made  of  fire 
clay,  called  a  scorifier  (»ccria,  slag).  A  wind 
fumace  containing  a  mnfSe  is  nsed  for  heating 
the  assay  in  this  and  in  the  sncoeeding  opera- 
fioru  The  fnel  generally  employed  is  coke  or 
uthntcite;  charcoal  is  sometimes  osed  when 
the  other  cannot  be  obtained.  The  mnffle  is  a 
flu-bottomed  earthen  vessel,  8  or  10  ia  long, 
S  or  4  in.  wide,  and  2^  or  8  in.  high,  iu  top 
•relied  over,  one  end  open,  the  other  closed ; 
in  fact  it  is  half  a  cylinder  open  only  at  one 
end.  In  its  roof  and  sides  are  little  apertares 
ihrungh  which  the  dr  drawn  in  at  tlie  open 
end  can  pass.  It  is  set  in  the  fiimaoe,  in  the 
FroDt  of  which  is  an  opening  corresponding  to 
tb«  open  end  of  the  mnffle.  Ooals  are  heiq>ed 
iMond  and  upon  it  to  expose  it  to  the  tM  beat 
of  the  fnmace.  In  the  scorifier,  when  heated 
lo  I  bright  red.  heat,  the  so-called  baser  metals 
ire  oxidized  and  form  a  slag,  leaving  a  small 
qosntity  of  pure  lead  alloyed  with  aUver  and 
fiM.  This  alloy  while  in  the  molten  state  is 
I^wred  into  a  cooling  monid,  hammered  to  free 
it  from  slag,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  next 
operation,  which  is  called  cnpellatioa,  and  is 
performed  in  a  little  cap  oalled  a  cupel.  The 
cupels  should  be  prepared  of  bone  ashes  well 
bunt,  ground,  and  washed,  and  then  shaped 
into  cylindrical  forms  on  inch  or  so  high  and 
i  iiL  in  diameter,  their  tops  having  a  fallow 
depreasion  to  hold  the  metal.  These  capels 
have  the  prooerty  of  absorbing  the  oxides  of 
metals  ana  ot  holding  those  that  will  not  oxi- 
dite;  hnt  as  they  cannot  absorb  a  greater 
rei)[ht  than  their  own  of  oxide  of  lead  or 
litharge,  not  quite  so  much  of  this  metal  should 
t>e  pat  into  any  one  cnpel  aa  its  own  weight. — 
At  the  minta  tiie  aswtyer  is  mostly  oalled  npon 
ti>  practise  his  art  apon  coin  and  bnllion,  alloys 
of  copper,  le»d,  gold,  and  silver,  or  containing 
t«o  or  more  of  these  metals.  In  this  case  the 
preriooa  operations  ot  faNon  in  the  crucible 


riNG  27 

and  slagging  in  the  scorifier  are  omitted,  and 

the  assay  begins  at  this  point  The  alloy  to 
he  assayed  is  carefully  weighed  in  a  delicate 
balance. '  It  may  be  from  2  or  S  grammee,  <x 
even  less,  if  already  considerably  alloyed.  A 
proper  qoantity  of  lead,  known  to  contain  no 
silver,  is  pat  with  it,  and  the  two  are  placed 
by  means  of  small  tongs  in  the  cnpel,  which 
with  the  muffle  has  been  hronght  to  a  Ml  red 
heat  in  the  furnace.  It  is  convenient  to  carry 
on  several  of  these  operations  at  once,  and 
therefore  a  number  of^  the  capels  are  usually 
introdoced  together  on  the  floor  of  the  mnffle. 
The  metals  when  placed  in  the  hot  conel  im- 
mediately melt  and  form  a  bright  globule, 
which  ^ins  aroond  and  keeps  in  continaal  mo- 
tion. The  air  drawing  in  through  the  muffle 
oxidizee  its  sarfaco,  and  fumes  of  the  oxide  of 
lead  are  carried  off  by  the  draft.  At  the  some 
time  a  floating  scam  of  the  oxide  is  constantly 
fiowing  down  the  udes  of  the  globule  and 
sinking  into  the  capel,  while  ti^^ty  formed 
oxide  replaced  it.  Any  copper  that  is  present 
is  oxidized  with  the  lead  ana  absorbed  into  the 
cupel.  Thns  the  operation  goes  on  till  it  ter- 
minates by  all  the  lead  being  oxidized,  which 
is  indicated  by  a  sudden  brightening  up  and 
subsequent  darkening  of  the  little  globale,  and 
the  cessation  of  the  appearance  of  the  fumes 
and  Bonm  of  oxide.  This  little  globule,  which 
is  pure  silver,  pure  gold,  or  an  alloy  of  the  two 
metals,  shows  by  its  weight  the  quantity  that 
was  in  the  sample.  Oare  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  too  intense  heat,  as  this  may  volatiliie 
a  portion  of  the  silver ;  and  the  globule  should 
not  be  cooled  suddenly,  as  the  pure  metal  ab- 
sorbs oxygen  when  melted,  and  ^ves  it  ont  in 
cooling.  If  the  change  is  sudden,  some  silver 
is  apt  to  he  (^ectod  with  the  gas.  By  a  little 
experience  and  care  this  operation  ia  made  so 

Serfect  that  no  sensible  difference  should  be 
etected  in  the  weight  of  two  buttons  obtained 
from  two  assays  of  equal  weights,  when  tested 
by  a  balance  that  toms  with  ^  of  a  milli- 
gramme. The  quantity  of  lead  that  should  be 
added  ia  a  matter  that  can  only  be  determined 
by  experience.  Too  little  lead  for  the  oxi- 
dation of  impurities  prevents  the  formation 
of  a  clean  button  of  silver,  free  of  oxide, 
and  too  much  lead  ia  apt  to  carry  down  with 
it  into  the  cupel  a  small  quantity  of  silver. 
This  operation  ia  often  performed  with  the 
blowpipe,  and  small  cupels  adapted  to  its  uses. 
The  weight  of  the  littie  button  is  ascertained 
by  the  size  of  the  round  hole,  of  a  graduated 
series  of  such  holes  in  a  brass  plate,  which  it 
fita,  the  weight  of  a  button  of  silver  or  one 
of  gold  for  each  hole  having  been  previously 
ascertained.  In  skilful  hands  thia  ia  conducted 
very  expeditiously,  and  with  considerable  acco- 
racy.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  testing 
of  argentiferous  lead  ores,  to  determine  ap- 
proximately their  percentage  in  silver.  The 
lead  also  may  be  quantitatively  determined  by 
the  reducing  process  with  the  blowpipe,  that 
must  precede  the  capelling.     If  the  button 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


23 


ASSATINQ 


when  taken  from  the  oapel  proTee  to  be  pure 
silver,  it  shows  st  odco  the  value  of  the  sam- 
ple of  ore  or  bnlUon ;  but  if  it  contains  gold, 
OS  ID  the  gold  assav,  the  MnODnt  of  gold  mast 
be  fonnd  out  and  snbtrooted  from  Uie  weight 
of  the  button,  luid  the  amonnt  of  each  metal 
will  then  be  known.  To  this  end  the  alloy 
of  these  metals  is  separated  bj  the  process 
called  porting,  or  quartation,  as  it  is  dhqbU]' 
conducted  upon  an  alloy  made  to  contain  at 
least  three  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold.  If 
the  silver  is  in  larger  proportion,  the  gold  oor- 
net  will  crumble;  but  wnen  of  small  amount 
c<»iipared  with  the  gold,  it  is  shielded  hj  the 
gold  from  the  action  of  the  dilute  nitric  acid 
which  is  used  to  dissolve  out  the  silver.  To 
insure  a  perfect  union  of  the  gold  and  silver 
added  to  it,  it  ia  well  to  melt  them  with  lead, 
and  then  separate  tlie  lead  by  cupelling.  More 
beat  maj  be  safely  applied  than  when  silver  is 
cupelled  without  gold,  as  the  alloy  of  diese 
cannot  waste  by  volatilization.  The  button  is 
hammered  out,  heated  red-hot,  and  annealed, 
and  then  rolled  into  a  thin  plate,  which  is 
coiled  up  of  the  size  of  a  qnul,  and  caUed  a 
comet.  This  is  put  into  a  parting  glass,  and 
two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  pure  nitric 
acid  is  poured  upon  it.  Borne  heat  is  applied, 
wlien  red  fames  of  hyponitric  acid  are  given  off, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  ulver  is  dissolved,  and 
the  gold  is  left,  still  retaining  the  form  of  the 
coil,  but  forming  a  brittle,  spongy,  brown  mass. 
The  solution  of  silver  is  pcnrtid  off,  and  a 
strong  acid  is  added  to  the  gold,  and  heated  to 
dissolve  out  the  last  traces  of  silver.    This  is 

Soared  off,  and  the  gold  is  washed  with  hot 
istilled  water.  It  is  carefally  taken  out,  put 
in  a  crucible,  and  heated,  when  it  shrinks  to- 
gether and  regains  its  metolho  lustre  and  the 
nne  color  of  gold,  with  its  softness  and  flexi- 
bility. Being  now  weighed,  the  process  is  fin- 
ished by  the  calculation  of  the  quantity  tost. 
The  silver  is  recovered  by  preoipiUting  it  tram 
the  solution  by  tbe  introduction  of  bright  sheets 
of  copper,  for  which  metal  the  acid  has  a 
greater  affinity  than  for  tbe  silver.  It  is  ascer- 
tained that  in  this  process  the  sUver  is  never 
entirely  taken  up  by  the  nitric  acid,  and  that 
some  gold  is  dissolved  by  tbe  strong  acid, 
as  is  found  by  preserving  for  years  the  same 
acid  to  extract  the  last  traces  of  silver.  The 
inside  of  the  bottle  containing  it  becomes  at 
last  coated  with  tiue  ^Id.  This  has  been  no- 
ticed in  the  British  mmt,  and  foil  SO  groins  of 
gold  have  been  collected  from  bottles  thus  used. 
Very  small  errors  are  thus  involved  in  estimat- 
ing the  quantities  of  silver  and  gold  by  this 
process. — Assoyers  and  metallnrgista  at  the 
present  time  prefer  what  is  termed  the  wet 
method,  performed  by  Uie  aid  of  adds  and  so- 
Intious,  and  cdled  wet  in  contradistinction  to 
tlie  dry  or  fiimace  assay,  for  the  determination 
of  the  amount  of  iron,  zinc,  copper,  and  anti- 
mony in  the  ores  of  these  metals.  The  esti- 
mation of  the  amonnt  of  iron  in  on  ore  is  per- 
formed by  the  ud  of  a  solution  of  permon- 


I  gonate  of  potossinm.  When  a  solution  of  this 
salt,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  violet  color,  is 
added  to  a  solution  of  protoxide  of  iron,  tlie 

I  protoxide  is  immediately  converteil  into  the 

Eeroxide,  and  the  solution  loses  its  color.  If, 
oweverj  the  pcrman^nate  of  potasmam  is 
added  with  constant  stirring  until  all  the  pro- 
toxide is  converted  into  peroxide,  and  one 
drop  too  much  added,  that  one  drop  will  color 
the  whole  iron  solntion  very  distinctly.  It  is 
found  that  the  same  amount  of  iron  always 
requires  the  same  amonnt  of  permantnuiat*  of 
potasdum  to  give  tbe  first  color.  The  per- 
manganate of  potassimn  b  termed  a  standard 
solution.  If  then  0'2  grm.  of  iron  is  dimolved 
in  acid  (muriatic),  and  tbe  standard  solution 
added  tk>m  a  measuring  tube,  we  can  deter- 
mine tbe  amount  of  solution  needed  for  O'S 
grm.  iron;  and  when  on  ore  is  dissolved,  and 
changed  to  protoxide  by  dissolving  zinc  in  it, 
and  uie  standard  eolation  added,  we  obtwi  the 
amount  of  the  solution  needed  fbr  the  amount  of 
iron  in  tbe  ore.  And  tbe  problem  is  solved  by 
this  proportion :  as  first  amount  of  standard  is 
to  second  amount  of  standard,  so  is  0'2  grm. 
of  iron  to  the  amonnt  of  iron  In  the  ore.  The 
dry  method  of  assaying  iron  ores  is  still  used 
to  asrast  the  masters  of  iron  furnaces  in  plan- 
ning the  proportions  of  ingredients  to  bo  used 
in  uie  blast  furnace  for  the  production  of  iron. 
It  is  based  upon  the  same  principles  as  the  re- 
ducing tbem  in  tbe  blast  fomaoe.  The  osygen 
with  which  the  metal  is  combined  must  be 


iron,  and  the  earthy  impurities  must  have  such 
substances  added  to  tbem  that  the  product  of 
their  union  will  be  a  glassy  fluid,  through  wbicb 
tbe  globules  of  metallic  iron  can  eauly  sink 
and  collect  together  in  a  button.  Channal  is 
the  substance  for  deoxidizing  the  ore  in  the 
blast  fiimace  and  in  the  crucible.  The  matters 
for  uding  the  fusion,  called  the  flui,  vary  ac- 
cording to  tbe  earthy  ingredients  of  the  ore. 
The  desired  glassy  fluid  ia  a  silicate  of  lime  and 
alumina,  and  it  may  be  of  niagneda.  If  the 
ores  already  contain  mnch  silica,  carbonate  of 
lime,  with  tbe  addition  of  some  alumina  or 
common  clay,  constitutes  the  proper  flux.  Ores 
deficient  in  silica  require  an  addition  of  it.  Some 
ores  contain  such  a  mixture  of  proper  fluxing 
ingredients,  that  they  melt  easily  without  any 
addition  of  these  matters.  In  the  crucible,  a 
little  borax  increases  very  much  tbe  fu«bility 
of  the  mixture.  The  ore  and  fluxes  should  be 
thoroughly  ground  and  mixed  together,  aad 

filaced  in  a  brasqued  crucible,  that  is,  one  care- 
oily  filled  ond  rammed  with  flne  charcoal,  moist- 
ened with  water  to  a  paste,  and  ont  of  the  top  of 
which  0  cavity  is  excavated  for  holding  the  as- 
say sample.  The  crucible  is  to  be  placed  id  a 
wind  furnace,  and  gradually  heated  for  half  an 
honr,  when  the  whole  force  of  the  blast  ia 
to  be  applied  for  half  on  hour  longer.  A  bat- 
ton  of  cast  iron  will  be  found  in  the  t>ottom  of 
the  cmoible  when  it  baa  cooled. — The  wet  as- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ASSAYING 

ny  of  copper  is  performed  by  diBsolving  a 
veiled  umoant  of  ore  in  mtric  acid,  wid  re- 
moving sulphur  If  present  by  an  addition  of 
chlwate  of  potasaium.  Unriatic  acid  is  added, 
and  the  nitric  acid  removed  by  evaporation. 
The  residae  is  dtwolved  in  water  and  muriatic 
■cid  and  filtered;  the  copper  is  precipitated 
from  thia  solution  by  pure  zinc  or  iron,  and  the 
resulting  copper  aponge  is  waelied  by  decant- 
ing the  liquid  and  replacing  it  by  distilled 
water,  and  then  quickly  dried  and  weighed  as 
metallic  copper ;  from  this  weight  the  value 
of  the  ore  is  easily  calculated.  The  dry  assay 
of  copper  is  atiJl  in  nee  in  Cornwall,  at  Swan- 
sea, and  at  some  other  places.  It  ia,  ae  con- 
ducted by  metallar^ista,  often  an  empirical 
process,  the  fluxes  bemg  added  with  very  vague 
ideas  as  to  their  true  effect.  The  ores  are  prop- 
erly classified  into  those  which  contain  no  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  or  any  foreign  metala  but  iron ; 
those  which  contain  sulphur,  iron,  arsemc,  an- 
timony, Ac.  Ores  of  the  first  class,  ooutaining 
over  S  per  cent,  of  copper,  are  reduced  in  a 
crucible  by  the  addition  of  three  parts  of  black 
flax.  Poorer  ores  may  be  aasayed  in  the  wet 
way.    The  second  class  are  sulphates  or  sul- 

Ehnreta.  The  former  are  easily  decomposed 
J  heat  in  a  platinum  crucible,  when  they  may 
be  treated  as  snbstances  of  the  first  class.  The 
sulphurets,  nnder  which  general  head  are  in- 
cluded most  of  the  workable  ores  of  commerce,  i 
are  treated  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  The 
first  operation,  after  reducing  them  to  fine 
powder,  is  to  roast  or  calcine  them,  to  expel 
the  sulphur.  This  process  requires  care  and 
experience,  and  is  moat  thoroughly  effected, 
according  to  Mitchell,  by  adding  one  tenth  of 
their  weigiit  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  to  the 
roasting  mass  in  the  cmdble,  constantly  stir- 
ring it  in  as  the  calcining  goes  on.  Sulphate 
of  copper  is  produced  by  the  roasting;  and  on 
addition  of  carbonate  oi  ammonia,  by  double 
decomposition,  sulphate  of  ammonia  forms, 
which  being  volatile  can  be  expelled  by  heat. 
The  ore  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  mortar 
with  26  per  cent,  of  its  original  weight  of  lime, 
and  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  fine  charcoal,  and  1  j 
time  its  weight  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda.  The 
whole  is  to  tie  placed  in  the  same  cmcible  in 
which  the  roasting  was  done,  and  covered  with 
its  weight  of  glass  of  borax.  It  is  then  sub- 
jected to  a  moderate  heat  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  and  to  a  bright  red  heat  as  much 
longer.  On  cooling,  ana  breaking  the  crucible, 
the  button  of  copper  will  be  found  in  the  bot- 
tom. It  is  well  to  make  two  parallel  ossaya 
of  these  ores,  that  one  may  confirm  or  dis- 
prove the  other. — The  varieties  of  lead  ores 
which  are  most  commonly  snbjected  to  assay 
are  the  sulphurets  (galena)  and  the  carbonates. 
The  former  is  treated  by  taking  400  or  60O 
grains,  coarsely  powdered,  and  mixing  with  it 
one  fourth  its  weight  of  black  flux,  one  fourtli 
of  iron  nails,  and  one  eiehth  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar. The  crucible  shontu  be  larve  enough  to 
contain  double  the  quantity,  and  the  charge 


ASSEUANI 


should  be  covered  with  common  salt  half  an 
inch  deep.  After  Iwing  exposed  to  a  high  heat 
for  ten  minutes,  the  lead  may  be  ponred  out, 
or  suffered  to  cool  in  the  cmcible.  If  the  ore 
contain  macli  earthy  or  pyritous  matter,  a  less 
proportion  of  iron  filings  should  be  used,  and 
a  little  finor  spar  and  borax  be  added.  Galena 
is  conveniently  assayed  in  on  iron  crucible,  the 
craoible  itself  fornidiing  the  material  for  desul- 
phurizing the  ore.  The  usual  quantity,  say 
400  or  600  grmns,  ia  mixed  with  2}-  times  its 
weight  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  put  in  an 
iron  crucible,  which  is  covered.  The  galena  is 
decomposed,  and  sulphuret  of  iron  formed. 
The  lead  is  poured  ont  icto  an  ingot  mould, 
and  the  crucible  well  tapped  to  obtain  all  the 
lead.  Another  sample  is  immediately  put  in 
while  the  crucible  is  hot,  and  the  operation 
repeated  as  long  as  the  crucible  laste.  The 
carbonatee  are  assayed  with  half  their  weight 
of  black  finx,  and  a  httle  cream  of  tartar, 
with  a  snperficial  covering  of  salt. 

iSSQ.¥Iir,  Jaa,  a  landscape  painter,  bom  in 
IfllO,  died  in  Amsterdam  in  ISflO.  He  studied 
under  Jan  Miet  and  Isaiah  Vandervelde  at 
Antwerp,  and  under  Peter  van  Laer  (Ramboc- 
cio)  at  Rome.  In  his  landscapes  taken  from 
the  vicinity  of  Rome,  which  are  enriched  with 
ruins  of  edifices,  and  decorated  with  figures 
and  cattle  in  the  style  of  Bcrghom,  he  imitates 
the  manner  of  Claude  Lorrune.  He  also  paint- 
ed battle  pieces  of  considerable  merit.  He  was 
surnamed  Krabbe^e  (little  crab,  crab-like)  by 
the  Dutch  artists  at  Rome,  on  account  of  aeon- 
traction  in  hia  fingers. 

ISSEMlin.  I.  JMtyhaMB,  a  Syrian  oriental- 
ist, bom  at  Tripoli  fTarablns)  in  168T,  died  in 
Rome,  Jan.  14,  1708.  After  spending  many 
years  in  the  study  of  eastern  languages,  he  was 
employed  to  collect  oriental  manuscripts  for 
the  library  of  the  Vatican,  and  finally  appoint- 
ed cnstodian  of  the  collection,  wbich  he  large- 
ly increased.  His  principal  works  are:  Biblio- 
theea  Orientalit  uUtnentino-  Vaticana  (Rome, 
lT19-'28);  Kalendaria  Eeeletia  Uninerta 
(1T66-'T);  Biblwtheoa  Jttri*  Orientalit  Cano- 
nist tt  CiisHin  (1762-'4),  Ho  edited  also  an 
edition  of  the  Opera  Ephraemi  Syri  (ir32~'46). 
II.  StepkBH  Eradlu,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
bora  at  Tripoli  in  1707,  died  Nor.  24,  1782. 
Like  his  unde  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  oriental  languages,  and  like  him  was  made 
cnstodian  of  that  department  of  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  from  which  post  ho  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Apamea.  His  investi- 
gations among  oriental  manuscripts  were  em- 
bodied in  his  two  works,  Sibliotbeem  Mfdieeo- 
LauTentina  et  Palatinm  Codieet  Manvteripti 
OrieniaUt  (Florence,  1742),  and  Acta  Sane- 
toram  Martymm  Ori«ntalium  et  OceidetUa- 
Uum  (Rome,  1748).  III.  Jtsepk  Aloyrin,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  born  at  Tripoli  about  1710, 
died  in  Rome,  Feb.  S,  I7S2.  Pnrsaing  the 
same  studios  as  his  uncle  and  brother,  ho  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  Sapienza  at  Rome. 
Hia  worka  are :    Codesi  Liturgieut  EceUsia 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


(Rome,  1770).  IT.  BlMH,  a  dietant  relative  of 
tbe  precediDg,  bom  at  Tripoli,  Feb.  20,  1762, 
(lied  in  Padua,  AprU  8,  1821.  In  1786  he  waa 
appointed  profesBor  of  orieDtal  languages  at 
Padua,  and  acquired  fame  as  a  Btndent  of 
oriental  numiamatics,  on  which  aubject  he 
published  his  Mvteo  c^fieo  Naniano  iUvatrato 
(Padua,  1787-'8),  and  other  works. 

AS8EN,  a  towQ  of  the  Netherlands,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Drenthe,  14  m.  S.  of  Gronin- 
gen,  on  the  Eom-Diep,  which  ia  connected  by 
mennsof  a  canal  with  the  Zuyder-Zee;  pop.  in 
1667,  6,443.  Near  tbe  town  are  celebrated 
giants'  gravea. 

iSSES,  or  jUMrin  ■cMmda,  a  monk  of  St. 
David's  or  Menevia,  in  Wales,  died  about  SIO. 
At  the  request  of  Alfred  the  Oreat  he  left  bis 
monaatery  for  a  part  of  each  year  to  visit  the 
court,  where  he  read  Latin  with  the  king  and 
corrected  his  translations.  Alfred  gave  him 
many  eccleaiastical  prefermenta.  Some  an- 
thoritiea  say  he  became  bishop  of  Sherborne. 
Asser'a  ercst  work  is  his  "Life  of  Alfred,"  in 
Latin.  The  earliest  edition  is  that  of  Arch- 
bishop Parlter,  at  the  end  of  Walsingham's 
'■  History  "  (1574).  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Wise  (Oiford,  1722),  entitled  Artnala  Serum 
Gatarum  jElfredi  Magni.  This  is  our  chief 
authority  for  the  events  of  Alfred's  public  and 
private  life  ttota  his  birtb  to  889,  and  conveys 
mach  incidental  intelligence  about  the  laws, 
manners,  and  general  civilization  of  Wessex. 
Thomas  Wright,  in  the  Biographia  Sritanniea 
Littraria,  majntains  that  this  life  waa  written 
at  a  later  date,  and  Asser's  name  affixed  to  it 

iSSIENTO  (Sp.  agienUt,  treaty),  a  term  used 
to  designate  the  treaties  made  by  Spain  with 
foreign  countries  for  the  supply  of  negro  slaves 
to  her  South  American  provinces.  The  Span- 
ish government,  having  no  settlements  on  the 
African  coast,  encouraged  adventurers  to  sup- 
ply slaves  by  securing  to  them  a  monopoly  of 
the  trade,  with  other  commercial  privileges. 
Tbe  Flemish  merchants  received  the  contract 
ttom  Charles  V, ;  Phiiip  II.  gave  it  U>  the 
Genoese,  under  whose  title  the  traffic  was 
chiefly  carried  on  by  British  traders;  and  Philip 
V.  to  a  French  company.  The  terms  of  this 
last  asaiento  were  the  privilege  of  sending  a  ship 
of  500  tons  with  merchandise  free  of  duty  to 
Spanish  America,  and  the  payment  of  a  sum 
on  each  imported  negro,  the  minimum  number 
of  slaves  l)eing  fixed  at  4,800  annually.  This 
contract  was  transferred  by  the  same  king  to 
the  South  sea  company,  bnt  abrogated  shortly 
after  at  the  peace  of  Aii-lft-Chapelle.  It  never 
gave  satisfaction  to  Sp^n ;  and  the  contrac- 
tora  always  lost  money,  their  local  factors 
and  agenta  reaping  the  profits. 

iSSIGNlTS,  the  p^er  onrrency  of  the  French 
revolution,  first  issued  in  tbe  spring  of  1790,  to 
be  redeemed  by  the  sale  of  the  confiscat«d 
property  of  tbe  clergy  and  the  emigrants.  The 
assignats  kept  their  valne  above  &0  per  cent. 


ASSIGNATIONS 

till  17Sa,  bnt  from  that  time  they  began  to 
droop.  The  original  issue  of  1,200,000,000 
francs  was  increased  to  45,578,000,000,  besides 
which  there  were  in  circulation  a  great  num- 
ber of  counterfeit  notes  manufactured  abroad. 
Great  efforts  were  made  to  prop  the  market, 
and  stringent  laws  were  enacted  to  fix  prices 
and  force  the  people  to  accept  the  notes  at  their 
nominal  value;  but  they  soon  fell  lo  60  per 


In  17B8  they  were  redeemed  at  ^"11  o 
in  mandaU,  entitling  the  holder  to  enter  at 
once  upon  possession  of  the  public  lands  at  en 
estimated  price.  The  mandats  soon  fell  to  ^ 
of  their  nominal  valne,  and  in  July,  17SG,  a 
law  was  passed  authorizing  the  circulation  of 
mandats  at  their  current  value,  which  resulted 
in  the  speedy  disappearance  of  the  notes. 

lS§IfiNlTION^  Russian  paper  money,  intro- 
duced eariy  in  the  reign  of  Catharine  II.,  abunt 


then  as  now  the  silver  ruble,  and  the  paper 
assignations  on  the  bonks — likewise  founded 
by  Catharine — were  to  represent  in  full  tbe 
standard  silver  coin.  But  they  soon  fell  until 
the  assignation  ruble  was  worth  only  one  lialf, 
one  third,  and  finally  one  fourth  of  the  original 
valne ;  and  thus  it  became  necessary  to  specify 
the  nature  of  the  ruble  in  all  transactions. 
From  1787  the  use  of  assignations  as  currency 
was  general.  In  the  reign  of  Paul  I.  the  mer- 
chants of  St.  Petersburg,  foreign  and  domestic, 
refused  to  receive  assignations  at  the  govern- 
ment standard  in  payment.  Stringent  ukases 
for  facilitating  tlie  circulation  of  assignations 
all  over  the  empire  proved  unsuccessful,  and  at 
the  death  of  Paul  (1801),  and  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  the  assig' 
nation  ruble  was  generally  worth  one  fourtli 
of  the  silver.  During  the  wars  against  Napo- 
leon the  issue  of  assignations  increased  exces- 
sively, but  no  considerable  additional  deprecia- 
tion took  place.  With  peace  tbe  as^gnatioDS 
rose,  and  finally  the  government  fixed  the 
Standard  at  3  rubles  60  copecks,  either  of  eop- 
per  or  assignations,  for  a  silver  ruble,  one  as- 
signation ruble  equalling  100  copecks  copper, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASSIGNMENT 


B  Id  paper,  the  assignatione  soon  came 
bih>  such  demand  as  to  be  worth  a.  preminni. 
Tlus  preminm  Datnratlj  increased  with  the  dis- 
tance inland,  and  the  Huctnationswere  k>  irreg- 
iiliir  that  in  1839  a  akase  regulated  the  value 
of  the  asaignatioos  at  S}  to  1  Bilver,  and  order- 
ed that  henceforth  the  silver  ruble  should  be 
the  legnl  unit  in  all  negotiationB  and  legal  doc- 
nments;  that  a  new  paper  money,  called  "bills 
of  credit,"  should  be  issued,  and  the  old  assig- 
nations gradually  withdrawn  from  cironlation 
and  destroyed.    This  was  aocomplished. 

ISSieXMENT,  in  law,  the  making  over  or 
transferring  of  any  species  of  property.  It  also 
ngnifies  the  deed  or  instmment  oy  which  the 
transfer  is  operated.  The  assignment  of  a 
lease  is  the  transfer  of  the  assignor's  whole 
estate  in  the  term  created  by  the  original  lease. 
The  difference  between  an  assignment  and  an 
underlease  is  that  the  underlease  retains  the 
reversion,  whereas  the  assignment  parts  with 
it.  As«gnment  in  commercial  law  was  for- 
merly mnch  reatrioled.  Bills  of  lading  and 
bills  of  exchange  were  not  assignable.  All  in- 
terests in  personal  property,  of  which  a  man 
has  not  the  actual  possesion,  but  merely  the 
right  to  recover,  are  choses  in  action.  Thns  a 
debt,  whether  specialty  or  simple  contract,  is  a 
chose  in  action,  a  something  to  be  recovered. 
These  were  not  assignable.  These  restraints 
were,  however,  evaded  by  a  license  to  use  the 
name  of  the  legal  creditor.  Even  under  a  bill 
of  Bale  of  goods,  the  property  in  them  does  not 
pass  unless  by  actnal  dehvery  and  possesion  as 
against  ionajlde  creditors.  Both  by  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  law,  property  in  the  power 
and  disposition  of  a  debtor  may  by  process  of 
law  be  transferred  to  bis  creditor. 

ismVG.  !•  Ian  Iliria,  a  German  poetess, 
■ister  of  Vamhagen  von  Ense,  bom  in  Dossel- 
dorf,  Hay  28,  1788,  died  Jan.  22,  1840.  The 
outbreak  of  tho  French  revolution  obliged  her 
fiuuily  to  take  np  their  residence  in  Strasbnrg, 
and  in  1796  they  removed  to  Hamburg.  Afler 
the  death  of  her  father  in  1799  ahe  became  a 
teacher.  In  1610  she  married  Dr.  Asmng^  a 
physician  of  KOnigsberg,  who  on  her  accoant 
removed  to  Hamburg,  where  his  house  became 
a  favorite  place  of  literary  reanion.  The  poet 
Chamisso  was  a  frequent  visitor.  Rosa's  poems 
have  been  puhliahed,  with  a  memoir  of  her 
life,  nnder  the  ^tle  of  Rota  Maria'i  poetueha- 
JfaehloM  (Altoaa,  1841).  II.  LatalUa,  daugh- 
ter of  the  preceding,  horn  at  Hombnrg,  Feb. 
23,  1827.  After  the  death  of  her  parents 
she  rewled  in  Berlin  with  her  nncle,  the 
celebrated  Vamhagen  von  Ense,  occupying  a 
(langhter's  place  in  his  honse,  and  receiving  an 
unnsnally  complete  education.  She  first  pub- 
lished essays  in  newspapers  and  reviews,  and 
in  1637  produced  a  biogra[ihy  of  the  connteas 
Elisa  von  Ahlefeldt.  Several  other  biographies 
followed  from  her  pen.  On  the  death  of  her 
ancle  she  edited  tbe  unpublished  portion  of  bis 
Deahtirdi^keiten,  issning  the  8th  and  9th  vol- 
nmesinl669.  In  ISflO  she  also  published  Ales- 
M  vou  II. — 3 


ASSINIB0IN8 


31 


ander  von  Humboldt's  letters  to  her  nncle,  and 
in  lBSl-'2  the  diaries  of  Vamhagen  von  Ense 
himself.  The  manner  in  which  political  events 
are  treated  in  this  collection  brought  her  into 
disfavor  with  the  cod rt,  and  in  May,  18S3,  hibo- 
tion  was  begun  against  her  in  Berlin — she  hav- 
ing  in  the  autumn  of  1661  taken  up  berreddenoe 
in  Florence^ which  resulted  in  lier  conviction 
as  a  traducer  of  the  king,  qneen,  and  varioos 
personages,  and  in  her  sentence  to  eight  months' 
imprisonment.  A  similar  trial,  and  sentence  to 
two  years'  imprisonment,  followed  tlie  publica- 
tion of  the  remaining  volumes  of  the  cotleo- 
tron  in  1864;  but  she  never  actually  under- 
went these  punishments.  She  has  since  trans- 
lated much  from  tbe  Italian. 

iSSINlBOUr,  a  river  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica, rising  in  lat.  51°  40'  N.  and  abont  Ion. 
105°  W.,and  joining  the  Red  river  of  the  North 
at  Fort  Garry,  Manitoba,  in  lat.  49°  64'  N. 
Its  course  is  a  distance  of  over  400  m.  At  a 
point  33  m.  above  Fort  Garry  it  is  120  ft  wide, 
and  has  here  in  summer  a  mean  depth  of  about 
e  ft. ;  140  m.  irom  its  mouth  its  breadth  be- 
comes 2S0  ft.  and  its  mean  depth  over  6  ft. ;  at 
280  m.  its  depth  increases  to  over  11  ft.  with 
a  width  of  18Q  ft.  It  receives  in  its  ooorse 
the  waters  of  the  Little  Souris,  Qn'appelle  or 
Calling  river,  the  Rapid  river  or  the  Little 
Saskatohewan,  White  Sand  river,  and  Beaver 
creek.  At  its  junction  with  the  Little  8onri% 
140  m.  from  Fort  Oarry,  the  volnme  of  water 
is  12,699,040  gallons  an  hour ;  while  at  Lane's 
Post,  118  m.  lower  down,  this  volnme  is  di- 
minished, Mr.  Hind  asserts,  more  than  one 
half;  ft  result  which  be  attributes  to  evapora- 
tion. At  Fort  Ellice  the  secondary  banks  are 
240  H.  high,  forming  an  eroded  valley  nearly 
a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  Parts  of  its  coarse 
are  bordered  by  incon«derable  forests  of  oak, 
ash,  elm,  maple,  birch,  poplar,  and  aspen. 

ISSDflBOlHS,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  tlie  Da- 
kota femily,  in  Montana  territory.  United 
States,  and  in  Manitoba  and  the  region  round 
abont  in  British  America.  They  were  a  part 
of  the  Yankton  Sionx,  bat  after  a  bitter  quar- 
rel abont  women  separated  from  the  mass  of 
the  nation  about  the  beginning  of  the  ITth 
century,  and  tho  two  parties  have  since  been 
hostile.  Their  own  distinctive  name  is  never 
used  ;  the  neighboring  Algonqnin  tribes  called 
them  Aasinipwaiak,  Stone  Sioux,  or  Stone 
Warriors,  as  some  infer  from  the  nature  of 
their  conntry  near  the  I^e  of  the  Woods. 
The  adventurous  French  missionaries  reported 
them  as  a  nation  as  early  as  1C40,  and  at  a 
very  early  period  they  traced  furs  on  Hudaon 
bay.  In  the  British  provinces  Thoy  are  divid- 
ed into  Assintboins  of  the  prairies,  who  are 
tall,  vigorous,  and  thievish,  and  Assiniboins  of 
the  woods,  who  ore  wretchedly  jioor.  Tliey 
estend  from  Souris  or  Monse  river  to  the 
Athabasca,  and  number  some  6,000.  Tliere 
are  Roman  Catholic  and  Methodist  missions 
among  them  at  Lake  Ste.  Anne  and  Pigeon 
lake.    Thoy  are  friends  and  allies  of  the  C^es, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


3a  .  ASSISI 

and  live  intermixed  with  them.  In  the  TInit«d 
States  the  Red  Stone  AssiniboiiiB  and  Upper  As- 
nniboina  were  eetimsted  in  ISTl  at  1,SS0  wdIs. 
ifiSlSl  (anc.  Airitium),  a  town  of  Ital;,  in 
the  province  and  18  in.  E.  S,  E.  of  Pemgia,  pic- 
taresqnel;  situated  oc  the  declivity  of  a  ateep 
hill ;  pop.  about  8,200.  It  ia  especiallf  noted 
as  Uie  birthplace  of  St.  Francis,  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Franciscans,  and  contains  12 
ninnaateries  of  that  order.  Here  are  the 
church  and  monastery  in  which  St.  Francis  ia 
bnried,  and  about  2  m.  from  the  town  is  the 
celebrated  Portinncola  or  chnrch  where  Fran- 
cis began  the  jireaching  of  his  ascetic  life.    As- 

portance,  having  a  temple  of  Minerva,  of  which 
■ereral  Corinthian  columns  still  stcuid.  The 
region  around  abounds  in  mineral  waters. 

1B81ZE,  a  term  of  the  common  law,  having 
reference  to  several  distinct  salyects.  Its  most 
general  nees  are  to  designate  an  ordinance  for 
Isolating  the  sale  of  provisions,  and  the  peri- 
odical sittings  held  by  tlie  judges  of  England 
and  law  officers  in  the  various  circuits  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  for  the  trial  of  lawsuits  as 
well  civil  as  criminal.  The  term  is  of  uncer- 
ieia  derivation.  It  may  be  either  ihim  Lat. 
attido,  te  asseso,  or  anideo,  to  sit  near  or  to- 
gether, both  of  which  are  incident  to  the  func- 
tions discharged  at  assizes.  Buits  for  tlie  re- 
oovery  of  land  were  anciently  tried  by  writ 
of  right,  or  of  assize.  On  these  occasions  the 
sheritf  impanelled  fonr  knights  and  twelve  as- 
datants  to  try  the  matters  in  dispute.  This 
assize  could  only  be  held  before  a  judge  of 
the  principal  courts  at  Westminster,  whereby 
enormous  expense  was  entailed  on  the  jurors, 
the  parties,  and  the  witnesses.  To  remedy 
this  grave  inconvenience,  provision  was  made 
by  MsKua  Cbarta  that  an  assize  should  be  held 
annnaUy  by  a  judge  in  each  county.  This  dec- 
laration was  enlarged  by  the  statute  of  West- 
minster (13  Edward  I.,  c.  S^,  which  gave  juris- 
diction to  the  judges  to  rit  m  the  grand  asuze, 
Dot  only  for  the  purpose  of  settling  disputes  as 
to  land,  but  also  for  the  a^jndication  of  all  civil 
actions.  The  sittings  thus  held  are  familiarly 
known  as  sittings  at  niti  priia.  Thia  term 
originated  from  the  form  of  the  process  for 
Bonunoning  and  impanelling  the  Jury,  which, 
foUowing  the  words  of  the  statate  of  West- 
minster, directs  the  sheriff  to  summon  a  jury 
to  be  at  Westminster  on  the  first  day  of  term, 
onleas  before  {niti  prim)  a  judge  shall  come 
to  try  issues  in  the  county. — The  criminal  juris- 
diction of  the  court  at  the  assizes  is  derived 
from  a  commiasion  of  oyer  and  terminer  and 
general  jail  delivery.  Courts  for  these  purposes 
are  held  at  each  asfdze.  Two  assizes  a  year 
are  held  throughout  England  and  Wales,  and 
in  the  metropolitan  and  some  other  counties 
which  comprise  populous  districts.  Three  as- 
luzes  are  held  under  modem  sUtutes.  Courte 
of  quarter  sessions  arc  also  heid  in  the  several 
connties,  cities,  and  Imrongbs.  The  sessions 
despateh  budnees  of  a  quBsi-jndicia]  character, 


AffiUMPSIT 

as  ale-house  licenses,  poor-law  questions,  or  ap- 
peals under  certein  statutes ;  and  of  late  years, 
with  a  view  of  relieving  the  pressure  of  assize 
business,  jurisdiction  has  been  given  to  county 
magiatratea  wtting  in  sessions  to  decide  certain 
criminal  causes  of  minor  importance.  Under 
the  statute,  the  assizes  are  held  by  two  jndges 
of  the  superior  courts  of  Westminster,  one  of 
whom  usually  presides  in  the  criminal,  the 
other  in  the  civil  court.  Ail  reserved  ptnnta 
of  law,  exceptions,  and  other  purely  legs] 
questions  arising  out  of  the  proceedings  at  the 
trial,  are  argued  subsequently  at  Westminster 
before  the  ftiU  court  Final  judgment  cannot  be 
entered  up  until  after  the  Urst  four  days  of  the 
term  next  after  the  assizes,  which  gives  oppor- 
tunity te  move  the  court  above  for  new  trials, 
to  set  amde  verdicts,  or  to  stey  judgment  for 
any  canse  assigned.  To  obviate  the  evils  of  the 
delay  thus  afforded  by  common  law,  a  recent 
statate  gives  discretion  te  the  jodge  at  nut 
priw  to  certify  for  immediate  execution,  in  nil 
cases  of  simple  contract  debts.  The  bar  at  the 
assizes,  or  "  upon  circuit,"  as  the  more  correct 
phrase  ia,  is  composed  of  the  same  barristerB 
who  argue  at  Westminster,  each  in  his  partic- 
ular circuit,  selected  at  the  banning  of  his 
career,  and  from  which  by  etiquette  he  cannot 
deviate  except  in  extraordinary  cases. — lirin 
•f  Brtad,  or  provisions  {a*»itm  tenalivm),  in 
England,  was  the  ordinance  of  a  royal  officer, 
or  of  the  municipality,  fixing  the  price  and 
qoality  of  bread,  beer,  meat,  fish,  coals,  and 
other  necessaries.  This  was  anciently  fixed  hj 
the  clerk  of  the  market  of  the  liing's  house- 
hold. By  some  municipal  chiirters  this  power 
was  delegated  to  the  corporation.  The  earliest 
distinct  notice  of  anoh  an  assize  bears  date 
1203.  All  regnlations  of  the  kind  were  abol- 
ished for  London  and  its  vicinity  in  1616,  and 
they  have  everywhere  (alien  into  disuse. — Ab- 
riici  sf  JemalsH  were  the  laws  made  in  1099 
by  Godfrey  of  Bonillon,  and  his  prince*  and 
clergy,  for  the  regulation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  formed  in  the  first  crusade. 

iSSVlT.    See  Asuat. 

A88IIHFSIT  (Lat.,  he  undertook),  in  law,  the 
compendious  title  under  which  an  extenaive 
class  of  actions  are  included.  After  statinft 
the  cause  of  action,  the  pleadings  state  that 
thereupon  "  the  defendant  promised  to  pay." 
Assumpsit  may  he  either  special  or  common, 
also  cidled  iiidiiitalui  owumptit.  Under  the 
former  are  included  actions  upon  written  con- 
tracts or  agreements  of  all  kmds;  actions  for 
derelictions  of  duty  by  professional  men,  car- 
riers, or  warehousemen;  in  short,  mider  every 
drcumstance  where  a  contract  is  in  actoal  ex- 
istence or  can  be  predicated  tram  the  relatjona 
of  the  parties.  Common  assumpait  is  an  ac- 
tion brought  for  goods  sold  and  delivered, 
money  lent,  &c.  Theoretically  all  actions  of 
assumpsit  are  brought  to  recover  compensation 
in  the  nature  of  damages;  but,  where  those 
damages  can  he  immediat^ely  ascertained  by 
the  acts  of  the  partios,  as  for  goods  sold  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASSUMPTION 

JelirBred,  where  a  price  has  baen  agreed  npon, 
Ui«ii  it  is  common  assumpsit. 

iSSVaPTlON,  a  festival  of  the  Koman  Oatbo- 
lie  cbiiroh,  in^dtuted  to  ooramemorute  the  aii- 
oent  of  the  Virgin  Mary  into  heaven.  From  a 
Tety  early  period  it  has  been  a  belief  in  the 
ireatem  and  oriental  chorches  that  after  her 


ecclesiastical  writings  tbe  "  ossumptioD,"  "  pos- 
siige,"  or  "  repose,"  and  is  mentioned  bj  vw^- 
008  early  aathora,  among  whom  are  St.  Greg- 
ory of  Toura  in  the  6th  century,  and  Andrew 
of  Orate  at  the  beginning  of  the  8th.  The 
dat«  of  the  institotion  of  the  festival  is  no- 
known,  bnt  it  is  mentioned  as  having  been 
oelebrated  vith  groat  solemnity  before  the  0th 
century,  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  churchea.  It 
&Us  OS  Aug.  15. 


Lake  Verret  and  t,  part  of  Bayon  La  Fonrche 
area,  320  aq.  m.;  pop.  in  19T0,  18,294,  of 
whom  S,984  were  colored.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile,  and  the  parish  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive Bogar  districts  in  the  United  States. 
In  1970  it  produced  24B,a2B  bnshela  of  Indian 
com,  17,229  lbs.  of  rice,  B.5S8  hhds.  of  sugar, 
and  499,186  gallons  of  molasses.     Capital,  As- 


[,  a  city  of  South  America.  See 
AauKOion. 

iSHIMPflON,  one  of  the  Ladrone  group  of 
islanda  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  lat.  19^  4l'  N., 
ion.  14S°  27'  E.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  risea 
to  the  height  of  about  2,000  feet,  and  Is  nearly 
10  milea  in  ciroumference.  It  produces  cocoa- 
nnts,  lice,  oranges,  and  breadfruit. 

iSBOKANCE*    Sec  Isbc&akcb, 

iSBWAir,  or  Isua  (anc.  Sym« ;  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  Setene/i),  a  town  on  the  southern 
border  of  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Nile,  opfKMite  the  islanJ  of  Elepjiantin^  in 
lat  24°  6'  N.,  a  little  below  the  first  cataract, 
where  the  river  is  Brat  navigable ;  pop.  about 
4,000.  The  tropio  of  Cancer  was  anciently 
but  erroneously  drawn  here.  The  surrounding 
country  is  sandy  and  desolate,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  palm  groves,  is  almost  des- 
titute of  vegetation.  The  inhabitants  are 
EgyptJaua,  Nubians,  and  the  descendants  of 
Bosnian  troops  garrisoned  there  by  Sultan 
Selim  I.,  the  conqueror  of  Egypt,  iu  1B17. 
Amvan  has  considerable  commerce  in  dates, 
tenna,  wicker  baskets,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
tamarinds,  coffee,  and  slaves.  On  the  S.  aide 
are  the  rnins  of  an  ancient  Saracen  town, 
where  daring  the  middle  ages  20,000  persona 
died  by  one  visitation  of  the  plague. 

laSTKU  (Gr.  •Aaavpla;  Heb.  Aahthter),  an 
ancient  country  in  Asia,  lying  upon  both  banka 
of  the  Tigris,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  groat  mon- 
archiea  of  antiquity,  and  now  comprised  with- 
in the  easternmost  dominions  of  the  Turkish 
empire.  The  name  comes  from  Asshnr,  a 
son  of  Shero  and  grandson  of  Noah,  probably 


ASSYRIA  33 

a  leader  in  one  of  the  great  early  migrations, 
who  was  deified  and  recognized  as  the  tutelary 
divinity  of  the  country  occupied  by  the  de- 
scendants of  tlie  olan  of  wliich  he  was  tha 
chief.  Id  its  earlier  and  most  limited  sense, 
Assyria  was  a  narrow  territory,  mainly  on  the 
E.  bank  of  tlie  Tigris,  including  the  triangle 
formed  by  that  river  and  the  Greater  Zab  (the 
Zabatna  or  Lycus  of  the  classical  writers),  a 
district  especially  known  as  Atnria;  the  dt»- 
trict  of  Adiabene,  between  the  Greater  Zab 
and  the  Lesser  (the  Caprua  of  the  Greeks  and 
KotnaDs);  and  some  regions  to  the  southea.st 
of  the  latter.  Assyria  was  thus  bounded  N. 
by  the  snowy  Niphates  range,  which  separated 
it  from  Armenia,  and  E.  by  the  Zagros  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  which  separated  it  from 
Uedia,  and  on  the  S.  and  W.  it  bordered  on 
Suaiana,  Babylonia,  and  western  Mesopotamia. 
It  was  mountainoua  in  the  north  and  east,  a 
rolling  plain  iu  most  other  parta,  and  east  of 
the  Tigris  well  watered.    Later,  when  Assyria 


Mesopotamia.  Still  later,  and  in  the  widest 
sense,  Assyria  denoted  toe  entire  plain  wa- 
tered by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigria,  to- 
gether with  the  countries  to  the  west,  north, 
and  east,  which  became  subjects  of  or  tribu- 
tary to  tjie  great  Assyrian  empire. — There  is 
no  record  of  the  time  when  the  country  waa 
first  peopled.  Berosus,  whose  chronology  from 
tbe  commencement  of  the  historic  period  is 
confirmed  from  various  sources,  makes  a  pe- 
riod of  86,000  years  before  the  capture  of 
Babylon  by  Cyrus  (.i3a  B.  C.) ;  but  of  thit 
34,080  years  belong  to  a  mythical  dynasty  of 
86  kings.  This  number  is  merely  assumed  to 
make  up  the  grand  Ohaldcan  cycle  of  30,000 
years.  His  historic  chronology  begins  at  2468 
B.  C.,  a  short  period  before  the  time  when,  ac- 
cording to  the  Scriptural  narrative,  Nimrod  es- 
tablished his  reign  in  "Babel,  and  Erecb,  and 
Acoad,  and  Galneh,  in  the  land  of  Shioar,"  out 
of  which  land  "  went  forth  Asshnr,  and  bnilded 
Nineveh,  and  the  city  Reboboth,  and  Calah, 
and  Resen  between  Nineveh  and  Calah,"  all 
cities  on  or  near  the  upper  Tigris.  Fmn  this 
time  for  fully  1,000  years  there  is  no  record 
of  Assyria  in  tbe  Hebrew  writers ;  and  down 
to  about  1850,  when  the  inscriptions  of  Nin- 
eveh and  Calah  had  been  uneartlied  nod  deci- 
phered by  Botta,  Layard,  and  others,  there 
was  absolutely  nothing  known  of  the  tme  his- 
tory of  this  great  empire,  which  lasted  more 
than  1,000  years,  except  as  it  was  ior  ■  brief 
space  connected  with  that  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Jndah.  The  legends  of  Ninus, 
Semiramis,  N'inyas,  and  Sardanapalus  have  no 
other  foundation  than  that  among  the  Assy- 
rian kings  was  one  named  Asahur-bani-pal, 
or  similarly,  and  a  queen  Bammnramit ;  that 
Nineveh  was  taken  by  a  revolt  in  which  the 
Modes  took  part;  and  that  the  final  destrno- 
tion  of  the  great  palace  was  by  fire. — The 
earliest  known  native  doonment  of  Assyrian 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


34  ASS 

hiBtory  is  impressed  npon  three  clay  cylinders 
found  by  Layard  at  Kiieh-ahergliat,  the  ear- 
lier As^ur,  one  of  the  canitalB,  the  only  one  ^ 
situated  oD  the  right  bans  of  the  Tigris.  It  < 
forms  the  records  of  King  Tiglath-pileser  I., 
whose  dRt«  is  by  other  records  fixed  ftt  about 
1130  B.  C.  From  this  and  other  monuments 
it  appears  that  for  many  centuries  there  were 
in  the  lands  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
two  rival  kiugdoms,  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
each  in  turn  superior  to  the  other;  and  that 
aboDt  12S0  Assyria  had  come  to  be  a  pow- 
erful and  compact  kingdom,  under  a  single 
monarch,  surrounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  scattered  tribes,  who  somettmes  coalesced 
into  temporary  alliances,  hut  wi-re  one  by  one 
beaten  down  and  rendered  tribatary.  The 
Assyrian  capital  was  at  Kileh-shershat,  the 
old  Asshur,  some  60  m.  below  NineveTi,  and  on 
the  opposite  hank  of  tlia  Tigria.  On  the  west 
it  reaclied  the  Euphrates ;  on  the  south  was 
the  rival  kingdom  of  Babylonia.  For  the  next 
two  centuries  the  history  of  Assyria  is  almost 
a  blank.  During  this  period  a  compact  king- 
dom of  Israel  was  founded  by  David.  The  do- 
minion of  David  and  Solomon  stretched  beyond 
the  range  of  Lebanon,  nominally  reaching  quit« 
across  the  desert  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphra- 
tes; but  it  is  clear  that  neither  David  nor  Sol- 
omon ever  came  into  contact  with  the  Assyrian 
power.  This  power  seems  indeed  to  have  then 
become  enfeebled  ;  and  when,  after  the  sepa- 
ration into  Israel  and  Judah,  the  Hebrews 
were  pressed  back  within  thslr  old  limits,  the 
new  kingdom  of  Damascus  hod  arisen.  When 
our  record  is  resumed,  the  residence  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  had  been  removed  40  m.  npthe 
Tigris  to  Calah  (now  Nimrud),  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  river.  At  the  angle  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Upper  or  Greater  Zab,  Calah  was 
only  20  m.  below  the  site  now  recognized  as 
that  of  Nineveh,  and  possibly  was  considered 
a  part  of  that  great  city.  The  monarch  whose 
reign  was  from  88(1  to  858  appears  on  the  in- 
scriptions OS  Asshiir-nosir-pal  (or,  according 
to  oAer  readings,  Asshur-izir-pal  or  Asshur- 
idanni-pol),  "the  great  king,  the  powerful 
king,  king  of  hosts,  king  of  Assyria."  He 
overran  the  mountain  region  of  Armenia  and  \ 
Enrdistan,  and  his  furthest  expedition  was  '- 
throngh  Lebanon  and  the  valley  of  the  Orontcs  \ 
to  the  Mediterranean  shore,  whore  he  received  j 
the  submission  of  the  chief  cities  of  Phcenicio. 
From  Lebanon  he  brought  back  the  cedar 
which  was  used  to  ornament  his  palace  at 
Calah  or  Nimrud.  The  sculptures  from  this 
palace  are  among  the  moat  striking  of  all  the 
Assyrian  remains.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Shalraaneser  H.,  whose  reign  lasted  from 
83S  to  823.  He  U  known  as  tlie  "black 
obelisk  king,"  from  an  otielisk  T  feet  high  and 
22  inches  wide,  now  in  the  British  museum, 
upon  the  four  sides  of  which  is  portrayed, 
pictorially  and  literally,  the  history  of  his  27 
campaigns.  These  were  carried  on  upon  the 
middle  Euphrates,  in  Babylonia,  in  the  moun- 


tains of  Knrdistan  and  Armenia,  upon  both 
slopes  of  Lebanon,  down  the  valley  of  the 
Oroides,  and  in  tlio  kingdom  of  Israel.  Among 
the  prostrate  figures  is  one  described  as'Jehn 
tiio  son  of  Omri,  the  king  of  Israel,  The  As- 
syrian king  moved  down  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  leaving  Judah  on  his  left  untouched,  bnt 
receiving  tribute  from  the  Ph<enician  cities  of 
Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Byhlus.  Five  years  before 
his  death  Shalmaneser  was  dethroned  by  a 
revolt  headed  by  his  eldest  son.  This  revolt 
was  put  down  by  a  youufrer  son,  Shamas- 
iva,  who  reigned  13  years  (833-810),  carried 
his  arms  into  Media  and  Babylonia,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Iva-lush,  who  married 
Ssmmuramit,  a  Babylonian  princess  who,  as  the 
only  female  ruler  recorded  in  Assyrian  history, 
furnished  the  Greek  fabulists  with  the  name 
of  Semiramis.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  seem 
now  to  have  been  formally  united ;  the  govern- 
ment of  the  former  being  specially  put  into 
the  hands  of  a  member  of  the  royal  Assyrian 
family,  who  acted  as  viceroy.  Nineveh,  the 
mwn  ruins  of  which  are  now  visible  at  Eoyun- 
jik  and  Nebbi-Yunus,  opposite  Mosul,  liad 
now  become  the  Assyrian  cajiital.  The  book 
of  Jonah,  who  is  believed  to  have  lived  dur- 
ing this  period,  is  of  historical  value  from 
the  glimpse  which  it  affords  of  the  extent  of 
that  great  city  in  its  palmiest  days.  If  we 
assame  that  the  120,000  persons  who  "  knew 
not  their  right  hand  from  their  left,"  that  ia, 
children,  is  an  approximation  to  the  cenane, 
the  population  of  the  city  would  be  about 
600,000.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  city  of  three 
days'  journey,  containing  also  "  much  cat- 
tle"; other  authorities  say  it  was  IT  m.  long 
and  10  broad.  The  probability  is  that  Nineveh, 
like  Babylon,  was  a  district,  about  as  large  as 
our  District  of  Columbia,  enclosed  with  high 
walls,  containing  pastures,  fields,  and  gardens, 
berides  several  strongly  fortified  points.  Three 
other  reigns  fill  up  the  interval  from  781  to 
745.  With  the  last  of  these  the  reigning 
dynasty  seems  to  have  come  to  a  close;  for 
in  746  we  find  Tiglath-pileser  JL,  apparently  a 
usurper,  on  the  throne,  with  his  capital  at 
Oalah.  The  duration  of  the  new  dynasty, 
known  as  the  lower  monarchy,  is  variously 
estimated  at  120  or  139  years— 745  to  625  or 
606.  The  names  of  five  out  of  the  seven  kings 
of  the  last  dynasty  are  familiar  from  their  oc- 
currence in  the  Hebrew  records.  The  first  of 
these  was  Tiglath-pileser  11.  His  accession 
(745)  coincides  closely  with  one  of  the  great 
eras  of  history.  The  first  Greek  Olympiad 
began  a  generation  earlier  (776);  Rome  waa, 
according  to  her  traditions,  founded  eight 
years  before  (753) ;  the  Babylonian  era  of 
Nnbonaasar  is  synchronous  within  two  years 
(747).  Thus  tlie  laat  and  most  splendid  age 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  coincides  with  the  in- 
fancy of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization.  The 
records  of  this  Tiglath-pileser  are  frogment- 
ary,  for  Esar-haddon,  his  fourth  successor,  on- 
deitook  to  destroy  all  the  palaces  of  his  pre- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


jecesaor,  and  to  nm  the  m&terials  for  the  con- 
UrnctioD  of  new  ones  of  his  own.  The  work 
«u  incomplete  when  the  Assjrian  kingdom 
CHine  to  an  end.  When  Tiglath-pileser  cume 
to  die  throne  he  fonnd  all  the  trihnlarj  nationa 
in  a  state  of  revolt.  In  rcdacing  thera  he 
itrack  first  at  the  nearest  ones,  Bahvlonia  and 
Chaldea;  the.<)e  were  soon  reduced  to  eubmis- 
laca.  He  then  had  to  turn  to  Sjiia  and  Pales- 
tino.  Hitherto  the  kingdom  of  Judah  had  been 
able  to  keep  aloof  trom  the  quarrela  of  its 
neighbors;  but  now  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  entered  into  a  league 
g^nat  Ahaz,  the  new  king  of  Judoh,  who  np- 

tlied  to  Tiglath-pilcser  for  assistance,  and  paid 
im  tribnto.  The  Assyrian  reduced  Syria, 
overran  Israel,  and  began  that  series  of  de- 
portations which  we  know  as  the  captiTities, 
earrying  away  the  people  of  the  northern  dis- 
tricts of  Israel.  Ahaz  was  now  summoned  to 
Damascus  to  pay  homage  to  his  protector  and 
to  satisfy  his  exactions.  The  Hebrew  chronicle 
recorda :  "  Ahaz  made  Jadah  naked,  and  Tig- 
iath-pileser  distresiied  him,  but  strengthened 
him  not"  The  next  Assyrian  king  van  Shal- 
maneaer  TV,,  of  whose  short  reign  (727-731) 
no  mention  is  fonod  in  the  Assyrian  records 
yet  discovered ;  but  from  the  Hebrew  records 
we  know  that  he  carried  on  the  war  against 
Israel,  whose  king  Hoahea  refused  to  pay  the 
tribnte  levied  npoD  him.  Samaria  was  be- 
leaguered, and  captured  after  a  wege  of  three 
yeara,  aad  her  king  waa  "  cut  off  as  the  foam 
upon  the  face  of  the  water."  Shalnuineser 
died  daring  this  siege,  leaving  an  infant  son. 
The  ■war  was  carried  on  by  the  tartan,  or 
general-in-chief^  who  soon  assumed  tiie  gov- 
enunent,  taking  the  name  of  Sargon,  or,  as 
the  inscriptions  are  read,  Sargina  or  car- 
ynkin.  This  Sargon,  though  only  once  men- 
tioned in  the  Hebrew  records,  is  shown  by 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions  to  have  been  a  great 
mler.  Ha  had  to  finish  the  war  in  Palestine. 
How  he  did  this  he  tells:  "I  besieged,  took, 
and  occupied  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  corriea 
away  27,2S0  peojile  who  dwelt  in  it.  I  changed 
the  former  establishments  of  the  conntry,  and 
set  over  them  my  lieutenants."  A  strong  pow- 
er was  now  again  established  in  Egypt,  which 
waa  tTTing  to  spread  itself  to  the  cast.  Saboco, 
the  Egyptian  kins,  had  already  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Ho^ea  of  Israel,  and  was  march- 
ing to  his  aid.  Sargon,  having  taken  Samaria, 
moved  to  meet  Sabaco,  marching  down  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  The  encounter  took 
place  at  Raphio,  near  Gaza.  The  Egyptians 
were  defeated,  and  Saigon  in  time  come  into 
poeaea-sion  of  all  the  strong  places  on  the 
Pbomicion  coasts,  though  he  seems  to  have 
been  foiled  in  an  attack  upon  Tyre.  All  these 
wars  oecapied  a  space  of  ten  years.  From 
them  Sargon  was  recalled  by  troubles  nearer 
home.  Babylonia  had  asserted  its  indepen- 
dence under  a  king  called  Merodach-baladan, 
who  songht  to  strengthen  himself  by  alli- 
ances with  Elam  (Susiana)  on  the  east,  the 


EIA  35 

Arabs,  Damascns,  and  Jndah  on  the  west,  and 
even  with  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  In  Jndoh  the 
national  spirit  had  revived  nnder  Hezekiah, 
who  received  the  messengers  from  Merodach- 
baladan  with  favor,  and  made  an  ostentations 
display  of  his  resources,  but  did  not  formally 
join  the  league.  Sargon  attacked  the  con- 
federates in  detail,  routed  the  Elamitos  on 
the  pltuna  of  Chaldea  and  marched  upon  Baby- 
lon, defeated  Merodach -baladan,  took  him 
Erisoner,  and  assumed  his  kingdoms  but  spared 
is  life.  He  then  overran  Damascus,  pushed 
down  the  seacoast,  and  sent  a  successful  ex- 
pedition over  sea  to  Cyprus.  Merodacb-bola- 
don  took  occasion  to  revolt,  and  recovered  his 
throne.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  at  home, 
and  Sargon  was  assassinated  (704).  His  rciii- 
dence  was  originally  at  Calah ;  ho  rebuilt  the 
yalla  of  Nineveh  ;    but  his  chief  ambition 


royai  residence  wos  named  Ilisr  Sargina,  "the 
house  of  Sargon."  From  the  mins  of  this 
palace,  at  Khorsabad,  have  come  many  of  the 
must  valuable  of  the  Assyrian  relics.  Sargon 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sennacherib,  the 
greatest  of  the  Assyrian  kings  (T04-G30).  The 
disasters  of  the  last  few  years  of  Sargon  had 
reduced  the  dominions  of  bis  son  to  litUe  more 
than  Assyria  proper.  Babylonia  was  in  open 
revolt.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  Sen- 
nacherib undertook  its  reconqnest,  which  was 
effected  in  a  single  brief  campaign.  The  next 
year  he  mode  successful  expeditions  against 
Media  and  Armenia.  Hezekiah  of  Judah  had 
renounced  his  allegiance  to  Assyria,  conquered 
Philistia,  and  formed  an  alliance  wi^i  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign 
(701)  Sennacherib  regained  all  Hezekiah's 
coaqnosts,  defeated  the  Egyptions,  and  shut 
up  Hezekiah  in  Jerusalem.  The  Assyrian 
bass-reliefs  are  full  of  scenes  of  this  war, 
Hezekiah  offered  his  submission,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Sennacherib,  sent  a  tribnte  of  30  tal- 
ents of  gold,  800  of  silver,  and  a  vast  quantity 
of  other  gifts.  To  raise  this  tribute  he  was 
forced  to  strip  the  temple  of  its  treasures,  and 
to  cut  off  tlie  golden  ornaments  from  the  build- 
ing itself  Sennacherib,  having  left  a  detach- 
ment under  his  general-in-cliief  (tortan),  chief 
eunuch  [rai-iaTii),  and  chief  cup-bearer  (rab- 
^ha^eh)  to  receive  the  submission  of  Jerusa- 
lem, was  besieging  IjBchish,  then  a  strong  town 
on  the  road  to  Egypt.  Meanwhile  a  great 
army  under  Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  was 
advancing  to  the  aid  of  Judah.  Hezekiah, 
encouraged  by  Isaiah,  refused  to  surrender. 
Sennacherib  broke  u]i  the  siege  of  Lachish 
and  moved  to  Libnah  to  meet  tlic  Ethiopians. 
But  on  the  night  before  the  day  when  bat- 
tle was  to  be  given  occurred  that  great  dis- 
aster, of  which  the  Assyrian  records  contain 
no  mention,  but  of  which  the  Hebrew  account 
is :  "  The  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth 
and  smot«  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians 
185,000."    Whatever  may  have  been  the  na- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


tare  of  tbia  disaster,  there  oan  be  no  donbt 
that  Sennacherib  looked  upon  it  aa  aa  indi- 
cation of  divine  displeaaare ;  for  dnriog  the 
remajabg  20  years  of  his  reign  he  made  no 
new  attempt  upon  Judali,  although  he  held  on 
to  his  conquests  in  Phisnicia.  Uc  was  there- 
after engaged  in  numerous  and  for  the  most 
part  successful  wars,  Merodach-baladan  again 
revolted,  and  was  finally  crushed  in  lower 
Chaldea.  Again  the  combined  rulers  of  Baby- 
lon and  Elam,  aided  by  the  Arabs  on  the  mid- 
dle Euphrates,  attempted  to  make  bead  against 
Assyria,  but  were  defeated  in  a  nreat  battle  on 
the  Tigris.  Three  times  more  Babylonia  re- 
volted, and  at  the  close  of  the  last  revolt  Baby- 
lon wascaptured  and  saclced  (683).  The  annals 
of  Sennacherib  are  silent  aa  to  the  last  three 
years  of  his  reign,  from  which  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  tbey  were  years  of  disaster  to 
his  kingdom.  He  was  assassinated  in  the 
t«mple  of  Nisroch  by  two  of  his  sons,  who  fied 
to  Armenia.  His  great  work  was  the  restora- 
tion and  embellishment  of  Nineveh,  of  which 
hts  pslsce  at  Koyui^ik,  the  most  magnificent 
of  the  Assyrian  ruins,  waaaparL  Senaacho- 
rib  was  succeeded  by  his  fourth  son,  Esar- 
baddon  (680-S6T).  He  appears  to  have  re- 
conquered Babylonia,  and  to  have  been  ap- 
pointed viceroy.  Eear-haddon  is  the  only 
Assyrian  king  who  ruled  also  over  Baby- 
lonia during  his  whole  reign.  I^e  pushed 
bis  conijuests  far  and  wide,  extending  them 
to  Cilicia  on  the  west  and  across  the  sea 
to  Oypms,  and  on  the  east  he  advanced  into 
Media  further  than  any  of  liis  predecessors 
had  done.  He  overran  Jndah,  and  carried 
King  Uanasseh  a  captive  to  Babylon,  which 
seems  to  have  been  his  joint  capital  with 
Nineveh.  He  was  the  first  Assyrian  kiug 
who  actually  invaded  Egypt,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  king  of  Egypt  and  Etliiopia.  He 
bnilt  two  great  palaces  at  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, and  began  another  at  Calab.  In  this  un- 
finished palace  tlie  slabs  which  line  the  walla 
were  torn  from  the  palaces  of  former  kings, 
their  sculptured  faces  placed  toward  the  nail, 
and  the  hocks  smoothed  preparatory  to  being 
carved  with  the  king's  own  exploits.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  reign  he  divided  the  empire, 
placing  one  of  his  sons  as  viceroy  over  Babylo- 
nia. .  Asshur-bani-pal,  whom  some  consider  the 
Sardanapalus  of  the  Greek  romances,  ascended 
the  throne  in  667,  and  reigned  till  660,  or  ao- 
oording  to  others  till  647.  He  was  also  a  great 
conqueror ;  but  his  chief  glory  is  that  during 
his  reign,  and  under  his  patronage,  Assyrian 
art  and  literature  reached  their  highest  point. 
He  established  what  may  properly  be  called  a 
great  public  library.  In  his  palace  of  Koyuiyik 
were  Aiund  three  chambers  the  fioors  of  which 
were  covered  a  foot  deep  with  tablets  of  clay 
'  of  all  sizes  from  an  inch  long  to  nine  inches, 
covered  with  inscriptions,  many  of  them  so  mi- 
nute as  to  be  read  only  by  the  aid  of  s  magni- 
fying glass.  The  letters  bad  been  punched 
into  the   moist  clay,   which  was   afterward 


bnmed.  Moat  of  these  tablets  were  broken 
Into  fragments;  but  as  there  were  four  copies 
of  each,  many  of  them  have  l>een  pieced  to- 

Sher,  so  that  they  have  been  deciphered. 
ese  partially  restored  tablets  are  among  the 
most  precious  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
and  contain  the  annals  of  the  first  seven  years 
(which  some  suppose  to  be  the  whole)  c^  the 
reign  of  Asshur-hani-pal.  (See  Gdkeifoem  Ik- 
acBiPTioss.)  His  first  campaign  was  in  Egypt, 
against  Tirhakah,  who  had  broken  the  treaty 
by  which  he  had  agreed  to  confine  himself  to 
bis  own  country  of  Ethiopia,  Tbe  Assyrian 
drove  him  out  of  Egypt,  of  which  he  took  pos- 
session, but  left  the  petty  rulers  in  actual  gov- 
ermnent.  He  had  scarcely  returned  to  Nme- 
veb  when  these  rulers  allied  tliemselves  again 
with  Tirhakah.  A(ahur-beni-])al  went  back 
and  took  summary  vengeance.  Memphis,  Sals, 
and  other  cities  were  stormed  and  their  peo- 
ple put  to  the  sword.  Tbebes  was  taken 
and  sacked  to  its  foundations.  When  Asshnr- 
^bani-pal  died,  Assyria  seemed  at  tbe  snmmit 
of  its  greatness.  But  its  fall  waa  close  at 
hand.  Of  his  successor  nothing  remains  bnt  s 
few  bricks  inscribed  with  a  name  which'haa 
been  read  Asshur-emtt-ilin.  He  commenced  a 
palace  at  Kimrud,  the  inferiority  of  which  to 
earlier  structures  bears  witness  to  the  decline, 
while  its  nnfinlshcd  state  indicates  the  sudden 
downfall  of  the  kingdom.  No  Assyrian  rec- 
ords describe  the  fall  of  Nineveh  or  the  events 
which  led  to  it.  Its  very  time  is  uncertain, 
some  placing  it  in  625,  others  in  606.  It  is  not 
certain  that  Asshur-erait-ilin  was  the  last  king, 
for  a  fragment  attributed  to  Berosus  jpves  Bo- 
racas  as  the  name  of  the  ruler  under  whom  the 
kingdom  fell.  The  account  gathered  from  sev- 
eral writers  is  this :  The  Medea,  having  estab- 
lished tlidr  independence  and  power,  made  war 
upon  Assyria.  The  Babylonians,  Chaldeana, 
and  Susianians  revolted,  and  joined  the  Medea. 
Saracus  sent  against  them  his  general  Nabo- 
polassar,  who  turned  traitor,  and,  having  be- 
trothed liis  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Median  king,  led  tlie  Babylonians 
upon  Nineveh.  When  Saracus  learned  this, 
lie  bnmed  himself  in  his  palace,  as  told  in  the 
legend  of  Bardanapolus.  Assyria  ceased  to  be 
a  kingdom,  not  even  being  embraced  within 
the  brief  but  splendid  empire  of  Babylon, 
which  comprised  Babylonia,  Chaldea,  Susiana, 
and  the  region  along  the  Euphrates.  All  that 
was  properly  Assyria  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Medes.— The  Assyrians  were  undoubtedly  a 
homogeneous  people  of  Bemitic  stock,  while 
the  Babylonians  were  a  miied  race,  embracing 
Hamite,  Aryan,  end  Turanian  elements.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Assyrians  was  apparently  in  general 
similar  to  that  of  the  Babylonians,  dtstingujehcd 
mainly  by  the  greater  predominance  of  Asshur, 
the  national  deity.  He  was  the  "great  god,"  the 
"  king  of  all  the  gods,"  "  he  who  rules  supreme 
over  the  gods."  He  was  from  first  to  la«t  the 
mtun  object  of  worship,  never  confounded  with 
the  personified  or  indivldnolized  deities :  Bha- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


A8SYEU 

mu,  the  ran ;  Sin,  the  moon ;  Net^  the  god 
of  rar;  Nin,  the  god  of  banting;  Iva,  the 
wieMer  of  the  thunderbolt;  andtlielibe.  The 
grest  temple  at  Assbar  is  the  only  one  yet  dis- 
covered apeciall/  dedicated  to  him ;  from 
irhich  some  have  inferred  that  instead  of  sepa- 
rate temples  he  had  the  first  place  in  the  fanes 
of  all  the  other  divinities.  It  is  more  probable 
that  in  Assyrian  niTthologj  he  occnpied  the 
place  of  Brahma  in  that  of  the  Hindoos.  After 
this  Hnpreme  god,  the  soarce  of  all  beiog,  and 
the  snpremo  arbiter  of  all  events,  came  a  series 
of  eecondsr;  gods,  arranged  in  two  series  of 
double  triads,  male  and  female.  The  first  con- 
sists of  Ann,  masculine,  Anat,  feminine — Pluto ; 
Bel,  m.,  Billt,  f.— Jupiter ;  Hea,  m.,  DaoWna,  (. 
^Neptune.  The  second  tiiad  is  Sin,  the  moon ; 
Shamaa,  the  sun ;  Iva,  the  air :  in  this  triad 
the  moon  occupies  the  place  of  precedence. 
Then  tliero  is  a  secondary  group  of  five  plane- 
tary divinities:  Ninip,  Satam;  Merodach,  Ja- 
S'ler;  Nerfral,  Mars;  Ishtar,  Venus;  Nebo, 
ercury.  This  pentad  in  time  seems  to  have 
superseded  in  popular  esteem  the  older  triads, 
Nebo,  like  Hermes  and  Mercury,  being  the  espe- 
cial patron  of  learning  and  eloquence,  and  the 
Bjmbol  of  royal  aathority.  The  two  triads 
and  the  pentad  constituted  the  12  great  deities 
of  the  Assyrian  pantheon,  below  which  there 
was  a  host  of  inferior  divinitiea,  prominent 
among  whom  was  Nisroch  or  Salman,  the  eagle- 
headed  and  winged  god,  whose  figure  appears 
BO  frequently  in  the  sculptures.  How  little 
those  religious  notions  served  to  raiae  the 
moral  character  of  the  nation,  and  chiefly  of 
its  rulers,  is  best  proved  by  the  scalptural  rec- 
ords of  the  latter,  whose  greatest  and  constant 
boast  ia  the  successful  hunting  of  men  and 
beasts,  the  burning  of  cities,  and  flaying  and 
mangling  of  captives.  The  monuments  of  Nine- 
veh more  thoji  justify  the  bitterest  invecti  ves  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets  against "  the  bloody  city," 
which  was  "full  of  lies  and  robbery,"  with  "a 
multitnde  of  slain  "  and  "  no  end  of  corpses." — 
In  certfua  departments  of  science  the  Assyrians 
attained  to  considerable  eminence.  Ttieir  system 
of  astronomy  was  in  odvanoeof  that  of  the  £^gyp- 
tians.  They  knew  the  synodical  period  of  the 
moon,  the  true  length  of  the  year,  and  even, 
though  not  quite  acourately,  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes;  they  made  it  80"  instead  of  GO", 
so  that  tlieir  great  cosmioal  year  was  48,200 
years  instead  of  2B,000,  its  tme  length.  They 
ascribed  solar  eclipses  to  their  true  canse,  and 
calonlatcd  lunar  eolipsea  with  great  accuracy. 
They  must  therefore  have  been  acquainted  with 
the  golden  cycle  of  228  lunations,  after  which 
eclipaes  recur  in  the  same  order.  They  fixed 
this  period  at  IB  years  and  10  days,  which  is 
within  less  than  8  hours  of  the  true  period. — 
For  ftirther  particulars  relating  to  the  geogra- 
phy and  history  of  Asayria,  see  the  articles 

BlBTLON,      BaBTWHIA,     OdHBIFOBM     ISBOBIP- 

Tioita,  Kdbdistan,  Ubsopotavia,  Ninkteh,  and 
ToBXET.  Theprincipalauthoritiesore:  Rich's 
'■Journey  to  the  Bite  of  Babylon"  (London, 


ASTEB 


37 


1839) ;  Botta  and  Flandin's  Monwnmt  de 
A'tniBs  (B  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1849-'B0);  Layard's 
"  Nineveh  and  its  Remains  "  (9  vols.,  London, 
1849),  "Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh 
and  Babylon"  (London,  1853),  and  "Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh"  (1849,  and  continued  for 
several  years);  Vanxs  "Nineveh  and  Perse- 
polis"  {London,  1850);  Brandis'a  Ueber  den 
hUtoruehen  Oewinn  am  diw  Eittziffening  der 
AuyTuchen  Ingehriften  (Keriin,  IB66) ;  H. 
von  Niebuhr's  Oeichichte  Atran  vnd  BaheU 
teit  Pkul  (Beriin,  1857) ;  G.  Rawlinson's  " Five 
Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  World  "  (vol. 
i.,  London,  1862);  Oppert's  Le*  irtKripti&nt 
attyrienneg  da  Sargonideg  (Versailles,  1868): 
Philip  Smith's  "Ancient  History  of  the  East 
(London,  1870). 

ACTAKTE.    See  Asrtobeth. 

iSrVM.  (Or.  IustIip,  a  star),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  great  family  of  compotita,  so  widespread 
as  to  induce  Lindley  to  give  its  name  to  the 


whole  family,  atteroMa.    The  plants  popalarly 

called  asters  belong  to  several  genera,  bat  the 
typical  genus  is  by  far  the  richest  in  species. 
Although  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  China, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Alps,  and  Siberia, 
furnish  species,  many  of  great  beauty,  Amer- 
ica, and  especially  New  England,  seems  most 
amp}y  supplied.  Of  nearly  200  species  cul- 
tivated in  Europe,  ISO  are  natives  of  North 
America  They  are  mostly  annuals,  with  »>- 
rymbed,  panicled,  or  racemose  heads;  flowers 
radiate,  the  rays  white,  purple,  or  blue,  and 
fertile,  the  disk  yellow  or  reddish.  In  the  cul- 
tivated species  the  disk  flowers  give  place  to 
repeated  aeries  of  ray  flowers,  and  assume  the 
ftppearance  of  the  well  known  China  asters. 
The  finest  American  species  are :  A.  Kota 
Anglia,  whose  erect,  narrow-leafed  stem,  8 
to  8  feet  high,  crowned  with  large  corymbed 
heads  of  violet-pnrple  flowers,  is  often  seen  by 
the  roadsides;   A.  punieeiu,   with  a  pnrpli^ 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


38 


ASTER 


stem,  serrate  leayes,  purple  or  bine  flowers  in 
panicles,  found  with  the  preceding,  but  taller, 
6  to  10  feet;  A.  test*,  maerophylliu,  »pecta- 
iilU,  horiamtalit,  Califomieiu,  and  m^taAilis 
certieolor,  oil  worth  oiiltivating ;  the  last  two 
ohanse  color  with  age.  In  England  thej  are 
all  ctuled  Ohristmas  or  MichBelmao  daisies.  The 
Chtnese  paj  special  attention  to  the  oiiUivatiun 
of  raanj  species  of  this  geaos,  and  the  results 
of  their  slcill  have  been  introduced  in  America 
ftod  are  favorites  with  horticultarista.  The 
first  China  asters  were  brought  to  Europe  earl  j 
in  the  I8th  century.  Asters  require  a  free, 
rich  soil,  and  moderate  exposure  to  the  sun. 
The  Chinese  cnltivato  them  almost  exclusively 
in  pots.  A.  argyrophylltu,  a  native  of  New 
Holland,  is  a  shrahtiy  species,  growing  to  the 
height  of  10  feet;  die  flowers  are  very  nu- 
merous in  little  heads,  whitish  gray  with  yel- 
low disk,  and  smelling  strongly  of  mask ;  this 
species  is  half-hardy  in  sonthern  England.  A. 
eaUtlu,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  a  hot- 
house plant,  blooming  the  whole  year ;  the 
flowers  sky-blue,  disk  yellow. 

ISTQk  L  Enut  haiirtg  tm,  a  German  mil- 
itary engineer,  bom  in  Dresden  in  November, 
1778,  died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  10,  1855.  In  1784 
he  entered  the  corps  of  engineers  in  the  Saxon 
army,  in  which  his  father  had  held  high  rank. 
lie  was  made  lieutenant  in  1800,  and  captain 
in  1809.  A  plan  mode  by  him  for  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Torgan  attracted  the  attention  of  Na- 
poleon, who  adopted  it;  the  fortress  was  fin- 
ished under  Aster's  superintendence,  and  alter 
the  Russian  campaign,  in  which  he  took  port, 
he  was  appointed  its  commander.  Soon  after 
this  he  left  the  Saxon  for  the  Kusuan  service. 
He  fought  at  Bantzen  and  Leipsic,  and  distin- 

S Dished  himself  by  several  expeditions  with  a 
elachment  of  Cossacks  which  he  commanded. 
In  1818  he  reentered  the  Baxon  service,  and  in 
1614  was  made  colonel.  In  1816  he  entered  the 
Prussian  engineer  corps,  and  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Liguy  and  Waterloo  and  in  sever^ 
aeges.  In  the  same  year  he  was  mode  a  gen- 
eral, and  inspector  of  the  Prussian  fortifioa- 
tiona.  He  now  established  his  reputation  as  a 
master  of  bis  art  by  tbe  construction  of  the 
great  fortresses  of  Coblentz  and  Ehrenbreit- 
■tein.  Of  these  he  was  appointed  commander 
in  182S,  still  holdmg  the  office  of  inspector 
general.  He  became  a  lieutenant  general  in 
1827,  and  in  1842  general  of  infantry.  He 
was  also  made  a  councillor  in  1837.  He  left  a 
collection  of  essays  and  volumes,  published 
together  after  his  death,  under  the  title  Naek- 
getaiMne  Schriften  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1856-'61). 
Bee  also  the  work  of  Eiler,  Betraehtvngen  und 
Drtheite  E.  L.  ton  Atttr't  aber  die  politi- 
MAan,  IdrehlKhBa  nnd  vidagogiteken  PaTlei- 
iewegiaigen  uTutf rt  JahrhuTidirU  (2  vols.,  Saar- 
hrdcken,  1868-'9).  II.  Kari  HelBrleh  vm,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Dresden,  Feb.  4, 
1782,  died  there,  Dec.  23,  1855.  He  entered 
the  Saioa  artillery  corps  in  17B8,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Jena.    He  was  soon  after- 


ASTER0ID3 

ward  temporarily  assigned  to  a  professorship 
in  the  military  school  at  Dresden,  and  was 
made  lientenant  colonel  in  1831.  He  retired 
in  1884,  and  received  the  honorary  rank  of 
colonel  in  1844.  He  wrote  many  military 
works,  and  his  Lekre  vom  FettangthrUge  (3 
vols.,  Dresden,  1812;  3d  ed.,  1836)  is  a  text 
book  on  the  subject  of  fortiflcations  in  the 
Pmssian  military  schools,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  langnoges. 

A^TEIUBiUk     See  Abtrabad. 

A8TEE11S.    See  Stab  Fish. 

iSTElOIDS,  a  ring  of  small  planets  travel- 
ling between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
It  hod  long  been  noticed  that  no  empirical  law 
of  planetary  distances  would  give  an  account 
of  the  wide  disparity  between  the  distance  sepa- 
rating the. orbits  of  the  earth  and  Mars  and 
that  which  separates  the  paths  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter.  When  Sir  W.  Herschel's  discovery 
of  DranuB  in  1781  hod  confirmed  Uode's  em- 
pirical law,  astronomers  were  led  to  search  for 
a  planet  travelling  in  the  orbit  which,  accord- 
ing to  that  law,  shonid  lie  between  the  paths 
of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  On  Jan.  1,  1801,  snch  a 
planet  was  discovered  by  Piazzi,  who  called  it 
Ceres.  In  March,  1802,  while  looking  for  the 
new  planet,  Olbers  discovered  another,  travel- 
ling at  about  the  same  distance  from  the  sun. 
He  called  it  Pallas,  Two  others  discovered 
before  1808  were  called  Juno  and  Vesta.  In 
184G  Hencke  of  Prussia  discovered  a  flfth. 
Since  then  the  progress  of  discovery  has  scarce- 
ly been  interrupted  by  a  single  barren  year, 
Luther  in  Qermany,  Goldschmidt  in  France, 
Watson  in  America,  Hind  in  England,  and  De 
Oasparis  in  Italy  were  until  18T3  the  most  suc- 
cessful asteroid  seekers.  Recently  Prof.  Peters 
of  the  Litchfield  observatory,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  has 
shared  their  honors,  having  thus  far  discovered 
more  asteroids  than  any  outer  astromomer  save 
Luther.  He  discovered  three  new  asteroids  in 
Jul;  and  August,  1872,  and  two  more  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1873,  raising  the  known  number  to  130. 
— Olbers  endeavored  to  explain  the  existence  of 
the  zone  of  asteroids  by  the  theory  that  a  planet 
which  had  once  travelled  between  the  paths  of 
Mars  and  Jnpit«r  hod  exploded,  and  that  tbe  as- 
teroids are  its  fragments.  But  Prof.  Newooinh 
has  shown,  by  an  elaborate  investigation  of  the 
asteroidal  motions,  that  "although  there  are 
some  peouliarities  which  might  favor  Olbers's 
hypothesis,  there  are  a  far  greater  number  of 
eases  which  undoubtedly  negative  the  assump- 
tion." Prof.  Kirkwood  has  shown  that  when 
the  mean  distances  of  the  asteroids  are  arranged 
in  order,  cert^n  gaps  can  be  recognized ;  that 
in  foot  "there  are  no  asteroids  having  mean 
distances  lying  near  certain  definite  values." 
He  shows  how  these  gaps  by  their  position  in- 
dicate tbe  probability  that  the  asteroidal  zone 
was  formed  from  scattered  cosmicol  matter 
travelling  around  the  sun  under  the  perturb- 
ing influence  of  the  planet  Jupiter.  Leverrier, 
from  on  analysis  of  the  motions  of  Mara,  has 
shown  that  the  combined  mass  of  all  the  aste- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ASTHMA 

raids  probably  falls  far  abort  of  one  fonrtb  of 
tli«  earth's  mass.  More  than  a  tliinl  of  tlioee 
knoirn  have  been  iliaouvered  inthe  twamontLH 
April  and  September,  and  less  than  a  third  in 
Jaonarj,  Febraary,  Jane,  July,  November,  and 
December.     Se«  Boppleioent. 

ISTHHA  (Or.  iaO/ia,  from  &eiv,  to  blow),  a 
discaae  oharacterized  bj  an  extreme  difDcnltj 
of  reepiration,  which  is  worse  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  particular  periods  of  the 
day,  bein((  generally  most  severe  at  night. 
The  difBcnlty  of  breathing  is  increased  by  vio- 
lent emotions,  damp  atmosphere,  excess  of  any 
kind,  strong  exercise,  running,  walking  quickly, 
or  ascending  a  flight  of  stairs.  It  is  also  more 
laborious  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  hence 
tnorediatress  is  felt  in  bed  at  night;  the  warmth 
of  the  bed  also  excites  increased  secretion  of 
the  mucous  follicles,  and  this  blocks  np  the  air 
passages  more  completely,  causing  paroxisms 
to  be  more  fVeqnent  than  during  the  day.  The 
patient  seeks  relief  by  sitting  upright  in  bed, 
or  bending  his  body  forward,  and  endeavoring 
to  expand  the  chest  mechanically  b;  every  pos- 
sible means.  Old  persons  are  more  liable  1«  the 
disease  than  young,  t^ome  writers  describe  the 
discasemainly  OS  a  nervons  affection;  others  as 
the  result  of  organic  lesion  of  the  heart  and  blood 
vessels;  while  others  again  attribnte  it  to  dila- 
tation of  the  air  vesicles  of  the  lungs.  All 
these  and  many  other  complications  may  exist. 
It  is  now  believed  that  spasmodic  asthma  is 
caosed  by  a  spasm  of  the  mascnlar  fibres  en- 
circling the  bronchial  tabes,  especially  the 
smaller  branches.  The  existence  of  these 
fibres  is  placed  beyond  a  donbt  by  microscopio 
eiaminatJOD.  In  common  asthma  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  air  passages  is  more  or  less 
affected  as  in  chronic  bronchitis,  but  the  af- 
fectioa  of  the  mucous  membrane  extends 
further  down  into  the  longs,  tlie  ur  ceUs 
an  more  obstmcted,  and  the  conformation  of 
the  chest  itself  is  often  somewhat  contracted 
and  defective.  The  action  of  the  diaphragm 
is  imperfect,  as  well  as  tliat  of  the  walls  of  the 
chest;  and  hence  it  is  that,  from  want  of  in- 
nervation and  free  action  in  these  parts,  the 
disease  is  commonly  deemed  nervous,  as  distin- 
guished from  chronic  bronchitis,  which  affects 
the  bronchial  macous  membrane  chiefly.  In 
spasmodic  asthma,  the  nerves  are  still  more 
deeply  implicated ;  their  action  seems  de- 
fective in  the  respiratory  organs,  as  stammer- 
ing shows  imperfect  nervons  action  in  the  or- 
gans of  speech;  and  in  both  cases  the  diffl- 
cnlty  ia  increased  by  physical  or  moral  excite- 
ment. Chronic  asthma  seldom  shortens  life, 
where  patients  carefully  avoid  all  violent  emo- 
tions, exercise,  and  excess,  although  spasmodic 
paroxysms  may  endanger  life  at  any  time  where 
tbeee  pracautiona  are  neglected.  Attacks  of 
spasmodio  asthma  generally  occnr  during  the 
first  sleep,  soon  after  midnight,  or  very  early 
in  the  morning.  The  patient  suddenly  awakes 
with  a  sense  of  sqffocalioD,  tightness  of  the 
chest,  and  difficulty  of  breathing.    The  respi- 


A8TLET  89 

ration  is  wheezing  and  laborious,  the  shoulders 
are  raised,  and  every  effort  made  to  enlarge  the 
chest.  The  pnlse  is  usually  :^Dick,  weak,  and 
irregular ;  the  lower  extremities  cold.  When 
cough  and  expectoration  come  on,  tlio  patient 
is  relieved.  The  spasm,  however,  may  con- 
tinue half  an  hour  or  more,  Mid  even  as  much 
as  three  or  four  hours. — Asthma  is  olten  com- 
plicated with  diseases  of  the  heart  or  with 
chronic  bronchitis,  acting  as  a  source  of  per- 
manent congestion,  predisposiiig  tlio  parts  to 
be  more  easily  thrown  into  a  «tate  of  spasm. 
Sometimes  severe  attacks  of  dry  catarrh  are 
aggravated  by  spasm,  as  in  the  "  bronchial 
asthma"  of  Andral. — The  most  common  con- 
sequences or  concomitants  of  the  disease  are 
chronic  inflammation  and  diltttution  of  the 
brouclii ;  emphysema  and  tsdema  of  the  lungs; 
hgemoptysis;  tubercular  deposits ;  hypertrophy 
and  dilatation  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart; 
effusions  into  tlie  pericardium,  the  pleura, 
and  sometimes  congestion  and  effusions  in  tlie 
head,  giving  rise  to  coma  or  apoplexy.  The 
treatment  of  the  paroxysm  consists  in  admin- 
istering narcotics  and  antispasmodics,  to  be 
given  if  possible  as  soon  as  trie  flrst  sensations 
are  felt.  Strong  coffee,  laudanum,  and  ether 
are  among  the  best;  and  stramonium  smoked 
as  tobacco  is  often  very  useful,  but  should  be 
used  with  caution  where  the  heart  is  diseased. 
Those  medicines  are  most  effectual  which  pro- 
duce expectoration. 

ASn  (anc.  Aita  Pompeia\  a  city  of  N.  Italy, 
in  tbe  province  of  Alessandria,  86  m.  by  r^l  E. 
a  E.  of  Turin;  pop.  in  1872,  81,033,  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  the  capital  of  the  republic 
of  Asti.  which  maintained  its  independence 
frvm  10S8  to  115G,  in  which  latter  year  the 
city  was  burned  by  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Old 
walls  surround  it,  and  it  contains  several  cele- 
brated buildings.  Near  the  city  is  made  the 
wine  which  bean  ita  name.  Asti  is  the  birth- 
place of  Alfieri. 

im&,  Jmi  Frtitrtt,  a  French  writer,  horn 
in  1822.  He  was  for  some  time  pastor  in  New 
York  city,  and  subsequently  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Lausanne.  Among  his  works  are: 
Ze  reneil  religieux  da  KtaU-Unig,  1857-'8 
(Lausanne,  1869),  and  HUtoiredela  ripviliqvt 
a£s  Etati-Unii  depuis  Vitabliattnent  det  pre- 
miiret  eoloniei  jusqu'A  Vileetion  da  prituUnt 
Lineoln,  1620-1860  (2  vols.,  1865). 

ISHET,  PUIp.  an  English  equestrian,  bom 
atNewcastle-nnder-Lynein  1T42,  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  20,  1814.  He  served  seven  years  in  the 
light  horse,  and  roceivinjt  an  honorable  dis- 
charge supported  himself  for  some  time  by  ex- 
hibifions  of  horsemanship.  He  at  length  ac- 
quired BuflicienC  means  to  build  a  circus  or 
amphitheatre,  which  he  conducted  successfully 
for  many  years,  though  it  was  several  times 
partially  burned  and  rebuilt.  In  1804  he  leased 
it  to  his  son.  He  also  built  for  bis  own  use 
19  theatres  in  London,  Paris,  and  Dnblin,  and 
in  connection  with  Antoine  Fronconi  assisted 
the  "Olympic  Circus."    Ho  pub- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc- 


40 


A3T0LPHCS 


lishad  "  Remarka  on  the  Dntf  and  Profaseion 
of  a  Soldier"  (1794);  " Deecriptinn  and  His- 
torical Account  of  the  Plaoes  near  the  Theatre 
of  War  in  the  I«w  Countries  "  (1704);  "Aat- 
ley  System  of  Equestrian  Education  "  (1801). 

iSTOLPUCS,  or  Istalphu,  called  hy  the  Ger- 
mans Aistulf,  king  of  the  Lombards  in  northern 
Italy,  Bucceeded  his  brather  Bachia  in  749,  and 
died  in  76G.  After  having  seized  the  ezar- 
.  ohate  of  Ravenna,  he  threatened  Rome.  Pope 
Stephen  II.  fled  to  France  and  demanded  aid 
from  King  Pepin,  who  crossed  the  Alps  in  761 
with  an  army,  defeated  Aatolphua,  and  be- 
neged  Pavia.  The  Lombard  obtained  peace 
on  condition  of  surrendering  Ravenna  and  all 
his  other  conquests;  but  on  Pepin's  withdrawal 
he  burst  forth  again,  laid  siege  to  Rome,  and 
ravaged  all  the  Burrounding  country.  The 
pope  again  supplicated  Pepin,  who  crossed  the 
Alps  and  shut  Astolpbus  up  in  Pavia.     Astol- 

Caa  was  preparing  for  a  new  war,  but  fell 
m  his  horse  while  hunting,  and  died  tliree 
days  afterward  without  leaving  male  heu^ 

iSTOR,  JoIm  JsMb,  a  merchant  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  bom  at  WalldoH^  near  Heidelberg, 
July  17,  1T63,  died  in  New  York,  March  39, 
1S&.  He  was  the  youngest  of  the  fonr  sons 
of  a  peasant,  and  his  boyhood  was  passed  in 
work  upon  his  father's  farm.  Two  of  his 
brothers  h.td  left  their  home,  one  of  them  to 
establish  himself  as  a  maker  of  musical  instni~ 
ments  in  London,  and  the  other  to  settle  in 
America.  At  the  age  of  10  Astor  accepted  an 
invitation  from  the  former  to  join  him  in  his 
business,  and  he,  walking  to  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land, embarked  for  London  in  a  Dutch  smack. 
In  London  he  worked  industriously  till  1783, 
when,  a  few  months  after  the  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  by 
Great  iiritain,  he  sailed  for  Baltimore,  t^ing 
with  him  a  few  hundred  dollars'  worth  ta 
musical  instruments  to  dispose  of  on  oommis- 
(don.  On  the  voyage  he  made  acquaintance 
with  a  furrier,  in  accordance  with  whose  sug- 
gestions he  exchanged  his  musical  instruments 
in  New  York  for  fars,  with  which  he  bastened 
back  to  London,  where  he  disposed  of  them  to 

feat  advantage.  He  soon  returned  to  New 
ork  and  established  himself  there  in  the  fur 
trade,  prospering  so  fast  that  in  a  few  years  he 
was  able  to  send  his  furs  to  Europe  and  the 
East  in  his  own  ships,  which  brought  back 
cargoes  of  foreign  produce  to  he  disposed  of  in 
New  York,  At  the  beginning  of  the  century 
he  was  worth  $250,000,  and  he  now  began  to 
revolve  colossal  schemes  of  supplying  wi^  furs 
all  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  of  planting 
towns  and  spreading  civilization  in  the  Vilds 
of  the  western  continent.  It  was  his  aim  to 
organize  the  fur  trade  from  the  lakes  to  the 
Pscifio  by  establishing  nnmerous  trading  posts, 
making  a  central  depot  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  river,  and  then,  by  obtaining  one  of 
the  Sandwich  islands  as  a  station,  to  supply 
the  Chinese  and  Indian  markets  with  furs  sent 
direotiy  trom  the  Pacific  coast    In  prosecuting 


ASTORIA 

this  gigantic  scheme  it  is  said  that  be  expected 
only  outlay  during  the  first  10  years,  and  un- 
profitable returns  during  the  second  10,  but  af- 
ter that  a  net  annual  result  of  about  |1, 000,000. 
The  settiementof  Astoria  was  founded  in  1811, 
but  the  scheme  was  never  fully  carried  out. 
Astor  early  began  to  make  investments  in  real 
estate  in  New  York,  and  in  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  city  the  value  of  some  portions  of  his 

Eroperty  nearly  centupled.  He  erected  many 
andsome  private  and  public  buildings.  Bis 
fortune  has  been  estimated  at  |20,000,000. 
During  his  whole  career  he  hardly  made  a  mis- 
step through  defect  of  his  own  judgment,  and 
his  memory  retained  for  years  the  minutest 
details.  He  lived  during  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century  in  retirement,  in  the  society  of  his 
family  and  of  eminent  practical  and  literary 
men,  bis  mind  retaining  its  vigor  after  his 
bodily  strength  had  become  greaUy  enfeebled. 
He  gave  many  liberal  donations  during  his  life- 
time, and  his  will  contained  numerous  charita- 
ble provisions.  One  of  these  was  $50,000  for 
the  benefit  of  the  poor  of  Watldorf,  his  native 
village.  Among  his  meet  useful  bequests  was 
that  of  $400,000  to  found  the  Astor  library 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  the  ftuit  of  a  long 
cherished  purpose,  and  of  mnch  consultation  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life.  (See  Aaron  Libb&bt.) 
ASTDBGA  (anc.  AiltiHea  Avgtiitd),  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  and  80  m.  by  rail  W.  8. 
W.  of  Leon,  is  situated  ou  an  elevated  plain 
i  m.  from  the  river  Tuerto;  pop.  6,000.  It  is 
snrronnded  by  mined  walls,  and  has  an  ancient 
Gothic  cathedral  with  a  high  altar  of  great 
beanty,  an  old  castle,  and  some  Roman  remains. 
Napoleon  made  Astorga  his  headquarters  dur- 
ing the  pursuit  of  Sir  John  Moore,  at  the  he- 
nnaing of  1809.  In  1810  it  was  taken  after 
an  obstinate  defence  by  Junot,  and  in  1812 
retaken  by  the  Spaniards. 

JSTOKGi,  EhhihcIs  d',  a  Sicilian  mndcal 
oomposer,  bom  at  Palermo,  Deo.  II,  1G81,  died 
in  Bohemia,  Aug.  21,  17S6.  Ills  father,  a 
Sicilian  of  rank,  in  command  of  a  band  of  mer- 
cenary troops,  resisted  the  union  of  Sicily  with 
Spain;  but  his  soldiers  betrayed  him,  and  he 
was  executed  in  the  presence  of  his  wife  and 


and  helpless.  Recovering,  he  entered  a  con- 
vent at  Astorga,  from  which  town  he  took  hie 
surname.  Here  he  speedily  developed  a  re- 
markable musical  talent,  ana  in  1704  became  a 
court  musician  and  composer  at  Parma.  Boon 
afterward  he  attached  himself  to  the  suite  of 
the  emperor  Leopold,  and  after  his  death  in 
1706  travelled  extensively,  but  at  last  entered 
a  convent  in  Bohemia,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  His  principal  work  is  his 
Staiat  Mater,  of  which  the  original  MS.  is  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Oxford, 

iSTOKIl,  a  town  of  Clatsop  county,  Oregon, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river;  pop.  in 
1870,  639.  It  was  for  a  long  time  the  depot 
of  the  for  trade  for  all  the  country  west  of  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASTOB  LIBRARY 

Rocky  moantainB,  and  was  formerly  &  port  of 
eDtr;.  The  difficaltiee  in  the  entrance  to  the 
Cohmbia  have,  however,  opposed  a  great  im- 
pe^ment  to  its  development.  It  was  fonnded 
by  the  Pacific  far  company  in  ISll,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Jolm  Jacob  Astor,  the  chief  pro- 
prietor. Its  early  history  is  described  by 
WashtDgton  Irving  in  his  "  Astoria." 

iSHA  LIBRIBT,  ao  institution  fonnded 
nnder  the  will  of  Jobn  Jacob  Astor,  who  be- 
qaeethed  $400,000  "for  the  osUblishment  of  a 
public  library  in  tlie  city  of  New  York."  By 
a  provision  of  the  will,  the  government  of  the 
library  was  vested  in  11  trnstees,  in  whose 
keeping  were  placed  all  the  property  and 
effects  of  the  institntionj  in  them  existed  all 
power  to  invest  and  eipend  the  funds,  and  to 
manage  the  afiairs  of  the  library.  Among 
the  first  truBteea  named  by  the  testator  were 
Washington  Irving,  William  B.  Aator,  Joseph 
6.  0<^well,  Fitz-Greene  Holleck,  besides 
five  other  gentlemen,  and  the  mayor  of 
New  York  and  the  chancellor  of  the  state 
«x  officio.  By  a  snbseqnent  codicil,  Charles 
Astor  Bristed,  the  testator's  grandson,  was 
appointed  an  additional  trustee.  A  pro- 
nsion  of  the  will  designated,  as  the  land 
whereon  to  erect  a  saitahle  building  for  the 
pnrpoBes  of  the  library,  a  lot  sitaated  upon  the 
east  ude  of  Lafayette  place,  measQring  SO  ft. 
in  front  by  120  ft  deep.  As  early  as  1839  Ur. 
Astor  had  pnrobased  a  nomber  of  volumes, 
^ed  by  Dr.  Cogswell,  with  the  ultimate  in- 
tention eipreesod  in  hia  will.  In  May,  1848, 
the  trustees  of  the  library  met  for  the  first 
time,  and  in  accordance  with  the  desire  of  Mr. 
Astor,  appointed  Dr.  Cogswell  superintendent. 
He  went  to  Europe  in  the  autumn  of  1848, 
anthoriEcd  to  purchase  books  to  the  amoant 
of  $30,000.  During  an  absence  of  four  months 
he  collected  20,000  volmnes,  which  were  tem- 
porarily placed  in  a  building  rented  for  the 
purpose.  A  second  and  third  visit  by  the  su- 
perintendent increased  the  number  of  volnmes 
to  70,000,  with  which  tlie  first  building  was 
(qteoed,  Jan.  9,  1854.  The  Astor  library  is 
built  in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture, 
richly  ornamented  with  brown  stone  mould- 
ingB  and  an  imposing  entablature.  Its  dimen- 
iiuns  are  in  aocordance  with  Mr.  Astor's  will, 
the  height  being  about  TO  ft.  The  library 
room  is  100  ft.  in  length  by  H  in  width,  and 
60  in  height ;  this  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  86 
marble  steps.  The  lower  rooms  are  chiefly 
nsed  for  the  deposit  of  pnblic  docoments  and 
for  the  meetings  of  the  trustees.  Since  the 
Miction  of  this  building  the  number  of  volumes 
haa  increased  to  nearly  160,000,  not  qnite  fill- 
ing the  second  building,  which  has  since  been 
erected.  The  books  are  arranged  according  to 
subjects.  In  the  selection  of  books  Dr.  Cogs- 
well, apon  whom  devolved  the  whole  of  this 
labor  and  responsibility,  chose  only  sach  works 
a»  his  esperience  and  knowledge  of  blbliog- 
rt^hy  tanght  him  would  be  moat  useful  to  a 
yoang  and  growing  country.    Particular  atten- 


ASTRABAD 


41 


tion  was  paid  to  the  department  of  technology, 
in  which  the  library  is  imusaolly  rich.  Bibliog- 
raphy also  received  a  large  share  of  Dr.  Oogs- 
well's  attention,  his  own  private  collection 
having  been  early  added  to  the  library.  It  is 
deigned  to  render  the  department  of  American 
history  as  full  as  possible,  as  works  of  this  class 
are  more  and  more  required  by  the  American 
pnblic.  To  iinguistics,  particularly  oriental, 
the  Astor  library  is  ansurpaased  by  any  in  this 
country.  The  natural  sciences  are  slso  folly 
represented,  comprising  about  7,000  volumea, 
many  of  them  rare  and  costly.  In  January, 
18B6,  the  first  building  having  become  tilled, 
and  the  necessity  lor  more  room  obviously  ex- 
isting; Mr.  Williiun  B.  Astor,  eldest  son  of  the 
founder  of  the  library,  mode  a  donation  to  the 
trustees  of  an  ai^itcent  piece  of  land  SO  ft. 
wide  and  120  it.  deep.  Upon  this  a  building 
similar  to  the  first  was  erected  in  1860,  and 
formally  opened  to  the  public  on  the  Ist  of 
Beptember  m  that  year.  Both  edifices,  capable ' 
of  containing  200,000  volumes,  will  soon  be 
filled.  In  December,  1866,  William  B,  Astor 
mode  a  tHirther  donotioo  to  the  library  of  |60,- 

000,  $20,000  of  which  he  directed  to  be  es- 

E ended  in  buying  books,  and  the  remainder  to 
e  added  to  the  general  fonds  of  tiie  library. 
The  catalogue  of  the  Astor  library,  as  prepared 
by  Dr.  Cogswell,  compriaesfive  octavo  volumes 
of  500  pages  each,  four  volumes  containing  the 
alphabetical  list  of  authors'  names,  the  fifth 
the  supplemental  list  up  to  1866,  and  the  an- 
alytical index  of  subjects  to  the  whole.  The 
present  superintendent  is  Dr.  E.  R.  Stramicky, 
formerly  first  assistant  librai'ian,  his  two  pre- 
decessors, the  late  Dr.  Cogswell  and  Mr.  Fran- 
cis Schroeder,  having  resigned,  the  former  Jan. 

1,  1863,  and  the  latter  July  1,  1871. 
A9TE1BAD,    or    AstcrMad.     I.  A    northern 

province  of  Persia,  lying  along  the  8.  ooa^  of 
a  large  bay  of  the  eame  name,  which  forms 
the  8.  E.  extremity  of  the  Caspian  sea.  The 
snrfaae  is  generally  hilly,  but  near  the  prin- 
cipal rivers,  the  Gurgan  and  the  Attruk,  are 
considerable  pluns.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  ex- 
cellent fruit  is  everywhere  produced.  Large 
parts  of  the  province,  especially  the  pliunsnear 
the  rivers,  form  the  favorite  camping  grounds 
and  cattle  pastures  of  the  Goklan,  Yamud, 
and  other  nomadic  tribes.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  equable.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding province,  in  lat.  Bfl"  CO'  N.,  Ion.  54  45' 
£.,  16  m.  8.  E.  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  190  m.  £. 
N".  E.  of  Teheran ;  pop.  about  10,000.  A  wall 
about  two  miles  in  circumference  encircles  it 
The  buildings  are  low  and  insigniUcant,  and 
the  trade  and  industries  are  unimportant.  The 
town  is  exceedingly  nnhealthy,  as  the  marshes 
and  bodies  of  water  near  it  send  up  malarious 
vapors  of  the  most  dangerous  character.  It  is 
commonly  known  as  "the  city  of  the  plagne," 
and  in  the  summer  is  almost  deserted  by  its 
inhabitants.  Astrabad  was  formerly  the  retd- 
denoeof  the  E^ar  princes,  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Persian  dynasty. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


42 


ASTR^A 


I  (Gr.  iarpala,  Btarr;),  a  genns  of 
radiate  animBls  of  the  poiyp  fwiiily,  which  at- 
tach them  selves  to  marine  budies,  and  are 
often  found  collected  together  into  a  globular 
or  hemisphericnl  iiiaiH,  known  as  one  of  the 
forms  of  coral.  The  upper  surface  of  these 
masaea  i»  entirely  covered  with  little  cavities  of 
steUar  form,  each  one  of  which  is  the  recep- 
tacle of  a  polyp,  and  in  the  centre  ii^  its  mouth, 
from  which  rudiate  its  numerous  tentacula  or 
arms.  These  cavities  are  either  in  close  con- 
tact or  sejiarated  by  intervening  spaces;  and 
this  feature  is  made  the  basis  for  dividing  the 
genus  into  two  sections,  the  first  of  which  i^ 
represented  by  the  common  Eaat  India  species, 
A.favoia,  and  the  other  by  the  A.  rotutoia  of 
the  West  Indies, 

ISmKHAV,  or  Istnefen.  I.  A  government 
of  8.  E.  Russia,  on  tlie  N.  W.  shore  of  the  Cas- 
pian sea;  area,  85,010  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867, 
67S,QS4,  including  134,000  Kirgtiizes.  The 
Volga,  flowing  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  divides  it 
into  two  arid  eteppies  of  nearly  equal  size,  with  a 
few  fertile  tracts,  pasture  lands,  and  grain  fields 
along  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  whole  conn- 
try  seems  to  have  once  been  covered  by  the 
Caspiao,  and  the  soil  abounds  with  saline  in- 
gredients. Salt  lakes  and  marshes  are  aban- 
dant.  Sock  salt  and  gypsum  are  found.  Tliere 
are  few  trees.  The  climate  is  extremely  hut 
in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  and  nnwhole- 
Bome  to  strangers.  Cattle,  goats,  and  a  poor 
breed  of  horses  are  raised,  and  the  goat  skins 
are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  morocco  leath- 
er. The  most  valuable  industry  is  Ashing,  the 
fisherios  of  the  Volga  being  oitraordinarily 
productive.  The  principal  rivers  besides  the 
Volga  are  the  Akhtubn,  Sarpa,  and  Kuma. 
The  most  important  towns,  besides  the  capital, 
are  Krasnoi-Yar,  Tchemoi-Yar,  and  Tzarev. 
The  population  is  composed  of  Kalmucks,  Kir- 
ghizes, Tartars — these  three  being  nomadio 
tribes— and  Knssians,  Armenians,  Persians, 
HiudooB,  and  Germans.  Astrakhan  was  an- 
ciently a  khanate  of  the  Golden  Horde  of  Tar- 
tars, and  embraced,  besides  Astrakhan  proper, 
Saratov,  Orenburg,  and  tiie  Canco^us.  It  was 
annexed  to  Russia  by  the  czar  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, in  1654.  Up  The  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing government,  sitnated  on  an  island  formed 
by  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Volga,  about  20 
m.  from  the  sea;  pop.  in  1867,  47,838.  The 
houses  are  partly  of  brick,  partly  of  wood,  and 
the  streets  are  crooked,  unpaved,  and  dirty. 
The  population  is  composed  of  all  nations  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  of  nearly  all  creeds. 
There  are  mosques  for  the  Mohammedans  and 
sanctuaries  for  the  Hindoos,  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian churches.  The  city  has  n  naval  academy, 
several  pablio  schools,  a  Greek  theological  eera- 
Inary,  tjreck  and  Armenian  archbishops,  and 
a  printing  office  for  the  Kalmuck  langaage. 
About  100  small  manufiiotnring  establishments 
produce  cashmere  shawls,  silk  and  cotton  fab- 
rics, furs,  dyes,  powder,  and  salt.  The  salt 
works  are  very  extensive,  iind  ita  flsheries  in 


ASTROLOGY 

the  Volga  and  Oaspian  are,  next  to  those  of 
Newfoundland,  the  most  important  in  the 
world.  Astrakhan  is  an  entrepot  of  the  Rus- 
sian oriental  trade,  and  the  raw  produce  from 
the  remoter  regions,  consisting  principally  of 
hides,  sheepskins,  and  grease,  is  brought  there. 
The  Volga  is  its  greut  chaunel  of  inland  navi- 
gation, and  in  1803  its  imports  were  valued  at 
$997,976,  and  its  exports  at  $S15,448.  The 
trade  of  the  Caspian,  with  Astrabad  and  other 
Persian  ports  on  the  S.  and  Tartary  on  the  E,, 
belongs  almost  wholly  to  Astrakhan  and  Baku. 
The  harbor  of  Astrakhan,  however,  is  much 
obstructed  by  sand. 

iSTUNGEHTS  (Lat.  astringere,  to  bind), 
agents  which  have  the  power  to  contract  the 
animal  tissues,  diminish  the  amount  of  their 
fluids,  and  increase  their  density.  They  seem 
to  act  partly  by  a  direct  coagulation  of  albu- 
minous and  gelatinous  structures,  and  partly 
by  diminishing  the  size  of  the  blood  vessels  and 
consequently  the  amount  of  blood.  An  exam- 
pie  of  the  first  mode  is  seen  in  tlie  formation 
of  leather  by  tanning,  which,  however,  is  a 
degree  of  action  far  beyond  what  con  take 
place  in  the  living  body.  Astringents  diminish 
both  the  absorbing  and  secreting  functions  of 
mucous  membranes,  and  coagulate  tlie  secre- 
tions alreody  fonned.  They  excite  a  peculiar 
feeling  of  dryness  and  puckering  in  the  mouth. 
They  are  used  to  check  bleeding  and  excessive 
discharges  from  mucous  membranes,  to  pro- 
mote the  healing  of  ulcerated  surfaces,  ana  to 
restore  lax  and  flabby  tissues  to  tlieir  normitl 
firmness.  Some  of  them  are  absorbed,  and, 
after  passing  through  the  bJood,  are  excreted 
by  the  kidneys.- — The  vegetable  astringents, 
nutgalls,  oak  and  hemlock  bark,  kino,  catechu, 
rhatany,  logwood,  crane's-bill,  vtu  vrti,  win- 
tcrgreen,  and  a  large  number  of  others,  con- 
tain more  or  less  of  the  different  forms  of  tan- 
nic and  gallic  acids.  The  chief  mineral  astrin- 
gents are  acetate  of  lead,  the  diSerent  aluma, 
persalts  of  iron,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  the  sul~ 
phates  of  copper  and  zinc.  Some  ostringents, 
as  tannic  acia,  alum,  and  lead,  find  a  useful  ap- 
plication in  the  arts  of  dyeing  and  tanning. 

ISTROLOGT  (Gr.  iarpov,  star  or  constellation, 
and  Myti^,  discourse),  a  system  of  rules  for  dis- 
covering future  events  by  studying  the  positions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  was  received  for 
ages  as  a  science,  but  has  now  lost  all  credit 
in  civilized  nations.  It  was  divided  into  two 
kinds:  Judicial,  by  which  the  fate  and  acts  of 
men  and  nations  might  be  foreknown ;  and 
natural,  by  which  the  events  of  brute  and  in- 
animate nature,  such  aa  the  changes  of  tlie 
weather,  Ac,  might  be  predicted.  The  etymo- 
logical meaning  of  the  word  astrology  is  almost 
the  same  as  that  of  astronomy ;  and  there  was 
no  clear  distinction  mode  between  the  two 
branches  until  the  time  of  Galileo.  Previously, 
most  students  of  the  movements  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  hod  been  more  or  less  astrologers. 
The  invention  of  the  telescope  and  the  gen- 
eral establishment  of  the  Copcrnicon  aystem 


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ASTRONOMY 


43 


fint  gradnallj  displacod  astrologj  for  tho  hen- 
efit  td"  trae  BcieatiRc  knowledge. — Astroloej 
vta  e»rly  developed  in  Egypt,  bot  chiefly 
floariBhed  in  Chaldoa,  whose  "star-gazers  and 
montbly  prognosticators  "  were  so  famous  that 
tbe  Dame  Gholdee  came  to  t>e  used  as  identical 
with  astrologer,  not  only  in  the  Scriptures,  but 
alw  by  the  classical  writers.  In  the  Etist  it  b-till 
has  its  votaries.  It  was  mnch  practised  in  im- 
perial Rome.  It  was  forbidden  by  Augustuii, 
*nd  the  edict  was  often  reenact«d  by  later  era- 
wrors,  but  was  apparently  not  much  regarded. 
The  Arabs  revived  astrology  with  astronomy. 
Tbe  Moors  in  Spain  held  it  in  great  respect, 
■nd  by  their  ijinuence  it  was  made  popular 
among  the  Gothic  nations  of  western  Enrope. 
The  astronomical  tables  of  Alfonso  S.  in  the 
13th  eentary  were  in  great  part  intended  for 
astrological  purposes.  Astrology  continued  to 
increase  in  credit  till  the  inidille  of  tho  16th 
eentary,  was  still  practiseil  at  European  courts 
at  the  end  of  the  ITth,  and  had  a  few  votaries 
till  the  end  of  the  18th,  even  in  England.  It 
wu  in  high  repute  at  the  court  of  Catharine 
de'  Medici ;  it  was  considered  a  science  eveo 
by  Kepler ;  and  IJUy,  the  last  of  the  famous  as- 
trak^era,  waa  called  before  a  committee  of  the 
hooae  of  commons  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
to  give  his  opinion  of  future  events. — The  gen- 
eral method  of  procedure  in  finding  the  fate  of 
any  man  or  enterprise  was  to  draw  a  horo- 
scope, representing  the  position  of  the  stars 
and  planets,  either  in  the  whole  heaven,  or 
within  one  degree  above  the  eastern  horizon, 
at  the  time  of  birth  of  the  individual  or  the  in- 
ception of  the  midei;ta)iing.  Arbitrary  signifi- 
eations  were  given  to  different  heavenly  bodies, 
m  they  appeared  singly  or  in  conjunction ;  and 
•coording  to  these  ugniScHtions,  the  horoscope 
was  interpreted.  The  presence  of  Venus  fora- 
told  love;  Uors,  war;  Jupiter,  power;  the 
Pleiades,  storms  at  sea,  &c  The  system  of  a 
repatable  astrologer  in  the  16th  century  re- 
luired  years  for  its  mastery ;  and  absurd  as  its 
fundamental  principles  now  appear,  its  details 
were  not  inconristent  with  each  other,  and  the 
whole  Bjstem  has  a  oompleteaeea  which  ap- 
jiears  very  singular  in  a  scheme  so  visionary. 

ISnOfflMIT  {Gt.  itrrpov,  a  star,  and  vi/iot, 
law),  the  science  which  deals  with  the  move- 
ments, distribution,  and  physical  character- 
isdcs  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  That  astronomy 
is  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  sciences,  save 
tgricolture,  can  scarcely  be  questioned.  In  the 
earlieot  ages  men  must  have  required  measures 
of  time,  and  such  measures  could  only  be  ob- 
tained from  the  study  of  the  motions  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  celestial  bodies.  The  origin 
of  astronomy  has  been  referred  to  several 
nations.  The  evidence  in  favor  of  the  Chal- 
deans seems  on  the  whole  the  strongest.  We 
find  in  Ptolemy's  Almagest  the  records  of  ob- 
servations of  considerable  aconraoy  made  at 
iiabylon  at  a  very  early  epoch.  Some  of  the 
observations  wbicli  were  transmitted  to  Aris- 
totle by  Callisthenes  were  made  about  S250 


years  B.  C.  The  Chaldean  investigntioDS  of 
the  motions  of  the  moon  were  in  many  respects 
remarkable.  In  particular  their  invention  of 
the  saros  indicates  not  merely  very  accurate 
observation  and  a  careful  discussion  of  the  re- 
sults, but  considerable  ingenuity.  They  were 
also  acquainted  with  tho  art  of  dialling;  they 
had  discovered  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  hod  determined  tho  length  of  the  tropical 
year  to  within  less  than  half  a  minute  of  its 
true  value.  There  ore  even  reasons  for  believ- 
ing that  they  were  ocqnunted  with  the  true 
system  of  the  universe;  and  we  learn  from 
Diodoms  Sioulus  and  ApoUonius  Hyndius  that 
the  Chaldean  astronomers  regarded  comets  as 
bodies  travelling  in  extended  orbits,  and  even 
in  some  instances  predicted  the  return  of  these 
objects.  Indian  astronomy  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  by  any  means  so  accurate  as  that 
taught  by  the  Chaldeans.  The  Indian  system 
seems  indeed  to  have  belonged  to  a  more 
northerly  latitude  than  Benares,  the  chief  seat 
of  Hindoo  learning.  Accordingly  M.  Badly 
was  led  to  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  system  to  a 
nation  which  had  inhabited  higher  latitudes; 
and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  invent  a  nation 
for  the  occasion,  the  Atlantides,  and  to  ascribe 
to  that  apocryphal  nation  a  wholly  incredible 
dcf^ree  of  learning.  It  may  be  inferred  that  the 
want  of  agreement  between  celestial  phenom- 
ena in  India  and  the  Indian  system  of  astron- 
omy, instead  of  Justifying  M.  Bully's  argnment, 
shows  rather  that  the  Indian  astronomers 
were  hut  imperfectly  aoqaainted  with  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  heavens.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  ac- 
cept the  opinion  of  Prof.  Smyth,  astronomer 
royal  for  Scotland,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
the  architects  of  the  great  pyramid,  were  ao- 
qualnted  with  aii  the  facts  which  he  conceives 
to  have  beensymbolized  in  that  remarkable 
edifice.  That  the  pyramid  was  erected  for 
astronomical  purposes  may  be  admitted  j  and 
we  may  accept  Prof.  Smyth's  oonoluwon  that 
tlie  buUdlng  of  the  pyramid  corresponded  to 
the  time  when  the  star  a  Draconis  at  its  npper 
transit  was  visible  (as  well  by  day  as  by  night) 
through  the  long  inclined  passage  whiiMi  forms 
one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  pyra- 
mid. This  would  set  the  epoch  about  the  year 
21  TO  B.  C.  And  it  is  a  reEuarkable  fact  tliat, 
as  Prof.  Smyth  points  ont,  the  Pleiades  were 
at  that  lime  in  a  most  peculiar  position,  well 
worthy  of  beingmonumentally  commemorated; 
"for  thoy  were  actually  at  the  commencing 
point  of  aL  right  ascensions,  or  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  running  that  great  round  of  stellar 
chronological  mensuration  which  takes  25,808 
years  to  return  into  itself  agwn,  and  has 
been  called  elsewhere,  for  reasons  derived  from 
far  other  studies  than  anything  hitherto  con- 
nected with  tho  great  pyramid,  the  'gre,il 
year  of  the  Pleiades.' "  But  although  we  may 
thus  set  tho  astronomical  system  of  the  early 
Egyptians  in  a  far  antiquity,  it  seems  nnsafe 
to  follow  Smyth  in  believing  that  the  builders 
of  the  great  pyramid  were  acquainted  with 


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44 


ASTRONOMY 


the  son's  distance,  with  the  trae  length  of  the 
preoessional  period,  and  with  other  astronomi- 
oal  elements  the  disoovery  of  which  has  re- 
warded the  exact  methods  and  the  profonnd 
mftthematical  researches  of  modern  times. — As 
to  Chinese  astronomy,  we  have  ahnndant  evi- 
dence to  show  that  it  was  inexact,  thoDgfa  nn- 
doubtodij  Tsrj  ancient  lis  antiquity  may  be 
inferred  from  the  olrcamstance  Uist  the  em- 
peror Chwen-hio  adopted  as  an  epoch  a  con- 
jnnction  of  the  planets  Mercury,  Mors,  jQpit«r, 
and  Satnm,  which  lias  been  shown  hy  If.  Baiily 
to  have  oocnrred  no  lesa  than  244Q  years  B.  0. 
In  a  remarkable  work  on  the  subject  of  Chinese 
astronomy,  recently  pnblished  hy  Mr,  Williams, 
asdstant  aecretary  of  the  astronomical  society 
of  England,  we  are  told  that  the  insCraments 
at  present  osed  by  Chinese  sstronomers,  as 
well  as  their  principal  methods  of  calculation, 
were  introdnced  by  Jesuit  missionaries.  Yet 
the  ancient  Chinese  must  have  possessed  some 
familiarity  with  the  celestial  motions.  They 
oonld  calculate  eclipses;  for  we  leom  that  "in 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Chow-kang,  the  chief 
astronomers  Ho  and  Hi  were  condemned  to 
death  for  failing  to  announce  a  solar  eclipse 
which  took  place  SIS9  B.  C. ; "  a  clear  proof 
that  the  prediction  of  eclipses  was  a  part  of  the 
duty  of  the  imperial  astronomers.  The  Chinese 
were  also  acquunted  with  the  Metonic  and 
Oallippic  cycles. — The  earliest  Greek  school  of 
astronomy  was  tliat  founded  by  Thales  of  Mi- 
letus (600  B.  C.)  and  termed  the  Ionian  school, 
Thales  appears  to  have  been  acqaainted  with 
the  motions  of  the  sun  ond  moon,  with  the  ei' 
planation  of  seasonal  changes,  and  with  the 
length  of  the  year.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
taught  mariners  to  regard  the  Lesser  Bear 
rather  than  the  Greater  as  the  polar  constel- 
lation; but  Maniliua  ascribes  the  selection  of 
the  Lessor  Bear  as  the  cynosure  to  the  Phce- 
nieians.  To  Pythagoras,  who  also  belonged  to 
the  Ionian  school,  a  knowledge  of  the  trae 
theory  of  the  earth  has  been  ascribed,  thongh 
on  insufficient  grounds.  According  to  the 
etatement  of  his  pnpil  Pbilolaus,  be  taught  that 
"the  earth  and  planets  more  in  obliqne  circles 
(or  ellipses)  abont  fire,  as  the  sun  and  moon  do" 
— a  statement  which  certainly  does  not  as  it 
stands  indicate  exact  knowledge  respecting  the 
oonstitntion  of  the  solar  system.  Nicetss  of 
Syracnse  is  said  in  like  manner  to  have  taught 
that  the  diurnal  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies 
are  caused  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon 
her  axis.  " Theophrastus,"  says  Cicero,  "nar- 
rates that  Nicetas  of  Syracuse  held  that  the 
■on,  moon,  and  stars  ore  at  rest,  and  the  earth 
alone  move^  turning  about  ita  axis,  hy  which 
the  aame  phenomena  are  produced  as  if  the 
o<nitraTy'  were  the  case."  Eudoxus  of  Cnidns 
first  endeavored  to  explain  the  looped  paths  of 
the  planeta,  solving  the  problem  hy  the  inven- 
tion of  the  theory  of  concentric  spheres, — But 
it  was  by  the  Alexandrian  school,  founded 
ander  tiie  Ptolemies,  that  exact  and  systematio 
observation  of  the  celestial  bodies  was  first 


undertaken.  Hipparchus  of  Nicsaa  (160  B.  0.^ 
surpassed  all  the  astronomers  of  antiquity  in 
skill  and  acumen.  Ue  made  the  flrat  catalogue 
of  the  Btore,  and  was  the  first  to  calculate  the 
motions  of  the  sun  and  moon.  He  also  made  a 
series  of  observations  of  the  planets,  and  rep- 
resented their  motions  by  the  famous  theory 
of  epicycles — a  theory  which,  though  unsound, 
was  in  so  far  in  advance  of  previous  ideas,  that 
it  was  intended  to  be  bronpht  into  comparison , 
with  the  real  motions  of  the  celestial  nodies. 
Hipparchns  also  invented  plane  and  spherical 
trigonometry.  Ptolemy  is  anotlier  distinguished 
member  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  Some  of 
the  theories  and  observations  which  have  been 
aecrilied  to  him  were  indeed  dne  to  the  labors 
of  HippBTchus.  Thus  the  Ptolemaic  system 
of  astronomy  was  wholly  based  on  the  theories 
of  his  predecessor;  snd  the  star  places  indi- 
cated in  his  works  aeem  to  have  been  simply 
deduced  from  Hipparcbus's  catalogue  of  1,081 
stars  by  introducing  a  correction  for  precession. 
Yet  Ptolemy's  laimrs  were  unquestionably  im- 
portanL  He  detected  the  inequality  in  the 
moon's  motions  called  the  evection,  and  was 
the  first  to  recognize  the  effect  of  refraction  in 
altering  the  apparent  places  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  His  work,  the  Almagest  (or  the  8yn- 
taiis),  contains  nearly  all  that  we  know  of 
the  astronomy  of  the  ancients.  The  school  of 
Alexandria  ceased  to  exist  when  Egypt  waa 
invaded  and  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans, 
and  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  library  de- 
stroyed, in  the  7th  century.  The  Arabians, 
however,  formed  no  contemptible  astronomers. 
They  even  surpassed  the  Greeks  in  the  depart- 
ment of  practical  astronomy;  and  they  bonded 
down  to  the  Europeans  the  system  which  they 
had  derived  from  their  predecessors, — In  the 
18th  century  European  astronomy  may  he  said 
to  have  had  its  origin  or  revival,  though  nearly 
two  centnries  elapsed  before  any  important 
advance  was  effected.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
15th  century  the  labors  of  Purbach  and  Re^o- 
montanus  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  of 
Copernicus,  the  founder  of  the  true  system  of 
astronomy;  while  Wnltherus  revived  the  art 
of  aatronomical  observation,  and  thns  indi- 
rectly supplied  tlie  means  of  establishing  the 
theories  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  and  Newton. 
Copernicus  (hom  in  14T3)  found  that  by  pla- 
cing the  sun  instead  of  the  earth  at  the  centre 
of  the  scheme,  there  resulted  a  simple  and 
rational  explanation  of  oil  the  chief  motions 
of  the  planets.  He  was  not  able  to  show, 
however,  that  the  epioyoles  of  Hipparchns  and 
Ptolemy  conld  be  wholly  removed.  According- 
ly, many  astronomers,  who  might  have  been 
attracted  to  the  Copemican  system  if  it  conld 
have  been  presented  as  it  is  known  in  our  day, 
were  found  in  the  ranks  of  its  opponents. 
Among  these  was  Tycho  Brahe,  the  Dane, 
who  pointed  out  that  the  apparent  fixity  of 
the  stars  is  opposed  to  the  Copemican  theory, 
unless  the  distances  of  all  the  stars  ba  sssaned 
to  exceed  enormously  the  distance  of  the  earth 


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45 


from  the  son.  He  tbere&ra  adopted  a  modifi- 
cilion  of  a  sjstem  once  held  b;  the  E|j;7ptian9, 
rt^vding  the  earth  as  the  centre  around  which 
the  ran  revolves,  while  the  planets  revolve 
utMUid  the  ann  as  a  Bahordinate  centre.  Al- 
tfaoogh  this  was  a  retrogressioa,  aBtronom^ 
oiTH  a  debt  of  gratitnde  to  Tyclio  Brahe  for 
the  observations  b^  which  he  endeavored  to 
pnt  the  Oopemican  theory  to  the  teat.  Hla 
ntaervations  of  Mars,  in  particniar,  enabled 
Kepler  to  remove  for  ever  from  astronomy  the 
cycles  and  epicycles,  centrics  and  eccentrics  of 
tfae  old  systema.  Endeavorinfc  to  explain  the 
motions  of  Mara  on  the  Copemican  theory, 
Eepler  foand  himself  baffled  so  long  as  he  ad- 
hered to  circnlar  and  nniform  motions  so  com- 
bined as  to  prodaoe  epicyclic  paths.  He  was 
thna  led  to  try  whether  the  eihpse  would  bet- 
ter explain  the  movements  of  Mars.  After 
long  and  patient  study  he  was  able  in  1609  to 
establish  his  first  two  laws,  and  nine  years  later 
his  third  law.  The  three  laws  are  as  follows; 
I.  Every  planet  describes  an  ellipse  about  the 
mn,  this  orb  occupying  one  focus  of  each  Fraoh 
ellipse.  S.  If  a  line  bo  supposed  continaally 
drawn  from  the  sun  to  any  given  planotj  this 
line  will  sweep  over  oi^ual  areas  in  equal  tmies.' 
3.  The  squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  the 
planets  are  proportional  to  the  eubea  of  their 
mean  distances.  In  the  mean  time  the  telescope 
had  beeo  invented,  and  when  leas  than  one 
year  bad  passed  atter  the  pablir^ittion  of  the 
first  two  laws  of  Kepler,  Galileo  had  made  a 
series  of  observations  tending  to  illu9trate  if 
not  even  to  demonstrate  tlie  trnth  of  the  Oo- 
pamicaQ  e.vateui.  In  particnlar  his  discovery 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  the  recognition 
of  the  motinnB  of  these  ort>s  aronnd  their  pri- 
mary, was  felt  even  by  the  enemies  of  the  new 
theory  to  be  strikingly  in  its  favor.  Here  was 
a  system  in  which  the  motions  of  the  earth 
and  planets  aronnd  the  snn  seemed  pictured  in 
miniature.  The  dlseovery  of  the  phases  of  Ve- 
nus was  also  regarded  aa  a  serious  blow  to  the 
Ptolemaic  eyslem.  The  invention  of  the  t«le- 
•eope  sapplled  also  the  means  of  determining 
the  places  and  therefore  the  motions  of  the 
celestial  bodies  with  a  degree  of  acoaracy 
which  had  hitherto  been  nnattainable.  He- 
velioa  indeed  endeavored  to  make  a  stand 
against  the  innovation,  adhering  until  the  end 
of  his  career  to  the  methods  used  by  the  an- 
cients. But  gradually  the  telescope  prevailed, 
and  the  way  was  thus  prepared  for  the  re- 
■esrohes  of  Newton,  whose  discovery  of  the 
law  of  gravitation  woold  never  have  been  ad- 
mitted hot  for  the  evidence  in  its  favor  attained 
by  means  of  telescopic  observations.  In  par- 
ticnlar, the  meaanrement  of  the  earth's  dimen- 
liona  with  the  requisite  accuracy  coald  not 
have  been  accomplished  without  telescopic  oh- 
servatioDS  of  star  places ;  and  Newton  would 
have  been  nnable  to  show  that  the  moon  is  re- 
tained in  her  orbit  by  the  same  force  which 
draws  olyecta  to  the  earth's  surface,  had  not 
accurate  moaaaremonta  of  tl»o  earth  iMwn  ob- 


tained by  Picard.  We  know  in  fact  that  New- 
ton was  led  by  erroneous  ideas  of  the  earUi's 
dimensions  to  abandon  the  theory  of  gravita- 
tion for  nearly  20  years.  Hetuming  to  his  re- 
searches in  1080,  when  news  of  Plcard's  results 
hnd  reached  him,  Newton  was  able  to  establish 
the  theory  of  gravitation  on  a  firm  and  stable 
basis.  Jle  showed  that  the  moon  is  drawn  to 
the  earth  by  terrestrial  gravity,  diminished  at 
the  moon's  distance  in  the  same  degree  that 
the  square  of  that  distance  exceeds  the  dis- 
tance of  points  on  the  earth's  surface  from  the 
earth's  centre.  He  proved  that  when  the  force 
of  attraction  diminishes  according  to  the  law 
of  the  inverse  square,  the  attracted  body  will 
obey  all  the  laws  of  Kepler  in  its  motions 
aronnd  the  attracting  orb.  Then  he  extended 
hia  inquiries  to  the  mutual  perturbations  of 
bodies  so  moving.  Taking  the  moon  as  an  in- 
atanoe  of  the  effects  of  perturbation,  he  showed 
how  several  peculiarities  in  her  motions  which 
had  hitherto  seemed  inexplicable  are  caused  bj 
the  sun's  perturbing  action  on  the  moon,  that 
is,  by  the  'excess  or  defect  of  his  action  on  the 
moon  in  different  parts  of  her  orbit,  as  oom- 

£arad  with  hia  action  on  the  earth.  PursulDg 
is  researches,  be  showed  how  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes  can  be  accounted  for  by  the 
law  of  gravitation  ;  he  formed  and  discussed 
two  theories  of  the  tides;  he  solved  the  prob- 
lem presented  by  the  oblateness  of  the  earth's 
figure.  Half  a  century  passed  before  any  at- 
tempts were  made  to  extend  the  reasomng  of 
the  Prineipia,  or  to  develop  the  views  of  ita 
author.  During  this  half  century  British 
mathematicians  were  chiotly  engaged  in  de- 
fending, continental  mathematicians  in  attack- 
ing, tlie  principle  of  universal  gravitation. 
But  in  Vtm  Euler  and  Clairaut  began  to  ap- 
ply the  new  methods  of  mathematical  anal- 
ysis to  the  problems  discussed  by  Newton. 
Clairaut  succeeded  in  explaining  the  lunar 
evection,  which  had  foiled  Newton  ;  and  this 
success  encouraged  continental  astronomers  to 
devote  their  powers  to  the  investigation  of  the 
problems  presented  by  the  celestial  motions. 
They  mastered  one  after  another  the  difficulties 
of  the  lunar  and  planetary  perturbations.  The 
analytical  researches  of  I..agrange  and  Laplaoe, 
and  in  particular  the  dijtcovery  (independently 
made  by  both)  of  the  great  laws  on  which  the 
stability  of  the  planetary  system  depends,  are 
only  inferior  to  the  discovery  of  the  law  of 
gravitation  itself  in  interest  and  importance. 
It  would  be  dillioult  to  say  which  of  tiiese  two 
geometers   displayed   the    greater   powers   of 


led  to  more  important  practical  results,  and  in 
discovering  the  real  interpretation  of  the  "long 
inequality  "  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  he  mastered  a 
problem  which  had  foiled  his  great  rival.  Yet 
another  noble  achievement  of  Laplace's  must 
be  mentioned — his  interpretation  of  the  seoQ- 
lar  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean  motion. 
In  recent  times  it  has  been  shown  indeed  bf 


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46 


ASTRONOMY 


Ad&mB  tliat  Lapl&ce'a  mTostigatton  of  the  sub- 
ject was  imperfect ;  yet  undonbtedly  he  placed 
his  finger  on  the  true  eaxtie  of  that  part  of  the 
aoceleratJoB  which  is  due  to  the  ordinary  forms 
of  perturbation,  nor  has  the  cause  of  the  re- 
mtuaiug  part  of  the  moon's  acceleration  been 
hitherto  Ascertained.  Finally,  we  may  regard 
the  publication  of  his  Mieaniqus  ciUtU  as  form- 
ing a  veritable  epoch  in  the  history  of  physical 
astronomy.  Passing  over  many  important  con- 
tributions to  the  theory  of  gravitation,  we  may 
point  to  the  achievomeat  of  Adams  and  Lever- 
rier  in  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune  as 
perhaps  the  most  conclusive  of  tlie  evidences 
yet  adduced  in  support  of  Newton's  theory. 
A  planet  hitherto  unseen  was  made  known  to 
na,  not  oa  in  tlie  case  of  Uranus  by  a  bappj 
chance,  but  by  a  study  of  the  deviations  of  a 
known  planet  from  the  path  calculated  for  it 
by  maLhematicians.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
discovery  of  Neptune  led  to  the  recognition 
of  the  mastery  which  American  astronomers 
and  mathematicians  had  obtained  over  the 
more  recondite  departments  of  analysis.  It  has 
been  remarked  by  Prof.  Grant  of  Glasgow 
that  "the  results  which  have  been  dednced 
from  Bond's  observations  of  the  satellite  of 
Neptune,  and  the  mathematical  researcbes  of 
Walker  and  Peirce,  unquestionably  exhibit  a 
degree  of  consistency  with  the  actual  observa- 
tions of  Uranus  and  Neptune  which  has  not  been 
paralleled  by  any  simUar  efforts  in  Europe; 
while  at  the  same  time  they  tend  to  throw 
much  interesting  light  oD  the  tJieory  of  both 
planets."  Among  the  more  recent  contribn- 
tions  to  the  mathematics  of  astronomy  must  be 
mentioned  Adams's  discussion  of  the  moon's 
secular  acceleration  and  the  researches  to 
which  that  discussion  led,  Delaunay's  exten- 
sion of  the  lunar  theory,  and  the  inquiries  of 
Prof.  Newcorab  mto  the  same  subject. — 
While  mathematical  astronomy  had  been  thus 
advancing,  observational  astronomy  made  sim- 
ilar progress.  Tlie  discovery  of  Saturn's  ring 
and  largest  satellite  by  Hayghena  was  soon 
followed  by  the  discovery  of  four  other  satel- 
lites. Later  Sir  W.  Herachel  discovered  two 
other  Saturnian  salellitea,  while  in  compara- 
tively recent  times  Bond  in  America  and  Los- 
sell  in  England  discovered  an  eighth.  Uranus 
was  added  to  the  planetary  system  by  Sir  W. 
Ilerschel  in  1761,  and  at  sundry  times  four  Ura- 
nlan  satellites  have  since  been  discovered,  while 
four  others  are  by  some  supposed  to  have  been 
seen  by  Sir  W.  Ilerschel.  Neptune  and  his 
satellite  constitute  two  other  known  members 
of  the  planetary  scheme.  But  to  tliese  must 
be  added  lao  small  planets  (see  Asteboids) 
which  travel  between  the  paths  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter ;  while  the  observations  and  researches 
of  Bond  and  Peirce  in  America  and  Uaxwell 
in  England  tend  to  show  that  the  rings  of 
Saturn  are  composed  of  multitudinous  smnil 
satellites.  Apart  from  these  discoveries,  the 
complexity  of  the  scheme  ruled  over  by  the 
snu   has    been    indicated    \-s    the    discover^' . 


of  the  fact  that  mnltitades  of  meteoric  sys- 
tems exist  within  the  confines  of  the  solar 
domain,  and  that  the  component  members  of 
these  systoms  must  be  counted  by  millions. 
The  recent  observations  of  Profs.  Newt«n  nna 
Kirkwood  in  the  United  States,  Prof.  Alex- 
ander Uerschel  and  Mr.  Glaisher  in  England, 
Qnet«let  in  Belgium,  Schmidt  in  Athens,  Heis 
in  Germany,  and  Secchi  in  Rome,  have  added 
largely  to  our  knowledge  respecting  meteors; 
while  the  mathematical  researches  of  Schiapa- 
relli,  Adams,  Leverrier,  and  others,  have  re- 
vealed the  interesting  fact  that  these  bodies 
are  intimately  associated  with  comets. — The 
telescopic  study  of  the  slarry  depths,  though  it 
has  been  prosecuted  laboriously  by  the  Her- 
Bchels,  Struve,  Argelander,  Madler,  and  others, 
must  be  regarded  as  still  (owing  to  the  vsstnesa 
of  the  domain  to  be  explored)  in  its  infancy. 
The  elder  Ilerschel  first  roocpivcd  the  daring 
idea  of  ganging  the  celestiiil  duptJts;  but  as  n 
matter  of  fact  the  regions  surveyed  by  the 
two  Hcrscbels  amount  to  but  a  minute  portion 
of  the  heavens.  On  the  other  hand,  thongli 
Argelander's  survey  extended  over  a  complete 
hemisphere,  yet  the  telescopic  power  employed 
was  but  small.  Dr.  Gould,  an  American  astron- 
omer, is  extending  Argelander's  system  of  sur- 
vey to  the  southern  heavens;  and  the  result  can- 
not fail  to  be  of  the  utmost  interest  and  value. 
We  owe  to  the  Herschels  nearly  all  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  strange  objects  called  nebuJte 
orstarcloudleta.  Oftheseonly  16  were  known 
in  Halley's  time,  and  barely  200  when  Sir  W. 
Ilerschel  began  his  telescopic  labors.  He  snil 
his  son  added  between  them  nearly  G,000  neb- 
ttlte  to  the  list  of  known  objects  of  this  class. 
At  present  some  6,700  nebulte  are  known  in 
all. — The  theoretical  considerations  by  which 
tlie  Herschels  have  endeavored  to  interpret  the 
scheme  of  the  universe  are  too  important  to 
psss  unnoticed  in  this  brief  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  astronomy.  They  have  presented  the 
galaxy  to  our  contemplation  as  a  scheme  of 
suns,  many  equalling  and  many  surpsssing  onr 
own  sun  in  magnitude  and  splendor,  while  they 
have  taught  that  many  of  the  star  cloudlets 
are  schemes  of  suns  resembling  the  galaxy  in 
extent  and  constitution.  If  some,  as  Whewell, 
Herbert  Spencer,  and  others,  do  not  regard 
these  views  as  demonstrated  or  even  demon- 
strable, yet  we  cannot  but  contemplate  with 
admiration  the  activity  of  mind  which  enabled 
the  Herschels,  after  completing  unrivalled  series 
of  observational  researcnes,  to  propound  theo- 
ries so  magnificent  respecting  the  myriads  of 
orbs  which  they  had  examined. — The  spectro- 
scopic analysis  of  the  sun  and  other  celestirJ 
bodies,  in  the  hands  of  Kirchhoff,  Hug^ns;^ 
Young,  Secchi,  ZflUner,  Lookyer,  nnd  Respighi, 
bns  revealed  many  facts  of  importance.  It  haa 
been  shown  that  in  the  sun  many  of  our  famil- 
iar elements  exist  in  the  form  of  vapor.  In 
the  planetary  atmospheres  known  vapors,  nnd 
especially  the  vapor  of  wat«r,  have  been  de- 
tected.    The   stars  Imve   been   proved   to    be 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASTRONOMY 

BOO,  many  cloeelf  resembling  oar  bod  in  ele- 
meutarf  constitation,  otben  formed  ver;  dif- 
fi;reat!r,  but  all  iacandescent  orbs  as  he  is,  and 
BUTOunded  by  the  glowing  vapors  of  many  ele- 
mentary snbetancea.  -The  apiilication  of  the 
toaljBis  to  nebulffi  has  led  to  the  anrprising  dis- 
covery that  while  many  of  these  otiyects  shine 
with  a  light  reaembling  that  of  our  own  sun, 
•D  that  they  may  be  considered  to  be  formed 
bj  the  aggregation  together  of  many  stars, 
others  consist  almost  wholly  of  glowing  gas, 
nitrogen  and  b7droKeD  forming  tbelr  chief  con- 
ititnent  elements.  The  observations  of  recent 
Bolar  eclipses  have  been  rewarded  by  many 
interesting  discoveries  respecting  the  physical 


joad  the  prominences.  In  these  discoveries, 
Ea^ns,  Yonng,  Jansseo,  Lockjer,  Respighi, 
and  Becchl  have  home  the  principal  part. 
The  progress  of  practical  aatronomy,  and  par- 
ticularly the  application  of  the  telescope  to 
the  determination  of  the  exact  position  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  has  proceeded  ^aripouu  with 
the  progress  of  mathematical  analyws  and  di- 
rect telescopic  observation.  The  invention  of 
the  eqnatorial,  the  transit  instrament,  the  ma- 
ral  drde,  and  other  instruments  of  exact  obser- 
vation, belongs  to  the  comparatively  early  his- 
tory of  modern  astronomy.  In  the  present 
day  these  instruments  are  constructed  with  a 
degree  of  perfection,  and  with  a  multiplicity  of 
contrivancefl  for  improving  their  performance 
or  extending  their  application,  which  are  truly 
surprising.  Nor  have  the  achievements  of  in- 
Knimentel  astronomy  fallen  short  of  the  prom- 
ise afforded  by  the  qualities  of  the  instruments. 
It  would  be  saflicient  to  point  out  that  the 
telescope  bos  revealed  the  greater  nnmber  of 
those  minnte  inequalities  of  planetary  motion 
which  have  afforded  the  material  for  the  ana- 
Ijtical  reaearchea  above  referred  to;  but  we 
may  add  that  we  owe  to  the  telescope  the 
recogtution  of  the  aberration  of  light,  tne  dis- 
covery of  the  proper  motitms  of  the  stars,  the 
determination  of  the  ann's  distance,  and  Ibe 
partial  aolntion  of  the  most  difficult  problem 
jet  attacked  by  astronomers,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  distances  of  tbe  stars.  Lastly,  the 
spectroscope  promises  to  play  an  important 
part  in  instrnmentBl  researches,  since  already 
It  has  been  applied  to  tbe  determinatiou  of  the 
velocity  with  which  stars  are  approaohing  us 
or  receiding  from  ns,  and  to  the  measurement 
of  movements  taking  place  vrithin  the  solar 
aimoapheric  envelopes,  8oe  supplement. — 
For  a  popular  view  of  astronomy,  Hersohel's 
"Ontlinea"  may  be  recommended;  and  fall 
details  ren>eoting  practical  astronomy  will  be 
fonnd  in  the  treatise  on  that  subject  by  Trot. 
Loomis  of  New  York,  jiietiy  described  by  Prof, 
l^chol  as  "  tbe  best  work  of  the  kind  in  the 
English  longnage."  A  thorough  knowledge  of 
physical  oatronomf  would  require  an  acquaint- 
ance with  such  works  as  Laplace's  MUanique 
eilaU,  translated  bj  Bowditoh,  Ganss's  The- 


A8TDBUB 


4T 


oria  Mottu  Ccrporum  C7<zl«((>uffl,  translated  l^ 
Admiral  0.  H.  Davis,  U.  8.  N.  (Boston,  1858), 
Delambre's  AitronomU,  or  Peiroe's  "  Anaiyticu 
Mechanics"  and  "Celestial  Mechanics."  For 
the  history  of  astronomy,  see  Whewell'a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Inductive  Sciences,"  Grant's  "His- 
tory of  Physical  Astronomy,"  Jahn's  Oe»chiehte 
der  Attronomie,  and  Delambre's  HUtoire  de 
Vastranomie.  For  f^U  information  oonoeni- 
ing  the  modern  history  of  astronomy,  Zacb'a 
Monatliehe  C/rrretp<indtne,  Lindenau's  Zeit- 
icArf/t,  Schumacher's  AitronomiMche  N^aekrieh- 
ten,  continued  by  Dr.  Peterson,  and  Gould's 
"Astronomical  Journal"  (Boston)  must  be 
consulted;  also,  the  French  GotiTiauiaTiee*  dti 
tempt,   wliioh   contain   Levcrrler's   discnssions 


Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac." 
iSTSUC,  Jeaa,  a  French  physician,  bom  at 
Sauve,  March  19,  1084,  died  May  6,  1766.  He 
was  5  graduate  and  became  a  professor  of  the 
medical  college  of  Uontpellier  as  a  substitute 
of  Chirac,  on  whose  death  he  succeeded  him  in 
the  professorship,  after  having  filled  for  some 
time  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  Toulouse.  In 
1730  he  became  regent  and  professor  of  the 
faculty  of  medicine  at  Paris,  and  was  also  phy- 
sician to  tbe  king.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  D»  MorbU  Vtnerei*  Libri  tex  (2d  ed.,  3 
vols.,  1T40 ;  translated  into  French  and  other 
langu^es) ;  and  ho  was  regarded  as  a  high 
authority  on  venereal  and  female  diseases  and 
obstetrics,  though  he  excelled  rather  by  his 
prodigious  memory  than  by  inventive  genius. 
Among  his  many  other  writings  are  Traiii  de* 
maladUt  da  femmet  (6  vols.,  ITBl-'B),  and  a 
posthumous  work,  Vart  d'aeeouehtr  riduit  A 
ui  prineipe*  (1  vol.,  1768). 

imiBUB,  a  former  province  of  N.  W,  Bpain, 
bordering  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  bearing  tbe 
title  of  principality,  and  still  commonly  known 
by  its  ancient  name,  although  since  18S8  it 
constitutes  the  province  of  Oviedo ;  area,  4,088 
»q.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  C68,0S1.  The  surface  is 
irregular  and  hilly,  the  country  being  intersect- 
ed by  ofishoots  of  the  Cantabrian  mountains, 
a  chain  varying  in  height  from  6,000  to  10,000 
feet.  The  scenery  is  picturesque  and  wild,  and 
the  coast  is  almost  everywhere  bold  and  high. 
The  rivers  are  few  and  generally  unimportant, 
the  Nalon  being  the  chief.  The  province  is 
rich  in  coal,  and  in  the  north  many  mines  are 
worked;  the  coal  is  shipped  from  Aviles  and 
G^on.  Maize,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  fmits  are 
the  chief  productions.  The  horses  of  Astnriaa 
are  celebrated  for  strength  and  endurance. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  simple  habits,  retaining 
many  old  Spanish  cnstoras  and  peculiarities  of 
dress  that  have  elsewhere  disappeared.  They 
are  proud  of  the  freedom  of  their  race  from  the 
admixture  of  Jewish  and  Arab  blood  found  in 
the  other  provinces,  and  affect  a  superiority  to 
other  Spaniards.  The  herdsmen  (pagueroi) 
amoni^  them  form  a  separate  and  nomadic  clas^ 
spending  tbe  winter  on  tbe  coast  and  the  snm- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


48 


ASTTAGE8 


— ABtoriaa  ii  famooB  in 
Spuiish  history  as  Che  refuge  and  stronghold  to 
which  the  Ohristion  Visigoths  and  their  lead- 
era  fled  when  the  Moors  had  gained  posseeaiun 
of  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  and  had 
routed  ^e  Christian  army  in  the  battle  of  the 
Guadalete,  in  Til.  The  Christians  Iield  the 
province  until,  under  the  leadership  of  Pelayo, 
they  gained  a  victory  in  718,  and,  aided  by 
the  Frankish  successes  elsewhere,  gradaally 
drove  back  the  Moors,  Pelayo  foanded  the 
kingdom  of  Asturias,  over  which  he  and  his 
descendants  mled  till  757,  aft«r  which  they 
were  called  kings  of  Oviedo.  In  914  the  court 
was  transferred  to  Leon,  that  large  district 
having  been  generally  freed  fVom  Moorish 
rale  and  joined  with  Asturias.  The  title  king 
of  Leon  was  now  borne  by  the  reigning  sover- 
eign, and  the  history  of  Aatnrias  became  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  larger  territory.  The 
titJe  of  prince  of  Asturias  was  Dreat«d  for  the 
Spanish  heir  apparent  by  John  L  in  138B,  at  the 
wish  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  whoso  daoghter 
the  prince  was  about  tomarry;  andthecrown 
prince  of  Spain  was  thus  designated  nntil  the 
ezpohdon  of  the  Bonrbon  dynusty  in  IStiB. 

mrlGiS,  SOD  of  Cyaxares,  the  last  king  of 
Media  and  grandfather  of  Cyras,  by  whom,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  he  was  dethroned  alter  a 
reign  of  35  years  (584-559  B.  C).    (See  Otbi-s.) 

ISMT,  or  Amj,  the  largest  of  the  three 
departmonis  of  Ecuador,  occupying  the  wliole 
eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  country, 
between  lat.  1°  N.  and  5°  S.,  and  Ion.  68°  and 
80°  W. ;  area,  about  200,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
250,000.  In  the  western  portion  is  an  ele- 
vated desert,  called  the  Paramo  or  desert  of 
Asnay,  being  a  plateau  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  Andes  by  two  chains  of  mountains 
numingE.  andW.    The  eastern  parts,  however, 


ASUNOIOS 

are  fertile,  being  well  watered  by  the  Napo, 
Putumayo,  and  other  affluents  of  the  Amazon ; 
and  the  inhabitants  here  are  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture and  cattle  breeding.  On  the  edges  of  tbs 
western  table  land  grow  cinchona  trees,  whose 
bark  forms  one  of  the  few  eiports  of  the  coun- 
try. The  principal  towns  are  Cnenca  and  Loja. 
ASCICION,  NMstra  Stiln  dc  la  ImdM,  or  Iv 
nHptlM.  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Paraguay, 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  river  Paraguay,  in  litt, 
26°  16'  a.  Ion.  5T°  42'  W.,  650  m.  N.  of  Bnenoa 
Ayres;  pop.  in  1857,  including  suburbs,  48,000. 
It  was  founded  in  1536  by  Juan  de  Ayolas,  and 
nntil  1620  was  the  capital  of  all  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  streets  are 
regularly  lud  out,  but  unpaved,  and  only  a  few 
of  them  have  narrow  flagged  sidewalks.  The 
dwellings  are  mostly  of  a  single  story,  the  bet- 
ter class  built  of  adobea,  with  tiled  roofs  and 
E rejecting  eaves.  In  building  the  ordinary 
ouses,  posts  are  driven  into  the  ground  to 
support  the  beams  and  ralters,  then  strips  of 
bamboo  ore  placed  transversely,  and  the  whole 
chinkedandplastered withmud.  Thetinestpub- 
lic  building  is  the  cathedral,  rebuilt  in  1842''6. 
There  are  two  other  cburcliea,  in  one  of  which 
the  dictator  Francia  was  buried,  bat  one  night 
his  monament  was  destroyed,  and  his  bones 
removed,  no  one  knows  whither.  The  edbildo 
or  city  ball,  in  which  the  congress  meets,  b  a 
respectable  stmcture;  the  government  palace 
is  a  building  of  one  story  with  a  double  front 
and  portico.  There  is  a  stone  qaay  bordering 
the  river,  upon  which  stand  the  arsenal  and 
some  workshops,  mainly  for  ship  building.  The 
principal  suburbs  are  La  Becoleta  and  Lam- 
Wfi,  where  are  the  ooneteries;  bat  until  re* 
cently  the  dead  were  buried  in  the  churches. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  although  in  summer  the 
thermometer  frequently  rises  above  100°.    In 


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ASYLDlt 

the  neighborhood  are  man;  plaaaaut  reridences. 
Anmoion  ia  oonnectod  by  nulwaj  with  Tilla 
Bin,  about  145  m.  distant,  and  ia  favorftbly 
stauted  for  commerce  witb  the  iaterior  and 
DHHt  tbe  river.  The  population  boa,  like  thtit 
of  *U  PkragnOif,  Bofiered  much  dimination  in 
wnaeqaencfl  of  the  war  of  18&C-'70  with  Bra- 
lil,  tbe  Argentine  Confederation,  and  Uragnaj, 
shortly  before  the  close  of  which  the  allied 
foroee  took  poaeeasion  of  the  oit;. 

iglUni  (Qr.  ieiiXov),  formeriy,  a  place  of 
refiige,from  which  persons  who  fled  to  itoonld 
not  be  taken  without  aaorilege.  The  Jew- 
i^  dtiea  of  refuge  establiahed  by  Koaea  and 
Joflhna  are  the  earliest  examples  of  the  ona- 
tom  of  which  we  possess  historical  evidence. 
These  were  six  in  nnmber,  three  on  each  side 
of  the  Jordan.  There  the  involuntary  homi- 
cide might  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  rela- 
tives of  the  deceased.  In  Greece,  the  temples, 
groves,  aitAFB,  and  sometinies  tlie  pre<nnotB  of 
the  temple,  were  asylnins  to  men  convicted  or 
indicted  for  civil  or  criminal  offences.  Yet  it 
was  lawM  to  anrronnd  the  temple,  and  let  the 
ftagitive  die  of  hanger,  and  even  in  some  cases 
to  set  fire  to  the  bailding.  In  the  later  days 
of  Borne,  the  eagles  of  the  legions,  and  the  stat- 
ues and  palaces  of  the  emperors,  were  also 
asylums.  The  stroDgeet  reli^ous  sanction  was 
thrown  aromid  these  places  of  refnge.  In- 
solvoit  debtors  and  runaway  slaves  resorted 
to  th«n  in  great  numbers.  Aa  law  became 
more  powerful  onder  the  Roman  government, 
these  asylums  came  to  be  regarded  as  Dui- 
sanoes;  and  at  last  an  edict  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius  swept  most  of  them  away,  both  legal 
and  pretended.  With  the  barbarian  incnraions 
in  the  East  and  West,  the  necessity  for  asy- 
lums again  arose.  The  new  right  of  asylum 
fell  to  the  churches.  Under  Constantine  the 
Great,  all  Christian chorches  were  asylums;  the 
yotmger  Theodosius  extended  the  privilege  to 
all  courts,  gardens,  walks,  and  houses  belonging 
to  the  church.  The  Franks  in  France  and  the 
Tisigoths  in  Spain  permitted  it.  Many  of  the 
popes  favored  this  right.  All  convents,  and 
ereubi^ops' houses,  became  asylums.  Opposed 
to  the  right  were  the  temporal  lords,  whose 
Jurisdiction  was  curtailed  by  the  asylums. 
Several  popes,  in  particular  Gregory  XIV.  and 
Bene^ct  XIII,,  restricted  the  right  as  nai^ 
rowly  aa  pos^ble.  All  highway  robbers,  vol- 
mitary  bomicidea,  horse  or  sheep  stealers,  pro- 
feawcmal    thieves,    heretics  under  inquisition 

StrooeflB,  those  who  laid  violent  hands  on  nobles, 
oraera,  false  coiners,  and  duellists,  were  ei- 
clnoed  from  the  privilege.  In  Qermany,  where 
tiie  temporal  power  was  strong,  the  right 
of  asylnm  was  never  very  effective.  Some- 
time^ however,  the  Germnn  barons  would 
tbemMlTes  set  up  the  right  of  asylum  in  their 
MStles.  The  German  emperors  never  regard- 
ed the  ecclenastical  asylnm,  and  it  was  entire- 
ly swept  away  by  the  Protestant  princes.  In 
Engiiuid,  in  148T,  the  right  waa  for  tne  first  time 
restrained  by  a  boll  of  Pope  Innocent  VIII. 


ATAOAUA  49 

In  1QS4,  after  the  reformation  bad  oommenced, 
persons  accused  of  treason  were  debarred  the 
right  of  sanctnuT,  which  word  is  more  com- 
monly used  in  English  law  than  asylum,  and 
hence  the  phrase,  "to  take  sanctuary,"  is 
equivalent  to  take  refuge.  In  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  the  right  of  asylum  was  de- 
nied to  all  criminals,  but  reserved  to  debtors. 
Iniearthe  right  of  asylum  was  at  length  taken 
awayfrominaolventdebtors.  To  Macduff,  thane 
of  Fife,  who  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of 
Macbeth,  and  to  his  descendants,  was  given  by 
Malcom  Kenmore,  on  the  recovery  of  the  throne 
of  his  ancestors,  the  privll^e  for  any  one  of 
the  clan  Macduff  who  committed  unpremedi- 
tated homicide,  to  have  his  punishment  remit- 
ted for  a  fine,  payable  to  the  u^nred  family,  if 
he  could  get  saTe  to  Macduff's  orosa,  WMch 
stood  in  Fifeshire.  Many  rimilar  privileges  were 
granted  by  charter  in  Scotland,  To  this  day, 
Holyrood  palace,  as  an  ancient  royal  residence, 


this  place  of  refuge  are  liberal ;  the  debton 
find  lodging  in  a  short  street,  the  privileged 
part  of  which  is  divided  ftom  the  unprivileged 
by  a  gutter  running  across  it  This  is  the  only 
existing  sanctuary  in  the  British  empire.  In 
the  United  States  of  America,  no  civil  or  eoole- 
wastical  asylum  ever  existed.  The  right  of 
saylum  endured  longest  in  Italy,  and  was  first 
put  an  end  to  by  the  French  occupation  at  the 
end  of  the  last  century.  The  houses  of  the 
clergy  and  graveyards  became  asylums  in  Italy 
in  course  of  time ;  and  the  houses  of  the  car- 
dinals at  Korae  had  this  privilege,  at  least  in 
theory,  as  long  aa  the  temporal  power  Isated. 

ASYMPTOTE,  a  line  (straight  or  curved)  tan- 
gent to  a  curve,  but  having  its  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  curve  at  an  infinite  distance.  If 
a  weight  were  hung  upon  a  cord,  the  ends  of 
which  were  faatened  to  pins  at  unequal  heights, 
the  weight  would  slide  to  a  point  nearer  the 
lower  pm.  Let  now  die  cord  gradudly  yield 
to  the  weight,  and  be  stretched  to  an  indefinite 
length,  the  weight,  sliding  constantly  toward 
the  middle  of  the  cord,  w9uld  move  in  a  curve; 
and  a  veriical  line  midway  between  the  pins 
would  he  an  asymptote  to  tiiat  curve. 

ITlCiMl.  I.  AS. W.departmentof  Bolivia, 
bounded  by  Pern,  the  Bolivian  departmrait  of 
Potosi,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Chili,  and 
the  Pacific  ocean;  area,  about  70,000  sq,  m.; 
pop.  about  S,000.  The  greater  portion  of  the  de- 
partment is  a  dry  sandy  desert  entirely  uninhab- 
ited, which  is  supposed  to  have  been  for  ages 
the  burial  place  of  the  aboriginal  Peruvians. 
There  are  a  few  fertile  valleys  in  the  north. 
Anhydrous  sulphate  of  soda  is  abundant  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  department,  and  lar^e 
masses  of  solid  iron  have  also  been  found  m 
different  localities.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  salt, 
and  alum  are  also  among  the  mineral  produc- 
tions. The  capital  is  Cob\ja,  or  Puerto  de 
la  Mar,  the  only  seaport  which  Bolivia  pos- 
sesses.    IL   The  most   northern   province   of 


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50 


ATAHUALLPA 


Ohilx,  inclading  the  portion  of  the  desert 
of  Ataoama  Ijing  S.  of  the  preceding  de- 
partment, the  separating  tine  being  the  par- 
allel of  kt.  24°  S.,  according  to  the  treaty  of 
1806,  and  bounded  E.  b^  the  Argentine  Oon- 
federatJOD,  8.  by  the  province  ti  Coqaimbo, 
and  W.  hy  the  Pacific;  area,  about  39,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1866,  B1,61Q.  The  province  u 
dividod  into  the  departmenta  of  Caldera,  Co- 
piapo,  Freirina,  and  Vallemar.  It  aboonda  in 
mineral  wealth,  inclnding  perhaps  the  richest 
ulver  and  copper  mines  in  the  world.  Of 
the  former  it  has  24T  and  of  the  latter  694 
which  are  now  worked.  The  silver  mines 
were  discovered  as  lately  as  1SS2,  bj  a  shep- 
herd, Joan  Godoy,  and  they  have  yielded  dnce 
then  ores  to  the  value  of  over  $100,000,000,  fully 
one  third  of  which  amonnt  boa  been  derived 
from  the  mines  of  Challarcillo.  A  village  of 
over  1,600  inhabitants,  which  contains  a  fi-ee 
school,  a  church,  a  hospital,  and  a  post  ofSce, 
now  marks  the  spot  of  the  discovery,  and  is 
named  Juan  Godoy.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Ohafiarcillo  bills,  61  m.  8.  E.  of  Copiapo,  the 
capital  of  the  department,  with  whicb  city  it 
is  connected  by  railroad.  Within  a  cironit  of 
26  leagues  from  Copiapo  are  19  silver-mining 
districts,  of  whicb  those  of  Oliaflarcillo,  Tres 
Pnntas,  and  Agua  Amarga  are  the  most  im- 
portant. The  metal  is  found  in  a  variety  of 
combinations,  of  whicb  sulphurets,  chlorides, 
and  abloro-bromides  are  the  most  important. 
A  railway  101  m.  long,  the  first  ever  built  in 
South  America  (1860).  connects  the  port  of 
Caldera,  one  of  the  Iwat  on  the  whole  coast  of 
Chili,  with  Copiapo  and  with  the  mining  dig- 
tncte  fiirther  east. 

1T1HD1U.P1,  or  lUkaltpa,  inca  of  Peru  at 
the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards,  died 
Ang.  29,  1633.  He  was  the  son  of  Huayna 
Capao.  The  laws  of  Peru  reqnirod  that  the 
principal  wives  of  the  incas  should  be  blood 
reiations,  and  that  no  children  of  other  parent- 
age should  be  legitimate.  Atabuallpa's  mother 
bod  been  a  princess  of  Quito ;  nevertheless,  at 
the  request  of  his  father,  the  heir  to  the  throne, 
Hoasoar,  consented  tA  divide  the  kingdom  with 
Atabuallpa,  on  condition  only  that  be  should 
render  homage  to  him,  and  not  make  conqueata 
beyond  his  own  dominions.  This  liberal  con- 
duct was  infamonsly  requited  by  AtahusUpa, 
who,  having  secretly  got  together  a  large  army, 
attacked  Huascar  in  Cuzco,  took  him  prisoner, 
loaded  him  with  chains,  and  exterminated  alt 
bis  adherents,  putting  his  family  and  immedi- 
ate dependants  to  death  in  the  most  atrocioua 
tortures.  Such  is  the  story  told  by  Spanish 
annalists,  whose  testimony  is  doubtful,  seeing 
that  the  murder  of  Huascar,  their  pseudo-ally, 
and  the  tyranny  of  Atahuallpa  were  among  the 
causes  of  bis  own  execution.  Pizarro  and  his 
■  followers  were  now  in  Peru,  and  Atahuallpa 
opened  negotiations  with  them.  His  proposals 
were  received  in  a  friendly  manner  by  Piiarro, 
and  an  interview  was  arranged  (1582),  which 
Atahuallpa  attended,  followed  by  a  very  large 


ATAULPHU3 

number  of  unarmed  subjects.  Father  Vicente 
de  Yalverde  explained  to  hira,  throngb  on  in- 
terpreter, the  mysteries  of  reli^on,  end  that  on 
account  of  their  heathenism  the  pope  had 
granted  his  kingdom  to  the  Spaniards.  Ata- 
uuallfia  professed  not  to  nuderstand  t^e  tenor 
of  this  discourse,  and  would  not  resign  his 
kingdom ;  whereupon  a  massacre  of  the  assem- 
blea  crowd  was  at  once  commenced  by  the 
Bpanish  soldiers,  who  seized  Atahuallpa  and 
threw  him  into  prison.  On  the  arrival  of  Al- 
magro  the  cupidity  of  the  adventurers  was  ex- 
cited by  the  magnificent  proposals  that  Ata- 
huallpa made  fur  his  ransom,  and  with  a  de- 
^e  of  seizing  the  whole  it  was  determined  to 
put  him  to  death.  During  his  imprisonnteiit 
Atahuallpa  gave  orders  for  the  execution  ctf 
Huascar,  which  were  obeyed.  This  was  one 
of  the  charges  against  him  on  the  court  martial 
by  which  he  was  tried,  and  being  fotmd  guilty, 
he  was  sentenced  to  be  burned,  a  penalty  com- 
muted for  strangulation  by  the  garrote  on  his 
accepting  baptism  at  the  hands  of  the  priests 
accompanying  the  invaders. — See  Prescott^s 
"Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 

ITIUHTI,  B  mythical  personage,  a  native 
of  Arcadia,  or  according  to  a  less  generally 
adopted  legend,  which  gives  her  atory  with 
some  variations,  of  Boeotia.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Jasus,  who,  having  prayed  to  the 
gods  for  a  son,  was  displeased  at  nor  birth,  and 
as  a  mark  of  bis  displeasure  exposed  her  on  the 
Porthenian  mount.  Here  she  was  nurtured  by 
a  she  bear,  and  grew  up  to  womanhood,  retain- 
ing her  virginity,  and  becoming  the  moat  swift- 
footed  of  mortals.  She  vanquished  the  Cen- 
taurs, who  sought  to  capture  her,  participated 
in  the  Caiydoniau  boar  hunt,  and  engaged  in 
the  Pelian  games.  In  course  of  time  her  father 
was  reconciled  to  her ;  but  when  he  urged  her 
to  choose  a  husband,  she  insisted  that  every 
suitor  who  aspired  to  win  her  should  Srst  con- 
tend with  her  in  running.  If  he  vanquished 
her,  he  was  to  receive  her  band;  if  vanquished, 
he  was  to  he  put  to  death.  Uilanion  overcame 
her  by  artifice:  as  he  ran  be  dropped  three 
golden  apples,  the  gift  of  Venus,  which  Ata- 
lanta  delayed  to  pi<£  up. 

ATASC061,  a  8.  county  of  Texas,  watered 
by  the  San  Miguel  river  and  Atascosa  creek, 
branches  of  the  Nueces;  area,  1,262  sq.  ro. ; 
pop.  in  1870,2,916.  It  is  a  stock-raising  county, 
and  aljout  three  fourths  of  the  surface  is  prairie. 
The  soil  is  sandy  and  easy  of  cultivation;  and 
the  climate  is  particularly  healthy.  In  1870 
the  county  produced  86,371  bushels  of  com, 
11,839  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  22,S77  lbs.  of 
wool.  There  were  97,622  cattle,  6,370  horses, 
8,187  sheep,  and  13,590  hogs.     Capitol,  Fleas- 

ITirAI,  Haw^ian  Islands.    8ee  Kait^i. 

ATlPLPHtS,  or  AtailT  (Adolphits),  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  as  successor  to  Alaric  (410),  to 
whom  hia  sister  was  given  in  marri^e,  died 
in  416.  He  joined  Alorio  in  Italy  with  an  army 
of  Goths  and  Huns,  and  aided  him  in  the  siege 


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ATBAEA 

of  Rome.  After  the  death  of  his  brother-in- 
liiF,  Atanlphos  marched  into  Gaol,  carr;iDg 
with  him  captive  Placidia,  the  niater  of  the  em- 
peror Uonorins.  The  Gallic  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  then  in  dispute  between  Jovinus 
ud  Honoring.  Ataulphna  offered  to  treat  with 
JoTimu,  but  being  repnlHed  made  similar  pro- 
PosbIb  to  Uonorius,  and  dd'eated  and  slew  Jo- 
riDOB.  Hooorins,  however,  woold  not  be  rec- 
onciled with  the  abdnctor  of  his  dster,  and 
CoostanUns,  to  whom  Placidia  had  been  es- 
poused, hsrasaed  the  Gothic  kingdom,  until  in 
414  the  barbarians  were  oompelled  to  with- 
draw, barajng  Bordeaux  ea  thej  left,  and  croae- 
iug  uie  Pyrenees  into  Spun.  Atanlphaa  was 
asaasmnated  by  one  of  his  eqaerries. 

ATURi,  the  principal  eastern  aSnent-  of 
the  Nile,  rimng  in  Abjsmnia.  (See  Nile,  and 
ABTtennA.) 

nCBlFALATi,  a  river  and  bsyon  of  Lonlsi- 
uia,  connecting  with  the  MisMsdppi  near  the 
month  of  the  Red  river,  bnt  receiving  very 
little  of  its  waters  except  in  time  of  flood.  Its 
coarse  is  nearly  south  to  Lake  Obetimachea 
or  Grand  lake,  throagh  which  it  passea,  and 
from  which,  in  a  greatly  enlarged  stream,  it 
dischargee  itself  into  Atchafalaya  bay.  Its 
name  vignifies  lost  river,  and  it  is  snppoeed  by 
secvrapnere  to  have  formed  the  old  bed  of  the 
Red  river.  The  Teche  and  Oonrtablean  are  lis 
principal  tribalaries.  Its  whole  course  is  about 
960  m. 

jtTCfllSOII.  L  A  comity  forming  Ihe  K.  W. 
extremity  of  Hissonri,  lying  along  U)e  left  bank 
of  the  Hisaoori  river,  bounded  £.  by  the  Noda- 
way and  drained  by  the  Tarkeo  and  Niahna- 
batona  rivers;  area,  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8.440,  of  whom  84  were  colored.  In  1870 
(he  couDty  prodaced  45, 1 1 7  bnshela  of  wheat, 
1,319,080  of  Indian  com,  69,666  of  oats,  18,266 
lbs.  of  wool,  127,826  of  butter,  and  6,110  gal- 
loDB  of  wine.  Capital,  Kockport.  IL  A  N.  E. 
ooonty  of  Kansas,  separated  from  Missouri  by 
the  Missouri  river ;  area,  424  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  16,607.  In  1870  the  coanty  produced 
198,746  bnshels  of  wheat,  61S,447  of  Indian 
com,  06,012  of  oats,  78,721  of  potatoes,  23,289 
tons  of  hay,  618,864  lbs.  of  batter,  207,639  of 
tobacco,  ana  201,598  of  wool,  Boilding  stone 
is  abimdiuiL  The  central  branch  of  the  Union 
PB<»flc  railroad  passes  through  the  oounty. 
Coital,  Atebison. 

ItcmSOK,  a  city  of  Kansas,  capital  of  Atchi- 
son CO.,  sitnated  on  the  W.  hani:  of  the  Mis- 
souri river,  at  the  extreme  point  of  the  "  Great 
Western  Bend,"  about  36  m.  above  Leaven- 
worth ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,064.  It  is  an  important 
rulway  centre,  being  the  terminns  of  foar 
roads :  the  Central  Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific ; 
the  Miaaonri  Pacific ;  the  Kansas  City,  St.  Jo- 
seph, and  Council  Bluffs,  connecting  it  with  the 
Hamiibal  and  St.  Joseph ;  and  the  Atchison 
and  Nebraska.  The  city  contains  6  churches, 
9  schoola,  8  banks,  3  newspaper  offices,  a  large 
fiimitBre  manu&ctory,  floor  mills,  and  planing 
o^Ui.    The  central  Khool  building,  just  oom- 


ATHA  BEN  HAKEM 


51 


pleted  at  a  cost  of  $46,000,  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  state. 
ITCHISOVr,  DaUd  B^  an  American  politdeian, 

bom  at  Frtwtown,  Fayette  coonty,  fey,,  Aug. 
11,  1807.  He  was  a  lawyer  in  Clay  county, 
Mo.,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  state  legis- 


1841  to  18S6  he  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  senate,  at  first  acting  with  the  party 
opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
northern  territories,  but  suddenly  changing  his 
policy  in  3649.  In  1854  he  became  prominent 
in  the  legislation  for  the  organization  of  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska,  advocating  the  repeal  of 
the  Miaaonri  compromise.  AAer  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  in  the  senate  he  became  a  pro- 
slavery  leader  in  the  conflict  on  and  near  tlie 
Kansas  border  in  1856-'7.  Since  that  time 
Mr.  Atchison  has  not  appeared  in  public  life. 

ITE,  a  Greek  deity,  dimghter  of  Eris  or  of 
Zeus.  In  the  tra^c  poets  she  is  the  puniaher 
of  those  who  perpetrate  crime ;  in  tbe  epio 
she  is  the  instigator  of  gods  and  men  to  deeds 
which  superinduce  misfortunes.  In  this  char- 
acter she  persuaded  Jupiter  to  take  an  oath, 
which  afterward  enabled  Juno  to  transfer  to 
Eurystheus  the  power  that  had  been  intended 
for  Hercules.  When  Jupiter  perceived  what 
he  bod  done,  he  cast  Ate  from  Olympus. 

ATELLl,  an  ancient  Oscon  town  of  Cam- 


as slaves,  or  expelled  by  the  Eomans  in  211  B. 
C,  for  having  been  the  flrst  to  declare  for  the 
Cartha^ians  after  the  battle  of  Canute.  In 
the  days  of  Cicero  the  town  had  recovered  its 
prosperity,  though  it  was  classed  by  Strabo 
among  the  smaller  towns  of  Campania.  In 
early  Christian  times  it  became  an  episcopal 
see,  and  continued  as  sucb  till  the  9tb  cen- 
tuiy,  bnt  was  then  much  dilapidated.  In  1030 
the  inhabitants  were  removeo  to  the  neighbor- 
ing town  of  Aversa,  near  which  some  remains 
still  exist,  Atella  is  celebrated  in  Roman  liter- 
ature through  the  Atellana  /abvla,  also  called 
liidi  Oiei,  farces  or  comedies  in  the  Oscan  dia- 
lect. They  were  at  one  time  highly  popular  in 
Rome.     No  entire  play  has  come  down  to  us. 

ITH,  or  Xtk,  a  city  of  Belgium,  in  the  prov- 
uice  of  Hainanlt,  on  tbe  river  Dender,  80  m.  W. 
S.W.  of  Brussels;  pop.  in  1866,  8,260.  It  baa 
a  tower  bnilt  in  1160,  a  handsome  town  ball, 
a  college,  orphan  asylum,  Ac.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  fabrica, 
of  hats  and  gloves,  bleaching  and  dyeing  es- 
tablishments, and  breweries;  and  it  is  the  seat 
of  a  considerable  trade.  It  once  had  fortifica- 
tions, but  they  were  demolished  in  1830. 

ATHi  am  HAKEfl,  or  ilhakea  Iha  Atta,  stir- 
named  Mokanna  (the  veiled),  a  Moslem  im- 
postor, bom  at  Merv,  Khoresan,  killed  about 
780.  He  was  by  trade  a  fuller.  Tie  pretended 
to  be  the  embodiment  of  the  living  spirit  of 
God,  and  by  his  knowledge  of  philosophy  and 
chemistry  was  enabled  to  perform  wonden 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


52  ATHA  UELIE 

whloh  drev  about  him  a  Iotm  band  of  fol- 
lowers. He  alwafi  wore  a  veil,  declaring  that 
no  one  could  behold  his  face  and  live ;  bat  the 
real  reason  of  his  doing  so  is  Bopposed  to  have 
been  to  hide  the  Iobb  of  an  eye.  Tlie  caliph 
Mahdi  having  sent  an  army  against  him,  he 
shat  himself  up  Id  the  castle  of  Keh,  north  of 
the  Oias,  and  when  no  longer  able  to  stand  a 
siege  pnt  hunself  to  death.  According  to  aome, 
be  set  fire  to  his  castle  and  threw  himself  into 
the  flames,  followed  by  many  of  his  disciples. 
Otjiers  state  that  he  poisoned  himself  and  bis 
followers;  and  again  others  that  he  threw 
himself  into  a  canldron  of  corrosive  acid,  in 
the  hope  that  his  complete  destraction  would 
follow,  cansiDg  the  belief  that  he  had  been  re- 
moved by  divine  agen^.  Mokanna  is  the  hero 
of  Moore's  poem,  "Iibe  Veiled  Prophet  of 
Ehorassan." 

ITHA  mJK,  Ata  cd-Mi,  a  Peruan  historian 
and  statesnan,  bom  in  Khorasan  about  122T, 
died  at  Bagdad  in  1283,  He  eiyoyed  the  favor 
of  the  Mongol  princes  of  Persia,  and  was  for 
many  years  governor  of  Bagdad.  Uis  history 
of  tiie  Mongols,  entitled  "  Conqnest  of  the 
World,"  boa  been  highly  valned. 

ITHABISCI,  or  AthafcsMW.  I.  A  lake  of 
British  North  America,  in  Ist,  fiO"  N".,  and  be- 
tween Ion.  10S°  and  112°  W.,  about  midway 
between  the  Hooky  monnt^ns  and  Hudson 
bay.  It  is  about  20  m.  wide  from  N.  to  S.  and 
S80  m.  long.  Forts  Chipewyan  and  Fond  du 
Lao  are  on  its  N.  shore.  At  the  W.  end  it 
receives  the  Athabasca  and  Peace  rivers,  and 
discharges  the  Slave  river,  which  flows  N.  into 
Great  Slave  lake,  whence  there  is  oommnnica- 
tlon  by  the  Mackenide  river  with  the  Arotio 
ocean.  The  Block  river  issaes  from  its  E.  ex- 
tremity, and  forms  part  of  the  channel  through 
which,  by  Black,  Manito  or  Wollaston,  Deer, 
and  Indian  lakes,  and  the  Churchill  river,  it 
is  connected  with  Hudson  bay.  U.  A  river 
which  rises  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  near  ML 
Brown,  in  lat.  52°  10'  N  Ion.  118°  80'  W.,  and 
boa  a  tortnoQS  N.  and  l4.  £.  course,  receiving 
the  overflow  of  the  Lesser  Slave  and  several 
other  lakes,  and  entering  Atliabssoa  lake.  Its 
length  is  abont  600  m.  A  shoal  several  miles 
in  eitont  is  formed  by  the  debris  and  drift 
timber  which  it  brings  into  the  lake. 

ATHIBISCIS,  a  family  of  American  Indians, 
comprising  two  large  divisions :  one  bordering 
on  toe  Esquimaux  in  the  northwest,  and  ex- 
tending from  Hudson  bay  to  the  Pacific,'  the 
other  on  the  Mexican  frontier,  extending  from 
the  gulf  of  California  to  Teias,  with  smaller 
bands  scattered  along  the  Pacific  from  Cook's 
inlet  to  Umpqua  river,  Oregon.  The  north- 
ern district  contains  a  variety  of  tribes,  the 
more  important  being  the  Tinne  (called  Chipe- 
wyans  by  the  Crees),  the  Tahkali  or  Carriers, 
Sioaunies,  Kutchin  or  Loncheni,  Dog  Ribs, 
ICauvuB  Monde,  Slaves,  Beaver  Indians,  and 
Yellow  Knives,  with  the  Snrsee  on  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Their  nnmbers  have  not  been  ac- 
ourately  computed,  but  are  estimated  by  Eirby 


ATHANA6IAN  CREED 

at  82,000.  The  scattered  tribes  are  the  Ke- 
naions  or  Tn^na  on  Cook's  inlet,  nnmbering 
about  20,000 ;  the  Kwalhioqua  and  Tlatskanai, 
abont  100  each,  on  the  Columbia;  and  the 
Umpquos,  about  400  in  number,  on  the  river 
of  that  name.  These  tribes  are  all  repre- 
sented as  timid,  mild,  and  gentle  in  man- 
ner, peaceable  and  industrious.  The  southern 
district  includes  the  sedentary  Nav^oa,  who 
cultivate  the  soil  and  weave  blankets;  the 
fleree,  wandering  Apaches,  the  most  tronble- 
some  of  tribes;  ana  the  more  quiet  Lipans 
of  Texas.  These  number  abont  17,000.  The 
name  of  the  family  is  derived  frmn  Lake  Ath- 
abasca, but  the  word  is  taken,  not  from  their 
luiguage,  but  fh>m  the  Cree,  meaning  oorda  of 
hay  according  to  some.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  other  families,  having  sqnare 
massive  heads,  short  hands  and  feet,  and  a 
quantity  of  beard  qnite  onnsnal  in  Amoiean 
tribes.  They  profess  to  have  come  from  a  dis- 
tant conntry  in  the  west,  over  a  series  of  ialands 
amid  ice  and  snow.  Some  writers  trace  strong 
Tartar  resemblances  in  them,  and  Turner  fonna 
curious  analf^ee  between  their  language  and 
that  of  Thibet. 

11V1LUH,  queen  of  Judah,  daughter  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  She  was  sought  by  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  in  marriage  for  his 
son  Jehoram.  This  marriage  was  the  occasion 
of  the  introduction  of  idolatry  into  Judah,  and 
of  an  interruption  in  the  Judean  dynasty.  Af- 
t«r  the  death  of  Jehoram,  and  the  short  rdgn 
and  destruction  of  hereon  Abazioh  (884  B.C.), 
Atbaliah  caused  all  the  mole  members  of  the 
royal  line,  as  she  supposed,  to  be  slun,  and 
mounted  the  throne  of  Judah  herself.  But 
after  she  had  reigned  six  years,  the  high  priest 
Jeboiada  produced  her  grandson,  the  young 
Joasb,  who  had  been  saved  from  the  massacre 
and  reared  in  the  temple,  caused  him  to  be  an- 
ointed as  king,  and  ordered  the  punishment 
of  Atbaliah  by  the  armed  Levites. 

ATHAMIS,  in  Greek  legendary  history,  a  son 
of  >£olns,  married  Nephele,  who,  discovering 
that  he  preferred  Ino,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus, 
vanished  iWim  the  earth.  Ino  endeavored  to 
destroy  Phrixus  and  Helle,  his  children  by  Ne- 
phele,  but  they  were  rescued  by  their  mother 
and  transported  to  Colchis  on  the  back  of  the 
ram  with  the  golden  fleece.  Juno,  to  punish  the 
infidelity  of  Athamas,  afflicted  bin  with  mad- 
ness. While  in  this  condition  he  killed  Lear- 
chns,  one  of  his  sons  by  Ino,  and  the  latter 
cast  herself  into  the  sea  with  her  other  son, 
Melicertes.  Athamas  now  fled  from  Bceotia, 
and  was  commanded  by  an  oracle  to  renitun 
'  wherever  he  should  be  hospitably  received  bj 
savage  beasts.  After  much  wandering  be  ar- 
rived at  a  place  where  wolves  were  devouring 
sheep ;  they  fled  at  his  approach,  and  left  their 
prey  at  his  disposal.  Athamas  settled  there, 
and  called  bis  new  territory  Athamania, 

lIBlNiBUH  (SEED,  a  symbol  chiefly  com- 
posed of  precise  theological  definitions  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  incarnation.    Tho 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATHAN  ASICS 

flnt  notices  of  it  are  from  th«  Tth  oentnry,  and 
do  sot  mention  tiia  author.  It  made  its  ap- 
pearance first  in  France,  in  the  Latin  lan^nage, 
bacama  generally  known  throughout  the  West, 
ud  was  adopted  last  of  all  in  the  East.  The 
Greet  writera  immediately  ancceeding  St.  Ath- 
inanos  moke  no  mention  of  it.  In  the  MS. 
ediUona  of  his  works  it  is  uaaally  not  found  at 
all,  or,  if  it  ia,  with  the  remark,  "  commonly  " 
or  "incorrectly  aaoribed  to  St.  Athanaaiasi" 
Snbaequently,  however.  It  was  aaorilied  lo  hira 
by  all  eccleaiaatical  writers.  Dnrandaa  (128T) 
states  that  it  was  composed  by  St.  Athanasius 
at  Treves  dnring  hia  exile  in  tJie  West,  and 
Mayer  thinks  this  acooont  not  improbable. 
Modem  critics  generally  suppose  that  it  waa 
drawn  np  aa  a  annimary  of  the  doctrine  of 
6l  Atbanastos,  from  which  circumstance  it  ob- 
Uioed  the  name  of  Athanaaian  creed,  and  in 
process  of  time  waa  attributed  to  the  great 
Aleiandriaa  doctor.  It  has  been  attribated, 
on  coiveetnral  grounds,  to  Hilary  of  Aries  and 
Tatantiat  For&matna,  to  Vincent  of  Lerina, 
lod  to  VinlioB,  bishop  of  Xhapsos  in  Africa. 
This  oreed  u  an  anthontatire  formulary  of  faith 
in  the  Roman  and  Greek  ohnrches.  Its  antbor- 
ity  does  not  raat  on  the  preaomptjon  that  it 
was  composed  by  &t  Athanaeins,  but  on  its 
general  acceptance  as  a  correct  enunciation  of 
Catholic  fiaith.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  oh  arch 
it  ia  recited  at  the  office  of  prime  on  Bundaya, 
when  the  office  is  dominical.  In  the  ohnroh 
of  England  it  is  accepted  as  of  equal  authority 
with  uie  Apostles'  and  Nioene  creeds,  and  or- 
dered to  be  recited  on  certain  festivals  at  the 
mornins  prayer.  In  the  39  articles  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  ohnrch  of  the  United  Bta1«s 
all  mention  of  it  is  omitted,  and  the  creed  itself 
hoi  no  place  in  the  prayer  book. 

ATHillASIirB,  Salat,  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
ind  doctor  of  the  eastern  church,  died  there 
in  878.  He  was  born  at  Alexandria  ahont  S9S, 
of  Christian  parents,  was  educated  under  tlie 
direction  of  Alexander,  afterward  bishop  of 
the  city,  and  spent  some  time  in  the  desert  as 
a  diadple  of  the  hermit  St.  Anthony.  At  the 
age  of  28  he  received  deacon's  orders,  and  in 
the  diaahai^e  of  his  office  so  ognalized  himself 
as  a  foe  to  every  kind  of  heresy,  that  he  was 
chosen  by  Alexander  to  accompany  him  to  the 
connoil  of  Nice  (325).  To  the  subtlety,  learn- 
ing, and  eloi^nenoe  of  Athanasius  in  that  coun- 
cil was  principally  attribated  the  condemnation 
of  Arianism.  His  bearing  on  this  occasion, 
not  lass  than  the  dying  request  of  Alexander, 
secured  hia  election  aa  bishop  of  Alexandria  in 
320.  His  Dnoompromising  orthodoxy  gnhjectod 
him  to  bitter  persecution  from  the  adherents  of 
Anus.  The  emperor  Oonatantine  summoned 
hun  before  a  synod  at  Tyre  in  S85  and  declared 
him  deposed.  A  synod  at  Jerusalem  the  next 
year  confirmed  this  sentence  and  banished  him 
to  Treves.  Oonstantins  recalled  him  in  338. 
Au  Arian  coonoU  at  Antioch  condemned  him 
again  in  &41 ;  but  a  larger  orthodox  council  at 
Alexandria  anstained  him,  and  another  at  Sar- 


ATHELSTAN 


58 


dis,  with  the  Roman  bishop  at  its  head,  replaced 
him  in  his  episcopal  choir  in  349.  Deposed 
for  a  third  tirne,  through  the  influence  of  Oon- 
atantine, by  the  synods  of  Aries  (358)  and  Milan 
(35B),  he  was  dragged  frpm  the  altar  by  a  band 
of  soldiers,  and  fied  into  the  desert  with  a  price 
upon  his  head.  Under  Julian  the  Apostate  he 
was  again  exiled,  and  spent  some  time  in  the 
wilderness  of  the  Thebaid;  and  under  ValettI 
he  suffered  his  fltlh  banishment,  oonoealii^ 
himself  four  months  in  his  father's  tomb.  He 
was  finally  restored  to  his  see  and  died  in  peace. 
His  festival  is  kept  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  on  Hay  2,  and  in  the  Greek  choroh 
also  on  Jan.  18.— The  life  of  Athanamus  has 
historical  importance  mainly  &om  its  connec- 
tion with  the  Arian  controversy,  and  the  estab- 
lishment and  defence  of  the  Nicene  creed. 
With  the  exception  of  his  "  Discourse  against 
the  Pagans"  and  his  treatise  on  "The  Incar- 
nation," all  bis  writings  have  a  direct  bearing 
upon  Arianism,  His  style  has  the  merits  of 
strength,  clearness,  oonciseness  of  expression, 
and  exact  logical  order.  It  is  praised  even  by 
Erasmus,  the  most  fastidious  of  critics,  abova 
the  style  of  Chrysostom  and  Gregory.  What 
it  lacks  of  finished  grace  it  makes  up  in  nervous 
vigor.  Bold,  unbending,  confident  even  to 
dogmatism,  severe  against  what  he  believed  to 
be  heresy,  suspicious  of  the  promises  and  pro- 
fesuons  of  all  who  were  not  friends  of  the  truth, 
he  was  yet  courteous,  kind  to  the  poor,  pious, 
just,  and  patient.  The  best  edition  of  hia 
works  is  that  of  Paris,  1827-'8,  8  vols,  folio. 

ITHEUJie.    Bee  Anqlo-Saxonb. 

ATHUJIET,  iric  tf,  a  tract  of  about  100  aorea 
in  Somersetshire,  England,  T  m.  8.  E.  of  Bridge- 
water.  In  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Oreat  it  was 
an  island  at  the  junction  of  the  Tone  ond  Par- 
ret  rivers.  Alfred  concealed  himself  among  its 
marahea  during  the  Danish  invasion,  and  atter- 
word  founded  an  abbey  there,  about  888. 

ITHQOTiN,  the  first  who  called  himself  king 
of  the  English,  bom  about  895,  died  at  Glou- 
cester, Oct.  26,  941.  He  was  a  grandson  ot 
Alfired  the  Great,  and  ilteg^timote  son  of  Ed- 
ward the  Elder ;  but  as  the  only  legitimate  son 
of  Edward  who  was  of  age  died  a  few  days 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  Athelstan  was 
preferred  by  the  witenagemote  to  his  legiti- 
mate brothers,  who  were  under  age,  and  he  waa 
crowned  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  at  Kingston 
on  the  Thames  in  92G.  He  annexed  the  terri- 
tory of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  and  exacted  trib- 
ute from  Howel  Dda,  pendragon  of  Wales. 
When  Sigtrtc,  king  of  Korthumbria,  died,' 
Athelstan  seized  upon  his  territory  also.  Au- 
laf,  the  son  of  Sigtrio,  obtained  the  assistance 
of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians,  and  was  uded 
also  by  the  Irish,  Bcots,  and  Welsh,  who  saw 
with  dislike  the  increase  of  the  power  of  the 
South  Saxon  king;  but  Athelstan  Ngnally  de- 
feated the  allies  at  Brnnanbui^  or  Bmnsbnry 
in  Northumbria.  After  this  event  Athelstan 
eqjoyed  great  consideration  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.    His  sisters  were  given  in  marriage 


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54 


ATHEITA 


to  the  king  of  France,  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
manv,  and  a  Norge  king.  He  wu  sacoeeded 
b7  hJB  brother  Edmunil.  Athelat&u  added 
mncta  to  the  code  left  bj  Alfred.  One  of  hia 
decrees  was,  that  any  merchant  who  made 
three  voyages  on  bis  own  aocoant  be;ond  the 
British  channel,  or  narrow  aeaa,  should  be  en- 
titled to  the  privilegea  of  a  thane.  He  favored 
learning,  built  monasteriee,  collected  books, 
and  enconraged  the  tranalation  of  the  Scrip- 
tnrea  into  the  vemacnlar.  Two  of  hia  books 
are  believed  to  be  extant  among  the  Cottoniaa 
maonscripta  in  the  British  museum. 

AlHEMi.     See  Minebva. 

ATHEK£VS,  a  Greek  writer  of  the  early  part 
of  the  dd  century  of  the  Christian  era,  born  at 
Nancratis  in  Egjpt  He  is  chiefly  known  as 
the  author  of  the  DeipnosophUta  ("Banquet 
of  the  Learned  "),  a  voluminous  work  of  ima- 
ginary table  talk  on  almost  every  conceivable 
sul^ect,  especially  gastronomy,  between  certun 
learned  men  while  enjoying  themBelveH  at  sap- 
per in  the  bouse  of  an  imaginary  Roman  named 
LanreDtios,  with  Galen  the  phjsioian  and 
Ulpian  the  jurist  among  the  guests.  It  oon- 
Hsted  of  16  books,  but  only  the  Ist  and  3d, 
and  parts  of  the  8d,  lltb,  and  IGth,  are  now 
extant  in  an  epitome,  of  which  wo  know  nei- 
tber  the  date  nor  the  compiler.  If ot withstand- 
ing its  many  literary  and  artistic  defects,  the 
groat  mass  of  information  which  it  contains, 
and  the  light  which  it  throws  on  the  manners 
of  the  ancients,  will  ever  canse  the  Deipjioio- 
phuta  to  be  prized  by  the  scholar  and  tLe  an- 
tiquary. The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  that 
irf  Dindorf  (S  vols.  Svo,  Leipsic,  1827). 

ITHENAGOKiS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
2d  century,  who  became  a  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  flourished  probably  in  the  reigns 
of  UarcDs  Anrelins  and  his  son  Commodns. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and 
first  master  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Ales- 
audria.  Intending  to  write  against  the  Chris- 
tians, he  applied  himself  to  Uie  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  became  convinced  of  their  troth, 
and  addressed  an  apology  to  one  of  the  em- 
perors in  behalf  of  the  Christians.  He  also 
wrote  a  treatise  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection.  These  works  of  Athenagoras 
ore  still  extant.  Their  style  is  Attic  and  ele- 
gant. The  best  edition  is  that  of  the  Benedio- 
tJnee  (Paris,  1742). 

AlVENS  (Gr.  'Aff^roi),  anciently  the  principal 
dty  of  Attica,  and  now  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Greece,  situated  in  lat.  87°  60'  N.,  Ion. 
93°  44'  E.,  about  4  m.  from  the  E.  coast  of  the 
Baronic  gulf,  ond  41  ra.  from  the  port  town  of 
Hrnne.  It  was  built  round  a  central  rocky 
height,  called  the  Acropolis,  an  elevation  about 
SOO  ft.  above  the  average  level  of  the  town, 
and  600  ft.  above  the  Mediterranean.  Grouped 
near  it  are  several  smaller  elevations,  with  val- 
leys between.  N.  W.  of  the  Acropolis  is  a 
moderate  height  on  which  stands  the  temple 
of  Theseus.  At  a  short  distance  from  Uie  N. 
W.  angle  is  the  Areopagna  j  and  over  agwDst 


ATHENS 

the  Areopagus  is  the  hill  of  the  Pnyi,  with 
the  hill  of  Uie  Nymphs  a  little  north,  and  the 
Museum,  or  hill  of  the  Muses,  at  B  short  dis- 
tance to  the  south.  N.  E.  of  the  city  rises  the 
conical  hill  of  Lycabettas.  The  plain  itself  in 
whicli  the  city  stands  is  bounded  N.  by  Mt. 
Fames,  which  separates  it  from  Boeotia;  N.  E. 
by  Mt.  Pentelicna;  8.  E.  by  Mt.  Hyraettua, 
which  descends  to  the  sea;  S.  W.  and  W.  by 
tlie  Saronic  golf;  and  N.  W.  by  Mt.  .^galeos. 
— A  sketch  of  the  history  of  Athena  is  neces- 
sary to  the  understanding  of  any  description 
either  of  the  ancient  or  modem  city.  No 
doubt  a  stronghold  on  the  rock,  afterward 
called  the  Acropolis,  was  the  germ  from  which 
it  grew.  When  or  by  whom  this  was  founded 
isunknown.  According  to  the  legends,  Cecrops, 
sometimes  represented  as  an  Egyptian  settier, 
sometimes  as  un  autochthonous  Pelssgian  hero, 
flrettookpossesaionof  thcrock,  which  from  him 
was  collea  Cecropia.  He  was  succeeded  by  a 
line  of  16  kings,  bearing  the  names  of  Cranaus, 
Amphictyon,  Erechtheus  I.  or  Erichthoniuo, 
Pandion  I^  Erechtbeus  II.,  Cecropa  II.,  Pan- 
dion  II.,  j£gens,  Theseus,  Meuestheus,  Demo- 
pboD,  Oxyntes,  Aphidas,  Tliymcetes,  Melan- 
thus,  and  Codrus.  In  the  reign  of  the  second 
or  third  king  the  city  is  eeiA  to  have  received 
its  name  from  the  goddess  Athena  (Minerva). 
Erechtheus  is  said  to  have  built  a  temple  to 
Athena  on  the  Acropolis,  where  he  placed  the 
statue  of  the  goddess,  made  of  olive  wood.  The 
temple  was  colled,  frota  this  legend,  the  Erech- 
theom.  Theseus  is  said  to  have  united  the  12 
communities,  or  cities,  into  which  Attics  was 
hitherto  divided,  into  one  political  body.  Me- 
nestheus  led  the  GO  dark  ships  of  the  Athenians 
in  the  Trqjan  war,  and  is  prononnced  by  Homer 
the  first  of  warriors,  except  Nestor.  The  17th 
and  lost  king  of  Athens  wss  Codms,  who  socri- 
flced  himself  for  his  country  in  a  war  with  the 
Peloponnesian  invaders,  who,  according  to  an 
oracle,  were  to  be  victorious  if  tliey  did  not 
slay  tlie  king  of  the  Athenians.  Alter  bim  no 
one,  so  the  legend  says,  was  permitted  to  bear 
the  title  of  lung.  His  son  Medon  succeeded 
him  under  the  name  of  archon,  or  ruler,  hold- 
ing the  office,  however,  upon  the  hereditary 
principle,  and  for  life.  A  line  of  life  orchond 
continued  to  rule  through  12  reigns,  Alcmffion 
being  the  last.  During  the  government  of  his 
predecessor,  jEschylus,  commenced  the  era  of 
the  Olympic  games,  celebrated  at  intervals  of 
four  years,  at  Olympia  in  Elis.  This  date — tie 
earliest  fixed  point  in  Greek  chronology— has 
been  satisfactorily  established  at  776  B.  0. 
After  Alcmmon,  a  series  of  seven  decennial 
archons  carried  on  the  government  till  683, 
when  the  office  was  made  annnal,  its  various 
functions  were  distributed  among  nine  col- 
leagues, and  the  right  of  election  was  extended 
to  the  entire  class  of  the  eupatrida  or  nobles. 
One  of  Uiese,  the  head  of  the  college,  bore  the 
title  of  "the  archon,"  and  was  dewgnated 
as  the  tptmymu* — a  magistrate  in  whose  name 
the  transactions  of  the  year  were  dated  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


recorded.  The  office  of  arohon  lasted  until 
*  l(Hig  after  tbe  indapendent  political  eiistenoe 
of  Athens  and  Greece  had  coma  to  an  end. 
Tbe  aaly  important  political  bod;  existing  in 
Athens  at  tne  time  of  the  first  appointment 
oflife  archons  was  tlie  senate  or  council  of  the 
Areopagus,  which  appean  to  have  been  in  its 
earliest  oonatitntion  the  representative  of  the 
Homeric  ioale,  and  until  the  time  of  Solon  was 
called  aimplj  the  boole,  or  senate.  In  the 
eonne  of  time  the  oppressions  and  abuses  of 
the  enpatridffi  gave  rise  to  popular  discontents, 
and  Draco  was  appointed  in  634  to  draw  up 
t  code  of  written  laws.  He  made  no  change 
in  the  political  forms,  bat  merely  attempted  to 
introdnce  a  code  the  severitv  of  which  mode 
it  imposnble  to  execute  it.  Twelve  years  alter 
Draco's  legislation  Cylon,  a  member  of  the 
eapatrid  ocder,  attempted  to  nsnrp  the  anpreme 
power  of  tbe  state,  hut  foiled.  C;lon  escaped, 
and  his  partiaans,  who  had  taken  refuge,  some 
at  the  altar  cf  Athena,  others  at  tbe  altar  of 
the  Emnonides,  were  pnt  to  death  by  the  di- 
rection of  Megacles,  tne  representative  of  the 
house  of  the  AlcmEeonids.  This  act  was  sup- 
posed to  have  brought  npon  that  race  the 
curse  of  the  gods,  and  they  were  expelled  ftom 
the  dty  in  697.  Eplmenides,  the  Cretan  sage, 
waa  invited  to  punfy  the  city  from  the  polln- 
tion  of  eacrilege  by  expiatory  rites.  His  visit 
k  placed  in  596.— The  glory  of  Athens  aa  a 
poutieal  commonwealth  dates  from  the  age  of 
StAoa,  a  lineal  descendant  of  King  Codms,  bom 
abont  638  B.  0.  At  a  time  of  great  political 
diatarban<:e,  reenlting  in  part  from  the  oppres- 
ataa  of  tha  eopatridiB,  he  was  chosen  archon 
in  5M,  and  vested  with  unlimited  power  to 
uake  ao7  cbanges  that  might  seem  necessary 
in  tbe  oonstitnnon  of  the  state.  He  framed  a 
new  oonstitntion,  changing  the  title  to  politi- 
cal power  from  birth  to  property.  He  divided 
the  citizens  into  four  classes:  1.  The  pentt- 
CMtMMdtmnt,  or  those  whose  annnal  revenue 
was  e(|nal  to  5O0  medimni  of  com  and  upward. 
S.  The  kippaJM,  or  knights,  whose  income 
ranged  between  800  and  GOO  medimni,  and 
who  were  onfficiontly  wealthy  to  ftimish  a  war 
horse.  S.  The  ztugitm,  whose  income  ranged 
Iwtween  200  and  SOO  medimni,  and  who  were 
able  to  keep  a  yoke  of  oxen,  4.  The  thetet, 
whose  income  fell  short  of  200  medimni.  The 
4th  clasa  were  exempt  from  taxation  and  ex- 
cluded tFom  public  office,  but  they  served  as 
light  troops  in  the  army.  Only  the  first  class 
were  eligible  to  the  higher  offices  of  the  state; 
tbe  2d  and  8d  classes  fltted  the  inferior  offices; 
the  2d  class  served  in  the  army  as  horsemen, 
tad  the  8d  as  heavy-armed  foot  soldiers.  All 
clasoefl  hod  the  right  of  voting  in  the  public 
assembly,  wbioh  elected  the  archons  and  other 

D^strates.  Ee  established  another  legislative 
y,  colled  the  senate  or  council  of  the  four 
hundred,  elected  by  the  assembly,  100  being 
taken  from  each  of  the  foor  ancient  tribes,  into 
which  the  people  were  divided  long  before  So- 
lon. The  court  of  the  Areopagus  was  endowed 


ENS  65 

with  enlarged  powers,  and  with  the  general 

supervision  of  the  conduct  and  lives  of  the  citi- 
zens and  the  institutions  of  the  state.  Solon's 
kinsman  Pisistratus  made  himself  master  of 
Athens  in  SSO,  adomed  the  city  with  many  pub- 
lic works,  collected  a  public  library,  and  called 
around  him  the  most  distinguished  poeta,  ar- 
tists, and  scholars  from  every  part  of  Greece. 
He  died  in  G27,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  two 
sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparcbus.  By  the  con- 
spiracy of  llarmodius  and  AristoEiton,  Hi)}- 
parchuB  was  slain  in  614,  and  Hippias  was 
compelled  to  quit  Athens  for  Asia  in  610, 
ClisUienes  and  Isagoras  were  now  rivals  for 
power,  and  the  constitution  of  Solon  went  fbr 
a  time  into  full  operation;  but  Clisthenea  soon 
reorguiized  the  people  of  Attica  by  dividing 
them  into  ten  tribes,  instead  of  the  old  Ionia 
four  tribes;  and  these  ten  tribes  were  local, 
and  were  Bu)>divided  into  districts  or  town- 
ships called  demes  (>)^um).  It  was  customary 
to  designate  every  citizen  by  affixing  to  hia 
name  the  epithet  indicating  the  deme  to  which 
he  belonged.  The  senate  was  also  changed, 
and  its  powers  and  duties  were  greatly  in- 
creased; it  now  consisted  of  600  members,  60 
being  taken  from  eaoh  tribe.  The  general  con- 
trol exercised  by  the  people  over  the  affairs 
of  government,  throngh  the  eeelenia^  was  also 
greatly  enlarged.  Tbe  judicial  powers  of  the 
people  were  regulated  by  the  establishment  of 
the  heliastic  courts,  of  which  tetk  were  organ- 
ized, either  by  Clisthenes,  or  soon  after  his 
time.  The  new  arrangement  of  the  tribes  led 
to  a  new  arrangement  of  the  military  service, 
the  administration  of  which  was  placed  in  tbe 
hands  of  ten  oenerals,  one  being  chosen  fhno 
each  tribe.  With  them  was  associated,  how- 
ever, the  poiemarch,  or  third  arohon,  who 
under  the  old  constitution  bold  the  exaln«ve 
military  command.  The  ostracism  was  also 
introduced  by  Clisthenes.— Tbe  prosperity  of 
Athena  excited  the  jealonsy  of  the  Spartans, 
who  soon  made  several  attempts  to  overthrow 
the  growing  democracy.  Their  first  plan  was 
to  establish  Isagoras,  the  rival  of  Clisthenea, 
as  tyrant  of  Athens ;  bnt  tho  expedition  set  on 
foot  for  the  purpose  failed.  They  next  planned 
tbe  restoration  of  tbe  exiled  Hippias ;  and  thus 
began  that  series  of  events  which  resulted  in 
the  Persian  invasions  of  Greece,  in  repelling 
which  the  Athenians,  under  their  genertds  Mil- 
tiadea,  Themistocles,  and  Aristidea,  took  so  con- 
spicuous a  part.  The  history  of  Athens  in  this 
struggle  is  completely  identified  with  that  of 
Greece  until  the  battle  of  Plattea,  in  4T9,  when 
the  Perdans  were  finally  vanquished.  The  con- 
duct of  the  Athenians  in  meeting  the  invaders 
had  given  Athens  the  leadership  of  the  coun- 
try; and  this  was  now  acknowledged  in  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  confederacy  of  Delos, 
a  anion  of  nnmerous  states  under  the  Athenian 
hegemony.  The  rebuilding  of  Athens  on  a 
larger  ecaie,  and  with  stronger  defencea,  ex- 
cited the  Jealousy  of  the  JEginetans  and  the 
Spartans,  and  attempts  were  mode  to  interfere. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


56  ATE 

Thew  were  fhutrated  bj  the  pollcv  of  Th&- 
nuBtoclML  The  □it;'  was  saironndea  bj  mas- 
tAv6  walla,  the  fleet  waa  increased,  and  the 
barbore  of  Pirseoa  and  Mnnjchia  were  forti- 
fied with  walls  and  towers  vast  ruins  of 
which  remain  to  this  6a.j. — The  progress  of 
Athena  in  letters  and  arts  in  the  time  of  faer 
begemon}'  was  wonderM;  bet  her  moat  bril- 
Uaut  period  was  tiiat  of  Pericles,  who  oama 
fbrwu^  as  a  popular  lender  in  469.  With  alight 
interraptions,  bis  administration  lasted  from  469 
till  hia  death  in  420,  though  he  held  no  perma- 
nent office.  The  names  of  ^schylua,  Sopho- 
cles, Enripidea,  and  Aristophanes  in  dramatdo 
poetry,  of  Phidias  and  his  achool  in  plastic 
art,  and  of  Anaxagoras  and  Socrates  in  philos- 
opbj,  are  connected  with  this  period.  The 
treasDry  of  Doloe  was  removed  to  Athens,  and 
tbe  amonnt  of  contribQtions  inoreased  beyond 
the  aaaessment  of  Ariatides.  Public  buildings 
of  extraordinary  splendor  were  erected.  The 
^^at  atractures  of  tbe  Periclean  age  were  the 
Odeon,  finiahed  in  444 ;  the  Parthenon,  867 ; 
the  Fropjlno,  432  ;  and  tbe  Erechthenm, 
whioh  was  not  quite  cofnpleted  at  tbe  break- 
ing out  of  the  Feioponnesian  war.  Thia  mag- 
nincent  sjatem  of  publio  works  was  under  the 
general  Baperint«Ddenoe  of  tbe  aoulptor  Phidias. 
Tbe  architects  of  the  Parthenon  were  Ictinns 
and  Callioratee.  Mnesicles  was  the  builder 
of  the  Propjlaia.— The  Peloponnesian  war 
broke  out  in  4S1.  The  Lacedemonian  troops 
ravaged  the  plain  of  Athena,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country  crowded  into  the  city.  In 
the  next  year  a  second  invasion  took  place, 
and  the  plague  carried  off  not  lew  than  a 
fourth  of  tbe  inhabitants,  Tbe  disasters  in 
tbe  field  were  accompanied  by  violent  changes 
in  the  city.  (See  Grbbcb.)  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Artienians  at  .^goepotami  and  the  sur- 
render of  the  city  in  404  to  the  Spartnn 
Ceral  Lysander,  the  democracy,  wbicn  had 
a  restored,  was  ag^n  abolished,  and  a 
government  of  Ibitty  established,  under  tbe 
control  of'  Sparta,  tmown  in  history  as  tbe 
thirty  tyrants.  The  walls  of  Athena  were 
demolished  by  the  Lacedtemonians,  and  tbe 
arsenals  and  docks  at  Pineus  destroyed.  The 
Spartan  mle  was  overthrown  by  a  body  of 
exiles,  headed  by  Tbrasybnlna,  who  restored 
the  reign  of  the  ancient  laws.  But  Athens 
never  regained  her  leadership  in  Greece. — The 

Seriod  between  408  and  860  B.  C,  nsnally 
eeignated  as  that  of  the  Spartan  and  Tbebon 
supremacy,  is  dgnalised  by  the  adventures  of 
Xenopbon,  tbe  Athenian,  in  the  expedition 
of  Cyms  the  Younger,  and  the  retreat  of  the 
10,000;  the  war  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  nnder 
Agesilaas,  in  AsiaMinor;  tbe  Corinthian  war; 
the  peace  negotiated  by  Antolcidas  and  bear- 
ing his  name  in  history,  36T;  the  partial  re- 
organization of  tbe  Athenian  confederacy  on 
the  basis  of  the  confederacy  of  Delos;  and 
by  nnmeroue  distant  expeditions,  both  by  the 
Looednmonians  and  the  Athenians.  In  881  a 
general  peace  was  conolnded  by  ooneent  of  all 


parties  except  the  Lacediemonians ;  but  in  the  , 
following  year  the  Athenians  went  to  war 
with  the  Olynthians  for  tbe  possession  of  Am- 
phipolis,  and  this  war  brought  them  into 
collision  with  Macedonia  under  the  lead  of 
Philip,  and  after  his  death  under  that  of  hia 
•on  Alexander.  As  the  Macedonian  sncoesses 
increaeed,  a  party  grew  up  in  Athens  which 
favoreda  conciliation  of  the  conquerors.  Until 
tbe  death  of  Philip  and  the  accession  of  Alex- 
ander, Demosthenes  and  tbe  true  Athenian 
patriots  of  his  school  were  able  to  make  li 
vigorous  opposition  to  this  movement ;  but 
when  Alexander  destroyed  Thebes,  and  the 
Athenians  could  only  protect  themselves 
agfunst  him  by  almost  complete  submiasioa, 
the  Hacedonioo  party  triumphed,  and  in  spite 
of  the  efforts  of  tbe  great  orator  Athens  sank 
mto  entire  subjection  to  the  invaders.  A  tran- 
quil j>eriod,  one  of  the  most  inglorious  in  tha 
political  history  of  the  city,  now  ensued.  When 
the  news  of  Alexander's  death  arrived  (898),  a 
fresh  attempt  was  made  to  overturn  the  Uaoe- 
donian  supremacy.  Leosthenea,  the  Athenian, 
defeated  the  army  of  Antipater,  the  Mace- 
donian general,  at  Lamia,  a  short  distance  N. 
of  tbe  pass  of  Thermopylfe  ;  but  the  defeat  of 
the  Greek  forces  at  Crannon  In  Thessaly  once 
more  placed  the  Macedonians  in  the  ascendant. 
The  Lamian  war  closed  with  the  unconditional 
snrrender  of  Athens  to  Antipater.  From  thia 
time  Athena  became  the  vktim  of  the  con- 
tending chieb  of  Macedonia.  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus  ruled  the  city  ten  years,  supported  by  a 
Macedonian  garrison;  but  in  907  Demetrins 
Polloroetes  was  sent  from  £pheeus  by  his  fa- 
ther, and  compelled  his  nameaake,  tlie  Pha- 
lerean,  to  snrrender  the  city.  The  conqueror 
announced  to  tbe  people  tbe  restoration  of 
their  ancient  constitution,  and  was  the  object 
of  extraordinary  honors,  though  he  did  nothing 
to  really  elevate  Athens,  and  his  rule  only- 
added  to  her  degradation.  Athens  continued 
under  the  Macedonian  influence  down  to  the 
concfueat  of  Greece  by  tiie  Bomans,  though 
nominally  governed  by  her  own  laws,  and  pre- 
serving her  ancient  customs,  rites,  and  cere- 
monies of  every  description.  In  200  the  last 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  involved  in  a  war 
with  Rome,  and  Athens,  having  taken  aides 
with  tbe  Romans,  suffered  from  his  barbarism. 
The  city  was  relieved  by  a  Roman  fieet;  but 
before  Philip  withdrew  from  the  fdege  be  laid 
waste  the  gardens  and  suburbs,  including  the 
lycenm  and  the  tombs  of  theAttio  heroes,  and 
destroyed  the  temples  that  stood  on  the  Attio 
plain.  Philip  was  defeated  at  the  batUe  of 
Cynoecephalaiin  197,and  in  the  following  year 
Greece  was  declared  fne  by  the  Roman  consul 
Flamininns,  at  the  lathmian  games.  War  was 
renewed  by  Perseus,  and  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire was  finally  overthrown  by  Lucius  ^^raihus 
Paulus  in  168.  In  147  war  broke  out  between 
tbe  Achnan  league  and  Rome,  but  it  was 
closed  with  the  capture  and  Back  of  Oorinth 
by  the  consul  Mummius  in  the  following  year, 


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wbidi  Mw  ttie  whole  d  Greeo*  redaoed  to  a 
Somao  provinco,  under  the  name  of  Aoliua. — 
Under  tn«  Romans  Atheoi  was  pro9p«roDB  and 
nsp«ct«d.  Her  schools  of  eluqaence  and  phi- 
htofiif  were  open  to  the  cirilized  world,  and 
the  tone  of  distuigaiehed  Roman  citizens  were 
Kot  there  to  compi«(«  their  edQcation,  Her 
(plendid  templas  remained  vnii\iared  ;  the 
mtgni&oenoe  of  the  citj  had  been  increased  hj 
the  liberalitj  of  foreign  potentates.  Athens 
ooeasionallj  anfiered  during  the  civil  wara. 
She  took  part  with  MiUuidat«8,  and  was  be- 
lieved ana  captured  by  Snlla,  who  deetrojed 
the  long  walls  and  the  fortdfloationa,  annihilated 
the  conuneroe  of  Pirsna,  and  left  the  city  crip- 
pled in  all  her  reeonrcos.  The  groves  of  the 
academy  and  the  Ijcenm  were  cat  down,  and 
oolnmns  were  carried  off  from  the  temple  of 
Oiympian  Zens  to  adorn  some  pnblio  boilding 
at  Rome.  The  establishment  of  the  empire 
made  bat  little  differenoe  in  the  condition  of 
Athena,  and  she  continaed  the  centre  of  the 
world  of  literature  and  art  down  to  the  oom- 
nmnoement  of  the  Christian  era.  St  Panl  ris' 
ited  the  city,  and  delivered  hta  discourse  on 
Kara  Hill,  probably  aboat  the  middle  of  the 
l«t  century.  The  emperor  Hadrian,  in  the  flnit 
part  of  the  2d  century,  finished  the  temple  of 
Olympian  Zona,  established  a  pnblio  library, 
■nd  built  a  pantheon  and  gymnamnm.  Marcna 
Anreltus  inoreased  the  number  of  the  Athe- 
nian Bchot^  and  the  salariea  of  the  teachers. 
.\bont  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  the  Qoths, 
crosring  the  Hellespont  and  .iSgean,  descended 
Qpon  Attica.  Athens  made  a  brave  defence 
Diider  the  inspiration  of  the  scholar  and  phi- 
losopher  Dexippns,  and  snfibred  bat  little  from 
the  invarion  before  the  enemy  were  driven 
back.  In  A.  D.  258,  a  few  years  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Goths,  the  walls,  which  had  been 
in  a  rnmoua  condition  since  the  aiege  of  Syiia, 
v«re  repaired  by  Valerian.  In  SS6  Alorio 
advaooed  upon  Atliens;  bat,  not  willing  to 
mdergo  the  delay  of  a  siege,  he  accepted  the 
hoiftibuitiee  of  the  magistrate^  and  retired, 
kaving  tlie  city  and  Attica  nnharmed.  For 
more  than  100  years  after  this  Athens  ei^ojed 
great  prosperity  as  the  chief  seat  of  learning 
and  cnltnre ;  uid  we  hear  of  her  principally 
through  the  many  learned  men  of  the  time 
who  received  their  education  in  the  city. — In 
the  Sth  century  the  besutifu!  Athenais,  dangh- 
ter  of  the  Athenian  philosopher  Leontius,  be- 
came a  Ohristiao,  was  baptized  at  Conatonti- 
nopie  nnder  the  name  of  Eudooia,  married  the 
etmieror  Theodosins  II.,  and  did  mnch  by  the 
innnence  of  her  example,  and  by  bnilding 
churches,  to  promote  Christianity  in  Athens, 
the  local  government  having  recently  author- 
ized, by  direction  of  an  imperial  rescript,  the 
pabUc  recognition  of  Christianity  there.  The 
temple  of  Olympian  Zens  was  consecrated 
to  Christ  the  Bavionr ;  the  Parthenon  to  the 
Holy  Wisdom  (SL  Sophia),  afterward  chang- 
ing the  deAgnation  to  the  Panagia  and  the 
Mother  of  God  ;    and  the  temple  of  Theseus 


ENS  67 

to  St.  George  of  Oappadocia.  After  Jnstiidao 
in  the  8th  oentnry  had  broken  np  the  schools, 
we  searcelj  hear  of  the  city  for  nearly  400 
years.— In  the  18th  century  Athens  was  taken 
and  plandered  by  Rt^er,  king  of  Sicily.  The 
fourth  crusade  ag^  brought  the  name  oC 
Athena  to  the  notice  of  Europe.  Greece 
was  parcelled  out  among  the  Frankish  prince* 
after  the  cnptnre  of  Constantinople  in  1204. 
Utho  de  la  Roohe  was  made  duke  of  Athens  in 
1205,  and  four  snocessors  of  his  family  held 
the  dukedom  till  1808.  Walter  de  Urienne 
succeeded,  and  was  overthrown  by  the  Grand 
Catalan  company,  whose  aid  he  bad  invoked. 
A  dnke  of  the  Sicilian  branch  of  the  honse  of 
AragoD  was  invested  with  the  dignity  by  the 
Catalans,  and  in  this  line  the  dukedom  re- 
mained till  near  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Six  dukes  of  the  Florentine  family  of 
AocituDoIi  followed,  ruling  Athens  tilt  1466. 
The  ducal  court  of  Athena  was  one  of  the 
moet  brilliant  in  Enrope.  In  1466,  when  it 
was  captnred  by  Mohammed  II.,  Athens  ap- 
pears to  have  been  prosperons,  and  the  num< 
oer  of  its  inhabitants  is  said  to  have  exceeded 
60,000.  In  1467  the  Venetians  went  to.  war 
with  the  Tnrka  and,  invading  Greece  with  a 
powerful  fleet,  landed  at  Firans,  and  expelled 
the  Turks  fWnn  Athens  after  a  bloody  battle. 
Athens  remained  under  the  Venetians  till  1470^ 
when  the  sultan  entered  Greece  with  a  large 
army  and  retook  the  oitj.  He  placed  Athens 
under  a  way  wode,  who  held  his  office  from  the 
chief  ennudi  of  the  harem.  The  external  aSura 
of  the  city  were  managed  by  the  waywode ;  a 
cadi,  or  judge,  decided  the  controverues  be- 
tween the  Ottomans,  without  interfering  in 
those  of  the  Christians.  The  garrison  on  the 
Acropolis  was  under  the  oomraand  of  the  Turk- 
ish disdar.  The  proper  municipal  affairs  of 
the  city  were  managed  by  magistrates  elected 
from  the  principtJ  fiunilies  by  the  people,  and 
called  by  the  ancient  name  of  archons.  This 
form  of  administration  remuned  unchanged 
from  14T0  to  1687.  In  the  latter  year  Mo- 
rosini,  the  Yenetian  admiral,  having  gained 
brilliant  victories  in  the  war  between  the 
republic  and  Turkey,  captured  Athena,  and 
obliged  moat  of  the  Turks  to  leave  the  city. 
Bnt  an  ^idemio  dckuess  and  a  fresh  muster 
of  the  Turks  compelled  him  to  withdraw  In 
March,  1668.  A  large  number  of  tlie  citizena 
fled,  some  to  Balamia,  ^gina,  and  other  islands, 
s<ane  to  Corinth,  some  to  Nanplta,  and  othen 
to  Cephalonia.  The  city  remained  deserted 
till  the  following  year,  when  the  Turks  en- 
tered it  and  committed  a  large  part  of  the 
houses  to  the  flames.  The  Athenians,  how- 
ever, began  gradually  to  return.  The  sultan 
granted  them  a  free  pardon,  and  remitted  the 
tribute  for  three  years.  From  1690  to  1764 
the  Athenians  lived  quietly,  nnder  a  politioal 
organization  essentially  the  same  as  that  al- 
ready described.  Between  1764  and  1777 
Athens  was  frequently  harassed  by  Albanian 
incurnons.    In  the  latter  year  a  battle  was 


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68  ATI 

fonght  at  Calandria,  ne&r  Athena,  by  the 
Athenian  Turks  and  Greeks,  under  the  way- 
wode,  named  Chasekea,  against  these  barbari- 
ans, commanded  by  the  deli  pasha,  and  a  de- 
cisive victory  gained.  In  1TT8  Chasekes  forti- 
fied Athens  with  a  wall,  naing  materiais  taken 
from  many  of  the  ancient  Btrnctures.  The  con- 
daot  of  ChasekeB  gained  him  ao  mncb  popo- 
larity,  that  his  reappointment  was  solicited 
and  obtained  of  the  Porte,  and  finally  he  was 
appointed  waywode  for  life.  Having  secured 
hia  end,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  showed 
himself  to  be  a  tyrant.  The  tide  of  popnlar 
feeling  tomed  against  him,  and  he  was  ban- 
ished ;  bnt  by  intrigne  and  bribery  he  was 
again  restor^.  The  cpntest  continued  23 
years,  daring  which  the  game  was  repeated 
five  times;  and  finally,  in  1796,  he  was  be- 
headed in  Cos,  the  place  of  his  exile.  In  this 
period  the  prosperity  of  Athens  declined.  Her 
popolation  and  wealth  greatly  diminished.  A 
pestilence  ravaged  the  city  in  1TS6  and  again 
lnl79S;  aboutl,200perishedinthe  former,  and 
1,000  in  the  latter,  in  the  movement  toward  a 
revival  of  Greek  independence,  which  distin- 
gaished  the  close  of  the  last  centnry  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present,  Athens  played  a  promi- 
nent part.  New  schools  were  established,  and 
the  whole  infiaenoe  of  all  her  education^  insti- 
tutions was  on  the  side  of  Greek  freedom.  The 
actual  war  of  independence  ooramenced  in 
1821.  The  fortunes  of  Athens  were  varionsly 
affected  during  the  seven  years  of  its  continn- 
auoe.  The  Torkish  garrison  was  be«eg«d  in 
the  AoropKtlis  April  26,  bat  after  many  tragical 
scenes  was  relieved  Jnly  SO,  and  the  Greek 
troops  were  compeUed  to  retreat  by  the  Tnrks 
nnder  Omer  Pasha,  Brionea,  and  Omer  Bey. 
Uany  of  tlie  inhabitants  were  sl^n,  and  the 
dty  was  plundered  and  burned.  Uany  of  the 
Athenians  fied  to  Salamis  and  .^gina,  and 
eome  of  them  joined  the  troops  concentrating 
at  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  In  September, 
1821,  Omer  Pasha  retired  from  Athens  with 
the  greater  part  of  his  forces,  and  his  lieuten- 
ant soon  aiterward  with  the  remainder.  The 
Acropolis  was  again  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
resident  Turks,  and  the  Athenians,  retoming 
from  their  places  of  refuge,  beideged  them,  and 
compelled  them  to  surrender,  June  21,  1822, 
1,160  prisoners  being  taken.  Before  these 
conid  be  conveyed  to  a  place  of  safety,  a  ru- 
mor of  a  new  invoaion  spread  through  the  city, 
and  caused  the  Athenians  such  alarm  that  tliey 
(ell  upon  the  Turks  and  put  to  death  about 
400,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  snrrender. 
During  the  next  two  years  violent  dissensions 
between  the  Greek  leaders  delayed  the  pro- 
gress of  the  war ;  but  in  spite  of  the  treachery 
of  Odysseus,  a  leading  general,  who  joined  the 
enemy  and  mode  hostile  movements  against 
Athens,  the  body  of  the  troops  and  citizens 
faithfully  supported  Guras,  the  commander 
of  the  dty,  and  finally  gmned  a  decisive  vic- 
tory, capturing  Odysseus,  who  was  put  to 
death.    £arly  m  1626  the  Turkish  forces,  nn- 


der Kiotahi  Pasha  and  Omer  Pasha,  overran 
Attica.  Numerous  conflicts  occurred  in  the 
neighborhoodof  Athens.  On  Aug.  16  the  Turks 

forced  their  way  into  the  city,  and  the  Greeks 
retired  into  the  Acropolis,  where  they  were 
long  besieged,  suffering  great  hardships.  Gu- 
ras was  killed  in  an  outwork.  During  the 
siege  the  Greek  forces  outside  the  city,  nnder 
the  command  of  the  English  Lord  Cochrane, 
Gen.  Church,  and  others,  strove  to  relieve 
the  garrison.  In  May  a  Moody  and  decinve 
battie  was  fought,  and  the  Greeks  were  en- 
tirely defeated.  Cochrane  and  Ohnrch  were 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  on  board  tlieir  ships, 
and  the  posts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pirsns 
were  abandoned.  The  citadel  was  compelled 
to  surrender  June  5.  More  than  2,000  men 
and  50O  women  were  marched  down  from  the 
Acrtmolis,  and  transported  to  Salamis,  jEgina, 
and  Poros.  Thus,  after  a  siege  of  11  months, 
Athens  was  again  placed  under  Turkish  domi- 
nation. The  city  remained  in  the  jiossessiou  of 
the  Turks  till  18S2,  when  the  intervention  of 
the  great  powers  hod  secured  independence  to 
the  Greeks  under  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, with  President  Capo  d'Istria  at  ita  head. 
During  these  last  years  almost  all  the  modem 
buildings  of  the  city  had  been  demolished. 
Scarcely  a  private  dwelling  was  uninjured,  and 
the  remains  of  antiquity  shared  in  the  general 
calamity.  The  city  recovered  slowly,  and  had 
little  prosperity  until  subsequent  events  drew 
hack  to  it  some  part  of  its  former  popolation. 
Capo  d'Istria  was  Bssassinated  in  1881.  In 
Augost,  1632.  Otbo,  the  second  son  of  the  king 
of  Bavaria,  who  had  been  selected  by  the  great 
powers,  England,  France,  and  liusua,  was  pro- 
claimed king  at  Nauplia.  He  arrived  at  the 
end  of  January,  1688.  The  king,  only  17  years 
old  when  he  was  chosen,  attained  bis  m^ority, 
which  was  fixed  at  20,  in  188G.  In  that  year 
the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Nauplia  to  Athens,  and  fi-om  this  date  recom- 
mences the  history  of  Athens  as  a  new  centre 
of  civilization  in  that  quarter  of  the  world.  Ita 
prosperity  now  quickly  revived.  A  new  liberal 
constitntion,  drawn  up  by  an  assembly  con- 
vened at  the  demand  of  the  people,  and  for- 
mally accepted  March  16,  1S44,  made  great 
changes  in  the  government  of  Greece,  of 
which  the  city  speedily  felt  the  favorable 
results.  Since  1844  there  have  been  few 
events  of  importance  in  the  history  of  Ath- 
ens. In  1864,  during  the  Crimean  war,  revoln- 
tionary  movements  having  broken  out  against 
the  Turks,  Athens  was  occupied  by  a  garrison 
of  French  and  English  troops,  which  was  not 
wholly  withdrawn  till  185T.  In  1864  also 
the  Asiatic  cholera  visited  the  city,  canung 
terrible  aufibring-and  a  very  great  number  of 
deaths. — Our  knowledge  of  the  appearance 
and  topography  of  ancient  Athena  is  derived 
from  several  sources :  from  the  ruins  now  vis- 
ible in  the  modem  city,  from  which  almost 
alone  scholars  have  been  able  to  ascertain  the 
positions  of  many  walls  and  boildings;  fit>iD 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


the  cuaal  references  and  alluBiona  of  ancient 
historiins,  orators,  and  drsmatisls ;  but  most 
ofilj  from  the  detailed  account  of  PaasaDias, 
who  vinted  Athens  in  the  time  of  the  An- 
toninea,  a  period  of  great  splendor.  By  the 
lid  of  these  means  of  information,  interpreted 
lod  arranged  hj  many  eminent  scholars — 
among  whom  Col.  Leake  and  the  German 
philoto^st  Forchbammer  are  prominent  as 
haring  established  the  principal  poinU  almost 
Iwjoad  a  doubt— a  verj  accurate  idea  has  been 
formed  of  the  ancient  capital,  its  fortifications 
and  environs.  In  describing  it,  we  ahell,  after 
a  few  neceaaarj  explanations,  follow  the  rout« 
taken  by  Pansanias,  nsing  his  descriptions  in 
their  order,  find  tilling  the  gaps  left  b^  him  with 
information  derivable  from  other  sources. — 
Athens — that  is,  all  the  district  Ijdog  within 
the  fortifications — conwsted  of  three  parts : 
1.  The  Acropolis,  often  called  Bimplytho  Folia. 
S.  The  Ast7,  or  opper  town,  as  distinguished 
from  the  port  towns,  and  therefore  reoll;  in- 


Vkn  ot  Alhsnc  and  Uia  Fort  Towoa. 

elnding  the  Acropolis.  3.  The  port  towns, 
Kraos,  Munychim  and  Phalerura.  The  Acro- 
polis was  in  itself  a  citadel ;  the  Astj  was 
BBrronnded  by  walls;  and  three  similar  walls, 
the  two  long  walls  and  the  Phaleric  wall,  con- 
nected the  Aaty  with  the  port  towns.  About 
the  position  of  these  last  tnree  there  has  been 
little  donbt;  bnt  the  questions  concerning  the 
walls  of  the  A^ty  itself  have  been  matter  for 
controversy.  For  a  long  time  the  views  of  Col. 
Leake  on  this  point  were  considered  the  true 
ones;  but  Forchbamraer's  theory  is  now  gen- 
erally adopted  as  correct.  The  wall  around 
the  Aety  measured  60  stadia ;  that  around 
Pinens  (with  Munychia)  the  same ;  the  length 
of  each  of  the  long  walls  was  40  stadia,  and 
that  of  the  Phaleric  wall  SB.  The  walls  of 
Pineas,  and  probably  tlia  others  also,  were  60 
feet  in  bright.  Between  the  Jong  walla,  which 
were  050  feet  apart,  ran  a  carriage  road  fhini 
the  Aaty  to  Pirsas^  and  tbis  was  probably 
lined  with  honsea,  so  that  the  city  was  contin- 
ned  tbrongti  the  whole  distance.  Althoogh 
tome  kind  of  fortifications  probably  sorronnd- 


ed  the  Asty  from  the  earliest  times,  the  great 
wall  around  it,  to  which  we  have  alluded,  waa 
built  by  Themistocles  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  battle  of  Salaiais.  The  port  towns,  though 
also  slightly  fortified  by  him,  were  first  regular- 
ly walled  and  laid  ont  under  Pericles,  by  whosa 
advioe  they  were  connected  with  the  Asty  by 
the  northern  long  wall  and  the  Phaleric  wall. 
The  southern  long  wall  waa  not  built  until 
about  tlie  be^nningof  the  Fetoponnesian  warj 
tbe  Phaleric  wall  than  became  comparatively 
Dseless,  and  was  allowed  to  decay.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  gatea  in  tbe  wall  of  the  Asty  boa 
been  a  matter  of  much  doubt.  The  locations 
^ren  in  the  accompanying  map  are  those 
agreed  upon  by  the  best  authorities,  though 
many  of  them  are  still  uncertain. — Pausanias 
appareatly  entered  the  city  by  tbe  Piraic  gate, 
and  his  first  mention  is  of  the  Fompeium, 
a  building  nsed  as  a  depository  of  certain  very 
valuable  sacred  vessels  (iro/iirtio)  when  not  in  nse. 
Here  were  several  statues,  among  them  one  of 
Socrates.  Beyond  this,  in  passing  toward  the 
Acropolis,  were  the  temples  of  Demeter  (Ceres), 
Hercnies,  and  several  minor  deities ;  then  the 
gymnasium  of  Hermes  (Mercury);  all  these 
were  on  the  roail  leading  toward  Pirsas,  sad 
passingbetween  the  hills  of  tbe  Museum  and  the 
Pnyi.  The  former' of  these,  lying  on  the  his- 
torian's right,  and  8.  W.  of  tlie  Acropolis,  waa 
a  considerable  elevation,  crowned  by  a  fortress, 
and  probably  covered  with  houst's.  Upon  it 
was  the  monument  of  Fhilopappus,  which  still 
remains  in  a  ruined  state.  The  hill  of  the  Pnyx, 
the  height  lying  to  tbe  left  of  Pausanias,  was 
one  of  the  famous  localities  of  Athena.  Here 
was  the  bema,  or  pulpit  of  stone,  from  which 
tbe  great  Athenian  orators  spoke  to  the  assem- 
bled people,  gathered  iu  a  semicircular  level 
areaof  largo  entent,  which  was  tbe  Pnyi  proper 
(ITt^^).  The  bema  and  traces  of  the  levelled 
area  still  remain.  Beyond  the  Pnyx,  to  tbe 
northeast,  was  the  Areopagns,  or  hill  of  Ares 
(Mars),  on  the  S.  £.  summit  of  which  the  famous 
court  or  council  of  the  Areopagus  held  its  sit- 
tings, N.  W.  of  the  Pnyi  was  still  another 
hill,  that  of  the  Kymphs.  Along  the  road 
taken  by  Pausanias  colonnades  extended,  proba- 
bly forming  the  entrances  to  dwellings  in  the 
rear.  Pausanias  next  entered  the  district  of 
the  Asty  called  the  inner  Ceramicus  (tlie  outer 
Ceramicus  lying  outside  the  walls),  at  that 
prominent  point  of  Athens,  the  Agoro,  or 
market  place.  This  was  a  square  surrounded 
by  colonnades,  temples,  and  public  buildings, 
decorated  with  statues  and  paintings.  On  the 
right,  as  Pausanias  entered  it,  stood  the  Stoa 
Basileius  (royal  colonnade),  in  which  was  held 
the  court  of  the  arcbon  basileus.  Upon  its 
roof  and  near  it  were  numerous  statnea,  which 
Pausanias  describes.  Next  this  stoa  was  an- 
other, the  Stoa  Elentherius,  decorated  with 
paintincs  by  Euphranor.  Near  this,  agwn, 
stood  the  temple  of  Apollo  Patrous,  that  of 
the  Mother  of  the  Goda,  and  the  council  honse 
of  the  600.    According  to  the  account  of  the 


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historian,  tlie  Tholus,  a  circnlBr  atone  edifice 
dedicated  to  the  goda,  the  temple  of  Aphro- 
dite Pandemas,  the  altar  of  the  Twelve  Goda, 
and  a  ver;  great  Duinl>er  of  statues  of  gods 
and  heroes,  also  stood  around  the  market  plaoe  ; 
and  onthefonrth  side  were  the  StoaPcecile,  the 
temples  of  Aphrodite  Urania  and  HepbEeHtnB, 
and  the  Eury8acenm,a  temple  to  the  memory 
of  Eurysaces,  a  son  of  AJai.  In  the  Agora 
waa  also  an  enolosnre  where  the  votes  for  os- 
tracism were  received.  Man;  of  these  things 
are  not  mentioned  nntil  later  in  the  historian's 
account,  for  Panganias  now  changed  his  ronte, 
paaaed  down  the  road  continuing  tie  street  of 
the  OeramicuB  on  the  other  aide  of  the  Agora  and 
leading  to  the  Ilissus,  and  only  returned  to  the 
Agora  after  deBoribing  much  of  the  remainder 
of  the  city.  Near  the  end  of  the  long  street, 
whioh  waa  generally  lined  with  private  houses, 
he  found  the  Odeon,  first  huilt  for  a  public  the- 
atre, but  afterward  oaed  aa  a  granary,  and  near 
it  the  Enneacrnnus,  or  fountain  of  Callirhoe, 
the  only  supply  of  fresh  running  water  in  an- 
cient Athens,  uio  rest  used  by  the  inhabitants 
having  been  drawn  from  wells,  Beyond  these 
were  several  smaller  temples.  Returning  to 
the  Agora,  and  describing  those  ports  of  it  not 
alladed  to  before,  Pausanios  now  began  a  new 


PrcHDt  Appsuucg  of  Uis  TheKUa. 

and  the  temple  of  Thesens,  or  Theseum.  This 
edifice,  at  thia  day  the  best  preserved  mon- 
nment  of  the  splendor  of  ancient  Athena,  waa 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


t  rtractnre  of  Pentelio  marble,  s  peripUral 
beuftyle  of  the  Doric  order  of  architecCare, 
104  ft.  loDg,  *6  broad,  and  83^  high  to  the 
■nminit  of  the  pediment.  Its  aides  and  pedi- 
menta  were  adorned  with  sculptnrea,  some  of 
which  remain,  though  much  ii^nred.  Man; 
of  these,  as  well  as  parts  of  the  bnildiog, 
were  panted.  They  sat  furth  incidents  In  the 
Uves  of  Thesens  and  Heronles.  Fauranias 
toma  to  t^e  right  at  the  Thesenm,  and  visits 
the  temple  of  the  BioMori  (Castor  and  Pollux), 
the  AgLanrium  or  aacred  encloBnre  dedicated 
to  AfflanruB,  and  the  Prytaneom,  an  edifice  in 
which  were  deposited  the  taws  of  Solon.  The 
Olfmpienm,  8.  £.  of  the  Acropolis,  was  the 
largest  and  must  have  been  in  some  respects 
th»  most  magDifioent  of  all  the  Athenian  tem- 


ENfl  61 

plea.  It  wQB  bernn  b;  Pinstratas  and  flniahed 
by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  so  that  its  constmo' 
tion  was  continued  at  intervals  throaeh  a 
period  of  100  years.  It  was  850  ft.  long, 
171  broad,  and  of  great  height,  snrronnded 
by  a  peristyle  comprising  160  colnnms,  16  of 
which  remain  standing ;  they  are  6  ft.  6  in.  in 
diameter,  and  more  than  60  ft.  high.  Beveral 
minor  baildings  are  next  notified  by  PaussDios, 
among  them  the  Pythinm  and  the  Delphiniom, 
both  temples  of  Apollo.  After  Tisiting  oertain 
gardens  which  appear  to  have  been  in  this 
qnarter  of  the  dty,  he  describes  the  Oynosai- 
ges  and  the  Lycenm,  both  onteide  the  walls ; 
die  former  a  place  sacred  to  Hercolea,  the  latter 
the  famous  gymna^nm  ia  which  Aristotle  ex- 
pounded  his  dootrinea.     Pansaniaa  returned 


G«BBnl  Tla*  of  lbs  AanpaUt  M  the  FiMtot  Dsf.    (Fnm  ■ 

along  the  Ilissiis,  passing  several  lesser  altars 
and  sanctuaries,  and  his  account  makes  its 
next  imiportant  subjeot  the  Panathenaio  Sta- 
dium, a  partly  natnral  amphitheatre  in  the 
hills,  in  ancient  times  famished  with  mar- 
ble seats  from  which  an  immense  multitude 
conld  witness  the  games  below.  The  terraces 
of  this  amphitheatre  are  still  to  be  traced. 
The  historian  returns  to  the  Prytaneum,  notices 
the  Ohoragio  Uonament  of  Lysicrates,  which 
Etill  exists,  among  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
smaller  relics  of  Athenian  art,  and  enters  the 
sacred  enclosure  of  Dionysus,  in  which  stood 
two  temples,  and  near  which  was  the  Diony- 
siac  theatre.  Near  the  theatre,  again,  stood  the 
Odeon  of  Pericles,  the  roof  of  which  ia  smd 
to  have  been  formed  in  imitation  of  the  tent  of 
Xerxes.  Passing  westward  along  the  base  of 
the  Acropolis,  Pansaniaa  mentions  the  tomb  of 


ple«,  which  were  here  cloatered  together 


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of  the  temples  that  covered  ita  anmmit,  and 
IDA?  safely  snppl?  man}'  details  of  the  acconnt 
The  priDcipal  buildings  on  the  Hnmniit  of  the 
Acropolis  were  the  Pryiylsea,  the  Erechtheum, 
and  the  Pardienon.  The  Propjlsa  served  at 
once  as  an  archite«tQral  embellishment  and  a 
militarj  defence.  Among  the  ancients  it  waa 
more  admired  than  even  the  Parthenon,  for 
the  skili  with  which  the  difficulties  of  the 
'.ground  were  overcome,  and  for  the  grandeur 
of  the  general  effect  The  approach  was  a 
flight  of  liO  marble  atepa,  and  was  70  ft.  broad. 
At  the  top  of  the  steps  was  a  portico  of  ux 
Anted  Doric  columns,  6  ft.  in  diameter  and  29 
ft.  high.  The  side  wings,  on  platfonoB,  78  ft. 
apart,  had  three  Doric  oolums  in  antu  front- 
ing npon  the  grand  staircase.  The  north  wing 
contained  the  Pinacotheco,  a  hall  85  ft  bj  SO ; 
the  ball  of  the  sooth  wing  was  27  fL  bj  16. 
Behind  the  Doric  hexaatyle  was  a  magnificent 
hall  GO  ft  broad,  44  deep,  and  89  high,  with 


form  of  the  Erechthenm  was  oblong,  with  a 
portico  of  six  Ionic  columns  at  the  east  end, 
and  a  kind  of  transept  at  the  west,  a  portico 
of  fonr  columns  on  the  north,  and  the  portico 
of  the  carjatidea,  standing  on  a  basement  8 
ft  high,  on  tiie  south.    At  the  western  end 


Bulni  of  tha  Prapj-toM. 

a  marble  ceiling  resting  on  enormous  beams, 
supported  b;  three  Ionic  columns,  on  each  ude 
of  the  passage.  At  the  east  end  of  this  hall 
was  the  wall,  through  which  there  were  five 
entrances,  with  doors  or  gates.  Tha  central 
opening,  through  which  the  Panathenoio  pro- 
cesdon  passed,  was  13  fL  wide  and  24  It.  high; 
those  ncit  the  central  are,  on  each  side,  9i  ft. 
wide,  and  the  smaJleat  6  ft.,  the  height  varying 
in  proportion.  Thesegates  were  theonly  public 
entrance  into  the  Acropolis.  Within  the  wall, 
on  the  eastern  side,  was  another  hall,  IS  ft. 
deep,  iU  floor  elevated  abont  4}  ft.  above  the 
western,  and  terminated  by  another  Doric  por- 
tico of  six  columns.  The  pediments  and  ceil- 
ings of  this  structure  have  been  destroyed. 
Uost  of  the  columns  remain,  some  of  them  en- 
tire, with  heavy  fragmenta  of  the  architraves. 
Passing  through  the  Propylea,  one  came  to  the 
£reohtnenm,  on  tha  left  or  north  side  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  the  Parthenon  on  the  right, 
near  the  sonthern  or  Cimonian  wall.     The 


PocHm  of  the  Erechthenm,  w 


iCutUMm. 


there  is  a  basement,  on  which  are  four  lonio 
columns  half  engaged  in  the  wall,  and  support- 
ing a  pediment  The  eastern  and  western  di- 
visions of  the  temple  are  on  different  levels, 
the  eastern  being  68  ft.  higher  than  the  west^ 
em.  Enough  remains  of  this  extraordinac? 
and  beautifn]  temple  to  give  a  correct  idea  of 
its  outward  form  ;    but  the  interior  is   in  so 


UulQt  of  lbs  ErcchUicaiii. 

ruinous  a  condition  that  the  distribntion  and 
arrangement  of  the  divisions  are  subject  to 
the  greatest  doubt  There  remains  to  be 
described  the  Parthenon,  the  noblest  mon- 
ument in  Athens.  It  was  built  of  Fentelio 
marble,  under  the  superintendence  of  Phidias 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


b.T  letuiDa  and  CallicrateB.  It  Btanda  on  a 
iasi  ipproacbed  by  three  steps,  each  1  ft, 
9  in.  Itigli,  2  ft.  and  about  4  in.  wide.  Its 
bresdth,  on  tbe  upper  step,  ia  101'34  tL;  its 
length,  22S  ft. ;  tho  height  to  the  top  of  the 
pediment  from  the  upper  step  of  the  stylobata, 
S9  n.,  and  witii  the  Btylobate,  04  ft.  The  tem- 
ple is  Doric,  octostjie,  or  with  eight  columns 
ueach  end,  and  petnpterat,  or  colonnaded  all 
round,  there  being  15  columni  on  each  side, 
not  witiTifing  those  at  the  comers — 46  in  all. 
The  length  of  the  mbm,  or  body  of  the  temple, 
la  183  ft.,  and  its  breadth  71  ft.,  omitting  free. 
iSoEU.  The  apace  between  the  peristyle  and 
tbe  vtB  is  9  ft.  wide  at  the  wdes  and  1 1  ft.  at 
[he  fronts.  The  body  is  divided  by  a  traua- 
terae  wall  into  two  unequal  portions  r  the  east- 
ern was  the  naai  proper,  an  apartment  for  the 
ttitae  of  the  goddess,  98  ft.  in  length ;  the 
restero,  the  opitthodomot,  which  was  coni- 
raonly  used  as  the  treasury  of  the  city,  43  ft. 
long.  Within  the  peristyle,  at  each  end,  were 
eifrht  colnmDs,  33  ft.  high,  on  a  Btylobate  of  i 
tvo  steps.  Within  the  naos  was  a  range  of 
Ica  Doric  columns  on  each  side,  and  three  at  ; 
ihe  west  end,  forming  three  sides  of  a  quad-  \ 
wngle ;  above  them,  an  architrave  supported  \ 
taup]>er  range  of  culamns,  which  Wheeler,  at 
the  lime  of  whose  visit  they  were  still  stand- 
ing, calls  a  bind  of  gallery  -  14  ft.  distant  from 
the  western  columns  is  the  pavement  of  Piraic 
iMie,  on  which  the  great  chryselephantine 
autue  of  Athena  was  placed.  Besides  the  in- 
terual  decorations,  the  outmde  of  the  temple 
vasomameitted  with  three  classes  of  sculpture: 
I.  The  sculptures  of  the  pediments,  being  inde- 

Cent  statues  resting  upon  the  deep  cornice, 
subject  of  those  on  the  eastern  pediment 
WIS  the  birtb  of  Athena ;  of  those  on  the  west- 
era,  the  contest  between  Poseidon  and  Athe- 
na [or  the  possession  of  Attica.  2.  The  groups 
in  the  metopes,  92  in  number,  representing 
combats  of  Hercules  and  Tiieseua,  the  Centaurs 
■nd  Amazons,  and  perhaps  some  figures  of  the 
Persian  war.  These  groups  were  executed  in 
hig^  relief.  3.  The  frieze  round  tbe  upper 
border  of  the  cells  of  the  Parthenon  contained 
»  Kpresentatioa  in  low  relief  of  the  Panathe- 
uic  procession.  All  these  classes  of  sculpture 
were  in  tbe  highest  atyle  of  the  art,  executed 
by  Phidias  himself,  or  under  his  immediate  di- 
rectitHL  Most  of  them  were  in  place  when 
Wheelervisited  Athens,  inlSTS;  and  drawings 
of  the  figures  in  the  pediments  were  made  in 
ltT4  by  Oarrey,  a  French  architect  in  the  suite 
<h'  the  marquis  de  Nointel,  minister  of  France 
at  tbe  Porte.  The  interior  of  the  temple  was 
thrown  down  in  1687,  by  the  ezploMon  of  a 
IfOtob  in  tbe  Turkish  powder  magazine.  The 
front  columns  of  the  peristyle  escaped,  but 
■itght  on  the  north  side  and  six  on  the  south 
were  overthrown.  Uorosiui,  in  endeavoring  to 
remove  some  of  the  figures  on  tbe  pediments, 
broke  them,  and  otherwise  did  great  mischief. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Lord 
Elgin  dismantled  a  c<»i«derable  part  of  the 
6T  vou  II.— 6 


ENS  68 

Parthenon  of  the  remtuning  scnlptares,  which 
form  the  most  precious  treasures  of  the  Brit- 
ish museum  at  the  present  moment.  A  ques- 
tion has  been  mucli  discussed  as  to  whether 
any  portion  of  the  exterior  of  the  temple  was 
decorated  with  painting.  It  is  hardly  possi- 
ble to  doubt  the  fact,  after  a  }>ersonal  exami- 
nation. Many  of  tiie  mouldings  have  traces 
of  beautifully  drawn  patterns.  Under  the  cor- 
nices there  are  delicate  tints  of  blue  and  red, 
and  of  bine  in  the  triglyphs.  Architraves  and 
broader  surfaces  were  tinged  with  ochre.  All 
these  figures  were  executed  so  delicately  and 
exquisitely,  that  it  is  impossible  to  accept  the 
theory  sometimes  advanced  of  their  being  the 
work  of  Hnhsequent  barbarous  age?.  There 
are  other  traces  of  colors  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  portion  of  the  walls  still  standing,  which 
evidently  belong  to  a  period  afLer  the  stone- 
cntters  Eulogius  and  Apollos  converted  the 
Partliennn  into  a  church.  Among  the  inscrip- 
tions there  is  one,  found  in   1636,  containing 


Balu  of  the  PutheDon, 

a  record  of  money  paid  for  polychromatia 
decorations.  The  Parthenon  was  bnilt  in  tht> 
best  period  of  architecture,  and  nnder  the  in- 
spiration of  the  highest  genius  in  art.  Its  as- 
pect is  simple,  but  scientific  investigation  baa 
not  yet  exhausted  its  beauties  and  retinements. 
Unexpected  delicacies  of  construction  have  not 
ceased  to  he  discovered  in  it.  In  18-37  Penne- 
thorne,  an  English  traveller,  noticed  the  incli- 
nation of  the  columns.  IIofer,achaubert,and 
others  have  examined  the  subject,  and  pub- 
lished their  observations  upon  the  inclination 
of  tbe  columns  and  the  curved  lines  of  the  Bty- 
lobate and  architraves.  Mr.  Penrose,  an  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  architect,  visited  Athens  in 
1845,  and  was  afterward  sent  by  the  society  of 
dilettanti  to  complete  tbe  invest! cations  he  had 
already  commenced.  The  results  were  pub- 
lished in  a  ^lendid  folio,  in  1851.  They  may 
be  briefly BQtnmed  up  thus:  The  lines  which 
in  ordinary  architecture  are  straight,  in  tbe 


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64  ATH 

DoHo  temple  at  Athena  are  delicate  cnrves. 
The  edges  of  the  steps  and  the  lines  of  the  en- 
tahlatursB  are  convex  curves,  lying  in  vertical 
planes  and  uearlj  parallel,  and  the  curves  are 
conic  sections,  the  middle  of  the  atylobate  ris- 
ing several  inches  above  tliu  eitreinitiea.  The 
eiteraol  lines  of  Ihe  colrnnns  are  curved  also, 
forming  a  brperbolic  entasis.  The  aies  of  the 
coluums  incline  inward,  so  that  opposite  pairs, 
if  produced  sufficiently  far,  would  meet.  The 
spaces  of  the  intercolumniations  and  the  size 
of  the  capitals  vary  slightly,  according  to  tlieir 
position.  From  tlie  usual  points  of  view  these 
Toriations  and  curves  are  not  perceptible,  but 
they  produce  by  their  combination  the  effect 
of  perfect  harmony  and  regularity ;  and  the  ab- 
Bence  of  these  retincments  is  the  canse  of  the 
universal  failure  of  buildings  constructed  in 
modem  times  according  to  whot  have  been 
supposed  to  be  the  principles  of  Hellenic  archi- 
tecture. This  eulyect  is  treated  by  Mr.  Penrose 
in  great  detail,  and  with  remarkable  precis- 
ion; also  by  M.  Beul4,  in  VAcropole  d'Athine* 
(Paris,  I8G3-'5), — Besides  these  famous  build- 
ings, there  were  on  the  Acropolis  others  of  less 
size,  but  great  beauty.  Such  were  the  temple 
of  Nike  Apteros  (the  Wingless  Victory),  the 
remains  of  which  have  been  discovered  and 
restored,  the  temple  of  Rome  and  Augustus, 
and  the  temple  of  Artemis  Braaronia.  Among 
the  celebrated  statues  and  works  of  art  on  tlie 
summit  of  the  Acropolis  was  the  colossal  statue 
of  Athena  Fromacnus,  which  represented  the 
goddess  holding  a  spear  and  in  full  armor.  It 
was  of  such  height  that  it  could  be  Been  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  coast,  above  the 
Parthenon  and  the  other  highest  buildings  of 
the  <atj. — The  population  of  ancient  Athens 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  controversy;  but 
the  resalts  reached  by  different  authorities  differ 
by  only  a  few  tliousands  from  the  estimate  of 
Leake,  who  supyioses  the  city,  including  the 
port  towns,  to  have  contained  about  192,000 
inhabitants.  Of  these,  all  who  corresponded 
to  our  laboring  classes  were  slaves;  a  large 
proportion  of  the  remdnder  were  meUeei,  or 
re^dents  of  foreign  birtli ;  while  the  actual 
Athenian  citizens,  freemen  in  the  eigoymeDt 
of  all  the  civic  rights,  formed  the  smallest  class 
of  ult.  This  statement  uses  the  word  citizen  in 
a  narrow  sense,  applying  only  to  those  within 
tlie  walls ;  but  the  political  privileges  of  an 
Athenian  citizen  were  extended  to  nil  free-bom 
and  properly  qualiiied  citizens  of  Attica.  They 
were  generally  di^'idcd  into  evpalrida,  or  pa- 
tricians, geomori,  or  landholders,  and  demiurgi, 
or  tradespeople.  (See  Attic*. ) — The  govern- 
ment of  Athens  in  tbe  time  of  its  prosperity 
was  in  the  liands  of  three  bodies :  the  nine 
archons,  elected  annually  ;  the  liouU,  or  coun- 
cil of  state  (of  400  members  under  Solon's  con- 
Etitntion,  500  under  Clisthenes,  and  after  the 
year  30t!  B.  0.  increased  to  fiOO  members) ;  and 
the  assembly  of  the  people  {eeeluia).  Among 
tbe  archons  were  divided  special  departments 
of  the  executive  power.     (See  Abcboh.)    The 


boule  debated  important  measares  previoas  to 
bringing  them  before  tbe  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple, received  reports,  decided  to  what  courts 
certain  appeals  snould  be  made,  &c.  Its  mem- 
bers held  office  for  one  year,  snd  it  held  daily 
meetings.  The  ecdesiie  were  of  three  kinds; 
aseemUies  of  the  people  held  on  fixed  days,  at 
intervals  of  about  a  month ;  tliose  called  on 
extraordinary  occasions  by  committees  (as  we 
should  call  them)  of  the  boule ;  end  those  which 
in  important  cases  included  not  only  the  citi- 
zens of  the  city  but  of  all  Attica.  These  ob- 
aembliee  had  the  ultimate  power  of  decision  in 
all  cases  without  appeal,  made  war  and  con- 
cluded peace,  passed  laws  and  made  alliances, 
and  confirmed  or  censured  tlie  acts  of  officials. 
Their  meeting  usually  held  in  tbe  Agora,  on 
the  Pnyx,  or  m  the  theatre  of  Dionysus,  were 
conducted  with  many  ceremonies.  The  chief 
court  of  the  Athenians  was  that  of  the  Areop- 
agus, the  origin  of  which  is  lust  in  prehistoric 
legends.  Ucn  who  bud  held  the  rank  of  archon 
composed  it.  Its  jurisdiction  estcnded  over 
all  cases  of  treason  and  special  cases  of  murder, 
serious  assault,  and  arson.  (See  Abeofaoub.) 
Next  stood  the  court  of  the  ephori,  who  nnm- 
bered  GO,  chosen  from  the  ciUzens,  who  tried 
ordinary  cases  of  murder  and  assault  There 
were  several  other  courts  of  less  importance. 
There  were  few  taxes  in  ancient  Athena  The 
state  derived  a  great  part  of  its  income  from 
tbe  rent  of  its  lands  to  private  citizens.  The 
taxes,  including  harbor  dues,  market  tazea, 
taxes  paid  by  foreign  residents,  the  tax  set 
upon  public  prostitntcs  (after  the  time  of  Peri- 
cles), and  a  few  others,  were  fanned  out. 
Upon  the  actual  citizens  there  fell  almost  no 
burden  of  taxation.  The  fines  imposed  by  the 
courts  were  also  a  considerable  source  of  in- 
come for  the  state,  and  of  course  tbe  largest 
sums  of  all  were  those  extorted  from  enemies 
and  foreign  allies  of  the  dty. — The  ceremonies 
connected  with  religions  worship  at  Athens 
were  perhops  more  magnificent  than  In  any 
other  city  of  tlie  ancient  world.  Tbe  chief 
among  the  CTeat  solemnities  were  the  Panar- 
thencea,  the  Dionysiao  festival,  and  tbe  Elea- 
sinian  mysteries.  (See  Bacchanalia,  Elecbis, 
and  rANATHE5.£A.)  Tlie  rites  and  tcmplea 
were  under  the  charge  of  priests,  whose  officee 
were  generally  hereditary.  Immense  Bume 
were  annually  expended  by  the  state  in  beau- 
tifying the  temples,  sacred  enclosures,  and 
monuments  of  the  gods,  and  the  days  dedica- 
ted to  tliem  were  celebrated  with  magnificent 
ceremonies.— The  private  life  of  tbe  Athenians 
in  the  most  ancient  days  of  the  city  waa  sim- 
ple; but  with  tbe  administration  of  Peridea, 
or  even  before  it,  their  customs  became  extrav- 
agant and  sensno].  The  magnificent  Atbeniaa 
banquets  of  this  and  subsequent  periods  sur- 
passed almost  all  others  of  the  time.  The 
guesta  reclined  on  couches  about  the  tables, 
while  dancers  of  both  sexes,  musicians,  and 
the  songs  of  hired  slave  girls  accompanied  the 
mostextravagontfeosta.  These  ended  with  sym- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


pNJn,  or  drinking  bouts,  geaerallj  f«enea  of 
lie  wildest  license.  The  edaeation  of  the  citi- 
leQ  before  this  period  of  luxury  was  as  follotvs : 
ilUr  baviog  his  nuTne  inscribed  by  his  father 
orother  rej&tive  in  tliecutatogiieof  Iiis  jihrntry 
(see  Attica)  when  he  was  hut  three  or  four 
Tears  old,  the  young  Athenian  was  brought 
up  dnriog  the  next  few  years  in  the  part  of 
ibe  house  devoted  to  the  women  {gynaceum). 
At  seven  his  actual  education  was  begun  under 
a  pedafo^oe  or  tutor,  under  whose  eutdance 
be  visited  the  schools  and  places  of  public  ath- 
letic exercises,  pursuing  courses  ot'  rhetoric, 
tnatheoiatics,  music,  philosophy,  and  al»o  of 
msniy  arts — riding,  spear-throwing,  wrestling, 
ki.    Women  and  girls  were  scarcely  allowed 


I'SB  65 

by  deennim  any  social  intercourse,  nor  were 
any  facilities  fiimishcd  them  for  education. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  most  intel- 
ligent and  brilliant  women  of  Athens  were 
found  among  the  helara,  a  term  which  is 
wrongly  translated  by  our  word  prostitutes; 
fur  these  women,  though  actually  hired  mis- 
tresses, were  generally  an  orderly,  highly  educa- 
ted class,  and  only  obeyed  customs  which  were 
sanctioned  by  the  age.  An  Athenian  could 
marry  at  or  atter  the  age  of  14.  Heiresses  were 
compelled  by  law  to  marry  their  neit  of  kin, 
outside  the  natural  limits  of  course,  thut  the 


both  parties;  adultery  n 


The  Athenian  private  houses  were  generally 
Email  A^ime  buildings,  with  tiled  roofs :  the 
Rreeta  between  them  were  narrow  and  o rooked. 
Only  as  late  as  the  time  of  Clisthenes  were  fine 
private  houses  conetmcted,  and  the  custom 
ODCe  begnn,  it  increased  so  fast  that  Demos- 
thenes severely  reprimanded  certain  citizens  for 
building  houses  far  surpassing  the  public  edi- 
fices; no  ruins  remain  to  give  us  an  idea  of  these. 
The  dress  of  the  Athenians  was  very  simple. 
The  older  men  wore  white  robes  or  A imatia,  the 
younger  the  saffron-colored  ehlamyt  or  tunic. 
The  women  wore  the  chiton,  a  long  woollen 
rube ;  over  it  a  cloak  or  wrapping,  the  diplou 
dan  ;  and  outside  this  again  n  simple  shoulder 
cloak  or  cape,  the  hemQipIoidon.    This  dress 


(From  B  ment  Fbotognph.) 

varied  little  in  times  of  festira). — In  the  present 
political  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
Athens  is  the  capital  of  the  nomarchy  of  At- 
tica and  BcBotia,  as  well  as  of  the  entire  king- 
dom. Its  population  in  I87I,  after  a  slow  in- 
crease for  several  years,  was  4B,107.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  king  and  court,  and  the  seat 
of  several  important  institutions  of  learning, 
art,  and  public  charity.  Among  these  are  the 
university,  employing  more  than  BO  professors 
and  instructors,  and  having  a  free  library  of 
more  than  90,000  volumes ;  an  observatory  and 
botanical  garden;  two  gymnasia  on  the  Ger- 
man system ;  a  military  school,  schools  for  the 
apeciw  education  of  priests  and  teachers,  a 
polytechnic  school,  a  seminary  for  girls,  &c. 


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66 


ATEEJIS 


An  "American  female  school "  foondeO  bj  Ber. 
J.  H.  EiU,  IB  also  maintained  in  the  cit; ;  it 
van  for  a  lonj;  time  mider  the  direct  patronage 
of  the  government.  The  grammar  and  pri- 
mary schoola  are  excellent,  and  instrnction  is 
generally  sought  and  widely  diffused.  Among 
the  institations  of  art  is  an  association  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
there  are  severtJ  mnseums  in  which  the 
scattered  relics  of  the  old  splendor  of  the 
city  have  been  bronght  together  and  care- 
fully arranged.  Under  the  head  of  public 
charities  fafl  an  osylnm  for  the  blind  and  a 
hospital,  both  of  considerable  size.  Amoug 
the  public  buildings  are  the  palace,  a  fine 
bmlding  of  three  stories,  near  Mount  Lycabet- 
tns,  the  chamber  of  deputies,  the  barracks, 
mint,  theatre,  and  extensive  structures  intend- 
ed for  ttie  assemblies  of  the  national  academy, 
and  for  the  mnseum  and  polytechnic  school. 
There  are  also  abont  100  churches,  some  of 
them  admirable  specimens  of  architecture.  The 
largest  is  that  of  St.  Nicodemus,  built  dnring 
the  middle  ages,  in  the  Byzantine  style.  Like 
most  of  the  others,  it  is  not  of  great  size,  end 
depends  for  its  ctFect  on  the  beauty  of  its 
construction.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
modem  city  is  not  especially  attractive  on  near 
approach,  though  the  magnificent  height  of  the 
Acropolis,  crowned  with  the  ruins  we  have 
noticed  above,  and  the  pleasant  situation  of  the 
town  itself,  give  it  a  picturesque  aspect  when  one 
views  it  from  some  distant  point.  Parts  of  the 
city  have  the  dirt  and  squalor  peculiar  to  nearly 
all  towns  of  southeastern  Europe ;  but  ita  con- 
dilJon  has  been  grwjuaUy  Improved  since  it 
became  the  royal  residence,  and  now  there  are 
several  broad  streete  and  squares,  well  kept 
and  clean.  The  hotels,  shops,  caf^s,  Sea.,  are 
among  the  Indications  of  the  improvement  of 
the  city,  and  the  local  trade  is  active,  though 
there  is  comparatively  tittle  commerce  with 
foreign  porta. — See  Forchhammer's  Topo^a- 
phie  von  Athen  (in  the  Kieler  pMlologitehe 
Studiea  for  1841,  Kiel),  and  his  essay  in  de- 
fence of  hia  views  in  the  ZeiUekrift  Jvr  AlUr- 
thummiMeruc/taft  (1848,  Nos.  69,  TO) ;  Leake's 
"  Researches  in  Greece "  (London,  1814), 
and  especially  his  "Topography  of  Athena" 

SSSl);  also  his  work  "On  some  Disputed 
Dcations  of  Ancient  Geography"  (1857); 
Wordsworth's  "Athens  and  Attica"  (London, 
1636);  Stuart  and  Revett's  "Antiquities  of 
Athens"  (London,  1826- '7);  Mnre's  "Journal 
of  a  Tour  in  Greece"  (Edinburgh,  1842); 
Emse's  IMlai  (Leipsic,  1826);  E.  O.  Mailer's 
Attika  (in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  EneytUrpS^ 
die,  English  translation  by  Lockhart,  London, 
1842);  Prokesch's  Deniieurdigleeitm  (Stutt- 
gart, 183S);  the  article  "Athenie"  in  Smith's 
"Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography" 
(London,  1854);  BSckh's  "Public  Economy 
of  the  Athenians"  (translated  by  Lamb,  Bos- 
ton, 1857) ;  Wessenberg'a  "  Life  in  Athens  in 
the  Time  of  Pericles"  (London,  no  date); 
Prof,  Felton's  "Greece,  Ancient  and  Modem" 


ATHIAS 

Soaton,  16G7);  Tuckerman's  "Greeks  of  To- 
y"(New  York,  1878). 

ITBENS,  a  S.  E.  eounty  of  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio 
river;  area,  480  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  28,766. 
It  has  railroad  communication  with  Marietta, 
OolnmbuB,  and  Cincinnati.  The  surface  is  well 
wooded  and  eitremely  fertile,  and  abounds  in 
iron  ore  and  coal ;  end  lai^  quantities  of  salt 
are  manufactured  throughout  the  county.  The 
Hocking  river  intersects  tbe  county,  and  the 
Hocking  canal  extends  from  its  centre  to  the 
Ohio  cunal.  In  1870  the  cocnty  produced 
138,746  busheU  of  wheat,  06,012  of  oat«,  610,- 
417  of  Indian  com,  78,731  of  potatoes,  23,239 
tons  of  hay,  207,839  lbs.  of  tobacco,  618,864 
of  butter,  and  201,593  of  wool  There  were 
57,399  sheep  and  15,097  hogs.  Capital,  Ath- 
ens, on  Hocking  river  and  the  Marietta  and 
Cincinnati  and  Hocking  Valley  railroads,  TO  m. 
S.  E.  of  Columbus. 

iTHEHS,  a  city,  capital  of  Clarke  county,  Ga., 
on  the  Oconee  river,  at  the  end  of  the  Athens 
branch  of  the  Georgia  railroad;  pop.  in  I860, 
8,848,  of  whom  1,6U8  were  colored;  in  1870, 
4,251,  of  whom  1,967  were  colored.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  cotton-growing  region,  and 
bos  several  cotton  factories.  The  university 
of  Georgia,  a  state  institution  founded  in  1801, 
is  situated  here.  In  1868  it  had  6  instractora, 
76  students,  266  alumni,  and  a  library  of  7,500 
volumes.  The  law  department  had  4  profes- 
sors and  14  students.  Thecityhaa  three  weekly 
newspapers,  besides  two  periodicals. 

ATHEXIW,  Oaries  &,  an  American  senator, 
bom  at  Amherst,  N.  H,,  July  4,  J804,  died 
Nov.  15,  186S.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
congress  in  1887,  and  on  Deo.  31,  1888,  intro- 
duced under  a  suspension  of  the  rules  a  series 
of  resolutions,  declaring  that  "congress  has 
no  jurisdiction  over  the  institntion  of  slavery 
in  the  several  states  of  the  confederacy ; "  and 
that  "every  petition,  memorial,  resolution, 
proportion,  or  paper,  touching  or  relating  in 
any  way  or  to  any  extent  whatever  to  slavery, 
or  to  uie  abolition  thereof  shall,  on  tbe  pres- 
entation thereof  without  any  Airther  action 
thereon,  be  laid  on  tbe  table  withont  being 
debated,  printed,  or  referred."  These  resolu- 
tions were  passed,  under  the  previons  anestjon, 
by  a  vote  of  126  to  78,  and  formed  the  basis 
of  the  21st  rule  of  tbe  next  congress,  by  which 
all  such  petitions,  upon  presentation,  were 
considered  as  objeot«d  to,  and  the  question  of 
their  reception  laid  on  the  table.  Mr.  Atlier- 
ton  continoed  in  tbe  house  of  representatives 
till  1848,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  senate, 
where  he  remained  till  1849.  He  was  again 
elected  in  1862. 

iTHUS,  Jssqtb,  a  leamed  Jewish  printer  in 
Amsterdam,  died  about  1700.  He  is  princi- 
pally noted  for  having  pablisbed  two  editions 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  in  1661  and 
1667,  on  which,  on  account  of  their  correct* 
ness,  most  of  the  modem  editions  are  founded. 
They  are  remarkable  for  being  the  first  in 
which  the  verses  were  marked  with  Arable 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATHLONE 

figures.  In  aoknowledgrnent  of  his  merits  tbe 
■UUs  general  conferred  apon  Atbias  a  chain 
of  gold  and  a  medal. 

IISUIXE,  a  market  town  and  p&rliament- 
UT  boroDgh  of  Ireland,  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Shannon,  near  its  entrenco  into  Loagb 
Bee,  partlj  in  Westmeath  and  partly  in  Roe- 
common,  6B  m.  W.  of  Dnblin;  pop.  in  1671, 
6,617.  The  opposite  shores  of  the  river  are 
here  onited  by  a  liandaoine  bridge,  and  a  canal 
has  been  formed  to  avoid  the  rapids  at  this 
point,  thna  making  navigation  procUcable  for 
TO  miles  higher  np  t^ie  atream.  The  onstle  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river,  with  its  outworks, 
covers  IS  acrea  It  is  connected  bj  railway 
wiUt  Dablin  and  Galway,  and  an  active  trade 
is  carried  on  by  steamers  with  Limerick  and 
Shannon  harbor,  and  with  Dublin  by  the  Grand 
and  Royal  canals.  Alter  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne  William  III.  besieged  Athlone  nnsuc- 
eenfolly,  bnt  it  was  taken  by  Gen.  Ginkell, 
Jane  80,  1691. 

ATHOL,  Albtle,  or  Itkoll,  a  district  in  the 
northern  part  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  em- 
bracing about  450  sq.  m.  It  is  pictnresque 
and  mountainous,  some  of  the  sammits  attaio- 
iag  an  elevation  of  mure  than  3,000  feet  It 
oontuns  several  lakes  and  beautiful  valleys, 
tmoag  which  is  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie, 
where  Graham  of  Claverbouse  guned  a  victory 
and  met  his  death  in  1689.  Agriculture  is 
carried  oa  in  the  valleys,  while  on  the  hills 
gheep  and  cattle  are  pastured. 

1TH08  (mod.  6r.  Hagion  Orot,  holy  monn- 
tun ;  Tork.  Ainerot),  the  easternmost  of  the 
three  peninsalua  pr^ectlng  from  ancient  Chal- 
eidice,  in  tlie  N.  TV;  part  of  the  .lEgean  sea, 
DOW  inolnded  in  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Solonioa, 
■bont  80  m.  long  and  from  4  to  7  broad.  It 
is  monntoinoua,  and  out  by  numerous  ravines. 
At  ita  extremity  stands  the  mountain  froin 
which  it  takes  its  name.  Mt.  Athos  is  about 
6,360  ^  high,  with  a  peak  of  white  limestone, 
while  its  lower  rocks  ore  of  gneiss  and  argil- 
laceous slate.  The  sides  of  tbe  mountain  ore 
flanked  with  vast  forests  of  pinea,  oalu,  and 


ATEIN80S  C7 

asteries  were  founded  by  Byzonnue  princes. 
It  was  here  that  ambitions  malcontents  of  the 
court  of  Constantinople,  favorites  in  disgrace, 
and  even  private  individuals,  retired  to  awut 


t  was  across  the  isthmus  which 
connects  the  peniosnla  of  Athos  with  the  main- 
land that  Xerxes  cut  a  canal  for  his  ships,  in 
his  invasion  of  Greece.  The  remains  of  this 
canal,  according  to  the  best  aathoritiea,  are 
still  distinctly  visible  through  most  of  its  ex- 
tent Near  the  middle  of  its  course  it  is  not 
disoemihie,  having  been  filled  up.  Athos  was 
*o  called  from  the  giant  of  that  name  who  in 
the  Grecian  mythology  hurled  the  monntdn 
at  tbe  gods.  The  peninsula  in  ancient  times 
contained  several  flourishing  cities  and  a  tem- 

Ste  of  Jupiter;  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was 
otted  over  with  hermitages  and  monasteries, 
SO  of  which  still  remain.    Most  of  these  mon- 


a  change  of  affairs  or  return  to  favor.  The 
monks  at  present  nnmtwr  about  6,000,  from 
Greece,  Bulgaria,  Ronmania,  and  Rnssia,  in  all 
of  which  countries  the  convents  of  Athos  pos- 
sess estates.  Ko  female  is  permitted  to  enter 
the  peninsula.  The  monks  are  ruled  by  an  ad- 
ministrative assembly  (profa&wi),  composed  of 
delegates  tram  the  various  convents  chosen  for 
a  term  of  four  years.  The  administration  of 
justice  and  the  management  of  the  revenue  are 
also  vested  in  this  body.  The  assembly  has 
ita  seat  at  Karias,  the  capital  of  the  peninsula. 
A  Turkish  aga  resides  iu  Athos  and  collects  an 
annual  tribute  from  the  convents.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  these  convents  were  the  seat  of  Greek 
science  and  the  centre  of  Byzantine  Christian 
knowledge,  and  possessed  many  larae  libraries. 
There  are  still  to  he  found  there  old  and  beao- 
tifhl  manuscripts,  several  of  which  have  been 
photi^apbed  and  deposited  in  the  museum  of 

ATnU5,  or  Itltu,  a  lake  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, about  SO  m.  in  length  and  8  to  ID  m.  in 
breadth,  situated  in  the  department  of  Solola, 
Guatemala.  It  appears,  from  the  geological 
formations  about  it,  to  lie  in  the  crater  of 
on  ancient  volcano,  and  it  is  of  extraordinary 
depth,  no  soundings,  it  is  said,  being  obtain- 
able with  a  line  of  1,600  ft.  Although  several 
small  streams  flow  into  it,  jio  outlet  bos  been 
discovered.  The  scenery  in  its  neighborhood 
is  remarkably  picturestiue;  high  cliSs  surround 
it,  with  but  little  vegetation.  On  the  sonthem 
hank  of  the  lake  is  a  small  Indian  town  of  the 
same  name,  having  barely  2,000  inhabitants. 

iTKBISON,  Hmuh  WItlwii,  an  English  artist 
and  traveller,  bom  in  Yorkshire,  March  6, 


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68 


ATLANTA 


1799,  died  at  Lower  Wolmer,  Kent,  Ang.  18, 

1861.  He  excelled  bfhU  architectural  deeigns 
and  in  landscape  gardening,  and  wrote  "  Gottric 
Ornnraents  of  EnglUh  Cathedrals."  He  trav' 
elled  extensively,  and  published  "  Oriental  and 
Weetera  Siberia,  a  Narrative  of  seven  j'ears' 
Explorations  and  Adventnres  in  Silieria,  Mon- 
golia, the  Kirgiiis  Steppes,  Ghiueae  Tartarj, 
and  part  of  Central  Asia"  (London,  1857), 
and  ''  Travels  in  tlie  Regions  of  the  Dpper  and 
Lower  Amoor"  (1660),  both  worka  illnatrated 
from  his  own  designs. 

ITUNTA,  a  city,  capital  of  Georgia,  and  also 
of  Fulton  connty,  and  next  to  Savannah  the 
largettt  and  most  important  (ity  in  the  etate, 
301  m.  N.  W.  of  Maoun  and  171  ra.  W.  of  Au- 
gnat« ;  pop.  in  IBBO.  9,G64 ;  in  1870,  21,789,  of 
which  9,920  were  colored.  It  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  tho  Atlanta  and  West  Point, 
Atlanta  and  Richmond,  Western  and  Atlantic, 
Georgia,  and  Macon  and  Western  railroads  con- 
necting here.  There  ia  alao  a  street  raiiroad 
company.  Atlanta  lies  nearly  1,100  ft.  above 
the  aea,  and  is  built  upoa  hilly  ground.  It  is 
laid  ont  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  abont  8  m.  in 
diameter,  the  nnlon  passenger  depot  occupying 
the  centre.  Oglethor[>e  park,  at  the  terminns 
of  Marietta  atreet,  about  2  m.  from  the  depot, 
contains  tine  drives,  lokea,  &c.  The  chief  riub- 
lie  buildings  are  the  state  capitol,  the  city  hall, 
the  first  Methodist  chnrch  (Sontli),  the  opera 
honse,  and  the  Kimball  honae,  one  of  the  lar- 
gest hoUla  in  the  South.  The  principal  manii- 
factoriea  are  a  rolling  mill,  three  fonnderies, 
three  pinning  milla,  several  flonr  milts,  two 
railway  shopa,  a  brewery,  ond  several  tobacco 
factories.  The  bnaineaa  of  the  city  amounts  to 
abont  $36,000,000  annnally.  The  valuation  of 
property  in  1872  was  818,645.686.  There  are 
two  national  banka,  with  a  capital  of  $400,000, 
a  loan  sad  trnst  company,  and  two  savings 
banks.  The  city  is  governed  bj  a  mayor  and  a 
board  of  14  cooncilmen  (two  from  each  ward). 
The  police  force  consista  of  66  officers  and  pri- 
vatee.  There  are  three  ateam  fire  enpnea,  two 
hand  enginea,  and  a  hook  and  ladder  company. 
Atlanta  contains  a  branch  of  the  Baptist  or- 
phans' home  and  a  ladies'  relief  society.  Steps 
were  taken  in  tlie  autumn  of  1869  to  establish 
a  public  school  ayBtem,  and  in  1872  three 
school  houses  had  been  erected,  and  29  teachers 
fwere  employed.  Other  institutions  of  learning 
are  tlie  North  Georgia  female  college,  Atlanta 
medical  college,  Oglethorpe  college,  Atlanta 
university  (colored),  two  businesa  collegea,  an 
Bngtish  and  German  select  school,  an  orphans' 
free  school,  and  a  colored  school.  Oglethorpe 
college  has  a  library  of  S,000  volumes;  the 
jonng  men's  library  asaociation  posseas  abont 
8,000  volumes;  and  the  state  library  con taina 
1B,000  volumes.  Three  daily  and  two  weekly 
newspapers  and  three  montliljr  periodicals  are 
pnbliabed.  There  are  86  churchea,  viz. :  6  Bap- 
tist (I  colored),  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Christian, 
1  Congregational,  2  Episcopal,  1  Jewish,  1  Lu- 
theran, 18  Methodiat  (0  Sonthem  and  3  colored). 


ATLANXIO  OCEAN 

and  8  Preabyterion.— Atlanta  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1847.  During  the  ciril  war  it  ac- 
quired ^reat  importance  sa  the  chief  entrepot 
of  trade  between  the  western  and  Atlantic 
and  gulf  states,  the  principal  roanufacturing 
town  in  the  south,  and  the  seat  of  various  gov- 
ernment works  of  the  confederacy.  It  was 
then  strongly  fortified.  Gen.  Sherman  began 
an  advance  upon  it  from  Chattanooga  at  the 
beginning  of  May,  1864,  with  98,000  men  and 
264  guns.  The  defence  was  intrusted  to  Gen, 
Joseph  E.  Johnston,  with  abunt  60,000  men, 
occupying  a  podtion  at  Balton.  By  a  seriea 
of  flank  movements,  and  some  severe  £ghting, 
particularly  at  Resaca,  New  Hove  church,  and 
Kenesaw  ond  Lust  mountains,  Johnston,  thongh 
skilfully  manceuvring,  was  forced  to  retire  from 
position  to  position,  to  the  vei-j  defences  of  At- 
lanta, which  he  reached  before  the  middle  of 
July.  On  the  17tii  he  was  superseded  by  Gen. 
Hood,  who  assnmed  the  offensive,  making  three 
heavy  attacks  on  the  federal  forces  (July  20, 
22,  and  26).  These  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss,  and  Atlanta  was  besieged  till  Sept.  1,  when 
Hood  was  compelled  to  evacuate  it  by  a  flank 
movement  of  Sherman's  army  which  covered 
the  lines  of  rwlroad  in  the  rear  of  tlio  con- 
federates. Before  abandoning  the  city,  to  fall 
back  on  Macon,  Gen.  Hood  act  fire  to  all  the  ma- 
chinery, supplies,  and  munitions  of  war  which 
he  coidd  not  remote.  Tbe  federal  losses  from 
Chattanooga  to  the  occupation  of  Atlanta  were 
30,400  men  and  16  cannon.  Tbe  confederate 
losses  amounted  to  about  4S,O00  men,  40  or  60 
guns,  and  26,000  stand  of  small  anna.  Both 
armies  had  been  reinforced  during  the  foar 
months'  contest  When  Sherman  moved  his 
base  of  snpplies  to  Chattanooga  in  November, 
the  machine  shops,  depots,  government  bnild- 
inga,  &o.,  were  set  on  lire.  After  the  recon- 
stcuction  of  the  state  and  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  ofl668,  Atl  an  tA  became  thecapital, 
and  it  has  increased  rapidly  in  population. 
AlUNTl  COntlN  EXPOelTION.     See  supple- 

ITUmnC,  a  S.  S.  E.  county  of  New  Jersey; 

area,  620  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,098.  The 
Atlantic  ocean  bordera  it  on  tho  B.  E.,  where 
it  is  indented  by  Great  Egg  harbor,  Absecum 
.and  several  other  bays,  studded  with  islands 
and  planted  with-  oysiers.  it  is  interaeoted  by 
Great  Egg  Harbor  river.  The  surface  i^<  low  and 
flat;  it  is  marshy  near  the  coast,  and  the  soil 
farther  inland  is  light  and  sandy.  In  1870  the 
county  prod  need  7,198  basbeis  of  wheat,  47,- 
488  of  Indian  coru,  61,702  of  Irish  and  18,G14 
of  sweet  potatoes,  4.675  tons  of  hay,  and  6,020 
gallons  of  wine.    Capital,  May's  Landing. 

iTLUmC  OCEIN,  that  branch  of  the  gen- 
eral ocean  which  separates  tbe  continents  of 
Bnrope  and  Africa  from  America.  Its  oldest 
name  among  the  ancients  was  simply  tbe 
Ocean  (i  'OaavS;) ;  it  was  afterward  named 
the  Atlantic  ocean  from  Mount  Alius,  which 
rises  near  its  shores.  It  was  known  and  navi- 
gated by  the  Phceniciona  long  before  tbe  be- 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


69 


fitm%  of  Greek  biitorical  reoordiL  Some  of 
Ibor  colonies  on  ita  coasts  are  said  to  have 
ha  founded  as  ear);  u  IIOO  B.  0.,  and  their 
ccnmaroe  extended  to  the  British  islands  and 
ttiB  Baltic  To  the  Bonth  the^  went  equally 
tti,  and  are  believed  to  have  evan  circnmnavi- 
inted  Africa  aii  centnrieB  i>efore  Christ,  abont 
tbe  same  time  that  the  more  timid  Greeks  re- 
Miiled  the  poasa)^  of  tbe  first  narigatfr  of  their 
mtion  through  the  etriut  of  Qibraltar.  Bat  the 
Nil  importaDoa  of  this  ocean  as  the  great  high- 
wk;^  of  modent  oiTilization  dates  from  the  14th 
•nd  15th  centuries,  when  the  ontlying  groups  of 
isl&nda,  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores, 
were  first  visited,  and  flnally  Ooliunbos,  cutting 
loose  from  coasting  voyages,  struck  ocroM  its 
onknown  waste  to  the  discovery  of  a  new 
world.  I.  Qbogbapbical  Desokptiox.  The 
limits  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  have  bem  taken 


tbe  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  physical  geog- 
raphy it  is  a  branch  of  tbe  great  southern 
ocean,  forming  a  deep  gnlf  of  which  the  Arctic 
ocean  is  the  blind  end.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
Atlantic  has  the  shape  of  an  irragahu'  broad 
csnal  running  north  and  south,  with  a  deep 
bend  to  the  west  in  the  middle  of  its  oonrse. 
The  projecting  angles  of  the  bordering  conti- 
nents are  said  by  Humboldt  to  correspond  to 
the  re^Qtermg  ones  on  the  opposite  side.  But 
in  reality  this  correspondence  ia  somewhat  dis- 
torted, and  thus  narrows  are  formed  by  which 
the  Atlantic  is  divided  into  three  principal 
basins:  the  sonthern  or  Ethiopic,  from  the 
Antarctic  ocean  to  the  narrows  Between  Cape 
San  Roqae  and  Senegambia ;  the  middle  or  At- 
lanlic  proper,  from  the  same  narrows  to  the 
nnge  of  islands  formed  by  the  British  and 
Tares  iilanda  and  laeiand ;  and  the  northern  or 
Antio,  The  Atlanticproperoontrastsstrongly 
with  tbeEthiopIc  by  the  great  development  of 
it)  shore  line  and  the  number  of  lateral  arms 
or  mediterranean  seos  in  oommnnication  with 
it.  Soch  are  the  Caribbean  sea,  the  gulfb  of 
Msiico  and  of  St.  Lawrence,  BalBn  and  Hnd- 
son  bays,  the  Baltic,  the  North  sea  or  German 
oeeal^  the  Irish  boo,  and  the  Mediterranean 
with  itd  dependencies  the  Adriatic  and  the 
BUck  ua.  In  the  Ethiopia  ocean,  on  the  con- 
JfWy,  the  coasCq  are  very  uniform,  with  few 
uidentatioiis  or  bays,  and  no  inland  seas  at  all. 
^B  wntershed  of  the  continents  bordering  on 
^  Atlintio  basin  is  of  remarkable  extent,  all 
™  other  oceans  of  the  earth  pnt  together  re- 
'^mg  but  a  fraction  of  the  freah-water  drain- 
*3s  in  comparison.  Several  rivers  of  Asia  and 
pn^  or  two  in  northwestern  America  can  alone 
™^a  comparison  with  those  of  the  Atlantic 
™n-  The  number  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
JjWM  is  amall  when  compared  with  those  of 
">*  Paciflo.  Leaving  aside  those  islands  which 
"emerelj  detached  parts  of  the  continents,  we 
^  cODnt  scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  groutis. 
JJW  most  of  that  elaas,  they  are  priooipally 
"  Taloaoio  origin.    Of  coral  islands,  so  namer- 


ons  in  the  Pacific,  there  are  bnt  two  groups, 
the  Bermudas  and  the  Bahamas.  II.  Dbptd, 
AND  FiouBE  OF  THE  BoTTOH.     The  moBus  cm- 

t Joyed  for  ascertaining  the  depth  are  general- 
y  modifications  of  the  old-fashioned  lead  and 
lin       •         • " 

its  indicatioj 
becanse  the  shock  o^  the  lead  on  the  bottom 
ceases  to  he  felt,  oad  the  line  continaea  to  run 
by  its  own  weight  or  is  carried  off  by  currents 
without  seosibTy  slackening.  Souuding  with 
a  small  line  or  twine,  to  he  abandoned  to- 
gether with  the  weight  at  each  cost,  was  tried, 
but  failed  for  want  of  means  to  determine  when 
the  bottom  was  reached.  No  sounding  being 
now  considered  trustworthy  unless  a  specimen 

Sroof  that  " 
esirable  b 

relieved  of  the  ]at>or  of  hauling  np  the  weight, 
and  to  bring  up  only  the  smaU  apparatus  and 
to  collect  the  mad  or  sand.  This  was  first 
accomplished  by  Lient.  Brooke's  apparatn^  a 
perforated  cannon  ball  suspended  m  a  aling 
which  unhooks  Itself  when  the  tenraon  is  re- 
lieved ;  an  iron  rod  paastag  through  the  hole  in 
tbe  ball  is  provided  with  a  contrivance  to  bring 
up  n  specimen,  and  is  the  only  weight  remun- 
ing  on  the  line.  Lieut,  (now  Admiral)  Sands 
substituted  two  hemispheres  for  the  solid  shot, 
falling  off  on  each  side  of  the  central  rod,  thus 
allowing  a  larger  specimen  cup  to  be  employed. 
An  original  method  proposed  by  Prof.  Trow- 
bridge consists  in  paying  out  the  line  (a  small 
bnt  strong  twine)  from  a  coil  carried  down 
with  the  we^ht,  thus  avoiding  the  fWctlon  of 
the  line  in  passing  through  the  water.  The 
depth  is  registered  by  a  screw  similar  to  Mas- 
sey's.  Propositions  for  sounding  witbotit  line 
haf  e  been  numerous,  the  weight  carrying  down 
a  float  which  is  released  on  the  bottom  and  re- 
turns to  the  surface ;  bnt  none  have  been  sno- 
cessful.  In  the  United  States  const  survey 
deep-sea  soundings  are  now  usually  made  with 
a  strong  tine  and  a  heavy  weight ;  detaching 
the  latter  is  notconsidoredof  great  importance, 
since  the  hauling  up  is  done  by  steam.  The 
depth  is  registered  by  Massej's  indicator, 
based  on  the  principle  of  a  propeller  screw, 
free  to  revolve  in  passing  downward,  and  com- 
municating its  motion  to  a  set  of  wheels  regis- 
tering the  number  of  revolutions.  It  Is  clamped 
loosely  to  a  spindle  so  as  to  be  free  from  the 
torsion  of  the  line,  and  is  carefully  tested  and 
its  error  determined  in  moderate  depths.  The 
Atlantic  ocean  in  its  northern  basin  is  better 
known  with  regard  to  depth  than  any  of  the 
others;  nevertheless,  there  is  need  of  more 
soundings  before  we  can  form  a  true  idea  of 
the  figure  of  its  bottom.  Most  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  it  has  been  acquired  dnring  the  last  80 
years.  Before  that,  a  few  soundings,  now 
mostly  considered  nntmst  worthy,  and  some 
theoretical  specnlations,  were  the  sum  of  onr 
knowledge.  Dr.  Tonng  dednced,  chieliy  from 
j  the  theory  of  tides,  a  depth  of  abont  16,000  ft. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


70 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


for  the  Atlantic,  which  ia  probsblr  not  for  from 
the  tmtb.  Laplace  Hopposed  the  mean  depih 
of  th«  oceaD  to  be  of  the  same  order  aa  the 
mean  elevatiuD  of  the  land.  Bat  his  supposed 
mean  height  of  the  land,  S,000  ft.  (Hnmboldt 
estimated  it  more  correctly  at  1,000),  was 
much  too  small  to  represent  the  mean  depth  of 
the  ocean.  Among  the  first  connected  series 
of  deep-sea  soondin^'B  were  those  made  by  the 
United  States  coast  warvej  in  connection  with 
the  eiuloration  of  the  Gulf  stream,  those  of 
CiiiiC.  Lee  end  Capt.  Berrjmon  in  the  brig 
Dolphin,  of  Sir  Leopold  McGlintock  in  the 
Balldi^,  and  othen,  Wlien  the  projects  for 
lading  submarine  tele^aph  cables  across  the 
ocean  began  to  assnme  importance,  a  sadden 
impetus  was  given  to  deep-sea  sounding ;  com- 
plete sections  acro^  the  ocean  were  explored 
m  different  directions,  and  the  whole  subject 
appeared  roucli  leaa  formidable  than  before. 
Aner  such  feats  aa  finding  and  grappling  suc- 
cessfiilly  a  broken  cable  in  mid-ocean  and  in 
nearly  two  thonsand  fathoms,  the  mere  fact  of 
Bounding  to  obtain  the  depth  appeared  very 
simple.  In  late  years  a  new  scientific  interest 
has  arisen  in  the  study  of  the  deep'Sea  bottom 
hy  means  of  the  dredge,  and  nnmerons  aomid- 
ings  have  been  taken  in  connection  with  it 
in  Enropeand  America.  In  studying  a  ohort  of 
the  ocean  containing  many  soundings  it  will  be 
observed  that  on  leaving  the  shore,  in  the 
greater  number  of  cases,  the  depth  does  not 
increase  regularly  or  according  to  a  uniform 
slope,  but  that  the  bottom  forms  as  it  were  a 
terrace  around  the  continents,  sloping  very 
p-edualty  down  to  a  certain  depth,  from  which 
there  is  a  much  more  rapid  descent  into  deep 
water.  This  depth  we  may  assume  at  about 
100  fathoms,  and  that  line  is  generally  marked 
on  the  maps ;  bnt  it  is  really  somewhat  Iseb, 
probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  80  fathoms. 
We  may,  for  instance,  find  that  we  most  s^l 
100  m.  from  the  shore  to  find  100  fathoms 
depth;  but  in  10  m.  more  the  lead  would  unk 
to  1,000.  Henoe,  should  the  level  of  the  ocean 
sink  100  fathoms,  a  large  addition  of  territory 
would  be  made  to  the  continents;  100  fathoms 
more  would  increase  this  addition  by  a  mere 
narrow  strip,  very  steep  toward  the  sea.  This 
terrace  probably  marks  tiie  ancient  raar^n  of 
the  contments,  and  has  been  gradually  formed 
by  the  encroachment  of  the  ocean  on  the  land. 
'  Hence  it  is  as  a  rule  wider  on  cossla  formed 
of  materials  easily  disintegrated  tlian  on  those 
formed  of  bard  rocks.  The  terrace  is  narrow 
on  the  coast  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  widens 
largely  from  the  bay  of  Biscay  northward,  ex.- 
tending  from  50  to  100  m.  outside  of  the  Brit- 
ish islands,  which  it  embraces  together  with 
the  whole  North  sea.  It  is  narrow  along  the 
coast  of  Norway,  but  oztends  from  Spitzbergen 
half  way  to  Cape  North.  On  the  coast  of 
North  America  it  is  very  wide,  though  inter- 
rupted at  several  pointa,  from  Newfoundland 
to  Oape  Cod,  embracing  all  the  banks.  South 
of  Oiqw  Cod  it  ia  from  00  to  100  m.  broad. 


narrowest  at  Cape  Uatteras  and  tapering  off 
toward  Florida,  but  wide  a^n  on  the  W. 
aide  of  this  peninsula.  The  West  Indies  gen- 
erally rise  out  of  deep  water.  The  terrace 
along  the  coast  of  South  America  varies  gen- 
erally from  aO  to  100  m.  in  breadth,  but  be- 
comes mnch  wider  S.  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
so  as  to  include  the  Falklands.  At  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  it  extends  about  100  m.  S.  It 
has  not  yet  been  developed  by  observation 
along  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  With  regard  to 
the  depth  of  the  trough  of  tlie  South  Atlantic 
ocean,  we  have  little  information.  Some  of 
the  supposed  deepest  soundings  on  record,  from 
7,000  to  6,000  fathoms,  were  made  off  the  ooaat 
of  South  America,  but  they  are  entirely  di»- 
crediied  now.  From  a  few  trustworthy  ones 
it  is  fair  to  suppose  this  basin  to  have  what'ia 
probably  the  average  depth  of  all  oceans,  viz., 
from  2,000  to  8,000  fathoms.  (It  may  be  stated 
in  passing,  that  for  the  Pacific  ocean  the  aver- 
age depth  between  Japan  and  California,  de- 
duced from  the  velocity  of  earthquake  wavea, 
was  found  a  little  over  2,000  fathoms,  between 
Chili  and  the  Sandwich  Islonda  2,600,  and  be- 
tween ChiU  end  New  Zealand  only  1,500  fath- 
oms.) Of  the  North  Atlantic  more  is  known 
than  of  any  other  ocean.  The  lines  of  sound- 
ings taken  from  England  and  France  to  New- 
foundland, for  the  telegraph  cables,  show  that 
no  depth  in  that  part  exceeds  ii,400  fath- 
oms. From  these  and  other  soundings  it  ap- 
pears that  the  bed  of  the  North  Atlantic  con- 
wsts  of  two  valleys  separated  by  a  broad  ridge 
running  from  the  Azores  to  Iceland.  The  dejith 
over  the  ridge  is  always  less  than  S,000  fath- 
oms, generally  abont  1,500;  it  widens  and 
shoals  toward  the  north,  forming  there  a  wide 
platean  embracing  both  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
islands,  with  a  depth  of  little  more  than  800 
fathoms.  The  eastern  valley  varies  between 
2,000  and  2,600  fathoms,  seems  to  extend  to 
the  equator,  and  shoals  and  tapers  toward  the 
north,  turning  at  the  same  time  toward  the 
northeast,  nntil  it  Is  reduced  to  the  narrow 
channel  between  the  Shetland  and  Faroe  isl- 
ands, wiUi  600  fethoms.  Iteyond  this  point 
it  cannot  be  follovred  fur  want  of  data.  The 
western  valley  is  not  well  known  in  ita  sonth- 
em  and  middle  part.  It  is  probably  very 
broad  in  the  great  bay  formed  between  the 
Weat  Indies,  the  United  States,  and  Newfound- 
land, depths  of  over  8,000  fathoms  being  re- 
ported 8.  of  the  Bermudas.  Very  deep  water, 
4,580  fathoma,  is  said  to  have  been  found  a 
short  distance  8.  of  the  Grand  Bonk  of  New- 
fonndland,  but  this  has  not  yet  been  corrobora- 
ted by  additional  soundings.  The  valley  tlien 
passes  E.  of  the  banks,  gradually  shoaling,  and, 
afrer  sending  on  offset  into  Davis  strait,  poasee 
into  the  Arctic  ocean  through  the  narrow  paa- 
aage  between  Iceland  and  Greenland,  having 
there  a  probable  depth  of  a  little  more  than 
1,000  fathoms.  Of  the  seas  communicating 
with  the  Atlantic,  the  Mediterranean  in  its 
two  banna  reaches  a  depth  of  about  1,600 


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ATLAimO  OCEAN 


71 


bdwma  in  the  western  and  S,200  in  the  east- 
ern; and  the  Black  sea  a  depth  of  300  to  OQO 
&thoma.  The  whole  Mediterranean  8;Bt«m  is 
ttptntod  from  the  AtlKntlo  bj  a  beniar  of 
ISO  to  200  fathoms  at  the  strait  of  Gibraltar. 
The  Caribbean  sea  ia  deep,  reachmg  to  about 
2,500  fathoms  in  some  parts,  and  the  passages 
between  the  Windward  Isiaiids  are  in  aoroe 
places  more  than  1,000  fathoms.  The  pass^ 
through  the  strait  of  Yacatan  has  about  ^e 
same  depth,  and  the  gnlf  of  Mexico  may  reach 
2,000  fathoms  in  its  central  port.  Its  com- 
nonications  with  the  Atlantic  through  the 
strait  of  Florida  and  the  Old  Bahama  channel 
do  not  exceed  400  or  600  fathoms. — From 
what  we  know  at  present  of  the  Atlantic  ocean 
bottom,  it  appears  to  be  entirely  deetitnte  of 
aaf  submarine  otiains  of  momitains  analogoas 
to  those  we  have  on  land ;  there  ore  no  steep 
Talleys,  no  bare  rocks,  in  fact  none  of  that 
Tariety  of  surface  which  on  dry  land  contrib- 
utes so  mnch  to  the  beauty  of  the  scenery.  For 
incalculable  ages  a  slott  bat  fiermanent  shower 
of  organic  dSbris  has  been  descending  from  the 
surfhce,  which,  mingling  at  the  bottom  with 
the  skdetons  of  its  inhabitants,  has  formed  a 
uniform  layer  of  a  soft  calcareous  ooze  of  un- 
known thickness,  covering  the  accidents  of  the 
bottom  as  a  snowstorm  leveb  the  hillocks  aud 
ditches  of  onr  fields.  Being  entirely  unaffected 
by  changes  of  temperature  and  of  moisture,  the 
ocean  bottom  cannot  show  the  efiecta  of  weath- 
er or  of  erosion,  the  magnitude  of  which  on 
the  terrestrial  relief  is  as  yet  groatiy  under- 
rated even  by  many  geologists.  It  is  only  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  ocean  (and  probably  in 
the  aonthem  also)  that  in  a  eertain  sense  the 
traces  of  atmospheric  action  on  the  surface  of 
the  bottom  can  be  found,  but  only  mediately. 
The  banks  of  Newfonndlond  are,  if  not  formed, 
at  least  increased  by  the  sand  and  pebbles  an- 
noaUy  bronght  down,  tbongh  in  small  quanti- 
ties, fi'om  the  arctic  regions  by  the  icebergs, 
of  which  this  is  the  great  melting  ground.  The 
ronnded  pebbles  of  basalt  fonnd  by  Wallich  be- 
tween the  Faroe  islands  and  Iceland,  and  the 
gravel  and  pebbles  observed  by  Carpenter  in 
the  deep-sea  dredgings  off  the  Faroes,  have 

Cbably  also  an  arctic  origin,  drift  ice  having 
n  seen,  though  rarely,  very  nearly  in  the 
Bftine  localities.  The  foregoing  remarks  apply 
of  coarse  only  to  the  deep-sea  basin.  On  the 
terrace  fringing  the  continents  the  force  of  tidal 
and  other  currents  has  had  more  effect  in  sbap- 
iag  the  bottom ;  rocks  and  coral  reefs  lift  their 
beads  to  or  above  the  surface ;  in  a  word,  there 
is  more  superficial  variety,  but  even  here  it  is  sel- 
daoie<Huparablelomanyofthesabaerial  reliefs. 

ETI.   COXHTITUTION  OP  THB  OoRAN  BkD.      It  haS 

always  been  the  practice  in  navigation  to  arm 
the  sounding  lead,  i.  «.,  to  fill  a  cavity  at  its 
base  with  tallow  (the  anning).  Particles  of 
sand,  stones,  shelta,  &c.,  remain  attached  to 
it  after  a  cast,  and  give,  by  their  proportions, 
color,  or  size,  indications  of  the  portion  of  a 
flhip,  fluently  of  great  valne.    Hydrographers 


have  devised  more  oonventent  means  of  bring- 
ing up  specimens  of  the  bottom.  In  France  the 
sounding  lance  is  mostly  used,  a  pointed  bar 
of  iron  projecting  under  the  lead,  and  provided 
with  notches  or  barbs  in  which  the  sand  or 
mud  remains.  In  the  United  States  coose 
snrvey  the  characteristic  epedmens  of  bottom 
are  preserved  with  care,  in  the  first  jilace  as 
vonohers  of  the  correctness  of  the  data  given 
on  the  charts,  and  secondly  for  purposes  of 
scientific  investigation.  Lieut.  Stellwogen,  C. 
S.  S.,  while  on  coast  survey  duty,  proposed  a 
simple  instrument  for  bringing  up  specimens, 
which,  nnder  the  name  of  uie  Btellwogen  cup, 
has  been  eiten^vely  and  satisfactorily  used. 
It  consists  in  a  conical  iron  cup,  screwed  into 
a  rod  projecting  irom  the  base  of  the  lead,  and 
having  its  opening  covered  by  a  loose  leather 
valve.  When  the  lead  strikes,  the  cup  is 
driven  into  the  bottom  and  fills,  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  afterward  keeps  the  cover 
down  while  hauling  up.  A  slightly  different 
Boonding  cup  was  invented  by  Admiral  Bands, 
in  which  the  opening  into  Uie  cup  is  at  the 
side  and  kept  closed  by  a  spring,  which  opens 
only  when  the  cup  is  penetrating  into  the  soil. 
In  Brooke's  sounding  apparatus,  before  men- 
tioned, the  cavity  at  the  end  of  the  rod  was 
at  first  filled  with  quills  in  which  the  mud 
lodged ;  later  a  valve  was  provided  which 
was  pressed  over  the  opening  by  the  sliding 
off  of  the  cannon  bait.  The  quantity  brought 
up  in  that  way  was,  however,  always  very 
small.  The  greater  part  of  the  extensive  col- 
lection of  specimens  of  soundings  in  the  coast 
survey  office  in  Washington  have  been  pro- 
cured with  the  Btellwagen  and  the  Sands  CDps. 
In  England  the  Bulldog  machine,  so  called,  has 
been  snccessfully  u»ed  for  some  years.  It  ia 
a  modification  of  Oapt.  Ross's  clams,  and  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  scoops  closing  against  each 
other   and    thna   bringing  up   a   considerable 

aaantity  of  material.  The  results  obtained  by 
leae  different  methods  have  been  laid  down 
in  maps,  in  France  by  M.  Delesse  and  in  Ame- 
rica by  Mr.  Pourtalfis,  and  thus  a  general 
idea  of  the  geology  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
haa  been  obtained,  or  rather  of  its  lithologj,  as 
M.  Delesse  has  called  it ;  for  under  water  it  it 
only  the  superficial  layer  which  is  brought  to 
onr  knowledge ;  of  its  thickness,  superpoution, 
&c.,  the  sounding  lead  can  give  us  no  idea. 
From  these  researches  it  apneare  that  on  the 
coast  terrace  there  is,  as  mignt  be  expected,  a 
great  variety  in  the  constitution  of  the  bottom. 
It  reflects  as  it  were  the  geologioal  formations 
of  the  a<ljacent  shore,  but  with  this  difference, 
that  the  movement  of  the  water  produces  a 
sifting  action  when  agitated  by  the  tides,  winds, 
or  currents,  the  heavier  and  harder  particles 
remaining  alone  in  some  localities,  while  the 
lighter  and  finer  materials  are  transported  and 
deposited  in  others.  This  accounts  in  part  for 
the  immense  preponderance  of  nlicious  sand  in 
the  deposits  of  the  terrace,  since  it  is  the  result 
of  the  decompoution  of  most  of  the  primitive 


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73 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


rocks  and  of  the  edfting  oat  of  man;  of  the 
BeooDdary  and  tertiar;^  formationB.  Umeatones, 
beins  generally  soft,  are  reduced  to  impalpable 
powder  and  form  deposits  of  calcareous  mud ; 
wliile  argiiiaceons  rand  resnlM  from  the  deconi- 
poeition  of  d&y  slates,  marl,  and  true  olay  beds. 
Large  pebbles  or  shingle  ore  rare  at  a  distance 
ft-om  the  shore,  thougli  commoa  enough  on  the 
beaches.  They  seem  to  be  covered  by  finer 
materials,  except  where  Bwept  by  currents,  as 
for  instance  in  tbe  British  channel,  where  sev- 
eral banks  of  flints  from  the  decomposed  chalk 
beds  are  known  to  exist  But  besides  the  de- 
posits of  which  we  have  spoken,  resulting  from 
decomposition  or  remodelling  of  preexisting 
ones,  there  are  real  forroations  on  a  very  large 
scale  now  going  on.  The  lime  dissolved  in  the 
sea  water  is  osdmilated  by  organized  beings, 
Boiraals  or  plants,  secreted  in  solid  form,  prin- 
cipally as  a  carbonate,  and,  after  having  per- 
formed a  abort  dnty  in  the  organic  world,  con- 
tributes in  the  form  of  a  new  morganio  body  to 
the  increase  of  the  earth  crust.  Tbns  we  see  tn 
the  vicinity  of  coral  reefs  the  bottom  composed 
of  calcareous  mud  or  sand  formed  by  the  disper- 
sion of  corals,  shells,  and  echinoderms,  ana  in 
shosler  parts  largely  by  the  decomposition  of 
lime-secreting  seaweeds.  This  mud  or  sand 
often  consolidates  into  hard  limestone  lock, 
but  more  frequenliy  when  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere than  when  it  remains  under  water. 
But  it  is  chiefly  in  the  deep-sea  bed  that  lime 
deposits  produced  by  organized  beings  assume 
gigantic  proportions,  at  least  in  horizontal  ex- 
tent. The  entire  bed  of  the  ocean  as  far  as  ex- 
plored, outside  of  the  coast  terrace,  is  covered 
by  a  uDiforin  layer  of  soft  calcareous  mud, 
called  ooze  b;  sailora,  and  composed  chiefly  of 
f<ira-min\fera,  low  orpmisms  forming  minnte 
chambered  shells,  and  living  partly  on  Che  bot- 
tom and  partly  near  the  surface,  whence  they 
wok  after  death.  With  them  ore  mixed  the 
shells  of  floating;  mollnsks,  such  as  pteropods, 
of  other  mollnsks  inhabiting  the  bottom  itself, 
the  tubes  of  worms,  the  remains  of  hryotoa, 
echinoderms,  corals,  &c.  Some  silica  Is  con- 
tribnte<I,  but  in  smaller  proportions,  by  anal- 
ogous process  performed  by  sponges,  polyeyt- 
tina,  and  diatamacem.  It  is,  in  a  word,  chalk 
in  process  of  formation,  and  has  been  found 
throughont  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions; 
in  the  arctic  seas  ooservations  are  still  wanting. 
Alongtbe  coast  of  the  United  States  tbe  terrace 
is  principally  sand.  Mud  is  found  in  the  deep 
gulf  between  Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Sable,  S.  of 
Nantucket,  Marina's  Vineyard,  and  Block  isl- 
and, for  a  distance  of  nearly  80  m.  (Block  island 
soundings),  in  tbe  so-called  mudholes  o9'  the 
entrance  to  New  York  harbor,  and  in  a  few 
other  localities.  A  few  rocky  patches  of  small 
extent  are  found  off  the  New  England  coast, 
near  New  York,  and  along  the  coast  of  the 
Carolinas.  At  Cape  Florida  the  aand  is  re- 
placed by  the  coral  formation  which  envelops 
the  eoathem  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  and 
which  may  be  divided  into  two,  the  reef  for- 


mation and  tbe  deep-sea  coral  formation ;  tbe 

former  extends  from  the  shores  to  a  depth  of 
about  90  fathoms,  but  receives  its  supplies  al- 
most solely  from  a  region  between  the  surface 
and  10  or  13  fathoms,  where  the  reef-building 
corals  live.  The  second  or  deep-sea  coral  for- 
mation extends  from  90  fathoms  to  about  SOO. 
Beyond  this  depth,  and  sometimes  even  fh>m 
100  fathoms  downward,  the  deep-sea  ooze  or 
foraminifera  mod  is  fonnd  everywhere.  IV. 
Cdbkents.  Columbus,  according  to  Dr.  Kohl's 
"History  of  the  Gulf  Stream,"  was  the  first 
navigator  who  observed  ocean  currents,  having 
noticed  that  in  sonnding  in  the  Sargasso  sea 
the  lead  appeared  to  he  carried  away  from 
the  ship,  a  fact  whid)  he  rightly  interpreted 
by  the  ship  being  drin«d  away  from  the  lead 
by  a  surface  current.  In  some  of  his  later 
voyages  be  also  observed  tbe  rapid  flow  of 
water  through  the  passaged  among  the  Antilles, 
and  tbe  strong  currents  in  the  Caribbean  sea 
and  on  the  coast  cf  Hondoras.  Sebastian 
Cabot  noticed  the  Labrador  current  about  the 
swnetime.  The  flrst  notice  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
the  most  important  of  the  currents  of  the  At- 
lantic, is  found  in  the  journal  of  Alaminos,  the 
tiilot  of  Ponce  de  Leon  in  the  expedition  which 
ed  to  the  discovery  of  Florida  in  1518.  Ala- 
minos, making  use  of  his  discovery,  led  the 
way  in  sailing  down  stream  through  the  atrait 
of  Florida  when  carrying  Cortes's  despatches 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  Spain.  In  the  narratives 
of  the  navigators  of  the  IBth  and  17th  cen- 
turies frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  ocean 
cnrrentH,  and  in  particular  of  the  Gulf  stream ; 
it  is  therefore  not  a  little  singular  that  their 
details  were  so  imperfectly  known  as  late  as 
the  second  half  of  the  18th  century  tbnt  they 
were  rather  an  impediment  than  a  help  to  nav- 
^tion,  at  least  for  tbe  intercourse  between 
Eurone  and  the  northern  parts  of  America- 
Tbe  New  England  whalers  at  that  time  were 
tbe  best  acquainted  with  the  limits  of  the 
Gulf  stream,  and  from  one  of  them  Ben.iamin 
Franklin  obtained  the  information  which  lie 
published  in  hie  chart  of  that  current,  intended 
to  point  out  the  most  favorable  routes  between 
the  North  American  colonies  and  the  mother 
country.  Franklin  and  Blagdcn  also  pointed 
out  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  Gulf  stream  and  outside  of  iL 
Pownall  and  Jonathan  Williams  extended  our 
knowledge  of  this  current;  Cniit.  Strickland 
remarked  its  extension  further  N.  and  E.  than 
was  before  suspected,  and  first  argued  the  exist- 
ence of  the  N.  E.  branch  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
about  which  there  has  been  so  mnoh  contro- 
versy of  late.  Hnmboldt  and  Scoreaby  also 
paid  much  attention  to  ocean  currents,  and 

Sarticularly  to  the  Gulf  stream.  Finally,  Mtyor 
lennel  undertook  the  discussion  of  all  the  ob- 
servations of  correnlfl,  and  published  tbe  results 
of  his  generalizations  under  the  title  of  "  In- 
vestigations of  the  Cnrrents  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,"  a  work  which  remnius  to  this  day  the 
prindpal  source  of  information  on  tbe  suijject. 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


78 


The  rirealation  of  the  water  in  the  Atlantic 
oeaa  can  be  stated  in  very  general  temu  to 
KiiuBt  of  two  gigantic  eddies  or  revolving 

streuos,  the  one  ia  the  northern  Atlantic,  the 
other  in  the  Bontheru  or  Etbiopio  basin;  the 
fuimer  revolving  from  left  to  right,  the  other 
boa  right  to  left ;  both  giving  oat  o%boots  of 
greater  or  less  importance  on  their  oater  cir- 
comference-  Both  originate  in  the  equatorial 
current,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  parts,  the 
northern  and  sontbem,  separated  by  a  narrower 
return  CD rrent,  called  the  Gninea  current.  The 
Mnthera  eijuatoria]  cnrrent,  starting  from  the 
cout  of  Alrica  and  striking  the  coast  of  South 
Americn  at  Cape  San  Roque,  divides  itself  Into 
two  branches.  The  soatnem  one  follows  the 
Maitof  Brazil  under  the  name  of  the  firadl- 
iao  jorrent,  dividing  abont  the  latitude  of  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn  into  two  branches,  the 
■mailer  one  following  the  coast,  but  gradually 
groning  narrower  and  weaker,  nearly  as  far  as 
tlie  eitremity  of  South  America.  The  larger 
and  wider  portion  strikes  toward  the  southeast 
in  the  direction  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
under  the  name  of  the  southern  connecting 
cnrrent ;  a  short  distance  west  of  this  cape  the 
torrent  tarns  north  and  follows  the  coast  of 
Africa,  nnder  the  name  of  the  South  Atlantic 
ncrent,  toward  the  eqnator,  where  the  cir- 
cnit  is  eompleted.  This  current  is  acoofn- 
panied  in  its  northern  course,  and  between  it 
ud  the  coast,  by  a  branch  of  the  cold  An- 
tarcUc  current,  the  waters  of  which  can  be 
traced  for  A  long  diatanoe  by  their  temperature. 
The  northern  branch  of  the  south  equatorial 
cnrrent  follows  the  ooost  of  South  America 
frooi  Cape  Saa  Hoqne  to  the  Antilles,  where  it 
pHietrates  into  the  Caribbean  sea,  jointly  with 
the  larger  north  equatorial  current.  Tims  a  por- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  Sonth  Atlantic  is  carried 
into  the  North  Atlantic,  for  which  apparently 
no  return  ia  mode  as  far  as  surface  currents 
are  coocemed.  After  entering  the  Caribbean 
asa,  the  current  is  driven  through  the  straits 
ot  Vacatan  hito  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  prin- 
cipal mass  of  the  water  then  turn^i  to  the  east- 
ward along  the  northern  coast  of  Cuba,  while 
a  (mailer  and  less  known  branch  is  said  to  fol- 
low the  western  and  northern  coasts  of  the 
golf^  nltimately  falling  in  ageja  with  the  for- 
mer. After  passing  the  sontbern  extremity  of 
Florida  the  oarrent  receives  the  aume  of  the 
Golf  stream,  and  passes  north  through  the  nar- 
rows of  Bernini  between  Florida  and  the  Ba- 
bnma  banks  into  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  now 
follows  the  coast  of  the  United  States  at  a 
somewhat  variable  distance  to  about  the  lati- 
tude of  Chesapeake  bay,  when  it  turns  east. 
On  the  B.  side  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland 
it  ]»  pressed  in  by  the  polar  current,  and  ac- 
cording to  Bonie  authors  ceases  to  exist  as  a 
^lecial  current.  It  ismortproboble  that  a  por- 
Uott  of  its  waters  ccntinnes  its  course  eastward 
•cross  the  ocean,  bending  south  between  the 
Azores  and  the  coast  of  Forta^,  and  finally 
retaming  along  the  coast  of  Africa  to  the  equa- 


torial current,  and  thus  completing  the  circuit. 

A  small  utfset  enters  the  Mediterranean  through 
the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  Another  small  branch 
separates  at  Cape  Finisterre,  sweeps  around 
the  bay  of  Biscay  in  a  northerly  direction,  and 
dies  out  finally  on  the  coast  ot  Ireland.  This 
is  Reonel's  current,  named  so  after  its  dis- 
coverer. From  the  region  east  of  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland,  the  waters  of  the  Gulf 
stream  or  of  the  general  ocean  drin  (the  ques- 
tion being  disputed)  move  northward  toward 
the  coasts  of  northern  Europe,  to  which  they 
carry  their  heat,  passing  the  North  Cape,  and 
reaching  nearly  to  Nova  Zambia.  Interweav- 
ing with  the  polar  current,  a  branch  passes  up 
the  N.  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  another  aronnd 
the  west  to  the  N.  coast  of  Iceland,  another 
along  the  W.  coast  of  Greenland  into  Davis 
str^t.  A  polar  current,  carrying  large  quan- 
tities of  ice  at  certain  seasons,  descends  along 
the  Vf.  shore  of  Davis  strait  and  the  coasta 
of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  and  passes, 
port  of  it  nnder  the  Gulf  stream,  and  part  be- 
tween that  stream  and  the  coast  of  the  United 
States.— Cau»«  ofeurrent*.  The  various  theo- 
ries proponnded  to  explain  the  circnlation  of 
the  water  in  the  ocean  have  been  based — 1,  oo 
the  effect  of  permanent  winds ;  2,  on  dilfer- 
enoes  of  density  due  to  evaporation ;  S,  on  dif- 
ferences of  density  due  to  temperature;  1,  on 
the  rotation  of  the  earth ;  5,  on  difference  of 
iiarometrio  pressure ;  and  finally,  on  combina- 
tions of  these  causes.  The  first  anthor  to  leave 
a  theory  of  currents  was  Kepler,  who  attributed 
them  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  remarking 
that  as  the  water  ia  only  in  loose  contact  with 
the  earth,  it  cuDnot  foUow  the  rotatJon  east- 
ward as  fast,  and  remains  behind.  Ue  was 
followed  and  sustained  by  Varenins  in  1630. 
Vossins  and  Foumier  a  little  later  adopted  the 
beat  and  evaporation  theories,  bat  in  a  rather 
extravagant  form,  the  former  supposing  the 
heat  of  the  sun  to  expand  and  attract  the  water 
of  the  ocean  into  a  kind  of  long  mountain  ridge, 
which,  following  the  sun,  broke  on  the  coast 
of  America,  producing  the  cnrrents  running 
along  the  shore ;  a  curious  glimpse  of  the  usual 
tidal  theory.  Foumier  supposed,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  hollow  or  volley  formed  by  evapora- 
tion in  the  ocean  in  the  tropics,  causing  a  con- 
stant rush  of  the  polar  waters  to  fill  it  up. 
Coming  down  to  Franklin,  we  find  him  on  ad- 
vocate of  the  trade-wind  theory  for  the  Golf 
stream,  while,  late^,  Humboldt  explained  the 

thenomenon  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 
[^or  Renncl,  in  his  work  on  ocean  currents, 
divides  the  currents  into  two  chisses.  Drift 
currents,  according  to  him,  are  the  effect  of  the 
permanent  winds  on  the  suHacc  of  the  water, 
by  which  the  superficial  layers  are  set  in  mo- 
tion; when  n  dni^  current  meets  with  on  ob- 
stacle, the  general  surface  is  raised  by  accumu- 
lation, and  the  water  in  trying  to  retnni  to  its 
level  produces  a  deeper  and  generally  more 
rapid  flow  called  a  stream  current.  The  equa- 
torial current  b  an  example  of  the  fonuer,  the 


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74 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


Oulf  atream  of  the  Utt«r.  It  ttovld  take  too 
much  spaoe  to  detail  all  the  theories  of  modem 
authors,  hot  a  few  most  still  be  mentJoned. 
Capt.  M.  F.  Mtmrj  gave  an  exaggerated  weight 
to  difiereDcea  of  denmt7  of  sea  water  in  north- 
ern and  Boathem  parts  of  the  ocean.  Sir  John 
Herschel,  is  his  article  on  physical  geographv 
in  the  "  £n  cyclop  eedia  Britannica,"  attri  bated 
the  currents  to  the  effect  of  the  trade  winds, 
Before  his  death  he  seems  to  have  fallen  in 
with  the  views  of  Prof.  Carpenter  mentjoned 
under  the  head  of  Gulf  stream.  Dr.  Mohri  of 
Gdttingen,  in  bia  work  on  ocean  currents,  ^ves 
the  following  eonolasiona :  1,  There  are  in 
ocean  circulation  two  'great  movements  per- 
pendicniar  to  each  other,  the  one  following 
the  equator,  the  other  the  direction  of  the  ine- 
ridiana.  2.  The  eqaatoria]  circolation  resolta 
from  the  inertia  of  water  with  regard  to  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  ;  the  meridional  or  ther- 
raonietric  circulation  is  caused  bj  the  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  polar  and  equato- 
rial regions.  8.  The  meridional  as  well  as  the 
equatorial  circulations  exhibit  two  motions  in 
contrary  directions,  which  compenaate  each 
other  and  are  superposed  to  each  other  in  part 
in  the  thermometric  circulation,  on  account  of 
their  nneqnal  density.  4.  The  unequal  distri- 
bution of  the  continents  impedes  the  regularity 
of  the  great  movements  of  circnlation,  and,  in 
coqjuncdon  with  the  nneqnal  relief  of  the  bot- 
tom and  the  action  of  the  winds,  indnces  sec- 
ondary currents  disturbing  the  general  motion. 
— Gv{fttreatn.  The  importance  of  this  great 
current  to  the  commerce  and  navigation  of 
North  America,  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  before,  the  great  scientific  interest  it  pre- 
sents by  its  size,  temperature,  and  influence  on 
climate,  have  made  it,  in  the  words  pf  Prof. 
Bache,  "the  great  hydr^raphio  feature  of  the 
United  Statea  coast."  Under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  late  Prof.  Bache,  the  United  States 
coast  survey  has  accumulated  a  large  number  of 
obaervations  of  that  part  of  the  stream  compriaed 
between  ita  entrance  into  the  atraits  of  Rorida 
and  the  region  where  it  leaves  the  coast  after 
having  changed  ita  course  to  the  east.  The 
ol>servations  were  directed  chiefiy  toward  the 
determination  of  the  depth,  the  figure  and  con- 
stitution of  the  bottom,  and  the  temperature 
from  the  surface  down  through  tlie  whole 
depth.  The  inatroments  used  for  temperature 
have  been  of  various  construction.  Metallic 
thermometers  in  the  watch  form  were  used, 
enclosed  in  strong  brass  vessels;  they  answered 
well  enough,  and  were  employed  to  aconsider- 
ahle  extent  in  the  earlier  researches ;  but  in 
several  instances  the  brass  bos  was  crashed  by 
the  pressure.  Self-registering  thermometers 
in  glass  globes  were  used  also,  bat  they  bad 
the  inconvenience  of  experiencing  the  changes 
of  temperature  too  slowly.  Six's  self- register- 
ing thermometers  were  used  extensively,  np  to 
about  100  fathoms,  beyond  which  they  are 
liable  to  be  cruahed ;  and  in  all  cases  their  in- 
dications are  rendered  very  erroueoua  by  the 


pressure.  For  great  depths  Saxton's  metaHio 
thermometer  has  been  of  great  service.  This 
instrument  consists  in  a  ribbon  of  two  metals 
of  different  expanuon,  soldered  together  and 
rolled  in  a  cylindrical  spiral  around  a  spindle, 
to  which  the  movement  of  expan»on  or  con- 
traction is  oonimnnioated,  and  by  it  transferred 
to  a  hand  or  needle  moving  an  index  over  a 
graduated  dial.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  suit- 
able case  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the  water. 
It  works  well,  hut  is  affected  by  pressure  in  a 
manner  not  easily  explained.  At  present  the 
UiUer-Casella  protect«d  thermometer  is  osed, 
and  proves  an  excellent  and  tmEtworth;r  instra- 
ment.  It  is  in  the  main  a  Six's  self-registering 
maximnm  and  minimam  thermometer,  the  bulb 
of  which  is  protected  from  pressnre  by  an  outer 
bulb  blown  over  it  and  sealed  round  the  neck, 
a  space  being  left  between  the  two  bulbs,  par- 
tiaUy  filled  with  alcohol.  In  order  to  communi- 
cate the  temperature  more  rapidly  to  the  inner 
bulb.  The  observationa  were  made  at  a  nam- 
berof  stations  in  lines  or  sections  at  right  angles 
to  the  stream.  The  thermometer  was  observed 
at  the  surface  and  at  different  depths,  generally 
at  every  ten  fathoms  as  far  as  GO,  and  at  every 
hundred  fathoms  in  greater  depths.  When  tlie 
change  of  temperature  waa  very  rapid,  the 
number  of  sections,  stations,  and  obserrationB 
was  multiplied  to  keep  pace  with  it.  The  re- 
sults were  arranged  afterward  in  diagrams, 
where  the  changes  of  temperature  were  repre- 
sented by  curves,  thus  ^ving  at  a  glanoe  the 
distribution  of  heat  throughont  the  stream. 
From  tbeae  obaervations  the  following  general 
deductions  were  made :  In  thesections  between 
Florida  and  Cuba  the  highest  temperatures 
were  found  near  the  Cuban  coast,  where  also 
the  greatest  depth  was  recorded.  It  was  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Mitchell  that  very  near  the 
coast  of  that  island  the  stream  had  a  unifomi 
velocity  and  constant  course  for  a  depth  of  600 
fathoms,  although  in  this  depth  the  temperature 
varied  40°,  The  stratum  of  warm  water  was 
found  to  be  of  mnch  greater  thickness  or  depth 
toward  the  middle  of  the  struts  than  nearer 
shore;  thus  at  a  distance  of  6  or  T  ra.  from 
Havana  the  layer  of  water  above  the  tempera- 
ture of  70°  extended  only  to  a  depth  of  about 
70  fathoms,  while  some  80  m.  off  the  coast 
ita  thickness  was  about  180  fathoma  The 
slope  of  the  bottom  is  very  abmpt  on  the 
Cuban  coast,  but  much  more  gradual  on  the 
Florida  aide,  where  the  current  is  alao  more 
irregular,  taking  sometimes  even  the  shape  of  a 
counter  current  running  weat  It  is  also  here 
affected  liy  the  winds  and  tides.  The  somo 
character  as  in  this  section  ia  malntuned 
throughout  the  straits  of  Florida  to  the  narrows 
of  Bemini.  No  permanent  current  waa  found 
in  the  St  Nicholas  and  Sontareat  channela, 
sometimes  regarded  as  partial  feeders  of  tho 
Gulf  Btreom.  Toward  tne  narrows  of  Bemini 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  straits  diminish 
and  reach  their  minimum,  the  breadth  being 
only  44  m.  and  the  greatest  depth  STO  fathoms. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATLAHTIO  OCEAN 


75 


Du  bottom   presents  here  some  Iseqaalities 
b  the  shape  of  longitudinal  ridges,  the  effect 
of  vhioh  is  to   prens  the  cold  water  of  the 
bottora  toward  the  enrfsce,  bj  which  the  first 
imUcatioD  is  prodnoed  of  those  alternate  bands 
of  warmer  «nd  oolder  water  noticed  further 
north.    The  warmest  water  is  still  found  nearer 
the  eastern  or  right  bank  of  the  stream ;   but 
after  leavin?  the  straits,  and  when  the  stream 
has  graduJi;  widened,  the  warmest   water 
a  on  the  left  or  western  edge.    The  stream 
now  nms  parallel  to  the  coaat,  distant  from 
it  tbont  70  or  80  m.,  tomiiig  ^rsdnally  to  the 
N.E.&om  the  dne  N.  course  it  had  on  leav- 
ing the  narrows.    It  approaches  nearest  to  the 
bnd  ftt  Gape  Hatteras,  takes  there  a  ilightlj 
more  northern  direction,  and  shortly  after  turns 
sharply  to  the  east,  its  rather  variable  western 
edge  bdng  then  abont  lat.  88°.     The  space 
between  the  shore  and  the  stream  is  occapied 
bj  the  cold  water  of  the  polar  current,  and  the 
contnst  between  it  and  the  warm  water  be- 
comes more  and  more  abrapt,  particnlarlj  at 
anne  depth,  so  that  the  plane  of  separation 
reaeiTed  from  lient  Baohe,  who  first  noticed 
it;  the  name  of  the  cold  wall.    At  the  surface 
the  wann  water  overflows  the  cold,  fomung  a 
thinned-ont  super6oial  layer,  the  limite  of  which 
Tory  somewhat  according  to  the  seaaoos  and 
prerai^  winds,  certainly  mach  more  than 
the  mam  body  of  the  stream.    The  bands  of 
eold  Bod  warm  water  increase  in  number.  &om 
three  varm  ones  when  coming  oat  of  the 


narrows  to  six  or  seven  in  the  section  off  Sandy 
Hook ;  it  must  however  be  remarked  that  sev- 
eral of  them  are  very  vagaely  defined  and  far 
from  constant.  In  the  same  section  the  depth 
of  the  stream  is  still  very  considerable,  its  limita 
being  nearly  as  well  marked  by  the  difference 
of  tempersture  at  4O0  fathoms  as  it  is  nearer 
the  surface.  In  the  following  tables  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  water  at  different  depths  are 
given  in  a  form  nearly  as  pltun  as  in  a  diagram 
for  two  of  the  sections.  Tlie  first  is  for  the 
section  Itetweeu  Oape  Florida  and  the  Bernini 
ialanda  The  full  Ime  represents  the  surface; 
above  it  are  given  the  distances  from  Cape 
Florida.  The  depths  are  given  on  the  side,  and 
are  indicated  across  the  table  by  dotted  lines 
for  every  hundred  fathoms,  The  figures  of  the 
first  line  give  the  temperature  from  the  average 
of  the  observations  taken  at  the  surface  and  at 
5,  10,  20,  and  SO  fathoms;  of  the  second  line 
the  average  at  50,  70,  100,  and  150  fathoms; 
and  in  the  third  are  combined  the  temperatures 
at  200  and  SOO  fathoms.  The  flgares  arranged 
vertjcally  over  each  other  represent  observa- 
tions taken  at  the  same  station.  Table  II.  is  a 
similar  arrangement  of  the  observations  in  the 
section  off  Sandy  Uoolc  (New  York).  The  first 
line  gives  the  temperatures  at  the  same  depths 
as  tbefirst  line  of  Table  I.;  the  seoond  line  gives 
the  averages  of  the  observations  at  40,  GO,  80, 
and  100  fathoms;  the  third  of  the  same  at  200 
and  SOO  fathoms;  and  the  fourth  the  observa- 
tions at  400  fathoms: 


TABLB   L 

""»* 

• 

10 

" 

LU  nOH  Un  FLOUDA. 

M                        » 

40 

n 

H 

n 

J8             re       TO 

(0                    U          13 

TO 
TO 

IH 

ao 

h 

SOO 

M                   «          « 

4B 

M 

'™~- 

100 

"™m 

.AKBTI 

""boo 

400 

SOO 

100 
MO 

400 

u 

07 

ts 

K 

AT 

CO 

n  M 

TO 
0t 

08 

04 

CT 

4, 

«i 

4S 

4a 

4S 

4S 

M    SS 

SO 

H) 

01 

SI 

01 

40 

as 

1)9 

40 

40 

4S    » 

65 

5T 

BT 

n 

Both  tables  show  tiie  difference  of  temperatnre 
between  the  Gulf  stream  and  the  inshore  cold 
water  or  polar  current  to  be  distinctly  traceable 
down  to  400  fathoms  at  least ;  indeed,  in  both 
oasee  the  actual  difference  is  greater  near  the 
bottom  than  at  the  gnrtkce,  being  in  the  nar- 
rows of  10°  at  260  fathoms  against  7°  at  the 
mrfiwe,  and  off  Sandy  Hook  of  about  18"  at 


400  fathoms,  while  at  the  surface  it  is  only  14° 
or  16°.  The  surface  differences  would  of 
course  vorv  with  the  seasons,  but  it  is  proper 
to  call  attention  here  to  the  fact  that  the  stratum 
of  water  above  60°  is  still  nearly  800  fathoms 
thick  in  this  latitude.  The  theory  frequently 
propoonded  that  the  polar  current  naderlie9 
the  GiUf  stream  and  penetrates  through  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


strwta  of  Florida  into  the  gnlf  of  Mexico,  <b 
rendorad  very  improbable  b;  Mr.  Mitchell's 
observotions  cited  above,  and  bj  the  volnme  of 
water  DeceBsarilf  passing  throagh  these  straits 
to  supply  08  lorse  a  cross  section  as  we  find 
off  New  York.  It  is  mnch  more  probable  that 
the  cold  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  reaches  it  hj  a  mnch  longer  circuit, 
and  perhaps  a  very  small  portion  by  the  coun- 
ter currents  at  Cape  Florida. — The  surface  ve- 
locity of  the  Gulf  stream  appears  to  be  vari- 
able, being  probably  affected  by  the  wind;  but 
although  we  have  as  yet  no  observations  of  the 
velocity  at  varions  depths,  it  is  safe  to  assume 
a  much  greater  constancy  for  the  bulk  of  its 
waters.  According  to  the  chart  of  the  Attontac 
ocean  published  by  the  hydrographio  otEce  in 
Washin^n,  the  rate  of  the  current  in  the 
straits  of  Florida  is  from  1  to  4  m.  per  hour ;  in 
the  narrows  of  Bernini,  from  1^  to  5  m. ;  off  the 
coast  of  Georgia,  1^  to  4  m. ;  off  Cape  Fesr  and 


and  Newfoundland,  between  2  and  S  m.  Mr. 
Findlay  estimates  it  rather  less;  abont  2{  m. 
per  hoar  in  the  narrows  of  Bemini,  24  off 
Charleston,  1^  to  2  off  Nantucket,  and  a  little 
over  1  m.  S.  of  the  Newfoundland  banks.  Ac- 
curate observations  at  all  seasons  and  at  va< 
rious  depths,  thongh  difficult  to  make,  are  very 
much  noeded.—The  further  course  of  the  Gulf 
stream  after  passing  the  honks  of  Newfound- 
land is  involved  in  some  donbt,  as  has  been 
mentioned  in  speaking  of  the  general  sys- 
tem of  currents  of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  That 
water  of  a  higher  temperature  than  is  due 
to  the  latitude  reaches  the  northern  and 
eastern  shares  of  the  Atlantic  appears  to  be 
nniveraally  admitted.  Capt.  Strickland  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  attribute  this  fact 
to  the  eiteu^on  of  the  Golf  stream,  and  was 
supported  in  this  opinion  by  the  authority 
of  Humboldt  and  Sooreahy,  the  latter  having 
made  a  large  number  of  observations  of  tem- 

Erature  in  the  Arctic  ocean.  Leopold  von 
ich,  struck  during  his  travels  along  the  coast 
of  Norway  with  the  luiuriance  of  the  vegeta- 
tion in  so  high  a  latitude,  the  high  ley  el  of  the 
line  of  permanent  snow,  the  freedom  from  ice 
of  the  harbor  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
winter,  dec,  attributed  to  the  Gulf  stream  the 
office  of  bringing  heat  to  tiiese  coasts  ;  and  his 
reasoning  appeared  to  Humboldt  "perfectly 
convincing."  Gen.  Sabine,  during  one  of  bis 
voyages  for  pendulum  eiperimenta,  mode  nu- 
merous observations  in  the  Gulf  stream  proper, 
and  in  its  supposed  extension  across  the  ocean, 
and  along  tlie  coasts  of  Europe,  south  of  Eng- 
land and  Africa,  and  was  convinced  that  both 
were  one  and  the  ^me  system.  Rennel  was 
the  first  to  shake  this  belief,  at  the  time  almost 
universal,  attributing  the  whole  easterly  and 
northerly  movement  of  the  waters  to  a  super- 
ficial drift  produced  by  tlie  prevailing  S.  W. 
winds.  It  must  be  remarked  thot  he  ignores 
entirely  the  effect  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 


and  of  the  beating  and  cooling  of  the  waters 
at  the  equator  and  pole,  joint  causes  which 
Arago  was  probably  the  first  to  exhibit,  with- 
out, however,  entering  into  their  discussion. 
In  very  recent  times  the  partisans  of  both 
opinions  hove  shown  a  renewed  activity, 
partly  in  connection  with  arctic,  and  partly 
with  deep-sea  explorations.  It  was  in  ref- 
erence to  the  former  that  Dr.  Petermonn 
gave  his  opinion  as  follows:  "Instead  of  a 
weak  end  insignificant  drift  from  Newfound- 
land toward  Europe,  as  heretofore  represent- 
ed, I  consider  tJie  northern  part  of  the 
Gulf  stream  one  of  the  mightiest  currents  of 
the  world,  although  comparatively  slow,  not 
very  perceptible  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
and  therefore  of  no  great  moment  to  naviga- 
tion. I  do  so  because  ocean  cnrrcnts  have  to 
perform  other  functions  than  merely  those  of 
a  strong  surface  stream.  In  that  view  I  con- 
oeive  the  Gnlf  stream  to  be  a  deep,  perma- 
nently warm  current  from  Newfoundland  to 
the  coasts  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Bcandlna- 
via,  and  Iceland,  np  to  Bear  island,  Jan  Mayen, 
and  Spitzbergen;  and  along  the  western  cooft 
of  the  latter  up  to  the  80th  degree  of  north 
lotitnde,  thence  to  Novo  Zembla  into  the  polar 
sea,  passing  the  northernmost  capes  of  Siberia 
and  the  New  Siberian  islands,  where  it  appears 
on  the  cborts  as  the  Polynia  of  the  Russians, 
.  .  .  ita  influence  being  felt  perceptibly  even  as 
far  east  as  Cape  Yakan."  Numerous  opponents 
have  risen  against  these  assertions,  among 
tliem  Mr.  Findlay,  who  contends  uat  the 
Gulf  stream  proper  has  not  satEcient  width 
and  depth  to  reach  the  coast  of  Europe ;  that 
at  its  Blow  rate  of  progress  it  must  lose  all  its 
heat  during  the  passage;  thot  ofter  reaching 
Newfoundland  it  is  totally  annihilated  by  the 
Polar  stream,  and  cannot  be  perceived  beyond ; 
that  the  Gnlf  stream  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  climate  of  northwestern  Europe,  which  is 
affected  only  by  the  general  drift  of  the  North 
Atlantic  ocean.  To  this  Dr.  Pctermann  re- 
plies that  the  Golf  stream  is  no  doubt  rein- 
forced by  a  drift  corresponding  to  it  in  direc- 
tion, in  the  same  way  that  a  river  is  swelled 
by  tributaries,  without  for  all  that  losing  its 
individuality  ond  its  name.  Prof.  Carpenter, 
in  discussing  the  results  of  his  deep-sea  tem- 
perature observations,  doubts  if  the  Gnlf 
stream  sends  any  but  a  very  small  and  super- 
ficial contribution  to  the  northern  seas,  and  is 
supported  by  the  companion  of  hia  researches, 
Mr.  Jeffreys,  on  2o61ogioal  grounds,  the  latter 
rather  premature,  since  we  are  still  at  the  dawn 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  deep-sea  fauna.  Dr. 
Petermann  now  took  a  very  important  step  in 
the  question ;  the  differences  of  opinion  resting 
chieny  on  belief  and  theory,  he  undertook  to 
collect  all  the  observations  of  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  construct 
charta  of  Isotiierms   for   every  month   in   the 

Siar.    The  large  amonnt  of  materials  buried  in 
aury'a  wind  and  current  charts  were  made 
available  by  much  labor ;  the  observations  puh- 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


77 


lulled  b;  the  Dntch  goTemment  and  hj  the 
Scottish  «nd  Norwegian  meteorological  sooie- 
tid  the  records  of  sea  temperatures  of  aome 
oftiie  tranaatlantia  steaEoship  lineB,  those  of 
IIm  Duiiah  sliipa  sailing  to  Iceland  aad  GreeO' 
luti,  collected  by  Admiral  Irminger,  and  those 
of  Fuiuus  arctic  expeditions,  furnished  a  consid- 
erable arra7  of  data.  Of  tlie  twelve  monthly 
ciwrts  contemplated,  two  only  have  been  pub- 
lidheil,  those  for  January  and  July.  The  chart 
for  July  eihibits  the  core  of  the  Galf  stream 
at  a  temperature  of  81'5°  extending  northward 
as  high  ad  Int.  38°,  and  with  a  temperature  but 
■ligtidT  decreased  as  high  aa  lat.  40°,  and  as 
far  east  as  Ion.  43°.  That  it  is  not  a  mere  drift 
is  shown  by  the  lower  temperatures  south  of 
this  tongue,  which  in  January  is  shortened  as 
might  bs  expected.  At  Newfoundland  the 
curves  show  the  inroad  made  by  the  polar  cur- 
rent, but  in  a  leas  marked  manner  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  In  July  the  polar  current 
brings  water  at  a  temperature  of  4G'6°  down 
tol^  G0°,  while  farther  east  the  Gulf  stream 
water  has  still  65°  in  the  same  latitude.  To  the 
east  of  Newfoundland  the  isotherms  set  tow- 
ard the  north  with  two  bends  more  marked  in 
Bunimer  than  in  winter.  In  July  the  isotherm 
of  M'S"  advances  toward  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
islands  to  hit.  61°.  The  warmer  water  follows 
not  only  the  W.  coast  of  Iceland,  hut  passes 
rooad  to  the  N.  side  of  it,  while  on  the  E.  and 
S.  coast  the  polar  current  preponderates,  ^o- 
ducing  a  temperature  lower  bv  5°  or  6°,  Be- 
tween Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands  warm  and 
raid  bande  of  water  alternate,  the  result  of  the 
Ftm^le  between  the  Gnlf  and  polar  streams, 
the  latter  carrying  drift  ice  much  farther  south 
in  this  region  than  anywhere  else  east  of  Ice- 
land, and  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
water  at  the  Faroe  islands  to  a  lower  point 
thui  it  has  on  the  W.  coast  of  Iceland,  where 
the  wrinter  climate  is  not  as  severe  as  it  is  in 
many  parts  of  New  England.  The  isotherm  of 
86°,  which  tonohos  Iceland  in  winter,  extends 
St  the  same  seosou  beyond  North  cape ;  the 
sea  It  Fruhoim,  North  capo,  is  in  January 
BtUl  at  a  mean  temperature  of  87'9°.  Ob- 
serva^oDs  are  wanting  to  show  the  furtlier 
eiteusion  of  the  Gulf  stream  toward  the  north- 
eut.  It  is  met  by  a  polar  current  running 
io  the  opposite  direction,  and  cut  by  it  into 
two  branebes,  of  which  one  runs  along  the 
IT.  aide  of  Spitibergen,  the  other  eastward 
ef  Bear  island.  The  further  progress  of  this 
branch,  which  is  the  mun  one,  is  not  known. 
Tbe  branch  of  the  polar  stream  separating  the 
two  arms  sets  toward  the  coast  of  Greenland, 
where  it  is  said  to  form  a  bight  in  the  drift  and 
field  ice,  reaching  nearly  to  the  coast. — In  high 
l»iitndes  deep-sea  temperatures  show  in  many 
localities  an  anomaly  in  this,  that  the  coldest  are 
observed  near  the  sarfaoe,  and  that  there  is  an 
increase  of  temperature  with  depth.  Observa- 
tions in  the  Antarctic  ocean  have  shown  tlie 
Mme  phenomenon.  It  is  frequently  eipluned 
by  comparison  with  the  game  phenomenon  ia 


fresh  water,  tbe  maximum  density  of  which  Is 

7'2°  higher  than  the  freezing  point.  Although 
with  regard  to  salt  wat«r  the  question  appears 
still  unsettled,  the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to 
point  to  an  increase  of  density  in  tlie  latter 
down  to  the  freezing  point.  In  that  cose  the 
colder  surface  temperature  might  be  attributed 
to  the  stratum  of  water  from  melting  ice,  float- 
ing over  warmer  layers  because  of  less  density. 
— ^ome  light  has  been  afforded  as  to  the  course 
and  origin  of  tbe  currents  in  the  northern  seas 
by  the  driftwood  and  other  materials  thrown 
by  them  on  the  shores.  The  northern  coast  of 
Spitzbergen  is  covered  with  immense  accumu- 
wions  of  driflwood,  bork,  pumice  stone,  Ac. ; 
among  them  Torrel  found  a  large  bean  of  ert- 
tada  ffigaloiiam,  a  product  of  tropical  Ameri- 
ca found  on  all  the  shores  washed  by  the  Gulf 
stream,  from  Florida  to  Norway.  These  beans 
are  found  even  in  the  Danish  colonies  on  tbe 
W.  coast  of  Greenland,  where  they  are  known 
lutder  the  name  of  vHtenyrer  or  witches'  kid- 
neys. The  seeds  of  mueuna  ureat  and  mimoia 
teandens  are  generally  found  with  the  former. 
The  driftwood  was  pronounced  by  botanists  to 
be  nearly  all  Siberian  larch,  thus  proving  that 
the  sea  is  open  in  summer  as  far  as  the  mouths 
of  tho  great  Siberian  rivers,  and  that  in  the 
locality  mentioned  the  waters  of  the  Gulf 
stream  mix  with  those  of  tlia  polar  current. 
The  soltnoss  of  the  water  in  difiercnt  parts  of 
the  ocean,  as  determined  by  Prof.  Forchbam- 
mer,  was  laid  down  on  a  chart  by  Dr.  Peter- 
mann,  and  found  ta  agree  remarkably  well  with 
his  temperature  charts,  the  warmer  or  Gulf 
stream  water  being  more  salt  than  the  colder  or 
polar  stream.  From  all  tho  points  discussed 
in  his  paper,  Dr.  Petcrmann  draws  the  foUow- 
ing  conclusions;  1.  Tho  Gulf  stream  extends 
along  the  North  American  coast  with  a  tem- 
perature of  7T°  and  npward  as  far  as  lot.  87° ; 
a  temperature  in  winter  higher  than  the  tem- 

[leratnre  of  the  air  in  Africa  under  tho  same 
atitade,  and  higher  than  the  temperature  of 
tho  water  at  any  time  under  tlio  equator.  S. 
The  Gulf  stream  turns  away  from  tlie  Ameri- 
can coast  in  lat.  37°  to  38°  toward  the  east  be- 
yond tho^  banks  of  Newfoundland  to  Ion.  40° 
W.,  whor'o  it  still  has  a  temperature  of  about 
75°  in  July  and  about  66°  in  January.  From 
there  it  proceeds  to  the  northeast,  surround- 
ing Europe  to  tbe  Arctic  and  the  White  sea 
with  a  permanent  current  of  warm  water,  still 
having  a  temperature  of  8T'8°  in  a  latitude 
in  which  in  Asia  and  America  tho  mercury 
remains  frozen  for  months.  3.  Tho  velocity 
and  strength  of  the  stream  are  still  imperfectly 
known.  Findlay  estimates  tlie  time  for  the 
water  to  travel  from  Florida  to  Europe  at  one 
or  two  years;  Dr.  Petermann,  at  two  months. 
4.  The  Gulf  stream  must  be  a  deep  and  volu- 
minous body  of  water,  keeping  away  the  polar 
ice  from  the  coasts  of  Europe.  Tho  polar  cur- 
rent presses  at  throe  places  against  it,  E.  of 
Newfoundland,  E.  of  Iceland,  and  at  Bear  Isl- 
and.    6.  These  polar  currents  make  a  much 


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ATLANTIO  OCEAN 


deeper  impreasioa  in  the  Gulf  itream  in  Hum- 
mer than  in  winter.  6.  In  winter  the  Gulf 
stream  is  oat  in  upon  ranch  less.  The  polar 
streams  are  then  less  powerful,  the  polar  ice 
being  fast  in  the  north.  This  is  shown  hj  Mr. 
RedSeld's  obBervations  on  the  drift  ice  oS' 
Newfountllanct.  Of  100  caacs  of  ice  seen,  B7 
occurred  in  April,  May,  June,  and  Julj;  of  the 
remaining  13,  there  were  7  in  March,  8  in 
Angnst,  2  in  February,  and  1  in  Jannarj ;  none 
at  all  in  September,  October,  November,  and 
December.  7.  The  relations  of  temperatare 
within  the  Gnlf  stream  itself  are  about  the 
same  in  winter  and  in  snmmcr;  the  fluctua- 
tions between  its  maximum  and  minimum 
would  he  only  abont  9°. — The  thermometrical 
resolts  of  the  deep-sea  expeditions  in  ttio  Eu- 
ropean seas  in  the  steamers  Lightning  and  Por- 
cnpine  in  ISfiS,  '69,  and  'TO,  have  been  used  by 
Prof.  Carpenter,  under  whose  charge  the  ob- 
servations were  made,  for  a  theory  of  onean  cur- 
rents based  on  the  heating  and  cooling  of  ttie  wa- 
ter nt  the  equator  and  pole  respectively.  The  re- 
marhable  fant  was  brought  out  daring  the  first 
cmise  that  in  the  channel  between  the  Faroe 
islands  and  the  N,  coast  of  Scotland  a  warm 
area  exists  on  the  bottom  in  close  proximity 
to  a  very  cold  one.  The  warm  area,  S.  W.  of  the 
Faroe  islands,  had  a  temperature  of  41'4°  at  a 
depth  of  767  fathoms;  the  cold  area,  only  20 
m.  distant,  between  the  Faroe  and  Shetland 
islands,  only  29-7°  at  640  fathoms,  the  surface 
temperatnre  boingthe  same.  Near  tlio  Bock- 
all  bank  off  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland  the  tem- 
peratnre of  41°  was  foand  to  extend  to  773 
fathoms,  witli  a  tiottom  temperatnre  of  8T'4'' 
at  1,400  fathoms,  and  off  the  bay  of  Biscay 
to  800  fathoms,  witli  a  bottom  temperatare 
at  2,485  fathoms  of  86-5''.  Prof  Carpenter 
remarked  on  these  results  that  the  elevation 
of  temperatare  in  the  warm  area  above  the 
isotherm  of  its  latitude  coidd  only  be  attrib- 
uted to  a  supply  of  water  from  the  south- 
west; and'  that  the  Ualf  stream,  meaning  the 
warm  water  coming  through  the  narrows  of 
Florida,  if  it  reached  this  locality  at  all,  which 
he  considers  very  doubtful,  could  only  affect 
the  most  superficial  stratum;  and  that  the' 
same  could  be  said  of  the  surface  drift  caused 
by  southwesterly  winds.  He  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  presence  of  the  body  of 
water  ran^ng  from  100  to  600  fathoms  in 
depth,  and  the  range  of  temperature  of  which 
is  from  49*  to  42°,  can  scarcely  be  accounted  for 
on  any  other  hypothesis  than  that  of  a  great 
general  movement  of  equatorial  water  toward 
the  polar  area,  of  which  the  Gulf  stream  con- 
stitutes a  peculiar  case  modified  by  local  con- 
ditions. The  arctic  stream  in  the  cold  area  is 
also  a  pecniinr  ease  of  the  general  movement 
of  the  polar  water  toward  trie  equator;  for  it 
is  forced  to  pass  through  this,  the  deepest 
channel  between  Iceland  and  Europe,  and 
pressed  toward  ila  S.  E.  shore  on  account  of 
the  channel's  oblique  position  with  regard  to 
the  N.  and  S.  Bow  of  the  water.    Frot  Car- 


penter is  inclined  to  think  tliat  tlie  Arctle 
ocean  is  insufficient  to  supply  cold  water 
enough  for  so  great  a  reduction  of  tempera- 
ture as  is  found  in  the  body  of  water  below 
1,000  fathoms  in  the  Atlantic  basin,  and  thinks 
that  antarctic  water  may  also  flow  in  past  the 
equator  as  far  as  the  tropic  of  Cancer ;  a  ques- 
tion rather  difficult  to  settle  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge,  since  all  we  know  is  that 
under  the  equator  bottom  temperatures  have 
been  observed  of  8G'2°  at  1,806  fathoms,  and 
88-6°  at  2,806  fathoms.  The  best  evidence 
adduced  by  Prof.  Carpenter  for  the  flow  of 
polar  water  on  the  bottom  toward  lower  lati- 
tudes is  based  on  his  deep-sea  temperatures  of 
the  Mediterranean.  This  closed  body  of  water 
communicates  with  the  Atlantic  through  the 
strait  of  Gibraltar  alone,  and  that  is  too  shal- 
low to  allow  of  a  communication  between  th« 
deep  waters  of  the  two  basins.  The  Mediter- 
ranean goes  down  in  some  parts  fo  2,000 
fathoms.  The  surface  is  hot  in  summer,  Jw 
high  Bs  78°  sometimes,  but  the  hot  layer  is 
shallow,  10°  or  IB"  being  lost  in  the  first  80 
fathoms.  At  100  fathoms  the  temperature  is 
generally  54°  or  C6° ;  beyond  that  depth  no 
further  reduction  was  olwerved  ;  "  whatever 
the  temperature  was  at  100  fathoms,  that  it 
was  at  the  bottom;"  and  this  temperature  la 
found  to  be  the  permanent  temperature  of  the 
surface  ofthe  earth  in  that  latitude.  The  same 
observer  concludes  that  the  ocean  is  subjected 
to  two  different  circulations:  a  horizontal  one 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  the  Gulf 
stream  bciuK  an  example  of  it ;  and  a  vertical 
circulation  dependent  on  oppodtion  of  tem- 
perature. V.  Life  in  tbb  Atlahtio  Ocbaij. 
—  1.  Vegetation.  The  flora  of  the  ocean,  or 
nereis,  as  it  has  been  called,  is  conflned  to  a 
narrow  belt  along  the  shores  and  to  the  surface 
layer  of  water  In  mid-ocean,  a  strong  light 
being  necessary  to  its  existence.  With  the  es- 
ception  of  a  few  species  of  the  family  of  loite- 
raeea  (eelgrass,  turtlcgrnss,  grnsswraok),  the 
whole  submarine  vegetation  belonea  to  the 
algie,  plants  of  low  organization.  The  limits 
of  depth  to  which  certain  families,  genera,  or 
species  are  confined,  are  much  more  definite 
than  they  are  for  animals ;  they  have  been 
called  zones  by  Edward  Forbes,  characterized 
by  the  prevailing  types  growing  in  each.  Com- 
mencing at  the  surface,  he  called  littoral  zone 
the  region  between  high  and  low  water,  which 
on  rocky  shores  is  characterized  by  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  fvcacea  principally,  of  which  dif- 
ferent species  form  farther  8ubdi\'i9ions  of  the 
zone,  according  to  their  preferences  for  & 
longer  or  shorter  exposure  to  the  air.  Below 
low-water  mark  the  laminarian  zone  be^ns, 
and  extends  to  4  or  6  fathoms;  in  it  are  found 
in  abundance  the  ehondr'it  erijipvi  or  carra- 
geen, the  thong  weed  {himanthalia),  and  the 
tangle  or  devil's  npron  (laminnria).  In  the 
lower  port  of  this  zone  are  found  the  red  and 
porple  seaweeds,  many  of  tliem  of  great  dtli- 
cacy  and  beauty.    The  nest  zone  b  that  t^  the 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


79 


wnliaes,  so  oained  from  b  familj  of  seaweeds 
iming  their  tissues  filled  with  lime  and  aima- 
litiiig  small  corals.  As  s  general  rule  seo- 
rteii  do  Dot  grovr  mnch  deeper  than  S  ur  10 
frihoma,  though  there  are  exceptions ;  thus  the 
pgiDtic  macrocyati*  pyr^era,  found  growing 
in  40  fathoms,  and  rising  to  the  snrfaoe  at 
u  angle  of  45°,  and  streaming  on  it  for  a 
distmce  of  several  ships'  lengths,  has  heen 
estimated  to  have  a  total  growth  of  700  feet. 
Low  forms  of  coralliaes  have  been  found  at 
more  than  200  fathoms,  and  diattymaeta  at  all 
explored  depths.  The  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  seaweeds  depends  much  on  tem- 
persture  and  cnrrents.  The  laminaruB,  for 
uuUnce,  prefer  cold  water,  the  targatta  the 
wannest.  The  largest  forms  are  found  in 
colder  water,  as  the  laminarta  in  the  north, 
the  naeroeyitit,  Lenimia,  Durvillta,  &c.,  in  the 
Muth.  As  examples  of  the  infinence  of  our- 
KDtB  on  the  distribution,  we  ma;  take  padina 
pawmia,  a  West  IndiAn  species,  not  found  in 
America  N,  of  the  Florida  Itejs,  but  carried  to 
the  S.  sliore  of  England  probabl;  h;  the  Gulf 
Mresm.  The  ma^roej/Hi*  and  other  large  an- 
tarctic seaweeds  luxuriate  abont  Tierra  del 
Fuego  and  the  Falkland  islands ;  thej  are  car- 
ried tor  toward  the  equator  by  the  Peruvian 
curreut  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  America, 
white  thef  ore  kept  hack  on  the  E.  coast  by 
the  Boothorly  extension  of  the  Brazilian  car- 
renL  A  very  remarkable  feature  of  ocean 
veg«lation  is  the  Sargasso  sea.  This  name  is 
commonly  used  to  designate  a  region  of  the 
Atlwjtic  covered  hy  a  peculiar  lluating  sea- 
weed, either  in  tangled  masses  of  considerable 
extent,  compared  by  some  writers  to  floating 
prunes  or  snhmerged  meadows,  or  simply  in 
Mattered  eprigs.  Columbus,  as  is  well  known, 
psseed  throng  these  fields  of  seaweed  In  his 
first  voyage,  to  the  great  alarm  of  his  com- 
puioDs,  who  from  previous  association  would 
naturally  imagine  a  connection  between  sea- 
weeds and  rocks  or  shoals.  Since  that  time, 
for  nearly  fonr  centuries,  observation  has  shown 
that  the  gei^aphical  position  and  the  abnn- 
dsace  of  these  plants  remain  essentially  on- 
chaoged.  Unmboldt  found  that  the  gulf  weed, 
OS  it  is  generally  called,  because  found  also 
in  the  Gulf  stream,  was  distributed  in  two 
principal  masses,  the  largest  situated  a  little 
(o  the  west  of  the  meridian  of  Fayal  and 
between  the  parallels  of  25°  and  36°  N.  North- 
vest  winds  are  teXd  to  corr;  it  sometimes  to 
the  Istitades  24°  to  S0°.  The  second  or  lesser 
bank  is  leas  known,  according  to  the  same 
Bothor,  and  occupies  a  space  between  the  Ba- 
hamas and  Bermudas.  Capt  Leps  of  the 
French  navy  has  investigated  the  subject  more 
recentiv,  and  places  the  principal  hanK  between 
Ion,  2S'  and  45°  W.,  and  laL  21°  and  88°  N., 
nitb  smaller  scattered  masses  extending 
several  degrees  beyond  these  Umits  on  all 
sides.  The  smaller  bank  he  fonad  not  so  well 
defined,  the  denserportion  forming  a  band  ex- 
tending to  the  N.  £.  of  Porto  Rico  and  to  tbe 
B8  VOL,  n.— S 


latitude  of  Bermnda.  Tbe  Sargasso  sea  orare- 
sponds  to  the  great  centre  or  eddy  of  the  North 
Atlantic  system  of  currents,  of  which  the  Gulf 
stream  formsso important  a  part.  The  botani- 
cal name  of  the  gulf  weed  is  largoMium  baeet- 
/erum  (Agardh),  not  targatium  nataiu,  as  it  ia 
usually  celled  in  books  of  navigation,  which  is 
a  species  growing  on  rocks  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  IS  generally  mund  in  sprlga  a  few  ioohes 
long,  with  a  main  stem  branching  into  secon- 
dary ones ;  the  main  stem  has  frequently  a  de- 
caying end,  while  tbe  other  ^vea  rise  to  tVesh- 
growiog  leaves ;  but  there  is  never  any  trace 
of  root  or  place  of  attachment.  Between  tbe 
leaves,  which  are  elongated  and  sharply  ser- 
rate, small  round  air  veraels,  the  size  of 
currants,  are  supported  on  short  peduncles. 
These  air  vessels  or  floats  are  vulgarly  taken 
for  the  seeds  or  fruits  ;  hence  tbe  name,  de- 
rived from  a  Portuguese  word  meaning  grapes, 
and  the  French  names  of  rauint  At  mar  and 
Taiaim  du  trapigua  (sea  grapes  and  tropio 
grapes).  Far  from  being  secos,  it  is  a  sm- 
gular  fact  that  the  plant  has  never  been  ob- 
served to  produce  a  fructification,  and  that  it 
propagates  only  by  division.  Prof.  Agas^z  has 
observed  that  deprived  of  its  floats  the  plant 
sinks.  Humboldt,  in  his  personal  narrative, 
thought  it  might  poasibly  grow  on  an  undis- 
covered hank  of  40  or  60  fathoms  depth.  This 
opinion  he  afterward  abandoned;  but  as  it  ig 
still  current  among  some  persons,  it  may  be 
stated  hare  that  sncb  a  bank  in  mid-ocean 
would  have  revealed  itself  by  discoloration  of 
the  water  before  now,  and  to  produce  tbe  im- 
mense masses  of  floating  weed  would  have  to 
be  of  oon^derable  size;  besides,  soundings  in 
different  parts  of  the  Sargasso  sea  have  re- 
vealed a  very  great  depth  of  the  ocean  in  that 
part.  It  is  furthermore  well  known  that  fu- 
coids  grow  only  in  very  moderate  depths,  the 
greater  number  of  species  being  confined  be- 
tween tide  marks.  Humboldt  in  later  works 
adopted  the  more  probable  supposition  that 
the  gulf  weed  originates  and  propagates  where 
it  is  found.  To  this  be  was  led  by  the  ob- 
servations of  Meyen,  who  examined  several 
thousand  specimens  during  a  voyage  across  the 
Sargasso  sea,  and  found  them  uniformly  desti- 
tute of  roots  or  fructifications.  Robert  Brown, 
however,  thought  the  question  of  origin  still 


He  thought  it  possible  that  it  might  have  origi- 
nated from  some  nearly  allied  species  in  the 
gulf  of  Florida,  fueva  Tiatana  for  instance, 
afterward  pertiianently  modified  by  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  it  had  been  placed  for 
ages.  Harvey,  a  high  authority  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  seaweeds,  who  explored  the  shores  of 
Florida  and  examined  tbe  fresh  gulf  weed,  is 
also  clearly  of  the  opinion  that  it  propagates 
only  by  division,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
ori^n  of  the  species.  The  gulf  weed  harbors 
a  peculiar  fauna  consisting  of  fishes,  Crustacea, 
mollusks,  and  polyps.    Among  tbe  fishes,  a 


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80  ATLAKTIO  OCEAN 

small  ehinmsetei  ia  most  abandant,  which  eon- 
stmctB  a  pecnliar  nest  for  ita  «gg8,  bj  fasten- 
ing Bever&l  sprigs  of  golf  weed  together.  It 
bos  been  said  that  no  eimilar  accnroulation  of 
floating  seaweed  was  known  in  any  other  part 
of  tbe  world;  bnt  a  Sargasso  sea,  bearing  the 
same  relations  to  the  North  Pacific  currents 
which  tlie  Atlantic  one  bears  to  the  Gulf 
stream,  is  foond  to  the  northward  of  the  Sand- 
fficb  islands,  and  appears  to  oocapj  a  still 
larger  space.  It  is,  however,  very  little  known. 
— 2,  AnimaU.  The  cold  seas  seem  to  be  more 
favorable  to  tlie  development  of  mammalia 
than  the  warmer  ones.  Tbus  the  highest  in 
the  scale  among  those  inhabiting  the  ocgso, 
the  polar  bear,  ia  foond  in  tbe  fiirtheet 
north,  and  is  only  an  occanonal  visitor  of 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  proper,  when  car- 
ried along  b;  the  ice.  The  seal  family  is  also 
moat  numeroasly  represented  in  tbe  arctic  re- 
gions; the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  harbor- 
ing only  earless  seals,  tbe  Soatb  Atlantic  eared 
seals  likewise.  One  or  two  imperfectly  known 
species  are  reported  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
one  in  the  Mediterranean.  Of  the  manatees, 
which  are  more  fresfa-water  than  marine  ani- 
mals, two  spieoiee  are  fonnd  on  the  American 
tropical  shores  and  one  in  Africa.  The  wbItdb 
retreats  th>m  persecution  further  north  every 
year,  so  that  its  original  distribution  is  nncer- 
tdn.  The  satne  may  bo  said  of  some  of  the 
wbales,  particnlarlj  of  tiie  right  whales,  two 
species  of  wbicb  Lave  been  described  from  the 
north,  the  one  confined  to  the  frozen  ocean, 
llie  other,  almost  extinct,  inhabiting  the  region 
between  this  and  lat.  40°.  No  right  whales 
are  found  in  tbe  tropics,  but  a  third  species  is 
found  south  of  the  tropic  of  Cspricom.  The 
finback  wbalos  appear  to  frequent  all  tbe 
oceans  except  tbe  froien  regions.  The  sperm 
wbale  is  found  ohiefiy  in  the  warmer  seas,  S. 
of  lat.  46°  N. ;  it  !a  Sfud  to  pass  Cape  Horn, 
but  not  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Of  the 
smaller  cetaceans  known  as  porpoises,  the 
genns  phoecma  is  chiefly  northern,  delphiwu 
almost  uDiversal. — Of  the  families  of  birds  fre- 
quenting the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  daoks  have 
their  greatest  development  in  the  far  north, 
visiting  the  temperate  regions  in  winter ;  they 
are  much  more  scantily  represented  in  the 
Sontb  Atlantic.  The  auks  and  divers  are  also 
northern  birds,  and  are  in  a  great  measure  re- 
placed by  the  penguins  in  the  southern  cold 
r^ons.  The  pelican  fiamily  flourishes  best  in 
the  tropica,  where  it  has  its  large  representa- 
tives, the  pelicans,  frigates,  phaetons,  &c. ; 
while  cormorants  and  gannota  extend  as  far  as 
the  cold  temperate  zone.  The  petrels,  the  most 
pelagic  of  birds,  are  seen  in  all  latitudes,  but 
with  a  strong  preponderance  in  the  southern 
eold  rtgim.  The  giant  of  the  tribe,  the  alba- 
tross, visits  the  coast  of  South  America  as  far 
N.  as  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  gulls  and  terns 
are  seen  everywhere. — Of  reptiles,  tlie  Atlan- 
tic has  only  four  species  of  turtles,  inhabiting 
tbe  wanner  seas,  and  only  occasionally  carried 


ATLAS 

to  hi^er  lalitndes  by  warm  correnta.  Marine 
anakes,  common  in  die  Pacific,  are  entirely  ab- 
sent in  the  Atlantic— The  North  Atlantic  is 
perhaps  of  all  seas  the  beat  provided  with  use- 
ful fishea.  The  gadoids  or  cod  family,  the 
pleuronects  (halibut,  tnrbot,  &c.),  the  her- 
rings and  mackerels  are  nowhere  else  in  eoch 
abundance  and  exoellenoe  as  on  both  ndea  of 
that  ocean.  In  tbe  tropics  the  large  urrani 
(gropers)  ore  a  oh&racterislio  group.  The 
bright-colored  tropical  fishes,  such  as  cheto- 
donts  and  others,  seem  to  be  oonfined  to  the 
same  limits  aa  the  corals,  the  ooasta  of  Americe 
bathed  by  the  equatorial  onrrent.  Large  repre- 
sentatives of  the  mackerel  tribe,  the  eoryphm- 
na,  improperiy  called  dolphin,  and  the  nying 
fishes,  are  the  most  common  inhahitanta  of  the 
high  seas. — Of  cmstaoea  peculiar  to  tbs  At- 
Iftulio,  the  king  or  horseshoe  crab  of  Nortii 
America  deeerves  mention,  only  one  other 
Bpetdea  of  the  genus  being  known,  in  the  Mo- 
lucca ifdands.  The  mollusks  are  nearly  all  dif- 
ferent in  the  Atlantic  f^om  those  in  the  other 
oceans,  even  when  so  slender  a  barrier  aa  the 
isthmus  of  Panama  is  interposed.  In  the  Fne- 
fnen  and  South  African  provinces  alone  ts 
uiere  a  gradual  merging  through  a  common 
fauna  with  that  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans.  Similar  remarks  might  be  made  with 
regard  to  most  of  the  radiates.  Most  of  the 
known  Uving  crinoids  inhabit  the  Atlantic.  The 
corals  are  distributed  altogether  in  accordance 
with  the  warm  current.  The  W.  coast  of  Af- 
rica, washed  by  comparatively  cold  cnrrenta,  has 
scarcely  any.  The  coast  of  South  America,  re- 
ceiving warm  water  ftom  the  equatorial  current, 
has  a  greater  abundance,  though  ^eir  growth 
is  checked  by  the  fresh  water  and  mnd  of  the 

Seat  rivers.  Bnt  they  fiourisb  in  the  West 
dies  and  aa  far  north  as  Bermuda,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Golf  stream  and  other  warm 
water  currents.  Tbe  West  Indian  ooral  fauna 
is  destitute  of  tme/«n^  and  of  poeilliporm, 
both  so  common  in  the  Pacific.  It  baa  on  the 
other  hand  a  great  abundance  of  gcrffoniaeea 
(sea  fana,  sea  feathers).— For  ocean  life  at 
great  deptbs,  see  Dredoino. 

iTLiNinS,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the 
Greek  geographers  (in  which  some  recognize  a 
vague  knowledge  of  America),  a  large  island 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  to  the  west  of  tie  N.  W. 
coast  of  Africa  and  the  pillars  of  Herculea,  It 
was  fabled  to  possess  a  numerous  population, 
begotten  hy  Neptune  of  mortal  women.  The 
sea  kings  of  Atlantis  were  said  to  have  invaded 
the  west  of  Europe  and  of  Africa,  and  to  have 
been  defeated  hy  the  Athenians  and  titai 
allies.  The  inhabitants  finally  became  despe- 
rately wicked,  and  the  island  was  swept  aw&y 
by  a  deluge.  Plato  mentions  the  island  in  bis 
TimffiUB.  On  the  old  Venetian  maps,  Atlantis 
is  put  to  tbe  west  of  tbe  Azores  and  Canaries. 

ilUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  eon  of  Japetns 
and  Olymene,  and  brother  of  Epimethena  and 
Prometheus.  Defeated  with  the  other  Titans 
by  Jupil«r,  he  was  condemned  to  bear  heaven 


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ATLAS 

OS  big  head  and  hands.  Soma  storieB  repre- 
nBt  him  M  a  Rreat  astronomer,  king,  and  liomi- 
foi,  vbo  Snt  taogbt  man  that  heaven  bad  the 
tona  of  a  globe.  Ovid  relates  tbat  Persens, 
baling  been  refosed  ehetter  by  Atlaa,  changed 
bim  bf  meana  of  the  head  of  Medusa  into 
Hooiit  Atlas,  on  which  rested  the  firmament. 

IIUS  (Mooriih,  Adrar,  Dir,  Jebtl  Tidla, 
or  Jtbtl  Adta),  a  monntain  ijstem  of  N.  W. 
Africa,  forming  the  watershed  between  the 
Ueditemnean  sea  and  the  Sahara.  It  ex- 
tendi onder  varioiiB  names  from  Cape  Ohir 
oe  the  Atlantic  to  the  gulf  of  Csbee  (or  Leaser 
SjTtis),  about  1,800  m.  It  is  generally  divi- 
ded into  tiie  Greater  and  Iieaser  Atlaa,  and 
■  middle  table  land.  The  Lesser  Atlas  ia  the 
range  nearest  the  eeaooast:  the  Greater  bor- 
ders on  the  desert  But  this  divimon,  originated 
bj  Ptolemj',  is  onknown  to  the  natives,  and  no 
reil  line  of  division  can  be  ascertained.  In 
Uorotco  the  Atlss  is  a  oontinaons  ch^n  from 
which  the  conntrj  elopes  N,  W.  and  8.  E, 
toward  the  sea  and  the  desert ;  and  here  it 
Utiiog  its  greatest  aititnde,  some  of  the  peaks, 
u  Jebel  Mittzin,  approaching,  and  others  ei- 
reeding  18,000  ft.  in  height.  Tlie  height  of 
the  moQDtatDS  generally  diminisheB  tonu^  the 
etst.  The  middle  part  in  Algeria  is  divided 
into  the  range  of  the  Tell,  between  the  Uedi- 
terranean  and  the  Shott  platean  or  salt  swamps, 
and  the  range  of  the  Sahara,  between  the  pla- 
tean  sad  the  deeerL  The  Tsll  consistB  of  single 
groups  of  monntuna  separated  from  each  other 
by  wide  valleys,  of  which  11  are  counted  from 
V.  to  E.  Id  Algeria  the  highest  point  is  Jebel 
Sheliha,  S.  of  Constaotine,  upward  of  7,000  ft. ; 
and  Jnijnra  or  Jeijera,  between  Algiers  and 
Conftantine,  ia  apward  of  6,000.  The  ohun 
mainly  follows  a  airection  parallel  to  the  coast, 
bat  then  tnms  B.  E.,  and  takes  the  name  of 
Jebel  Anres,  end  approaching  the  coast  again, 
it  penetntee  hato  the  territory  of  Tunis.  There 
are  several  paasea,  of  which  the  chief  is  in  the 
Jnijara,  the  tamous  Biban,  a  long,  narrow  val- 
ley bordered  by  rooks  rising  precipitonsly  160  to 
KOO  yards.  In  the  western  part  of  tbe  ran^ 
19  the  Bebaonm  pass,  leading  to  Tamdaat  lu 
Morocco,  ilso  bounded  by  perpendicular  rocks 
and  prOQipices.  Another  deGlo,  frequented  by 
earavuu,  leads  from  Fez  to  Tafilct.  East  of 
the  city  of  Morocco  snow  covers  the  summits 
ill  the  year;  in  Algeria  it  falls  in  September 
and  melts  in  May,  The  climate  is  generally 
very  ealubriona.  The  sides  of  the  moantains 
are  covered  with  forests  of  oak,  cedar,  pine, 

Slstachio,  cypress,  olive,  and  oleander.  The 
.abyles  occupy  the  habitable  parts  of  the  At- 
las. The  wild  animals  are  the  lion,  panther 
gnepatd,  hynna,  boar,  and  bear ;  and  several 
><J>ecies  of  monkey  are  also  fonnd.  None  of  the 
nvers  are  navigable,  and  many  are  only  winter 
torrents.  The  Tensift  and  Draa  flow  into  the 
Atlantic ;  the  Tafllet  is  lost  in  tiie  sands ;  the 
Sheilia;  the  Seybase,  the  Eebir,  the  Bnmel, 
and  the  Uejerda  flow  into  the  Mediterranean. 
Aecording  to  a  description  of  a  branch  of  the 


ATMOSPHERE 


81 


Greater  Atlaa  from  8.  to  K.  near  Jebel  Miltiin 
given  by  the  English  naturalist  Washington, 
die  geological  oonstitntioa  of  this  part  of  the 
range  is  gneisB,  schist,  red  sandstone,  transitioa 
limestone,  and  marl.  Capt.  Bozet  gives  the 
following  description  of  tbe  Lesser  Atlas  after 
a  careful  study :  The  ooimtry  of  Algeria,  cover- 
ed by  branches  or  plateaus  of  the  Leaser  Attae, 
is  composed  of  transition  schist,  gneiss,  blue 
limestone  similar  to  English  has,  depoaitt  of 
alluvium,  trachytio  porphyry,  dilnvinm,  and 
other  deposits.  The  prevwling  rock  is  &  whi- 
tish green  or  blue  schist  In  deformed  layers, 
broken  up  Into  numerous  fisaores  filled  with, 
white  quartE  and  oxidized  iron.  The  limestone 
enclosed  in  the  schist  is  of  a  sacoharoid  texture, 
and  of  a  gray  or  dark  bloe  color ;  it  forms  con- 
dderable  masses  in  the  monntains  of  Algeria. 
The  schistose  stratum  contains  garnet  and 
anthracite ;  it  gradually  changes  t«  mica  sohiBt 
and  then  to  gneiss.  The  alluvinm  is  oompoeed 
of  horizontal  strata  of  clay,  marL  and  rounded 
pebbles.  Tbe  mineral  wealth  of  the  AtlanHo 
Atlas  IB  but  imperfectly  known.  The  Greater 
Atlas  seems  to  be  oroesed  by  veins  of  copper, 
Iron,  tin,  antimony,  and  perhaps  gold  and  ail- 
ver.  The  Lesser  Atlas  has  mines  of  lead  and 
iron;  silver,  copper,  mercnry,  and  plumbago 
are  also  found.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs  in  different  parts. 

ATMOSPHnE  (Gr.  iriiSc,  vapor,  and  e^tilpa, 
sphere),  or  ilr,  the  gaseous  envelope  of  a  celes- 
tial body  or  of  tbe  earth.  At  present  we  know 
that  the  mm  and  planets  possess  atmospheres, 
and  the  revelations  of  the  speotrnm  begin  to 
show  what  these  atmospheres  oonmst  of.  That 
of  the  son  contains,  besides  hydrogen  and  other 
gases,  the  vapors  of  solids  and  liqnids,  so  highly 
heat^  that  iron  vapor  is  one  of  its  principal 
constituents.  The  atmoepheres  of  Venus  and 
Mars  appear  edmilar  to  that  of  the  earth  ■  those 
of  Jupiter  and  Satnm,  Uranus  and  Neptune,  dif- 
fer so  mnch  from  onr  terrestrial  atmosphere, 
that  it  ia  highly  probable  that  these  pianeta 
possess  BO  high  a  temperatnre  as  not  only  to 
Keep  many  solids  in  the  state  of  vapor,  but 
even  to  be  slightly  self-lrnninons.  The  moon 
shows  no  trace  of  an  atmosphere.  When  we 
consider  the  great  amount  of  oxygen  and 
water  combined  with  the  solid  portions  of 
oar  earth's  snrface,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
tbe  volcanic  scoriie  and  lavas  of  the  moon 
have  long  ago  absorbed  all  the  air  and  water 
which  may  once  have  enveloped  it. — The  at- 
mosphere has  been  the  principal  agent  in 
transforming  the  surface  of  our  earth  into 
what  it  is:  flrst  by  dldntegrating  tiie  rooks; 
then,  in  connection  with  solar  heat,  starting 
vegetation ;  then  cansing  tbe  decay  of  organic 
snbstanceB,  and  so  forming  soil  for  more  pro- 
fuse organic  growth,  giving  sastenajlce  for  the 
animal  kingdom;  and  finally  fulfilling  alt  the 
functions  necessary  for  the  development  of  all 
forms  of  life.  The  fiinctions  of  the  atmosphere 
are:  to  act  as  the  principal  conductor  of  sound 
waves;  to  moderate  the  eolarheot,  admitting 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATMOSPHERE 


its  reception  during  the  dsj,  and  prerenting 
too  rapid  a  loas  of  it  during  the  nig-ht ;  to  carrj 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  in  the  form  of  ulonda 
or  vapors  over  the  land ;  to  serve  as  a  mechani- 
cal force;  and  last,  but  not  least,  to  diffuse  the 
element,  oxy^n,  whioh  sustains  the  life  of  all 
oonscioua  beings.  1.  Mechanical  propertiet. 
The  first  property  of  the  air  is  weignt;  hence 
it  is  attracted  bj  the  earth,  and  therefore  it 
exerts  a  pressure,  not  only  downward,  but, 
according  to  the  law  of  fluids,  udewaya,  up- 
ward, &e.,  as  by  tbe  mobility  of  fluid  particles 
any  pressure  is  transmitted  in  all  directions. 
The  direct  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  air  has 
weight  is,  tliat  when  it  is  compressed  in  a 
Btrong  flask,  the  flask  is  heavier  than  before. 
If  this  flask  has  a  capacity  of  300  cubic  inches, 
and  100  moi-e  cubie  inches  of  ^r  are  pressed 
in  by  means  of  a  compression  pump,  the  flask 
will  he  found  to  have  gained  81  grains  in 
weight.  This  is  the  result  when  the  barometer 
stands  at  30  inches,  and  the  thermometer  at 
60°  F. ;  but  OS  the  air  expands  ^^  part  for 
every  inch  of  decrease  iu  the  barometer,  and 
j^  part  for  every  degi'ee  of  increase  of  the 
thermometer,  the  weight  will  he  so  mnch  less 
If  the  barometer  is  lower  or  the  thermometer 
higher,  and  vice  tersa.  The  atmosphere  having 
weight,  and  being  perfectly  elastic,  causes  the 
lower  strata  to  be  denser  than  the  upper.  Con- 
sequently, if  the  experiment  described  be  per- 
formed on  the  top  of  a  high  mountain,  wo  shall 
find  the  weight  of  the  100  cubic  inches  of  air 
considerably  less  than  31  grains;  at  a  height  of 
14,282  feet  the  au-  will  weigh  only  half  as 
much ;  at  twice  that  height  it  will  weigh  only 
one  quarter ;  at  three  times,  one  eighth,  &c. 
In  general  the  law  is,  that  while  the  height 
bcreases  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  1,  2,  8,  4,  6, 
the  weight,  and  consequently  the  pressure,  de- 
crease in  a  geometrical  ratio,  i>  i,  i,  -jV,  >bc. 
On  this  property  is  founded  the  system  of 
estimating  heights  by  determining  the  pressure 
of  the  ^r,  either  by  weighing  by  the  barometer, 
or  by  noticing  the  temperature  at  which  water 
boils.  Near  the  surface  of  the  ocean  water 
boils  at  212°;  if  we  go  6S0  feet  upward,  it  will 
boil  at  311°;  1,100  feet,  at  210°;  6,500  feet,  at 
202°;  11,000  feet,  at  about  192°.  The  cause 
of  this  difference  is,  that  in  order  to  boil  water 
the  heat  must  be  great  enough  to  cause  the 
expansive  force  of  tlie  vapor  or  steam  to  over- 
come the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  that  thus 
in  ascending,  this  pressure  becoming  leas,  a  less 
amount  of  heat  is  required.  This  method, 
however,  is  only  a  rough  approximation,  and 
is  now  abandoned  for  more  dtdicate  methods. — 
The  atmosphere,  like  all  gaseoas  bodies,  pos- 
sesses elasticity  in  a  most  remarkable  degree. 
The  effect  of  this  elasticity  is  seen  in  the  un* 
rooflng  of  honses  and  bursting  outward  of 
windows  in  hurricanes.  A  partial  vacuum 
being  produced  by  the  rotary  motion  of  the 
hurricane,  the  air  within  expands  and  liits  off 
the  roo^  or  bursts  open  the  doors  and  win- 
dows.   A  similar  effect  is  observed  in  the  ex- 


pansion of  ^r  confined  in  a  bladder,  and  taken 
from  a  low  level  to  a  great  height.  The  ex- 
ternal pressore  being  reduced,  the  air  witliin 
tends  to  expand  to  the  same  degree  of  rarity 
as  that  without,  and  with  such  force  as  to 
burst  the  bladder.  It  is  this  property,  pos- 
sessed in  the  greatest  perfection  by  the  gaseous 
bodies,  that  renders  air  so  excellent  a  material 
for  springs,  air  beds,  &c. — The  impenetrability 
of  air  is  its  property  of  preventing  another 
body  occupying  the  space  where  it  is.  The 
diving  bell  is  a  good  illustration  of  it,  as  also  of 
its  elasticity;  for  when  sunk  to  the  depth  of 
84  feet,  the  wat*r  will  be  forced  in,  so  as  to 
half  fill  it;  at  the  depth  of  100  feet  it  will  be 
three  quarters  filled;  on  drawing  it  up  the  air 
will  expand  and  drive  out  the  water  again. 
This  also  shows  that  air  may  be  condensed  and 
expanded  by  mechanical  force.  A  remarkable 
law  prevails,  called  after  its  discoverer  the  law 
of  Mariotte,  to  the  effect  that  the  volume  of 
the  air  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  pressure 
employed,  and  therefore  also  to  the  reacting 
pressure  exerted  by  the  air  on  the  vessels  in 
which  it  is  confined.  This  pressure,  which  in 
the  ordinary  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
amounts  near  the  surface  of  the  ocean  to  about 
IS  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  is  thus  doubled 
or  tripled  if  we  introduce  double  or  triple 
the  amount  of  air  iu  the  same  space,  as  in  the 
experiment  above  referred  to  for  weighing  the 
air.  Mariotte's  law,  however,  does  not  hold 
for  excessive  pressnres,  say  of  25  or  60  atmos- 
pheres, when  the  volume  is  not  exactly  inversely 
proportional  to  the  pressure;  our  atmospheric 
air  and  most  other  gases  are  condensed  more 


amount  re<^uired  hj  Mariotte's  law.  The  shape 
of  the  atmospheric  envelope  of  our  planet  is  of 
course  spheroidal  like  the  earth,  only  it  is  most 
likely  that  its  upper  surface  is  still  more  de- 
pressed at  the  poles  than  the  earlh  itaeifi 
while  the  air  is  there  colder,  consequently  more 
condensed  and  heavier,  than  at  the  equator. 
The  attempts  to  determine  the  absolute  heicht 
of  the  atmosphere  have  given  different  resiuta, 
according  to  the  different  data  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  calculation.  The  most  trustwortiiy  data 
are  those  founded  on  the  time  that  on  a  clear 
evening  the  last  twilight  readies  the  zenith, 
in  connection  with  the  laws  of  refraction  and 
reflection  of  light;  this  has  given  as  result  ft 
height  of  about  40  miles  for  the  extreme  traces 
of  atmospheric  air,  in  so  far  as  these  laws  of 
refraction  act  in  an  appreciable  manner.  It 
is  most  likely,  however,  that  the  rarefaction 
expands  mnch  further,  till  at  the  utmost  limit 
itfsome  thousands  of  miles  it  mingles  and  be- 
comes identical  wiUi  the  interplanetary  medium 
or  so-called  etlier,  which,  according;  to  some  of 
the  latest  opinions,  is  only  infinitely  rarefied 
atmospheric  air,  or  inversely,  our  atmospheric 
wr  is  nothing  but  the  interplanetary  medinm, 
condensed  by  gravitation  on  the  surface  of  our 
planeL     The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is 


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ATMOSPHEKE 


ab)  nsde  apparent  bj  remorine  the  air  from 
the  interior  of  any  tnbe,  the  Tower  end  of 
*liich  is  immersed  in.  water  or  any  other  Said. 
Tlis  fluid  will  be  pressed  ap  the  tube  to  a 
iiei|[ht  corresponding  to  the  pressure  upon  its 
EDT&ce.  If  this  be  at  the  level  of  the  se&, 
vateF  will  rise  83  feet  and  mercury  29  inches. 
The  «ominon  suction  pomp  Is  but  such  a  tube, 
forsubed  merely  with  a  piston  for  lifting  ont  the 
sir,  sad  then  the  water  follows  it.  The  power 
nqnired  is  of  course  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
column  of  water  to  be  lifted.  The  preaeiire  of 
the  ui  is  also  well  illustrated  by  the  common 
leather  toy  "sucker"— a  disk  of  soft  leather, 
Titb  ■  string  knotted  at  one  end  paased  through 
JtB  centre.  When  moistened  and  applied  to 
snj  BDOoth  surface,  care  being  taken  to  ezpel 
die  intervening  air,  it  is  attracted  to  it  by  the 
citernal  pressure.  By  the  same  prinoiple  the 
pitdla  or  limpet,  and  some  other  shell  fish,  hold 
fut  upon  the  smooth  rock.  Bo  great  is  this 
pressura,  tliat  the  force  exerted  upon  the  body 
of  a  moderatA'StEed  ma&  mnstbe  about  IB  tons 
— eufficient  to  crush  him,  as  it  inevitably  would, 
if  applied  to  only  a  portion  of  the  body,  bat 


Ets  inwardly,  and  from  those  within  ontward. 
the  pressure  be  taken  oCf  from  any  portion, 
u  by  the  cupping  instrument,  and  one  is  im- 
DMdiately  sensible  of  the  power  that  is  exerted 
npon  the  parts  around,  painfully  pressing  them 
into  the  vacant  space  of  the  instrument;  or 
if  taken  frorn  the  whole  body,  as  is  the  case 
■iO)  an  aeronaut  in  a  balloon  at  great  height, 
the  reeolt  may  by  the  eipansion  of  internal 
Cubans  prove  fatal.  Inversely,  a  great  increase 
(^  stmospherio  pressure  may  be  equally  inju- 
rious and  even  fatal,  as  experienced  by  divers 
n  great  depth  under  water,  or  by  the  work- 
men engaged  in  labor  in  the  cdssons  now  em- 
ployed in  forming  a  foundation  for  sohaqneous 
iCructures.  S.  Phytieal  propertUt.  The  most 
important  physical  property  of  the  atmosphere 
isitsexpanuonbyheat  and  contraction  by  cold. 
The  amount  of  tiiis  en)anHion  or  contraation  is 
{^  of  its  bulk  at  82^  F.  for  every  degree  of 
temperature  above  or  below  that  point.  At 
vary  low  degrees  of  temperature,  however,  this 
law  does  not  hold,  and  cannot  do  sa  as  is 
erident  from  the  fact  that  if  it  were  absolate 
the  Mr  when  cooling  to  402'"  below  82°,  that 
is,  at  —460"  F.,  would  be  condensed  to  nothing. 
The  latter  temperature  has  for  this  reason  been 
accepted  by  Clement  and  Desormes  as  that  of 
sbeolute  cold,  while  according  to  Fouillet  the 
tcmperatnre  of  the  outennost  limits  of  onr  at- 
mo^here  is  eqnal  to  that  of  the  interplan- 
etary space  beyond,  being  abont  230°  below 
zero.  The  eipansiou  of  ur  by  heat  is  easily 
exemplified  by  heating  air  confined  in  a  blad- 
der. Its  expansion  soon  swells  the  bladder  and 
caases  it  t«  burst.  As  its  bulk  increases,  its 
density  diminishes.  The  colder  and  heavier 
>ir  around  it  lifts  it  up.  On  this  prinoiple  were 
eoDstructed  the  first  balloons.    It  is  tnls  prin- 


ciple also  that  gives  rise  to  the  currents  of  air 

or  wind,  the  colder  air  fiowing  along  the  surface 
to  fill  the  spaces  left  by  the  ascending  warm 
air,  ThuB  the  trade  winds  blow  ttom  the 
temperate  regions  toward  the  torrid  eqnato- 
rial  belt.  The  whirling  tornado,  and  all  the 
phenomena  of  the  winds,  owe  their  origin  to 
local  heating  and  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  rays  of  the  sun  pass  through  the  npper 
strata  of  the  atmosphere,  imparting  to  them 
little  heat  This  the  air  receives  chietly  near 
the  surface.  As  we  ascend,  the  temperature 
diminishes  one  degree  for  every  SOO  or  400  ft. 
Near  the  equator  perpetual  snow  covers  the 
moantains  at  the  height  of  16,207  ft. ;  in  lat. 
60°  it  U  fbnnd  at  3,818  ft.,  and  in  TS"  at  1,016 
ft.  The  main  cause  of  this  is  not  that  the  solar 
rays  possess  less  heat  in  the  higher  regions,  aa 
the  contrary  has  been  proved,  but  Uiut  the 
portions  of  the  earth's  crust  projecting  far  np 
into  the  atmosphere,  aa  is  the  ease  with  higa 
mountains,  possess  lees  of  the  interior  heat  of 
the  earth,  being  more  suty'eot  to  cooling  by 
radiation,  which  has  caused  their  t«mperatare 
to  descend  to  such  a  very  low  degree,  that  even 
a  midday  tropical  sun  cannot  raise  it  to  82°  F, 
Another  phy^cal  property  of  the  atmosphere 
is  its  refraction  and  reflection  of  light.  If 
the  sun's  rays  did  not  illuminate  the  moss  of 
the  atmosphere,  it  would  be  of  a  black  color; 
but  a  partial  refraction  of  the  most  refrangible 
rays  takes  place,  and  this  gives  the  bine  color 
to  the  sky,  while  that  of  the  clonde  comes  from 
the  reflection  of  the  light  upon  the  particles 
of  vapor  floating  in  the  atmosphere.  This  blue 
color  is  too  fiunt  to  be  perceived  in  any  small 
qoantity  of  air ;  it  is  only  the  great  depth  of  the 
atmosphere  that  makes  it  visible,  as  the  color 
of  the  ocean  is  only  apparent  when  the  waters 
are  seen  in  mass.  S.  Chemical  propertiet. 
The  atmosphere  consists  chiefly  of  a  mixture 
of  three  gases,  oxygen,  nitn^en,  and  carbonio 
acid,  with  a  very  variable  quantity  of  watery 
vapor.  The  normal  qaantities  are  by  weight 
33-2  per  cent  oxygen,  79'T  nitrogen,  and  about 
O'l  carbonic  acid,  while  the  watery  vapor  varies 
ftom  almost  utter  absence  to  saturation  or 
more  than  80  per  cent,  according  to  locality, 
climate,  season,  and  other  circumstances.  To 
this  most  be  added  the  fact  that  the  atmos- 
pheric oxygen  is  found  in  two  different  condi- 
tions ocooiding  to  circumstances,  one  being  the 
neutral  state  or  ordinary  oxygen,  the  other 
its  active  condition,  when  it  is  called  ozone. 
This  differs  itom  ordinary  oxygen,  first,  by 
being  more  condensed  so  as  to  be  one  half 
heavier,  100  cubic  inches  of  ordinary  oxygen 
weighing  32  grains,  while  the  same  bulk  of 
ozone  has  a  weight  of  4S  grains ;  secondly,  by 
causing  many  cliemical  reactions  which  ordi- 
nary oxygen  is  incapable  of  producing.  It  is 
also  a  most  powerful  disinfectant,  one  part  of 
ozone  puriiying  8,000,000  parts  of  putrid  air, 
by  burning  up  as  It  were  the  miasmatic  exhala- 
tions. In  the  arts  it  has  already  been  applied 
as  a  bleaching  and  purifying  agent    Its  great 


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84 


ATMOSPHERE 


obemical  actiritj  makee  it,  when  present  in 

lt.Tge  qaantity,  hnrtfal  tc  animsl  lite,  b;  its 
very  irritatiiig  action  on  tlie  respiratory  orgtms. 
A  heat  of  500°  F.  reconverts  it  into  ordinary 
ozygen.  Nature  produces  it  continually  by 
the  electrio  discharges  during  thonderstonns, 
by  the  odors  of  flowering  plants  under  tlie 
influence  of  light,  by  vegetation  in  general,  and 
by  some  kinds  of  decay.  Its  formation  is 
chemically  eiplained  by  the  fact  that  the 
molecala  of  oxygen  consists  of  a  donble  atom, 
while  in  the  molecn]e  of  ozone  three  atoms 
occapy  the  same  space.  (See  Ozohb.)  In 
unhealthy  localities  little  or  no  ozone  i^  present, 
bnt  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  ammonia  ia 
found,  and  nitric  acid  and  nitrate  of  ammonia 
Are  generated  in  thanderstorms  by  the  chemical 
combination  of  nitrogen  and  oxyaeo  induced 
by  the  electrical  spark.  These,  which  may  be 
regfu^ed  as  accidental  Impurities,  are  soon  dis- 
sipated in  the  great  bulk  of  the  atmosphere, 
precipitated  upon  the  earth,  washed  down  by 
the  rain,  sud  decompoeed  by  the  ozone.  The 
proportions  of  the  tnree  elements  of  the  air 
hardly  vary,  whether  tins  is  taken  from  the 
snmmita  of  the  highest  mountwns,  or  from  ei- 
tenMve  plains ;  nor  are  they  affected  by  seasoik, 
olimat«,  or  weather.  In  ctooely  confined  places, 
exposed  to  putrescent  exhalationa,  the  purity 
of  the  air  is  necessarily  much  affected ;  the  pro- 
portion of  oxygen  diminishes,  and  mephitio 
gaaes,  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  more  car- 
bonic acid,  are  introduced.  Prof.  Niool  gives 
an  analysis  of  air  collected  in  a  fllthy  lane  in 
Paris,  in  which  the  oxygen  constitutes  13'T9 
per  cent,  only,  instead  of  2S  per  cent. ;  nitrt^eu 
was  present  to  the  amount  of  Bl'34  per  cent. ; 
oorbonic  acid,  2'01  ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
S'99  per  cent.  Bnch  ur  contains  also  many 
other  vapors,  inorganic  as  well  as  organic, 
which  formerly  escaped  detection,  but  which 
St  present,  by  the  modem  reflnemeuts  in  the 
analysis  of  gases,  may  be  determined.  That 
the  air  is  a  ^mple  mixture  and  not  a  chemical 
compound  of  its  elements,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  water,  long  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, coutuns  in  solution  the  three  gases  in 
qnit«  different  proportions  from  those  in  the 
air;  such  water  wiU  ordinarily  coutdnmoet  car- 
bonic acid,  oxygen  in  the  next  largest  propor- 
tion, and  nitrogen  in  tbe  least,  because  nitrogen 
is  mncfa  less  soluble  in  water  than  the  other 
gases.  When  carbonic  acid  gas  is  increased  in 
the  air  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  5  to  6  per 
cent.,  it  is,  according  to  Berzeiius,  still  probably 
barmless.  Man  may  even  live  for  a  time  in  an 
atmosptiere  containing  80  per  cent,  of  carbonic 
acid.  Bnt  if  carbonie  oxiae,  which  ia  the  pro- 
duct of  imperfect  combustion  of  carbon  and 
contains  only  half  the  amount  of  oxygen  of  the 
carbonic  acid,  be  present  even  to  the  amount  of 
only  1  per  cent,  it  may  prove  fatal.  Carbonic 
acid  is  the  product  of  perfect  combustion  of  car- 
bon,andof thebreathingofanim^  Inbreath- 
ing, the  oxygen  in  part  unites  with  carbon  in 
the  system,  and  the  air  expired  contains  4}  per 


ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE    * 

cent,  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  immediat«ly 
dispersed  through  the  atinosuhere  by  the  prop- 
erty of  dittusibillty,  possessed  in  such  a  remark- 
able degree  by  the  gases;  bnt  if  confined  in 
close  places,  it  soon  accumulates,  contaminates 
the  air,  and  makes  it  unfit  for  breathing.  Han 
requires  from  212  to  8G8  cubic  feet  of  pure  air 
per  hour,  containing  50  cubic  feet  or  about 
four  pounds  of  oxygen. — Growing  plants  ore 
the  compensating  agents,  which,  be»des  gene- 
rating ozone,  counteract  the  noxious  influences 
of  combustion  and  the  breathing  of  animals. 
Plants  as  welt  as  animals  breathe  the  air,  bnt 
the  effect  of  this  respiration  is  just  the  reverae 
of  that  of  animals.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
decomposed  in  the  laboratory  of  their  leavea, 
the  solid  carbon  is  added  to  their  stroctitre, 
and  the  pure  oxygen  is  expired.  This  action 
takes  place  oniy  by  the  innueuce  of  daylight, 
while  m  the  dark  ^e  plants  give  some  of  the 
carbonic  acid  back  to  the  atmosphere;  there- 
fore plants  should  not  be  kept  in  sleeping  apart- 
ments. Oxygen  is  thus  the  life-sustwning  ele- 
ment of  the  air  for  animals,  and  carbonic  acid 
for  plants,  whi]e  the  chief  function  of  nitrogen 
appears  to  be  for  dilution ;  but  undoubtedly  it 
is  also  the  source  of  the  nitrogen  in  some  plants, 
and  consequently  in  animals. — Water,  id  the 
form  of  vapor,  has  already  been  noticed  as  one 
of  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
manifests  its  presence  by  condensing  in  visible 
moisture  and  drops  upon  cold  surfaces.  Whoi 
the  air  is  warm,  its  capacity  of  holding  'water 
is  great ;  as  it  becomes  cool,  this  capacity  dimin- 
ishes, and  the  water  that  is  now  in  excess 
appears  as  dew,  or  mist^  or  rain.  The  atmoe- 
pnere  is  said  to  be  dry  when  it  has  Dot  so 
macb  moisture  in  it  as  it  is  capable  of  holding 
at  its  temperature  ;  evaporation  then  takes 
place.  Bnt  let  the  temperature  foil,  and  tihe 
same  air  will  he  damp  withont  the  abw>lat« 
qnantity  of  vapor  having  changed.  The  degree 
of  heat  at  which  air  is  saturated  with  the  water 
it  coutuns  is  called  the  dew  point  If  it  is 
high,  the  absolute  qnantity  of  v^>or  in  the  ur 
is  great;  if  low,  there  Is  bttle  vapor  in  it. 

1TM08PHER10  EMGINE.  Under  this  nams 
was  formerly  understood  an  engine  operated 
by  the  simultaneous  pressure  of  cold  air  od  a 
■mall  piston  and  hot  air  on  a  large  jiiston,  the 
air  being  heated  and  expanded  dnniig  its  pas- 
sage from  the  small  cylinder  into  the  large  oae. 
Since,  however,  engines  have  been  boilt  to 
work  by  the  pressure  of  the  ur  alone,  without 
the  addition  of  heat,  engines  operated  by  the 
latter  force  have  been  called  caloric  engines. 
(See  Caix>bio  Ekotnb.)  The  use  of  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  as  a  primary  souroe  of 
power  has  long  been  a  delnuon  of  persons  of 
the  class  who  still  seek  for  perpetual  motion. 
All  that  has  been  accomplished  in  this  way  has 
been  by  making  use  of  the  continual  changes  in 
the  atmospheric  presgore,  as  for  instance  to 
move  the  mercurial  colomn  in  a  syphon  barom- 
eter of  which  the  two  vertical  tubes  were  very 
&r  apart,  and  the  whole  balanced  on  a  central 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


-'    ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE 

pLNt  An  increase  in  atmoepheric  preamre 
■ooid  drive  more  mercurjr  into  the  long  closed 
evl,  lad  caase  this  to  descend ;  e.  decrease  in 
atmoapherio  pressure  would  catue  the  mercurj 
to  retorn  to  the  short  open  end,  and  cause  this 
in  ita  turn  to  descend ;  while  whaelwork  was 
90  arranged  as  to  produce  motion  bj  a  descent 
either  waj.  Such  a  contrironce,  however,  or 
an]'  other  based  on  the  same  principle  of  the 
clunges  in  atmospheric  pressure,  even  when 
Domtructed  on  the  largest  practicable  scale,  oan 
rajjprodnce  a  weak  power.  It  is  evident  that 
in  order  to  produce  an  available  motive  power 
bf  the  applicatiou  of  abnoepherio  pressure,  this 
prtagnre  ought  to  be  made  as  strong  as  steam 
presmue;  for  which  purpose  the  ^r  must  bo 
compregsed  bj  mechanical  means,  or  at  least  a 
TicDum  created.  In  this  waj,  however,  the 
air  tan  onlj  be  employed  for  the  transmisdon 
of  power,  and  this  is  actoallj  the  case  in  all 
itBMspheric  engines.  None  of  them  are  prime 
movers,  bat  the  air  which  drives  tbem  is 
compressed  by  another  power — either  steam, 
blling  water,  or  animal  force.  There  are 
wveral  ways  of  using  this  compressed  air. 
One  is  to  fill  with  it  a  large  strong  cylin- 
der, the  eqaivolent  of  a  locomotive  boiler,  and 
DK  this  compressed' air  to  work  the  piston,  in 
the  same  waj  as  steam  is  used.  This  is  onlf 
applicable  upmi  care  traversing  short  distances, 
K  that  the  engine  can  periodiOBlly  receive  new 
tnppiies.  It  is  argued  that  a  very  large  steam 
eagiae,  creating  the  power  for  a  great  namber 
of  ausll  engines,  by  compresung  air  in  large 
leservoirs,  to  supply  all  tibe  engines  of  a  city 
line  of  railroad  cars,  is  very  economical  in  com- 
parison with  several  scorea  of  small  inde^ten- 
dent  motors,  each  with  Its  furnace  and  boiler. 
Another  method  of  snpplying  atmospheric 
preuure  frcm  one  prime  motor  to  different 
Null  engines,  is  to  conduct  the  air  in  tubes 
from  the  former  to  the  Utter.  This  was  suc- 
oeastiiUy  employed  by  Sommeiller  in  the  con- 
Krnotion  of  the  Mont  Oenis  tunnel ;  the  hy- 
dranlio  power  of  a  cataract  near  tlie  entrance 
of  the  tnnnel  being  used  as  a  prime  motor 
to  compress  the  air  in  reservoirs,  whence  it 
■SB  conducted  by  tleiible  tubes  to  the  rock- 
boring  machines.  This  method  is  now  exten- 
R'ely  in  use  in  the  United  States,  the  prime 
motor  'being  ordinarily  steam  power.  One  of  , 
the  chief  advantages  of  atmospheric  engines  , 
of  this  class  is  that,  in  place  of  heat  and  steam  i 
cwa{Hiig,  as  is  the  case  with  steam  endues,  pure  ; 
shnospheric  air  escapes,  which  by  its  expan-  | 
tioQ  becomes  cold,  and  thus  supplies  the  end  ' 
of  the  mining  shaft  with  pure  and  cool  air, 
■ecnring  a  most  perfect  ventilation ;  while  the 
use  of  steam  in  such  a  locality,  even  if  a  pro- 
rison  were  made  to  carry  off  the  escaping 
ilcam,  would  raise  the  temperature  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  make  further  work  impossible.  It 
is  now  acknowledged  that  the  boring  of  such 
tonnels  as  die  Hont  Cenis,  the  St.  Gothard, 
and  the  Hoosac  would  be  impracticable  but  for 
drills  worked  by  atmospheric  en^nes.    When 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


85 


the  boring  is  performed  by  percussion  of  steel 
drills,  the  atmospheric  pressure  moves  a  piston 
connected  with  them.  When  the  bonng  ia 
p>erfonned  by  rotation,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
diamond  drill,  the  atmospheric  engine  may  he 
either  a  rotary  or  a  reciprocating  one.  In 
fact  the  arrangement  of  all  atmospheric  engines 
is  nearly  identical  with  that  of  non-coudenaing 
Bteam  engines.  As  atmospheric  pressure  may 
he  easily  transmitted  through  tubes  in  any 
direction,  and  therefore  also  the  power  of  a 
prime  motor,  it  is  expected  that  in  the  course 
of  time  the  power  of  large  cataracts  will  be 
utilized  in  this  way  to  drive  atmospheric  en- 
gines for  several  miles  aroimd.  A  piston  may 
also  be  propelled  through  a  very  long  tube  by 
atmospheric  pressure  or  by  a  vacuum ;  this  haa 
been  applied  to  transmitting  small  packaces, 
and  also  to  the  propnlsicm  of  r^road  trains. 
(See  PNBV1U.TI0  DaapAToa,  and  PMBDU&na 
Railway.) 

ITNiaS,  or  itCBis  an  Indian  tribe  of  British 
America,  called  also  Shoushwap  or  Chin  In- 
dians. They  are  a  Setish  tribe  on  Frazer  and 
Salmon  rivera,  an  energetic,  industrious  people, 
manufacturing  blankets  of  good  quality  from 
the  wool  of  a  native  goat  or  sheep. — Another 
tril>e  called  Atnas  is  mentioned  m  the  early 
accounts  of  the  northwest  as  living  on  Copper 
river,  Alaska,  and  seems  to  be  now  included  in 
the  EoloahianB, 

ITOUi,  the  Malay  name  of  a  peculiar  form 
of  coralline  island  common  in  Polynesia  and 
the  Indian  ooean,  which  oouMsts  of  a  circular 
reef^  seldom  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards 
wide,  enclosing  a  sheet  of  water  connected 
with  the  ocean  by  an  open  passage.  These  la- 
goons are  sometimes  SO  m.  in  diameter  and 
from  100  to  400  feet  deep,  and  afford  safe  har- 
bors, the  opening  never  being  on  the  windward 
side.  The  reefs  generally  support  vegetation, 
and  are  sometimes  inhabited. 

ITOMIC  THEOBY,  the  doctrine  that  matter 
ctmsists  of  ultimate  particles  or  atoms  incapable 
of  division.  This  idea  was  first  maintwned 
speculatively  in  opposition  to  tite  notion  that 
matter  is  capable  of  being  divided  to  infinity. 
Modem  science  has  adopted  this  idea,  not 
merely  as  a  speculation  which  cannot  be  veri- 
fied, but  as  a  proposition  which  interprets  and 
harmonizes  a  wide  range  cf  experimental  facta. 
Inasmuch  as  it  offers  an  explanation  of  the 
facts  and  principles  of  chemistry,  these  reqnire 
to  be  noticed  before  we  can  understand  the 
use  and  necessity  of  the  theory.  Modem 
chemistry  took  its  rise  with  the  abandomnent 
of  the  old  notion  of  jihlogiston,  and  the  elnci- 
dation  of  the  principles  of  combustion  by  La- 
voisier. He  introduced  the  balance  as  a  fun- 
damental instrument  of  chemical  inquiry,  and 
thus  placed  the  science  upon  a  firm  quantitative 
basis.  As  weighing  became  general  and  ac- 
curate, it  was  soon  discovered  that  chemical 
combination  is  definite,  and  chemical  oomito- 
sition  constant.  A  certain  weight  of  alkali,  for 
example,  combiDCS  with  a  given  weight  of  acid 


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ATOMIO  THEORY 


to  prodooa  a  salt,  which  therefore  has  a  fixed 
nmnerical  constitatjon.  A  great  number  of  ex- 
periments ahowed  that  chemical  union  always 
takes  place  in  this  manner,  and  thus  was  estab- 
hshed  the  flindamental  law  of  definite  propor- 
tions. It  was  next  discovered  that  combina- 
tion may  take  place  between  the  same  buIi- 
stances  in  different  proportions,  and  that  when 
this  is  the  case  these  proportions  have  simple 
nmnerical  relatJons  to  each  other.  Thaa,  if 
two  elements  A  and  B  are  capable  of  nuiting 
in  several  proportions,  the;  may  be  represented 
as  A  +  B,  A  +  2B,  A+SB,  A-K4B,  &o.  The 
relations  are  not  alwajs  bo  simple  as  this,  but 
the  principle  is  general,  and  u  known  as  the 
law  of  maltiple  proportions.  Again,  it  was 
foand  that  if  two  elementa  which  combine 
with  each  other  combine  also  with  a  third,  the 
proportions  in  the  first  combination  are  pre- 
served also  in  tlie  second.  If  a  body  A  anites 
with  certain  other  bodies  B,  C,  D,  then  the 
qnantities  B,  0,  D,  which  combine  with  A,  or 
certun  umple  multiples  of  them,  represent  for 
the  most  part  the  proportions  in  which  thej 
can  unite  among  themselves.  This  is  known 
as  the  law  of  equivalent  proportions  or  chem- 
ical equivalence.  It  having  thns  been  found 
that  cnemical  actions  follow  strict  numerical 
methods,  and  that  each  bodj  has  its  fixed 
measure,  it  became  important  to  determine  ex- 
actly what  these  measures  are.  This  resulted  in 
the  scale  of  combining  numbers  or  equivalents, 
or,  as  thej  are  now  more  commonly  termed, 
atomic  weights,  which  constitute  the  founda- 
tion of  the  science  and  are  given  in  all  text 
books. — But  if  all  kinds  of  matter  in  their 
obemical  transformations  are  ruled  by  these 
numerical  principles,  we  should  expect  that 
otiier  material  properties  would  be  affected  by 
them,  and  such  is  the  fact.  The  combining 
weights  of  those  elements  which  are  known  to 
exist  in  the  state  of  gas  or  vapor  are,  with  one 
or  two  exceptions,  proportional  to  their  specific 
gravities  in  the  same  state.  Thus,  the  specific 
gravity  of  hydrogen  being  1,  that  of  oxygen  is 
16,  sulphur  vapor  S3,  chlorine  3S'S,  iodine 
vapor  127 ;  but  the  figures  represent  also  the 
combining  numbers  of  these  elements.  Mr. 
Watts  thus  expresses  the  law  of  combination 
by  volume:  "If  the  smallest  volume  of  a  gase- 
ous element  that  can  enter  into  combination 
be  called  the  combining  volume  of  that  element, 
the  law  of  combination  may  be  expressed  as 
follows :  The  combining  volumes  of  all  elemen- 
tary gases  are  equal,  excepting  those  of  phospho- 
rus and  arsenic,  which  ore  only  half  those  of  the 
otherelementsin thegaseousstate;  andthoseof 
mercnry  and  cadmium,  which  are  double  those 
of  the  other  elements."  Gay-Luasac  showed 
that  combinaUona  by  volume  take  place  in  defi- 
nite and  multiple  proportions,  and  that  the  vol- 
ume of  a  compound  gas  always  bears  a  simple 
ratio  to  the  volmnes  of  its  elements,  thus: 

1  ni.  faydngEB  tad  1  cbbriDs  form  i  Tola.  hTdiwUinic  tdd. 


Again,  it  is  found  that  in  many  cases  two  or 
more  compounds  which  are  supposed  to  contain 
equal  numbers  of  equivalents  of  their  respective 
elements  crystallize  in  the  same  or  iu  very  simi- 
lar forms,  and  such  compounds  are  said  to  be 
isomorphous.  Accordii^ly,  these  isomorpLous 
relations  are  often  appealed  to  for  the  purpose 
of  fixing  the  conatilution  of  compounds,  and 
thence  deducing  the  atomic  weignts  of  their 
elements,  in  oases  which  wonld  otherwise  be 
doubtful.  It  has  also  been  establiahed  that 
Huhstances  having  different  properties  may 
have  the  same  relative  proportion  of  ccostito- 
ents,  and  such  are  said  to  be  isomerio.  More- 
over, something  analogous  to  this  is  seen  among 
the  elements  themselves:  they  are  capable  of 
assuming  different  states,  which  capability  is 
called  alTotropism.  In  both  cases  we  are  com- 
pelled to  assume  that  their  constituent  parts 
are  subject  to  differences  of  arrangement.  Com- 
bining quantities  are  also  intimately  related  to 
heat  This  relation  is  thus  stated  by  Ur.  Watts : 
"  The  atomic  weights  of  the  elements,  deter- 
mined according  to  their  modes  of  combina- 
tion, are  for  the  most  part  inversely  propor- 
tionsl  to  their  specific  heats;  so  that  uie  pro- 
duct of  the  specific  boat  into  the  atomic  weight 
is  a  constant  quantity.  The  same  quantity  of 
heat  is  required  to  produce  a  given  change  of 
temperature  in  7  grains  of  lithium,  6d  of  iron, 
aoToflead,  108  of  silver,  196-7  of  ^Id."  Final- 
ly, the  law  of  combining  proportions  is  impli- 
cated with  the  electrical  relations  of  matter. 
Prof.  Faraday  proved  that  an  equivalent  of  an 
element  consumed  in  a  battery  dves  rise  to  & 
definite  quantity  of  electricity,  which  will  pro- 
duce exactly  an  equivalent  of  chemical  decom- 
position. For  example,  the  conanmption  of  33 
grains  of  zinc  in  a  battery  eicit«8  a  carrent 
which  will  set  free  from  combination  1  grain 
of  hydrogen,  lOS  of  silver,  and  89  of  potassium; 
these  being  the  combining  numbers  of  the  re- 
spective elements. — The  facts  above  stated  are 
independent  of  all  hypothesis,  and  are  the  re- 
sults of  pure  experiment.  They  demonstrate 
that  in  its  ultimate  and  minutest  form  matter 
is  in  some  way  numerically  constituted.    How 

i  it  is  constituted  was  a  question  which  the 
human  mind  conld  not  escape.    It  was  neoes- 

'  sary  to  frame  some  clear  conception  of  its  ul- 
timate constitution  that  would  connect  and  in- 
terpret the  known  facts.  This  was  done  by 
Dr.  John  Dalton  of  Manchester,  England,  in 
constructing  the  atomic  theory.  He  was  aware 
of  the  law  of  definite  proportions,  and  be  dis- 
covered the  law  of  multiple  proportions  by  in- 
vestigation of  the  compounds  of  cartioD  and 
hydrogen,  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  of  nitro- 
gen and  oxygen.  To  account  for  these  laws. 
he  assumed,  first,  that  all  matt«r  oondsts  of 
indivisible,  nnchangeable  atoms  of  extreme 
minuteness;  second,  that  alt  the  atoms  of  the 
same  elemeut  have  the  same  weight,  but  that 
in  different  elements  they  have  different 
weights ;  third,  that  these  relative  weights 
correspond    with    the    combining    numbere, 


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ATOMIO  THEORY 


87 


■liieh  [nft7  therefore  be  called  atomic  weights; 

GHrth,  that  these  different  atoma  have  mutnal 
tttnctioDH  and  combine  to  form  ohemioal  com- 
pomids,  not  bj  iaterpenatration  of  tbeir  Biib- 
fUcce,  but  bj  atomic  jnxtapositiaD.  If  this 
idaa  be  admitted,  the  principles  of  chemical 
ronitanc;  and  definite  proportiona  follow  as 
inetitable  consequences.  The  definite  pro- 
prntitms  in  whiaa  boilies  combine  represent 
the  oomrtsnt  ratio  between  the  weights  of  the 
oofsbimng  atoms.  The  principle  of  multiple 
I^portiona  is  equally  explained,  for  the  sao- 
ceauTe  additions  must  be  made  bj  whole 
stoma,  and  therefore  hj  whole  nQmbera.  One 
stom  of  carbon  nnitea  with  one  atom  of  oxj- 
l!en  to  form  carbon  monoxide,  and  with  two 
•toms  of  ox  jgen  to  form  carbon  dioxide.  That 
tbe  stcHnic  weights  of  oompoonde  nmat  eqnal 
the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  their  ele- 
menta  follows  with  eqnal  certainty.  Moreover, 
in  the  rearrangeroent  of  atoms  in  a  body,  with- 
out tddttJon  or  snbtractjon  of  elements,  we 
hare  a  ready  eipIanatJon  of  isomeric  and  allo- 
tmjHo  changes.  The  relations  of  chemical 
changM  to  heat,  now  eipresaed  b;  the  phrase 
"stomic  heat,"  and  their  relation  to  volnme, 
io^cated  by  tbe  phrase  "atomic  volnme,"  be- 
oome  in  like  manner  capable  of  explanation 
on  the  asamnptions  of  the  atomic  theory.  It 
ii  1  merit  and  a  test  of  this  theory  that  ita  re- 
tonrces  have  kept  pace  with  the  raoid  extension 
of  ibe  science,  but  it  has  requirea  to  be  itself 
developed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  bonds  of 
Dalton  it  was  applied  to  a  few  simple  funda- 
mental facts;  it  now  embrocea  facts  of  many 
orders  and  of  greater  complication.  At  prea- 
enc  the  conception  of  the  molecule  or  the 
groQp  of  combmed  atoms  plays  a  much  more 
important  part  than  it  did  at  first  Even  the 
atoms  of  the  elements  (as  will  be  presently 
explained)  are  now  conceived  not  to  exist 
aepsrately,  or  oa  nnita,  but  bb  combined  with 
each  other  in  a  molecular  condition.  An  atom 
is  deSned  aa  the  smallest  particle  of  simple 
matter  that  can  enter  into  the  composition  of 
smolecnle.  A  molecole  is  defined  as  a  group 
of  atoms  held  together  by  chemical  force,  and  is 
tlie  smallest  particle  of  any  substance  that  can 
exist  in  a  free  or  unoombined  state  in  nature. 
Molecules  are  of  two  irindsr  elemental  mole- 
cnies,  in  which  the  atoms  are  alike,  and  com- 

raand  molecules,  in  which  the  atoms  are  an- 
te. Uolecnlar  structure,  the  outgrowth  of 
the  conception  of  atoma,  ia  now  tbe  funda- 
mental idea  by  which  chemistry  and  physics 
are  connected. — The  doctrine  of  Dalton  at 
first  seemed  to  afford  an  easy  explanation  of 
oheraieal  equivalenta,  by  which  one  body  may 
replace  another,  or  be  substitnted  for  it  by 
limple  excbanee  of  atoms.  But  recent  dls- 
ooTcries  have  fdiown  that  it  fails  here  and  re- 

3 aires  extension.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
laC  when  one  element  replaces  another  in 
a  oombination,  the  substitntion  always  takes 
place  atom  for  atom,  and  hence  tbe  terms  atom 
<nd  eqaivalent  were  regarded  as  synonymous. 


Bnt  it  ia  now  known  that  this  is  only  true  for 
certain  elementa,  which  are  accordingly  class- 
ed as  monogenic  elements.  There  are  othera 
which  alwaya  take  the  place  of  two  or  more 
atoms  of  a  monogenic  element,  and  tiiese  are 
termed  polygenic  elements.  This  brings  tu 
to  the  new  conception  of  atomicity,  which  has 
now  become  the  fundamental  idea  of  the 
science.  To  understand  it  properly,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  glance  at  the  steps  of  chemical 
theory  by  which  it  has  been  reached.  The 
name  of  Laroisier  is  intimately  associated 
with  the  first  general  theory  of  chemical  com- 
bination. This  was  the  binary  or  dual  system 
of  chemistry.  An  acid  was  hcdd  to  result  from 
the  nnion  cf  a  simple  body  (generally  non-me> 
tallic)  with  oxygen ;  an  oxide  resulted  from 
the  combination  of  oxygen  with  a  metal;  a 
aalt  was  produced  by  the  anion  of  an  acid 
with  an  oxide,  and  this  paring  of  doubles  rep- 
resents its  oonatltution.  In  all  c(»nbinBtiona 
affinity  is  assumed  to  be  exerted  upon  two  ele- 
ments, simple  or  compound,  which  attract  one 
another  and  nnite  by  virtue  of  opporitA  proper- 
tiw,  all  ohemioal  oompounds  being  therefore 
binaiy,  Thia  ia  duaham,  and  the  chemical 
nomenclature  was  constructed  upon  the  idea. 
The  view  proposed  by  Lavoisier  was  ably 
enforced  by  Berzdius.  Electro-chemistry,  by 
which  bodiee  were  deoomposed  into  pairs  that 
appeared  at  opposite  poles  of  the  battery,  lent 
powerfiil  aid  to  the  binary  theory ;  and  Berze- 
tius  carried  it  out  by  arran^g  tbe  elements 
on  a  scale  of  antithesis  as  electro-podttve  and 
electro-negative.  In  ISIS  he  also  devised  a 
new  notation,  now  in  general  uee,  by  which 
letters  symbolize  the  elementa,  and  oompon- 
tion  can  be  compendiously  represented  to  the 
eye  by  means  of  formulas.  Prof  Wortz,  in  his 
"  History  of  Chemical  Theory,"  says:  "By  the 
arrangement  of  these  formulae  in  which  the  acid 
appeared  on  one  mde  with  tbe  trun  of  oxygen 
atoms  belonging  to  it,  and  the  metallic  boae  on 
the  other  with  the  oxygen  united  to  the  metal, 
Berzelius  gave  to  the  dualiatio  system  a  de^ee 
of  precision  unknown  before  his  time."  Bot 
a  true  scientific  theory  must  embrace  all  orders 
of  facts  to  which  it  is  applicable.  Dualism 
waa  well  fortified  in  mineral  chemistry,  bnt  it 
was  not  easy  to  bring  the  complexities  of  or- 
ganic chemistry  into  harmony  with  it.  Berze- 
lius,  however,  made  this  his  great  task.  There 
were  organic  acids,  organic  basea,  and  organio 
salts ;  and  these  were  represented  on  the  bina- 
ry plan.  Organic  radicals  were  also  discovered 
— compounds  wliich  played  the  part  of  simple 
elements;  and  these  were  sutiordinated  to  the 
binary  system.  By  this  theory  of  compound 
radicals  dualism  was  extended  to  organio 
chemistry,  and  chemical  theory  waa  apparent- 
ly unified.  Yet  the  victory  was  far  ft-om  com- 
plete. The  deeper  study  of  organic  compoimds 
led  eminent  chemista  to  question  the  validity 
of  tbe  dual  hypothesis  as  applied  to  them.  A 
school  arose  leo  by  Dumaa,  Laurent,  aud  Ger- 
bardt,  which  took  a  new  view  of  the  constitn- 


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ATOMIO  THEORY 


tacea  of  oi^anio  bodies.  lie  first  idea  was  the 
dootrine  of  sabBtitadons,  and  in  its  application 
a  breach  vaa  made  at  the  ontset  in  the  electro- 
chemical  theorf.  It  was  found  that  chlorine, 
a  powerfiil  electro-negatJTe  element,  oonld  re- 
place hydrogen,  a  strong  electro-poeitive  ele- 
ment, in  an  organic  ooinpoiuid,  playing  the 
same  part  and  not  altering  the  character  of 
the  compoand.  The  new  view,  r^eoting  dual- 
ism, regarded  organic  bodies  aa  units,  or  as 
unitary  strnctnres;  and  their  changes  by  rab- 
Btitntion  were  likened  to  the  alteration  of  an 
edifice  bj  saccessively  removing  its  individnal 
bricks  and  stones  and  replacing  them  by 
others.  Laurent  compared  oi^^io  compounds 
to  crystals,  whow  angles  and  edgee  may  be 
replaced  by  new  atoms  or  gronps  of  atoms, 
wtdle  the  typical  form  is  preserred.  Thns 
to  the  dnalistia  point  of  view  was  opftosed 
the  nnitary  system ;  to  the  idea  of  combination 
resdlting  from  addition  of  elements  was  op- 
posed that  of  componnds  formed  by  substitn- 
tion  of  elements.  An  acid  is  changed  to  a  salt 
by  sabstitnting  a  metal  for  its  hydrogen,  with- 
out destroying  its  molecular  stmotnre.  A  salt 
IB  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  a  binary  com- 
poond,  containing  an  aoid  on  the  one  aide  and 
an  oxide  on  the  other;  it  is  a  whole,  a  sin^e 
group  of  atoms,  among  which  are  one  or  more 
atoms  of  metal  capable  of  being  exchanged  for 
other  metallic  atoms  or  for  hydrogen.  This 
view  led  to  the  theory  of  chemical  types,  in 
which  certain  substances  are  taken  as  patterns 
of  molecular  stmcture  with  which  analogous 
bodies  are  cla^ffifled.  Thus  we  have  the  water 
type,  the  hydrogen  type,  and  the  ammonia 
type,  under  whion  bodies  are  grouped  with  no 
reference  to  their  former  relationships.  The 
Innary  theory  here  disappears,  and  sahstancee 
are  bronght  together  not  so  mnch  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  oomposition  or  atomic  arrangement,  as 
by  analogies  of  reaction  and  deoomposition. — 
Tsat  the  doctrine  of  types  was  transitional,  and 
Boon  developed  into  the  completer  theory  of 
atomicity,  by  which  is  meant  combining  capa- 
city. For  example,  there  nre  some  acids  which 
require  for  satoration  only  one  eqaivalent  of  a 
certain  base;  there  are  others  which  reqnire 
two  equivalents  of  the  same  base  to  saturate 
them;  and  others  still  which  demand  three. 
Now  these  ac^ds  are  clearly  not  eqaivalenta  of 
each  other,  their  capacities  of  combination  va- 
rying as  1,  2,  3;  and  they  are  therefore  said  to 
have  different  atomicitiea  This  conception  of 
the  varying  combining  powers  of  bodies,  as  a 
controlling  chemical  principle,  was  worked  oat 
in  the  field  of  organic  chemistry ;  bnt  it  is  now 
extended  to  the  inorganic  elements,  and  otfers 
a  new  system  of  classifi cation  and  a  new  chem- 
ical method. — In  the  new  chemistry  the  ele- 
ments are  arranged  into  six  gronps,  although 
some  add  a  seventh.  These  are  named  mo- 
nads, dyads,  triads,  tetrads,  pentads,  and  hex- 
ads — terms  eipressive  of  their  several  combin- 
ing capacities.  Monads,  of  which  hydrogen, 
oblorine,  and   potassiom    are   examples,   are 


X. 

monogenic,  that  is,  they  can  combine  only 
with  nngle  atoms.  All  the  rest  are  polygenic, 
that  is,  they  can  combine  with  2,  3,  4,  S,  or  6 
monogenic  elements  or  their  equivalmts.  Uole- 
onlea  are  also  dedgnated  as  monatomio,  di- 
atomic, triatomic,  tetratomic,  pentatomic,  and 
heiatomic.  For  eqnivalenoe,  which  represent- 
ed the  old  idea,  the  term  valence  is  coming 
into  use ;  and  a  series  of  words  is  derived  from 
it  describing  the  groups  as  univalent,  bivalent, 
trivalent,  quadrivalent,  qninqnivalent,  and  sexi- 
Talent,  wiule  the  atomicities  above  nnivalence 
are  termed  multivalent.  The  varying  equiva- 
lence, valence,  or  combining  power  of  atoms 
is  represented  in  several  ways  by  which  the 
idea  is  made  clear.  The  graphic  symbol  of  an 
atom  is  a  circle  with  lines  radiating  from  it, 
called  bonds,  which  indicate  the  valence  or 
atomicity.  They  are  represented  as  follows, 
the  first  line  giving  their  names,  the  second 
their  symbols,  and  the  third  examples ; 
Mould.       Dy^.       TrfiO.     Tehsd.    Pentad.      Hand. 

(!)  -©-  x=r,-<=>^.-^ 

Hjrdngen.  Oiygao.     Boroo.    Cuboo.  KlOogan.    Bnlptnir. 

Water,   OH,,  wonld  be  thus  represented  by 
graphic  formula:  (^— ^)-®-     Hydr<^en 

has  as  it  were  bnt  a  single  pole  of  attraction, 
represented  by  a  ^nglo  bond,  while  oxygen  has 
two  poles  and  two  bonds.  The  attractions  of 
the  two  atoms  of  monatomio  hydrt^en  arc 
satisfied  by  the  two  attractions  of  ihaiomio 
oxygen.  Bo  carbon-dioxide,  COi,  may  be 
represented  thus :  ^^'"C^"®  •  Here  the 
four  attractions  of  tetratomic  carbon  are  satu- 
rated by  those  of  the  two  atoms  of  diatomic 
oxygen.  Ifarsh  gas,  CH,,  is  thus  represented : 
The  circle  may  be  omitted, 
and  the  bonds  connected  di- 
rectly with  the  letters,  thus, 

_H,  -0-,  -C— ,  it  being 

immaterial  how  the  bonds 
are  arranged.  Tbe  compo- 
sition of  water  will  then  bo  repreBent«d 
thus,  H~0— H.  and  carbon-dioxide  0=C=O. 
The  atomicity  is  often  represented  as  follows 
by  dashes:  H'  O",  B'",  0"",  N'"",  8""";  or 
again  thus  by  Roman  numerals :  II',  O",  B"', 
C",  N',  S".  In  chemical  changes  and  the 
formation  of  new  compounds  all  attraotions 


tain  groupii^  become  impossible.  One  atom 
of  a  monad  cannot  unit«  with  one  atom  of  a 
dyad,  because  one  attraction  cannot  neutraliie 
two.  It  takes  two  atoms  of  a  monad  to  form 
a  compound  with  an  atom  of  a  dyad;  four 
atoms  of  a  mcmad  or  two  atoms  of  a  dyad 
are  required  to  saturate  a  tetrad ;  but  in  each 
case  all  the  polarities  have  to  be  provided  for. 


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Two  Blama  of  a  monad  efemeut,  as  potsBsinin, 
Mf  unite  with  on«,  two,  three,  fonr,  or  five 
laavi  of  a  pol^ad  element,  as  BQlphar,  Bj 
u  eiamination  of  the  graphio  fonnulaa  of 
thwe  componndB,  K-S-K,  K-8-S-K, 
K-S-S-S— K,  &0.,  it  is  eeen  that  an; 
ufflber  ot  atoma  of  a  polyod  element  may 
nnite  vith  two  atome  of  a  monad,  provided 
the;  be  intorpoaed  between  the  latter.  When 
Ihoa  placed,  the;  are  said  to  perform  a  linking 
function  in  the  comDooad.  The  atomicit;  ot 
m  element  is  its  highest  e^nivalence,  and  the 
compound  form  is  then  said  to  ha  normal  or 
saturated.  Yet  the  equivalence  of  atoma  ie 
not  always  the  same ;  an  atom  maj  form  sev- 
eral coniponDdH  of  the  game  sabatance.  Ele- 
ments of  even  equivalence,  in  which  the  atomic 
poles  are  in  pairs,  are  called  artiads;  thoM  of 
nneven  equivalenoe,  in  which  the  poles  are 
odd,  are  termed  perissads.  Prof.  Barker  states 
that  the  equivalence  "  always  increases  or  di- 
misishea  h;  two ;  ao  that  an  atom  of  the  same 
element  atay  in  different  oompoimda  have  an 
equivalence  of  1,  8,  5,  or  7,  or  of  3,  4,  or  fl.    A 

Ceriesad  atom  can-never  become  an  artiad  atom 
!  sack  a  change,  nor  can  an  artiad  become 
■  perissad."  This  variation  of  atomic  equiva- 
lence is  accomited  for  on  the  hjipothesis  that 
the  bonds  of  an  atom  are  capable  of  saturating 
each  other  in  pairs.  A  peutad  maj  thus  bo- 
come  a  triad  and  a  monad  snooeedvely,  and  a 
heisd  ma;  be  coaverted  into  a  tetrad  or  into 
sd;ad,  as  follows: 


Fb>I>1.       TcI^       UodsL      H«ud.      T«tnd.       OjiO. 

ta  i»  A  1^  'CF  <> 

It  follows  from  this  view  that  obI;  the  atoms 
of  those  iree  elemenla  can  be  oocudered  as 
ensting  separately  in  which  the  nnmber  of 
bonds  is  even.  The  others  can  onl;  exist  in 
combiostioa  with  each  other,  forming  poly- 
atomic molecnles.  Free  b;drog«o  oannot  be 
— Q,  because  its  bond  is  nnsatisfied ;  it  must 
therefore  be  H— II,  that  is,  onited  with  itself, 
fmning  what  we  might  call  hydride  of  hydro- 
gen. Cajorine  is  not  C1-,  but  CI— CI,  and 
free  oxygen  is  not  — O— ,  bat  0=0.  Com- 
pounds are  formed  by  replacement,  and  chem- 
ical science  thus  becomes  root«d  in  atomic  ca- 
pacity.—ffhile  therefore  in  the  last  quarter  of 
a  centnr;  chemical  philosophy  has  undergone 
a  total  revolntioo,  the  atomic  theor;  has  not 
onl;  been  maintwned  and  strengthened,  bnt  it 
is  donhtfol  if  the  advance  could  have  been 
made  wichont  its  assistance. 

ATUTO,  a  river  of  Colombia.,  Soath  America, 
rises  near  lat.  5°  20'  N.  and  Ion.  76'  50'  W.,  and 
flowi  nearly  dne  N.  for  about  250  m.  to  the 
gulf  of  Darien.  The  bar  at  its  mouth  being 
crowed,  it  has  a  wide  chumel  not  less  than  85 
A.  deep  for  the  first  S6  m.,  with  a  fall  not  ex- 
ceeding 2^  incites  to  the  mile;  and  for  42  m. 


ATRECB  80 

flirther  a  ehannel  exceeding  18  ft.  in  depth  oan 
be  cleared;  while  the  distanqe  across  to  tbe 
Pacific  ooean,  from  which  the  river  is  separated 
by  one  of  the  lowest  ranges  of  the  Andes,  doea 
not  exceed  50  m.,  and  western  branches  of  the 
Atrato  are  said  to  almost  meet  rivers  from  tbe 
Pacific  having  their  source  in  this  dividing 
ridge.  Exammations  have  been  made  with  the 
view  of  determining  the  practicability  of  con- 
structing a  ship  oanal  b;  this  river,  to  oonneot 
the  Caribbean  sea  with  the  Pacific.  The  latest 
was  by  the  United  States  government  in  1871, 
The  ronte  which  promised  the  least  ditficnlty 
between  the  middle  branch  of  the  Atrato  and 
the  Jnrador,  empt;ing  into  the  Pacific,  would 
require  18  m.  of  canal ;  the  height  of  the  water- 
shed, which  must  be  excavated  or  tunnelled, 
b^ng  more  than  600  ft. — The  Atrato  for  nearly 
its  whole  length  runs  through  a  low  swampy 
region,  which  is  entirely  overflowed  by  fresh- 
ets. Quibdo,  on  its  opper  course,  is  Uie  only 
town  of  an;  conseqaence  on  the  river.  It  ia 
a  miserable  place  of  1,SOO  inhabitants,  moKb^ 
blacks,  with  some  Indians  and  a  few  whites.  It 
is  situated  on  several  isolated  biilacks  of  gravel 
and  clay,  in  the  midst  of  the  swampy  region 
which  extends  all  around.  The  temperaCnre 
of  the  region  is  close  and  sultry,  and  the  rain; 
season  continues  all  the  year.  Gold  is  fonnd 
in  fine  dost  in  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  Atrato, 
at  and  above  Quibdo,  and  also  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  river.  Some  portions  of  the 
ooootr;  ara  desonbed  aa  high!;  auriferous. 
Above  Quibdo  the  Atrato  receives  several 
branobea,  of  which  the  Quito  is  the  moat  im- 
portant. Were  it  not  for  the  incessant  flnatoa- 
tions  of  this  stream,  which  within  a  few  hours 
frequentl;  rednoe  it  from  its  ordinary  ample 
channel  depth  of  7  ft.  or  more  to  6  or  6  fL  or 
even  less,  the  Quito  woold  present  with  th« 
Atrato  an  uninterrupted  steamboat  thoroagh- 
fhre  of  no  less  than  2G2  m.  from  the  golf  of 
Barien.  The  Quito  is  wholl;  in  the  gold  re- 
gion, and  its  branches  appear  to  lie  in  the  rich- 
est portion  of  it.  The  caontohouc  tree  abounds. 

ilVfSjITES,  or  Atnkatll,  a  people  of  Belgio 
Gaul,  whose  name  appears  in  the  modem 
Artols.  They  joined  a  confederation  against 
Cteaar,  and  fomished  a  contingent  of  15,000 
troops.  A  colon;  of  them  settled  in  Britain, 
in  the  modem  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire. 

jIIKEOS,  a  legendar;  hero  of  Grecoe,  son 
of  Felops  and  Hippodamia.  On  the  death  of 
his  son  Plisthenes,  Atreos  married  his  widow 
Aerope,  who  was  or  became  the  mother  of 
Agamemnon  and  Uenelaus,  commonl;  known 
as  the  Atridn.  She  was  seduced  by  Thy- 
estee,  the  brother  of  Atreus,  and  the  latter 
slew  the  twin  ofi^ring  of  this  adnltery  and 
served  them  at  a  banquet  to  the  seducer. 
Atreua  afterward  married  his  brother's  daugh- 
ter Pelopia,  who  was  already  pregnant  with 
.lEj^thus  b;  her  own  father.  The  child  was 
exposed,  but  miraculousl;  preserved,  and  the 
motber  comtoltted  soioide.  The  crimes  and 
miafortunes  of  the  fiunily,  sprin^ng  from  the 


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90  ATRIUM 

mnrder  of  itercarj'a  sod  UjTtilna  hj  Pelops, 
afforded  endless  themes  for  the  ciassio  poets. 

intinL  L  Id  Roman  arohitAOtore,  the  oen- 
tral  room  of  the  hoase,  also  called  eaevm 
odium.  In  this  room  the  family  lived  and  ate, 
and  here  stixid  the  iarei  and  penaU».  The 
room  was  nnoovered  in  the  centre,  toward 
which  the  roof  sloped,  to  throw  the  rain  water 
into  a  cistern  in  the  fioor,  around  which  atood 
tbe  honsehold  deities,  11.  The  forecourt  of  a 
temple.  The  atrinm  of  the  temple  of  Liberty 
b  most  freqnendj  mentioned.  III.  In  ecclesi- 
astical architecture,  an  open  space  t>efore  a 
chnrcb,  making  part  of  the  narthex,  or  ante- 
temple.  Penitents  and  others  stood  in  the 
abium  to  solicit  the  prayers  of  the  piona, 

ilSOPiTENK    See  Azebbuan. 

inWPHI  (Gr.  oTpo^ia,  hunger,  from  h  pri- 
vative  and  rpo^,  nonrishment),  in  medicine, 
the  wasting  away  of  any  of^an  or  portion  of 
the  body  aata  want  of  nntntion  in  the  part, 
irrespective  of  the  general  nntrition  of  the 
body.  The  principle  of  vitality  decreases  in 
the  organ  wnen  its  functions  are  saspended, 
and  nntrition  slackens  where  the  vital  principle 
becomes  inert  The  mammary  glands  or  milk- 
aecreting  organs,  in  the  breaHta  of  women  who 
have  passed  the  age  of  child-bearing,  are  some- 
times so  mnch  atrophied  that  traces  of  them 
only  can  be  foond  imbedded  in  large  lobes  of 
adipose  tissoe  or  fat  In  contrast  with  atro- 
phy is  hypertrophy,  or  exces^ve  nntrition  and 
enlargement  of  on  organ  or  set  of  organs  in 
the  body.  Adj  limb  or  portion  of  a  limb  arti- 
ficially compressed  for  a  long  time  will  be  de- 
pressed in  Its  vitality,  and  lack  the  power  to 
appropriate  nntrition  from  the  blood;  it  will 
g^^nally  diminish  in  size  and  force,  and  become 
atrophied,  Bisnse  alone,  without  oompression, 
will  oanse  atrophy  in  the  npper  or  the  lower 
liml>s,  or  even  in  the  whole  body;  for  many 
persons  waste  away  from  morbid  inactivity, 
which  brings  on  by  degrees  emaciation  and 
debility,  resnltingindecayof  the  whole  system. 
— Paralysis,  by  preventing  natural  exercise  in 
the  limbs,  may  depress  the  vitality  of  the  parts, 
and  diminish  their  powers  of  nntrition.  This 
will  canse  atrophy,  or  a  falling  away  of  the 
paralyzed  limb.  The  dislocation  of  a  joint, 
if  rffegleotod,  may,  by  causing  pressure  on  the 
nerves,  cut  off  a  portion  of  the  innervation  ne- 
oesBary  to  maintain  the  active  functions  of  nn- 
trition in  the  parta  below,  and  tlins  depress 
Titabty  and  bring  on  atrophy.  In  children  of 
a  Bcrotulons  dialEe^s,  disease  in  the  hip  joint 
often  affecta  the  nerves  of  the  parts  and  the 
vitality  of  the  whole  limb,  diminishing  the 
powers  of  nntrition,  and  causing  the  leg  to 
dwindle  in  oompsrison  with  the  one  which  is 
not  affected.  In  these  cases  tlie  atrophy  is  of  a 
doable  nature ;  for  t^e  gluteal  muscles  waste 
away,  and  the  bones  decay  in  part,  before  the 
limb  begins  to  dwindle  in  its  general  propor- 
tions from  the  weakened  powers  of  nutrition. 

ATROPIA,  or  ItreplH  (Gr. 'Ar/Miro;,  one  of 
tlte  Fates),  a  vegetable  ^kaloid  of  highly  poi- 


ATTAOHMENT  "^ 

Bonons  properties,  extracted  from  the  atropa 
btlladonna,  or  deadly  nightshade.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Jnioe  expressed  from  all  parts 
of  the  plant,  but  more  particularly  from  the 
leaves.  It  crystallizes  in  white  silky  prisms, 
which  have  a  bitter  taste,  bot  no  smell.  They 
possess  an  alkaline  reaction,  reddening  litmus 
paper ;  they  melt  at  194°  F,,  and  are  volatilized 
at  234°.  Their  oompo«tion  is:  carbon,  70*98; 
oxygen,  16'S6 ;  hydrogen,  T'83 ;  and  nitrogen, 
4'83.  Atropia  forms  oryatallizable  salts  with 
acids,  the  Bidphate  being  condderably  naed  in 
medicine.  When  in  solution  it  gives  a  lemon- 
yellow  precipitate  with  terohloride  of  gold. 
It  waa  nrst  obtained  by  Uein,  a  German  apoth- 
ecary, by  digesting  the  roots,  powdered  ex- 
tremely floe,  for  several  days  in  alcohol,  and 
afterward  separating  the  other  ingredients  by 
various  precipitations.  From  12  ounces  of  the 
root  he  obtained  20  grains  of  pure  alkali 
Chloroform  and  potassa  are  also  used  for  ob- 
taining its  solntion.    (See  BBLLAnoNNA.) 

AnOPOe,  one  of  the  Fates  {Mara,  Lat.  Par- 
eai)  of  Greek  mythology,  who  cut  the  thread 
of  life.  She  is  represented  with  a  pair  of 
Boalea,  or  a  sun  dial,  or  a  cutting  instrmnent. 

ATTACflMENT  (Fr.  attaelurr,  to  seize),  in  law, 
the  edznre  of  ^e  person  or  proper^.  The 
writ  of  attachment  is  of  two  kinds:  1. 
Against  the  person,  in  the  nature  of  a  criminal 
proceeding  for  contempt  of  conrt.  It  may  bo 
issued  gainst  attorneys,  solicitor,  sheriffs,  and 
other  officers  of  court,  for  any  misconduct  or 
neglect  of  duty.  The  object  of  the  attach- 
ment is  in  snch  cases  to  bring  the  offending 
party  personally  into  court,  to  answer  for  the 
alleged  contempt,  and  unless  be  can  clear  him- 
self he  is  pnnishable  by  fine  or  impriBonment. 
Jnrisdiction  has  formerly  been  exercised  by 
courts  over  a  very  large  class  of  cases,  and  no 
precise  limit  has  been  fixed  to  the  power.  The 
statute  of  New  York  continues  die  jurisdic- 
tion to  the  same  extent  that  has  been  here- 
tofore nsed.  In  the  famous  case  of  Yates  In 
New  York,  in  1810,  who  was  committed  to 
prison  by  the  chancellor  for  miscondnot  as  a 
master,  the  question  was  agitat«d  bat  not 
definitively  settied  whether  there  was  any  re- 
lief upon  habeas  corpus  fhim  such  imprison- 
ment (People  «.  Yates,  4  Johnson's  Rep,  817, 
6  id.  8ST.)  2.  A  writ  as  to  contempt  to  enforce 
the  civil  remedies  of  parties  to  snita,  or  to  pro- 
tect the  rights  of  such  parties.  In  the  English 
chancery  this  was  the  only  process  for  en- 
forcing its  orders  and  decrees.  In  this  Ofnin- 
try  it  has  been  resorted  to  by  all  the  courts  to 
enforce  interlocutory  orders.  It  is,  however, 
no  longer  used  in  New  York  for  the  collection 
of  costs  or  any  money  demuid,  except  against 
attorneys,  solicitors,  and  other  officers  of 
court.  (Act  of  1847.) — Attachment  against 
property  was  an  old  mode  of  proceeding  in 
English  practice  to  compel  the  appearance  of 
a  defendant  in  an  action.  To  tl^is  head  be- 
longs also  the  proceeding  known  as  foreign 
attachment,  a  process  under  which  the  prop- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


Mr  of  B  foreign  or  absent  debtor  is  s^ted. 
Thd  proceedioA  had  It«  origin  in  s  cDBtom 
of  the  citj  of  London,  of  irhich  we  find  some 
DDtioe  in  the  books  as  earlj  as  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  By  this  cuatom,  an  action  hav- 
ing been  bronght  in  the  major's  court  against 
A,  and  the  writ  baring  tieen  returned  fiihil 
ILtiBt  is  to  saj,  that  nothing  could  be  found 
u  a  dittreM  to  compel  appearance  of  defeu- 
(Unt).  and  therenpon  it  bemg  suggested  bj  the 
pluntiff  that  another  peraon  residing  in  Lon- 
don is  indebted  to  A,  a  writ  is  issued  to  warn 
BHch  debtor,  who  is  thereafter  in  the  proceed- 
icigi  called  "gamiahee;"  and  if  he  does  not 
draf  that  he  is  indebteid,  the  debt  is  by  virtue 
of  such  writ  attached  in  his  hands  to  answer 
the  judgment  which  shidl  be  recovered  agunst 
A.  Cowell  defines  a  foreign  attachment  to  be 
"  m  attachment  of  foreign  goods  found  within 
a  libertj  or  city  in  the  hands  of  a  third  person 
for  the  salJsfaction  of  some  citizen  to  whom  the 
•^foreigner  oweth  money,"  But  there  is  no 
true  of  such  proceeding  tu  any  other  place  in 
Ei^lud  than  I^radon.  This  proceeding  has 
beea  introduced  into  our  eastern  states  and 
KOe  othera,  and  is  a  common  mode  of  oollect- 
iagtdebtdue  b;a  non-resident  who  has  prop- 
*nj  within  the  stata,  such  property,  whether 
'■pda,  diattela,  or  debts  dne  to  him,  being 
Kizeil  St  the  commencement  of  the  aotion  to 
ntiify  the  judgment  which  shall  bo  recovered. 
It  ia  sometimes  called  trustee  process,  the  per- 
son who  is  indebted  or  holds  property  of  the 
non-reaidcut  defendant  being  designated  as  trus- 
tae.  In  New  York  an  attachment  may  by  the 
code  issue  against  the  property  of  a  non-resi- 
dent defendant  who  cannot  be  served  with 
process,  but  the  proceeding  is  more  simple 
thin  the  trustee  process  of  the  eastern  states. 
There  is  also  a  distinct  proceeding  for  the  at- 
tachment of  property  of  aosoonding,  concealed, 
abient,  or  non-resident  debtors,  which  is  not 
an  action  but  a  sort  of  insolvent  proceeding  for 
tti6  beneSt  of  alt  the  creditors  of  the  person 
whose  property  is  attached. 

ilTiUDEB  (Fr.  Uiadre,  Lat.  tingert,  to 
^^\  in  old  English  law,  the  extinction  of 
ciril  rights,  and  the  forfeitore  of  estate  which 
follewed,  when  a  person  was  condemned  to 
death  for  treason  or  felony,  or  where  judgment 
of  outlawry  had  been  pronounced  against  him 
fur  not  appearing  to  answer  to  a  capital  crime. 
It  might  also  take  place  by  act  of  parliament, 
Mlled  bill  of  attainder.  In  the  ease  of  high 
VetaaTi  the  efibct  was  forfeiture  of  real  and 
Pwwnal  estate,  and  cormption  of  blood,  so  as 
to  interrupt  hereditary  descent  of  any  civil 
"ght.  For  capital  crimes  less  than  high  trea- 
«"!,  there  was  a  forfeiture  of  personal  property 
ibsolntely,  and  of  the  profits  of  freehold  eatatw 
(lontig  life ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  criminal 
ftJJ  his  lands  in  fee  went  to  the  crown  for  a 
jear  and  a  day.  The  cormption  of  blood  caused 
also  an  eecheat  of  lands.  But  in  its  operation 
Bscbeat  was  snbordinate  to  forfeiture.  In  hieh 
treason  the  forfeiture  intervened  to  defeat  toe 


UDER  91 

escheat  altogether,  and  in  the  lesser  offences 
it  interrupted  it  for  the  sovereign's  year  and 
day.  But  the  escheat  did  not  take  place  raere- 
ly  in  respect  to  the  lands  held  by  the  ofiender. 
Thus  if  a  &ther  was  seized  in  fee,  and  his  sod 
committed  treason  and  was  attainted,  and  then 
the  father  died,  the  father's  lands  even  in  that 
ease  escheated,  because  at  his  dead)  the  son 
was  incapable  of  inheriting  them,  and  tlie  son's 
heirs  could  not  take  them  because  they  could 
only  deduce  their  title  through  the  son.  But 
there  was  no  forfeiture  in  such  a  cose,  because 
the  criminal  never  had  the  lands.  This  oor- 
mption  of  blood  and  its  conseqaences  could 
not  be  remedied  save  by  act  of  parliument 
By  statute  7  Anne,  ch.  21  (the  operation  of 
which  was  suspended  at  first  during  the  life  of 
the  pretender,  and  afterward  during  the  Uvea 
of  his  sons,  but  which  suspenuon  was  repealed 
by  3B  George  III.,  ch.  93),  it  was  enacted  that 
no  attainder  for  treason  should  extend  to  the 
disinheriting  of  any  heir,  or  to  the  pr^udice  of 
any  person  other  than  the  traitor  himself.  By 
the  atatuto  G4  George  III.,  ch.  14G,  it  was  pro- 
vided that  no  attainder  for  a  felony,  except 
treason  or  murder,  should  extend  to  the  dis- 
inheriting of  any  person,  nor  to  tlie  pr^udice 
of  the  right  or  title  of  any  person  other  than 
the  offender  himself,  during  hie  natural  life 
only;  and  any  person  who  might  otherwise  in- 
herit, might  on  his  death  claim  his  land.  There 
have  been  several  subsetjnent  enactments  of  a 
similar  tondenoy. — A  bill  of  attainder  was  a 
le^alatjve  conviction  for  alleged  crimes  with 
Judgment  of  death.     The  great  act  of  attainder 

Eassed  in  1688  by  the  parliament  of  James  II., 
y  which  more  than  2,00(1  persons  were  at- 
tainted and  their  property  confiscated,  is  one 
of  the  moat  noteworthy  illostrations  of  this 
sort  of  legislative  convictions.  Other  acts  of 
the  same  character  were  those  relating  to  the 
earl  of  Strafford  in  1641,  to  Sir  John  Fenwick  in 
1096,  to  Lord  Clarendon  in  1699,  and  to  Bishop 
Atterbnry  in  IT23.  The  so-called  bills  of  paina 
and  penalties  were  of  the  same  character, 
though  of  a  milder  form,  inflicting  punishment 
less  than  that  of  death, — Not  only  probably  on 
account  of  the  mere  iniustice  of  nil  legislative 
acta  of  this  character,  but  as  well  in  the  feu" 
that  the  power  to  inflict  such  punishments  in- 
tmsted  to  the  legislature  of  a  democratic  state 
might  lead  to  nnusual  excesses  and  abuse  in 
times  of  political  exciUmeut,  the  founders  of 
our  government  by  a  distinct  constitutional 
provision  prohibited  the  enactment  of  any  such 
taws  here.  The  constitution  of  the  Dnited 
States  declares  that  no  hill  of  attainder  shall 
be  passed  either  by  congress  or  by  any  state. 
But  aa  it  still  remained  competent  for  the  ju- 
diciary to  convict  of  treason  or  to  declare  at- 
tainders, the  constitution,  still  further  to  gnard 
against  this  odious  form  of  enactments,  also 
provided  (art.  8,  sec.  3)  that  congress  should 
have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  trea- 
son, but  that  no  attabder  of  treason  shonld  work 
complete  cormption  of  blood  or  forfeiture  ex- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


93 


ATTAKAPA8 


cept  during  the  llfb  of  the  person  attainted.    In 

the  oases  familiarlj-  known  ae  the  test  oath 
ossea,  OmnmiDgg  e.  Missonri,  and  ex  parte  Gar- 
land, reported  io  4th  Wallace,  U,  S.  Supreme 
Oonrt  Reports,  pp.  277  to  S89,  where  all  these 
constitational  provisions  were  very  faWy  dis- 
onased,  it  was  held  by  the  court  that  within  the 
meaning  of  the  constitntion  bills  of  pains  and 
penalties  are  included  in  the  prohibitioTi  of  bills 
of  attainder.  The  former  case  involved  the 
oath  of  loyalty  prescribed  by  the  constitution 
of  Missouri  adopt«d  in  ISSS.  Under  the  several 
sections  of  the  second  article  of  that  instm- 
neat  priests  and  clergymen  (and  the  plaintUf 
fell  within  this  description)  were  required,  in 
order  that  they  might  continue  to  exercise 
their  ftmctions  as  such,  to  take  this  oath  of  loy- 
alty, which  was  to  the  effect  that  they  had  not 
committed  certain  deugnated  acts  of  disloyalty 
to  the  United  States,  some  of  them  being  at 
the  time  of  their  commismon  offences  involving 
penalties,  and  others  innocent  in  themselves; 
and  it  was  held  that  these  provisions  oonstitnted 
a  bill  of  attainder  within  the  meaning  of  the 
federal  constitution.  The  case  of  Garland  in- 
volved an  act  of  congress  of  Jan-  24,  1805, 
which  provided  that  after  ita  paesase  no  per- 
son slionld  be  admitted  as  a  counsellor  to  the 
bar  of  the  suproroe  court,  and  after  March  4, 
1666,  to  the  bar  of  any  circuit  or  district  oonrt 
of  the  United  States,  unless  he  shonld  first  have 
taken  the  oath  required  by  the  act  of  July  3, 
1863.  This  oath  was  much  like  that  in  Cum- 
minga's  case,  and  was  to  the  effect  generally 
that  the  aftiant  had  never  been  guilty  of  any 
disloyalty  to  the  United  States;  and  it  was 
held  that  exclnwon  from  the  praclioe  of  the 
lav  in  the  federal  courts  for  past  misconduct 
was  punishment  for  such  conduct ;  that  the  ex- 
action of  the  oath  was  the  means  provided  for 
ascertaining  the  persons  on  whom  the  act  was 
intended  to  operate ;  and  that  for  those  reasons 
the  act  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  bill  of  pains 
and  penalties,  and  was  within  the  constitu- 
tional inhil>itJon  of  bills  of  attainder.  The 
court  in  both  these  cases  consisted  of  nine 
Judges,  and  in  each  fourof  the  Judges,  including 
the  chief  justice,  dissented;  and  tiie  prevailing 
opinion  of  the  court  has  not  commanded  the 
concurrence  of  some  of  our  ablest  Jurists. 

iTTlKiPAS,  a  large  and  fertile  section  of 
sonthwestcm  Lonisiana,  including  several  par- 
ishes. Though  often  mentioned  in  commercial 
reports,  it  ia  not  the  legal  appellation  of  any 
suMivision  of  the  state.  Great  quantities  of 
sugar  and  molasses  are  produced  in  the  d  istrict 
and  shipped  at  Franklin,  St.  Mary's  parish. 

ATTAKilPiS,  an  Indian  tribe  of  southern  Lou- 
isiana, who  have  left  that  name  to  a  district 
of  the  state.  Their  real  name  is  not  known; 
they  were  called  Attakapas  or  Men-Eaters  by 
the  ChoctawH,  They  were  first  made  known 
to  the  French  by  the  adventures  of  Uelleisle, 
who  was  left  on  shore  by  a  ship,  and  was  long 
in  their  hands.  They  aided  the  French  egainst 
the  Natchez  and  Chickasaws.    In  1603  there 


ATTALU8 

were  about  100  dispersed  through  the  Atta- 
kapas district,  chietiy  on  Bayou  Vermilion: 
but  in  less  than  20  years  afler  that  they  ceased 
to  be  enumerated  at  all.  Their  language  was 
peoniiar,  abounding  in  harsh  monosyllables. 

ATTAU,  a  central  county  of  Kississippi, 
bounded  W.  by  Big  Black  river;  area,  750  sij. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,7T9,  of  whom  6,848  were 
colored.  Its  sur&ee  is  undulating,  and  the  acnl 
in  some  parts  fertile.  In  1870  the  oountv  pro- 
duced e,644  husfaels  of  wbea^  887,403  of  Indian 
com,  SS.IGO  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  8,912  btiee 
of  cotton.    Capital,  Kosciusko. 

ATTALDS.  I.  A  general  of  Philip  of  Hace- 
don,  and  unde  of  Cleopatra,  whom  rhilip  mar- 
ried, kiUed  about  8S«  B.  C.  At  the  wedding 
fsstivilieB  of  his  niece,  he  called  upon  the  com- 
pany in  the  presence  of  Philip  and  Alexander 
to  bog  of  the  gods  a  legitimate  saccessor  to  the 
throne.  This  Alexander  violentljr  resented, 
and  a  brawl  ensued,  in  which  Philip  took  the 

Krt  of  his  general  and  drew  his  sword  npon 
I  son.  Alexander  and  his  mother  Olympias 
then  withdrew  tram  the  kingdom.  The  assas- 
sination of  Philip  by  Pansanias  was  the  con- 
seqaence  of  an  outrage  committed  by  Attains 
which  Philip  refused  to  punish.  Attains,  who 
was  then  in  Asia,  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
against  Alexander,  but  soon  made  overtures 
for  submission,  which  the  king  disregarded. 
Hecatteus  was  sent  into  Asia  with  orders  either 
to  bring  Attains  to  Macedonia  or  assaaainate 
him,  and  the  latter  conrse  was  adopted.  11. 
Attain  Ii,  king  of  Pergamus,  reigned  from  241 
to  1S7  B.  C.  He  was  the  first  ruler  of  Per- 
gamus who  bore  the  title  of  king,  assuming 
that  dimity  at^er  a  victory  over  the  Ganle. 
He  made  himself  master  of  a  large  portion 
of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  driven  back  to  Per- 
gamus by  Belencus  Cerannus  and  Achnns. 
He  was  afterward  an  ally  of  Antiocbus  the 
Great  against  Achsus,  and  of  the  Romans  and 
Rhodians  against  Philip  of  Maoedon.  The 
Macedonians  invaded  his  territory,  but  failed 
to  capture  Pergamus.  III.  Altalu  II.|  king  of 
Pergamus,  sumaraed  Pbiladelpiius,  second  son 
of  tbe  preceding,  bom  in  200  B.  C,  succeeded 
his  brother  Eumenes  11.  in  1G9,  died  in  188. 
He  adhered  to  the  Roman  alliance,  founded 
Philadelphia  in  Lydia,  and  encouraged  the  arts 
and  sciences.  I¥.  AtUlas  III.,  king  of  PerM- 
mns,  Burnamed  Philometor.  son  of  £nmenesTI. 
and  Stratonice,  succeeded  his  uncle  Attains  II. 
in  188  B.  C,  died  in  133.  On  bis  acces»on 
he  murdered  many  of  his  relatives  and  friends. 
After  a  short  reign  of  disorder  he  was  Beize<! 
with  remorse  and  melancholy,  withdrew  from 
public  affairs,  and  devoted  himself  to  sculpture 
and  gardening.    He  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to 


brought  up  as  a  pagan,  and  baptized  by  an  Arian 
bishop.  Being  a  senator  and  prefect  of  Rome 
at  the  time  of  the  second  siege  of  the  city  by 
Aiaric,  he  was  declared  emperor  by  the  barba- 
rians in  place  of  Houorius,  and  sent  a  meeaage 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


jn  the  pl^n  of  Arirainam.  Aitar  the  death  of 
Aisrio  lie  was  agMH  put  forward  by  AtftuJphua 
as  a  olftimast  of  the  pnrple;  but  he  was  tskeo 
prisoner  and  sentenoed  by  Honorins  to  Iom  a 
thmnb  and  forefinger  and  soffer  banishitieiit  in 
the  island  of  Lipan. 

IITIHAH,  the  dtje  of  the  supreme  chief  of 
the  CosBaokn,  now  retwued  omj  by  those  of 
the  Don.  The  attaman  was  elect«d  by  the 
people  in  a  general  public  meeting;  the  mode 
oF  election  was  by  tbrowiag  their  fiir  caps  at 
the  &Torite,  and  he  who  had  the  largest  iieap 
of  caps  was  chosen.  When  in  the  16th  century 
the  Coea&cks  submitted  to  the  Poles,  the  eleo- 
tion  of  the  attaman  was  confirmed  by  the 
Polish  king.  After  the  secesdon  of  the  Cos- 
Mckg  from  Poland  and  their  submission  to 
Rnsda  ia  the  ITth  century,  the  attamana  pre- 
eored  the  same  rights  nntil  after  the  insarreo- 
tioD  of  Maxeppa,  when  the  office  was  sup- 
prened.  In  1760  it  was  restored  in  the  person 
of  Coont  RaEamovsky.  When  Catharine  II. 
destroyed  the  organization  of  the  OoBsaoks  of 
the  Ukraine,  the  dignity  of  attaman  was  con- 
fined to  those  of  the  Don.  The  last  elective 
RlUman  of  these  Cossacks  was  Platoff^  after 
whose  death  the  emperor  Nicholas  made  the 
dignity  of  nttcmiaD  hereditary  in  the  cefsare- 
ritch.  The  commanders  of  various  other  Cue- 
sack  organizations  in  Bnseia  bear  the  title  of 
Utamsn,  hut  only  by  custom  and  courtesy. 
From  the  word  attaman  was  derived  the  word 
hetman,  in  ancient  Poland  the  title  of  the  com- 
mander of  all  the  military  forces  of  the  nation. 

ATTIB  or  Ott*  af  BMM,  a  deliciooa  perfiime 
extracted  from  the  peCaU  of  the  rose.  It  is 
a  rolatile  oil,  of  soft  consistency,  nearly  col- 
orless, and  deposits  a  crystallizable  sabstance 
partjaily  solnble  in  alcohol.  The  best  is  pre- 
pared at  Ghazipoor  in  Hindostan ;  but  it  is  apt 
to  be  much  adulterated  with  sandalwood  and 
other  oOs.  It  is  obtained  from  roae  water  hy 
settii^  it  oat  during  the  night  in  large  open 
Teasels,  and  early  in  the  morning  skimmiag  off 
th«  essential  oil,  which  floats  at  the  top.  It  is 
ertimat«d  that  300,000  well  grown  roses  are 

a  aired  to  produce  half  an  ounce  of  the  oil ; 
.  the  value  of  this  when  it  is  mannfaotored 
is  about  |40.  If  warranted  genuine  at  the 
English  warehouses,  it  sells  for  about  $50,  or 
$100  per  onnce. 

iTrUBOH,  Peter  DuM  iHadtH)  a  Bwedish 
poet,  bom  Jan,  19,  1790,  died  in  Upsal,  July 
21,  1S5G.  At  the  university  of  Upaal  he  was 
one  of  several  students  who  formed  the  "Au- 
rora" association,  with  the  purpose  of  eman- 
cipating Swedish  literature  from  French  in- 
fluence. His  eesa;s  pnblished  in  the  society's 
magazine,  the  "  Phosphorus,"  and  directed 
sguQBt  the  academy  and  the  prominent  literary 
party  of  the  day,  provoked  a  fend  in  which  he 
ras  the  chief  object  of  attack.  But  he  grad- 
ually gained  adherents,  and  in  1819,  after  a  tour 


ATTEEBIIRY  93 

of  two  years  in  OermaDy  and  Italy,  he  was 
made  German  tntor  to  Prince  Oscar,  the  future 
kit^  of  Sweden.  SnbsequenQy  he  became  nro- 
fessor  at  Upeal,  and  in  1839  was  reeeivea  as 
member  of  the  academy,  which  he  had  as- 
sailed in  the  "Phosphorus."  The  beet  of  his 
satirieal  oontribntions  to  that  maoamie  was  a 
drama  in  prose  entitled  BimarbaiuUt,  "  League 
of  the  Rhymers."  As  founder  and  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  Poetuh  Kalender,  he  exert- 
ed a  marked  in&nonce  npon  ffisthetic  cultore  in 
Sweden.  His  lyrical  poems  are  contained  in 
his  Samlade  Bitter  (2  vols.,  Upsal,  18S6-'7). 
His  Skrifttr  or  confessions  (1835)  treat  of  histo- 
ry and  philosophy.  The  most  important  of  his 
other  works,  Swtuia  Siara  oeh  8kald&r  ("  The 
Beers  and  Poets  of  Sweden"),  is  a  review  of 
Swedish  literatore.  The  6th  and  lost  volume 
of  this  work  ^>peared  in  1868.  A  posthnmona 
work,  Pottimt  Suloria,  was  pabli^ed  at  Ore- 
bro  in  18S2.  The  beat  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  there  in  1868. 

iTTfKBUKI,  Fnwdi,  an  English  theologian 
and  politician,  bom  at  Hilton,  near  Newport- 
Pagnell,  Buckinghamshire,  March  6, 1662,  died  in 
Paris,  Feb,  16, 17S2.  He  wasthesonofaclergy- 
man,  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  school, 
and  at  Christ  Church  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1684.  In  1687 
appeared  his  controveraisl  work,  "A  Reply  to 
'  Con«derations  on  the  Spirit  of  Martin  Luther 
and  the  Original  of  the  Reformation,' "  a  pam- 
phlet written  by  Ohadiah  Walker,  a  Roman 
Catholic,  master  of  University  college.  Atter- 
bnry's  defence  of  Protestantism  was  long  classed 
among  the  beat  of  such  arguments.  He  now 
acted  for  several  years  as  tutor  to  young  Boyle, 
afterward  earl  of  Orrery.  Taking  orders  in 
1091,  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher  procured  him 
several  offices  in  the  church,  and  finally  the 
appointment  of  chaplain  to  the  king  and  queen, 
fie  was  constantly  involved  in  controversies 
on  theological  and  literary  subjects.  He  ao- 
qaired  special  notoriety  from  a  work  written 
principf^y  byhim,  but  pnblished  in  1BB8  under 
the  name  of  Charles  Boyle,  who  was  then  a 
student  at  Christ  Church,  in  which  great  wit 
but  little  learning  was  used  in  a  violent  attack 
upon  Richard  Bentley,  who  had  declared  the 
reputed  letters  of  Phalaris,  previouslypublish- 
ed  by  Boyle,  to  be  entirely  spurious.  This  wae 
one  of  the  most  famous  literary  controversies 
of  the  time,  and  before  it  dosed  it  had  enlisted 
mnch  of  the  talent  of  the  two  nniversitiea  on 
one  wdc  or  the  other.  In  ITOO  Atterhury  en- 
gaged on  the  side  of  the  clergy  in  a  discussion 
of  the  rights  of  convocation,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  the  lower  house  of  convocation,  and 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Oxford.  In  1702  he 
was  appointed  a  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Queen 
Anne,  in  1704  dean  of  Carlisle,  and  in  1707 
canon  in  Exeter  cathedral.  During  several 
years  he  engaged  in  an  intricate  thaologiool 
dispute  with  Bai^amin  Hoadley.  In  1710  he 
was  made  prolocutor  to  the  lower  house  of 
convocation,  in  1712  dean  of  Christ  Church 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


94 


ATTIOA 


(bnt  removed  on  acconnt  of  his  qnarrelBome 
temper),  and  in  1TI3,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Lord  Oxford,  biahop  of  Bochester,  It  has 
tieen  asserted,  thoogh  never  proved,  that  on 
the  death  of  Queen  Anne  Atterbury  proposed 
on  immediate  attempt  in  favor  of  the  preten- 
der, Jamee;  at  all  events  he  goon  showed  him- 
self on  the  side  of  the  Staarta,  and  vigorously 
opposed  the  measures  of  the  government.  He 
was  finally  convicted  of  participation  in  a 
treasonable  plot  for  the  forcible  restoration  of 
the  fallen  dynast;,  and  after  making  an  elo- 
quent defence  before  the  lords,  he  was  sen- 
tenced in  May,  1723,  to  expnlsion  from  all  his 
offices  and  to  perpetual  eiiie.  In  June  he  left 
England  for  France,  with  bis  daughter  Mrs. 
Uorrice,  and  resided  in  Paris  doring  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  For  several  years  of  his 
erile  be  continued  to  work  secretly  in  the  in- 
terest of  James;  but  he  lost  &vor  with  that 
prince  on  account  of  certain  differences  of 
opinion,  and,  though  afterward  reconciled  to 
him,  he  was  never  his  active  partisan  after 
1T27,  when  he  wrote  to  him  a  letter  of  with- 
drawal. He  was  buried  in  Westminster  ab- 
bey, though  without  pnblic  ceremony;  and  the 
government  afterward  caused  bis  coffin  to  be 
opened,  in  search  for  treasonable  papers  sup- 
posed to  be  hidden  in  it. 

ATTICA  (Gr.  'Atj-iic^,  probably  a  corruption 
of  'Ain-fK^,  from  axtf/,  shore  or  coast),  one  of 
the  pditical  divisions  of  ancient  Greece,  occu- 
pying a  triangular  peninsula,  bounded  N.  by 
tkeotia,  E.  by  the  ^ean  sea,  B.  W.  and  W. 
by  tbe  Saronic  gulf  and  Megaris;  ares,  about 
840  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  several  moun- 
tain ranges,  having  their  centre  and  highest 
pMnt  in  the  great  group  called  by  the  ancient 
Qreeks  Cithceron  (tbe  modem  Elatea,  the  moun- 
tain of  firs),  which  rises  at  tbe  N.  W.  extrem- 
ity of  the  country,  and  a  little  E.  of  the  Corin- 
thian gulf,  to  tbe  height  of  4,630  feet.  From 
this  extend  to  the  eastward  the  Parues  moun- 
tuns,  forming  part  of  the  boundary  and  an 
almost  impassable  barrier  between  Attjca  and 
Bceoda;  and  to  the  soothward  several  smaller 
ranges,  the  westernmost  separating  Attica  from 
Megaris,  while  tbe  others  divide  tbe  country 
into  districts  anciently  known  by  the  following 
names  (mentioned  in  their  order  from  west  to 
east) :  the  Elensinian  plain,  H".  E.  of  the  bay  of 
Elenws;  the  Athenian  plain,  having  its  centre 
nearAUiens;  the  Mesogea  or  midland  district, 
animdalating  plain,  enclosed  byMt  Hjmettus, 
Mt.  Pentelicua,  the  sea,  and  a  range  of  bills 
running  across  Attica  from  the  promontory  of 
Zoster;  the  Paralia  or  coast  district,  including 
all  tbe  southern  part  of  tbe  peninsula,  below 
the  promontory  of  Zoster  on  the  W.  and  Brau- 
ron  on  the  E. ;  and  finally,  tbe  Diacria  or  high- 
lands, bounded  by  the  Pames  range,  Pentelicus, 
and  the  sea,  in  which  district  lies  tbe  plain  of 
Marathon.  The  rivers  of  Attica  are  insignifi* 
oant,  and  in  summer  nearly  dry.  The  Cepbis- 
sns  and  Ilissua,  tbe  two  watering  the  Athe- 
nian plain,  are  those  most  frequently  mentioned 


ATTICUS 

in  history.  The  soil  is  light;  in  ancient  times 
it  appears,  by  careful  culture,  to  have  produced 
a  large  amount  of  groin,  and  figs  and  olives, 
tbe  excellence  of  which  was  famous  in  Greece; 
butinmoderndaysagriculture  is  neglected,  and 
the  products  are  inconsiderable.— ^Tbe  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Attica  belonged  to  the  Ionic 
race;  of  their  origin  even  tradition  conveys  no 
information.  They  claimed  that  their  ances- 
tors had  sprung  directly  from  the  soil  of  tlie 
country.  At  tbe  beginning  of  authentic  Attic 
chronology,  placed  by  Grote  at  the  archonsliip 
of  Creon,  888  B.  C,  they  were  divided  into 
four  tribes  or  classes  (fu^I),  Geleontcs,  Hop- 
letes,  .^^kores,  and  Argades.  The  origin  of 
these  is  uncertain,  some  traditions  attributing 
the  quadruple  division  to  Cecrops,  others  to 
Pandion,  and  one  to  an  ancient  king,  Ion. 
Grote  does  not  share  the  belief  of  many  writers 
that  the  names  of  the  tribes  were  derived  from 
their  occupations,  like  those  of  tbe  Egyptian 
castes,  as  Hopletes,  the  warriors,  .lEgikores, 
the  goatherds,  dec. ;  and  he  says  of  both  tribes 
and  titlea,  ">>either  the  time  of  thdr  introduc' 
tion  nor  their  primitive  import  are  ascertain- 
able matters."  In  historic  times  each  tribe 
was  divided  into  tliree  phratries  (^parplat  or 
fp&Tpai),  and  each  phratry  generally  into  30 
gentes;  later  another  division  seems  to  have 
been  made — purely  for  political  and  military 
convenience  snd  without  destroying  the  former 
— of  each  tribe  into  three  trittys  (rplrrwc),  and 
of  each  trittys  into  four  naukraries  (yavKpipau). 
This  clsB^fication  of  the  people  continued 
till  the  revolution  of  Ciiatbenes,  in  fiOfl  B.  C. ; 
but  Solon  (about  594),  without  destroying  it, 
made  another  division  into  four  classes,  on  the 
basis  of  property.  CUstlienes  entirely  abol- 
i^ed  both  methods  of  classification,  and  divid- 
ed the  people  anew  into  ten  tribes  (^u^ol) — 
Erechtheis,  .^geis,  Pandiouis,  Leontis,  Aca- 
mantis,  CEneis,  Cekropie,  Hippothoflntis,  .Man- 
tis, and  Antiochis — named  from  old  Attic  he- 
roes. Each  of  these  was  subdivided  into  a 
certtdn  nnmber  of  demes  (Sifioi)  or  cantons, 
every  conuderable  place  constituting  a  deme, 
and  the  larger  towns  inclnding  several.  Tbe 
whole  number  of  demes  in  Attica  appears  to 
linve  been  174,  of  160  of  which  the  names  are 
known.  To  the  ten  tribes  of  Cllsthenes  two 
mure  were  afterward  added  for  political  pur- 
poses.— For  the  account  of  tbe  system  of  gen- 
eral government  of  Attica  under  tbe  archons 
and  other  rulers,  and  for  the  history  of  the 
country,  see  Athexs,  and  Gbbece.  Works  es- 
pecially devoted  to  Attica  are  Leake's  "Demi 
of  Attica  "  (Sd  ed.,  London,  1841),  and  Ross's 
Dffiaen  ton  Actita  (Halle,  1846).— Joined  with 
BceotJa,  Megaris,  and  the  ac^joining  islands, 
Attica  as  an  eparchy  now  helps  to  form  one 
of  the  nomarcliies  of  tbe  kingdom  of  Greece, 
called  Attica  and  Bceotia  ;  area,  2,481  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1870,  136,804.    Capital,  Athena. 

iTnetIS,  ntn  Ptapealos,  a  Roman  knight, 
bom  in  109  B.  C,  died  in  82.  During  the 
civil  wars  between  Sylla  aai  Marina  he  re- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATnCUa  HERODES 

DUTed  to  Athens,  vhera  he  spent  SO  jeara 
and  renilered  many  services  to  the  dtizens, 
vho  raised  atatnes  in  liis  lionor.  Recalled  bj 
Sulla  in  SS  B.  C,  he  resided  in  Rome,  and  was 
celebrated  for  his  hospital!  t7,  nnmbering  among 
bisfrieods  Horteoaios,  Fompe^,  Cesar,  Brntas, 
sod  above  all  Gioero.  He  had  no  ambition, 
.nade  a  generona  use  of  bis  great  wealth,  and 
during  the  ciril  wars  was  able  to  be  on  friendly 
t^ms  with  men  of  all  parties.  He  starved 
himself  to  death  to  avoid  other  ph  jdoal  laSer- 
ings.  He  possessed  a  very  eitenrive  library, 
and  employed  his  slaves  to  copy  MS8.,  selling 
the  copies.  His  annals,  a  general  history  ex- 
lending  over  TOO  years,  were  highly  priBed  by 
elancal  writ«rs,  but  have  not  oome  down  to 
OS.  His  name  has  been  preserved  by  the  let- 
ten  addressed  to  liim  by  Cicero,  and  by  a 
tuographj  writt«n  by  Comelins  Nepos. 

ITHCCB  HfZODES,  TUnIh  OaailK,  a  rioh 
citiien  of  Athena,  bom  abont  A.  D.  104,  died 
probably  in  180.  He  opened  a  school  of 
riietoric  at  Athens  and  afterward  at  Rome, 
baring  Marons  Aarelins  for  one  of  his  trapils. 
His  qraeches  are  atud  to  have  escellad  those 
of  all  contemporary  orators,  bnt  none  of  them 
m  now  exlvit.  He  was  consul  in  143,  and 
for  a  time  administrator  of  the  free  towns  of 
Asia.  Having  inherited  an  immense  fortane, 
he  adorned  Athens  with  magnifioent  pahlio 
buildings,  oonstracted  a  theatre  at  Corinth, 
aqnedncts  at  Olympia  and  Oannsiam,  a  race 
coarse  at  Belphi,  and  a  bath  at  Thermopylffi, 
tad  restored  several   decayed  cities  of  the 


ATTIBET 


95 


miKiMEGUES,  or  VkUoU  ladlaw,  an  AI- 
rnnqain  tribe  rending  inland  back  of  Three 
Kvers,  Canada,  closely  allied  in  langnage  to 
the  Eilistenons  or  Orees.  They  were  noted 
for  their  siugnlar  care  auA  veneration  for  the 
dead.  War  and  disease  swept  them  away  about 
16^.  Father  Jabqnes  Bnteox,  the  great  mis- 
■ionajy  of  the  tril>e,  was  killed  among  them  in 

May,  leaa. 

iTOLk  (Uagyar,  JElek;  Ger.  EUel),  king 
of  the  Hank  died  in  468  or  464.  Abont  434, 
with  fileda,  his  brother,  he  snoceeded  Roaa,  his 
uncle,  in  the  leadership  of  the  nation,  which 
then  indnded  or  swayed  the  northern  tribes 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Volga.  The  brothers 
threatened  to  invade  the  eastern  empire,  bat 
Tbeodosins  II.  obtained  peace  by  the  snrrender 
of  territory  sooth  of  the  Dannbe  and  the  pay- 
ment of  an  annaal  tribute.  Attila  aaanred  the 
lions  that  he  had  discovered  the  sword  of  the 
Scytluan  god  of  war,  with  which  he  was  to 

gv^nre  for  them  the  dominion  of  the  world. 
e  called  himself  the  scour^  of  God,  and 
his  snbjects  looked  on  him  with  soperstitions 
awe.  Id  444  he  ordered  the  murder  of  his 
brother  is  a  dictate  of  the  divine  will,  and  the 
fratricide  was  celebrated  as  a  victory.  He  in- 
vaded the  Per«an  dominions,  bnt  being  defeated 
in  Armenia,  be  tamed  toward  the  eastern  em- 

Eire.    Vith  an  army  of  upward  of  half  a  mil- 
on  men,  moatly  ca^y,  he  overran  lUyria  and 
59  vou  iL— T 


all  the  region  between  the  Black  sea  and  the 
Adriatic.  Theodouas  IT.  was  overpowered  in 
three  battles.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Oreeoe 
were  devastated,  and  more  than  TO  of  the  moat 
flourishing  cities  destroyed.  Theodosius  ob- 
tained peace  again  only  by  an  enormons  rtor 
som.  Abont  451  Attila  tamed  west  toward 
GanI,  marched  through  Germany,  croesed  the 
Rhine,  the  Uoselle,  and  the  Seine,  and  en- 
camped before  Orleans.  The  inhabitants,  en- 
oonraged  by  their  bishop  Anianus,  resisted  the 
first  attacks  of  the  assailants,  and  were  soon 
relieved,  on  June  14,  by  the  approach  of  the 
army  of  Aetius,  the  oommauder  of  the  Ro- 
mans, with  their  allies  the  Visigoths  under 
Theodorio,  the  Franks  nnder  Merovsus,  the 
Bnrgundiana,  the  Alans,  and  other  barbariana. 
Attila  retired  into  Chamnagne,  and  took  hie 
stand  in  theOatolannianplainswhere  ChUona- 
■ur-Marne  is  now  sitnated,  and  there  fonght 
about  the  end  of  June  the  most  morderoua 
battle  ever  known  in  European  history.  (See 
AftncB.)  Attila  was  defeated,  and  reortnsed 
the  Rhine,  but  in  the  nest  year  again  assailed 
the  empire,  invading  Italy.  He  destroyed 
AquUeia,  Padua,  Vicenia,  Verona,  and  oUier 
cities,  whose  fugitives  afl«rward  founded  Ven- 
ice; pillaged  Pavia  and  Milan,  and  established 
hia  camp  at  the  confluence  of  the  Minoio  and 
the  Fo,  near  Mantua.  Rome  was  saved  by  the 
personal  mediation  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  who  visited 
the  barbarian  in  his  camp,  and  is  said  to  have 
awed  him  by  his  sacred  oharsoter.  The  ohr<»- 
iclera  say  die  spirits  of  the  apostles  Peter 
and  Paal  appeared  to  him  with  menaces,  a  le- 
gend immortalized  by  Raphael.  In  July,  462, 
Attila,  having  concluded  a  truce,  returned  to 
the  Danube,  meditating  for  the  next  year  « 
new  invauon  of  the  eastern  empire,  or,  as  some 
mainlaib,  a  return  to  Italy.  But  be  died  in  his 
capital  or  camp  in  Pannonia,  the  night  of  hia 
nuptials  with  the  beautiful  Ildico,  whom  he 
had  married  in  addition  to  the  many  wives  he 
already  possessed.  The  courtiers  found  him  in 
the  morning  dead,  either  through  snddon  ill- 
ness, or,  as  some  suspected,  through  the  treach- 
ery of  Ildico,  whose  people,  the  Bnrgundian^ 
had  snSeredniuch  at  nisnanda.  Hisbodywaa 
put  in  a  ooffin  of  iron,  over  which  was  one  of 
ulver,  and  a  third  of  gold.  He  waa  bnried  se- 
cretly at  night  bwether  with  a  mass  of  treaa- 
nre  and  arms,  and  the  prisoners  who  dug  the 

Kve  were  killed.  He  is  also  celebrated  as  a 
d  of  national  hero  by  the  Hungarians. 
ITTBET,  JCM  Dead,  a  French  Jesuit  and 
painter,  bom  at  Dole  in  1T03,  died  in  Peking 
m  1768.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  had  already 
produced  some  good  pictures  when  he  entered 
the  society  of  the  Jesuits  at  Avignon.  In  1T3T 
he  went  to  Peking,  at  the  solicitation  of  the 
French  Jesuit  misdonaries  stationed  there,  and 
was  employed  by  the  emperor  Kien  Lung. 
He  produced  an  immense  number  of  p^ntings 
and  drawings,  mosUy  in  water  colors,  accurate- 
ly depicting  Chinese  physiognomy,  dress,  and 
nohita^  as  well  as  triumphs,  festivsla,  and  pro- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ATnWANDAEOKK 


gratif^iog  the  emperor  that  he  appointed  the 
artist  a  mandarin. 

iinwiNDASONK,  a  tribe  of  Indiuu  of  the 
aamo  famitf  oa  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois,  liv- 
ing in  early  times  on  both  banks  or  the  Ni- 
(wara  river,  bat  chiefly  on  the  Canada  nde. 
They  were  called  Atirhagenratha  by  the  Iro- 
quois, and  by  the  French  the  Neutral  Nation, 
as  they  at  first  took  no  part  in  the<rarbetween 
the  Iroquois  on  one  aide  and  the  Hurons,  Tio- 
nontatez,  Algonquins,  and  Uontagnais  on  the 
other.  They  were  however  at  war  with  the 
Hascoutina  beyond  Lake  Michigan.  Their  ter- 
ritory was  an  area  of  about  150  sq.  m.  They 
were  first  visited  by  the  Recollect  father  Dail- 
lon  in  16S7,  and  by  Br^ltenf  and  Chauinonot 
in  1642;  but  no  missions  or  posts  were  estab- 
Jished.  On  the  fell  of  the  Hnrons  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Iroquois  (lG51-'8),  and  after 
severe  losses  a  part  anhmitted  and  joined  the 
Senecas;  the  rest  fled  west  and  joined  the  rem- 
nant of  tJie  Hnrons  on  Lake  Superior. 

ITTIjEBOKOUGH,  a  townsim)  of  Bristol  coun- 
ty, Mass.,  81  ra.  S.  8.  W.of  Boatou,  and  11  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Providence,  R.  I. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,769.  It  has  very  eitensive  mannfactures  of 
Jewelry,  printed  calicoes,  metal  buttons,  and 
olocks;  for  which  there  is  abundant  water 
power  in  Mill  river. 

ITTOCK,  or  Atik,  a  fortified  town  of  India, 
fn  the  Panjaab,  on  the  Indus,  nearly  oppoute 
the  mouth  of  tbe  Cabool,  in  lat..83°  54' N., 
Ion.  72°  20'  E.,   40  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Peshawer ; 


pop.  about  2,000.  The  Indus  is  here  abont 
800  feet  wide,  and  from  30  to  70  feet  deep  ac- 
eording  to  the  season,  with  high  banks  and  a 
rapid  current.  The  fort  was  built  by  Akbar 
to  command  the  passage,  this  being  the  route 
by  which  invasions  from  the  nortliwest  have 
generally  entered  India.  Runjeet  Singh  took 
it  from  the  Afghans  by  treachery,  and  it  came 
into  the  possesmon  of  the  British  by  the  oon- 
qnest  of  Sinde.    Tlie  town  has  gone  to  decay. 

ITTORNEl'.    See  Lawtbb. 

ITTOKNET  GESraiL,  a  law  officer  of  sUte. 
In  England  be  is  the  counsel  to  the  crown.   He 


ATTORNEY  GENERAL 

may  be  required  by  either  of  the  houses  of  par- 
liament to  institute  prosecutions  for  offenoea 
agunst  the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  booses,  or 
againstthe  public  lawsof  the  nation,  andbycos- 
tom  may  prosecute  for  misdemeanors  by  infor- 
mation without  first  procuring  an  indictment. 
He  may  also  file  information  in  dvil  causes, 
under  penal  statutes,  and  he  is  charged  by 
special  statutes  with  other  duties  in  the  publio 
interest. — The  attorney  general  of  the  United 
States  is  the  first  law  officer  of  the  govern- 
ment.   The  judiciary  act  of  1789,  which  first 
defined  his  office,  provided  that  there  sliould 
be  appointed  a  meet  person,  learned  in  the 
law,  whose  doty  it  should  be  to  prosecute  and 
conduct  all  saits  in  the  supreme  court  in  which 
the  United  States  should  oe  concerned,  and  to 
give  his  advice  and  opinion  upon  questions  of 
taw  when  required  by  the  president  or  by  the 
heads  of  any  of  the  departments  touching  any 
matters  which  concerned  the  affiiirs  of  their 
offices.     By  an  act  of  1880  the  attorney  gen- 
eral was  required  to  consult  and  advise  with 
the  solicitor  general  of  the  treasury  as  to  the 
conduct  of  suits  and  other  proceedings  perttun- 
ing  to  the  revenue ;  and  by  an  act  of  1861  he 
was  charged  with  a  general  supervision  and 
direction  of  the  district  attorneys  and  marshals 
of  tJie  United  States,  and  of  their  discharge  of 
their  duties ;  and  they  were  required  to  report 
to  him  an  account  of  their  proceedings  and 
the  condition  of  their  offices.     In  practice  also 
it  has  been  conceded  that  either  house  of  con- 
gress may  call  upon  the  attorney  general  for 
information  on  any  matter  within  the  scope  of 
his  office,  and  that  it  is  his  dnty 
to  communicate  such  informa- 
tion.    He  has  also  conducted  all 
■nits  of  the  United  States  in  the 
supreme  court.    It  has  been  al- 
ways understood  that  the  opin- 
ion of  the  attorney  general  is  not 
conclusive  upon  the  president  or 
the  secretaries ;  but  it  has  been 
the  practice,  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
serving liarmony  and  uniformity 
of  decision  and  action  in  the 
different  departments,   to   gov- 
ern the  administration  of  their 
affiiirs  according  to  tbe  attor- 
ney general's  advice.    The  opin- 
ions of  the  attorneys   general 
from  the  earliest  period    have 
thus  come  to  tie  a  body  of  precedents   on 
questiona  of  publio  law  which  have  a  cer- 
tain  authority,  of  the  same  character,  though 
not  of  Che  same  imperative  force,  as  tbe  at^n- 
dication  of  courts  of  justice.     It  is  a  setUed 
rule,  in  construction  of  the  ftinetions  of  this 
officer,  that  he  has  no  right  to  give  an  opinion 
in  any  other  cases  than  those  in  which  the 
statutes  make  it  his  duty  to  give  it.    There- 
fore he  will  not  give  an  opinion  to  any  subor- 
dinate officer  of  any  of  the  departments;  nor 
will  he  give  an  opinion  to  individnals  in  re- 
spect to  their  claims  against  the  government; 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ATTOENET,  POWER  OF 


97 


Dor  will  he  advise  upon  apeoalative  or  hypo- 
[heticat  cues,  nor  upon  taj  point  of  law  nn- 
le«9  it  has  aotn&llT  arisen  in  a  case  pr««ented 
for  the  actioii  of  a  department.  An  act  of 
Jana  S2, 1870,  establish^  an  eieontive  depart' 
ment  of  the  p>Temment,  called  the  department 
of  joatice,  and  made  tbe  attomej  general  the 
hud  of  it.  The  statntc  provides  for  the  ap- 
pCHntment  of  a  solicitor  general  and  of  assist- 
aats  to  tha  attorney  general,  and  transfers  to 
tbe  department  the  solioitora  of  the  treasury, 
of  the  navj,  and  of  the  lutemal  revenue,  the 
Daval  judg«  advocate,  and  the  clerks  and  as- 
HBtants  of  these  offiaers.  It  aathorizes  the  at- 
torney general  to  refer  qnestions  submitted  to 
lum  to  his  saaiatants,  and  their  opinions  ap- 
proved  by  him  have  the  force  of  his  own.  lie 
m»y  direct  tie  solicitor  genera!  to  argue  causes 
in  the  court  of  clums  in  which  the  United 
States  is  interested,  and  appesls  from  thnt 
court  to  the  nipreme  court  in  such  oases  as  are 
Mmmitted  to  nim  and  to  the  solicitor  general. 
The  secretaries  of  the  war  and  navy  depart' 
mmta  may  also  by  this  act  reqnire  opinions 
from  the  attorney  general  on  questions  of  law 
tbe  cognizance  of  which  is  not  given  by  stat- 
ute t<T  other  officers. — The  duties  of  the  attor- 
ney general  of  a  state  are  defined  by  oonstitn- 
tionid  or  statutory  provisions.  They  ore  gen- 
erally to  prosecute  and  defend  all  kinds  of 
actions  in  the  event  of  which  the  people  of  the 
state  are  interested ;  to  recover  for  the  state 
tacheated  lands  or  forfeited  estates ;  to  test 
the  right  of  any  person  who  is  chained  with 
onlavfolly  holding  or  exercising  any  public 
office  or  any  franchise  witbin  the  state,  or  the 
right  of  persons  who  are  alleged  to  be  acting 
ss  a  corporation  without  authority ;  to  bring 
Bctions  for  the  purpose  of  vacating  the  charters 
or  revolting  the  franchisee  of  corporations  for 
violations  of  the  provisions  of  the  acts  which 
created  them,  or  when  they  have  incurred  for- 
feiture of  their  charters  by  nonnser  of  their 
franchises,  or  the  assumption  of  privileges  not 
nmferred  upon  them.  It  is  also  his  function 
to  give  legal  advice  to  the  governor  and  to 
ether  officers  of  the  state ;  to  prepare  legal  in- 
ttmments  for  the  nse  of  the  state;  and  at  the 
rei^nest  of  the  governor  or  other  state  officials 
to  mdict  and  prosecate  persons  accused  by  such 
officers  of  violations  of  the  laws  which  they  are 
charged  with  enforcing. 

ITFMREV,  Pawcr  af,  an  authority  by  which 
one  pemm  is  empowered  to  act  in  the  place 
or  as  the  attorney  of  another.  The  one  who 
confers  the  power  is  called  the  oonstitnent  or 
the  principal,  and  the  one  to  whom  it  is  ^ven 
is  called  tbe  attorney  in  fact,  that  is  to  say,  in 
/aetam  or  for  ft  special  purpose,  and  by  way 
of  genersl  distinction  from  a  professional  at- 
torney DC  law. — All  persons  except  those  who 
have  not  a  1^^  capacity  to  act  for  themselves, 
snch  as  married  women  and  infants,  may  ap' 
point  an  attorney  in  fact  But  under  the  recent 
acte  which  give  married  women  separate  estates 
and  independent  powers  over  them,  they  also 


may,  as  to  such  property  at  least,  probably 
appoint  attorneys.  All  persons  who  have  suffl' 
oient  intelligence  may  be  made  attorneys  in  fact, 
including  even  some  who  are  disqualified  from 
acting  for  themselves,  snch  as  married  women 
and  minors,  provided  they  are  of  sufficient  age 
and  discretion.  The  power  of  attorney  may 
for  many  purposes  be  created  by  parol,  bat 
usually  it  is  reduced  to  writing.  If  the  power 
contemplates  the  making  of  a  deed  by  the 
attorney,  his  authority  must  also  be  by  deed, 
that  is  to  say,  by  writing  under  seal,  and  must 
be  executed  and  acknowledged  with  the  same 
formalities  which  are  required  in  the  case  of 
deeds. — In  the  interpretation  of  powers  of  at- 
torney they  are  to  oe  construed  strictly,  and 
this  rule  should  be  kept  in  view  in  framing 
such  instruments.  The  power  may  be  broad 
or  narrow.  It  may  be  general,  extending  to 
all  the  affairs  of  the  constituent,  or  it  may  be 
special,  and  limited  to  some  particular  subject 
or  to  some  particular  class  of  the  affura  of  the 
principal.  In  view  of  the  rule  of  oonstraotion 
Jnst  suggested,  a  special  power  should  be  very 
izplicit,  enumerating  as  minutely  as  is  prac- 
ticable all  the  acta  which  tbe  attorney  may 
perform,  although  all  acts  will  be  sustained 
which  are  fwrty  within  the  scope  and  design 
of  the  power,  even  though  they  are  not  spe- 
cifically named.  And  the  power  had  best  be 
thus  qieoial  and  particular,  if  poasible,  rather 
than  general  \  for  the  courts  incline  to  construe 
even  general  powers  narrowly  rather  than 
broadly,  and  even  the  genersl  clause  usually 
inserted  in  special  powers,  as  for  example,  to 
do  all  other  acts  which  the  constitnent  might 
do  in  the  premises,  is  usually  interpreted  with 
reference  to  the  special  matters  ennmerated, 
and  is  held  to  authorize  oidy  such  acts  as  are 
fairly  required  in  the  performance  of  them.  A 
general  authority  to  make  and  indorse  notea, 
the  power  being  apparently  conferred  to  enable 
the  attorney  to  carry  on  the  business  of  his 
principal  in  his  absence,  wonld  be  limited  to 
notes  to  be  used  in  that  business ;  an  authority 
to  collect  all  demands,  and  to  accomplish  a 
complete  adjustment  of  all  the  principal's  af- 
fairs, wonld  not  authoriie  the  attorney,  in  the 
course  and  for  the  purposes  of  such  a  general 
settlement,  to  ^ve  a  note  in  tbe  name  of  the 
principal ;  and  it  has  been  held  that  an  author- 
ity to  endorse  notes  does  not  empower  the  at- 
torney to  receive  notioes  of  protest,  and  that 
a  general  power  given  by  a  member  of  a  firm 
to  his  copartner  to  transact  all  his  budness, 
whether  relating  to  him  as  a  partner  or  as  an 
individual,  does  not  authorize  the  attorney  to 
transfer  the  individnal  property  of  the  princi- 
pal to  a  trustee  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 
□o  a  power  to  sell  or  convey  lands  does  not 
give  a  power  to  mortgage,  nor  does  it  authorize 
such  other  dealing  wit£  the  lands  ss  a  license 
to  enter  and  cut  timber.  If  the  power  looks 
to  conveyance  of  real  estate  and  to  the  giving 
of  doeda,  it  should  state  expressly  whether  the 
attorney  may  exchange  or  lease  or  mortgage 


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98 


ATTEAOTIOIT 


the  lands  as  well  aa  convey  them  absolnteljr; 
and  if  the  attome/  is  to  ^ve  deeda,  whether 
he  may  give  deeds  witlt  foil  coveuants;  or  if 
he  is  to  make  a  niortgage,  whether  he  may 
pve  with  it  a  power  of  sale;  though  it  has 
been  held  in  New  York  that  such  an  author' 
ity  is  fairly  implied  in  a  power  to  mortgage, 
becaose  there  a  power  of  sale  is  a  nsnal  and 
virtually  eisentitl  incident  of  a  good  mort^ 
gage,  hut  it  is  not  or  may  not  be  so  in  all 
tiie  states.  The  power  conferred  may  be  a 
mere  naked  authority  to  the  attorney,  in 
which  case  it  is  revocable  at  the  will  of  the 
oonstitnent,  and  necessarily  expires  with  his 
death ;  or  it  may  be  coupled  with  an  interest 
in  the  attorney,  as  the  phrase  is,  and  in  that 
case  the  power  cannot  be  revoked  by  the  prin- 
dpal,  nor  doea  his  death  annul  it.  Thus  a  mere 
power  to  collect  debts  due'  tbe  principal  is  such 
a  naked  and  revocable  power.  But  if  by  as- 
signment or  by  virtue  of  an  agreement  with 
tbe  principal,  or  in  any  other  way,  the  attor- 
ney naa  an  interest  in  tbe  very  debts  them- 
selves, the  power  is  then  eonpled  with  an  in- 
terest, and  the  attorney  cannot  be  compelled 
by  the  constituent  to  surrender  it.  A  mere 
redtal  in  the  instmment  that  it  is  irrevocable 
will  not  make  it  so,  nnless  one  or  other  of 
these  conditions  exist.  Alt  conditions  in  the 
power  most  be  strictly  observed ;  as  for  ex- 
ample, if  the  oonsent  of  third  persons  is  re- 
quired, it  most  be  procured ;  and  if  the  con- 
sent of  several  persons  were  required,  the 
death  of  one  of  uiem  would  prevent  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  power,  for  the  consent  even 
of  all  the  survivors  is  not  the  consent  that 
the  power  calls  for. — It  is  a  general  mle  of 
law  that  an  authority  given  to  one  person 
cannot  be  delegated  by  him  to  another;  and 
accordingly,  when  it  is  deured  to  give  an 
authority  to  the  contrary  to  the  attorney, 
it  must  be  expressly  set  forth  in  the  power. 
6nch  a  power,  commonly  called  a  power  of 
substitution  and  revocataon,  is  naaally  inserted 
in  powers  of  attorney.  When  an  attorney 
havmg  sueh  a  power  has  appointed  another 
attorney  in  hia  stead,  his  death  annuls  the 
power  of  his  substitute.  The  death  of  the 
principal  cancels  the  power  of  the  attorney  at 
ODce.  And  his  power  is  annulled  upon  an 
actual  revocation  by  the  principal  when  the 
revocation  is  communicated  to  him,  and  as  to 
third  persons  when  it  is  made  known  to  them. 
In  executing  the  power,  the  attorney  should  act 
in  the  name  of  his  principal.  For  example,  if 
he  gives  a  deed,  the  deed  should  run  m  the 
name  of  the  principal,  and  be  signed  first  with 
his  name,  the  attorney  adding  his  name  and 
authority  afterward. 

lTlUCnOIf>  See  Aimaioiir,  Cohksion, 
Obatitt,  and  Haohbtisk. 

ITtvdkAfChtfm,  a  mulatto,  or  half-Indian, 
resident  of  Fromiugham,  Mass.,  one  of  tbe  per- 
sons killed  on  the  evening  of  March  6,  1770,  in 
the  ofihiy  known  as  the  "  Boston  Massacre." 
John  Adams,  in  bis  defence  of  the  soldiers, 


ATJBER 

aecnses  him  of  havingbeen  the  principal  leader 
of  the  attack  on  the  British  troops.  His  body 
was  placed  with  that  of  Caldwell  in  Foneuil 
ball,  and  &om  that  building  it  was  borne  with 
greELt  ceremony  by  the  people,  and  buried  in 
the  city  burial  ground,  in  one  vault  with  the 
other  victims  of  the  riot 


10  he  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  the 
prince  of  Wales,  who  sent  him  to  Italy  to  be 
educated.  At  Vienna  he  was  the  pupil  of  Mo- 
zart till  17Sfl,  when  he  returned  to  England. 
He  wrote  operas,  songs,  glees,  trios,  and  m  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  sacred  music.  His  works 
are  marked  by  knowledge  of  orchestral  efi'eots, 
and  are  vigorously  written. 

ATTS,  or  Attji,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  eon  <tf 
Nana,  a  nymph,  according  to  some  legends,  by 
a  Phrygian  king.  The  tractions  differ  aboat 
the  fate  of  Atys,  the  most  current  ones  making 
him  beloved  by  Cybele,  who  made  him  her 
priest  on  his  taking  a  vow  of  petpetnal  chas- 
tity ;  this  he  broke,  end  was  punished  hy  the 
goddess  with  madness,  in  which  he  castrated 
himself  and  attempted  suicide;  but  the  goddess 
restored  him  to  hts  senses,  and  allowed  Rim  to 
continue  in  her  service,  decreeing  At  tbe  some 
time  that  all  her  priests  thereafter  should  be 
eunuchs.  A  festival  was  annn^y  celebrated 
in  memory  of  Atys  at  Pessinus.  The  myth  ia 
supposed  by  many  writers  to  typify,  in  the 
powerlessnees,  death,  and  subsequent  revival 
of  Atys,  the  death  of  nature  in  the  winter, 
and  its  revival  in  tbe  spring  through  the  agmcy 
of  superior  power. 

IDUCNE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart' 
ment  of  Bonches-dn-RhAne,  10  m.  E.  of  Mar- 
B<^les;  pop.  in  1866,  7,408.  The  town  is 
known  for  its  excellent  red  wines.  Near  it  the 
abhi  BarthSlemy  was  bom. 

llfBlUE,  light  sf  (low  Lat  aOantu,  a  cor- 
ruption of  alibi  nattu,  foreign  bom).  See 
AuEN,  vol.  i.,  p.  81S. 

iVlE,  a  department  of  Franoe,  in  Cham- 

Sagne,  bounded  .by  Mame,  Hante-Mame,  C6te 
"Or,  Yonna,  and  Seine-et-Mame ;  area,  2,1*6 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  360,637.  The  surface  i« 
mostly  level;  the  soil  in  the  southeast  is  pro- 
ductive, but  in  the  remuning  portions  it  ia 
poor.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Seine  and  its  east- 
em  affluent  the  Aubc,  which  rises  in  the  platean 
of  Langres  in  Haute-Marae.  The  depwlment 
has  manufactories  of  pottery,  tiles,  and  glaa&. 
It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Troyea, 
Arois-snr-Aube,  Bar-sur-Aube,  Bar-snr-S^no, 
and  Nogent-Bur-Seine.     Capital,  Troyea. 

1UBEN18,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ai^^che,  situated  on  the  ri^t  bank  of 
the  Ard^he  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Civennes, 
18  m.  8.W.  ofPrivas;  pop.  in  1866, 7,694.  It 
has  a  college  and  a  theological  seminary,  and 
is  the  centre  of  the  wine  and  com  trade  of  tbe 
department 

llfBEX,  Dsald  Tnntsb  Eq«tt,  a  French  com- 
poser, bora  at  Caen,  Jan.  30,  1T82,  died  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AUBERT 

Parb,  Uar  IS,  1871.  His  fkther,  a  print- 
seUer  at  Paria,  in  prosperoos  circomstancee, 
»lloir«d  him  to  devote  mnoh  attention  to  the 
ttadj  of  mnmo,  morel;  u  on  amuseraent  or  an 
elegaot  aocoinplishment  After  a  brief  expe- 
rience in  mercantile  liie  in  Ixmdon,  he  retarned 
to  Paria,  and  devoted  himself  to  mnaio,  giTins 
forth  a  number  of  little  compodldons,  Twial  and 
ioBtnnnental,  inclndint;  a  new  arrangement  of 
the  opera  Julie.  After  a  oonrse  of  etndj'  with 
Cbembini,  he  produced  in  1818  the  cetera  of 
Sijew  militaire,  which  failed;  and  its  rec^- 
tioD  so  disoonrnged  him  that  for  several  7ear8 
he  atiandoned  the  art.  The  death  of  his  father, 
however,  compelled  him  serioiiHly  to  devote 
himself  to  it  as  a  means  of  support,  and  in  1S10 
he  produced  at  the  op^ra  eomiqne  Lt  te*tametU 
it  Ut  bilUtt-dotee,  an  opera  in  one  act,  which 
waa  likewise  ansncoessfol.  Next  he  wrote 
La  beryire  ehdtelaina,  which  was  produced  in 
the  tame  theatre  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1820,  and  complete);  tamed  the  tables  in  bis 
fivor.  From  tnis  time  forward  he  produced  a 
great  nnmber  of  works,  almost  all  of  which 
were  well  received,  while  some  are  amons 
the  most  BDocesBfol  operas  now  represested 
on  Ae  stage.  An  imitator  of  Bosaini  at  the 
ootaet,  he  gradually  acquired  greater  inde- 
pendence of  style,  and  in  La  muetta  de  Por- 
tiei  (also  known  as  Mataniello)  he  formed  a 
style  of  his  own.  In  addition  to  the  works 
mentioned,  Le  eheval  dt  hronte,  Fra  Hiatolo, 
Lt  dommo  n«ir,  Let  diamantt  de  la  eovronrt^ 
L'Hirir  (Tmnmir,  Le  di«ti  et  la  hayadin,  Out- 
(oM,  La  Hrtne,  and  Saydit  are  among  his 
most  popular  operas.  Many  of  them  have 
been  translated  utt^i  English  and  German,  and 
aliuoit  all  into  Italian,  and  their  melodies  are 
familiar  wherever  music  is  knows.  Marco 
BpaJa  waa  produced  when  be  was  71  years 
of  age ;  La  Gireattierme  when  he  was  79 ;  La 
fianeit  dnroi  d«  Oarbe  when  be  waa  83 ;  and 
his  last  work,  Le  premier  Jovr  de  bonheur,  at 
thssgeofSS.  ThesQcoesstulprodactionof  this 
(qiera  in  Febraary,  1888,  was  made  the  occa- 
sion of  enthusiaslio  demonstrations  of  the  old 
niaestro's  popularity.  He  wrote  a  march  for 
the  opening  of  the  world's  exhibition  in  Lon- 
don in  1863.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
institute  in  1829,  became  a  chevalier  of  the  le- 
gion of  honor  in  I62C  and  grand  officer  in  1861, 
snd  succeeded  Cherabini  as  director  of  the 
ctnuervatory  in  1842.  The  characteristics  of 
Aaber'g  mnsic  are  apri);htline«s  and  grace,  with 
oleameea  and  simplicity  in  dramatic  effect. 

UHEBT,  CauUMe.    See  AbsantIs. 

UlianUJEMS,  a  village  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Seine,  1  m.  N.  of  the  en- 
cemte  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1866,  9,240.  E.  of  it 
i>  a  fort  of  the  same  name,  built  in  1&42. 
The  village  church  formerly  possessed  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Virgin  which  was  tielieved  to  be 
miraculous,  and  on  that  account  was  called 

See  Meblb  d'Au- 


Notre  Dame  dee  Vertus. 

imsss,  J, 


AUBUES 


lEBKUfi,  niatoe  igripH  i\  &  French  Prot- 
eetant  soldier  and  historian,  Iwrn  at  St.  Maury, 
Feb.  8, 1660,  died  in  Geneva,  April  29,  16S0. 
Even  aa  a  child  his  attachment  to  his  religion 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Koman  Oathoiics, 
and  his  refusal  to  abjure  it  caused  him  to  be 
sentenoed  to  death  before  he  waa  18  years  of 
age.  Aided  by  a  friend,  the  boy  esc«)ed,  and 
was  preeent  at  the  siege  of  Orleans.  This  end- 
ed, he  went  to  pursue  his  etudes  at  Geneva; 
but  in  1C6T  be  joined  the  Hugnenot  army  under 
the  prince  of  Oond6,  and  served  nearly  two 
years  with  such  bravery  and  ability  as  to  se- 
Qure  the  marked  favor  of  the  young  Henry 
of  Navarre,  the  future  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
whose  service  he  subsequently  entered,  remaui- 
ing  with  him  through  the  war,  and  living  at 
court  after  the  peace.  But  he  quarrelled  with 
the  king,  his  blunt  candor  and  rude  sarcasm 
constantly  giving  offence,  and  several  times 
left  or  was  compelled  to  leave  Henry's  service^ 
though  the  king  trusted  him,  and  at  one  time 
bestowed  offices  of  some  honor  upon  him.  He 
produced  during  his  re^dence  at  court'  CireL 
n  tragedy,  abounding  in  sarcaam  directed 
agdnst  the  king  and  variaus  members  of  the 
royal  family.  After  the  king's  desUi  be  pnb- 
li^ed  his  first  three  volumes  of  the  history  of 
his  time  (fVom  156ft  to  IBOl).  The  third  vol- 
ume was  seized  and  burned  by  order  of  parlia- 
ment, and  he  fled  to  Geneva,  thus  escaping  the 
sentence  of  death  that  was  soon  pronounced 
against  him.  While  under  this  condemnation, 
he  offered  bis  hand  to  a  Genevese  lady  of  the 
name  of  Burlamaqui,  who  did  not  hesitate  to 
accept  him  aa  husband  alter  he  had  revealed 
hie  dangerous  portion  with  his  wonted  candor. 
By  a  former  marriage  be  had  one  son,  Con- 
stantJne,  who  became  the  father  of  the  cele- 
brated Madame  de  Maintenon.  D'Anbi^d 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Ben6  at  Ge- 
neva. Besides  those  already  mentioned,  be 
wrote  many  less  noteworthy  works. 

ll'BIN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Aveyron,  16m.  N.  E.  of  ViUefranche;  pop, 
in  1666,  6,88S.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  aotl 
region,  which  has  of  late  been  yielding  about 
6,000,000qnintBlsof coalannually.  Theneigh- 
Iwring  village  of  Le  Gua  bas  five  furnaces  for 
the  smelting  of  iron. 

AIBLET,  Jcaa  BapUsle  ChrMapfee  Fiaie,  a 
French  botanist,  bom  at  Salon,  in  Provence, 
in  1720,  died  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  is  cele- 
brated for  his  botanical  labors  in  Mauritius 
and  in  French  Guiana.  His  herbarium  waa 
purchased  by  Sir  Joseph  Bonk?,  and  is  now  io 
the  possession  of  the  British  mnsenm. 

AVBUKN,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Cayngti 
county,  N.  Y.,  174  in.  by  rail  W.  of  Albany,  and 
2  m,  N.  of  Owflsco  lake,  the  outlet  of  which 
iutersecU  the  town  ;  pop.  in  1890,  10,986  ;  in 
1870, 1T,226.  Itstandsonhigh,  uneven gronnd,' 
and  is  handsomely  built,  with  wide  streets 
planted  with  shade  trees.  It  baa  16  churches, 
of  which  8  are  Methodist,  4  Presbyterian,  8 
Roman  Catholic,  2  Episcopal,  2  Baptist,  1  Dis- 


□igitired  by  ^OOQIC 


100 


AUBURN 


ciples',  and  ]  UniTersalist ;  and  it  is  the  seat  of 
a  Presbyterian  theological  aeminarf  foanded  in 
1821.  To  this  has  been  reoenti;  added  a  large 
bailding  for  a  library,  the  gift  of  William  E. 
Dodge  of  New  York  and  E,  B,  Morgan  of  An- 
rorft.  Anbnm  also  has  an  orphan  asjlum,  a 
home  for  the  friendless,  a  young  men's  Chris- 
tian association  with  reading-rooms,  one  high 
school,  ill  district  schools,  and  a  yonng  ladies' 
iostitnte,  eight  banks,  several  hotels,  and  two 
opera  houses.  Two  daily  newspapers,  fonr 
weeklies,  and  one  monthly  are  puolistied  here. 
Water  works  on  the  IloUey  plan  snpply  the 
city.  The  Anbnrn  state  prison,  (bunded  in 
1816,  is  conducted  on  tlie  "silent  system."  It 
is  a  fine  massive  stmeture  of  limestone,  cover- 
ing, with  its  cells,  yards,  and  workshops,  12 
acres.  The  prison  baildings  are  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  square,  standing  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  outer  wall,  which  sarronnds 
them.  This  wall,  which  is  3,000  ft.  long,  4  ft. 
thick,  and  12  to  86  ft.  high,  is  manned  night 


and  day  by  gnarda.  The  prison  has  nsnally 
over  1,000  convicts  (in  1872,  1,100),  who  are 
employed   in  a   variety  of  manufcctnrBs,   the 

Sroceeds  of  which  are  generally  sufficient  to 
efray  the  expenses  of  the  institution.  Each 
convict  on  arrival  is  assigned  to  work  at  the 
trade  with  which  he  is  familiar,  or,  if  ignorant 
of  any,  is  taught  one.  Among  the  principal  of 
these  are  the  hame  shop,  tailors',  shoemakers', 
cloth  and  carpet  weaving,  cabinet,  sash  and 
blind,  cooper,  stone-cutters',  tool,  ailetree, 
smith,  and  machine  shops.  The  convicts  make 
such  articles  as  they  use,  and  build  such  struc- 
tures as  they  occupy.  They  sleep  in  separate 
cells,  but  at  meals  and  in  the  shops  are  together. 
No  communication  by  word  or  sign  is  allowed. 
Id  an  ai^oining  enclosure  of  nine  acres  is  the 
state  asylum  for  insane  criminals,  founded  in 
1857.  It  has  usually  80  to  100  inmates.  The 
Owasco  lake  supplies  one  of  the  best  water 
powers  in  the  state,  which  is  utilized  by  nine 


danu,  the  river  falling  within  the  ci<7  limits 
IflO  ft.  There  are  upward  of  20  factories  and 
mills,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  cotton  and 
woollen  &brics,  carpets,  agricultural  imple- 
ments (many  of  which  are  exported  to  Europe), 
machine  shops  and  tool  factories,  fionring  mills, 
and  breweries.  These  manufactoriee  employ 
a  capital  of  from  $4,000,000  to  ^,000,000. 
Valuable  limestone  quarries  are  worked  within 
the  city  limits.  One  of  tlio  two  branches  of 
the  New  York  Central  railroad  runs  through 
Auburn.  The  Southern  Central  railroad  also 
passes  throt^h  it,  connecting  it  with  Lake  On- 
tario and  the  Pennsylvania  coal  mines.  Au- 
bom,  formerly  called  Ifardenburgh's  Comers, 
was  first  settled  by  Capt.  John  L.  Uardenburgh 
in  1T98.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  court 
boose  stands  an  elevation  called  Fort  Hill, 
in  the  forest  on  the  summit  of  which  were 
found  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Indian  fortifica- 
tion and  relics  of  its  former  occupants,  snch  as 
arrow-heads,  tomahawks,  and  pottery.  It  is 
now  the  rite  of  a  cemetery, 
prominent  among  whose  monu- 
ments is  one  to  the  memory  of 
Ix^ao,  the  Cayuga  chief. 

AUBUSSOir,  a  town  of  central 
France,  capital  of  an  arrondis- 
sement  of  the  department  of 
Orense,   built   in   a   j>ictarcsque 


r  the  r 


),  20 


m.  8.  E.  of  Gu6ret ;  pop.  in 
18Q6,  6,626.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  manufacture  of  carpets, 
which  employs  the  mmority  of 
the  inhabitants.  Woollen  and 
cotton  goods  are  also  made,  and 
there  are  dye  housea,  tan  yards, 
and  factories  of  various  kinds. 
The  town  was  founded  in  the 
Stii  century,  and  was  subject  to 
a  feudal  lord,  the  ruins  of  whose 
castle  are  still  visible. 

ICBt^SON,    Plnre    r,    grand 

master  of  the  hoapitallen,   or 

knights  of  Bt  John  of  Jerusalem,  born  at  La- 

marcbe,  France,  in  1423,  died  in  1603.     He 

is  said  to  have  first  served  in  the  Hungarian 


his  campaign  against  the  Swiss.  He  next  re- 
paired to  the  island  of  Khodes,  where  he  was 
admitted  as  a  knight  of  St.  John.  He  soon 
became  a  prominent  member  of  the  order,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  grand  master  Dea  Urmna 
he  was  unanimously  elected  his  sncoessor. 
When  Mohammed  II.  tlireatened  Italy,  D'An- 
busson  had  Rhodes  strongly  fortified,  at  the 
same  time  forming  an  alliance  with  the  bey  of 
Tunis  and  sultan  of  Egypt  Mohammed  sent 
against  Rhodes  a  fleet  of  ISO  sail,  carrying  an 
army  of  100,000  men,  under  the  command 
of  the  apostnte  Misach  Pal^ologns  (Messih 
Pasha).  The  Turks  invested  the  town  of 
Rhodes  at  the  end  of  May,  1480.  D'Anbasson, 
who  made  an  admirable  defence,  waa  so  se- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ADOH 

*erelf  woanded  that  his  life  wob  deBpured  of; 
bnt  he  cranpelled  the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege 
titer  two  moDths.  He  now  became  active  in 
tlie  iutrignes  that  troubled  the  conrt  of  Con- 
stintinople.  He  received  at  Rhodes  Zizim  or 
Jem,  the  brother  of  Snitan  B^jazet,  who  be- 
came in  his  bands  a  powerfu]  inatmmenC  of  in- 
finence  on  the  Turkish  court.  Zuam  was  first 
transferred  to  France,  then  delivered  to  Pope 
innoceDt  Till.,  who  rewarded  D'Anbusson 
with  the  title  of  cardinal  and  the  office  of  legate 
of  the  holy  see  in  Asia.    Bat  the  iailure  of  a 

K'  n  be  had  long  cherished  for  the  union  of 
rope  agunst  the  Tnrks,  together  with  other 
dimipointmenta,  caused  him  to  retire  from 
afiuts,  and  his  last  jears  were  spent  in  Gbodes. 

mCB,  an  old  city  in  southern  France,  capita! 
of  Oie  department  of  Gers,  on  the  river  Gers, 
«m.W.of  Toulouse;  pop.inl88e,12,600.  Its 
upper  part  is  utoated  on  a  high  hill  crowned 
\>j  an  old  Gothic  cathedral,  and  connected 
vitli  the  lower  hj  a  lung  brid^  of  stairs. 
Anch  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  a  tribunal 
of  commerce,  and  a  college.  It  has  manutac- 
tures  of  thread  and  cott«n  stuffs,  and  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade,  particnlarlj  in  the 
brandiea  of  Armagnao. 

IDCflHETT.  !•  Brtwt,  an  American  lawyer, 
bom  prot>ably  in  En^snd,  died  in  Boston  in 
April,  17S0.  He  was  of  Bcoteh  descent,  set- 
tled at  Boston  early  ia  the  19th  century,  at- 
tained a  high  position  in  his  profession,  and 
VIS  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  admiralty 
in  1T33.  In  1T41  he  was  in  England  as  agent 
for  the  colony,  and  published  there  a  pamphlet 
entiUed  "The  Importance  of  Cape  Breton  to 
the  British  Nation,  and  a  Flan  for  Taking  the 
Place."  II>  BMot,  son  of  the  preceding,  died 
b  Loudon  in  1788.  He  was  distingniwed  as 
an  advocate  and  jury  lawyer  at  Boston,  and  in 
1T6T  WHS  appointed  jndge  of  the  court  of  ad- 
ruiralty,  which  office  he  exercised  as  long  as 
the  royal  authority  was  recognized ;  but  in 
17TS,  being  a  zealous  tory,  he  went  to  England. 
Be  was  associated  with  John  Adams  in  the 
defence  of  Capt  Preston.  III.  BtHneL  an 
American  clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Boston,  Jan.  20,  1722,  died  in  New 
York,  ICaroh  6,  17T7.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  174S,  and  went  to  England  to 
itady  for  holy  orders.  After  his  ordination  he 
was  apptnnted  by  the  society  for  the  propaga- 
tiin  lA  the  eospel  ao  assistant  minister  of  Trin- 
ity church,  New  York,  and  in  1764  sncoeeded 
to  the  charge  of  all  the  chnrohes  in  the  city. 
When  tbe  American  troopa  took  possession  of 
Now  York  in  1775,  he  was  forbidden  by  Lord 
Stirling  to  read  the  prayer  for  tbe  king;  but 
he  persisted  in  doing  so,  although  his  chnrch 
*as  entered  by  a  company  of  soldiers  witli 
drams  beating  and  with  the  threat  of  pulling 
him  out  of  the  pulpit.  He  then  shnt  up  the 
choToh  and  chapels  and  took  the  keys  with 
liim  to  New  Jersey,  leaving  orders  that  the 
churches  dioald  not  be  opened  until  the  lit- 
nrgy  could  be  read  withont  iuterrnption.    New 


AUCKLAND 


101 


YoA  being  again  in  the  British  possession,  he 
attempted  to  return,  and  saceeeded  after  great 
hardships  only  to  And  his  church  and  parson- 
age burnt,  and  his  papers  and  the  records  of 
the  churon  destroyed.  The  next  Sunday  he 
preached  for  the  last  time  in  St.  Paul's.  Tbe 
various  trials  he  had  undergone  brought  on  an 
illness  which  carried  him  off  in  a:  few  days. 
IT.  Sir  SmmI,  a  British  general,  son  of  the 
preceding,  bom  in  New  York,  June  S2,  1TG8, 
died  in  Dublin,  Aug.  11,  1822.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  college  in  1775,  and  the  next  year 
entered  the  army  under  Sir  William  Howe,  and 
took  part  in  three  campaigns.  From  1783  to 
1T9Q  he  served  in  India,  and  was  at  the  siege 
of  Seringapatam  in  command  of  a  company 
under  Lord  Comwallis.  He  was  adjutant  gen- 
eral in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  IBOO.  In 
1 806  be  took  command  of  the  troops  ordered 
to  Booth  America,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier 
general,  and  in  1807  carried  tlie  strongly  forti- 
fied city  of  Montevideo  by  assaalL  On  his  re- 
turn be  was  made  lieutenant  general.  In  1810 
he  was  commander-iQ-cbief  in  the  Camatic, 
and  in  1811  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  col- 
onies of  Java  and  Sumatra.  On  his  return  to 
Europe  in  1818  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  forces  in  Ireland. 

IDCKLAHD.  I.  WOUh  Um,  baron,  a  British 
diplomatist,  bom  about  1700,  died  in  1814.  In 
1778  he  was  employed  with  Lord  Carlisle  in 
the  attempt  at  a  settlement  of  the  mptnre  be- 
tween tbe  British  government  and  the  Ameri- 
can colonies.  He  entered  parliament,  was  sec- 
retary of  Ireland,  and  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
Louis  XVI.,  where  he  negotiated  a  ooinmeroial 
treaty.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
of  1789  he  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  as  envoy 
extraordinary;  and  for  the  mannerin  which  he 
discharged  his  duties  there  be  was  called  to  an 
account  hy  the  house  of  commons  on  his  retom. 
He  was  created  a  baron  in  tbe  Irish  peera^ 
in  1789,  and  also  in  the  British  peerage  m 
1793.  lie  wrote  "  Principles  of  the  Penal 
Laws"  (17T1),  and  various  pamphlets,  includ- 
ing one  on  tbe  "  State  of  tbe  Poor  in  England." 
II.  Cwiga  Edea,  earl  of,  bod  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Angast,  17B4,  died  Jan.  1,  1849.  He 
was  premdent  of  the  board  of  trade  under 
Earl  Grey  in  1880,  and  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty under  Lord  Melbourne  in  1884.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  India  as  governor  general. 
Daring  his  administration  of  this  office  the 
opium  war  with  China  broke  out,  and  the  di»- 
aatroQB  expedition  against  Afghanistan  took 
place.  Ijord  Auckland's  chief  personal  action 
was  exercised  upon  a  svstem  of  native  free 
schools,  and  an  improved  administration  of 
joatiee.  In  1S41  he  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
EUenborough,  and  on  bis  return  was  created 
earl  of  Aaokland  and  Baron  Eden. 

ACCKLIHD.  I.  A  province  of  New  Zealand, 
occupying  the  north  and  centre  of  North  isl- 
and ;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
eS,3SG,  beiudes  16,000  Maoris.  II.  Acity,  cap- 
ital of  the  preceding  province  and  formerly  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AUCKLAND  ISLANDS 


New  Zealiind,  od  the  S.  shore  of  W&itemafa  har- 
hor,  in  lat.  86°  61'  8.,  Ion.  1T4'  45'  E, ;  pop.  in 
1871,12,987;  with  sahurbs,  1S,000,  chiefly  Eng- 
lish, Irish,  Scotch,  and  Qermana.  The  tfiva  was 
fbondedin  1840,  and  became  a  borongh  in  18B1. 
It  inclades  an  area  of  16  bj  7  m.,  is  Bnrroonded 
by  fonr  vill^^  for  pensiooed  soldiers,  and  di- 
nded  into  14  wards,  11  of  which  are  outside 
of  the  town.  The  streets  are  well  laid  out. 
There  are  several  ohnrches,  inclndinj  an  Eng- 
li^  cathedral.  St.  John's  college  is  4  m.  from 
the  town,  Tha  nninber  of  registered  vessels 
is  upward  of  100.  Gold  was  first  discovered 
near  Anckland  in  1852,  but  the  mines  are  not 
BB  productive  as  those  in  other  parts  of  New 
Zealand.  Coal  fields  and  petroleum  were  found 
in  1809  and  1667.  The  chief  exports  are  gold, 
wool,  and  gam ;  the  imports  are  manufactured 
goods,  tea,  tobacco,  sugar,  wine,  spirits,  and 
Seer.  Emigration  to  Auckland  is  cl>ecked  by 
the  insurrection  of  the  Maoris,  who  in  Novem- 
ber, 1871,  committed  several  murders  in  the 
province,  including  that  of  Bishop  Patterson. 
The  scat  of  the  colonial  government  has  within 
a  few  years  been  removed  to  Wellington. 

AIICKUND  ISLAHD8,  a  group  lying  between 
lat  60"  24'  and  61°  4'  S.,  and  Ion.  183°  46'  and 
164°  3'  E.,  180  m.  8.  of  New  Zealand,  and  900 
m.  8.  E.  of  Tasiuania.  They  were  discovered 
Aug.  16,  1806,  by  Abraham  Briscoe,  master  of 
Mesers.  Enderby's  English  whaler  Ocean,  and 
called  after  Lord  Auckland.  They  ore  of  vol- 
canic formation,  and  consist  of  three  principal 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  Anckland  pro- 
per, SO  m.  long  and  15  m.  wide,  with  en  area 
of  100,000  acres  and  a  mountain  1,860  feet 
high.  Port  Ross,  at  the  W.  extremity  of  the 
island,  contuns  an  inlet  called  Laurie  harbor, 
the  station  of  the  southern  whale-flshing  com- 


pany of  the  Messrs.  Enderby,  to  whom  the 
islands  were  granted  by  the  Britdsh  government, 
and  who  obtained  a  charter  for  this  company 
in  1949 ;  bnt  the  establishment  was  broken  up 
in  1802.  Tha  most  northerly  of  the  group  are 
oalled  Enderby  islets.  The  island  of  Ichaboe 
contains  guano  deposits.  The  soil  of  the  Auck- 
land islands  is  very  productive. 

ADGTIOir  (Lat,  auetio,  the  act  of  increa«ng), 
a  public  sale,  whereat  persons  openly  compete, 
the  property  being  so!d  to  him  who  will  give 
the  most  for  it  In  Holland,  and  at  what  ar« 
called  Dutch  auctions  elsewhere,  this  process 
is  reversed,  the  seller  naming  a  price  beyond 
the  value  of  his  goods,  which  is  gradually  low- 
ered until  some  one  closes  with  the  offer. 
Rome,  BO  far  as  is  known,  invented  the  anction, 
which  was  at  first  held  for  the  sale  of  military 
spoils  among  the  soldiers  behind  a  spear  stuck 
in  the  ground,  whence  it  was  called  avetio 
gui  haila  (under  the  spear),  or  tubhattatio. 
The  signal  of  the  spear  was  oiterward  put  np 
at  all  sorts  of  auctions,  and  the  name  was  re- 
tained long  after  the  signal  was  disnaed.  After 
the  death  of  Fertinax,  A.  D.  19S,  the  prnto- 
rion  guards  put  np  the  Roman  empire  at  anc- 
tion, which,  after  a  number  of  bids  by  8nlpiciBn 
and  Didius  Jnlianus,  the  sole  competitors,  was 
knocked  down  to  the  latter  for  6,200  drachms 
(about  }1, 000)  to  each  soldier. — In  England  sales 
"  by  the  candle  "  or  "  by  the  inch  of  candle," 
which  are  still  occasionally  advertised,  derive 
their  name  from  an  ancient  practice  of  measur- 
ing the  time  within  which  the  biddings  must  be 
completed  by  a  candle,  the  highest  bidder  at  the 
moment  the  inch  bums  out  becoming  the  pur- 
chaser. The  minimum  price  at  which  the 
owner  was  willing  to  part  with  his  property 
was  sometimes  put  under  a  candlestick — "  can- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ADDE 

dicstiok  biddings;  "  and  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
Isnd  still  ooonr  bsIob  where  the  bidders  do  not 
knoweaol)  other's  offers — "damb  biddings." — 
In  point  of  law,  the  anctioneer  is  the  aeller's 
a^t,  and  as  such  has  a  special  property  in  the 
goods,  a  lien  upon  them  or  upon  the  purchase 
money,  where  he  is  anthorized  to  receive  it, 
for  his  coinmiBsioii,  the  anotion  datj-,  and  the 
cbai^es  of  the  sale.  If  he  exoeed  his  aathority, 
or  r^ose  to  pve  the  name  of  his  principal,  he 
readers  himself  parsonally  liable.  In  sides  of 
real  estate  he  is  nsnallf  authorized  to  receive 
the  d^ioBit.  bnt  not  the  residue  of  the  purchase 
money.  The  conditions  of  sale  and  the  plans 
and  deaoription  of  the  propertj,  if  printed  or 
written,  eontrol  the  oral  statements  of  the  bdc- 
tioneer.  Bligbt  inaccnracies  of  description  do 
not,  bat  substantial  ones  do  avoid  the  sale.  A 
bid  at  an  anotion  may  be  retracted  before  the 
hammer  is  down,  and,  in  coses  where  a  written 
entry  is  required  to  complete  the  sale,  before 
that  is  made.  For  a  bid  is  only  an  offer,  which 
does  not  bind  either  party  nntil  assented  to. 
Frand  npoo  either  side  avoids  the  sale.  The 
employment  of  bidders  by  the  owner  is  or  is 
not  ill^al,  aooording  as  ciroarastances  tend  to 
ihow  bitd  or  good  ^th.  To  employ  them  in 
order  to  prevent  a  sacrifice  by  baying  in  the 
pnqterty  la,  except  where  the  sale  is  adver- 
tised as  being  "without  reserve,"  allowable; 
bnt  it  is  a  fraud  to  use  them  for  the  purpose  of 
enhancing  the  price  through  a  flctitioas  com- 
petition. On  tne  other  hand,  the  sale  is  void 
if  the  purchaser  prevails  upon  others  to  desist 
from  biddii^  by  appeals  to  thrir  sympathy  or 
labe  reprosentations. 

ITDE,  a  maritime  department  of  France,  in 
Langnedoc,  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
thedepartmentsof  Pyr^n£es-Orientalea,  Ari^, 
Haate^aronse,  Tarn,  and  Il^ranlt;  area, 
9,437  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1BT2,  2SS,92T.  It  is  sub- 
vert to  Tiolent  gales.  The  suriace  Is  raountain- 
ons  and  hilly,  the  soil  generally  prodactive. 
The  canal  of  Langnedoc  intersects  the  northern 
part  of  the  department  from  W.  to  B.,  and  the 
canal  of  Bobine  or  Narboime  crosses  the  east- 
em  portion  from  K.  to  8.  Corn  and  wine  are 
abundant,  and  are  exported.  The  river  Ande 
rises  near  its  8.  border  in  Fyrfinfies-Orientales, 
floirs  N.  as  &r  as  Oarcassonne,  and  then  along 
the  S.  bonk  of  the  Langnedoc  canal  to  Nar- 
bonne,  a  few  miles  E.  of  which  it  &lta  into  the 
Uediterranean.  The  Lers,  an  affloent  of  the 
Ari^^  flows  along  the  W.  border.  The  de- 
partment is  dividMl  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Oarcassonne,  Costelnandary,  Limonx,  and 
Xarbonno.  It  has  manufactnres  of  woollen 
clotba,  paper,  iron  ware,  brandy,  salt,  and 
esrtbenware.     Capital,  Oarcassonne. 

UiOmOT,  Jew  BtptMc,  a  French  painter 
and  natnrattst,  bom  at  Roohefort  in  1TS9,  died 
in  1800.  He  stndi^  painting  in  Paris,  and  be~ 
came  distinguished  for  his  miniatures.  Having 
been  employed  to  paint  some  specimens  ot 
natural  Metory,  be  acquired  an  absorbinjT  in- 
terest in  the   science.     A  Journey   throngh 


ADDODIN  103 

England  and  HoUand  hmished  materials  for  a 
number  of  admirable  designs,  which  appeared 
shortly  afterward  in  Olivier's  Hi»Uir«  d«*  in- 
taetei.  The  artist  next  prepared  bis  ffuteirt 
vaturellt  dt*  tinge*,  dtt  maki*  et  de»  galiopi- 
ihiquM  (Paris,  1900),  containing  Ifl  colored 
plates,  and  showing  an  equal  facility  in  the 
author  as  designer,  engraver,  and  writer.  The 
splendor  of  his  coloring  had  never  been  equalled, 
and  by  certain  ingenious  processes,  saoh  as  the 
application  of  gold  leaf  variously  tinted,  he  was 
enabled  to  reproduce  the  most  gorgeona  plu- 
mage of  birds  and  insects.  His  substitution  of 
oils  for  water  colors  is  also  considered  a  great 
improvement  in  the  art  of  animal  illnstration. 
His  other  works,  Hiitoirt  ffinirale  de»  eolibrii, 
del  oitamx-'tnoTteha,  dei  jaeamarw  at  da  pro- 
merop*  (Paris,  1809),  and  ffittoire  naturelU  det 
grimptreaun  et  dei  oiteaug  da  paradiM,  were 
published  after  his  death,  and  are  still  among 
the  most  esteemed  of  their  kind. 

ADDLET,  'nsHai,  lord,  lord  chancellor  of 
England  in  tbe  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  supposed 
to  nave  been  born  at  Earl's  Colne,  in  Essex, 
died  at  his  London  reddence  in  1544.  In  1S29 
he  was  made  speaker  of  the  honse  of  commons 
in  that  long  parliament  which  broke  up  the 
smaller  religions  houses  through ont  the  king- 
dom. In  16S3  he  was  knighted,  and  snooeedM 
Sir  Thomas  More  as  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
and  on  Jan.  2S,  1G8S,  became  lord  chancellor 
of  Eogland,  which  office  he  retained  until  his 
death.  Audley  presided  at  the  trial  of  Sir 
Thomas  More.  In  the  distribution  of  the  chnrch 
lands,  the  priory  of  the  canons  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  usually  called  Christ  chnrcb,  in  Lon- 
don, with  all  the  real  estate  of  the  establish- 
ment, and  the  great  abbey  of  Walden  in  Essex, 
fell  to  his  share.  The  former  he  altered  into  a 
town  residence  for  himself.  In  1688  he  was 
created  Baron  Audley  of  Walden.  In  1S4&  he 
gave  certain  lands  toward  the  support  of  the 
institution  then  known  as  Buokinghatn  college, 
Oxford,  which  was  thereupon  incorporated 
under  the  name  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen, 

lUDODlSD,  MyHK  a  French  traveller  and 
writer,  bom  about  1930,  Ilaring  separated 
from  her  hnsband,  who  was  a  notary  of  Mar- 
seilles, she  vinted  Egypt,  Turkey,  RoBsia,  and 
the  United  States,  contributing  to  newspapers 
and  delivering  lectures  in  New  York  (1868) 
and  in  Paris  (1969).  Her  principal  works  are: 
Oommant  aimtnt  let  hommet  (1801;  8d  ed., 
1865);  Xm  myttiret  du  terail  et  det  haramt 
turet  (1868) ;  XiM  myttirat  de  rSgypte  ditoiUi 
(1865);  Ouerra  aux  hammea  (1886);  L' Orient 
et  lea  pmipladet  (166T) ;  Letlre  awe  diputit, 
let  droitt  de  la  famme  (1867) ;  and  A  traneft 
VAmMqua  du  Nord  (Paris,  1871). 

IDDOnW,  Jhh  Ttrt«r,  a  French  cntomnlagist, 
bora  in  Paris,  April  27,  1707,  died  Nov.  9, 
1841.  He  married  the  daugiiter  of  Alexandre 
Brongniart,  with  whom  and  with  Dumas  he 
established  in  18S4  the  Annalea  dea  teieneet 
rMtitrellei.  He  succeeded  Latreille  as  profes- 
sor of  entomology  at  the  mnsenm,  obtdned  his 


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104 


AUDRAIN 


diploma  as  a  phyaldaa  in  1836,  became  snb- 
director  of  the  library  of  tbe  iogtitate,  founder 
and  preMdent  of  the  entomological  society, 
and  in  1838  member  of  the  academy.  At  the 
request  of  the  government  he  investigated  the 
iitjnry  caused  by  insects  to  the  silk  and  vine 
culture,  and  published  the  results  of  his  obser- 
vations in  the  annals  of  the  academy  and  of 
the  entomological  society,  lie  described  Sa- 
vigny'a  zoological  designs  in  tlje  great  work 
on  Egypt  published  under  the  auspices  of  the 
government,  contributed  to variouscyclopndias, 
and  published  with  Uilne-£d wards,  his  colla- 
borator in  many  other  works,  Rtekercktt  pour 
tenir  d  PAutoiTe  natitrelle  da  littoral  m  la 
France  (2  vqIs.,  Paris,  1830);  and  with  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Blanchard,  Hiitoira  del  intKtet 
nuiii/iUt  d  la  vifftie,  et  partieulUrement  de  la 
pj/rale,  qui  dirattt  Ui  vignolla  (Paris,  1842). 

IDDUIX,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Missouri ;  area, 
680  sq.  m.;  pop,  in  1870,  12,807,  of  whom 
1,070  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  or 
nndulating;  the  soil  is  generally  fertile  and 
suitable  for  graziag.  In  ISTO  the  county  pro- 
duced 44,645  bushels  of  wheat,  61S,9flS  of  In- 
dian com,  292,430  of  oats,  12,226  tons  of  hay, 
6,860  lbs.  of  tobacco,  28,228  of  wool,  and  241,- 
86S  of  butter.  Capital,  Mexico,  on  tbe  Nortb 
Missouri  railroad. 

ADDUlir,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  of 
French  engravers,  all  descending  from  Lonis 
Aodran,  an  officer  of  tbe  wolf-hunt  under  Hen- 
ry IV.,  whose  son  CtAtrDB,  bom  in  1692,  set- 
tled at  Lyons,  became  professor  of  engraving 
at  the  academy  of  that  city,  and  died  in  1S77. 
G£babd,  son  of  Claude,  bom  at  Lyons  in  1S40, 
studied  three  years  at  Rome  under  Carlo  Ma- 
ratti,  and  acquired  fame  by  his  engraving  of  a 

Eortriut  of  Pope  Clement  IX.  Colbert  invited 
im  to  Paris,  where  he,  with  almost  unparal- 
leled ability,  engraved  for  Lonis  XIV.  the  best 
pictares  of  Le  Bnin.  He  was  also  the  antjior 
of  a  work  on  the  proportions  of  the  human 
figure,  published  in  folio,  with  27  plates  of 
andent  statues.  He  died  in  Paris  in  170S. 
Jb&k,  brother  of  Gerard,  bom  about  1667,  had 
his  stndio  in  the  Gobelins,  and  left  a  number 
of  fine  worka  of  art,  the  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  his  engraving  of  the  EnUvement  dei 
Sabine,  after  Ponssin.  He  died  in  1756.  Sev- 
eral others  of  the  family  attained  considerable 
distinction. 

iCDEBOH,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Iowa;  area,  6S0 
Bq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  1,212.  It  is  intersected 
by  on  affluent  of  the  Missouri.  In  1870  the 
ooanty  produced  26,174  bushels  of  wheat,  96,- 
150  of  Indian  com,  7,100  of  oats,  and  S,457 
tons  of  hay.     Capital,  Exira. 

AVDEBON,  Jriia  Jaaes,  an  American  omitliol- 
ogist,  bom  on  a  plantation  in  Louisiana,  May 
4,  1780,  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  27,  18S1.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  French  navy. 
Wlien  very  young  he  showed  tbe  greatest 
fondness  for  birds,  keeping  many  as  pets.  He 
made  sketches  of  these,  and,  disclosing  eon- 
nderable  talent  as  a  draughtsman,  was  taken 


AUDUBON 

to  France  to  be  educated,  and  placed  in  tlie 
studio  of  the  celebrated  painter  David.  He 
was  17  years  old  when  ne  returned  to  his 
native  country,  and  he  afterward  became  pos- 
sessed of  a  fine  farm  on  the  banks  of  tbe 
Schnylkill  in  Pennsylvania.  His  researches 
into  the  habits  of  birds,  and  his  drawings  of 
tbem,  absorbed  his  attention,  and  though  un- 
successful at  first  in  bringing  his  drawings  be- 
fore the  public,  he  laid  during  the  years  of  bis 
life  in  Pennsylvania  the  foundations  of  the 
great  work  which  he  afterward  produced.  A 
severe  trial  befell  him  when,  after  having  ac- 
cumulated a  large  stock  of  the  most  carefully 
executed  designs,  he  discovered  that  the  whole 
of  them  had  been  destroyed  by  mice.  After 
10  years'  residence  in  Pennsylvania,  he  removed 
to  Henderson,  Kentucky,  where  he  embarked 
in  trade.  In  1810  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Scotch  ornithologist  Alexander  Wilson, 
who  was  then  prosecuting  his  own  researches 
in  the  American  wilderness,  and  accompanied 
him  in  his  excursions.  Tbe  next  yearAndnbon 
visited  the  bayous  of  Florida,  gathering  with 
his  rifle  and  pencil  new  subjects  for  study.  In 
1834  he  went  to  Phikdelphia  and  New  York, 
to  make  arrangements  for  the  publication  of 
ike  results  of  his  labors  ;  and  for  the  same  pur- 
pose he  sailed  for  England  in  1826.  Ho  was 
everywhere  received  by  learned  societies  and 
scientific  men  with  tlie  utmost  cordiality  and 
enthu^oBm.  Among  his  warmest  admirers  in 
Great  Britain  were  Jefirey,  John  Wilson,  and 
Sir  Walter  Scott ;  and  in  Paris,  Cuvier,  Geoffrey 
St-IIilaire,  and  Humboldt.  Of  the  170  sub- 
scribers at  tl,000  each  to  his  splendid  volume, 
the  "Birds  of  America,"  Jiearly  one  half  came 
fWim  England  and  France.  This  volume  was 
issued  in  numbers,  containing  five  plates  each, 
every  object  being  of  the  aiie  of  life.  By  Nov. 
11,  1828,  eleven  numbers  of  the  work  had  ap- 
peared, with  nearly  100  plates.  In  1829  he  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  where  he  gathered 
mat«rials  for  a  new  work,  which  he  termed 
his  " Omitholc^cal  Bitwraphies."  In  1832  he 
made  another  visit  to  England,  where  in  the 
course  of  two  years  the  second  volume  of  the 
"Birds  of  America"  was  published,  and  a  sec- 
ond volume  also  of  the  "  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphies." In  1833,  having  retumed  for  the 
last  time  to  this  country,  he  estabhshed  him- 
self in  a  beautiful  residence  on  the  banks  of 
the  Hudson,  near  the  city  of  New  York,  where 
he  commenced  a  new  edition  of  the  "Birds  of 
America,"  in  imperial  octavo.  This  was  finished 
in  seven  volumes  in  1844.  During  this  interval 
Audubon  exhibited  in  the  hall  of  tiie  New  York 
lyceum  of  natural  history  a  collection  of  his 
original  drawings  containing  several  thousand 
specimens  of  birds  and  animals,  all  of  which 
had  been  gathered  by  his  own  hand,  all  drawn 
as  large  as  life,  and  all  represented  in  their 
natural  habitats  or  localities.  He  next  pro- 
jected a  work  on  the  "  Quadrupeds  of  America," 
on  the  same  imperial  scale  with  tliat  on  the 
birds.    For  this  purpose  he  began,  in  company 


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AUENBBVGGEB 

with  his  BODS,  Victor  Gifford  uul  John  Wood- 
boose,  who  both  inherited  macb  of  his  talent 
ns  an  artiat  as  well  aa  a  naturaliat,  a  new 
course  of  travel.  Bat  the  approach  of  old  age 
induced  hie  friends  to  disauode  him  ftotn  the 
more  toilsome  exfteditions  which  he  thoaght 
necessary  to  complete  this  H^herae.  A  great 
deal  of  the  labor  was  performed  for  him  by  his 
ftiend  Dr.  Kachman,  of  Chorleaton,  &.  C,  and 
he  was  lareelj  assisted  in  the  other  depart- 
ments by  his  sons.  He  died  before  the  work 
was  ended.  Hia  aons  completed  and  publiahed 
the  "Qoadrapeda  of  America,"  in  folio  and 
imjieriai  octavo  volumes,  aniform  with  the  two 
editions  of  the  "Birds,"  but  died  without  exe- 
codng  their  cherished  desisn  of  writing  a  biog' 
raphy  of  their  father.  Mrs.  Andaboa,  now 
(IB78)  npward  of  6<J  years  of  age,  prepared, 
witit  the  ^d  of  a  friend,  a  memoir  wliiob  ap- 
peared in  New  York  in  1SB9,  entitled  "  The 
Life  of  John  James  Andnbon  the  Naturalist," 
accompanied  bya  portrait  after  Henry  Inman'a 
well  known  pictnre,  and  a  view  of  Andubon's 
reddeace.  The  work  was  also  published  in 
London.  Andnbon  was  a  fellow  of  the  Lin- 
Bffian  and  zoological  societies  of  London,  of  the 
natural  history  aociet;  of  Paris,  of  the  Wer- 
neriaa  society  of  Edinbargli,  of  the  lycenm  of 
natsral  history  at  New  York,  and  an  honorary 
member  of  the  society  of  natural  history  at 
Kanchaster,  uf  the  royal  Scottiah  academy  of 
painting,  scnlpture,  and  architecture,  and  of 
many  outer  scientific  bodies. 

AUBITBRCGGEK  fON  iCEMBBCO  (often  coUed 
ATSNBBDoaiB),  LNfaM,  the  inventor  of  the 
method  of  inveatigating  internal  diseases  by 
percussion,  bom  in  Gratz,  Styrio,  Nov.  19, 1722, 
died  in  Vienna,  May  18,  1809,  He  was  physi- 
cian to  the  Spaniah  hospital  in  Vienna,  and 
first  made  known  bis  disoovery  in  a  treatise 
entitled  Inveatum  Novum  ex  Percuttiojie  Tho- 
raeit  Humani  Interni  Peetorit  Morboi  Dete- 
gmdi  (Vienna,  1761),  which  was  translated  into 
French  by  Rozi^re  (1770),  and  again  by  Cor- 
visort  (1808),  and  into  English  by  Dr.  John 
Forbes  (1834.)    (See  Adsovltatiom.) 

IEEUjICH,  BertMd,  a  German  author,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  bom  at  Nordstetten  in  the 
Black  Forest,  Feb.  28, 1813.  He  stndied  theol- 
ogy and  Jnriapradenoe  at  TQbingen,  and  phi- 
losophy and  history  at  Munich  and  Berlin.  Hia 
earliest  historic^  novels  treat  of  Judaism,  as 
SpiiMta  (2  vols.,  Btnttgart,  1837),  and  IHchter 
Uttd  Kaufjoann  (2  vols.,  1839);  and  in  1841 
he  published  a  German  tranalation  of  Spinoza's 
works  in  5  vols.,  with  a  highly  appreciative 
biographical  notice.  Snbaequently  he  became 
celebrated  by  bis  descriptions  of  German  Til- 
lage life,  remarkable  for  on  abundance  of  phil- 
osophical refleotioDs  and  poetical  feeling,  es- 
pecially by  his  Schteartwdider  Dor/gaehiekUn 
(4  vols.,  1848- 'S4 ;  English  translation,  "  Black 
Forest  Village  Stories,"  1860);  hia  popular  polit- 
ical almanac,  Der  Oetattenmann  (1846-8;  re- 
published in  Schattka»tlgin  cUt  Oevattertmaaai, 
1866) ;  Sehrift  wnd  Volk  (1848) ;  Neue*  Ltbm 


105 

(1851) ;  and  sUll  more  by  his  BarJ^veU  (1866 ; 
English  translation,  "Little  Barefoot,"  1867); 
Joteph  im  Sehnee  (1860;  English  tranalatJon, 
"Joseph  in  the  Snow,"  1867);  Edelieeiu 
(1861;  English  translation,  1869);  Aiif  der 
Hohe  (186G  ;  English  translation,  "  On-  the 
Heights,"  1866) ;  and  Dot  Landhaut  am  Shein 
(1869),  of  which  there  are  aeverol  English 
tranalationa  under  the  titles  of  "  Villa  Eden  " 
and  "  Villa  on  the  Rhine."  The  tale,  IHe 
Frau  Frofatorin  (1848  ;  English  translation, 
"  The  Professor's  Lady,"  new  ed.,  1871),  used 
by  Madame  Birch-Pfeilfer  in  her  drama,  Dorf 
und  Stadt,  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  most 
characteristic  works.  A  number  of  hia  tales 
were  published  in  an  English  traoslatdon  in 
I86S  under  the  title  of  "German  Storiea,"  and 
in  French  in  18SS  nnder  that  otContad'Auer- 
baeh.  There  are  vurioas  other  translations 
from  his  works  in  Engliah,  French,  Dutch, 
and  Swedish.  He  has  also  written  a  tragedy, 
Andree  Hofer  (I.eipsic,  1860),  and  a  drama, 
Der  TTiiAV'-ueA  (1666),  but  they  were  not  as 
successful  as  his  tales.  His  principal  political 
work  is  Tagehiich  a-ux  Fun  (Breslau,  1849  ; 
English  translation,  "  Eventa  in  Vienna,"  Lon- 
don, 1849).  Since  18G8  he  has  edited  in  Ber- 
lin a  pupnlar  almanac,  Beuttoher  VolithaUn- 
dtr,  and  be  chiefly  re^des  in  that  city.  A 
new  edition  of  hia  complete  works  was  pub- 
lished in  Stuttgart  in  1871.  Daring  the  Franco- 
German  war  he  accompanied  for  some  time  one 
of  the  German  princes,  and  wrote  letters  for  a 
German  newspaper. 

lUERBAGH,  Hriuteh,  a  medical  professor  and 
senator  in  Leipsic,  born  in  1482,  died  in  1648. 
Hia  real  name  was  Stroroer,  but  be  adopted 
the  name  of  hia  native  town,  Anerbach,  in  Ba- 
varia, and  in  1660  erected  a  large  bnilding  in 
Grimma  street,  Leipsic,  which  is^till  known  as 
the  Auerbachshof.  Auerbsch  was  a  friend  of 
Lnther,  and  when  the  discussions  between  the 
reformer  and  Eck  took  place  at  leipsic,  be  of- 
fered to  hia  friend  the  nse  of  bis  house  and 
table.  A  principal  feature  of  the  Auerbach»- 
hof  is  the  cellar  in  which  Luther  drank,  and 
ont  of  which,  according  to  popular  tradition. 
Dr.  Fanst  rode  npon  a  barrel,  an  event  illus- 
trated by  a  painting  which  still  decorates  the 
subterranean  walls. 

ADERSPEBfi,  latM  llcxaader,  coont  (popular^ 
ly  known  as  ANABTASins  GbO-t,  his  tiom  d* 
plume),  a  German  poet,  bom  at  Laybaoh,  April 
II,  1806,  died  Sept  13,  1876.  He  belonged  to 
an  ancient  family,  originally  of  Swabia,  and 
snbaequently  of  Carniola,  where  it  acquired  ex- 
tensive estates.  He  early  became  prominent  in 
the  liberal  party  of  Austria,  was  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  preliminary  parliament,  and  of 
the  national  assembly  in  the  same  city  (1848), 
in  which  he  was  esteemed  eloquent,  and  took 
a  oonspicuons  part  in  the  diet  of  Gamiola  from 
1861  to  1867,  after  wfaioii  bis  ultra-German 
tendencies  made  hi§  position  in  that  assembly 
so  unpleasant  that  lie  prooared  his  election 
to  the  diet  of  Styrio.    From  1861  he  waa  ■ 


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106 


AUEBSPEBG 


life  member  of  the  npper  house  of  the  Ans- 
tri&n  Reichsrath,  and  in  18fl8  he  was  nnuii- 
monely  ohoaen  tirat  president  of  the  CisJeithan 
delegatioD.  The  degree  of  doctor  of  philoBO- 
phj  was  conferred  npoD  him  in  18S6,  on  oc- 
cBNon  of  the  EOOth  onniverBaiy  of  tlie  univer- 
sitj  of  Vienna.  He  held  a  high  rank  among 
the  lyrical  and  epic  poets  of  Uerraanj,  espe- 
cialt;  exoelling  as  a  humorist  and  a  politi- 
oal  BatiriaL  Among  his  moat  renowned  worka 
are:  J)er  leUU  Hitter  (Stattgart,  18S0;  Ena- 
liah  ver^OD  by  John  0.  BargentJ  New  York, 
1871),  SpaM«rgd,nga  eina  Wientr  Poeten  (Ham' 
borg,  18S1),  Sehutt  (Leipaic,  18S6),  and  G»~ 
diehU  (1837). 

IVfSSPISG,  CtriM,  prince,  an  Austrian  states- 
man, bom  Hay  1,  1814.  Though  the  head  of 
the  principal  branch  of  his  family,  one  of 
the  oldest  in  the  empire,  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment on  his  estates  tJll  the  reEstablishment  of 
constitutional  government  by  the  imperial  pat- 
ent of  February,  1861.  He  was  appointed  by 
Schmerling  president  of  the  npper  cnamber  of 
tiie  Vienna  Reichsrath,  and  has  since  in  vari- 
onscapacitieaJn  that  assembly  and  as  represen- 
tative of  the  Bohemian  landed  nobility  at  the 
diet  of  Prague,  performed  a  very  conspicuons 
part  in  defence  of  the  constitutional  syatem 
agunst  clerical  and  feudal  reaction,  of  the  in- 
terests of  the  German  nationality  against  the 
Czechs,  and  of  the  unity  of  the  empire  against 
federation.  He  readily  accepted,  however, 
the  dualistic  platform  of  1867,  and  cooperated 
in  establishing  and  maintaining  the  new  order 
of  things  in  Anstro-Bongary.  Early  in  1868 
he  became  president  of  the  so-called  "  citizens' 
cabinet"  in  Cisleithan  Austria,  bnt  the  trans- 
actions of  Count  Beust,  the  imperial  chancellor, 
with  the  Czechs  obliged  him  to  retire  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year.  He  remained  in 
opposition  during  the  administrations  of  Count 
Potocki  and  Hoiienwart,  and  is  now  (1S7S)  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  liberal  cabinet  headed 
by  his  brother  Adolph  (bora  July  31,  1821). 

ACEE^rlDT,  a  village  of  Thnrin^a,  in  the 
Prosslan  province  of  Saionj,  10  m.  W.  of 
Naumburg,  famous  for  Davonst's  great  victory 
over  the  Pmsuan  army  under  the  dulce  of 
Brunswick  on  the  stune  day  on  which  Napo- 
leon defeated  the  main  army  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.  at  Jena,  Oct.  14,  1806.  Davotiat, 
with  S5,000  men,  beat  S0,000,  and  Napoleon 
made  him  dnke  of  AuerstSdt.     (See  Jena.) 

iL'GElS,  or  liglH,  a  mythical  king  of  Elis, 
the  cleansing  of  whose  stables  was  one  of  the 
12  labors  of  Herenles.  (See  nEHOULKS.)  When 
the  hero  demanded  the  stipnlated  reward,  Au- 
geas  refbsed  to  give  it  to  him ;  whereupon  Her- 
cules slew  him  and  all  his  sons  save  Phyletis, 
whom  he  made  king  in  the  room  of  his  father. 

Al'GEE.    See  Bohino. 

IdGEEElU,  PtsTfc  Frtiftb  Cbirles,  duke  of 
Castiglione,  a  French  soldier,  bom  in  1757, 
died  in  June,  1818.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  Neapolitan  army,  in  which  he  continued  a 
privat«  until  he  was  80  years  old,  when  he  set- 


AITGIER 

tied  at  N^)les,  and  g^ed  his  livelihood  \tj 
teaching  fencing,  untiL  being  suspected  of  rev- 
olationary  principles,  oe  was  ordered  to  quit 
Italy,  it^tering  the  French  republican  army 
of  Uie  Bouth,  he  rose  rapidly  from  grade  to 
grade,  merely  by  intrepidity,  for  he  hod  no 
military  genius.  His  numerons  and  cont^np- 
tible  vices  made  him  everywhere  hated,  bnt  he 
had  great  physical  courage.  In  17B4  he  was 
made  brigadier  general  in  the  army  of  the  eaat- 
era  Pyreneea,  and  afterward  general  of  divi- 
sion. On  the  peace  with  Spain  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  army  of  Italy,  and  served  in 
all  its  campaigns  under  Bonaparte.  By  his 
charge  at  Lodt  he  decided  the  victory,  and  he 
still  more  distjngnisfaed  himself  by  storming 
the  position  of  Castiglione  (1796).  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  directory,  on  the  18th 
Fruotidor  (1T97),  he  expected  the  succession 
to  one  of  the  expelled  directors;  but  being 
disappointed,  be  aflected  the  severe  republicaiL 
and  on  Bonaparte's  return  from  Egypt  held 
aloof  from  him  until  after  the  revolution  of 
Brumaire  (1T98).  Shortly  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  empire  he  was  rewarded  with  tb« 
baton  of  a  marsljal,  and  created  duke  of  Casti- 
glione (180fi).  He  fought  bravely  in  the  wars 
with  Austria  and  Prassia  (1805  and  1806),  es- 
pedally  at  Jena.  At  Eyiau  (1807),  when  so  ill 
that  he  oould  hardly  sit  npnght,  he  compelled 
his  servants  to  tie  him  to  his  saddle,  and  thus 
led  his  column  into  the  fight  Being  wounded, 
however,  he  was  comp^ed  to  fall  back,  his 
men  were  thrown  into  disorder,  and  Napoleon 
ui^ustly  sent  him  home  in  disgrace.  In  1810 
he  served  in  Spain,  and  in  1818  distinguished 
himself  at  Leipsio;  and  when  France  was  in- 
vaded in  1814,  he  waa  intrusted  with  the 
defeuee  of  Lyons,  which  he  pledged  himself 
to  maintain  to  the  last;  but  failing  throu^ 
want  of  means  to  make  good  his  word,  he  was 
again  unjustly  disgraced.  "While  in  retirement 
at  Valence,  a  proclamation  apjjeared  in  his 
name  stigmatizing  the  emperor  as  "an  odious 
despot,  and  a  mean  coward,  who  knew  not 
how  to  die  as  becomes  a  soldier;"  and  al- 
though the  authenticity  of  the  document  has 
been  denied  by  bis  defenders,  Napoleon  believ- 
ed in  it  On  the  way  to  Elba,  Napoleon  met 
his  ex-marshal,  on  the  road  near  Valence ;  and 
both  descending  from  their  carriages,  an  inter- 
view followed,  which  terminated  in  an  alterca- 
tion. Augereau  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  received  the  cross  of  St  Louis  and 
the  command  of  the  14th  division,  and  was 
appointed  a  peer  of  France.  On  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he  remained  inactive 
until  the  emperor  was  actually  in  Paria,  when 
he  would  have  retunied  to  his  party,  but  Na- 
poleon would  not  trust  him.  On  the  second 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  would  asain 
have  made  his  peace  with  the  king;  but  finding 
no  encouragement,  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  La 
Ilonssaye,  where  he  died. 

IGGIKI,   GiJUaim  TMw   YmMt,  a    French 
playwright,  born  in  Valence,  Sept  17,  1820. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AUGITE 

lie  produced  his  first  play,  La  cigul.  Id  1644. 
His  comedy  OabritlU  (1840)  plsced  him  at  tiie 
head  of  tlie  so-ciUled  coiiimon-Bense  school  of 
drainatiBta.  Meaj  of  his  subsequent  comedies 
were  of  a  lower  tone,  bnt  more  brilliant. 
Among  the  most  sacoessfu)  are ;  Le  ffmdre  de 
M.  Poirier  (jointly  with  M,  Sardou,  1865), 
L»  mariage  d'Olympe  (ISdS),  Let  effrontU 
(1881),  and  Maitra  Gaerin  (1B64).  He  suc- 
ceeded Salvandy  as  member  of  the  French  aead- 
emj,  Jan.  2,  185a 

1V6ITE,  a  mineral  species  eynonymons  with 
pyTQzene ;  also  used  by  Prof.  Dona  to  designate 
B  section  or  group  of  species  of  the  class  of  aiiby- 
drouB  ailicatea.    (See  Ftboxbhb.) 

IDfiLAUX,  a  w.  county  of  Ohio ;  area,  899 
iq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T0, 30,041.  The  Miami  canal 
and  the  Dayton  and  Michigan  railroad  pass 
tbroogb  the  county.    Near  tjie  western  bonn- 


AUGSBCRG 


107 


dary  is  a  reservoir  6  m.  long,  formed  to  supply 
the  canal,  and  occupying  the  most  elevated 
site  between  the  channel  of  the  Ohio  river  and 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  drdned  in  part  by  Auglaize 
river,  a  tributary  of  the  Uanmee  at  Defiance. 
The  surface  is  nearly  level,  well  wooded,  and 
the  Boil  is  good.  In  18T0  the  county  produced 
26e,T5S  buehels  of  wheat,  1S,(>46  of  rye,  246,- 
277  of  oats,  84,584  of  barley,  879,016  of  Indian 
com,  14,604  tons  of  hay,  7fl,6S0  ibs.  of  wool, 
and  246,086  of  butter.  There  were  26,678 
flheep  and  18,887  hogs.  Capital,  Wapakoneta. 
AUGSNBG,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  situated  be- 
tween the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech,  at  their 
conflnence,  88  m.  N.  W.  of  Munich;  pop.  in 
1871,  61,284.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
German  cities.  Augustua,  having  conquered 
the  Vindelicians  in  12  B.  0.,  established  there 
a  colony  called  Augusta  Vindelicomm,  on  a 


6th  century;  and  during  the  wars  between 
Thaaeilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Charlemagne, 
it  suffered  much.  In  1Z7S,  having  become 
rich  by  trade  and  indnstry,  the  city  boncht 
itA  freedom  from  the  duke  of  Swalua.  Ita 
proepenty  increased  continually.  It  was  the 
principal  emporium  for  the  trade  between 
Dorthem  Europe,  the  countries  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  Eaat,  previous  to  the  dia- 
oovery  of  America  and  the  donbling  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Its  merobanta,  includ- 
ing the  celebrated  Foggers,  possessed  veseels 
on  all  the  seaa  then  knovra.  Its  greatest 
prosperity  was  toward  the  end  of  the  16th 
and  the  first  part  of  the  18th  century.  The 
arts  hail  bere  their  focus,  and  the  Holbeins 
and  other  names  known  in  the  hiaUiry  of  Ger- 


man art  belonited  to  it.     After  the  war  agaioat 

the  league  of  Smalcald  the  decline  of  Augeburg 
b^^an.  Bere  on  June  26,  1530,  the  Protestant 
princes  submitted  to  Ohorlea  V.  tbe  confession 
of  their  faith,  which  bears  in  history  tbe  name 
of  the  "Oonfeanon  of  Augsburg."  In  1666 
the  religious  peace  between  that  emperor  and 
the  Protestants  was  concluded  here.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  Augsburg 
lost  its  privities  as  a  free  city,  and  was  incor- 
porated with  Bavaria.  It  ia  now  the  capital  of 
the  circle  of  Swabia  and  Neaburg,  and  is  the 
seat  of  various  superior  administrative,  judicial, 
and  clerical  boards.  lu  Augsburg  is  published 
the  AllgernetTie  Zeitung,  one  of  the  foremost 

Ealitical  and  literaryjournalsofthe  world,  issued 
ythegreatpublisbiDghouseof Cotla.  "Hiecity 
possesses  a  large  public  library,  which  ia  in- 
creasing dally.   Tbe  collection  of  various  mann- 


□igitiredby^OOQlC   : 


108       AUGSBURG  OONPE88ION 

scripts,  reoords,  and  offiois]  documents  in  the 
arcbivas  of  the  city,  U  of  great  importance, 
chieS?  for  the  history  of  the  reformation.  In 
1670  there  were  10  book-printing  establish- 
menta,  S4  pobltBhing  houses,  5  great  cotton 
ftotories,  74  breweries,  and  manofactories  of 
gold  and  silTor  wares,  mocbinerj,  paper,  &c. 
Among  the  new  pablio  bnildings  is  a  SToa- 
gogne  opened  in  1S67.  Augsborg  is  a  consid- 
erable commercial  and  financial  centra^  having 
24  bankers.  The  history  of  the  andent  free 
oitT  is  contuned  in  vols.  iv.  and  v.  of  the  Ckro- 


oonfeseion  of  faith,  and  the  ba^  of  the  present 
feith  in  Proteetant  Germany,  Charles  v.,  soon 
after  his  accesdon  to  the  throne  of  Germany, 
Bommoned  Lntherto  tbe  diet  of  Worms  (1G21), 
and  afterward  issoed  an  edict  of  outlawry 
agwnst  him  and  bis  adherents.  But  the  insor- 
reotion  in  Castile  and  the  war  with  France  and 
Italy  called  him  away.  The  edict  of  ontlawry 
was  inefficiently  enforced,  and  the  influence  of 
the  Lutherans  was  permitted  to  increase  dur- 
ing the  nine  years  of  the  emperor's  absence. 
The  diet  of  Spire  (1539)  hod  issoed  a  decree 
fbr  the  purpose  of  concUiaHng  the  Lutherans 
by  a  proposed  Roman  Catholic  reform,  and 
QQiting  them  aeainst  tbo  Sacramentariaos  and 
Anabaptists.  The  Lutlierans  protested  (hence 
Protestants),  and  made  an  nnsuccessfbl  effort 
to  unite  with  Zwingli.     At  this  juncture  the 


at  Augsborg  in  Jnue.  The  summons  called  for 
aid  against  the  Turks,  mating  no  reference  to 
the  religions  difficillties  of  ue  kingdom,  fur- 
ther than  to  promise  at  no  distant  time  a 
speedy  ai^ustment  of  them.  On  the  26th  of 
the  month  a  confession,  prepared  by  Melanch- 
thon  and  approred  by  Luther,  was  read  in  the 
diet.  Two  days  later  it  was  delivered  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  fur  a  reply.  This 
was  read  in  the  diet  on  the  8d  of  August  fol- 
lowing, and  called  forth  from  Uelanclitljon  a 
defence  (Apologia  Confetrioniiu  which  was 
afterward  enlarged  and  published  in  Latin,  and 
then  in  German.  The  object  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  was  not  attained,  and  the  edict  of 
the  emperor  (Sept.  22)  gave  the  Lutherans  until 
the  foUowin^  April  to  bring  themselves  into 
conformity  with  the  requirements  of  the  church, 
and  demanded  their  cooperation  with  the  throne 
against  the  Zwinglians  and  Anabaptists,  The 
Augsburg  ConfesMon  and  Melanohthon's  de- 
fence were  generally  circulated  in  western  Eu- 
rope, and  became  a  rallying  point  among  the 
reformers.  About  IMO  Melanchthon  made 
some  important  changes  in  the  Confession. 
This  form,  known  as  the  Gof\ft»»iovariata  (tlie 
"altered  Confesaou"),  was  received  untillSSO, 
when  the  Confeuio  invariata  (the  "unaltered 
Cmfession")  was  formally  adopted  as  the  stan- 
dard of  the  Lutheran  churches. — The  Augsburg 
Confession  comprises  two  parts,  besides  the 
appended  Apologia,  or  defence.    Part  L  com- 


AUGURS 

prises  21  articles,  of  the  contents  of  which  the 
following  is  an  abstract;  1  treats  of  God  and  the 
Trinity,  in  accordance  with  the  Nicene  creed; 
2  asserts  that  all  men  since  the  fall  are  bom 
with  sin;  Streatsof  thepersonandmediationof 
Christ,  in  accordance  with  the  Apostles'  creed. 
4.  Justification  is  the  effect  of  faith,  eiclnsive 
of  good  works.  6.  The  Word  of  God  and  the 
sacraments  are  the  means  of  conveying  the 
Holy  Spirit,  but  never  without  faith.  6.  Faith 
must  produce  good  works,  bnt  not  to  merit 
Justification,  7.  The  true  chnrcb  consists  only 
of  the  godly,  8.  Sacraments  are  valid  though 
the  administrators  are  evil.  9.  Infant  baptism  . 
is  necessary.  10.  The  real  presence  in  the 
eucharist  exists  only  dnring  the  period  of  re- 
ceiving; the  sacrament  to  tie  received  in  both 
kinds.  11.  Absolution  is  necessary,  but  not 
particular  confession.  12  is  against  the  Ana- 
baptists.  13,  All  who  receive  the  sacrrunents 
must  have  actaal  faith.  14.  No  one  can  teach 
in  the  church  or  administer  the  sacraments 
without  having  been  lawfully  called.  IS.  Holy 
days  and  church  ceremonies  to  be  observed. 
16.  Of  civil  matters  and  marriage.  17.  Ofthe 
resurrection,  last  judgment,  heaven,  and  heU. 
18.  Of  free  will.  19.  God  is  not  the  author 
of  wta.    20.  Good  works  are  not  wholly  un- 

frofitable.  21  forbids  the  invocation  of  saints. 
art  II,  comprises  seven  articles.'  1  enjoins 
commnnion  in  both  kinds,  and  forbids  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  sacramental  elements;  2  con- 
demns the  law  for  the  celibacy  of  priests;  8 
condemns  private  masses,  and  directs  that  some 
of  the  congregation  shall  always  communicate 
with  the  priest ;  4  denies  the  necessity  of 
auricular  confession:  6  is  against  tradition 
and  human  ceremonies;  6  conBeinns  monastic 
vows;  7  discriminates  between  civil  and  rdi- 
giouB  power,  the  power  of  the  church  consbt- 
ing  only  in  preaching  and  administering  the 
sacraments.  Tlje  Apologia  consists  of  16  arti- 
cles, treating  of  original  sin,  justification  by 
futh,  fulfilment  of  the  law,  penitence,  repent- 
ance, confession,  satisfaction,  sacraments,  ordi- 
nances, invocation  of  saints,  commnnion  in  both 
kinds,  celibacy,  monastic  vows,  and  eccleaas- 
tical  jurisdiction.  —  Gieseler's  "Ohnrch  His- 
tory," edited  by  Prof,  H.  B.  Smith,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
4S2  (New  York,  ISSl),  famishes  a  summary  of 
documents  relating  to  the  Augsburg  Confession, 

IUCHE,  HoAlak,  an  American  sculptor,  bom 
in  New  Haven,  Conn,,  Feb.  21,  1791,  died 
there,  Jan.  10, 1S&8.  In  early  life  be  produced 
several  works  of  statuary,  of  which  his  "Jeph- 
thah  and  his  Daughter,"  in  the  Trumbull  gal- 
lery of  Yale  ccdiege,  is  the  best.  In  addition 
to  his  skill  as  a  sculptor,  ha  possessed  niuch 
mechanical  genius.  His  most  celebi'ated  achieve- 
ment is  his  invention  of  the  carving  machinik 
which  is  at  the  present  day  in  general  ana 
successful  operation. 

AFSlIgS,  diviners  among  the  Bomaiu.  The 
practice  of  divination  fiouriahed  in  Ghaldes 
and  Egypt ;  from  the  latter  country  it  passed 
to  Greece,  whence  the  Romana  received  it 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AUGUST 

Til  Graec«  and  Bome  eetrdiogy  proper  ceased 
to  have  the  importance  in  augurj  which  it  had 
maintuned  in  Chaldea,  whUe,  as  the  word 
ttogarf  (avig^rium)  itself  would  indicate,  the 

Sraeniinence  had  been  civen  to  omens  talien 
■om  the  flight  of  birds.  Both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Komans  mnoh  of  the  art  of  angnrj 
depended  on  the  oardinal  points  of  the  oom- 
paM.  The  Greek  au^rs  always  faced  the 
north,  while  the  Roman  aagurs  faced  the 
aoatb.  Omens  in  the  east  were  generallj 
lack}-,  while  those  in  the  west  were  unlucky. 
Hence  the  Greek  had  his  right  hand  sjnony- 
mons  with  good  fortune,  the  Koman  originally 
"his  left.  Later  in  Roman  history,  however, 
tiaitUr  (left)  became  a  aynonyrae  for  bad  for- 
tune, and  ^<z(<r(right)forgood.  Auguries  were 
made  both  from  the  flight  and  cries  of  birds. 
Lightning  was  also  observed  by  the  augnrs,  as 
well  as  other  Btriking  phenomena,  snoh  as 
metaors,  winds,  and  eclipses.  The  direction 
in  which  a  bird  flew,  the  crowing  of  a  cock, 
the  line  of  the  electric  flash,  and  the  manner 
in  which  a  cooped  chicken  picked  his  corn, 
were  prominent  nngarial  elements.  Some  even 
more  trivial  and  accidental  occurrences  were 
reckoned  ominoas,  such  as  an  animal  crossing 
one'fl  path,  A  fit  of  sneezing  or  sudden  melan- 
choly, the  spilling  of  salt  on  the  table,  or  of 
wine  npon  one's  clothes.  The  power  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  augurs  was  very  great. 
Tbey  held  their  offices  for  life,  regardless  of 
character.  In  Rome  they  were  at  first  three 
in  nanilMr,  and  were  chosen  one  from  each  of 
the  three  tribes  of  the  patrioians.  They  were 
elected  by  the  eomitia  euriata,  a  patrician  as- 
sembly, until  the  Ogulnian  law  (!J00  B.  C.) 
admitted  the  plebeians  and  enlarged  the  num- 
ber of  angnrs,  then  fonr,  to  nine,  subsequent- 
ly increased  to  15.  Ever^  election  had  to 
be  ratified  by  the  college  itself.  This  orig^al 
power  of  Teto  afterward  resulted  in  the  usur- 
pation by  the  college  of  the  right  to  elect 
Its  own  members  by  cofiptatioQ  (453  B.  C), 
which  right  they  retained,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first  election  of  plebeian  augurs,  for 
348  years,  nntil  the  passage  of  the  Domitian 
law  (101),  which  removed  the  power  of  elec- 
tion to  the  tribes.  The  most  aathoritative 
enactments  of  the  eomitia  were  repeatedly  an- 
nulled by  the  entrance  of  an  acgur  into  the 
assembly,  pronoancing  the  words  Alio  die 
("On  another  day").  The  order  of  angnrs 
gradually  declined  after  the  admission  of  the 
plebeian  element,  nntil  it  was  abolished,  with 
paganism  in  general,  by  Theodosins  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  890. 

meCST,  the  8th  month  of  the  year,  derived 
from  the  Roman  calendar.  The  Romans  called 
it  originallj  Sestilis,  or  the  6th  month  of  their 
year,  irhich  began  with  March.  Juiius  Otesar 
made  it  SO  days  in  length,  and  Angustns  in- 
creased it  to  31.  As  it  was  the  month  iu 
which  Augnstns  Cmsar  had  entered  upon  his 
first  consaiahip,  bad  celebrated  three  tnamphs 
in  the  citf,  bad  received  the  allegianoe  of  the 


AUGUSTA  109 

soldiers  who  occupied  the  Janiculum,  had  sub- 
daed  B^ypt,  and  put  an  end  to  civil  war,  the 
senate,  in  order  to  flatter  him,  changed  the 
name  of  the  month  to  Aagustus,  in  the  same 
way  that  Qoinctilis  had  been  changed  to 
Julius  under  Julius  Ofssar.  The  Flemings  and 
Qeimans  have  adopted  the  word  August  to 
signify  harvest.  Thns  oogtt  maend  (Flemish) 
is  the  harvest  month;  so  the  German  Augtt- 
wagen,  a  harvest  wagon ;  and  the  Dutch 
oogtUa,  to  gather  corn  from  the  field.  The 
Spaniards  use  the  verb  ojfMtar,  to  gather  in 
harvest;  and  the  French  and  Spaniards  have 
the  phrases  faire  Vao^t  and  Kacitr  >u  au^usto, 
to  signify  harvesting.  The  Saxons  in  Britain 
named  August  the  weed  month.  The  old  Ger- 
mans named  it  WeinkocK^  the  wine-press  month, 

IVeCn'  PUEDBICH  EiOIIUED,  prince  of 
W(lrteml>erg,  uncle  of  King  Charles  I.,  a  Prus- 
sian general  of  cavalry,  born  Jan.  !J4,  1813.  He 
entered  the  Pressisn  service  in  1830,  became 
in  1B68  commanding  general  of  the  Prussian 
guards,  and  took  part  in  the  wars  against  Aus- 
tria (1866)  and  France  (1870),  favorable  men- 
tion of  his  name  being  made  in  the  reports  of 
the  battles  of  Qravelotte  and  Sedan. 

illGIIST  WILBEUr  prince  of  Prnsma,  brother 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  general  of  the 
Prussian  army,  born  in  Berlin  in  1723,  died  in 
17G8.  He  took  an  acUve  part  in  the  Silesian 
campaigns,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Holienfriedherg  (Jnne,  1746);  but 
in  the  seven  years'  war,  owing  to  the  fatal 
retreat  of  Zittau  in  1759,  he  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  brother,  and  \tithdrew  tVom 
the  army.  This  conflict  l>etween  the  two 
brothers  led  to  a  ourrespondence,  which  was 
published  in  1TS9. 

iCenSTA,  a  N,  W.  county  of  Virginia,  border- 
ing on  West  Virginia  and  the  filae  Bidge 
area,  BOO  sq.  m.  ;  poo.  in  1870,  28,763.  ol 
whom  6,737  were  ooIoreJ.  It  was  distiD' 
gnished  for  its  loyalty  to  the  revolutionary 
caase,  for  which  it  was  commended  by  Wash- 
ington. The  surface  is  elevated  aud  uneven; 
the  soil,  which  is  drained  by  the  sources  of  the 
Shenandoah  and  James  rivers,  is  calcareous, 
and  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  state.  In 
1870  the  county  produced  463,270  bushels  of 
wheat,  29,B3S  of  rye,  280,380  of  Indian  com, 
234,492  of  oats,  19,671  t«ns  of  hay,  28,201  lbs. 
of  wool,  and  858,886  of  butter.  The  quantity 
of  hay  was  greater  than  in  any  other  county  <^ 
the  state,  and  of  wheat  and  bntter  than  in  any 
other  except  Loudon,  Fine  limestone  nnder- 
iies  ranch  of  the  surface.  The  celebrated 
Weyer's  or  Wier's  cave,  Madison  cave,  and 
the  Obimneys  are  in  this  county.  Capitol, 
StaoDton. 

iirGDSTA,  a  city  of  Maine,  capital  of  the  stntf 
and  of  Kennebec  county,  utuated  at  the  head 
of  sloop  navigation  on  the  Kennebec  river,  43 
m,  from  its  mouth,  63  m.  by  rwlroad  N.  N.  E. 
of  Portland,  72  m.  8.W.  of  Bangor,  and  171 
ro.  N.  N.  E.  of  Boston  ;  pop,  in  1880,  7,609 ;  in 
1870,  7,808.    The  city  lies  on  both  rides  (.f  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


110  AUG 

river,  which  ib  spanned  by  a  bridge  C30  fl. 
long.  It  U  well  kid  out,  and  baa  loaaj  hand- 
some  buildings  and  a  great  abandonee  of  shade 
trees  and  Blinibberj.  The  state  bouse,  built 
of  white  granite,  is  conndered  the  handsomest 
in  New  England  except  that  of  Hontpelier, 
Vt. ;  the  court  bouse  is  the  best  and  moat  con- 
Tenient  in  the  state ;  and  the  Maine  insane 
ostium  is  a  splendid  granite  structure,  over- 
looking a  landscape  of  peculiar  beauty.  The 
United  States  arsenal  is  on  the  &.  ude  of  the 
river.  Jnst  above  the  city  a  dam  1,000  ft. 
long  provides  an  immense  water  power,  while 
canals  at  the  E.  end  render  the  river  navigable 
N.  of  Augusta.  The  Uaine  Central  ruTroad 
(Angusta  division)  rtinH  through  the  city.  There 
are  8  churches,  7  hotels,  5  newspapers  (1  daily 
and  i  weekly),  8  banks,  and  i  savings  institn- 
tions.  Lumber  forms  the  chief  manufactormg 
iaterest.  An  extensive  ootton  factory  has  re- 
cently been  erected  here. 

iVfiUSTi,  a  city  of  Oeor^a,  capital  of  Rich- 
mond connty,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Savannah  river,  1S2  m.  by  rulroad  N.  N.  W. 
of  the  fflty  of  Savannah,  and  187  m.  N,  W. 
of  Charleston,  B.  0. :  pop.  in  ISeO,  12,4S8,  of 
whom  4,04S  were  ooloreil;  in  1870,  16,880,  of 
whom  6,390  were  colored.  It  was  laid  ont  in 
1736,  and  became  an  Important  point  in  mili- 
tary operations  during  the  revolationary  war, 
being  alt«matdy  in  the  pooseeaion  of  tbe  royal 
troops  and  the  Americana.  Tbe  city  was  in- 
corporated in  170S,  and  the  chief  ma^strate 
bore  the  appellation  of  inteudant  until  1818, 
when  tbe  first  mayor  was  elected.  The  city 
is  very  handsomely  laid  out  on  an  extended 
plain  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Savannah  river, 
with  wide  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  principal  bnriness  thoroughfare. 
Broad  street,  is  2  m.  long  and  1S6  ft.  wide. 
Greene  street,  the  most  beaatifiil  in  the  city,  is 
168  ft.  wide,  and  has  a  row  of  stately  shade 
trees  on  eitiier  side  along  its  entire  length. 
Tbe  principal  bnildinge  are  the  city  hall,  ma- 
sonic hall,  odd  fellows'  hall,  and  the  opera 
house.  The  city  hall  was  completed  in  1824 
at  a  cost  of  $100,000.  In  front  of  it  stands  a 
granite  monument  40  ft.  high,  erected  by  the 
dty  in  184B  to  the  ineinory  of  H^l,  Gwinnett, 
and  W^toQ,  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. An  orphan  asylum,  ITS  ft,  by  78, 
la  building  at  a  coat  of  |1G0,000.  The  medical 
oollege  of  Georgia,  situated  here,  in  1868  had 
8  professors,  67  students,  and  a  library  of  4,000 
volnmes.    The  city  water  works  were  com- 

Sleted  at  a  heavy  coat  in  ISfll.  The  water  ia 
rawn  from  the  canal  and  forced  into  a  tank 
holding  180,000  gallons  in  a  cylindrical  brick 
tower  standing  116  ft.  above  the  general  level 
of  the  city.  The  Augusta  canal,  9  m.  long, 
Dringa  the  waters  of  the  Savannah  river  near 
the  city,  some  40  ft.  above  the  level,  and  thus 
affords  ineihaostible  jiower  for  factories.  Chief 
among  these  is  the  "Augusta  Factory,"  with 
008  looms,  employing  GOO  hands  and  producing 
in  1871  8,027,728  yards  of  cloth.    Thera  are  5 


eztenuve  fionring  mills,  which  in  1871  con- 
sumed about  408,000  bushels  of  com  and 
wheat.  In  18T1  the  city  contained  6  banks,  4 
founderies  (besides  the  extensive  foundery  and 
machine  shopa  of  the  Georgia  railroad),  9  to- 
bacco factories,  4  hotels,  21  churches  (8  of 
which  are  for  colored  people),  2  academies,  an 
arsenal,  several  hoepitols,  and  many  benevo- 
lent societies.  There  were  700  white  and  600 
colored  pupils  enrolled  in  tbe  public  schools. 
There  are  2  daiiy  newspapers,  2  weekly,  1 
semi-monthly,  and  1  monthly  published  here. 
In  1869  the  assessed  value  of  real  estate,  eX' 
elusive  of  the  Augusta  factory  property,  was 
$6,800,000,  and  in  1871,  $8,583,420.  For  the 
year  ending  April  1,  1869,  the  solea  of  cotton 
amounted  to  $8,246,867,  and  for  the  year  end- 
ing April  1,  1871,  $11,670,846.  The  bonded 
debt  of  the  city  on  Jan.  1,  1871,  was  $1,806,- 
260,  while  the  assets  amounted  to  $1,802,610. 
Augusta  has  railroad  communication  with  all 
tbe  leading  markets  of  the  country.  The  Cen- 
tral railroad  extends  from  Angnata  to  Savan- 
nah and  Macon ;  the  Charlotte,  Colnmbia,  and 
Angusta,  from  Angusta  to  Charlotte,  N.  C, 
via  Columbia,  S.  0.,  bung  an  important  link 
in  the  great  short  passenger  ronte  between 
New  York  and  New  Orieans ;  the  main  line  of 
the  Georpa  railroad  extends  from  Aegusta  to 
Atlanta,  with  branches  to  Washington,  War- 
ronton,  and  Athens.  Tbe  Maoon  and  Augusta 
railroad  affords  connection  with  the  former 
city,  and  the  South  Carolina  railroad  connecta 
Augusta  with  Charleston,  Columbia,  and  Cam- 
den, and  with  the  Wilmington  and  Manchester 
railroad  at  Eingville.  Several  other  railroads 
are  projected,  the  moat  important  of  which  is 
the  Port  Boyal  railroad  to  Port  Eoyal,  S.  C,  a 
distance  of  110  m.,  which  will  dve  Augusta  a 
shorter  route  to  tbe  seaboard.-— The  arsenal  at 
Angosta  was  seized  by  the  confederate  authori- 
ties Jan.  S4,  1861. 

ACdtmi,  Jaha,  a  Bohemian  theologian,  bora 
in  Prague  in  1000,  died  Jan.  18,  1676.  Ha 
studied  theology  at  the  school  of  Waclaw  Ko- 
randa.  On  the  death  of  this  mtBt«r  Augnstft 
went  to  Wittenberg,  and  entered  into  cIoM 
communion  with  Luther  and  Helanchthon.  Ho 
became  later  bishop  a!  tbe  Bohemian  Brethren, 
brought  about  an  agreement  between  tiiat  aect 
and  tiie  Pmtestanta,  and  indnoed  tbe  Brethren 
to  reftise  their  cooperation  to  Ferdinand  L  in 
the  Bmalcaldic  war  agunst  the  Proteatanta;  a 
contumacy  which  Ferdinand  avenged  after  tho 
war  was  over  by  banishing  the  whde  seot  and 
arresting  the  principal  preachers.  Augusta, 
who  had  attempted  to  escape  in  the  garb  of  a 
peasant,  was  taken  in  cbsJns  to  Prague,  and 
thrown  into  prison.  He  was  offered  his  liberty 
on  condition  of  making  public  recantation  and 
becoming  either  a  Catholic  or  a  Utraquist.  He 
was  ready  to  profess  himself  a  Utraouist,  hot 
not  to  recant  in  public,  and  he  accoraingly  ra- 
mi^ned  in  prison  16  years.  The  death  of  Fer- 
dinand (1064)  released  him,  but  he  was  obliged 
to  promise  not  to  preach  again. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AUGUSTA  HISTORIA 

irGCBTi  HBTOKU,  the  atone  Riven  to  a 
series  of  Romui  biographers  of  the  empeiora 
from  the  accession  of  Hadrian  (IIT)  to  the 
death  of  Carinus  (38G),  the  predecessor  of  Dio- 
cletian. The  writers  included  in  this  collection 
are  ^lins  Sportianua,  Julius  Capitolinua,  j£1ius 
Lampridiua,  Vulcatine  GallicanuB,  Trebelliue 
Pollio,andFlaviuaVopi8cn8of  Sjracuae.  Some 
editors  hare  indaded  otiiers,  as  Eutropius  and 
Faolns  Diaconua.  There  is  a  break  in  the  Au- 
ffiata  Hutoria  in  the  absence  of  the  lives  of 
Fhilippns,  Decius,  and  Gallus.  The  Bipontine 
edition  is  the  best. 

IPfiilffri,  MvU  LmIm  CUkulM,  empress  of 
Germanj  and  queen  of  Prussia,  bom  in  Wei- 
mar, Sept  SO,  ISll.  She  is  t^e  daughter  of 
the  grand  duke  Charles  Frederick  of  Saio- 
Weimar  (died  July  8,  1853),  and  her  mother 
(died  June  23,  1859)  was  a  daughter  of  Faal  I., 
emperor  of  Russia.  She  was  brought  up  at 
the  court  of  her  grandfatlier  Cliarles  Angustus, 
the  friend  of  Goethe,  who  speaks  in  one  of  his 
letters  of  the  "many-sided  and  harmonious  cul- 
tore  of  the  princ«M  Augusta."  Het  eider  aia- 
ter  Maria  married  Prince  Oharles  of  Prnasio, 
and  she  married  the  prince's  brother,  the  pres- 
ent Emperor  William,  June  11,  1829.  She 
attended  personally  to  the  education  of  her 
two  children,  the  present  crown  prince  and 
the  princess  Louisa,  since  1858  grand  duchess 
of  Baden.  She  is  much  respected  for  her  love 
of  science,  letters,  and  art,  and  for  her  benevo- 
lent disposition,  displayed  especially  in  1870~'T1 
in  labors  for  the  relief  of  Uiewonnded  soldiers. 
In  1872  abe  founded  at  Charlottcuburg  a  semi- 
nttry  for  the  education  of  orphan  dau^ters  of 
officers  who  fell  in  the  war,  and  has  designed 
bnildings  for  the  poor  in  Berlin  after  the  plan 
of  those  of  Mr.  Feabody  in  London. 

UffUfSTUf  IGE,  the  Roman  literary  epoch 
which  culminated  in  the  reign  of  Angustus 
CiBsar.  During  this  Period  Cicero,  Horace, 
Ovid,  Virgil,  Catullus,  Tibullns,  and  otherwrit- 
ers  flourished ;  also  great  patrons  of  literature 
like  U»cenaa.  The  purest  Latinity  belongs  to 
the  antburs  of  the  Augustan  age.  In  English 
literature  it  was  common  in  the  last  centnry  to 
apply  the  phrase  "  Augustan  age  of  English  lit- 
erature "to  the  times  of  Addison,  Steele,  Swift, 
and  Defoe,  and  the  writers  during  the  reign  of 
Qneen  Anne.  The  tiiele  (TAuffutCe  of  Freach 
literature  is  the  latter  rears  oi  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV,  This  metaphor  has  no  modem  ap- 
plication beyond  the  literature  of  France  and 
£ngiand. 

ACCIiHTEllMTKr,  a  villa^  on  the  formerly 
Danish  and  now  German  island  of  Alsen ;  pop. 
abont  600.  It  grew  up  round  the  palace  of  tlie 
same  name,  built  in  1661  by  Duke  Ernst  Gnn- 
ther,  and  rebuilt  in  the  latter  part  of  tlie 
16th  centutj  on  a  mogniflcent  scale  by  Fried- 
rich  Christian  the  elder^  duke  of  Scnleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augnstenbui^,  whose  son 
Christian  August  (bom  July  9,  1768,  died  Hay 
28,  1810}  was  in  1810  adopted  by  the  ohildless 
King  Charles  XIIL  of  Sweden,  and  was  sno- 


AUGUSTIN 


HI 


ceeded  by  Bemadott«  as  crown  prince.  The 
male  lineage  of  the  ancient  royal  Holstein-Den- 
mark  dynasty  became  extinct  in  166S,  and  its 
female  lineage  has  since  been  known  as  the  Hol- 
stein-Sonderburg  family,  the  present  king  of 
Denmark  belonging  to  the  junior  or  Schleswip- 
HolBtein-Sonderburg-GlQcksburg  branch,  and 
the  dukes  of  Augustenburg  to  the  senior  or 
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Angustenburg 
brancli.  Prominent  among  the  latter  was  Cliris- 
tian  Karl  Friedrieh  AuRUst(bom  July  19,  1708, 
diedUarch  11, 1869).  Ilia  father  was  the  duke 
Friedrieh  Christian  the  younger,  and  his 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Chrurtian  VII.  of 
Denmark.  He  sold  his  hereditary  estates  to 
Denmark  in  18S2,  and  in  1863  relinquished  bis 
claims  to  the  succession  in  the  duchies  of 
Scbleswig  and  Holstein,  which  were  nnsuccess- 
fhlly  revived  during  the  Schleawig-Hol stein 
war  by  his  elder  son  Friedrieh  Christian  Au- 
gust (bom  July  6,  1829),  who  has  since  the 
anneiation  of  his  former  possessions  to  Prussia 
chiefly  resided  in  Gotha.  His  eldest  son,  Au- 
gust, was  bom  in  18G8. 

iCGCSn,  Jshau  Christlo  WllhclH,  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Eschcnberg,  in  Gotha,  about 
1T72,  died  in  Coblentz  in  1841.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  became  professor  of  philosophy  and 
oriental  languages  in  that  imiversity,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  in  1812  at  Brea- 
lan  and  m  1819  at  Bonn,  and  some  years  later 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  ecclesiaatical 
offurs  of  the  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia  as 
director  of  the  consistory  of  Coblentz.  The 
most  important  of  his  numerous  works  is  the 
BenheHrdigieiUn  au*  der  ekrutliekea  ArchA- 
ologU(n  vols.  Svo,  Leipsic,  1817-'31).  As  an 
oriental  scholar  he  was  eminent.  In  doctrine 
he  was  an  orthodox  Lutheran. 

ArcrSTIN,  or  IwtU,  Satit,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  sometimes  called  the  apostle  of  the 
English,  born  pi-obably  in  the  first  half  of  the 
6th  century,  died  at  Canterbury  between  604 
and  614.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Andrew  at  Rome,  when  he 
was  selected  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  with  other 
monks  to  convert  tne  Saxons  of  England  to 
Christianity.  He  landed  in  the  dominions  of 
Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  in  596  or  507,  and 
was  hospitably  received  and  allowed  to  preach 
to  the  people,  although  the  -king  himself  tirm- 
Iv  refused  to  forsake  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
The  influence  of  his  wife,  a  Christian  jirincess, 
aided  by  the  preaching  of  Augustin,  finally  pre- 
vailed, and  Ethelbert  was  baptized,  after  which 
the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  were  crowned 
with  complete  success  throughout  the  whole 
Saxon  heptarchy.  The  ascetic  habita  of  Au- 
gustin and  his  brethren,  a  reputation  for  mirac- 
ulous power  in  the  restoration  of  sight  and  even 
of  life,  the  example  of  the  king,  and  the  fact 
that  the  snnthem  races  of  Europe  which  had 
embraced  Christianity  were  for  before  them  in 
civilization  and  prosperity,  made  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  the  Saxon  people,  never  very 
devotedly  attached  to  their  national  religion. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


113  AUGl 

uid  tiieir  coDverdon  Beems  to  hsTe  been  gen- 
eral; it  b  said  that  10,000  personB  were  bap- 
tized in  a  single  daj.  Their  temples  were 
dedicated  to  the  new  I'aitli  and  naed  aa  chnrches, 
and  many  of  their  rude  festivals  were  converted 
into  rehgiotiB  feaata,  without  losing  their  origi- 
ual  social  character.  Augustin,  it  is  said,  al- 
lowed no  coercive  measures  to  be  used  in  prop- 
agating the  gospel.  His  snccess  caused  him  lo 
be  appointed  by  the  pope  archbishop  of  Canter- 
burv,  with  sapreme  andioritj  over  tiie  chnrchea 
of  England.  The  see  of  York  waa  soon  after- 
ward establiahed,  and  a  number  of  other  bish- 
opricB.  Anguatjn  wished  to  establish  conform- 
ity of  reiigiooB  oustoms  over  the  whole  of  Brit- 
ain, and  for  that  purpose  ^ipointed  several 


tnry,  and  had  declared  their  independence  of 
the  chnrch  of  Rome.  The  conferences,  how- 
ever, failed  of  any  resnit,  A  number  of  Welsh 
monka  were  soon  after  pat  to  death,  and  Aa- 
gnstin  has  been  charged  with  tlie  deed,  but  on 
no  very  good  authority.  Hia  relics  were  pre- 
served in  the  cathedral  at  Canterbnry. 

iGGDmNE  (AuHELiuB  AuQuaiwira),  Salat, 
t,  doctor  of  the  Latin  church,  born  at  Tagaate, 
a  small  town  of  Numidia  in  Africa,  not  far 
from  Carthage,  Nov.  IS,  S61,  died  Ang.  28, 
430.  Hia  father,  Patriciua,  was  a  pagan  noble- 
man of  moderate  fortune,  while  his  mother, 
Monica,  who  has  been  canonized  by  the  church, 
was  an  earnest  Christian.  Augustine  was  sent 
to  the  best  achools  of  Madaora  and  Oarthage. 
His  own  "Confessions"  tell  us  that  his  con- 
duct at  this  period  of  hia  life  was  flir  from 
exemplary.  His  studies,  chiefly  in  the  heathen 
poets,  were  more  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  fancy  and  his  style  than  to  his 
Christian  growth.  The  deatb  of  his  father, 
which  threw  him  upon  his  own  resources,  and 
the  influence  of  some  philosophical  works,  es- 
pecially the  HoTtentiua  at  Cioero,  rooaed  him 
to  a  diligent  search  after  truth.  Unable  to 
And  this  in  the  writinss  of  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man sages,  and  diasatisfied  with  what  seemed 
to  him  the  crude  and  fragmentary  teachings 
of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Bcriptnrea,  he 
adopted  the  dualism  of  the  Manichnaus.  At 
theageof  29hewenttoRome.  There  his  repu- 
tation as  a  teacher  of  eloqaence  soon  rivalled 
that  of  SymmachuB,  then  at  the  height  of  hia 
renown.  On  the  recommendation  of  that  ora- 
tor, be  was  called  to  Milan  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  Ambrose  was  then  bishop  of  Milan, 
and  Angustine^s  first  care  was  to  know  so 
famous  a  preacher.  Aflier  repeated  interviews 
with  Ambrose,  the  conver^on  of  hia  own  ille- 

g'timate  son,  and  the  entreaties  of  his  mother, 
!  resolved  to  embrace  Christianity.  The  hialory 
of  his  conversion  forms  the  most  striking  chap- 
ter in  his  "Confessions."  After  eight  mouths 
of  seclusion,  which  he  spent  with  his  mother 
and  brother  and  son.  preparing  for  his  confir- 
mation in  the  churcn,  and  matoring  his  plans 
for  tiie  future,  Augustine  in  the  Easter  week 


of  387  was  baptized,  togetber  with  his  eon  and 
brother,  by  the  hand  of  Ambrose.  He  at  once 
set  out  on  his  return  to  Africa.  On  the  way 
his  mother  died,  and  a  small  chapel  among  the 
ruins  of  Oatia  marks  the  traditional  spot  of  her 
hurioL  The  death  of  his  son,  which  took  place 
soon  after  hia  return,  confirmed  his  incliuation 
to  the  monastic  life.  He  retired  to  Tagaate,  and 
passed  nearly  three  years  in  studioas  seclusion, 
varied  only  by  occasional  visits  to  tbe  neigh- 
boring towns.  On  one  of  these  visits,  when 
he  was  present  at  the  church  in  Hippo,  a  ser- 
mon which  the  bishop  Valerius  delivered,  ask- 
ing for  a  priest  to  assist  him  in  his  church, 
turned  all  eyes  toward  this  famous  scholar. 
No  refuaala  were  allowed,  and  Augustine  was 
orduned.  Preaching  was  soon  added  to  his 
duties,  an  exception  being  made  in  his  case  to 
the  usual  rule,  and  the  periods  of  the  African 
orator,  in  harsh  Latin  or  the  haraher  Punic 
tongue,  were  received  with  vehement  applause. 
Ue  was  soon  called  to  be  assistant  bishop,  and 
then,  on  the  death  of  the  elder  prelate,  the 
whole  charge  of  the  church  of  Hippo  was  in- 
trusted to  his  care.  He  retained  the  offioe  un- 
til his  death,  a  period  of  36  years.  The  details 
of  his  epiacopal  life  are  minutely  related  by  his 
friend  Possii^ua.  He  preached  every  da^  and 
sometimes  twice  in  the  day;  waa  frngal  in  his 
domestic  arrangements,  being  a  strict  ascetic, 
and  requiring  of  hia  attendant  priests  and  dea- 
cons an  equal  dmplicity  of  aiet  and  dress; 
given  to  hospitality,  yet  without  display ; 
warmly  interested  in  every  kind  of  charity; 
courteous  in  his  bearing,  welcoming  oven  in- 
fidels to  his  table;  bold  against  all  wickedness 
and  wrong,  whatever  the  rank  of  the  trans- 
gressor; and  untiring  in  hia  vi^ts  to  widows 
and  orphans,  to  the  sick  and  the  afflicted. 
He  disputed  with  Uanichssana,  Ariana,  the 
followers  of  Priscillian,  of  Origen,  and  Tertul- 
lian,  the  Donatists,  and  the  Pelagians,  and  al- 
lowed no  doubtful  utterance  of  doctrine  to  pass 
without  his  questioning.  To  hia  industry  in 
controversy  must  be  added  his  vast  curre- 
spondence  with  emperors,  nobles,  doctors,  mis- 
sionaries, bishops,  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
on  questions  of  dogma,  of  discipline,  and  of 
policy — his  solid  works  of  commentary,  criti- 
cism, morality,  philosophy,  and  theology,  and 
even  hia  poetry,  for  to  him  are  attributed  sev- 
eral of  the  sweetest  hymns  of  the  Catholic  an- 
thology. The  titles  alone  of  the  worka  of  Au- 
gustine make  a  long  catalogue.  The  single 
volume  of  "Sermons"  contwns  nearly  700 
pieces,  shorter  indeed  and  less  ornate  than  tl^ 
celebrated  sermons  of  Haul  and  Chrysostom, 
but  jastifying  Augustine's  reputation  for  sa- 
cred oratory.  The  volume  of  "  Commenta- 
ries on  the  Paalms"  is  more  rich  in  practical 
remarks  than  in  accurate  learning.  His  re- 
marks upon  the  "Four  Gospels"  are  more 
valuable.  His  work  on  the  "  Core  that  should 
be  taken  for  the  Dead  "  cont«ns  some  striking 
views  concerning  the  relation  of  the  living  to 
disembodied  souU.    The  volume  of  bb  "  Epis- 


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AtTGUSTINE 

tl«i"  is  remarkable,  as  illoBtrating  bis  beat 
ttjiia  mad  the  flueat  truta  in  his  character.  The 
name  of  Augustine,  in  the  dogmstio  htstorj  of 
the  church,  is  best  known  in  oonnection  with 
the  heresy  of  Fela^ns;  but  hig  works  which 
are  most  widel;  known  are  the  "CoofessitHu" 
and  "  The  City  of  God."  In  the  former,  writ- 
ten Jnet  after  bia  converuon,  he  gives  a  history 
of  hia  life  np  te  that  time,  not  ao  much  in  its 
oatward  circumstance  as  in  its  inward  expe- 
rience and  chuige.  It  has  been  traiislat«d  into 
every  CbrisUaa  toogne,  and  ia  olawed  with  the 
choicest  memorials  of  devotion,  both  in  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant  oratoriea.  Hie  treatise  on 
"  The  City  of  God  "  (De  GieitaU  Dei)  ia  the 
monument  of  highest  genius  in  the  ancient 
chnrch,  and  in  its  und  has  nerer  been  sarpaased. 
Its  immediate  purpose  wns  to  vindioate  the 
fiutfa  of  the  gospel  against  the  pagans,  who  had 
joM,  devaatated  Rome.  The  first  five  bocks 
oiHifate  tbe  heathen  theMa  that  the  wordiip  of 
the  ancient  gods  is  essential  to  banian  pros- 
perity, and  that  miseries  have  only  come  unce 
the  declineof  this  won^ip.  The  live  following 
books  refute  those  who  maintain  that  the  wor- 
ship of  pagan  deitiee  is  Dsefal  for  the  spiritoal 
life.  The  remaining  twelve  hooka  oreemployed 
in  setting  forth  the  doctrines  of  tbe  Christian 
religion,  under  the  somewhat  fancifiil  form  of 
"  two  cities,"  the  city  of  tbe  worid  and  the 
nty  of  God.  Tbe  inflaenee  of  Angnatine  npon 
bis  own  ace,  and  upon  all  succeeding  ages  of 
Christian  histaiy,  cannot  be  eia^^rated.  It 
is  believed  that  he  was  at  once  one  of  the 
purest,  the  wisest,  and  the  holiest  of  men; 
tie  was  equally  mild  and  firm,  prudent  and  fear- 


manifold  instances  are  recorded.    His 

self-discipline  matches  the  strictest  instances 
of  the  hermit  life.  In  his  "  Retractations,"  be- 
pnn  after  the  close  of  his  70th  year,  he  reriews 
his  writings,  taking  back  whatever  is  donbtful 
vr  extravagant,  and  harmonizing  discordant 
opinions.  The  aid  of  a  coadjutor  relieved  An- 
gustine  in  bis  latter  years  of  a  portion  of  his 
responmbillty ;  yet  tmestions  of  conscience  were 
constantly  presented  to  biro.  When  Genseric 
and  his  Vandals  showed  tliemaelves  on  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  tbe  question  was  put  to  him 
if  it  were  lawful  for  a  hiahop  at  such  a  season 
to  fly  and  leave  bis  flock.  The  answer  which 
he  made  was  iUustrated  by  his  own  course.  He 
calmly  waited  for  the  threatened  approach, 
snd  when  the  Seet  of  the  foe  was  in  the  bay  of 


AUGUSTOWO 


,  113 


Hippo,  and  the  army  was  encamped  before  the 
waUS)  exerted  himself  only  to  quiet  tbe  fears 
and  snstain  the  faith  of  his  brethren.  He  died 
of  fever  before  the  catastrophe.  Tlie  bishop 
Potsidina,  who  watehed  at  nis  bedaide,  gives 
on  edifying  account  of  bis  last  days,  and  of  the 
grief  of  the  people  at  his  loss.  Hia  relics  were 
transported  to  Italy,  and  mostly  rest  at  present 
in  the  cathedral  of  Pavia.  Within  tbe  present 
century  the  bone  of  his  right  arm  has,  with 
Mdcsnn  pomp^  been  returned  to  the  obnrch  of 


Bona  in  Algeria,  which  occnpies  the  ait«  of  an- 
cient Hippo. — The  best  edition  of  Augustine's 
works  is  that  of  the  Benedictines,  published  at 
Paris  and  at  Antwerp  at  the  close  of  tbe  ITth 
century,  in  11  vols,  folio.  An  edition  in  11 
volumes  was  also  published  in  Paris  in  1886-'EI. 
An  additional  volume  of  sermons,  before  un- 
published, found  at  Monte  Co^no  and  Florence, 
wospubUshed  at  Paris  in  184S.  An  English 
translation  by  various  hands  boa  been  under- 
taken at  Edinburgh,  under  tbe  editorship  of 
the  Kev.  Marcus  Duds,  the  Sd  and  4th  vol- 
umes lA  which  appeared  in  16T3. 

iEGEamniHS,  or  Hendli  •!  SL  Aag«tlM,  a 
religious  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
which  traces  its  origin  to  the  great  bishop  of 
Hippo,  and  professes  to  have  received  its  mla 
from  him,  although  many  Catholic  writers  dis- 
pntethe&ct  St. Aagnstinein  tbe  year888, be- 
fore his  ordination,  erect«d  a  kind  of  hermitage 
on  a  little  fann  belonging  to  himself  near  Ta- 
gaste,  where  with  severaJ  frieode  be  passed  his 
time  in  seclusion.  After  he  became  a  priest  at 
Hippo  he  established  a  similar  retreat  m  a  gar- 
den presented  to  him  by  the  bishop,  and  dur- 
ing his  episcopate  he  bad  bis  clergy  living  with 
him  in  his  house,  under  a  kind  of  monastic 
rule.  From  these  circumstances  be  has  been 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  and  special  patron 
of  a  certain  class  of  religions  communities,  and 
many  of  their  rules  have  been  drawn  from  hii 
writings.  The  present  order  of  Hermits  of  SL 
Aogustine  was  formed  by  uniting  several  socle- 
ties  previously  distinct.  This  was  dune  by 
Alexander  IV.  in  tbe  year  1SC6,  and  a  rule  was 
given  them  aUributed  to  St.  Augustine.  In 
1067  the  Angnstinions  were  enrolled  among 
the  mendicant  orders.  In  England  they  were 
uauallr  called  Black  Friars,  from  the  color  of 
their  habit.  There  are  several  distinct  branch- 
es of  Augustiniana  whose  rule  is  more  severe 
than  that  of  tbe  jirincipal  body ;  they  are  gov- 
erned by  vicars  gener^,  who  ore  subordinate 
to  tbe  general.  Rome  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
order.  The  number  of  oonventa  in  1883  was 
271,  with  abont  4,000  members;  but  snce 
then  their  number  has  been  greatly  reduced 
by  the  suppression  of  monastic  orders  in  Italy. 
There  is  a  large  ond  beantifnl  church  belon^ng 
to  the  Augustiniana,  with  a  convent  o^ioinrng, 
in  Philadelphia  1  also  a  college,  with  a  monas- 
tery and  a  well  cultivated  form  ai^oining,  at 
Villanova,  Delaware  county.  Pa.,  about  16  m. 
from  Philadelphia. — ligHdiiaa  CiBsu  are  a 
separate  body  of  canons  regular  attached  to  the 
Latcran  basilica  and  a  few  other  churches. — 
Several  religious  orders  of  females  belong  also 
to  the  Auguatinian  family. 

itJfiCSTOWO.  I.  Formerly  the  N.  E.  govern- 
ment of  the  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland.  Its 
territory  now  forma  the  government  of  Snwal- 
ki  and  a  part  of  Lomzo.  1I>  A  city  in  the  pres- 
ent government  of  Suwalki,  from  which  the 
preceding  government  received  its  name,  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Narew  near  a  considerable 
lake,  and  140  m-KE.  of  Warsaw;  pop.inl887, 


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lU 


ATTGUSTDLUS 


S,864    It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  cattle  and 

woollen  and  cotton  floods.  It  was  founded  in 
1560  b^KingSigiginund  Auguetog,  from  whom 
it  was  named.— The  canal  of  Aagnstowo  con- 
nects the  Narew  with  the  Niemen,  making  a 
continuous  navigslioQ  between  the  upper  Vis- 
tula and  the  mouth  of  the  Kiemen  in  the  Bal- 
tic.    It  is  150  m.  long  and  G  to  S  fl.  deep. 

llieilSTITLrS,  Ktailu,  the  laat  Boman  em- 
peror of  the  West.  He  was  placed  on  the 
throne  A.  D.  476,  bj  bis  father  Orestes,  a  na- 
tive of  Paunonia,  who  had  been  a  favorite  of 
the  emperor  Jnlins  Nepos,  but  who  at  last 
succeeded  in  usurping  the  power  of  his  patron, 
and  conferring  it  upon  his  son.  Tlie  joung 
man  was  remarkable  only  for  his  weakness  and 
the  beaotf  of  his  per»on.  On  the  defeat  of 
Oreates  by  Odoacer  at  Pavia,  and  bis  subse- 
<)uent  execution  (476),  AueustuluB  was  ban- 
ished to  the  castle  of  Lnoullns  in  Carapania, 
where  he  received  yearly  6,000  pieces  of  gold. 

ACGHSniB,  CalM  JaUu  Ccgar  OcAiTbuiM  (named 
at  his  birth  ^mplyCaiusOctavius),  first  emperor 
of  Rome,  born  at  Veiitne  SepL  28,  63  B.  C, 
died  at  Nola,  Aug.  1»,  A.  D.  14.  He  was  the 
son  of  Gains  Octavios,  a  rich  senator,  who  in 
60  B.  C.  waa  appointed  pnetor  of  Macedonia, 
and  of  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  the  yoang- 
er  sister  of  Jnlins  Csesar.  His  father  dying 
jnst  after  retiring  tram  his  pmtorship,  Octa- 
vins  was  educated  in  Borne  at  the  wish  of  his 
mother,  and  afterward  under  the  saperinteii'- 
denoe  of  Lucius  Marcius  Philippus,  who  became 
his  stepfather.  He  soon  attracted  the  notice 
of  hb  Kreat-uncle  Julius  Cnsar,  who  treated 
him  as  nis  own  son,  and  by  his  will  made  bim 
his  principal  heir.  On  Uarch  16,  44^  when 
tlie  dictator  was  assasdnated  at  Rome,  Octa- 
vios was  at  Apollonia  on  the  W.  coast  of  Epiros 
Nova,  pursuing  bis  atodies.  The  news  of  the 
marder  and  of  his  own  adoption  as  heir  reached 
him  almoeC  immediately.  Against  the  warn- 
ing of  friends,  he  went  at  once  to  Rome,  chang- 
ing his  name  Octavius  to  Octavianus,  and  de- 
manded his  inheritance,  which  Mark  Antony, 
who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  principal 
power  in  the  state,  after  some  hesitation  was 
obliged  to  yield.  Octavios,  who  was  now 
ooiversally  known  by  the  name  of  Gssar, 
b^^  a  struggle  with  Antony  for  the  conlrol 
of  Rome.  Each  tried  every  means  to  gain  tlie 
favor  of  the  people.  Octavius  was  already 
beginning  to  gnin  the  advantage,  when  Antony 
left  Rome  to  secure  for  himself  the  legions  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  Octarius  took  advantage  of  his 
rival  8  absence  to  win  still  further  the  popular 
&,voT,  and  waa  aided  by  the  reftisal  of  Decimna 
BmtuB,  prretor  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  to  give  up 
that  province  to  Antony.  Cicero  now  came 
forward  in  Octavioa's  favor,  thinking  thus  to 
advance  the  cause  of  a  freer  government.  The 
senate,  the  people,  and  the  soldiers  were  soon 
won.  Id  January,  4S,  having  received  the  rank 
of  protor  and  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  those  troops  whose  good  will  he  bad  se- 
cured, be  went  with  the  two  consuls  to  the  os- 


AUGUSTU8 

Eistaace  of  Decimna  Brutus,  whom  Antony  was 
besieging  in  Hutina  (Hodena).  Antony  was 
defeated  and  driven  beyond  the  Alps,  But  the 
senate,  dreading  any  increase  of  the  power  of 
the  Buccessfbl  general,  and  relieved  of  their  fear 
of  Antony,  now  made  a  change  of  policy,  ap- 
pointed Decimos  Brutus  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  army,  and  denied  Octavius  a  triumph. 
The  latter  Uiereupon  began  to  treat  with  Anto- 
ny for  a  reconciliation  and  diviedon  of  power, 
Antony  having  in  the  mean  time  allied  himself 
with  LepiduB  and  recrossed  the  Alps.  First 
of  all  Octavius  secured  the  consulship,  which 
the  senate  was  persuaded  almost  against  its 
will  to  permit  him  to  assume.  He  paid  the 
people  the  sums  left  by  the  will  of  Ceci^r,  and 
secured  for  himself  the  command  of  an  array 
to  be  sent  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  a^inst 
whom  a  decree  of  outlawry  was  passed.  Under 
the  guise  of  moving  first  against  Antony,  Octa- 
vius marched  his  army  into  northern  Italy  and 
met  Antony  and  Lepidns  at  Bononia  (Bolonia). 
Here  an  open  reconciliation  took  place,  and  ha 
formed  with  them  the  triumvirate,  agreeing  to 
merge  bia  own  power  in  this  equal  division  of 
the  empire  among  the  three.  The  triumvirs 
retomed  to  Rome  immediately,  though  they 
entered  the  city  separately.  In  the  general 
proscription  and  massacre  of  their  enemies 
which  followed,  Octavius  displayed  cruelty 
fnlly  equal  to  that  of  his  associates.  After  an 
nnsuccessfhl  attempt  to  take  8icily  fVom  Sep- 
tus Pompey,  who  bad  on  excellent  fleet,  and 
with  whom  many  Romans  took  refiige,  Octa- 
vius and  Antony  turned  tlieir  arms  against 
Brotus  and  Cassias,  whom  they  defeated  at 
Philippl  (42).    On  his  return  to  Rome — Antony 

.  now  being  with  Cleopatra  in  Egypt — Octavius 
found  that  Folvia,  Antony's  wife,  wded  by 

I  Antony's  brother,  Lncius  Antonina,  had  en- 
deavored to  excite  popular  feeling  against  him 
by  declaring  that  a  new  proscription  was  about 
to  begin,  and  by  other  means.  Antonius  bad 
even  assembled  an  army.  Octavius  put  a 
speedy  end  to  this  revolt  by  taking  Pemsia 
(Ferula),  where  Lncius  Antonius  had  fortified 
himself,  and  cruelly  potting  to  death  400  Pern- 
dans  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  manes  of  Ceesar  (4C), 
Fulvia's  death  prevented  a  renewal  of  the  war, 
and  Octavius  and  Antony  were  recondled  at 
Bmndorium,  Octavio,  Octavins's  sister,  being 
given  in  marriage  to  his  fellow  triumrir.    Sex- 


o  bribe  him  by  the  offer  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Cor- 
sica, and  the  province  of  Acbiua,  to  make  peace 
and  supply  Rome  with  food.  No  sooner  had 
Octavius  thus  secured  Pompey  than  he  began 
to  seek  for  a  pretext  to  recapture  the  provinces 
given  him.  Allepng  that  Pompey  allowed 
piracy  near  his  coasts,  Octavius  declared  war 
against  hira  (SS).  Antony  at  first  refbsed  hia 
aid,  but  waa  persuaded  bv  the  mediatioD  of 
Octavia,  and  sent  a  considerable  fieet  to  Join 
tliat  of  Octavius.  After  some  vici^itude^ 
Agrippa,  the  commander  of  tbe  navy,  ended 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


the  war  b^  fto  OTerwIielniiiiff  defeat  of  Fompej, 
who  fled  to  Asia  (S8).  Lepidas,  the  onlj  one  of 
the  triumvirs  who  bad  actnallj  SDOoeeded  in 
landing  In  Sicily,  now  aspired  to  the  govern- 
ment of  that  island ;  bat  Ootavins  won  over 
his  troops,  and  he  eaffered  himself  to  be  called 
to  Rome  and  conaigDed  to  submisdre  quiet  by 
the  appointment  of  poctJfez  maximos.  Octa- 
vioB  now  divided  among  his  Boldiers  the  lands 
taken  from  his  enemtea.  He  was  received  with 
the  greatest  honors  at  Rome,  but,  with  bis 
wonted  hjpooriay,  assamed  a  modMt  and  lib- 
eral mien ;  he  improved  the  city,  and  even 
talked  of  ^ly  restoring  the  repnblioaa  forms. 
Bnt  whUe  gaining  for  himself  the  tavor  of  the 
people,  he  steadily  undermined  the  inflaenca 
of  hia  only  remaining  rival,  Antony,  whom  he 
pretended  to  support.  Much  of  hie  time  in  the 
two  years  that  followed  (30-S4)  was  oocapiod 
in  the  mppression  of  revolts  in  various  parts 
of  the  Roman  provinces.  The  repudiation  by 
Antony  of  his  wife  Octavia  served  to  widen 
the  breach  between  the  triomvira;  and  soon 
afterward  the  arrogant  and  dangerous  assump- 
tions of  Cleopatra,  who  now  held  Antony  as 
her  complete  slave,  afforded  Ootavius  the  pre- 
text be  dcdred.  (Convincing  the  people  of  the 
dangerons  designs  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  he 
bronght  about  a  declaraticm  of  war,  defeated 
her  and  Antony  in  the  battle  of  Actium  in 
September,  81,  rapidly  followed  up  this  vic- 
tory, and  by  the  succeeding  events,  ending  in  the 
deaUi  of  this  only  remaning  opponent  (SO),  he 
was  left  sole  ruler  of  Rome,  and  celebrated  his 
victories  by  a  three  days'  triumph.  He  had 
some  thought  of  laying  aside  bis  power,  bat  in 
counsel  with  his  friends  Agrippa  and  Htecenaa, 
the  advice  of  the  latter  prevuled,  probably 
coinciding  more  nearly  with  his  own  wishes, 
and  he  kept  his  rnlersbip.  Rome  was  now  in 
complete  peace.  Octavioa,  although  himself 
supreme,  reestablished  many  of  the  old  repub- 
lican forma,  and  benefited  tlie  city  by  numer- 
ous  wise  measures.  In  his  seventh  eonaolahip 
(21),  he  astonished  the  senate  by  proposing  to 
lay  down  the  chief  power  and  to  restore  en- 
tirely the  old  order  of  things.  The  senators 
begged  him  to  ret^  his  position,  and  he,  pre- 
tending great  reluctanoe,  consented.  This  ruse 
waa  several  times  repeated  during  his  life. 
On  Jan.  16,  27,  be  received  from  uie  Roman 
people  and  the  senate  the  name  Augustus  (the 
venerated  or  sanctified),  and  by  thia  title  he 
waa  generally  known  from  Uiis  time  forth. 
Within  the  next  few  years  the  powers  of  tri- 
bune, pontifez  maximus,  and  of  many  other 
magistrates,  were  gradually  assumed  by  Augus- 
tus, with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  and  he  be- 
came Anally  the  absolute  ruler  of  the  empire. 
In  8S  and  26  he  established  order  in  Spain, 
defeating  the  rebellious  Astures  and  Con- 
tabri,  who,  however,  afterward  revolted,  and 
were  not  finally  anbdued  till  19.  In  21,  after 
four  years  spent  at  Rome,  during  which  sev- 
eral conspiracies  had  been  discovered  against 
his  life,  he  visited  Sicily  and  the  eastern  part 


rsTua  115 

of  the  empire,  establishing  order  eve^where. 
He  left  Agrippa,  who  married  his  daughter  Ju- 
lia, as  governor  of  Rome  in  bis  absence.  Dur- 
ing this  Journey  he  visited  Athens  and  Samoa. 
In  20  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  Partbiana,  by 
which  they  peaceftilly  restored  standards  and 
captives  taken  from  Craaans  (G8)  and  Antony 
(8Q).  In  IS  he  went  to  Gaul,  where  he  re- 
munod  three  years,  and  established  many  colo- 
nies, Agrippa  died  in  12,  leaving  two  sons, 
who  had  been  adopted  by  Auguatua  and  called 
OaiuB  and  Lucius  OtBsar.  Within  the  year  Julia 
was  married  agun  to  her  stepbrother  Tiberius, 
the  son  of  the  crafty  Livia,  who  In  this  year 
also  was  sent  against  the  Pannonians  and  de- 
feated them.  In  10  Augustus  went  ag^  to 
GauL  and  at  the  same  time  sent  his  step- 
son BrusuB,  the  younger  brother  of  Tiberius, 
against  the  western  German  tribes.  Drasaa 
conquered  them,  but  was  killed  by  on  acci- 
dent, and  Augustus  pronounced  his  funeral  ora- 
tion in  the  senate  (9).  In  S  B.  C.  the  senate 
flattered  Augnstus  on  bis  victories  by  nam- 
ing after  him  the  month  of  August,  before 
called  Sextilis.  A  short  time  after  this  Au- 
gustus sent  into  exile  his  daughter  Julia,  whose 
dissoloM  life  had  become  an  open  soandaL 
Her  two  sons  had  now  assumed  the  toga  viri- 
iii,  and  were  looked  upon  as  the  heirs  of  the 
emperor.  But  Lucius  aied  at  Hassilia  in  A.  D. 
3,  and  Oaius  in  Lycia  in  4;  and  Anguatua, 
upon  whom  these  family  miafortunes  made  a 
deep  impresdon,  adopted  Tiberius,  thus  fulfil- 
ling the  desire  of  Livia,  and  sent  him  to  con- 
duct a  campaign  against  the  Oennans.  Ilbe- 
rius  waa  victorious,  but  in  the  year  Q  the 
overwhelming  defeat  of  the  Roman  general 
Varus  by  Arminiua  lessened  the  value  of  these 
conquests.  A  period  of  peace  now  followed, 
and  Augustus  tamed  his  attention  to  the  af- 
fairs of  the  city,  which  he  administered  wisely 
and  with  the  popular  favor.  In  14  his  health 
suddenly  declined,  and  Just  after  taking  the 
census,  the  third  during  bia  administration, 
he  died  at  Ifola,  whither  he  hod  gone  on  ac- 
count of  bis  illness. — The  period  of  Augustus 
is  one  of  the  moat  important  in  Roman  history. 
In  it  flourished  those  men  who  have  caused 
it  to  be  named  the  "Augustan  age  of  litera- 
ture "—Catullus,  Cicero,  Virpl,  Horace,  Ovid, 
Tibollus,  tiie  great  patron  i^  art  and  letters 
Mncenas,  and  others.  Augustus  himself  wrota 
several  works,  of  which  only  fragments  re- 
mdn.  These  have  been  collected,  and  a  good 
edition  of  them  was  pnbliahed  by  Weicnert 
(Grimma,  1B4I).  The  emperor's  rule  was 
most  beneficial  to  the  city.  He  boasted  that 
he  had  found  it  of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble. 
He  encouraged  all  nsefnl  arts,  and  his  laws  in 
matters  of  municipal  government  were  gen- 
erally admirable.  In  person  Auguatus  was  of 
middle  height,  with  a  well  knit  and  fine  fig- 
ure, and  a  quiet  face,  with  much  dignity  and 
firmness  of  expression.  Hia  hair  was  light,  his 
eyes  large  and  clear.  In  his  character  the 
crafty  traits  predominated,  but  he  displayed  in 


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116 


AnGUSTUS  I. 


the  latter  part  of  hU  life  mach  geatsToeitf. — 
See  tlie  life  of  Aagostna  ia  Suetooiua,  Pla- 
tarch'a  life  of  Aotony,  ukd  the  histories  of  Ar- 
nold, UeriT&le,  and  Ibne. 

AVCtmrS  I.  (as  king,  11.)  FBEDERICK,  snr- 
named  the  Strong,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of 
Poland,  second  son  of  the  elector  Jobo  George 
III.,  bom  in  Drewlen,  Maj  12,  16T0,  died  in 
Warsaw,  Feb.  1,  1783.  After  a  careful  educa- 
tion he  riaited  all  the  oonntries  and  conrta  of 
Europe,  Rome  alone  excepted.  During  these 
joarne;H  he  began  the  oolleotion  of  pictures 
and  other  objects  of  art  composing  the  gallery 
In  Dresdoo,  which,  increased  by  his  son,  became 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Enrope.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1691,  and  of  hia  elder 
brother,  John  George  IV.,  in  16B4,  he  became 
sovereign  of  Saiony;  and  after  the  death 
of  John  Sohieski,  king  of  Folitnd,  in  1696, 
be  was  elected  aa  bis  Hucoeaaor  by  the  nobil- 
ity of  that  country.  To  obtain  this  election 
he  changed  his  religion  from  Protestantism  to 
Oatholioism.  To  restore  to  Poland  some  prov- 
inces wrested  by  Sweden,  AugnstuH  attacked 
Charles  XII.  jointly  with  Denmark  and  with 
Peter  the  Great  of  Rnssia;  but  after  a  long 
struggle,  in  which  hoth  Poland  and  Sazonj  suf- 
fered terribly,  he  was  obliged  at  the  bidding  of 
Charles  XII.  to  gira  np  the  royal  crown,  which 
the  victor  gave  to  Stanislas  Leszozynski  (Jnly 
12, 1704),  and  to  ^ve  his  own  consent  formoUy 
to  this  act,  in  the  peace  of  Altranst&dt  (Sept. 
24, 1706).  When  Charles  was  defeated  at  Pol- 
tava,  July  6,  170S,  Augustas  renewed  his  alli- 
ance with  Peter  the  Great,  broke  the  peace 
with  Sweden,  entered  Poland  with  an  army, 
expelled  Leazczynski,  and  recovered  the  orown. 
His  reign  was  one  of  great  Inznry  and  splen- 
dor, bis  court  a  scene  of  oninterrapted  festiv- 
ity, with  artista,  adventarers,  alchemists,  and 
numlMrless  beautiful  women,  one  of  whom,  the 
celebrated  Conntess  EOnigamark,  was  by  Aq- 
gnstOB  the  mother  of  that  Maurice  so  celebrated 
at  the  court  of  Versailles  and  in  the  history  of 
France  under  the  name  of  Harshal  Saxe.  An- 
gostus  was  elegant,  affable,  and  of  extraor- 
dinary bodily  strength,  but  witLont  any  trait 
of  real  excellence.  He  impoverished  Saxony 
and  corrupted  Poland. — ^iigwtu  II.  (III.)  FreA- 
Mi(t,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  I6SS,  died 
Oct.  6,  1768.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  both 
Saxony  and  Poland,  in  the  first  by  inheritance. 
In  the  second  by  election,  though  he  was  op- 
posed by  Stanislas  Leizczynski,  whose  claims 
were  supported  by  Lonis  X7.  and  a  portitm 
of  the  Polish  nobles.  Augustus  continued  the 
gorgeons  reign  of  his  father,  his  greatest  pas- 
noD  being  hunting  and  festivities.  His  reign 
over  Poland  was  quiet,  hut  in  every  respect 

Iletnoralizing.  Count  BrOhl,  his  favorite,  ruled 
in  the  sovereign's  name.  Augustus,  being 
married  to  an  Austrian  princess,  had  no  other 
poUoy  than  subserviency  to  Austria,  and  he  be- 
came entangled  in  the  wars  against  Fredenek 
the  Great  of  Prusua.  In  1743  he  concluded 
on  alliance  offensive  and  defen»re  with  Maria 


AVK 

TheresiL  and  promised  afterward  to  bring  Into 
the  field  50,000  men.  This  army,  united  with 
the  Austrians,  was  beaten  at  the  battle  of 
Hohenfiiedberg  in  Silewa,  June  4,  1745,  when 
Frederick  invaded  Saxony  and  entered  Dres- 
den, while  Augustna  fled  to  Poland,  which  was 
at  peace  with  Prussia.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
at  the  close  of  the  same  year  be  was  restored 
to  hia  electorate.  In  the  seven  years'  war, 
however,  Angnstus,  as  elector  of  Saxony,  ag^ 
participated  on  (he  side  of  Austria.  At  the 
begimung  his  Saxon  army  was  compelled  to 
anrrender  to  Frederick  (October,  1768),  and 
he  himself  fled  to  Warsaw,  persisting  in  his 
alliance  with  Austria,  and  redded  there  until 
the  paoSflcation  by  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg 
(1763),  when  he  returned  to  Dresden. 

IDQCSITS  FREDEKICK,  prince  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  duke  of  Sussex,  the  (ith  son 
of  George  III.  of  England,  bom  in  Bucking- 
ham palace,  Jan.  27,  1778,  died  in  Kensington 
palace,  April  21,  184S.  He  studied  at  GOttui- 
gen,  and  subsequently  travelled  in  Italy.  While 
at  Rome  in  1798  he  married  Lady  Augusta  Hur- 
ray, daughter  of  the  Catholic  earlof  Dnnmore; 
but  as  tiiere  were  some  donbta  as  to  the  valid- 
ity of  the  marriage,  the  wedding  ceremony  was 
repeated  in  London,  Dec.  5,  1798.  This  mar- 
riage was  annulled,  however,  by  the  preroga- 
tive court  of  Canterbury,  as  contrary  to  the  act 
12  George  III.,  cap.  8,  which  declared  that  no 
descendant  of  George  11.  should  marry  with- 
out the  oonaent  of  the  crown.  Lady  Angusta 
separated  from  the  duke  immediately  after 
the  publication  of  this  sentence,  having  borne 
him  a  son  and  daughter,  who  took  the  name 
D'Este.  In  1801  the  prince  was  made  a  peer, 
and  received  a  parliamentary  grant  of  £12,000 
per  annum,  which  was  aubseqaently  increased 
by  the  addition  of  £9,000.  In  the  honse  of 
lords  the  duke  took  the  liberal  side  on  most 
public  questions,  as  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade.  Catholic  and  Jewish  emancipation,  the 
reform  bill,  end  tree  trade.  In  1610  he  was 
elected  grand  master  of  the  freemasons;  in 
181 S,  president  of  Che  society  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  useful  arts ;  and  in  18S0,  preddent 
of  the  royal  society.  He  was  a  munificent 
patron  of  literature  and  art,  and  possessed  one 
of  the  finest  libraries  of  England.  His  lib- 
eral opinions  in  politics,  and  the  part  which 
he  took  in  &vor  of  Queen  Caroline,  made  him 
unpopular  at  court,  but  before  the  deatli  of 
George  IV.  a  reconciliation  took  place  between 

AGK,  the  name  of  certain  sea  birds  of  the 
family  alcadm,  including  the  subgenera  aUo, 
fi-aUreiila,  mirgulv*,  and  phnlerii.  The  true 
auks  (alea)  are  strictly  ocean  birds,  and  scarcely 
ever  leave  the  water,  except  to  build  their  nests 
and  hreed  in  immense  flocks  in  caverns  and 
crannies  of  rocks,  laying  one  disproportionately 
large  egg.  The  young  are  fed  from  the  crops 
of  their  parents,  even  after  they  can  move 
about  freely  and  shift  for  themselves.  This 
genus  containa  but  two  species,  the  great  auk 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ACE 

and  the  razor  biH    The  fbrmer  (A.  impermit, 

Linn.)  is  remarkable  for  the  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  its  wings,  which  are  totally  unfit  tor 
flying.  They  are  set  very  far  back  on  the 
body,  and  not  much  more  than  nidimental; 
but  they  are  ased  by  the  bird  bb  oars,  and  in 
coiutmctioQ  with  its  feet  it  plies  them  with  such 
power  and  velocity  that  It  haa  been  known  to 
escape  from  a  sii-oared  bar^e  pulled  by  vigor- 
ous oarsmen.  Jt  rarely  leaves  the  arctic  circle 
and  the  waters  adjoining,  nor  is  it  often  seen 
off  Bonndinga,  but  dwells  in  great  numbers 
abont  the  Far6  islands  and  Iceland,  and  it  haa 
been  asserted  that  it  breeds  in  Newfoundland. 
In  summer  all  the  npper  parts  of  this  bird's 
plumage  are  of  a  deep  sooty  black,  which  is 
changed  in  winter  to  white  on  the  cheeks,  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  the  throat.  It  breeds  Jn 
June  and  July,  and  lays  one  large  yellowish 
egg,  AS  big  as  a  swan's,  irregnlarly  dashed  with 
black  marks,  which  have  been  compared  to 
Chinese  characters.     It  has  a  large  decnrred 


AIJLAF 


iir 


Ol«t  Aak  (Alca  ImpeuDil). 

bill  with  sharp  cutting  edges;  and  its  feet 
betDfc  eitnated  at  the  extremity  of  its  body,  it 
stands  or  mts  erect,  propped  np  by  jts  short 
stiff  twl,  after  the  manner  of  the  pengninci, 
which  it  not  a  little  resembles. — The  blaok- 
billed  auk,  razor  bill,  or  mnrre  (A.  torda,  Linn.) 
belongs  to  the  northern  latitudes,  in  the  e.i- 
treme  height  c^  which  these  birds  swarm  in 
multitudes  during  the  breeding  season,  afford- 
ing food  and  clothing  to  the  Esquimaux,  who 
tlace  on  them  their  chief  dependeni^.  The 
ill  of  the  black  ank  has  a  sharp  hook  at  its 
extremity,  and  a  dentioolated  process  at  about 
two  thirds  of  its  length,  which  is  of  great  use 
in  seenring  its  slippery  prey.  Its  general  color 
is  dasky  above  and  white  below ;  it  flies  snffi- 
cientlj  well,  but,  like  the  species  last  described, 
uses  its  wings  as  oars  in  diving,  which  it  does 
to  perfection.  It  is  very  abundant  on  all  the 
rocky  coMts  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  sits  in 
long  horizontal  rows  on  the  steps  or  ledges  of 
the  crags,  towering  one  above  the  other. — The 
genos  fratereula  consists  of  a  single  species, 


the  Labrador  ank,  common  pnffio,  or  ooulter- 
neb  {F.  arcliea),  this  last  name  being  admira- 
bij  descriptive  of  it«  strong  massive  beak,  the 
mandibles  of  which,  when  separated,  especially 
the  upper  one,  almost  exactly  resemble  the 
coulter  of  a  plough.  The  upper  parts  of  this 
bird  are  dusky,  its  cheeks  and  belly  white.  It 
has  a  blaok  collar,  legs  and  feet  orange,  beak 
broad,  cutting-edged,  bluish  gray  next  to  the 
head,  bat  scarlet  thence  to  its  obtuse  point. 
Although  it  extends  to  the  high  arctic  regions, 
it  is  in  England  only  a  summer  viator,  breed- 
ing in  the  low  sandy  islands  in  rabbit  bur- 
rows, of  which  it  dispoHsesses  their  legitimat« 
owners;  or,  where  there  are  no  rabbits,  bur- 
rowing itself.  Id  rocky  places,  as  Dover  cli^ 
Flamborough  head,  and  the  Bass  rock,  nt  all 
which  places  these  birds  abound,  they  lay  their 
single  egg  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.  When 
they  have  reared  their  yonng,  they  pass  from 
England  to  the  eonthem  coasts  of  France  and 
Bpsin,  where  they  winter.  Their  bnrrows  are 
curiously  excavated,  by  means  of  their  bills, 
to  the  deptli  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  often 
have  two  entrances  for  escape  in  case  of  sur- 

Iirise.  The  length  of  the  paffln  is  about  13 
nohes. — The  m«rgy.la*  has  likewise  bnt  one 
representative,  the  Httle  auk,  common  rotche, 
or  sea  dove  (if.  melaiMUuem).,  which  is  the 
nnallest  of  the  family,  and  a  native  of  the  very 
highest  latitudes,  congregating  in  large  flocks 
near  the  arctic  circle ;  Greenland,  Spitzbergen, 
and  Melville  island  being  its  fiivorite  stations. 
Its  plumage  is  black  and  wbite ;  and  in  winter 
the  front  of  the  neck,  which  is  blaok  in  sum- 
mer, turns  whit«.  It  lays  but  a  nngle  egg.  of 
pale  bluish  green,  on  the  most  inaoceswble 
ledges  of  the  precipices  which  overhang  the 
ocean.  It  is  about  9  or  10  inches  long. — The 
last  division,  pAaJn-u,  oont^ns  also  bnt  a  sin- 
gle species,  the  paroquet  ank  (P.  ptittaeula), 
an  extreme  northern  bird,  about  II  inches 
long.  Its  head,  neck,  aud  npper  parts  are 
black,  blended  into  ash  color  on  the  forward 
parts  of  the  neck ;  the  breast  and  belly  white ; 
the  legs  are  yellowish,  the  beaks  in  the  adults 
red.  This  bird  swims  and  dives  admirably, 
and  is  said  to  be  of  a  singularly  unsuspicious 
character,  and  easily  captured.  About  mid- 
summer it  lays  one  large  egg,  nearly  of  the 
size  of  a  hen's,  with  brown  or  dusky  spots,  on 
a  whitish  or  yellowish  ground. 

iUUF,  or  liUif,  a  name  borne  by  several 
Northambrian  kings  of  Danish  origin,  about  the 
second  half  of  the  10th  oentur?.  I.  A  North- 
umbrian petty  king  and  a  pagan,  died  in 
980.  His  family  having  been  expelled  from 
Northumbrla  by  Athelstan,  he  fled  into  Ire- 
land, fought  against  the  native  tribes  in  that 
island,  in  B37  endeavored  to  recover  North nm- 
bria,  bnt  was  repulsed  by  Athelstan,  returned 
to  Ireland,  and  ravaged  Kilcallen.  Atter  the 
death  of  Athelstan,  Northumbria  fell  away 
from  the  English  crown,  and  Aiilaf  recovered 
his  inheritance  after  defeating  Edmund  at 
Tamworifa  and  Leicester.     Edred,  the  Eng- 


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118 


AtnJO  COUNCIL 


lish  king,  successor  of  Edmimd,  made  him 
do  homage  and  embrace  Chriatianity.  In  962 
Aulaf  was  driven  oot  b7  the  Cbristian  North- 
umbrians, and,  tired  of  struggling  against  the 
English,  he  went  over  to  lead  the  Ostmeo  of 
Dublin  against  the  Irish.  He  defeated  Uur- 
doch,  king  of  Le]nst«r,  in  956,  and  pnt  him 
to  death  the  next  jear.  Two  more  Leinster 
princes  suffered  the  same  fate  in  9T7.  At  this 
time  he  called  himself  king  of  Ireland  and  the 
lalee.  In  S60  Anlaf  loet  hie  eon  and  heir,  Kegi- 
nald  or  Regnell,  in  an  engagement  against  the 
Hibernian  abori^ea,  aad  m  the  »ame  year, 
heart-broken,  he  went  on  a  pilgriraaga  to  lona, 
where  he  died,  after  a  stormy  life.  !!■  Son  of 
Gnthfrith,  and  nncle  of  the  preceding,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  10th  century.  He  joined 
in  the  wars  of  his  nephew  against  the  Saxons 
in  eoQth  Britain  and  the  Celts  of  Erin.  He 
ravaged  Armagh  in  982,  and  Eilcullen  in  9S8. 
In  939  he  was  obliged  to  shut  himself  op  in 
Dublin.  He  made  an  irrnption  into  England 
with  his  nephew,  oonquered  Edmund,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Athelstan,  in  04S,  and  recovered 
Korthumbria.  He  lived  and  died  a  pagan  and 
a  hater  of  the  Christian  clergy. 

IDUC  COOfCIL  (Lat.  aula,  a  court  or  hall ; 
Ger.  lieiehfiho/rath),  a  tribunal  under  the  old 
German  empire,  stuiding  at  its  first  institution 
next  in  authority  to  the  supreme  imperial 
chamber  {Reiehtiammefgerieh€j,  to  which  it 
was  afterward  made  equal  in  power.  It  was 
tbrmed  in  1601  by  the  emperor  MaiimiUan, 
ctiieliy  from  members  of  Lis  tribunal  for  the 
administration  of  justice  in  the  Austrian  do- 
minions, and,  OS  ultimately  organized,  con- 
sisted of  a  president,  vice  president,  and  18 
councillors,  all  appointed  and  paid  by  the 
emperor.  The  authority  of  the  anlio  council 
was  confirmed  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
made  equal  to  that  of  the  chamber,  and 
sharply  defined  in  the  decrees  concerning 
tt  {ReiehthofratKt-Ordnungea)  of  1G69  and 
1S64.  Six  of  the  councillors  must  be  of  the 
Protestant  reli^on,  and  the  nnonimous  vote  of 
these  six  could  not  be  entirely  overruled  by  the 
others,  no  matter  what  their  majority.  The 
council  was  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  no- 
bles (Orafen  v.nd  Herren),  the  other  of  legal 
scholars  or  experts  {OelehTte),  all  equal  in  rank, 
though  the  last  named  class  received  higher 
salaries  than  the  others.  The  vice  chancellor 
appointed  by  the  electorate  of  Hentx  also  hod 
a  seat  in  the  council.  This  tribunal  had  ex- 
oluKve  jurisdiction  over  feudal  affairs  con- 
nected with  the  empire,  appeals  in  criminal 
coses  in  the  states  immediately  subject  to  the 
emperor,  and  questions  concerning  the  im- 
perial government  itself.  The  members  of  the 
conncil  held  office,  except  in  extraordinary 
oases,  during  one  reign  \  each  emperor,  imme- 
diately on  his  accession,  appointing  new  ones. 
The  council  jiassed  out  of  existence  with  the 
old  German  empire  itself  in  ISOQ. 

iULK,  in  uicient  geography,  a  town  of  Hel- 
las, in  Boeotia,  situated  on  the  strait  of  Euripus, 


AIJMALE 

which  separates  Bceotia  and  Eubcea ;  it  had  a 
temple  of  Diana.  Here  Agamemnon  aasem- 
bled  his  fleet  preparatory  to  crossing  the 
j£gean  sea  to  Troy,  and  here  his  dan^ter 
Iphigenia  was  presented  as  a  sacrifice  to  Di- 
ana. In  the  time  of  Fausanios  only  a  few 
potters  inhabited  it. 

lELiriT  UE  CHiENIS^  OiiIm  de  Xmm,  sei- 
gneur d',  a  French  proprietor,  who  figured  large- 
ly in  the  history  of  Acadia  or  Nova  Scutia,  died 
in  1660.  He  was  sent  out  about  1632  by  Com- 
mander Isaac  da  Razilly,  the  proprietor  of  A  ca- 
dio,  and  on  his  death  acted  as  agent  for  his 
brother  Claude  de  Razilly,  whose  rights  he 
purchased  in  1642.  A  civil  war  broke  out  soon 
after  between  him  and  La  Tour,  a  neighboring 
proprietor,  in  which  both  parties  committed 
excesses,  and  both  sought  the  aid  of  New  Eng- 
land. D'Aulnay  secured  the  favor  of  the 
French  goverument,  and,  after  capturing  Ma- 
dame delaTourinher  fort  in  164C,  was  appoint- 
ed governor.  His  authority  extended  to  the 
Kennebec.  His  widow,  Jeanne  Motin,  married 
his  old  rival  La  Tour. 

AIIIULE  ^formerly  Albemarle),  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Selne-InfSrienre, 
40  m.  N.  E.  of  Kouen ;  pop.  m  1866,  2,929.  In 
1592  a  battle  was  fought  here  between  the 
French  and  the  Spaniards,  in  which  Henry  IV, 
was  wounded.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  Aumale  was  a  county  belonging  to 
Claude  de  Lorraine,  5th  son  of  Rcn6  IL,  duke  of 
Lorraine,  who  was  afterward  created  duke  of 
Guise  by  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  became  the 
head  of  the  illustrious  family  of  that  name.  It 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy  by  Henry  II., 
and  held  as  such  by  Claude  II.,  Sd  son  of  Clande 
I.,  and  brother  of  the  celebrated  Francis  of 
Guise.  This  duke  of  Anmale  distinguished 
himself  during  the  war  of  the  French  against 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was  one  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  St  Bartholomew  massacre,  and 
was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball  before  La  Roohello 
in  16T3.  lUs  sou  Charles  de  Lorraine  fonf^ht 
agunst  Henry  IV.,  assisting  the  duke  of  Uaj- 
enne  in  thebatUos  of  Arques  and  Ivry,  where  the 
troops  of  theleagne  were  defeated. — The  titie  of 
duke  of  Aumale,  afler  being  extinct  for  years, 
was  given  to  Henbi  EugAve  Pbiuppb  Locib 
d'ObiJaiib,  4th  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  bom  in 
Paris,  Jon.  IS,  1S22.  Like  his  brothers,  he  was 
educated  at  one  of  the  public  colleges  of  Paris. 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  4th 
regiment  of  the  line ;  he  took  part  in  the  Afri- 
can expedition  of  M6d£ah,  served  a  second 
campdgn  in  Algeria,  and  returned  to  France 
in  1841  on  account  of  ill  health.  While  enter- 
ing Paris,  Sept.  13,  1841,  at  the  head  of  the 
ITth  regiment,  of  which  he  had  been  appointed 
colonel,  a  man  of  the  name  of  Quenisset  dis- 
charged a  gun  at  him,  but  missed  his  aim.  In 
1842  he  was  mode  brigadier  general,  and  com- 
mander of  the  district  of  K^d6ah.  On  May  16, 
1843,  he  attacked  and  routed  Abd-el-Koder, 
and  OS  a  reward  was  made  lieutenant  general 
and  commander  of  the  province  of  Constantine. 


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ATJNGERVYLE 

In  1847  he  wm  appointed  governor  of  Algeria 
in  place  of  UaraW  Bugeaud,  and  soon  Hber- 
irud  received  Abd-el-Kader's  gnrrender.  In 
1848,  on  hearing  of  the  revolution  in  Paris,  he 
exhorted  the  popnlatioii  to  wait  calmly  for  far- 
ther developments ;  and  on  March  8  he  re«iffned 
and  joined  the  other  members  of  his  familj  in 
England.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
German  war  in  1870  be  offered  his  services  to 
the  government,  but  thej  were  not  accepted. 
After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  III.  he  returned 
to  France,  and  in  1872  took  his  seat  aa  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  assemblj.  His  eldest  son, 
prince  de  Condfi,  died  in  Anstralia  in  1868, 
aged  21,  and  his  wife,  a  Neapolitan  princess,  in 
1860.  His  onlj  remaining  child,  the  duke  dc 
Guise,  bom  Jan.  S,  1854,  died  in  Paris,  Julj  2S, 
1872.  He  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  the 
Condi  family.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  academy.  Besides  pamph- 
lets and  articlee  on  politicsj  and  military  mat- 


AUBELLE 


119 


ten,  he  b  the  anthor  of  HUtoire  eU»  print 
Condi  (2  vola^  Paris,  1866),  trmaTated 


English  by  the  Rev.  R.  Brown-Borthwick  (2 
vols.,  London,  1872). 

AOHCiXVTLE,  BlOard  (known  in  history  as 
Richard  de  Bury),  an  English  statesman  and 
bibliographer,  born  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds  in 
1387,  died  at  Bishop's  Auckland,  April  34, 1»4B. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  appointed  tutor 
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  after  the  aocession 
of  his  pupil  to  the  throne  as  Edward  III.  re- 
ceived snccessivelj  the  appointments  of  coifienr 
to  t'.ie  king,  treasurer  >k  the  wardrobe,  and 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal.  In  1388  he  was  con- 
•ecrated  bishop  of  Durham.  In  1S34  be  suc- 
ceeded Archbishop  Stratford  as  lord  high 
chancellor  of  England,  which  office  he  resigned 
in  1835  for  that  of  treasurer.  He  went  several 
times  abroad  as  ambassador,  once  to  Rome  and 
thrice  to  Paris,  Aungervyle  was  a  diligent 
pm^haser  of  rare  and  costly  books,  and  when 
bishop  of  Durham  his  collection  was  one  of  the 
lai^est  in  England.  He  founded  also  for  the 
use  of  the  students  at  Oxford  a  library,  which 
was  then  the  best  in  the  kingdom.    The  latter 

Eirt  of  his  life  he  gave  np  entirely  to  books. 
e  left  a  Latin  treatise  on  biblio^phy  (the 
earliest  by  any  English  writer),  entitled  Philo- 
biblon  (Cologne,  1478;  English  translation  by 
J.  B.  Inglis,  London,  1832);  Epittola  FamiliO' 
rium,  inclndiog  some  letters  to  his  friend 
Petrarch ;  and  Orationet  ad  Prineipet. 

AmGUAH  (Lucitis  Domiticb  Aubsuasus),  a 
Roman  emperor,  bom  in  Pannonia,  or  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  on  the  southern  con- 
fines of  Dacia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  Sd  cen- 
tury, assaaunated  between  Heraclea  and  fiy- 
zantinm,  A.  D.  37G.  His  parents  were  poor 
and  of  the  lowest  class.  He  entered  a  Roman 
legion  at  an  early  age,  and  by  his  bravery  and 
the  remarkable  feats  of  arms  which  his  almost 
gigantio  statnre  and  great  strength  enabled 
him  to  perform  he  secured  rapid  promotion, 
and  great  personal  popularity  with  the  soldiers, 
among  whom  he  was  designated  as  ^ur«It<intM 


mafot  ad  femtm  (Aurelian  Sword -in-Hand), 
He  distinguished  himself  under  Valerian  and 
Claudius II.  in  campaigns  against  the  Goths; 
and  when  Claudius  di^  aluiongh  his  brother 
Quintillns'  assumed  the  purple  as  his  heir,  An- 
relian  wa*  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  of 
the  Danube,  of  which  he  was  then  in  command 
(370).  Qaintidoa  committed  soicide  after  a 
nominal  reign  of  aeveral  weeks,  and  Aurelian 
took  the  throne  witiiont  opporition.  Be  drove 
the  Goths  beyond  the  Danube,  carried  on  suc- 
cessful campaigns  agunst  the  Alemanni  and 
other  German  tribes,  and  to  protect  Rome 
ag^nst  them  boilt  a  line  of  strong  walls,  the 
roins  of  whicli  may  still  be  traced  about  the 
city.  He  next  Dudertook  a  war  against  Palmyra, 
tlien  a  magnificent  oihr  in  the  lieight  of  its 
prosperity,  ruled  by  Zenobio,  the  widow  of 
king  Odenathos.  He  captured  the  city  after 
one  of  the  ablest  defences  in  history,  treated 
the  people  with  comparative  kindness,  and  re- 
fused to  put  Zenobia  to  death,  though  his 
troops  demanded  her  execution.  After  hia 
departure  the  Palmyrenes  rose  and  massa- 
cred the  Roman  garrison ;  upon  this  he  re- 
turned, destroyed  the  city,  and  put  the  people 
to  the  sword  (278).  Zenohia  was  carried  to 
Rome,  and  appeared  in  the  emperor's  triumph. 
Aurelian  next  defeated  an  attempt  at  rebeUion 
made  by  the  Egyptians  under  their  Roman 
governor,  Tetrions,  who  had  made  himself 
the  independent  ruter  of  the  greater  part  of 
Gaol,  now  surrendered  after  little  more  than 
the  threat  of  a  war;  and  the  Roman  empire 
resnmed  something  of  its  old  territorial  im- 
portanoe.  The  senate  bestowed  upon  Anrelian 
the  title  of  "restorer  of  the  empire."  After  ef- 
fecting many  improvements  in  the  government 
of  the  city,  the  discipline  of  the  army,  and  the 
oondition  of  the  people,  the  emperor  was  assas- 
sinated while  on  the  way  to  a  oampugn  against 
the  Persians,  at  the  instigation  of  his  secretory, 
whom  he  had  threatened  with  punishment. 
ACEELICS,  Hams.  See  Antoninvb. 
inuii£  DE  PAUMNIS,  Laaii  J«u  BapHste 
d',  a  French  soldier,  Iwm  Jan.  9,  1804,  died 
Dec.  17,  1877.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Crimean  war.  Before  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  with  Germany  in  1870  he  was  oom- 
mander  of  ttie  9tb  military  division  of  France, 
at  Marseilles.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  he 
was  charged  by  the  provisional  government  at 
Tours  with  the  formation  of  the  army  of  the 
Loire.  After  a  battle  near  Coulmiers,  he  drove 
1  Gen,  von  der  Tann  from  Orleans  (Nov,  9-10), 
.  winning  the  first  French  victory  over  the  Ger- 
I  mans.  For  this  he  was  appointed  (Nov.  16) 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Loire. 
On  Nov.  28  he  attacked  the  left  wing  of  Prince 
Frederick  Charles  at  Beaune-la-Kolande,  but 
encountered  a  severe  repulse.  On  Dec.  2  he 
was  beaten  by  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg 
at  Artenay,  and  on  Dec.  G  Frederick  Charles 
drove  him  back  to  tiie  forest  of  Orleans,  re- 
newing the  attack  the  next  day  and  taking 
possession  of  the  town  at  midnight,  after  briak 


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120 


AURICH 


flgliting.  On  the  aame  da^  the  Frenoh  had 
been  Uioronghly  routed  b;  another  detaoh- 
ment  of  Frederick  Oharles's  army  near  Che- 
villy  and  Chilleurs,  and  driven  either  acroM 
or  along  the  Loire  above  Orleans,  thus  split- 
ting the  armj  of  the  Loire  into  two  portions. 
D'Aarelle  was  removed  from  his  command, 
and  afterward  declined  other  appoiotmenta. 
As  memher  of  the  national  assemFil;  at  Bor- 
deanx  he  opposed  the  continuation  of  the  war, 
and  was  one  of  the  committee  of  fifteen  ap- 
pointed to  assist  Thiers  and  Favre  in  arrang- 
mg  tlie  preliminaries  of  the  treat;  of  peace. 
He  became  commander- in -chief  of  the  national 
guard  of  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and  in 
1872  a  member  of  the  conrt  martial  for  tbe 
trial  of  Marshal  Bazaine.  In  18T5  ho  wa" 
chosen  senator  for  life, 

iDKlGH,  a  town  of  Oermanj,  in  the  Prnsrian 
province  of  Hanover,  capital  of  an  administra- 
tive division  of  the  same  name,  and  formerly 
capital  of  the  principality  of  East  Friesland, 
80  m.  N.  W.  of  Bremen;  pop.  in  1871,  4,861. 
It  has  a  oasUe  which  was  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  prince  of  East  Friesland,  a  college 
(gymnasium),  and  a  normal  scbool. 

AnUFiBQt,  the  Latinized  name  of  Jobank 
QoLDecHMixD,  or  Goldsohuidt,  one  of  the 
companions  of  Luther,  bom  near  Mansfetd  In 
1619,  died  at  Erfurt  in  1576.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  and  became  Lather's  amanuensis 
in  1G46.  In  the  Smalcaldio  war  he  was  chap- 
lain to  a  Baion  regiment,  sod  in  1561  court 
chaplain  of  the  elector  of  Basony,  but  he  be- 
came involved  in  theological  disputes  and  was 
removed  in  1663,  He  coUected  the  nnpnb- 
lished  mannscripts  of  Luther,  and  was  one  of 
the  oollaboratoTB  of  the  Jena  edition  of  the  re- 
former's works.  He  edited  the  Epittolm  Lv- 
thfri  ond  the  "Table  Talk."  In  156(J  he  be- 
came pastor  at  Erfurt. 

AUULUC,  a  town  of  sonthem  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Cantal,  in  a  valley  on 
the  Jourdanne,  here  spanned  by  a  fine  bridge, 
about  60  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Clermont ;  pop.  in 
1S66,  10,998.  It  is  well  bnilt,  with  wide 
streets,  kept  clean  by  tbe  oversowing  of  a 
large  reservoir,  into  which  two  fountains  dis- 
charge. The  old  buildings  include  the  castle 
of  St.  Stephen,  the  chnrob  of  St.  06raud,  the 
churchof  Notre  Dame  of  the  18th  century,  and 
the  ooUege,  which  contains  a  valuable  library 
and  a  cabinet  of  mineralogy.  The  mana- 
facturea  are  copper  utensils,  jewelry,  woollen 
etnfis,  blondes,  laces,  and  paper. — Aurillac  was 
founded  in  the  9th  century.  The  wall  former- 
ly surrounding  it  has  been  destroyed.  The 
town  suffered  much  in  the  wars  of  the  14th, 
16th,  and  16th  centuries. 

AtUOL,  a  French  borough  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-du-Rhfine,  16  m.  N.  E.  of 
Uarseilles ;  pop.  in  1866,  6,183.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  fiaga,  and  near  it  are  coal  mines. 

AUSITILLIII^  Sari,  a  Swedish  orientalist, 
bom  at  Stockholm  in  1717,  died  in  1T86.  He 
mastered  the  Sjriac,  Arabic,    Sanskrit,   and 


AURORA 

other  oriental  languages.  After  1T54  he  rft- 
sided  at  Upaal,  at  brat  giving  private  instruc- 
tion in  the  poetry  of .  different  nations,  and  in 
17T2  was  appointed  professor  of  oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  nniversity.  He  succeeded  Ltu- 
ncens  as  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
Upsol,  and  vrae  on  active  member  of  the  com- 
mission for  preparing  a  new  tranalation  of  the 
Bible  mto  Swedish. 

AEEOCBS,  the  io»  bison  of  Europe,  one  of 
the  contemporaries  of  the  mammoth  (elepha* 
I  primigeniu*),  an  animal  of  the  ox  family,  once 
I  abundant,  but  now  existing  bnly  in  the  forests 
of  Lithuania  belonging  to  the  czar  of  Russia, 
and  possibly  in  the  Caucasus.     It  would  long 

So  have  become  extinct  but  for  the  protection 
man.     Tbe  ure-ox  (£.  unu  or  S.  primi- 
gtnha),  found  in  tbe  post-tertiary  deposits,  is 


believed  to  be  the  same  as  was  described  by 
Cmsar  in  bis  Oommentaries  as  abounding  ia 
the  forests  of  Qermany ;  it  existed  in  Switzer- 
land as  late  as  the  IStb  century.  Both  species 
are  found  abundantly  in  the  post-tertiary  of 
Europe,  and  corresponding  species  in  America, 
and  no  doubt  furnished  a  large  ahare  of  ^e 
food  of  prehistoric  man. 

iDKOU  Cm  Greek,  Eos),  tbe  goddess  of  the 
morning,  waa  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and 
Thia,  the  wife  of  Astrteos,  and  the  mother  of 
the  winds.  She  carried  off  Orion  to  the  island 
of  Ortygio,  and  detained  him  there  till  he  waa 
slain  by  Ihana.  She  bore  away  Oephalus,  and 
had  by  him  a  son  named  PhaHhon.  To  Ti- 
thonns,  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  ahe 
bore  Memuon  and  ^Smathion.  Aurora  is  some- 
times represented  in  a  aaffron-colored  robe, 
with  a  wand  or  torch  in  her  right  hand, 
emcr^ng  horn  a  golden  palace,  and  ascending 
her  chariot;  sometimes  in  a  flowing  veil,  which 
she  is  in  the  act  of  throwing  back,  opening  tbe 
gates  (kT  morning ;  and  sometimes  as  a  nymph, 
wearing  a  garland  and  standing  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  winged  horses,  with  a  torch  in  one 
hand  and  flowers  in  the  other,  which  she  toat- 
t««  as  she  goes. 


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AURORA 


,  a  city  of  Ksno  oonnty,  III.,  on  Fox 
T  and  th«  Ohicago,  Darlington,  and  Qaincy 
railroad,  40  m,  W,  b  j  8.  of  Chicago ;  pop.  ia 
1860,  6,011;  in  18T0,  11,163.  It  oontuns  14 
churches,  a  haiid»onie  citj  hall,  e.  college,  and 
many  important  maDafaotorim,  the  power  for 
which  ia  fnnibhed  by  the  Fas  river.  The 
construction  and  repair  Rliops  of  the  railway 
sitnatod  here  employ  abont  7D0  men.  A  semi- 
weekly  newspaper,  and  8  weeklies,  one  of 
which  is  German,  are  pnblishad  here. 

lUKOBi  BOKEAUH  (more  correctly  Aurora 
PolarU.  since  the  phenomenon  is  not  confined 
to  northern  latitades),  called  also  Nosthbbs 
Stkbahbhs  and  Nobthirn  Liohts,  a  himinous 
appearance,  associated  with  energetic  disturb- 
ances of  the  earth's  magnetism  and  electrical 
condition.  It  is  seldom  seen  save  in  high  lati- 
tudes, thongh  occasionally  the  tropica  are  visit- 
ed by  auroral  displays.  In  polar  regions  an- 
Toras  are  very  common,  and  nsnally  far  more 
brilliant  than  in  the  temperate  zones.  Ham- 
b<ddt  gires  the  following  description  of  the 
appearances  presented  when  the  auroral  phe- 
nomena are  ftuly  developed,  althongh  itmnst  be 
understood  that  there  is  considerable  variety  In 
these  displays:  "An  aurora  borealis  is  always 
preceded  by  the  formation  of  a  sort  of  nebnlar 
veil  which  slowly  asoends  to  a  height  of  four,  six, 
eight,  or  even  to  ten  d^ees.  It  is  toward  the 
magnetic  meridian  of  the  place  that  the  sky, 
at  first  pare,  commences  to  become  brownish. 
Throngn  this  obscnre  s^ment,  the  color  of 
which  passes  trcna  brown  to  violet,  the  stars 
are  seen  as  throngh  a  thick  fog.  A  wider  aro, 
bnt  one  of  brilliant  light,  at  first  white,  then  yel- 
low, bonnds  the  dark  segment.  Sometimes  the 
Imninoas  arc  appears  agitated  for  entire  honrs 
by  a  sort  of  effervescence  and  by  a  continnal 
change  of  form,  before  the  rising  of  the  rays 
and  colnmns  of  light,  which  ascend  as  far  as 
the  zenith.  The  more  tntenw  is  the  emiswon 
of  the  polar  light,  the  more  vivid  are  its  colors, 
which  from  violet  and  bluish  white  pass  through 
all  the  Intermediate  shades  to  green  and  purple 
red.  Sometimes  the  oolnrans  of  light  appear 
to  come  out  of  the  brilliant  are  mingled  with 
blackish  rays  similar  to  a  thick  smoke.  Some- 
times they  rise  simnltaneonsly  in  different  parts 
of  the  horizon;  they  unite  themselves  into  a 
sea  of  flames,  the  magaifioence  of  which  no 
painting  could  express,  and  at  each  instant 
rapid  ondnlations  oanse  their  form  and  bril- 
liancy to  vary.  Motion  appears  to  increase 
the  viwbility  of  the  phenomenon.  Aroond  the 
point  in  the  heavens  which  corresponds  to  the 
directjon  of  the  dipping  needle  prodnced,  the 
rays  appear  to  assemble  together  and  form  a 
boreal  corona.  It  is  rare  that  the  appearance 
is  so  complete  and  is  prolonged  to  tba  forma- 
tion of  the  corona;  but  when  the  latter  ap- 
pears, it  always  announces  tiie  end  of  the  phe- 
nomenon. The  rays  then  become  more  rare, 
shorter,  and  less  viridly  colored.  Shortly 
nothing  more  is  seen  on  the  celestial  vanlt  than 
wide,  motionless  neboloos  spots,  pole  or  of  an 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


121 


ashen  color;  these  disappear  while  the  traces 
of  the  dark  segment  whence  the  phenomenon 
originated  remain  still  on  the  horizon."  Al- 
though auroras  are  more  commonly  seen  in  high 
latitudes  than  near  the  tropics,  it  is  not  toward 
the  tme  poles  of  the  eartti  that  the  increase 
takea  place,  nor  does  the  increase  continne 
after  certain  high  latitudes  have  been  reached. 
Thus  the  frequency  of  auroras  Is  different  at 
different  stations  in  the  same  latitude ;  and  in 
passing  poleward  from  places  in  a  (^ven  lati- 
tnde,  the  region  of  maximum  frequency  is 
reached  more  quickly  in  some  longitudes  than 
in  others.  Thus  an  inhabitant  of  St.  Peters- 
burg would  have  to  travel  to  lat.  71°  N.  before 


northward  only  to  lab  66°  to  reach  the  r^on 
where  auroral  displays  are  most  freqnent.  The 
zone  on  the  earth's  northern  hemisphere  where 
amxiraa  occur  most  commonly  and  attain  their 
greatest  splendor,  may  be  represented  by  con- 
structing a  ring  of  card  or  paper,  of  snch  di- 
mensions as  to  agree  with  the  SOth  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  and  then  pushing  the  ring  sonth- 
ward  on  the  side  of  America  and  northward 
on  the  side  of  Asia,  until  it  passes  through  the 
most  southerly  part  of  flndson  bay  and  the 
most  northerly  part  of  Siberia.  The  posiUoH 
of  the  corresponding  zone  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  boa  not  yet  been  determined ;  but 
it  is  believed  that  the  southern  zone  of  maxi- 
ranm  auroral  frequency  is  nearly  antipodal  to 
the  northern  zone.  From  what  we  know  of 
the  connection  between  the  occurrence  of  ao- 
roras  and  disturbances  of  the  earth's  magnet- 
ism, we  have  every  reason  to  bebeve  that  as 
the  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth  are  slowly 
shifting,  so  the  tone  of  maximnm  auroral  fre- 
quency most  also  change  in  position.  It  can- 
not be  doubted,  ftar  example,  that  in  the  17th 
oentnry,  when  the  northern  magnetic  pole  lay 
between  England  and  the  north  pole,  terrestrial 
conditions  were  more  favorable  for  the  oconr- 
renoe  of  anroras  in  England  than  they  now 
are,  or  than  they  then  were  in  corresponding 
latltadee  in  Noith  America.  At  present,  on ' 
the  contrary,  the  northern  magnetic  pole  lies 
between  the  north  pole  and  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  the  American  continent;  hence 
auroras  are  mwe  frequent  and  more  brilliant 
in  North  America  than  In  corresponding  lati- 
tudes in  Europe, — To  the  description  given  by 
Humboldt  we  shonld  add  that  sometimes  in 
high  latitudes,  instead  of  extending  from  the 
horizon,  the  auroral  arch  appears  in  the  form 
of  a  complete  ovaL  Hmsteen  relates  that  at 
Christiania  he  twice  saw  the  auroral  aroh  in 
this  form.  Sometimes  more  than  one  aroh  has 
been  seen.  Tbos  the  observers  who  were  sent 
by  the  French  government  to  winter  at  Bos- 
sekop  in  Finland,  saw  on  one  oocatqon  no  fewer 
than  nine  arche^  separated  by  dark  spaces, 
"  and  resembling  in  their  arrangement  magnifi- 
cent curtwns  of  light,  hung  behind  and  below 
each  other,  their  brilliant  folds  stretehing  oom- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


122 

pletelj  & 


AURORA  B0REAL18 


)  the  tikj."  The  position  of  the 
lummous  region  is  not  known.  Arago  was  of 
opinion  that  each  observer  sees  his  own  anrora, 
somewhat  as  each  observer  of  a  rainbow  sees 
the  luminous  arc  differentlj  placed.  Sir  John 
Uerschel  sajs  "  no  one  can  doabt  that  the  light 
of  the  anrora  originates  nowhere  but  in  the 
place  where  it  is  seen."  But  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
the  determination  of  the  height  of  auroral 
fleams  are  presented  when  the  auroral  corona 
IS  formed.  Now  this  corona  alwaj'g  surrouiids 
the  point  toward  which  the  magnetic  dip- 
ping needle  points.  Yet  the  magnetio  dipping 
needles  at  aiffereat  stations  ore  not  dinjcted 
toward  one  and  the  some  point ;  so  that  what- 
ever the  auToral  corona  maj  be,  it  does  not 
seem  to  hold  a  definite  place,  in  snch  sort  that 
its  distance  can  be  determined  by  simultaneous 
observations;  for  it  is  the  essential  principle  of 
the  method  of  stmuttaneona  observations  that 
the  lines  of  sight  should  be  directed  to  one  and 
the  same  point.  Nor  is  it  easy,  on  Herschel's 
theory,  to  interpret  the  fact  that  the  auroral 
corona  has  been  seen  at  stations  distant  more 
than  1,000  miles  from  each  other,  and  always 
around  the  part  of  the  heavens  pointed  to  by 
the  magnetic  dipping  needle.  For  a  point  im- 
mediately overhead  at  one  station,  and  100 
miles  Irora  the  earth's  surface,  would  be  be- 
low the  horizon  of  a  station  1,000  miles  dis- 
tant. We  seem  forced  to  adopt  the  ronclaaion 
that  though  there  is  no  analogy  whatever  be- 
tween the  aurora  and  the  runhow,  yet  Arago 
was  right  when  he  asserted  his  belief  that  as 
each  observer  seee  his  own  rainbow,  so  each 
observer  sees  a  different  aurora.  We  should 
thus  be  led  to  consider  whether  the  nature  of 
the  luminous  emanations— the  direction,  for  in- 
stance, of  the  luminous  flashes  composing  them 
— may  not  explain  the  formation  of  the  auroral 
corona.  In  this  ease  the  position  of  the  observer 
wonld  affect  the  appearance  of  the  phenomenon. 
— If  we  assume  that  reliance  oan  be  placed  on 
the  observations  by  means  of  which  tne  height 
of  the  auroral  aroh  has  been  estimated,  we 
most  asdgn  a  considerable  elevation  to  many 
of  these  lights.  On  Oct.  IT,  1B19,  an  aurora 
was  observed  simultaneously  at  Gosport,  Kes- 
wick, and  Newtown  Stewart,  in  Qreat  Britain ; 
and  from  the  calculations  made  by  Dalton  the 
meteorologist,  the  arch  was  estimated  to  be 
101  or  102  miles  above  the  earth.  More  re- 
cently Sir  John  Herschel  estimated  that  the 
arch  in  the  aurora  of  March  9,  1861,  was  SS 
miles  above  the  earth.  But  he  remarks  that 
"the  auroral  light  has  been  seen  below  the 
clouds,  as  in  the  polar  seas  by  Parry,  Sherer, 
and  Rosa,  on  Jan.  ST,  1S2G ;  near  the  chain  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  on  Dec.  2,  ISuO,  by  Hai 


disty ;  and  at  Alford  i 
1842,  by  Farqnharson 
n  as  if  hovering  o 


Scotland  on  Feb.  34, 
nay,  even  habitually 
the  Coreen  hills  ■    " 


last-mentioned  neighborhood,  at  a  height  of 
from  4,000  to  fl,000  miles."  Herr  Galle,  from 
observations  mode  during  the  aurora  of  Feb. 


4,  18?2,  estimates  the  height  of  the  anroral 
corona  on  that  occasion  at  265  miles  above  the 
sea  level.  Prof.  01mst«d's  conclusion  that  the 
auroral  arch  is  seldom  below  TO  miles  in  height 
or  above  160  miles,  would  thus  appear  to  be 
negatived.  But  probably  all  sncn  estimates 
must  be  abandoned,  and  "our  meteorolo^cal 
catalogues,"  as  Arago  advised,  "must  be  disen- 
cumbered of  a  multitude  of  determinatiouH  of 
height,  though  due  to  such  great  names  as  Msi- 
ran,  Halley,  Krafft,  Cavendish,  and  Dallon."— 
The  eit«nt  of  the  earth's  surface  over  which 
the  same  aurora  has  been  vifdble  has  some- 
times been  remarkable.  K&mtz  mentimis  that 
on  Jon.  6,  1T69,  a  ^lendid  anrora  was  seen 
umultaneonaly  in  France  and  in  Pennsylvania ; 
and  that  the  remarkable  aurora  of  Jan.  T,  1831, 
was  seen  from  all  ports  of  central  and  northern 
Europe,  in  Canada,  and  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  United  States.  But  even  th««e  instances, 
and  others  of  the  same  kind  which  might  be 
cited,  are  surpassed  in  interest  by  the  circum- 
stance that  auroras  of  great  brilliancy  occur 
simultaneously  over  the  m^or  part  of  both  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  E&mtz 
mentions  that  when  Capt.  Cook's  observations 
are  analyzed,  it  appears  that  on  every  occasion 
when  he  observed  an  aurora  australis  an  aurora 
borealis  had  been  seen  in  Europe,  or  else  the 
agitation  of  the  magnetic  needle  proved  that 
around  the  northern  magnetic  pole  an  auroral 
display  must  have  been  in  progress.  The 
aurora  of  Feb.  4,  ieT2,  was  seen  not  only  in 
America  and  Europe,  and  over  the  northern 
hemisphere  generdly,  as  far  8.  as  lat.  14°  N., 
but  in  Mauritius,  in  South  Africa,  in  Australia, 
and  probably  over  the  greater  part  of  the  south- 
ern hemisphere  (for  Mauritius  is  much  forther 
north  than  southern  auroras  are  ordinarily  seen). 
— Mairan  and  Cas^ni  were  the  first  to  point 
out  that  auroras  do  not  occur  at  all  times  with 
equal  frequency  or  in  equal  splendor.  The 
former  mentions  that  a  great  number  of  auroras 
were  seen  at  the  beginning  of  the  I6th  century 
(a  misprint  probably  for  liie  ITth,  as  the  con- 
test seems  to  imply)  to  beyond  the  year  lfl24, 
after  which  nothing  more  was  heard  of  them 
till  1686.  K&mtz  mentions  that  between  1T07 
and  1T90  there  was  a  remarkable  increase  fol- 
lowed by  decrease  of  auroral  action,  the  mai- 
imum  frequency  being  attained  in  1T90.  Prof. 
Obnsted  considered  that  there  was  sufBcient  evi- 
dence to  establish  a  period  of  SO  years  during 
which  auroral  displays  are  frequent,  preceded 
and  followed  by  intervals  of  from  80  to  66  years 
during  which  few  are  witnessed.  But  it  is  open 
to  question  whether  the  existence  of  this  long 
penod  is  as  yet  established.  ^  The  actual  fre- 
quency of  auroras  cannot  be  inferred  from  ob- 
servations mode  in  temperate  latitudes,  where 
alone  hitherto  any  attempt  has  been  mad© 
to  determine  long  periods.  The  longest  pe- 
riod which  has  been  thoroughly  established  is 
one  of  about  11  years.  This  period  is  associ- 
ated with  the  occurrence  of  magnetic  disturb- 
ances in  cycles  of  11  years.    The  connection 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


between  auroral  action  and  distnrbancea  of  the 
earth's  magnetiam  appears  to  have  been  deni- 
onstTHted,  though  doubt  still  renuuns  as  to  the 
exact  nature  of  the  association.  The  pertnrba- 
tions  of  tho  magnetic  needle  undoubted!/  attain 
their  maximnm  extent  at  intervals  separated  bj 
about  11  years.  The  researches  of  Sabine,  La- 
mont,  and  Wolf  appear  to  have  established 
that  faot  bejond  dispute.  Hence  wo  may  infer 
that  tho  anroral  action  waxes  and  wanes  with- 
in the  same  period, — A  remarkable  associa- 
tion also  appears  to  exist  between  ^turbancea 
of  the  earth's  magnetism  and  the  oocurrence 
of  apota  on  the  sun.  It  has  been  demon3trat«d 
that  the  solar  qiots  increase  and  diminish  in 
a  period  of  abont  11  years;  and  that  this  peri- 
odicity eorresponda  exactly  with  the  periodicity 
of  the  magnetic  perturbations.  A  great  solar 
osthnrat  witnessed  by  Oarrington  and  Hodg- 
son, Sept  29,  1S50,  was  not  only  acoompanied 
by  eitensive  magnetic  distnrbances,  bnt  on  the 
s.ime  day  remarkable  auroras  oocmred  in  both 
hemispheres.  Telegraphic  communication  was 
interrupted  on  all  the  principal  linea ;  the  ope- 
rators  at  WHshiogton  and  Philadelphia  received 
sharp  electric  shocks ;  and  the  pen  used  in 
Bain's  system  of  telegraphy  was  followed  by  a 
flame.  Some  doabt  has  been  thrown  on  the 
supposed  connection  between  these  oirenm- 
Btances  and  the  solar  ontbnrst,  in  oonseqnenoe 
of  the  failure  of  observers  to  olitain  any  corrob- 
orative evidence  during  the  past  IS  years ;  bnt 
the  connection  between  the  condition  of  the  so- 
lar mriaoe  and  the  earth's  magnetic  state,  and 
therefbre  the  connection  between  the  solar 
,  spot  period  and  auroral  displays,  has  been  thor- 
onghly  established.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  nomtier  of  auroras  seen  in  each 
month,  in  America  and  Earope,  according  to 
the  observations  of  Prof.  Loomis  of  Yale  college 
and  Kftintz  of  Germany.  These  observations, 
however,  must  not  be  looked  npon  as  indi- 
cating the  relative  frequency  of  auroras  in 
America  and  Karope,  because  the  observations 
of  Loomis  and  Kimtz  range  over  a  different 
nomber  of  years; 


as?!.:-.: 


Joiy 


In  each  case  there  is  a  doable 
two  equinoxes  being  the  epochs  at  which  anro- 
rae  are  most  frequent ;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
in  these  months  the  solar  poles  are  most  inclined 
toward  the  earth,  the  sonthem  pole  in  March, 
the  northern  pole  in  September;  so  that  the 
Doutbem  spot  zone  is  nearer  to  the  centre  of 
Che  son's  face  in  March  than  at  any  other  time, 
while  the  northern  spot  zone  holds  a  cor- 
responding position  in  September. — As  tci  the 
electrical   character  of  toe  phenomenon  no 

Saestjon  can  be  entertained,  tnongh  there  are 
sir  problems  of  greater  difficulty  than  the 
determination  of  Ute  exact  manner  in  which 


the  electrical  action  is  excited.  It  has  been 
held  by  some  that  the  aurora  is  due  to  elec- 
trical discharges  from  the  earth,  Throogh 
;  some  cause  the  earth,  regarded  aa  a  vast  mag- 
I  net,  becomes  overcharged  (according  to  tbis 
theory)  with  electrical  energy,  and  it  is  as  this 
energy  is  gradoally  disripated  that  the  splen- 
dors of  the  anrora  are  displayed.  It  has  been 
noticed  that  whenever  the  earth's  magnetism 
is  unnsaally  intense  an  auroral  display  is  to  be 
expected.  As  soon  as  the  aurora  lias  made  its 
appearance  the  intensity  of  the  magnetic  force 
begins  to  diminish.  The  more  brilliant  the 
aurora,  the  more  rapidly  is  the  extra  energy 
of  the  earth's  magnetism  dissipated.  "  It  has 
also  been  observed  by  operators  of  the  Bain 
or  chemical  telegraph,  that  very  singular  effects 
are  produced  by  the  anrora  upon  the  telegraph 
vrires.  The  abnospherio  electricity  generated 
during  thunderstorms  passes  from  the  wire  to 
the  chemically  prepared  paper,  emitting  a 
bright  spark  and  a  sound  like  the  snapping  of 
a  pistol.  It  never  remains  long  npon  the 
wires,  though  it  travels  sometimes  40  or  50 
miles  before  discbar^t^  itself.  But  the  elec- 
tricity produced  by  the  aurora  passes  along  the 
wires  in  a  continuous  stream  witli  no  sudden 
discharge,  effecting  the  same  resnlt  as  that  by 
the  galvanic  battery.  A  colored  mark  npon 
the  paper  is  made  by  the  positive  current  of 
the  aurora  as  by  the  positive  pole  of  the  bat- 
tery;  the  negative  current,  on  the  contrary, 
produces  a  bleaohing  effect.  Preceding  the 
appearance  of  the  aurora  faint  blue  lines  appeal 
on  the  paper,  which  gradually  become  stronger 
and  darker  so  as  to  bum  through  several  thick- 
nesses of  it.  The  effect  then  disappears,  and  is 
soon  followed  by  the  bleaching  process,  whicli 
entirely  overcomes  the  artificial  current  of  tbe 
batteries.  When  these  effects  have  been  ob- 
served, tbe  anrora  follows,  and  presents  some 
of  its  most  beautifiJ  displays  along  tbe  lines 
of  these  telegraphs;  and  so  familiar  have  the 
operators  become  with  the  disturbance  which 
the  aurora  causes,  that  they  can  predict  its  ap- 
pearance with  much  certainty.  Tbcy  regard 
tbe  electricity  generated  by  it  as  precisely  that 
of  the  electro-galvanic  battery,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  voluminous  current  without 
intensity  of  action,  differing  from  atmospheric 
electricity  or  the  kind  developed  by  fnotion, 
which  may  be  dissipated  by  placing  a  wire 
conductor  leading  to  the  gronna  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  line  of  wires."  Cspt.  MoClintock 
observed  in  the  arctic  regions  that  the  aurora 
was  never  visible  above  ice  fields,  but  that 
whenever  an  aurora  was  in  progress  the  light 
appeared  always  to  be  gathered  over  tbe  sur- 
face of  the  open  water.  Water  being,  as  is 
well  known,  an  excellent  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity, while  ice  is  a  non-eonductor,  we  may 
infer  that  the  pecnliarity  observed  by  UoClin- 
took  was  dne  to  this  difference  in  the  conduct- 
ing powers  of  ice  and  water.  In  fact,  on  the 
theory  that  the  aurora  is  due  to  electrical  dis- 
char^^  from  tbe  earth,  these  discharges  were 


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124 


AURORA  BOREAUS 


intaimpted  by  the  fielda  of  ice. — The  Btndj  of 
the  aurora  with  the  epectrosoope  has  revealed 
soma  important  facts,  though  it  has  aa  yet 
thrown  no  light  on  the  natare  of  the  phe- 
nomenon. AngBtrOm  of  SvredcQ,  in  the 
winter  of  1867-'S,  recognized  the  existence  of 
a  bright  yellow-green  line  in  the  anroral  speo- 
tmm ;  and  Otto  Strave  of  Rvswa  preeejitly 
confirmed  this  result.  It  was  at  the  time  aop- 
posed  that  this  line  constitnted  the  whole  of 
the  Bpectrom;  and  Dr.  Huggins,  commenting 
on  the  disooverj,  remarked  in  1866  that  the 
result  seemed  snrpriaing  when  the  ordinarily 
ruddy  hne  of  the  aurora  was  taken  into  ac- 
count. "  Bat  Gen.  Sabine  tells  me,"  he  adds, 
"  that  in  his  polar  eipedidons  he  has  frequently 
seen  the  aorors  tinged  with  green,  and  this 
appearance  correeponda  with  the  position  of 
the  line  seen  by  ii.  Struve."  Later  observa- 
tions, however,  and  especially  those  made  by 
Prof.  Winloek  in  this  country,  have  shown  that 
the  anroral  spectrum  is  far  more  coraptax 
than  had  been  suppoeed,  and  that  it  is  also 
variable.  It  would  appear  that  the  bright 
green  line  is  always  present,  and  that  it  is 
nearly  always  the  brightest  line  of  the  spec- 
trum. Bnt  there  is  ahio  a  band  in  the  red 
wbiub,  though  osually  macb  less  intense,  yet 
Iteoomes  even  brighter  than  the  yellow-green 
line  when  the  red  streamers  of  the  aurora  are 
exceptionally  brilliant.  The  wave  lengths  of 
the  green  and  red  light  correspond  respectively 
to  CG8  and  636.  fieddea  these  there  are  faint 
greenish  and  bluish  linea  corresponding  to  wave 
lengths  C44,  631,  522,  61S,  SOI.  and  486.  Two 
other  bands  in  the  blue  and  violet  between  the 
lines  F  and  G  (one  of  them  very  close  to  G) 
have  been  detected  in  the  spectrum  of  white 
parts  of  (ie  anrora.  They  disappear  or  be- 
come tiiiM  in  the  parts  having  an  intense  red 
tint  During  the  great  auroral  display  of 
Feb.4, 1872,  Father  Perry  of  theStonyhurst  ob- 
servatory (England)  remarked  that  "  the  green 
line  conld  always  be  detected,  even  where  the 
nnasusted  eye  ftuled  to  notice  any  trace  of 
anroral  light.  This,"  be  adds,  "might  sag- 
gest  the  advisability  of  a  daily  observation 
with  a  small  hand  spectroscope  for  those  who 
are  desirous  of  forming  a  complete  list  of 
auroral  phenomena.  Uagnetto  disturbances 
are  a  snre  guide  in  the  case  of  grand  manifesta- 
tions of  aurora ;  hut  might  not  a  very  slight 
aurora  be  observable  without  the  magnetic 
needle  being  sensibly  affected } "  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  circumstances  hitherto  ascer- 
tained respecting  the  aurora  is  the  partial 
agreement  of  its  spectrum  with  that  of  the 
solar  corona.  It  is  not  indeed  the  case,  aa  is 
sometimes  stated,  that  the  principal  line  in  the 
coronal  spectrum  (known  as  the  1474  line,  be- 
cause agreeing  with  the  corresponding  line  of 
KirchhotTs  scale)  coincides  with  the  bright 
yellow-green  anroral  line ;  bat  another  and 
fainter  anroral  lineagrees  with  Kirchhoff'e  1474, 
and  there  is  sufficient  general  resemblance  be- 
tween the  coronal   and    auroral    spectra  to 


ADRUNGABAD 

justify  the  theory  that  a  real  resemblance 
exists  between  the  aurora  and  the  solar  corraia. 
This  theory  waa  first  worked  ont  and  published 
by  Prof.  W.  A.  Norton  of  Yale  college ;  but 
Prot.  Winloek  of  Cambridge  also  formed  and 
published  a  similar  theory. — Some  doubt  seems 
still  to  prevail  on  the  question  whether  the 
bright  green  hne  of  the  auroral  spectrum  be- 
longs also  to  the  spectrum  of  tLe  zodiacal 
light.  Angatrdm  and  Reajiighi  have  asserted 
that  this  is  the  case ;  but  others  deny  that  the 
auroral  green  line  is  ever  seen  in  the  zo^acal 
spectrum  save  when,  an  ^urora  is  in  progress. 
Mr.  Webb  observes  of  the  zodiacal  light,  Feb. 
2,  1872:  "It  seemed  to  show  a  ruddy  tinge 
not  unlike  the  commencement  of  a  crimson 
aurora  borealis ;  thia  may  have  been  a  decep- 
tion, but  it  was  certainly  redder  or  yeUower 
than  the  galaxy.  At  7  I  examined  it  with  a 
pocket  spectrOBcope  which  shows  very  dis- 
tinctly the  greeniui  band  of  the  aurora ;  but 
nothing  of  the  kind  was  visible,  nor  could  any- 
thing be  traced  beyond  a  slight  increase  of 
general  light,  which  in  cloeing  the  slit  was  ex- 
tinguished long  before  the  auroral  band  would 
hare  become  imperceptible."  U.  Liais  also, 
who  has  for  several  years  studied  the  zodiacal 
light  in  tropical  countries,  finds  ita  epeclmm 
to  be  ordinarily  continnoaa,  Yet  undoubtedly 
the  yeUow-gr«en  line  is  seen  in  the  roectrum 
received  fW>m  the  r^on  occupied  by  the  zodi- 
acal, during  auroral  displays;  though  whether 
it  is  then  ramply  the  auroral  line  seen  in  the 
direction  of  the  zodiacal  as  well  as  in  others, 
or  partly  received  from  the  zodiacal  itself,  re- 
maiDB  an  open  question.  In  the  latter  case  it 
would  follow,  of  course,  tliat  there  is  an  intimate 
connection,  as  Mairan  long  ago  suspected, 
between  the  zodiacal  light,  whidi  is  undoubt- 
edly a  coemical  phenomenon,  and  the  aurora, 
which  is  BB  undoubtedly  a  terrestrial  manifesta- 
tion, though  not  improbably  of  cosmical  ori^. 
Prof.  Olmsted  had  several  years  ago  assigned 
to  the  aurora  an  interplanetary  origin.  "  The 
nebulous  matter,"  he  reasoned,  "like  that 
which  furnishes  the  material  of  the  met«ono 
showers  or  the  zodiacal  light,  and  is  known  to 
exist  in  the  interplanetary  B)>aces,  is  probably 
the  canse  of  the  am'oral  displays.  The  peri- 
odical return  of  the  phenomena  indicates  such 
a  powtion ;  so  too  its  rapid  motion,  which  ex- 
ceeds that  of  light  or  electricity,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  surface  over  which  the  phenomenon  is 
seen  at  the  same  time."  It  sliould  be  added 
that  during  the  months  of  January,  February, 
and  March,  1872,  when  auroraa  occurred  with 
unusual  frequency,  the  zodiacal  light  shoue  with 
exceptional  brilliancy. 

AnSENGiBAD,  a  city  of  western  Hindostan, 
in  the  native  state  of  Hyderabad  or  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Nizam,  on  the  Doodna,  a  small 
tributary  o(  the  Godavery,  176  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Bombay.  It  was  an  unimportant  village  called 
Gurka  until  the  time  of  Aumngzebe,  who 
made  it  a  favorite  residence,  and  built  here 
a  mausoleum  to  the  memory  of  his  dangh- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ADRUNGZEBE 

ter.  The  town  ie  well  laid  out,  but  the 
baildings  are  id  a  dilapidated  condition,  And 
the  cliniate  is  unhealthy.  The  population  was 
estimated  in  1825  at  60.000,  but  is  now  much 
smaller.  Water  i»  supplied  by  meana  of  con- 
doits  and  pipee,  and  a  oonsiderable  trade  is 


Moaqofl  of  Aurunezflbe. 

carried  on.  The  town  was  formerly  the  (capi- 
tal of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  contain- 
ing about  50,000  sq.  m.,  which  was  incorpo- 
rated with  the  MogQl  empire  in  1633.  In  more 
recent  periods  it  belonged  partly  to  the  Malirat- 
tasand  partly  to  the  Niiam,  but  is  now  mostly 
nnder  British  rule. 

ACKIINeZEBE,  or  larugub,  the  last  great 
emperor  of  the  Mog^  dynasty  in  India,  bom 
Oct.  22,  1618,  died  at  Abniednusgnr,  Feb. 
21,  1T07.  He  was  appointed  br  bis  fatlier, 
Shah  Jehan,  to  be  viceroy  of  tbe  Deccan.  Here, 
while  affecting  an  entire  indifference  for  world- 
ly things,  he  acquired  military  experience  and 
amassed  great  wealth.  In  166T  the  emperor 
was  taken  saddenly  ill,  and  Dara,  the  heir  ap- 
parent and  eldest  brother  of  Aiirungzel>e,  as- 
Btuned  tbe  administration.  Aarungzebe  united 
with  a  yonnger  brother  in  defeating  Dara,  and 
soon  succeeded  by  his  enersy  and  treachery  in 
patting  to  death  all  his  brothers  and  their  sons. 
His  father,  having  meantime  recovered,  was 
con6ned  for  the  rest  of  bis  life  as  a  prisoner 
in  bis  own  palace,  and  Annmgaebe  grasped  tbe 
imperial  power.  His  reign  was  the  most  bril- 
liant period  of  tbe  domination  of  the  race  of 
Akbar  in  India,  and  bis  empire  incloded  nearly 
all  the  penissala  of  Hindostan,  with  Cabool  on 
the  west  and  Assam  on  tbe  east.  The  first  10 
years  of  his  administration  were  marked  by  a 
profonnd  peace,  and  liis  wisdom  was  especially 
aignalized  in  the  neasnres  which  he  took  in 
anticipating  and  ossnoging  a  famine,  and  in  snp- 

Eressisg  an  insurrection  of  Hindoo  devotees 
eaded  by  a  female  saint.  A  greater  misfor- 
tune to  him  was  the  rise  of  the  Mahratta  em- 


pire, 


AUSCITLTATION  125 

,  the  fonndation  of  which  had  been  almost 
imperceptibly  laid  by  an  adventarer  named 
Sev^ee.  Against  this  leader  Aomngzebe  sent 
in  vain  his  most  experienced  generals,  and  be 
therefore  marched  into  tbe  Deccan  himself  to 
superintend  the  war.  He  resided  in  the  Dec- 
can  22  years,  subduing  the  Carnatic  and  ruling 
an  empire  which  in  wealth  and  population  was 
probably  nnsnrpassed  by  that  ever  held  by  any 
other  monarch.  The  proper  name  of  Aomng- 
zebe  was  Mc4iammed,  and  that  by  which  he 
is  commonly  known,  meaning  the  "  orna- 
ment of  the  throne,"  was  given  him  by  his 
grandfather.  He  himself  preferred  the  title 
of  Alum-Geer,  "conqnerer  of  the  world," 
and  be  was  accustomed  to  have  carried  before 
him  a  globe  of  gold  as  his  symbol.  Yet  to 
show  that  he  as  yet  held  but  three  fourths  of 
the  earth,  he  used  to  tear  off  a  comer  from 
every  sheet  of  paper  which  he  used  in  his  cor- 
respondence. India  owes  to  him  several  of 
ber  finest  bridges,  hospitals,  and  mosques.  In 
his  personal  habits  he  was  remarkable  for  an 
ascetic  simplicity;  and  in  bis  zeal  for  tbe  Uo- 
hammedan  faith  he  became  a  persecutor  of 
the  Hindoos. 

IDBCHWrrZ  (Pol.  OmiieeimX  a  town  of 
western  Galicia,  in  Austria,  82  m.  W.  of  Cra- 
cow, and  about  8  m.  from  the  frontier  of  Prus- 
sian Sile^a;  pop.  3,600.  It  is  the  principal 
town  of  the  former,  originally  Polish,  then 
Silesian,  and  then  again  Polish,  duchies  of  Au- 
schwitz und  Zalor,  with  an  area  of  about  1,000 
sq.  m.,  which  in  1664  were  muted  into  one 
dachy  by  King  Sigismnnd  Augustus,  and  in 
1TT8  incorporated  with  Austna.  Althongb 
belonging  to  Galicia,  the  territory  of  the  duchy 
was  in  1S18  declared  by  Austria  to  belong  to 
the  Germanio  confederation.  Only  about  one 
tenth  of  tbe  population  of  the  duchy  speak 
German.  In  the  war  of  16BS  there  was  an 
engagement  at  Auschwitz  on  Jane  27  between 
Prusdan  and  Austrian  troops. 

AESCDLTATIOir  (Let  atucultare,  to  listen), 
a  branch  of  medical  art  by  which  the  states 
and  motions  of  internal  organs  are  discerned 
through  the  sounds  which  they  prodnce.  Polsa- 
tions,  respirations,  and  the  vibratory  move- 
ments in  the  body  produce  sounds  which  may 
be  distinctly  heard  by  placing  the  ear  upon 
tbe  walls  of  the  chest,  or  other  parts  of  the 
external  frame.  Tbe  heart  beats  strongly 
many  times  per  minnte,  and  each  pulsation 
gives  a  shock  to  the  surrounding  parts,  and  also 
produces  a  double  sound  within  the  heart  itself. 
At  every  breath  the  air  is  first  drawn  into  the 
Inngs,  and  again  passes  out  by  expiration.  The 
passage  of  the  air  into  the  lungs  produces  ontr 
kind  of  sound  peculiar  to  the  act  of  inspiration, 
and  its  exit  another  pecnliar  to  expiration.  In  a 
state  of  healthy  action,  the  soanils  of  the  heait 
and  those  of  the  lungs  and  air  passages  are  of 
a  peculiar  nature,  and  a  little  (iractice  enables 
the  ear  to  become  familiar  with  each  special 
sound.  In  a  diseased  state,  the  action  of  both 
heart  and  lungs  is  modified  to  some  extent,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


130 


AUS0KE8 


the  Bounds  prodaced  are  alfto  modified  in  apecn- 

liormanner.  To  assist  the  ear  in  dislingaiBhing 
these  soDDds,  Laennec  constructed  the  stetho- 
scope (6r.  •TT^Bof,  chest  or  breast,  and  •moireiv,  to 
examine),  by  the  aid  of  which  all  the  sonods  of 
tlie  heart  and  lungs  may  be  distinctly  heard, 
and  the  differences  between  healthy  and  dis- 
eased action  readily  discerned  and  clas^fied. 
The  art  of  auscultation  boa  since  then  made 
rapid  progress. — Auscultation  is  very  nseful  in 
ol»<t«tTics,  as  well  as  in  diseases  of  the  heart 
and  Inngs,  In  difficnlt  cases  of  parturition,  it 
is  often  necessary  to  know  whether  the  child 
is  dead  or  alive  in  the  womb  before  delivery. 
After  the  fifth  month  of  pregnancy  the  pnlsa- 
tioDS  of  the  fcetal  heart  may  be  distinctly  heard, 
and  the  "placental  murmur,"  caused  by  the 
uterine  circulation  of  the  blood,  may  also  be 
distinguished  by  the  ear. — Percnauon  is  a 
branch  of  anscnltation  by  which  artificial 
sounds  are  obtained  as  a  means  of  discerning 
the  state  of  the  parts  fkim  which  these  sonnds 
proceed,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  air  or  liquids. — The  art  of  auscul- 
tation is  of  coroparaHvely  recent  date,  but  it 
was  long  believed  to  be  a  useful  aid  in  diag- 
no^s.  In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
Hooke  observed  that "  there  may  be  a  possibil- 
ity of  discovering  the  internal  motions  and  ac- 
tions of  bodies  by  the  sounds  they  make,  ,  .  .1 
have  been  able  to  bear  very  plainly  the  beating 
of  a  man's  heart."  In  ITfll  Leopold  Auenbrug- 
ger,  a  German  physician  residing  at  Vienna, 
published  a  small  volume  in  Latin  eiplaiaing 
an  ortifioial  method  of  producine  sounds  in 
various  regions  of  the  body,  by  which  the  phy- 
sician mi^t  jndge  of  the  state  of  the  so^a- 
cent  parts.  This  method  was  percussion.  The 
book  remained  almost  unknown  till  1808, 
when  Oorvisart  translated  it  into  French,  and 
made  the  method  known  to  all  the  countries  of 
Europe.  The  practice  of  percussion  has  since 
become  general,  and  in  many  cases  ta  fonnd 
highly  useful.  The  method  of  studying  dis- 
eases from  soonds  made  by  percussion  led  to 
the  method  of  observing  sounds  made  nat- 
urally, by  the  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 
Corvisart  took  up  the  sui^ect  with  great  xeal. 
and  three  of  his  disciples,  Dooble,  Bayle,  and 
Laennec,  oonttnned  the  same  oonrse,  resulting 
in  the  discovery  of  the  stethoscope,  and  the 
general  use  of  auscultation. 

iCSOHES,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient tribes  of  Italy,  whose  origin  is  unknown. 
Tradition  made  them  descendants  of  Anson, 
son  of  Ulysses  and  Calypso.  They  are  held 
by  Niebnhr  to  have  been  a  portion  of  the  great 
Oecan  nation.  From  them  the  southern  part 
of  Italy,  later  known  as  Magna  Grcecia,  was 
called  Ausonia. 

ACSONKIS,  DedMH  Higan,  a  Latin  poet  and 
grammarian,  bom  at  Burdigala  (Bordeaux) 
about  A.  D.  310,  died  about  S94.  He  practised 
law  for  a  time  in  his  native  town,  and  afterward 
became  a  teacher  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  In 
867  he  was  selected  by  the  emperor  Valentinian 


AUSTEELITZ 

to  be  tator  to  his  son  Gratian,  whom  he  accom- 
panied into  Germany  the  following  year.  He 
rose  snocessively  to  the  honorary  tides  and  dig- 
nities of  Gonut  of  the  empire,  qnsstor,  gover- 
nor of  Ganl,  Libya,  and  Latinm,  and  lastly,  in 
879,  of  consul.  Hia  poetry  is  characterized 
by  extreme  licentiousness  and  pruriency,  and  is 
bold  of  invention  and  redundant  in  ornament. 
There  has  been  much  discnssion  whether  An- 
sonius  was  a  Christian  or  a  pagan.  The  be«t 
editions  of  Ausonius  are :  a  very  rare  one  by 
Tollius  (Amsterdam,  1671),  with  a  commen- 
tary of  Scaliger,  and  selected  notes  by  various 
critics;  the  Delphin  edition;  and  the  Bipont 
of  1788,  which  is  correct  and  of  authority. 

iCSSIfi,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  the  circle  of 
Leitmeritz,  at  the  junction  of  the  Bila  with  the 
Elbe,  44  m.  (direct)  N.  N.  W.  of  Prague,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway;  pop.  in  1869, 
10,98S.  It  was  formeriy  strongly  fortifiM,  but 
in  1438  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Hussites,  and 
in  1689  it  was  seized  by  the  Swedish  general 
Boner.  It  has  a  church  said  to  have  been  built 
in  S26,  containing  a  Madonna  by  Carlo  Dolce, 
T)resent«d  to  the  town  by  the  father  of  Raphael 
Mengs,  who  was  bom  here.  The  town  has  an 
active  trade  in  fruit,  mineral  waters,  timber, 
and  especially  in  coal.  The  battlefield  of  Kulm 
is  in  the  vicinity. 

ACSTEN,  tut,  an  English  novelist,  bom  at 
Steventon,  in  Hampshire,  Deo.  16,  1775,  died 
in  Winchester,  Jnly  18,  1817.  She  was  edu- 
cated by  her  fhther,  who  was  rector  of  Steven- 
ton.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  she  com- 
menced autborabip.  In  her  youth  she  was 
beautiful  and  graceful,  but  a  disappointment  in 
lovedeterminedheragainstmarriage.  "North- 
anger  Abbey"  (which  was  published  with 
"  Persuasion  "  after  her  death)  was  the  earliest 
and  weakest  of  her  works,  al!  of  which,  except 
the  posthumous  ones,  appeared  anonymously. 
"  Sense  and  Sensibility  "  waapublisbed  inlSll, 
and  immediately  obtained  popnlarity.  "Pride 
and  Prqudice,"  "Mansfield  Park,"  and  "Em- 
ma" succeeded  at  regular  intervals — the  last 
In  1816.  Her  father  was  compelled  by  Ul 
health  to  pass  his  latter  years  in  Bath,  and  on 
his  death  his  widow  and  two  daughters  return- 
ed to  Hampshire,  and  removed  in  May,  1917,  to 
Winchester.  Her  novels  have  long  been  popu- 
lar as  "  distinct  delineations  of  English  domes- 
tic life,  with  a  delicate  discrimiuation  of  female 
character."  Her  own  opinion  was  that  one  of 
her  novels  was  "  a  little  bit  of  ivory  two  inches 
wide,"  on  which  she  "  worked  with  a  brush  so 
fine  88  to  produce  little  effect  after  much 
labor."  Her  life  has  been  written  by  J.  E- 
Austen-Leigh  (London,  1871). 

ACSTXKLITZ,  a  town  of  Moravia,  in  the  circle 
and  13  m.  E.  of  Brttnn  on  the  LIttawa  river; 

Eop.  about  2,400.  It  owes  ila  celebrity  to  the 
attle  won  here  by  Napoleon  over  the  united 
Austrian  and  Rnssian  armies,  Dec.  2,  1S06. 
After  the  capture  of  the  Austrian  general 
Mack  at  Ulm,  Oct.  17,  and  the  occupation  of 
Vienna  by  the  French,  Nov.  18,  the  Austrian 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Bud  RoBsion  forces  were  concentrated  near 
Otmlktz,  and  under  oommftnd  of  the  azax  ad- 
vanced upon  Napoleon,  whose  foroea  were 
ranged  in  a  semioircje  having  its  centre  near 
BrOnn.  TheaUieaohoaetboirposition  wrongly ' 
and  Napoleon,  perceiving  their  error,  ordered 
an  instant  attack,  and  roat«d  them  after  a  most 
Kovere  contest.  The  allies  lost  aboat  80,000 
killed,  woonded,  and  prisoners.  Austria  was 
compelled  to  make  the  peace  of  Presbnrg ;  the 
emperor  of  Bnssia  to  retnm  to  hie  dominioDB ; 
ana  the  campaign  ended  leaving  a  large  part 
of  central  Enrope  subject  to  Napoleon.  The 
news  of  this  disastrous  battle  is  said  to  have 
hastened  the  death  of  William  Pitt. 

ICBTIK,  a  8.  £.  connt;  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  Brazos  river ;  area,  1,0S4  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  10,067,  of  whom  6,574  were  colored. 
The  Texas  Central  railroad  passes  through  the 
county.  Stock-raising  is  carried  on  to  a  large 
estent  Timber  is  abundant  In  1870  the 
county  produced  444,044  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  65,740  of  sweet  potatoes,  11,067  bales  of 
cotton,  and  19,862  lbs.  of  wool.  There  were 
60,056  oattle,  0,763  horaes,  7,654  sheep,  and 
15,667  h<ffl.    Capital,  Bellville. 

IDSTDft  a  oil;  of  Texaa,  o^ital  of  the  state 
and  of  l^avis  county,  on  the  Colorado  river, 
160  m.  (direct)  from  its  month,  and  200  m.  N. 
W.  of  Galveston ;  pop.  in  I860,  8,404 ;  in  1870, 
4,428,  of  whom  1,615-  were  colored.  The 
Colorado  is  navigable  to  this  point  in  winter  by 
steamboats.  Anstin  is  built  on  an  amphithea- 
tra  of  hilla,  and  overlooks  the  valley  of  the  Col- 
orado and  the  rich  prairies  beyond.  The  pub- 
lic buildings  are  of  a  white  stone  called  marble, 
bnt  too  sott  to  admit  of  polish.  An  artesian 
well  has  been  snnk  just  north  of  the  capitol,  to 
the  depth  of  1,SOO  feet,  from  which  a  small 
stream  constantly  issues.  The  water  ia  ira- 
pr^nated  with  lime,  and  has  some  medicinal 
qaiJitiee.  It  has  been  proposed  to  supply  the 
city  with  water  from  the  Colorado  by  an  aqae- 
duct.  There  are  8  or  1 0  churches  in  the  city,  and 
about  2U  schools.  The  first  free  public  schools 
in  Texas  were  opened  at  Austin  in  1871.  There 
are  3  weekly  newspapers  published  here,  1  tri- 
weekly, and  3  dally.  The  western  division  of 
the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  railroad  con- 
nects the  oity  by  way  of  Hempstead  with 
Honston  and  the  diverging  railroads. 

lliSTlN,  JtHthai  Lwlig,  secretary  and  treas- 
urer of  Hassachnsetta,  boiTi  in  Boston,  Jan.  2, 
1748,  died  May  10,  1826.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1766,  was  a  merchant  and 
secretary  of  the  board  of  war  in  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1777  was  sent  to  Paris  to  the  American 
comnusaioners  with  the  news  of  Bnrgoyne's 
capture.  Dr.  Franklin  made  him  an  additional 
private  secretary,  and  sent  him  as  his  agent  to 
England,  where  he  redded  in  the  family  of 
Ixird  Shelbnme.  On  his  return  with  de- 
spatches in  Hay,  1779,  he  was  liberally  re- 
warded by  oongrees.  In  1780,  in  his  passage 
to  Spun  as  agent  of  the  stata,  he  was  taken 
and  carried  to  England,  but  soon  liberated. 
61  VOL.  n.— 9 


TIN  127 

He  was  afterward  state  secretary  and  treasurer 
of  Masaach  uaetts, 

llimil,  MasM,  an  American  pioneer,  born  in 
Durham,  Conn.,  died  Jnne  10,  1821.  He  led 
an  adventurous  life,  engaged  in  lead-mining  in 
Vir^nia  and  Missouri,  and  in  1820  went  to 
Bexar,  Texaa,  where  he  obtained  from  the 
Mexican  authorities  permisaion  to  colonize  SOO 
families  in  some  part  of  Texas.  He  died  soon 
after,  and  the  plan  was  carried  out  by  his  son. 
{Hee  Austin,  Stephen  F.) 

lUmm,  Bland,  D.  D.,  on  American  clergy- 
man, bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  7,  1760, 
died  at  Glastenbnry,  Deo.  4,  1830.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  college  in  1783,  and,  after  study- 
ing divinity  two  years,  was  ordained  as  pastor 
of  the  oburch  in  Fairhaven,  Conn.  In  1790  he 
became  the  miniater  of  the  first  Congregational 
society  in  Worcester,  and  in  1815  president  of 
the  nniveraity  of  Vermont.  After  nolding  that 
office  for  six  years,  he  removed  to  Newport, 
K,  I.,  and  thence  at  the  end  of  fonr  years  re- 
turned to  Worcester.  During  the  last  three 
years  of  his  life  his  reason  was  clouded.  Ha 
left  several  controversial  and  other  works. 

IVSTIK,  Barak,  an  English  authoress,  bom  in 
1793,  died  at  Weybridge,  Aug.  8,  1867.  She 
was  one  of  the  famous  Taylor  family  of  Nor- 
wich, and  the  wife  of  Mr.  John  Austin,  a  Loo- 
don  barrister.  Her  reputation  resta  upon  the 
nnosnal  ability  of  her  translations  from  Ger- 
man authors.  Her  first  and  most  remarkable 
achievement  in  this  kind  was  her  version  of 
the  travels  of  Prince  Pdckler-Muskan,  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  The  Tra»els  of  a  Ger- 
man Prince  in  England."  The  idiomatic  paint- 
ing and  Snent  ease  of  this  translation  were  so 
admirable  that  for  a  long  time  it  was  difficult  to 
persuade  many  persons  that  the  work  was  not 
the  composition  of  an  English  author.  The 
first  work  which  Mrs.  Anstin  gave  to  the  world 
under  her  own  name  was  a  translation  of  Falk's 
' '  Characteristioa  of  Goethe  "  (1 888),  with  many 
additions  by  herself  This  book  won  an  imriie- 
diale  and  deserved  succeas.  She  aiterward 
published  translations  of  CarovS's  "  Story  with- 
out an  End,"  and  Banke'a  "  Hiatory  of  the 
Popes,"  a  "Collection  of  Fragments  from  the 
German  Prose  Writers,"  an  excellent  treatise 
on  "Education,"  and  "Sketches  of  Germany 
from  1760  to  1814." 

AEffTlN,  Btcpbea  F.,  founder  of  the  first  Ameri- 
can colony  in  Texas,  son  of  Moaes  Austin,  died 
Dec.  27,  1886.  Setting  out  fma  Natchitoches, 
July  5, 1821,  to  follow  up  the  grant  previonsly 
issned  to  his  faOier  authorizing  the  formation 
of  a  colony,  he  went  to  the  city  of  Mexico, 
where  it  was  specially  confirmed  Feb.  18, 
1823.  By  it  be  was  clothed  with  almost  abso- 
lute power  over  the  colonists,  and  only  obliged 
to  report  to  the  captain  general.  The  colony, 
since  ijecome  Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas,  of 
which  be  selected  the  site  after  a  careful  re- 
connoitring of  the  country,  had  been  previ- 
j  DUely  organized  by  him  upon  the  basis  of 
giving  to  each  man  640  acres  of  land,  820  for  ■ 


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128  ADSTIN 

wife,  100  for  each  child,  and  80  acres  for  eaoh 
alave;  and  the  immigrants  being  made  up  id 
great  part  of  young  anmarried  men,  lie  in- 
anced  them  to  unite  in  pairs,  making  one  of 
diem  the  head  of  the  famtl;  thus  constituted, 
which  singnlar  arrangement  is  said  to  have  re- 
Bojted  to  the  aatiafaction  of  all  concerned.  In 
spite  of  frequent  trouble  with  the  Indians,  the 
colony  prospered,  and,  being  followed  by  a  con- 
Fdderable  number  of  similar  associations,  the  in- 
flnx  of  Americans  was  so  large  that  they  met 
March  1,  1888,  without  the  cononrrence  of  the 
Mexican  population,  in  a  oonvenlion  to  form  a 
constitulioti  for  the  aa  yet  Mexican  state  of 
Texas.  Auatin  was  one  of  the  delegates  chosen 
to  oarry  the  result  of  their  deliberations  to  the 
central  government  at  Mexico,  and  obtain  its 
ratification.  The  delays  and  frequent  revolu- 
tions at  Mexico  leading  him  to  despair  of  huc- 
cesa  in  his  mission,  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  people  of  Texas,  recommending  a  union  of 
alt  tne  municipalities  to  organize  a  state.  For 
this  he  was  arrested  and  kept  in  prison  three 
months,  nntil  released  by  Santa  Anna,  who 
continued  to  bold  him  as  a  sort  of  hostage.  In 
.  September,  1885,  be  returned  to  Texas,  took 
part  with  the  revolntionarj  party,  which  had 
t>een  forming  in  bis  absence,  and  was  put  In 
command  of  their  little  army.  His  first  act 
was  to  send  into  eastern  Texas  for  Gen.  Hous- 
ton, who  was  soon  elected  to  the  chief  oom- 
mand,  Austin  being  appointed  a  commissioner 
to  tiie  United  States.  Here  he  acted  with 
prudence,  and  was  very  successful  in  prepar- 
ing the  public  mind  for  the  independence  asd 
annexation  of  the  new  republic.  After  spend- 
ing some  time  in  advocating  this  measure,  he 
retnnvid  to  Texas  in  July,  1886  ;  and  he  died 
while  still  engaged  in  negotiations. 

AliSTUf,  WiniUi  (BiLLi),  the  reputed  natural 
son  of  Queen  Caroline.  He  was  known  as  a 
poor  lad  of  Deptford,  near  London,  who  bore 
a  striking  resemblance  to  the  queen ;  and 
though  her  miyesty  was  judicially  acqaitt«d  in 
1806  of  the  charge  of  being  his  mother,  she  in- 
risted  upon  keeping  him  near  her  person.  In 
1880  he  was  sent  to  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Milan, 
and  remained  there  till  1846.  Being  then 
brought  back  to  England  and  subjected  to  a 
medical  examination  at  the  request  of  his 
guardians,  the  Right  Hon.  S.  Lushington  and 
Sir  J.  P.  Wilde,  he  was  transferred  to  a  private 
asylum  in  London. 

AUamUSU  (South  Asia),  the  8.  W.  diviwon 
of  Oceania,  extending  from  the  equator  to  lat 
47°  8.,  and  from  about  Ion.  113°  to  about  170° 
£.  It  embraces  Australia,  Taamania  or  Van 
Piemen's  Land,  New  Zealand,  and  Chatham 
Isle,  on  the  west  and  south ;  Papua,  the  Ad- 
miralty isles,  New  Ireland,  and  the  Solomons 
archipelago  on  the  north ;  Queen  Charlotte's 
isles,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia, 
on  the  east;  and  ail  the  in  teigacent  islands.  On 
account  of  the  black  color  of  ita  natives,  Aus- 
tralasia is  also  called  Melanesia,  chiefly  by 
French  geograpbere.    (See  Oobania.) 


AUSTRALIA 

itSniLU,  formerly  called  Nbw  Holland, 

an  island,  classed  as  a  continent  by  most  geogra- 

Ehers,  lying  S.  E.  of  Asia  and  the  Sunda  islands, 
etween  the  Indian  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
oceana,  and  extending  from  lat.  10°  48'  to  89° 
0'  8.,  and  from  Ion.  118°  to  15B°  E.  From  its 
western  extremity,  Steep  point,  to  its  extreme 
eastern  point,  Cape  Byron,  its  length  is  2,600 
m. ;  and  its  breadth,  from  Cape  York,  its 
northernmost  point,  to  its  southern  extremity 
at  Cape  Wilson,  is  1,900  m.  Its  entire  coast 
line  embraces  a  circuit  of  6,000  m.,  and  its  area 
is  estimated  at  8,000,000  sq.  m.  The  configura- 
tion of  the  Australian  coast  displays  little  irr^- 
nlarity;  there  are  but  two  or  three  large  penin- 
sulas, and  although  small  bays  are  found  along 
almost  the  whole  coast  line,  the  gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, and  the  large  inlet  leading  to  Cambndge 
gulf  and  Queen's  channel  on  the  north,  and 
Spencer  and  fit.  Vincent  gulfs  on  the  south, 
are  the  only  deep  indentations.  A  long  curve 
of  the  southern  coast  forms  the  vast  bay  called 
the  Great  Australian  bight,  but  this  is  only  a 
portion  of  the  open  ocean. — From  the  N.  £. 
extremity  of  the  continent,  where  the  long, 
triangnlar  peninsula  of  York  lies  between  the 
gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the  Pacific,  its  northern 
extremity  only  separated  from  New  Guinea  by 
the  narrow  Torres  strait,  the  coast  trends 
southeastward  for  more  then  1,400  m.  to  Cape 
Byron,  where  its  direction  suddenly  changes  to 
southwest  Along  the  greater  part  of  this 
N.  E.  stretch  of  coast,  from  Cape  York  nearly 
to  the  Great  Sandy  island,  lie  the  Great  Barrier 
reefs,  the  most  extensive  range  of  coral  reefo 
known  in  the  world.  Frequent  though  often 
dangerous  passages  through  this  barrier  permit 
the  entrance  of  vessels  into  the  sea  lying  be- 
tween it  and  the  mainland,  a  body  of  water 
varying  in  breadth  from  its  southern  entrance, 
where  it  is  a  broad  open  sea,  the  reefs  lying  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  const,  to  its  central 
pomt  at  Cape  Tribulation,  where  it  hardly 
affords  even  a  passage.  Further  N.  it  again 
stretches  away  from  the  coast,  extending  across 
the  £.  end  of  Torres  strait.  Near  the  southern 
entrance  of  the  sea  thus  enclosed,  and  a  little 
N.  of  Sandy  island,  are  numerous  good  harbors. 
The  coast  is  here  made  up  of  high  and  precip- 
itous clifls,  and  this  formation  continues  to 
characterize  its  whole  extent,  as  far  as  its 
southern  extremity,  with  the  exception  (^  a 
small  portion  S.  of  Cape  Howe.  Below  Cape 
Byron,  where  it  trends  to  the  southwest,  it 
contains  some  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world, 
chief  among  them  tbat  of  Port  Jackson  at  Syd- 
ney. The  8.  coast,  from  Cape  Wilson  W.  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  Australian  bight,  is 
also  celebrated  for  its  excellent  harbors;  only  a 
short  strip  of  coast  E.  of  Encounter  bay  is  with- 
out good  shelter.  But  with  the  Australian 
bight  b^ns  a  long  uniform  line  of  clifis  with- 
out refuge  of  any  kind  for  vessels,  oteep  and 
rugged,  and  continning  W.  as  far  as  the  Re- 
cherche archipelago.  West  of  t^is  are  a  few  safe 
ports.    Tlie  w.  and  KT.  W.  coasts  are  the  least 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


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Diaiiizedb,  Google 


faToroble  of  all  to  n&rlgaton ;  they  are  f^ner- 
allj  destitate  of  harbors,  onlj  a  few  really  uee- 
fal  (mes  being  foond  near  the  Buccaneer  archi- 
pelago. The  N.  W.  coast  is  bi^h  and  rocky, 
the  western  low  and  oandy.  The  N.  coast, 
made  mo«t  irregular  of  all  hj  the  two  peninsu- 
las of  AmheiD  Land  and  Tork,  and  b;  the  gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  has  in  its  weBternpartsonie  of 
the  best  harbors  of  the  continent,  thoogh  they 
are  not  as  well  loiown  as  the  southern  ports. 
The  Kalf  of  Oarpentaria  itself  has  a  sandy,  low, 
and  dangerouB  £.  coast,  but  its  western  side  has 
amnerous  sheltered  bays  and  safe  navigation. 
That  portion  of  the  Indian  ocean  which  washes 
this  (tooat,  extending  between  New  Gninea  and 
Anstralia  to  the  Torres  strait,  is  called  the  Ara- 
fnra  sea. — The  interior  has  been  only  partially 
explored.  It  seems  to  have  the  character  of 
a  table  land  of  moderate  height  stndded  with 
gronps  of  small  monntains,  and  in  the  interior 
sometimea  sinking  into  low  swampy  valleys; 
while  on  the  genera!  level  of  the  table  land 
itself  are  vast  plains,  sometimes  fertile,  bat 
oftener  sandy,  or  covered  with  the  long  stilT 
grass  called  spinifez.  There  are  many  swamps, 
but  fbw  ponds  or  nsefnl  watercourses.  Large 
deeert  tracts,  covered  with  stones  orlow  shmb- 
bery,  are  frequently  fonnd.  Near  the  coasts, 
however,  greater  and  sometjmes  Iniuriant  fer- 
tility prevails,  and  here  the  varied  surface 
of  the  country  displays  soma  of  the  most 
beantifiil  saenery  in  the  world.  The  soutli- 
eastem  and  eastern  portions  of  Australia  are 
all  that  have  thus  far  been  thoronghly  and  scien- 
tlficallf  explored.  Along  the  whole  E.  side  of 
the  continent  lie  ranges  of  mountains  of  con- 
nderable  height,  sometimes  actuallj  touching 
the  coast,  bnt  generally  in  their  southern  por- 
tion lying  at  an  average  distance  of  40  to  GO  m. 
from  it,  while  in  the  north  they  are  still  more 
distant.  These  are  often  considered  as  a  single 
range,  bnt  are  more  correctly  divided  into  sev- 
eral distinct  portions.  The  Australian  Pyrenees 
and  the  Grampian  Hills,  which  run  parallel  to 
the  S-  coast  E.  and  W.  of  Melbourne,  may  be  con- 
sidered a  western  offshoot  trom  the  southern 
extremity  of  this  system.  Their  summits  are 
generally  low,  but  in  two  or  three  places  near 
their  Jnnction  with  the  principal  range  they  at- 
tain a  height  of  between  6,600  and  S,000  ft. 
The  firat  of  the  main  chain  of  the  E.  coast,  be- 
giilning  at  Gape  Wilson,  are  the  highest  monn- 
tains of  the  country,  the  Australian  Alps,  hav- 
ing their  principal  peaka,  according  to  Peter- 
mann's  map  of  1872,  in  Mt.  Kosciusko,  7,176 
ft,  high,  the  loftiest  peak  yet  discovered  in 
Australia,  and  Mt.  Hotham,  <1,414  ft  In  the 
neighborhood  of  these  monntains  lies  tlie  grand- 
est scenery  of  the  continent.  Ragged  cliffs  of 
great  height,  crowned  with  forests,  hem  in  the 
fertQe  valley  of  the  Murray  river,  which  has 
ita  Ronrce  in  thia  range.  These  ragged  Al- 
pine features  obaracteriie  the  entire  chain,  and 
the  smaller  parallel  ranges  and  offshoots  are 
Hjaroely  lees  nicturesque.  N.  of  the  Austra- 
lian Alps  knd  W.  of  Sydney  are  the  Blue  moan- 


tains,  the  next  group  In  the  chain.  They  no- 
where reach  a  grea[«r  height  than  4,100  ft., 
hut  the  same  wild  scenery  prevails  throngli 
their  whole  extent  N.  of  these  again  lies 
the  Liverpool  range,  trending  toward  the  east, 
where  the  somewhat  isolated  Mt  Sea  View 
rises  to  the  height  of  fl,000  ft.,  and  lying  al- 
most at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction 
of  the  system.  W.  of  the  Blue  mountains  are 
two  other  chains,  offshoots  of  the  raaiu  forma- 
tion— the  Honeysuckle  range  and  the  Canobo- 
las  group,  the  latter  of  greater  height  than  any 
peaks  of  the  Blue  mountains  themselves.  N. 
of  the  Liverpool  range  the  monntains  become 
more  scattered,  extending  E.  and  W,,  and  no 
lon^r  preserving  the  narrow  and  regular  line 
their  principal  p«aks  have  heretofore  kept.  In 
thia  irregular  mountain  region  the  principal 
enmmit  is  Mt.  Lindsay,  8.  W.  of  Brisbane,  6,700 
ft.  high.  From  this  point  the  same  wide  and 
irregular  formation  extends  to  the  north,  at 
least  into  Tork  peninsula,  and  probably  even 
to  its  extremity.  It  appears,  from  such  explo- 
rations as  have  been  made,  to  attain  its  great«st 
height  in  the  8.  E.  part  of  the  peninsula. 
Along  the  8.  coast,  near  the  head  of  Bpencer 
gulf,  are  low  ohuns  of  mountains  little  more 
than  8,000  ft.  high.  The  Darling,  Herschel, 
and  Victoria  ranges,  which  have  been  discov- 
ered on  the  8.  W.  coast,  have  seldom  a  height 
of  more  than  8,000  ft.  One  peak,  however,  Mt 
Bruce,  near  King  Geoi^'s  sonnd,  is  a  little 
more  than  8,100  ft.  high.  No  considerable 
mountains  have  been  discovered  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent — Very  few  of  the  rivers 
of  Australia  ore  navigable,  and  in  must  of 
them  running  water  is  only  fonnd  during  a 
small  portion  of  the  year.  The  most  remark- 
able peculiarity  of  these  streams  is  the  sudden- 
ness with  which,  even  when  full  of  water,  they 
disappear  into  a  quicksand  or  marsli.  Thus, 
although  these  creeks  and  rivers  are  almost 
innumerable,  they  foil  to  irrigate  the  soil. 
Only  a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found. 
Among  these  the  chief  is  the  Murray  or  Qoolwa, 
which  rises  in  the  Australian  Alps,  and  flows 
about  W.  N.  W.  for  more  than  600  m.,  when, 
by  a  sharp  turn  in  its  course,  called  tlie  Great 
Bend  of  tne  Murray,  it  changes  direction  to  the 
5.,  and  empties  100  m.  farther  into  Lake  Alex- 
andrina,  a  basin  connected  with  the  sea.  The 
Morray  and  its  tributaries,  the  Murrumbidgee 
and  Lochlan,  are  lasting  streams;  bnt  of  it« 
other  tributaries  there  are  none  which  do  not 
become  partially  dry  in  the  summer.  Even 
the  Darling,  a  river  of  considerable  size  flowing 
into  the  Murray  fhim  the  north,  shares  this 
peculiarity.  The  other  permanent  streams  of 
Anstralia  are  short  and  of  comparatively  little 
importance ;  the  best  known  are  those  which 
Sow  from  the  coast  ranges  directly  into  the 
aea.  Among  them  ore  the  Hawkesbury,  Hun- 
ter, Clarence,  Brisbane,  Fitzroy,  and  Burdekin, 
on  the  eastern  coast;  the  Glenelg,  Hopkins, 
Yarra-Yarra,  and  others,  on  the  southern;  the 
Swan,  Mnrohison,  Qasooyne,  and  Fortescue,  on 


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180  AUST] 

the  western ;  and  on  the  nortlieni,  the  Vic- 
toria, Alligator,  RopeFj  and  Flindera.  The 
lakes  of  Anstralia  consist,  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  jear,  of  swamps  full  of  weeds  and 
grass,  or  of  mere  beds  of  mod  or  sand.  This 
applies  even  to  the  largest  inland  bodies  of 
water  yet  discovered,  which  lie  gronped  to- 
gether near  the  centre  of  the  8.  coast,  N.  of 
Spencer  gulf.  Here  is  Lake  Torrena,  about 
140  m.  in  length,  but  veij  narrow,  lying  about 
40  m.  from  the  head  of  the  golf;  and  GO  m. 
fiirther  N.,  Eyre  lake,  still  larger.  £.  of  this  is 
Lake  Gregory,  which  might  be  more  correotly 
called  Gregory  lakes,  since  it  isdivided  into  nu- 
merous parte,  between  which  no  considerable 
oommnQication  has  been  discovered,  W.  of 
Lake  Torrenalies  the  extensive  Lake  Gairdner, 
andE.ofitLakeFrome.  The  water  of  this  group 
of  lakes  contains  a  large  proportion  of  salt,  and 
salt  also  abounds  in  the  marejtes  and  innomera- 
ble  swampy  ponds  which  lie  in  this  region. — 
The  geological  etmctoro  of  Australia  has  not 
been  thoroughly  ascertained.  It  appears,  bow- 
ever,  that  the  main  table  land  rests  on  terti- 
ary sandstone,  directly  overlying  the  primary 
rocks,  the  fact  that  no  traces  of  a  secondary 
formation  have  been  found  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  Australian  geol- 
ogy. The  mountains  rising  from  the  table 
land  in  the  interior  are,  on  the  contrary,  gen- 
erally of  volcanic  structure.  In  the  range 
of  the  S.  W.  coast  primary  rocks  are  most 
prominent— granite,  syenite,  &e. ;  and  all  the 
greater  coast  ranges  probably  resemble  these. 
In  several  of  the  great  valleys  in  the  S.  K.  part 
is  found  a  limestone  containing  numerous  fossils. 
Bituminous  ooal  is  abundant  near  Newcastle  at 
the  mouth  of  Hnnterriverin  the  eastern  part  of 
New  Sooth  Wales,  and  large  mines  are  already 
worked  there.  Rich  deposits  of  copper  are 
also  found  at  Burra-Burra,  Wallaroo,  and  Ka- 
punda  in  South  Australia — that  at  Burra-Bur- 
ra being  probably  the  richest  in  the  world. 
The  &mous  gold  fields  are  in  the  Bathurst  dis- 
trict and  the  N.  W.  part  of  Victoria.  Every 
indication  shows  that  only  in  the  latest  geo- 
logical period  has  Australia  risen  from  the  sea. 
The  recent  deposits  following  directly  on  the 
primary  rooks,  the  salt  lakes,  the  whole  con- 
StructioQ  of  the  continent,  indicate  this;   and 

rlogists  affirm  that  the  sonthem  coast  is  stil! 
process  of  imperceptible  but  constant  yp- 
beaval. — The  climate  of  Australia  is  exceed- 
ingly hot,  but  dry  and  healthy  in  such  southern 
Sarte  as  are  already  colonized,  where  It  appears 
ivorable  to  European  constitutions,  and  re- 
sembles in  many  particulars  the  climate  of 
Bpain.  In  the  extreme  north,  beyond  the  tro- 
pic of  Capricorn,  which  crosses  the  continent 
near  ite  centre,  tbe  heat  is  more  oppressive, 
and  the  absence  of  large  streams  gives  almost 
the  arid  climate  of  a  oeserL  Here,  however, 
the  tropical  rainy  season  brings  relief  with  un- 
failing regularity,  lasting  froni  November  till 
April;  while  in  the  south  the  rains,  though 
of  tropical  violence,  are  irregular,  occurring  at 


intervals  between  llaroh  and  Sept«mber,  and 
often  leaving  the  country  exposed  to  long 
droughts.  There  appears  to  be  almost  no  rain 
in  certain  portions  of  the  central  continent, 
and  these  have  become  deserts,  from  which 
hot  winds  blow  toward  the  coast,  carrying 
clonds  of  sand.  Extraordinary  variations  of 
temperature  are  among  the  most  remarkaUe 
phenomena  of  the  country.  Falls  in  tbe  mer- 
cury of  20*  to  80°  F.  in  half  an  honr  are  com- 
mon on  the  coast,  eq>eoiaUy  in  tbe  summer ; 
and  comparing  the  reading  of  the  thermometer 
in  the  sun  at  noon  with  Uie  same  at  midnight, 
a  variation  of  99*  in  tbe  12  hours  has  been 
observed.  The  average  height  of  the  ther- 
mometer for  the  year  on  the  N,  coast  is  about 
S0° ;  at  Port  Macquarie  on  the  E.  coast,  68° ; 
at  Port  Jackecm  (Sydney),  66°  ;  at  Melbourne, 
oo  tbe  8.  coast,  61° ;  at  Perth,  on  the  W.  coast, 
54°.  In  summer,  however,  Oie  mercury  often 
rises  to  100°,  or  even  120°.  One  traveller 
(William  Howitt)  bos  even  stated  his  experi- 
ence at  189°.— Tbe  animals  of  Australia  are 
peculiar,  not  lees  in  themselves  than  in  their 
distribntion.  The  oamivora  are  few,  and  the 
only  really  destmctive  beast  of  prey  is  the 
dingo,  an  animal  in  size  between  a  fox  and  a 
wolf,  and  resembling  a  d(^.  The  dingoes  roam 
about  in  packs  and  attack  sheep,  killing  and 
wounding  many,  hot  eating  few.  Ruminating 
animals  and  pachyderms  are  unknown.  Bnt 
while  Australia  is  thus  deficient  in  the  clashes 
o{  animals  most  abundant  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  its  fauna  consists  very  largely  of  a  class 
elsewhere  but  sparingly  represented — -the  mar- 
tvpiaiia  or  pouched  animals.  Of  these  tbe 
largest  and  perhaps  the  most  common  is  the 
kangaroo.  A  eroaJler  species  of  this  animal  is 
called  tbe  wallaby.  The  opossum,  the  petau- 
rOM  or  fiying  opossum,  and  tiie  datyarue  (a  car- 
nivorous pouched  animal)  are  the  other  species 
most  frequently  met  with.  Another  peculiar 
family  inhabiting  Australia  are  the  monotre- 
mata,  including  the  two  curious  species  eekid- 
no,  or  porcupine  ant-eater,  and  (rmitAorAyn- 
ehvs.  The  latter  species  is  a  water  animal 
shaped  like  a  beaver,  but  has  web  feet,  a  bill 
like  that  of  a  duck,  and  in  the  esse  of  the 
male  spurs  upon  tbe  hind  feet  (See  Motro- 
iBBHATi.)  Inere  are-five  species  of  rodents, 
four  small  and  inrigniflcant,  and  one  somewhat 
larger  and  resembling  the  beaver  in  its  habits. 
The  birds  include  several  of  the  largest  species 
of  eagles,  falcons,  and  owls.  Parrote  of  the 
most  brilliant  plumage,  birds  of  paradise,  and 
orioles  are  abundant;  while  among  the  pecu- 
liar birds  are  the  emu,  the  block  swan,  the  ibis, 
and  the  "laughing  jackass"  or  "bushman's 
clock,"  a  large  kingfisher,  with  a  remarkable 
voice.  The  marine  animals  include  the  dugong, 
found  along  the  northern  shore  between  More- 
ton  bay  and  Cape  York.  Sharks  abound  on 
alt  the  coasts.  Tlie  amphibious  animals  are 
few  and  small.  Few  of  tiie  serpents  ore  ven- 
omous, and  none  are  of  great  size.  The  in- 
aecto,  however,  inclnde  several  species  whose 


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bit«  is  ptrisonona — the  soorpion,  centipede,  and 
several  Mads  of  apiders.  Ante  of  all  sizes 
abonnd  ;  some  are  fuand  ui  inch  long,  living 
in  immenM  hills,  aad  rea!l7  formidable  from 
their  swarmlDg  attack  and  painfal  bite. — It  is 
■aid  thnt  nine  tenths  of  the  6,000  species  of 
plants  found  in  Australia  are  unknown  else- 
where, and  are  entirely  unconnected  with  the 
forms  of  vegetation  of  anj  other  division  of  the 
world.  The  great  m^oritj  of  these  belong  to 
two  genera,  the  evtctly^H  (a  genns  of  the  mjr- 
tle  family)  and  the  aoaoiaa.  Of  the  former  more 
than  100  varieties  are  known,  spread  over  the 
whole  continent.  Many  of  the  trees  of  tiia  genus 
attain  the  height  of  300  fL,  with  a  girth  at  the 
base  of  80  or  40  ft  Of  the  aoacios,  too,  more 
than  100  species  have  been  discovered.  Oedare 
and  oasnarina  are  the  ohief  representatives 
of  the  conifers.  XanUiarrkaa  are  abandant, 
and  near  the  coast  grow  to  a  height  of  800  ft., 
the  principal  kind  being  oolled  by  the  coloniata 
the  bhick  boy  or  grass  gum  tree.  Only  a  few 
palms  are  foand.  The  principal  Australian 
treea,  the  eucalypti  and  many  of  the  acacias, 
have  some  remarkable  peculiarities.  Both 
have  their  leaves  perpenoicular  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth — the  edges  of  the  leaves 
tamed  toward  the  ground  instead  of  their  flat 
rides.  Uany  of  the  eucalypti  shed  their  bark, 
bat  their  leaves  do  not  change,  remaining 
green  and  on  the  tree  through  the  whole  year. 
Among  the  other  curiosities  of  the  Australian 
flora  are  the  arborescent  ferns,  which  attain 
the  perfection  of  trees,  patting  forth  branches 
eight  to  twelve  feet  long ;  the  giant  lily  (dory- 
anthemum^,  an  oliject  of  great  beauty;  the  tea 
tree  (Upt^perrnvTa  grand^/ioTum) ;  and  the 
remarkable  stench  plant  (hydroeolyU  d«n*i- 
fiara).  In  the  interior  of  the  oontinent  the 
g^ant  kangaroo  grass,  so  high  as  to  conceal 
cUtle,  or  even  a  horse  and  rider,  is  found  cov- 
ering great  plains;  while  the  more  sterile 
tivctA  are  covered  with  the  hard,  sharp  spini- 
fex  {triodia  pungeiu).  The  brilliant  flowers 
of  Australia  have  little  fragrance,  but  the 
leaves  of  several  kinds  of  trees  are  highly  aro- 
matic.— Though  the  continent  has  few  indige-  ' 
noQB  fruits  or  useful  vegetable  products,  nearly 
oU  those  of  other  countries  thrive  in  ite  cli- 
mate. On  the  N.  S.  coast,  in  the  Moreton  Bay 
settlement,  the  Japanese  loquot,  the  date  palm, 
and  the  prickly  pear,  cotton,  sngar,  coffee,  and 
tobacco  nave  been  naturalized ;  while  bananas, 
oranges,  and  lemons  grow  here,  as  well  as  on 
the  W.  coast.  In  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
and  SoQth  Australia,  the  cereals  flourish  with 
unsarpaseed  prodnctiveness,  and  64  lbs.  to  the 
bushel  has  been  produced  in  Australian  wheat. 
All  kinds  of  garden  prodnoe  are  of  supe- 
rior character ;  almonds,  flgs,  apricots,  melons, 
grapes,  quincee,  apples,  pears,  and  plums  are 
prodnoed  in  great  quantities. — The  mineral 
wealth  of  Australia,  even  if  we  consider  only 
that  portion  already  developed,  is  remarkable. 
It  has  been  known  from  very  early  times  to 
possess  iron  and  other  minerals.    The  gold  ex- 


lAUA.  131 

isting  in  pore  masses  does  not  seem  to  depend 

on  Btratincation,  but  has  probably  been  up- 
heaved along  with  other  matter,  and  washed 
down  by  surface  or  subterranean  currents.  All 
that  can  bo  safely  predicated  of  the  materials 
in  company  with  which  gold  is  found,  is  that 
quartz  and  pipe  clay  are  very  generally  asso- 
ciated with  it.  The  quartz  is  abundant,  and  is 
found  from  minute  pebbles  worn  smooth  by 
attrition  to  huge  blocks  of  many  tons'  weight 
which  crop  out  from  the  surface  in  irregular 
and  fantastic  forms.  It  is  usually  milk-white 
and  opaque,  but  occasionally  attains  a  semi- 
crystalline  transparency.  Besides  this,  how- 
ever, gold  is  found  intermixed  with  sandstone, 
ironstone,  and  white  and  blue  clay.  The  range 
over  which  gold  extends  is  altogether  undeter- 
mined, Keoent  accounts  annoonce  its  discov- 
ery at  the  furthest  limits  of  exploration.  The 
profitable  dig^gs  have  until  recently  been 
Gonflned  to  the  Batbnrst  district,  in  the  north 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  to  the  hdl  country 
in  the  north  and  northwest  of  Victoria;  but 
the  new  diggings  in  Queensland,  especially  at 
Gympie,  are  yielding  very  richly.  In  minute 
portions  gold  haa  been  found  all  over  the  colo- 
nies. It  was  at  flrst  met  with  in  small  pieces 
on  the  actual  surface ;  as  the  surface  supply 
became  exhausted,  it  was  found  at  a  short  dis- 
tance down,  and  the  dig^ngs  have  increased 
in  depth  as  they  have  decreased  in  general 
richness.  At  fiallarat,  near  Geelong,  where 
the  most  valuable  lumps  of  gold  have  been 
procured  (28,  60,  and  136  lbs.  in  weight),  the 
shafts  are  sunk  to  a  depth  of  more  tiion  100 
feet.  The  gold  has  never  been  found  otherwise 
than  in  detached  pieces  or  particles,  varying  in 
size  from  minute  globules  to  weighty  masses; 
and  where  its  close  contiguity  has  assumed  the 
character  of  a  vein,  it  is  only  that  the  deposit 
has  been  washed  together  into  a  subterranean 
channel  or  gutter.  The  copper  mines  of  Burra- 
Burra  and  other  localities,  and  the  coal  de- 
posits in  various  quarters,  have  already  been 
referred  to.  Tin,  lead,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  of  various  kinds  have  also  been  discov- 
ered in  the  search  for  gold,  and  passed  over 
for  the  present. — The  aborigines  of  Australia 
are  of  a  distinct  raoe  from  that  inhabiting  tiie 
Indian  archipelago.  They  are  foand  only  in 
the  Australian  islands,  in  New  Guinea,  the 
New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and  the  Solo- 
mon islands.  The  New  Zealonders  are  akin  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Polynesia,  The  Australians 
are  black,  with  some  slight  variety  of  shade 
from  browD-blaok  to  jet.  They  have  curly 
hair,  but  not  the  crisp  wool  of  the  negro.  Their 
faces  are  well  developed,  broad  at  the  base, 
their  hps  less  protruding  than  those  of  the  ne- 
gro; their  bodies  are  deficient  in  muscularity 
and  strength,  bat  capable  of  great  endurance. 
They  ore  snmirior  in  native  intelligence  to  the 
Tierra  del  Faegans,  and  they  readily  adopt 
European  habits.  They  seldom  build  huts  or 
other  fixed  dwellings,  W  content  themselves 
with  a'  strip  of  bark  or  a  large  1>oagh  as  a 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


shelter  from  the  wind.  Whether  they  knew 
the  Qse  of  fire  is  nocertain ;  they  now  kiDdle 
firea  by  rubbing  two  dry  Bticks  t<^ether.    Bat 


^unl  Wouum.    kKRua  rbolognpha.) 

tliej  frecjnently  eat  their  food  raw,  tind  their 
cookiQK  IB  performed  bj  making  a  hole  in  tlie 
ground,  lighting  a  fire  in  it,  putting  in  the  slain 
anima],  and  covering  it  with  earth  until  the 
fire  is  out,  when  it  is  oongidered  snfficienti/ 
cooked.  Id  the  wild  districts  they  go  entirely 
naked ;  in  the  vicinity  of  aettlementa  they  wear 
Bheepskina,  or  the  blankets  and  clothing  dis- 
tributed to  them  by  the  settlers.  They  have 
not  the  Dse  of  the  bow,  bat  are  expert  with 
the  spear,  which  they  fling  70  or  80  yards 
with  the  greatest  nicety.  They  use  the  dub 
or  waddy ;  and  they  have  the  boomerang,  a 


peculiar  missile,  rescroblmg  a  doubie-edged 
wooden  sword,  bent  to  an  ellipse ;  on  being 
l!irowD  into  the  (dr  it  strikes  the  ground  at  a 


distance  and  rebounds  toward  the  thrower. 

The  several  tribes  are  engaged  in  &eqncnt 
fends  with  each  other,  but  are  not  usually 
conrageons  in  the  presence  of  the  whites.  In 
the  early  tjmes  of  the  colony,  however,  they 
frequently  exhibited  great  pertinacity  in  their 
attacks  on  on  t-stationa.  Their  temper  is  gener- 
ally pacific  and  friendly.  Their  numbers  are 
very  limited ;  the  highest  recent  estimate  is 
GO,00O,  and  even  this  is  probably  much  over 
the  mark.  The  nse  of  ardent  spirits  has  made 
great  ravages  among  them.  They  are  sulyect 
to  cutaneous  diseases,  attributable  to  their  ex- 
tremely filthy  habits.  They  are  polygamista, 
and  their  marriages  are  entirely  witiiont  cere- 
mony, the  bridegroom  merely  carrying  away 
the  bride,  with  or  without  her  consent  Their 
barials,  on  the  contrary,  are  accompanied  by 
certain  snperstitious  observances ;  the  dead 
are  buried  in  the  exact  plaoes  in  which  they 
died,  and  these  spots  are  never  inhabited  agfun 
by  members  of  the  dead  men's  tribe.  The 
names  of  the  dead  are  never  pronounced,  and 
those  bearing  the  same  names  are  obliged  to 
change  them.  Their  religions  opinions  are 
simple ;  they  believe  in  a  good  and  a  bad 
spint.  They  believe  that  white  men  are  the 
reanimated  souls  of  blacks.  Uany  efforts  for 
their  conversion  to  Christianity  have  been 
made,  but  nithont  permanent  aacceas.  All 
the  colonial  governments  keep  up  native 
schools.  In  New  South  Wales  a  black  police 
was  at  one  time  formed,  whose  services  were 
very  valuable  in  tracking  depredators,  Iroin 
their  native  skill  in  following  a  trail.  Bom« 
few  of  the  Wacbs  are  occasionally  employed  ae 
stockmen  or  shepherds ;  but  they  are,  Uke  all 
savages,  averse  to  regnlar  labor  of  any  kind. 
They  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  number,  and 
in  a  few  decades  will  probably  be  almost  ex- 
tinct.— The  political  divisions  of  Anstralia,  the 
dates  of  their  official  organization  as  colonies, 
their  areas  (chiefiy  estimated),  and  their  pop- 
olation  in  1871,  are  as  follows; 


.™™. 

S 

H»^ 

■sr 

BTB.OIW 

Vicidrii 

ne.»«s 

Morthim  Tetriuwy  (not  rel  w- 
B«Blzrf) 

toi 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  colonies  may  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  New  South  Wales  in  1821 
only  numbered  29,783  inhabitants;  Victoria  in 
1836,224;  South  Australia  in  1838,  6,000.  The 
minority  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  colony  are 
of  British  desceot;  the  nnmber  of  natives  of 
Germany  is  9,000  in  New  Soutii  Wales,  with  a 
smaller  number  in  the  other  colonies.  The 
numi>er  of  Chinese  is  abont  70,000  (17,000  in 
Victoria),  and  it  is  steadily  increaong.    The 


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Urgest  cities  and  tovns  of  AaatraUs  ar«  Uel- 

bouraeCyiotoria),  pop.  190,000;  Sydney  (New 
South  Wales),  186,000;  Ballarat  (Victoria), 
74,000;  Sandhurat  (Victoria),  34,000;  Ade- 
Idde  (South  Australia),  87,000;  and  Geelong 
(Victoria),  32,000.— In  the  early  days  of  tiie 
Australian  colonies  clerfcymen  were  merely 
chaplains  to  the  convict  establish menta.  Sub- 
sequently an  act  was  passed  for  the  support  of 
Episcopal  churches  and  schools,  to  which  one 
seventb  of  the  crown  lands  was  to  be  devoted. 


Christians  in  bnildin^  places  of  worship  and 
supporting  their  ministers.  In  Queensland  an 
act  was  passed  in  IBSO  abolishing  state  aid  to 
religion  altogether,  and  the  other  colonies  are 
likewise  more  or  less  approaching  the  volun- 
tary aystem.  Thus  the  most  popnlous  colony, 
Victoria,  has  reduced  the  state  aid  to  an  an- 
nual sabudy  of  £50,000.  The  nnmber  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  in  1871  was  estimated  at  250,- 
O&O;  of  Jews,  5,500;  of  Uohammedant  and 
pagana,  about  4S,000.  A  few  thousand  belong 
to  no  religion ;  the  remainder  are  Protestants, 
more  than  one  half  being  connected  with  the 
church  of  England.  This  church  has  nine 
bishops,  namely,  of  Sydney,  Newcastle,  Bath- 
nnt,  AdeMde,  Melbourne,  Perth,  Brisbane, 
Gonlbani,  and  Grafton  and  Armidale.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  in  1S71  had  one  arch- 
bishop (in  Sydney)  and  ten  bishops. — The 
cause  of  education  has  made  great  progress. 
Each  of  the  colonies  has  its  board  or  council 
of  education,  consisting  of  a  nnmber  of  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  government.  The  aystem 
of  public  education  is  more  or  less  assimilated 
to  the  national  system  in  Ireland.  The  gov- 
ernment provides,  under  conditions  which  dif- 
fer in  Hie  several  colonies,  for  the  establish- 
ment €)f  common  schools,  and  also  grants  aid 
to  schools  not  established  by  the  government 
on  their  complying  with  certain  regnlations. 
The  state  also  assists  the  formation  and  m^n- 
tenance  of  educational  establishments  of  a 
more  advanced  character.  In  several  colonies 
education  has  been  made  compulsory.  In  1S71 
the  nomber  of  schools  under  the  control  of  the 
government  t>oards  amounted  to  about  8,640, 
with  255,000  pnpils  under  6,600  teachers. 
Nearly  all  the  collegea,  of  which  there  are 
many,  bear  a  denominational  character.  Syd- 
ney and  Melbourne  have  universities. — The 
revennes  of  the  colonies  are  chiefly  derived 
fhnn  duties,  poblio  lands,  the  post  office,  rail- 
roads aod  telegraphs,  stamp  duties,  and  li- 
oenaea  The  pubUe  debts  have  been  chiefly 
contracted  for  the  establishment  of  railroads. 


:ALIA  133 

ports,  and  other  pnblio  works.  The  forego- 
mg  table  exhibits  the  revenue,  ezpenditnres, 
and  pnblio  debt  of  each  of  the  colonies  in  1870. 
— Gold  still  constitutes  the  chief  article  of  ex- 
port. The  aggregate  value  of  precious  metals 
exported  from  Australia  amounted  in  1869  to 
£10,870,000.  Next  to  gold  the  moat  impor- 
tant article  of  export  is  wool,  the  valne  of  which 
in  1669  was  estimated  at  £8,161,000.  Sonth 
Australia  exports  large  quantities  of  wheat 
(£866,870  in  18B9)  and  copper  (£622,681). 
The  breeding  of  cattle  has  become  an  impor- 
tant oconpation  of  the  colonists.  The  colonies 
had  in  IBTl  about  22,100,000  sheep,  2,600,000 
homed  cattie,  and  782,000  horses.  The  follow- 
ing table  exhibits  the  imports  and  exports  of 
the  colcmies  in  1870 : 


OOLOKKS. 

bvM.. 

Zlf^ 

i,NB,ns 
i,mJ;S8 

£UtO>l,IRl 

The  merchant  navy  of  the  colonies  c<»sisted 
on  Jan.  1,  1871,  of  1,192  vessels,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  169,000  tons.  The  entries  and 
clearances  in  the  Aostralian  porta  in  1869  rep- 
seuted  an  aggregate  of  8,774,909  tons.  All 
the  colonies  had  railroads  at  the  close  of  1671, 
with  the  exception  of  Western  Australia, 
where  their  iatrodnction  was  expected  at  an 
early  date.  The  greatest  progress  in  this  re- 
spect has  been  made  in  New  South  Wales, 
which  in  1871  had  481  m.  of  railroads.  The 
a^regate  length  of  the  Australian  railroads 
at  the  close  of  1871  was  about  1,110  m.,  and  a 
very  considerable  extension  of  the  railroad  sys- 
tem was  about  taking  place  in  several  oolonieB. 
The  electric  telegraph  nas  been  introduced  into 
each  of  the  colonies.  The  length  of  the  wires 
in  1871  was  C,0G3  m.  in  New  South  Wales, 
8,868  in  Victoria,  and  about  13,400  in  all  the 
colonies.  All  the  colonies  except  Western  Aus- 
tralia are  counect«d  with  each  other  by  tele- 
graph, and  since  1869  by  a  submarine  cable 
witD  Tasmania.  Telegraphic  connection  1>e- 
tween  Australia  and  England,  by  means  of  a 
submarine  cable  connecting  Java  and  Port  Dar- 
win, was  nearly  completed  at  the  beginning  of 
1872.  The  government  in  each  colony  con- 
sists of  a  governor  appointed  in  England,  a 
legislative  council,  and  a  legislative  assembly 
elected  by  universal  sufirage, — Australia  first 
became  tmown  to  Europeans  in  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century.  Though  a  vague  out- 
line of  land  in  this  portion  of  the  soathem 
ocean  appears  upon  the  map  of  some  Por- 
tugnese  navigators  dated  1642,  the  first  real 
discovery  was  probably  made  by  the  Dnteh  in 
1606,  when  the  captain  of  the  yacht  Duyfken, 
sent  out  from  Bantam  to  explore  a  part  of  the 
coa.1t  of  New  Gninea,  saw  uie  northern  shore 
of  the  continent  at  a  distance.    In  the  same 


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184 


AUSTRALIA 


year  Torres  strait  was  named  from  a  Porta-  ' 
gaese  navigator  who  sailed  tliroagh  it.  In 
1S16  Hartog,  a  Butch  CAptain,  oalue  n])on  theW. 
coaat  of  Anstralia  and  coiled  it  Endracbt's  Lsod, 
from  the  name  of  his  ship.  From  this  time 
other  parts  of  the  W.  coast  were  discovered. 
In  ISS2  the  Leea  win  discovered  the  8.  coast  at 
Cape  Leeuwin,  and  shortly  after  Van  Knyts 
s^ed  from  that  oape  on  the  S.  coast  to  Spen- 
cer's gulf.  De  Witt's  Land  and  Carpentaria,  in 
North  Australia,  were  also  discovered  hj  Dutoli 
traders.  Capt.  Cook  in  I7T0  discovered  New 
SoDtb  Wales  and  Botanj  Bay,  which  was  so 
called  hj  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the  botanist  of  the 
expedition,  from  the  wonderful  iloral  display 
which  its  plains  afforded.  In  1789  the  first 
English  colony  was  established  in  Now  South 
W^es,  at  first  as  a  penal  settlemenL  The 
original  design  of  the  British  government  was 
to  make  this  penal  station  at  Botany  Bay  it- 
self; but  a  better  locality  was  found  at  Sydney, 
and  Capt.  Phillip  was  sent  out  with  a  squadron 
having  on  board  8S0  convicts  and  a  guard  of 
200  men  and  officers.  In  this  convict  colony, 
placed  as  it  was  under  the  absolute  control  of 
A  governor  with  almost  unlimited  power,  every 
kind  of  abuse  and  vioe  grew  up ;  and  of  these 
the  free  oolonista  who  afterward  began  to 
settle  in  the  district  felt  the  effects  in  many 
ways.  A  conflict  grew  up  between  them  and 
the  government  on  the  question  of  abolishing 
the  transportation  system ;  and  after  endeavor- 
ing, nnder  a  long  succesdon  of  governors,  to 
devise  some  means  of  keeping  np  the  two 
plans  of  a  convict  colony  and  a  ftee  colony  to- 
gether, the  government  was  obliged  to  yield, 
principally  by  the  effort*  of  the  ' '  AoU-Trans- 
portation  League  "  formed  against  ita  measuree, 
and  to  issue  an  order  in  council  in  18ST  abol- 
ishing transportation  to  New  South  Wales, 
and  restricting  it  to  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  even 
here  it  was  abolished  in  1653.  From  this  time 
the  attention  of  the  English  was  more  and 
more  attracted  toward  Australia,  and  explora- 
tions of  the  other  coasts  and  even  of  the  in- 
terior followed  in  rapid  succession.  In  1T68 
and  1799  Flinders  and  Bass,  two  Englishmen, 
careliilly  surveyed  the  S.  and  E.  ctrasta.  In 
1800-'l  Grant  and  Murray  explored  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  S,  coast,  and  their  work  was 
oontmued  both  to  the  eastward  and  northward 
daring  the  next  three  years  by  Bandin,  Frey- 
oinet,  and  Flinders.  During  the  period  from 
1788  to  1791,  explorations  in  the  interior  were 
also  undertaken  by  Phillip,  Tench,  and  Dawes. 
In  1798  Hunter  penetrated  to  the  mountains 
called  by  his  name.  In  1818  Wentworth, 
Blailand,  and  Lawson  crossed  the  Bine  moun- 
tain and  discovered  the  Bathnrst  plains,  which 
in  1816  became  the  seat  of  a  branch  colony. 
In  the  aame  year  Evans  explored  the  valley  of 
the  Lachlan.  In  the  eaceeeding  five  years 
Jefferies,  Kelly,  and  King  completed  the  sur- 
vey of  the  coasts.  Oitey,  who  travelled 
through  the  eastern  mountain  syst«m  in  1818, 
HoveU  and  Hume,  who  explored  the  r^on  of 


the  Anstrslion  Alps  from  1818  to  I8M,  and 
Cunningham,  who  spent  the  six  years  from 
1828  to  1829  in  the  northern  port  of  the  same 
district,  were  the  next  noteworthy  cipiorers. 
In  1826  and  the  years  following  Sturt  made 
several  expeditions  of  importance,  and  in  1829 
he  discovered  the  Darling  river.  In  1629  also 
was  founded  the  second  of  the  chief  colonies — 
that  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Western 
Australia.  The  first  settlement  was  at  Perth. 
In  1832  Bennett,  and  in  1835  and  the  snc- 
ceeding  year  Major  Mitchel,  explored  southern 
Anstr^ia,  and  the  latter  followed  the  Darling 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Hurray,  besides  dis- 
covering the  Grampian  hills,  and  making  other 
noteworthy  additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
interior.  In  188B  also  the  first  settlement  in 
the  fotnre  colony  of  Victoria  was  made  at  Port 
Phillip.  In  the  mean  time  several  attempts 
to  colonize  other  parts  of  the  coast  hod  failed : 
a  settlement  had  been  made  in  Amhem's  Land 
in  1824jand  several  others  in  subsequent  years 
on  the  W.  nde  of  the  island,  hut  none  of  these 
endnred  more  than  a  few  years.  In  1836, 
however,  a  successlnl  colony  was  begun  in 
South  Australia,  at  Adelaide,  In  1839  and 
the  three  following  years  Stokes  made  a  series 
of  important  exploring  eipeditionB  along  the 
coast.  The  interior,  chiefly  between  the  Pa- 
cific and  the  gulfs  of  Caqwntaria  and  Spen- 
cer, was  explored  in  the  following  three  dec- 
ades by  those  of  Eyre,  Leichhardt,  Sturt,  the 
brothers  Gregory  and  Helpman,  Kennedy, 
Austin,  Stuart,  fiabbage,  the  brothers  Demp- 
ster, Burke  and  Wills,  Landsborongh,  HcKin- 
lay,  Lefi^y,  Mclntyre,  Forrest,  Brown,  and 
others,  several  of  whom  became  the  victims 
of  their  eeal  and  boldness.  Emigration  to  the 
newly  founded  colonies  was  very  siow ;  large 
numbers  of  diaconraged  settlers  left  AustraUa 
for  the  South  American  coast  or  for  other 
countries;  and  in  1650,  after  all  the  attempts 
made  daring  60  years  of  colonization,  the  £n- 
ropean  popi^ation  was  estimated  at  only  60,000. 
An  event  now  occurred  which  suddenly  changed 
the  whole  condition  and  prospects  of  the  con- 
tinent. This  was  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851, 
in  the  Bathnrst  district  of  New  South  Wales, 
by  a  gentleman  returned  from  California,  Mr. 
Hargraves.  Count  Strzelecki  had  previously 
announced  the  existence  of  gold  in  Australia, 
and  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  examining  a  piece 
of  Australian  qnarti,  had  inferred  it  from  bis 
knowledge  of  the  gold  washings  in  the  Ural 
mountains.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  quantities 
on  the  Turon  river,  in  New  South  Wales,  early 
in  the  year,  first  drew  a  number  of  di);gers  to 
that  district.  In  the  latter  end  of  1851,  how- 
ever, diggings  of  &r  greater  value  were  dis- 
covered in  Victoria,  and  then  commenced  an 
influx  of  immigrants  which,  as  in  the  case  of 
California,  produced  results  that  set  all  fore- 
sifrht  and  calculation  at  defiance.  In  a  year 
after  the  discovery  the  population  was  £50,- 
000,  notwiih  standing  the  distance  from  Europe 
and  the  expense  of  the  voyage.    Ordinary  bnsi- 


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AUSTBABIA 

neaa  of  all  kinds  was  momentarilj  Rispoided. 
A^ooltare  was  for  that  jeai  ahnoBt  aban- 
doned. Every  article  of  food  and  clothing  was 
imported  from  Europe,  labor  and  merohaadise 
advanced  to  pric«s  to  which  there  seemed  to 
be  no  probability  of  a  limit,  and  nmch  time 
waa  required  to  bring  Australian  afiiurg  into 
iheir  ordinary  channel.  Among  the  indoK- 
triea  which  have  grown  np,  the  raising  of 
sheep  has  the  most  prominent  place.  The 
fcreat  aheep  runs,  oecapying  immense  tracts  of 
land,  have  become  a  principal  fi-atore  of  the 
conntry.  Merbo  and  other  fine  breeds,  im- 
ported early  into  the  colonies,  have  increaaed 
with  great  rapidity — in  Qneendand  alone  from 
three  to  nine  million  head  in  the  last  ten  years 
—and  the  statistics  show  the  extraordinary 
amount  of  wool  annually  yielded,  and  nearly 
all  exported. — The  recent  prioress  of  the  conn- 
try  has  been  nninterrapt^d  and  rapid.  The 
era  of  speoolation  seems  to  have  nearly  passed 
away,  uid  the  afiairs  of  the  colonies  are  grad- 
ually assaming  the  settled  aspect  of  those  of 
older  states.  Explorations  are  constantly  made 
in  the  interior,  and  the  targe  tracts  still  un- 
settled near  the  coast  are  attracting  a  consid- 
erable immigration,  which,  now  that  the  re- 
soorces  of  vae  continent  are  properly  devel- 
oped, is  not  likely  to  be  discontinued. — For 
more  specific  information,  see  the  articles  on 
the  different  colonies. 

ITffniHA  (old  Ger.  OttUrrytA,  i.  e..  Oat- 
T«ieh),  the  eastern  kingdom  of  the  Franks  of 
the  6th,  Tth,  and  8th  centaries,  under  the  Me- 
rovingians, compnaing  in  its  flonrishing  period 
the  ooonbies  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  from 
Mm  Mame  to  the  Saale  and  ironi  the  North  sea 
to  the  Danube  (the  ancient  kingdoms  or  duchies 
of  Metz,  Ohanipagne,  Thuringia,  Alemannia, 
Frisia,  and  others).  The  first  king  was  Bieg- 
bort,  to  whom  this  territory  fell  in  581  on  the 
partition  of  the  dominions  of  his  father  Clo- 
taire  I.,  king  of  the  Franks.  Austrasia  was  in 
conflict  with  Neustria,  the  western  Frankish 
kingdom,  and  with  the  Bargnndians.  Among 
celebrated  Austraaan  rulers  wore  Queen  Bmne- 
hant  or  Brenehilde  (5flT-fll8),  King  Dagobert 
(628-'38),  whose  successors  are  called  U«  toU 
JaiiiianU  (idle  kings),  and  the  mayor  of  the 
palace  Pepin  of  U6riatal,  who  waa  succeeded  in 
714  by  his  natural  bod  Oharles  MarteL  In  762 
Charles's  son  Pepin  the  Short  became  sovereign 
of  both  the  eastern  and  western  Frankish  king- 
doms, and  Anstraaia  ceased  to  play  a  distinct 
part  in  history.  Under  Charlemagne's  succes- 
aon  most  of  the  former  Austraaiaa  countries 
were  merrol  into  Germany,  and  thoee  of  Neus- 
tria into  France. — See  EUtoire  du  royaume 
nUrovingien  d'AzittroMie,  by  Haguenin  (Paris, 
1S63). 

AUmil  (Ger.  Oettrtieh  or  OetUrreUh,  east- 
ern empire),  officially  dengnated  since  1866  as 
the  AueTRO-nnMOAKiAH  Mosaboht,  an  empire 
of  southern  central  Europe,  bounded  N.  by  the 
German  empire  and  Bnssia,  £.  by  Russia  and 
EoTVpeOD  Tnrkey,  8.  and  S,  W.  by  Turkey,  the 


AUSTRIA 


135 


Adriatio  sea,  and  Italy,  and  W.  by  Switzerland 
and  the  German  empire.  It  now  couMsts  of 
two  main  divisions,  Austria  proper  and  Hungary, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  special  legislation 
.  and  administration,  though  they  are  united 
I  under  one  monarch  and  have  a  single  ministry 
for  all  matters  of  common  interest.  As  the 
river  I<eitha  constitutes  a  part  of  the  frontier, 
Austria  is  also  called  Oisleithanio,  and  Hungary 
Transleithania.  Bnt  while  in  the  higher  polit- 
ical sense  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  con- 
sists of  these  two  divisions,  the  term  is  in  fact 
the  collective  de^gnation  of  several  states,  com- 
prising a  number  of  distinct  nationalities,  all 
under  the  rule  of  the  bouse  of  Hapabnrg.  It  is 
only  nnce  the  aooession  to  the  throne  of  the  em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  that  tbese  countries  have 
been  actually  oonsolidated.  The  oentrali^ing 
policy  of  the  crown  was,  however,  partly  de- 
feated by  the  reMstonee  of  the  Hungariana, 
who  demanded  and  finally  obttuned  the  recog- 
nition of  the  historical  rights  of  the  Hungarian 
monarchy.  In  this  article  we  shall  treat  only 
of  the  Austro-Hungariui  monarchy  as  a  whole, 
and  of  the  Oisleithan  half  of  the  empire.  For 
the  rest,  see  HtmoABV. — The  total  area  of  the 
empire  is  240,881  aq.  m.,  extending  from  laL 
42°  10' to  61°  4' N.,  and  fVora  Ion.  S^SS'toSe" 
BS'  E.  Its  population,  according  to  the  censoe 
of  1869,  amounted  to  86,604,436.  The  empire 
is  a  oontinuons  territory,  only  two  distncts 
(Cattaro  and  Ragnsa)  being  separated  from  the 
main  body  by  small  stiips  of  Turkish  territory. 
Of  the  21  states  or  provinces  (KronlAnder  or 
crown  lands)  which,  according  to  the  reorgan- 
izing statutes  of  1849  and  18S1,  were  to  con- 
stitute the  united  Austrian  monarchy  {Oatrei~ 
ehitekt  6e§atrtmtmimarchu),  the  following  14, 
according  to  the  new  arrangement  made  in 
1867,  belong  to  the  "countries  represented  in 
the  Reichsrath,"  or  to  the  Cisleithan  provinces : 

1,  the  archduchy  of  Lower  Austria  {Oettreich 
vnter  Aer  Enia),  7,655  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,990,708: 

2,  the  arohdnchy  of  Upper  Austria  {Oeitreieh 
ob  dar  Enn*),  4,683  sq.  m.,  pop.  786,657; 
8,  the  duchy  of  Salzbuiv,  2,767  sq.  in.,  pop. 
153,159;  4,  the  duchy  of  fityria  (5(«ieT7»o»-ifc), 
8,671  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,187,990;  6,  the  duchy  of 
Oarinthia  (KAmtkm),  4,006  sq.  m.,  pop.  887,- 
694;  6,  the  duchy  of  Camiola  (iTratn),  8,867 
sq.  m.,  pop.  466,884;  7,  the  Coastland  or  Lit- 
torale,  embracing  the  oountieB  of  Gfirz  and 
Gradisca,  the  roargraviate  of  Istria,  and  the 
district  of  Trieste,  8,085  sq.  m.,  pop.  600,525 
(the  three  last-named  provincea  form  the  king- 
dom of  lUyria);  8,  the  county  of  Tyrol  witii 

I  Vorarlberg,  11,826  sq.m.,  pop.  886,789;  9,  the 
.  kingdom  of  Bohemia  (BUhtam),  20,064  sq.  m., 
.  pop.  6,140,544;  10,  the  margraviate  of  Mora- 
i  via  {M&hr»n).  8,686  sq.  m.,  pop.  3,017,274;  11, 
'  thednchyofSilesia(&:A2esMn),  1,988sq.m., pop. 
513,862  (these  11  states  were  nntU  1866  mem- 
bers of  the  Q«rman  confederation);  12,thekin^ 
dom  of  Galioia,  including  the  former  repubho 
of  Cracow  (aimexed  by  Austria  in  1846),  and 
the  duobies  of  AnscbwitE  and  Zator,  l>oth  of 


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which  belonged  until  18S6  to  iJie  German  con-  ' 

federation,  80,S18  Bq.  m.,  pop.  6,444,689 ;  13, 
the  duchy  of  Bnkowina,  4,036  8q.  m.,  pop. 
518,404;  14,  the  kingdom  of  Dalmstio,  4,940 
Bq.  m.,  pop.  466,fl61.  Total  area  of  the  14 
provinces  represented  in  the  Rdcheratli,  IIG,- 
926  Bq.  m. ;  total  population,  20,894,980.  This 
inolndee  177,449  Boldiers,  dedacting  whom  the 
civil  population  amounte  to  20,217,681.  The 
B^regate  popnlation  of  these  14  provinces  in 
1880  waa  15,688,142;  in  18B0,  17,634,960;  in 
I8S7,  18,224,600.  At  the  close  of  the  ^ear 
1871  the  civil  popnlation  was  offlciallj  calcu- 
lated at  20,665,870.  Of  the  remuning  seven 
provinces,  Lombardy  and  Venetia  have  been 
ceded  to  Italy  in  consequence  of  the  wars  of 
lees  and  1866 ;  and  tbe  kingdom  of  Hungary, 
the  kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  the  way- 
wodeship  of  Servia,  the  grand  dnclij  of  Tran- 
sylvania, and  the  Military  Frontier  now  belong 
to  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown  (the  way- 
wodeahip  of  Servia  having  however  ceased  to 
be  a  separate  crown  land  and  been  incorporated 
with  Hungary  proper). — About  five  seventha 
of  the  Aastrian  territory  are  monntainous. 
There  are  three  principal  chains  of  monntaina, 
each  of  them  sending  off  many  branches,  viz. : 
1.  The  Alps  (Rhstian,  Noric,  Camic,  Julian, 
and  Dinanc),  covering  almost  tlie  entire  sooth- 
em  belt  of  the  German  provinces,  as  well  as 
niyria  and  Dalmatia  (see  Alps)  ;  their  highest 

S<aks  are  the  Ortler  (12,862  ft.)  and  the  Groas- 
lockner  (12,776  it).  2.  The  Carpathians, 
about  800  m.  long,  b^inning  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Dannhe  and  the  March,  near  Presbnrg, 
sweeping  in  an  arc  to  the  confluence  of  the 
Danube  and  Csema,  on  the  confines  of  Walla- 
chiaand  Servia,  (See  Carp athiak  Mouhtainb, 
and  HutroABT.)  The  bold  and  rugged  granite 
clHfe  of  the  Carpathians,  in  F.  Hungary  and  K. 
Transylvania,  nse  to  a  height  of  more  than 
8,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  8.  The 
Sndetic  monntaina,  with  the  Bohemian  forest 
and  the  Ore  mountains  (Erzgebirge,  between 
Bohemia  and  Saxony),  forming  together  an 
almost  nnintermpted  chain  of  granite  and 
gneiss  formation.  The  highest  section  of  this 
chain,  the  Giant  monntuns  or  Rieseugebirge, 
between  Bohemia  and  Prussian  Silesia,  rises  in 
the  Scbneekoppe,  or  Snow  peak,  to  an  elevation 
of  upward  of  5,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Besides  these  three  great  chuns  there  are 
several  parallel  ranges  of  considerable  height. 
Thns  on  both  aides  of  the  Alps  there  extend 
limestone  ranges,  the  northern  ones  towering  up 
to  the  height  of  9,840  ft.  (the  Dachstein,  or 
Boofpeak,  on  the  boondary  line  of  Salzburg  and 
Styria),  while  the  sonthem  ones,  reaching  to 
the  height  of  10,908  ft.,  cover  nearly  the  whole 
territory  of  Illyria  and  Dalmatia.  Again,  the 
Carpathians  are  surrounded  by  sandstone  moun- 
taina,  which  almost  fill  up  the  territory  of 
Transylvania.  Of  large  plains  there  are  only 
two :  the  great  Hungarian  basin,  covering  about 
40,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  Galiclan  ba^.  which 
is  interrupted  by  several  ranges  of  hills  and 


covers  about  20,000  sq.  m. — The  seaeoast  of 

Austria  extends  ftom  the  head  of  the  gulf  of 
Venice  to  the  S.  point  of  Dalmatia,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Adriatic,  1,086  m.  Austria  belongs 
to  four  of  the  great  river  systems  of  Europe, 
those  of  the  Black  sea,  the  BalUc,  the  German 
ocean,  and  the  Mediterranean.  Among  the 
numerous  streams  the  Daanbe  is  by  far  the 
most  important;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  main  artery 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  may  at  no  very  dis- 
tant period  become  for  a  large  portion  of  sonth- 
em Europe  what  the  Misossippiis  for  the  United 
States.    The  Danube,  being  the  largest  Euro- 

Kan  river  after  the  Volga,  enters  Austria  ih>m 
Lvsria  as  a  stream  navigable  at  all  seasons, 
but  its  channel  formerly  ofi'ered  aeriouB  im- 

Eediments  to  navigation,  all  of  which  have 
een  removed  or  are  in  process  of  removal. 
(See  DAKTraa.)  Steamboats  were  first  intro- 
duced on  the  Danube  in  1880.  Since  1886  the 
Austrian  steam  navigation  company  lias  in- 
creased their  Dumber  IVom  year  to  year,  until 
in  1869  it  maintained  146  steamboats  and  pro- 
pellers, besides  660  barges,  scows,  &c.  The  en- 
tire length  of  the  Danube  in  Austria  is  nearly 
900  m,,  and  its  average  width  600  ft.  Most  of 
its  tributaries  are  navigable  for  small  craft, 
and  stoam  has  been  introduced  on  several.  The 
river  Theiss,  in  Hungary,  the  most  connder- 
able  of  them  all,  stud  tuso  to  have  a  greater 
abundance  of  fish  than  any  other  European 
river,  is  navirated  by  steamboats  from  Tokay 
down  to  the  Danube ;  it  has  a  length  of  up- 
ward of  600  m.  The  Save,  which  enters 
the  Daunbe  near  Belgrade,  is  navigable  for  a 
large  part  of  its  course.  Steamboats  also  ply 
on  the  Inn,  on  the  Bavarian  frontier,  and  since 
1867  even  on  the  Salzach,  a  smaller  stream, 
emptying  into  the  Inn.  The  otlier  important 
tributaries  of  the  Danube,  in  their  geographi- 
cal order,  are  the  Traun,  tlie  Enns,  tiie  March 
or  Moreva,  the  Raab,  the  Waag,  the  Neutra, 
the  Gran,  the  Eypel,  and  the  Drave  or  Drau, 
all  of  which  are  navigable.  The  Moldau,  trib- 
utary to  the  Elbe,  in  Bohemia,  is  also  navi- 
gated by  steamboats.  The  Vistula,  Dnieater, 
and  Pruth  rise  within  the  Austrian  empire 
in  Galicia,  the  Elbe  in  Bohemia,  and  the 
Adige  in  Tyrol. — The  lakes  of  Austria  are  nu- 
merous, though  not  very  largo.  The  Flatten 
or  Balaton  lake  in  8.  W.  Hungary  has  a  surface 
of  about  400  sq.  m.  The  only  salt  lake  in 
Austria  is  the  Neusiedler  lake  in  W.  Hungary, 
nearly  20  m.  long,  and  from  6  to  7  m.  wide. 
The  Czirknitzer  lake,  in  Camiola,  is  remarkable 
as  containing  a  number  of  subterranean  cavi- 
ties, through  which  its  waters  from  time  to 
time  disappear  and  again  fiow  in. — The  climate 
of  Austria  is  temperate  and  very  wholesome. 
Prom  the  southern  boundary  up  to  laL  46°, 
the  average  temperature  is  64}°  F. ;  from  lat, 
46°  to  lat.  49°,  it  is  50°  to  52° ;  beyond  lat.  49° 
it  is  48°.  The  winter  is  very  severe  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  but  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature are  not  frequent — Nature  hoe  endowed 
Austria  with  a  greater  variety  of  productions 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


than  any  other  European  state.  Platina  ex- 
cepted, all  metala  abound.  Gold  ii  produced 
in  Uaagarr  and  Transjlvania ;  ailver  and  the 
beat  qualit;  of  Eurooean  oopper  in  Hangarj; 
quicksilver  in  Gsmima  (the  mipa  at  Idria  lued 
to  TieM  12,000  cwt  per  annam) ;  tin  in  Bohe- 
mia; lead  in  Carintliia;  iron  almost  everj- 
where  (a  sngle  mine  in  Stjria  fields  over 
15,000  tons  annoallf).  The  following  are  pro- 
duced in  smaller  qoantities:  xinc  (about  44,000 
cwt.  in  1869),  arBenic  (1,876  cwt.),  antimony 
(ll,78Scwt.),  chrome,  bismuth,  and  manganese. 
Black  tourmaline,  alabaster,  serpentine,  gyp- 
sum, black  lead,  slates,  flint,  and  marble  abonnd 
in  man;  portions  of  the  empire.  The  precious 
stones  found  in  Austria  are :  the  Bohemian  car- 
boDcle,  the  Hungarian  opal,  ohalcedony,  raby, 
emerald,  jasper,  amethyst,  topaz,  carnelian, 
chrysolite,  beryl.  The  ooal  beds  of  Austria  are 
eonddered  almost  inexhaustible.  Of  rock  salt 
there  is  a  bed  several  hundred  miles  in  length  in 
Galicia,of  which  only  a  small  portion  is  worked 
■t  the  gigantio  mine  of  Wieliozia,  near  Cra- 
cow, a  perfect  subterranean  city,  or  rather  four 
cities,  one  below  the  other,  eit«nding  in  a 
labyrinth  of  galleries,  and  hewn  into  me  salt 
rock  0,000  ft.  from  N.  to  S.,  and  4,000  ft.  from 
£.  to  W.  Of  mineral  springs  Anstria  contains 
upward  of  1,600,  of  which  the  most  celebra- 
ted are  at  Carlsbad,  Marienbad,  Teplitz,  and 
Franzensbad,  in  Bohemia ;  Ischl,  m  Upper 
Aostria;  Baden,  in  I.ower  Anstria;  GaMein, 
in  Salzburg;  Gleichenberg,  in  Styria;  Bartfeld, 
TrMitschin,  and  ParSd,  in  Hungary ;  Uehadia, 
in  the  Military  Frontier  district — The  vegetable 
kingdom  of  Austria  shows  the  same  variety  as 
the  mineral.  Wheat  is  the  staple  produoe  of 
the  German  provinces  and  of  Hungary ;  buck- 
wheat is  raised  in  the  sandy  regions;  Indian 
corn,  rice,  and  kidney  beans  are  raised  in 
Hungary;  the  finest  varieties  of  apples  and 
pears  in  Bohemia,  Austria  proper,  and  Tyrol ; 
of  plnms,  in  Hungary.  Eui^^y  produces  im- 
mense quantities  of  encumbers,  melons,  water- 
melons, pepper,  anise,  lloorice,  poppies,  ohic- 
eory,  sweet-flag,  ginger,  flax,  hemp,  andtobao- 


■BIA  137 

oa  Ootton  is  ndsed  in  Dalmatia,  hops  in  Bo- 
hemia, saffron  and  woad  in  Lower  Austria. 
The  Hungarian  wine  (more  than  one  half  of 
the  entire  wine  product  of  Austria)  is  an  ex- 
cellent article,  some  brands  being  justly  oonnt- 
ed  among  the  very  best  wines  of  the  world 
(Tokay,  Sffines,  ifco.).  About  68,000  sq.  m. 
of  the  Austrian  territory  are  covered  with 
forests,  mostly  oak,  pine,  and  hemlock.  In 
the  northern,  and  maple,  stone  pine,  olive, 
laurel,  myrtle,  and  ohestnot  trees,  in  the  south- 
ern provinces.  Horses  are  rused  everywhere, 
but  only  those  of  the  Bnkowina  are  of  a  supe- 
rior stock;  sheep  and  homed  cattle  in  Hungary 
and  Ga1ioia(baffa[oesin  Croatia  and  Trons^va- 
nia) ;  goalK  and  hogs  in  Hungary.  The  silkworm 
has  been  introduced  in  Tyrol,  Croatia,  Blavo- 
nia,  Hlyria,  and  Dalmatia.  Game  is  plenUfol, 
deer,  wild  boars,  and  hares  being  found  almost 
everywhere;  block  bears,  chamds,  lynxes, 
wolves,  and  beavers,  only  in  some  districts. 
Pearl  mussels  are  frequently  foond  in  several 
rivers  and  creeks  of  Hungary. — The  increase 
of  the  population  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  from  1850  to  1869  has  been  on  an 
average  0'64  per  cent.  According  to  the  gen- 
eral census  oi  ISfiT,  the  monarchy  bad  87, 754,- 
856  inhabitants.  Bince  then  it  has  lost  two 
provinces,  Lombardy  and  Tenelja,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  5,000,000;  but  the  natural 
increase  from  1857  to  1869  has  nearly  made 
up  this  loss.  The  inhabitants  of  the  empire 
live  in  987  cities,  3,089  boroughs,  and  73,252 
villages.  Of  the  cities,  one  (Vienna)  has  up- 
ward of  600,000  inhabitants;  two,  Pesth  and 
Prague,  have  more  than  150,000;  12  above 
40,000;  6  above  SO  000;  86  above  20,000;  and 
97  above  10,000.  In  no  country  in  the  worid 
has  the  nationality  question  at  present  so  great 
a  political  importance  as  in  Austria.  No  offi- 
cial census  of  the  nationalities  has  been  taken 
since  1850.  The  following  estimates  of  the 
strength  of  all  the  important  nationalities  of 
the  empire  in  1869  is  taken  from  Bohmitt's 
Statittik  da  Sttarreiehiteh-tingaruehea  K<ti- 
tentaaUt  (4th  ed.,  1872): 


CU.SLh. 

Id 

>k. 

iWdIl 

B,OBS.ai» 

^705,900 
BBllOtt 
!.e8SLS0l> 

i,sr2,sw 

■InHdV. 

T.1(M,«0I) 

JfflS 

1694.800 

a»,4no 
n.TOO 
oei.soo 

i 

WOOD 

HMa,ii)o 
Tia,ioo 

8-IH 

^S^"^'"™^ 

V\ 

Of  the  Cisleitban  provinces  only  Upper  Anstria 
and  Salzbarg  are  wholly  German ;  in  the  other 
provinces  the  numeric^  relation  of  the  princi- 
pal nationalities,  according  to  the  same  anthor- 
ity,  was  in  1869  as  follows:  Lower  Austria- 
Germans  60  per  cent.,  Czechs  6 ;  Styria — Ger- 
mans fi3,  Slovens  86;  Garinthia — Germans  89, 


Slovens  SI ;  Camiola — Germans  6,  Slovens 
93 ;  Littorale — Germans  4,  Slovens  42,  Cro- 
ats 21,  Italians  SI ;  Tyrol— Germans  60,  Ital- 
ians 39;  Bohemia— Germans  38,  Czechs  SO: 
Moravia — Germans  26,  Czechs  71 ;  Silesia — 
Germans  51,  Czechs  19,  Poles  29;  Galicia — 
Germans  S,  Poles  42,  Ruthenians  44,  Jews 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


138  AUSl 

II;  Bokowina — Gtermana  7,  Rnthenians  40, 
Eoamaaa  89,  Jews  B;  Daknatia — Croats  and 
Serbs  87,  Italians  18.  Thus  the  Germans 
may  alwajs  be  eipeoted  to  control,  when  the 
nationalitj  qaestion  is  at  stake,  the  provincial 
diets  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Stjria,  Salz- 
burg, Carmthia,  and  Sileda.  The  Czechs  pre- 
TUl  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  Slovens  (or 
Winds)  in  Gamiola,  the  Oroatfl  and  Serbs  in 
Dalmatia.  In  Galicia,  according  to  the  above 
table,  the  Ruthanians  exceed  the  Poles  in  num- 
ber ;  hut  tiie  Poles,  to  whom  the  higher  claases 
of  society  belong,  hate  an  undisputed  control 
of  the  diet,  and  in  general  of  the  province  as  a 
whole.  The  Qermana,  thongh  only  86  per  cent. 
of  the  population  of  the  Culeitban  provinces, 
are  the  raling  raee  in  this  part  of  the  mou- 
archj,  while  the  Hagyars  donunate  in  the  lands 
of  the  Hungarian  crown,  although  thej  hke- 
wise  embrace  no  roore  than  about  8T  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  population.  The  number  of  lan- 
guages or  dialects  spoken  in  Austria  exceeds 
20,  hot  German  is  the  highest  official  language 
in  the  Cisleithan,  and  Magjar  in  the  Irana- 
leithan  provinces.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that 
at  a  Panelavic  congress  held  at  Prague  in  1648, 
the  delegates  of  the  different  Slavic  natianali- 
ttes  found  themselves  under  the  necessity  of 
uang  the  German  language,  being  unable  to 
understand  the  different  dialects  of  their  own 
tongue.  The  denwty  of  population  is  very  un- 
equal, but  is  generally  greater  in  the  eastern 
than  in  the  western  portions  of  the  empire. 
The  eitremei  are  Lower  Austria,  which  con- 
tains Yienna  (2GB  to  the  sq.  m.),  and  Salzburg 
(55  to  the  sq.  m.).^More  than  three  fourtlis 
of  the  entire  population  of  Austria  acknowl- 
edge the  religious  supremacy  of  Rome;  of 
these,  in  1869,  28,954,238  were  Roman  Catho- 
lics proper,  8,941,796  United  Greeks,  and  6,279 
Armeno-Catholics.  The  population  connected 
with  the  Greek  Oriental  church  amounta'to 
8,050,830;  and  that  belon^ng  to  the  Armenian 
proper  (Gregorian)  to  1,854.  The  Reformed 
church  has2,148,178 professors;  the  Lutheran, 
1,865,885 ;  the  Unitarians,  66,070.  The  Jews 
number  1,872,800.  The  remainder  belong  lo 
minor  sects.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
Austria  has  11  archbishoprics  and  42  bishop- 
rics; 3  archbishoprics  and  7  bishoprics  belong 
to  the  United  Greek,  and  1  archbishopric  to  the 
Anneno-Catholic.  The  Greek  Oriental  church 
has  8  arohbishoprioi  and  10  bishoprics.  In 
1869  the  nnmber  of  Roman  Catholic  convents 
in  Austria  was  966,  contuning  8,748  monks 
and  6,671  nuns.  By  the  concordat  with  the 
pope,  concluded  in  September,  1856,  the  Bo- 
man  Catholic  church  in  Austria  received  great 
prerogatives;  but  these  were  rescinded  by  the 
reform  laws  of  1868,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
promulgation  of  papal  infallibility  as  a  doctrine 
of  tlie  church,  the  Austrian  government  in  1870 
declared  the  concordat  abrogated.  The  affiurt 
of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  are 
administered  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces  by  the 
evangelical  supreme  ohorcb  oooacil  at  Vienna 


and  two  general  synods,  one  Lutheran  and  one 
Reformed.  The  Lutheran  church  is  divided 
into  4  superintendenoies  and  subdivided  into 
16  seniorates;  the  Reformed  church  oonMstS 
of  4anperintendenciea,  which  are  divided  into 
6  seniorates.  The  Jews  have  about  500  rabbis 
in  the  entire  monarchy. — Public  education  baa 
been  in  the  course  of  thorough  reorganization 
Mnoe  1848.  In  tlie  Cisleithan  provinces,  it  la 
chiefly  regulated  on  the  baas  of  the  law  of 
May  14,  1869.  The  number  of  common  or 
primary  schools  has  been  steadily  increased, 
until  in  1669  it  was  81,216,  or  one  tor  every 
1,159  inhabitants.  The  common  schot^  are 
of  two  grades.  In  those  of  the  lower  grade 
reading,  writing,  ciphering,  religion,  the  ele- 
ments of  history  and  natunil  history,  singing, 
and  gymnastic  exercises  are  taught;  in  those 
of  the  higher  grade  {SHrfferiehiilm),  composi- 
tion, ari^metic,  gecnnetry,  bookkeeping,  and 
drawing  are  added.  In  1869,  2,852,643  children 
out  of  3,624,296  went  t«  the  common  schools. 
Education  is  compulsory,  and  in  the  Cisleithan 
provinces  children  are  bound  to  attend  school 
from  their  6th  to  their  14th  year.  Nearly  all 
the  children  of  this  age  attended  school  in  1869 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  in  Salzburg,  Sty- 
ria,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia;  but 
in  GfJicia,  Bukowina,  and  Dalmatia,  only  one 
ontof  three  children  received  an  education.  The 
nnmber  of  normal  schools  for  the  education  of 
teachers  was  for  the  whole  empire  about  100. 
The  middle  schools  (MittelielMten)  are  divided 
into  ffymnofien  (colleges),  which  prepare  their 
pupils  for  the  universitiea '  RealiekuUn,  which 
prepare  them  for  the  tacMinical  high  wsbools; 
and  Eealffymnanen,  recently  instituted,  which 
combine  both  courses.  The  monarchy  in  1870 
had  241  gymnasien,  20  realgymnasien,  and  74 
realschulen ;  the  Cisleithan  provinces  9B  gyra- 
nasien,  19  realgymnaiaen,  and  49  realschulen. 
In  1871  Austria  had  7  nniversitiea  (Vienna, 
Prague,  Festh,  Lemberg,  Tnnspruck,  Gratz,  and 
Cracow),  to  which  in  1872  a  new  one  was 
added  at  Klausenburg  in  Transylvania,  and 
8  technical  high  schools  (Teeknitchf  SocA- 
tehuUn),  most  of  which  have  been  recently 
reorganized  so  as  to  comprise  a  nnmber  of 
speoisl  schools.  The  universities  in  1870  had 
707  professors  and  10,677  students;  the  tech- 
nical high  scliools,  265  professors  and  8,010 
students.  To  the  last-mentioned  class  of  in- 
stitutions mav  be  added  2  mining  academies, 
1  agrioultural  academy,  4  commercial  ocad- 
emtee,  and  the  academy  for  commerce  and 
navigation  at  Trieste.  Not  included  in  the 
above  statement  are  a  number  of  special  schools 
for  theology,  for  law  and  political  economy, 
for  surgery,  midwifery,  and  veterinary  sur- 
gei7,  for  commerce,  trade,  and  navigation,  for 
agriculture,  for  mining,  the  art  schools,  the 
schools  for  the  education  of  military  officers, 
and  a  large  nnmber  of  private  schools.  The 
largest  of  the  public  libraries  are  the  imperial 
library  at  Vienna,  numbering  410,000  volumes; 
the  unlver^ty  Ubrary  at  Vienna,  cooUuning  up 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ward  iif  200,000  vols. ;  the  nDireTsity  libraries 
of  Peach,  Cnwow,  and  PraguB;  and  th»t  of  the 
national  iniueum  of  Pesth.  Tb«re  are  many 
miueDms,  cabinets  of  science  and  art,  galleries 
of  paintings,  Ao.,  in  the  prinoipal  oitiee  of  the 
empire.  Beverai  splendid  ooueotiona  belong- 
ing to  private  individnala  are  always  open  to 
tbe  pablio, — Before  184S  the  most  rigoroas 
censorship  rendered  a  well  regulated  pnblio 
prees  an  impoesibilitv.  Boring  tbe  revolatitm 
ID  1848  these  restraints  were  removed,  bnt  in 
1623  a  law  tor  the  regulation  of  the  press 
gsre  the  police  absolute  control  over  the 
pditical  press,  and  reatored  the  censorship 
ID  all  bnt  the  name.  In  ISSS  the  govern- 
ment agtun  fonnd  it  necessary  to  grant  free- 
dom of  the  press;  and  after  the  reorganiiation 
of  the  empire  in  188T,  it  was  again  confirmed 
by  a  law  of  Oot  IS,  1868.  In  1870  there 
were  published  in  Aoatria  18fi  political  newa- 
papers  and  573  non-politieal.  Of  the  former, 
100  are  in  GermBi^l7in  Bohemian,  Ilin  Polish, 
fi  in  other  Slavic  langaages,  11  in  Italian.  Sa  in 
Uiingarian,  4  in  Boomanian,  2  in  Grees,  2  in 
Hebrew,  and  1  in  French ;  of  the  latter,  886  in 
Uerman,  131  in  the  Slavic  lonznages,  20  in  Ital- 
ian, SI  in  Hongariao,  S  in  Koamanian,  8  in 
Hebrew,  1  in  Latin,  and  1  in  French.  Some 
of  the  large  dw!y  papers  published  in  Vi- 
enna and  Trieste  are  among  the  beat  aod 
most  infloential  of  the  continental  jonmols. — 
In  1860  the  number  of  public  hospitals  in  Cis- 
leithan  Austria  was  408;  of  lunatic  asylums 
there  were  IB ;  lying-in  establishments,  18 ; 
toandling  hospitals,  IG ;  inatdtutjons  for  the 
BiuteDanRe  of  old  and  indigent  persons,  079; 
poorhonses,  6,548.  Tbe  number  of  fonndliDgs 
iirovided  for  by  the  government  exceeds  05,000. 
The  immense  hospitals  of  Vienna,  established 
by  Joseph  II.,  are  perhaps  the  best  regulated  in 
the  world.  There  are  bewdes  a  number  of  hos- 
pitals oonneoted  with  the  convents,  where  over 
30,000  persons  Bre  relieved  annualty,  without 
distinction  of  creed  or  nationality.  In  the  mili- 
tary hospitals  181,976  persons  were  received  in 
ISse.  £very  provincial  capital  has  an  imperial 
loan  offlce  for  the  poor,  the  profits  of  which 
are  made  o^er  to  the  treaaury  of  tbe  nlmshoosa 
departtoent. — Tlie  total  value  of  the  mineral 
produce  of  Austria  in  1869  was  set  down  at 
83,410,405  florins  (the  florin  is  equal  to  47 
cents).  Of  this  sum,  mora  than  one  third 
(33,44i},608)  was  the  value  of  the  salt  pro- 
dneed.  The  yield  of  the  gold  mines  in  1669 
was  66,753  oz.,  that  of  the  silver  mines  1,8SS,- 
713  oz.,  that  of  copper  58,967  owt,  of  lead 
103,000  cwt.  The  total  quantity  of  salt  pro- 
duced in  1860  was  as  follows :  rook  salt,  8,872,- 
434  cwt.;  spring  salt,  3,804,828;  sea  salt, 
77,671;  industrial  salt,  861,988.  The  moat 
remarkable  increase  has  taken  place  in  the 
production  of  iron  and  coal.  The  latest  sta- 
tistica,  published  in  1866,  showed  the  produc- 
tion of  raw  or  pig  iron  to  be  6,067,880  cwt., 
and  that  of  oast  iron  763,568,  The  coal  pro- 
duced in  Anstria,  which  in  1838  netted  only 


■BIA  189 

some  4,000,000  owt,  and  in  1654  and  1806  fiill 
80,000,000,  in  1869  reached  146,000,000  cwt. 
— Tbe  Austrian  empire  may,  as  regards  its 
agricnlture,  be  divided  into  four  sections ;  1,  the 
Alpine  countries — Austria  proper,  Salxbnrg, 
Tyrol,  Corniola,  Oarinthia,  Styria,  and  the  Lit- 
torale :  3,  the  eastern  provinces — Hungary,  Cro- 
atia, glavonio,  the  Military  Frontier,  and  Tran- 
sylvania; 8,  the  northern  provinces — Moravia, 
Bohemia,  Silesia,  Ualicia,  and  Bukowina ;  4,  the 
southern  province  of  Dalmatia.  In  the  Alpine 
countriee  the  denrity  of  the  populatjon  compels 
the  farmerto  till  even  the  steepest  hillsides.  The 
narrow  pluns  yield  potatoes,  barley  for  brew- 
ing,  and  fodder;  on  the  sunny  sides  of  tbe 
mountains  the  grape  is  cnltivsted  extensively. 
The  production  of  breadstuffs  in  these  conn- 
tries  is  not  equal  to  the  consumption.  The  agri- 
cultural condition  of  tboee  portions  of  the  east- 
ern provinoee  covered  by  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tuns  is  similar  to  that  of  Che  Alpine  oonntries ; 
bnt  the  scanty  products  of  these  territories  are 
largely  made  np  by  the  surplus  of  the  level 
country,  which,  with  very  few  excepdons,  is 
of  ettroordinary  fertility,  especially  In  the 
river  bottoms.  A  large  portion  of  the  pasture 
land  is  entirely  capable  of  cultivation,  and 
would  be  put  under  plough  but  for  want  of 
labor.  The  most  fertile  re^os,  although  thin- 
ly populated,  prodnoe  a  large  aurplus  for  ex- 
portatitm  to  the  Alpine  countries.  The  ex- 
tensive pastures  ore  used  for  cattle-raising. 
Draught  cattle  are  exported  to  nearly  all  ad- 
joining regions;  beef  cattie  mostly  to  the 
Alpine  provinoea  Hog  fattening  is  carried  on 
npou  a  very  large  scale.  The  Hungarian  wine 
and  tobacco  are  noted  for  their  excellent  qual- 
ity. In  tbe  northern  provinces  but  few  plaoea 
are  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grape.  Mo- 
ravia, belouf^ng  to  the  basin  of  the  Danube, 
has  some  Isi-ge  and  fertile  pldns,  but  Bohemia 
is  hilly  to  a  great  extent,  6itesla  entirely  so, 
while  Qaliola,  descending  as  it  does  &can  the 
Oorpatbians  to  the  courses  of  the  large  streams, 
shows  every  variety  of  formation.  Grain  and 
potatoes  are  the  staple  prodnce  of  these  coun- 
tries, supplying  the  domeetio  demand.  Brew- 
eries, dlatillories,  and  beet  sugar  factories  are 
numerous  in  these  provinces.  The  foliowing 
table  shows  the  area  in  square  miles  of  the 
productive  soil,  and  of  the  arable,  wine,  mea- 
dow, pasture,  and  wood  land,  both  of  tha 
Oisleithan  provinces  and  of  the  entire  matt- 
archy,  hil86»: 


»-^ 

»^,. 

1B,0S0 

iSS 

"sa 

ItCMl 

DiailizedbyGoOgle 


liO  AUS' 

The  Eiggregate  valae  of  the  agrioDltaral  pro- 
duce of  Anstria  won  estimated  !□  1857  bj  Heir 
TOQ  Kleyle,  asustant  Becretar?  of  state,  at 
3,600,000,000  fl.,  and  in  1871  by  Prof.  Brachelli 
at  2,400,000,000  fl.  The  government  of  Fran- 
cis Joseph  haa  endeavored  to  promote  B^cal- 
ture  and  cattle-breeding  by  agricoltural  £aira, 
exhibitions  of  implemeutg,  premiame  for  im- 
proved stock,  the  introduction  of  new  branches 
of  agrioultnre,  and  other  measures;  andpartio- 
nlar  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  American 
improvements  of  agricultural  implements  and 
machinery.  The  culture  of  soma  American 
plants  has  also  been  introduced,  broom  com 
among  others.  The  nnmber  of  horses  in  Aus- 
tria in  1669  was  3,578,613;  of  homed  cattle, 
12,615,312;  of  sheep,  19,006,898;  of  goats, 
1,689,104;  of  swine,  T,051,47S.—AnBtrian  man- 
ufactures, whose  existence  may  be  said  to  date 
only  teom  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.,  are  now 
striving  to  rival  those  of  every  other  European 
nation,  Endand  excepted.  The  number  of 
hands  employed  in  the  mannfitctaring  estab- 
lishments in  1869  was  2,278,31fl;  the  valne 
of  their  annnal  produce.  1,600,000,000  fl.  Of 
this  sum,  80,000,000  fl.  is  the  estimated  valne 
of  the  iron  war&  60,000,000  that  of  chemical 
preparations,  and  20,000,000  that  of  ^assware 
and  looking  glasses  feqnal  in  quality  to  the 
French).  Hemp  and  flax  are  maDuftictiired 
Into  goods  worth  160,000,000  fl.  The  value  of 
the  woollen  &brics  is  upward  of  140,000,000  fl. 
The  number  of  cotton  spindles  in  Austria  in 
1870  was  1,081,000;  the  total  value  of  cotton 
goods  produced,  120,000,000  fl.  The  quantity 
of  cotton  manufactured  in  Austria  in  1850  was 
five  times  aa  large  BS  in  1831,  Since  then  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry  has  been 
comparatively  slow.  The  monntactnre  of  to- 
bacco is  monopolized  by  the  government  (the 
monopoly  having  been  extended  over  Hungary, 
which  formerly  was  excepted  from  it,  in  1860). 
The  most  Dnmeroos  and  extensive  industrial 
establishments  are  in  Austria  proper  fchiefly  in 
Vienna)  and  Bohemia,  the  fewest  ana  smallest 
in  Dalmatia  and  the  Military  Frontier.  There 
arethreeprincipaloentresof industry:  Vienna, 
for  the  manufoDture  of  all  oljects  of  luxury 
and  murit^  instroments ;  Uoravia,  Silesia,  and 
Bohemia,  for  linen  and  woollen  fabrics  and 
glassware;  Styria and Carinthia, for  iron  goods 
and  hardware.  The  government  endeavors  lo 
promote  the  growth  of  Austrian  industry  by 
establishing  schools  of  mechanical  arts,  trade 
nnions,  industrial  exhibitions,  dec.  In  order  to 
encourage  inventors,  the  patent  laws  were  en- 
tirely remodelled  in  1862. — The  commerce  of 
Austria  lias  since  1616  gradually  grown  into 
importance,  although  crippled  until  1860  by  a 
prohibitory  tariff,  and  by  the  political  organi- 
zation of  the  emjiire,  being  at  that  time  merely 
a  dynastic  union  of  diflerent  states,  rendering 
the  provincial  boondaiy  lines  so  many  bar- 
riers against  internal  intercourse.  At  an  early 
period  the  Austrian  government  took  care  to 
iipread  a  perfect  network  of  excellent  commer- 


cial roads  over  the  whole  empire.  The  roads 
over  the  Alps,  the  Stilfaer  Jooh,  the  SplQgen, 
the  Semmering,  and  others,  arejustiy  counted 
among  tlie  most  remarkable  works  of  modem 
tunes.  The  first  railway  in  Germany  was  built 
on  Austrian  territory,  connecting  Budweis  and 
Ijnz  (1832).  The  aggregate  length  of  railroads 
(inclusive  of  horse  railroads),  on  Jan.  1,  1871, 
was  6,824  m.  Telegraph  lines  have  been  con- 
structed In  all  directions.  In  1870  there  were 
in  Austria  16,664  m.  of  electro-magnetic  tele- 
graph, with  an  aggregate  length  of  wires  of 
B0,876m.  Thennmberofpostofficesinall Aus- 
tria was  4,767.  The  most  important  canal  for 
commerce  is  the  emperor  Francis's  canal,  con- 
necting the  Banube  and  Theisa,  and  saving  a 
circuit  of  220  m.  On  July  1,  1861,  the  customs 
line  between  Austria  proper  and  Hungary  was 
abolished;  on  Feb.  1,  1862,  a  new  tariff  was 
published,  by  which  the  protective  system  was 
introduced  in  lieu  of  the  previous  prohibition, 
which  was  now  limited  to  three  articles  of  gov- 
ernment monopoly,  viz.,  salt,  gunpowder,  and 
tobacco.  In  1862  the  river  duties  on  the  Elbe, 
Fo,  and  Danube  were  abolisbed.  A  postal 
union  was  concluded  with  most  of  the  German 
states  in  1860,  and  was  followed  in  185S  by  a 
commercial  treaty  between  Austria  and  the 
German  Zollverein.  On  April  11,  1865,  s  new 
customs  and  commercial  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  German  Zollverein,  which,  by  con- 
riderable  reduction  of  duties  and  the  establish- 
ment of  uniformity  of  regnlationg,  greatly  in- 
creased the  commerce  cf  Austria  with  the 
states  of  the  Zollverein.  Other  Important 
commercial  treaties  were  concluded  with  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  Perna  (1867),  Turkey 
(1862),  Great  Britain  (1866  and  1869),  France 
(1806),  Belgium  (1867),  the  Netherlands  (1867), 
Italy  (1867),  the  states  represented  in  the  Ger- 
man Zoll  parhament  (1868),  and  Switzerland 
(1868).  Chambers  of  commeroe  and  industry 
were  introduced  in  Austria  in  1860.  Their 
rights  and  JHmctions  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces 
were  regulated  by  the  law  of  June  29,  1868. 
In  1871  there  were  in  Gisleithtui  Austria  42 
chambers.  According  to  a  treaty  concluded 
in  1867  between  the  governments  of  Oislei- 
tJiania  and  Hungary,  both  these  diviwons  of 
the  empire  constitute  with  regard  to  eustonn 
and  commercial  int«rcour8e  one  territory,  en 
circled  by  one  customs  boundary  line,  from 
which  are  only  excluded  Dalmatia,  which  con- 
stitutes a  customs  territory  by  itself,  letria  and 
the  Quamero  islands,  the  free  ports  of  Trieste, 
Buccari,  Zengg,  Portor^  Corlopogo,  the  town 
of  Brody  in  Galicia,  and  the  commune  of  Jung- 
holz  in  Tyrol.  The  commercial  intercourse 
between  the  two  divisions  according  to  this 
treaty  is  entirely  free,  and  the  goods  carried 
from  the  one  into  the  other  can  be  subjected  to 
only  those  burdens  which  may  be  imposed  up- 
on the  products  of  the  producing  division  itaelf. 
All  treaties  with  foreignpowers  regulating  com- 
mercial relations  ftre  concluded  by  the  imperial 
govenmient  for  both  divisions  of  the  empire. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Among  the  large  monejed  inBtituHoiu  the 
Anstrian  nationiu  bank  of  Vienna  (sBtablished 
in  1816)  maintains  the  highest  rank,  although 
its  importance  is  much  more  dne  to  itd  inti- 
mate conaeotion  with  tlie  financial  adminis- 
tration of  the  empire  than  to  its  nommercial 
transoctiona.  In  1669  it  had  23  branches,  nine 
of  which  were  in  the  lands  of  the  Hnngarian 
crown.  A  most  powerfnl  institnlion  is  the 
Anstrian  Lloyd,  at  Trieste,  a  joint^stock  oom- 
pan;  established  by  Von  Brack  in  183S,  and 
onrivftlled  in  the  Tariety  of  ita  ent«rprisoB.  It 
is  divided  into  three  sections:  one  devoted  to 
the  insnrance  bnsiness  and  the  coUectioa  of 
statistics  for  the  maritima  trade,  the  aeoond 
(estfthlished  in  1S6T)  to  oceon-steamsliip  navi- 
gation, the  third  (established  in  184B)  to  the 
promolnon  of  literatare  and  art.  This  company 
Das  gradually  been  developed  into  pgantic  pro- 
portions, almost  monopolizing  the  Levant  trade 
on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Mediterranean, 
It  has  established  regular  steamship  lines  be- 
tween Trieste  and  almost  every  port  on  the 
Adriatic,  jEgeau,  and  Biack  seas.  The  nnmber 
of  its  steamship  in  1853  was  60;  in  18T0,  TO. 
Another  great  institution  is  the  Danube  steam 
navigation  company.  The  first  river  steamboat 
in  Surope  built  on  the  American  pattern  was 
built  for  this  company  in  1854.  Early  in  1869 
the  0«ii(-j(n«(iii(  at  Vienna,  an  imitation  of  the 
Paxie  loeiitiiU  eriditmobilitr,  went  into  opera- 
tion, the  sabscription  to  its  stock  having  reach- 
ed the  enormous  amount  of  040,000,000  flor- 
ins, or  npward  of  $900,000,000 ;  but  the  strong 
impulse  given  by  this  institution  to  speculation 
and  stock-jobbing  led  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1837  to  a  violent  financial  revolsion.  An 
extraordinary  impulse  was  ^ven  to  the  devel- 
opment of  large  moneyed  institations  in  1862 
and  the  following  years.  The  StatutUcha 
JoArhueh  fur  da»  Jahr  1870  (Vienna,  1872) 
enumerates  44  institutions  of  this  kind  in  the 
Gisleithon  provinces,  all  of  which,  with  the 
exception  of  five,  were  established  after  1863, 
and  no  fewer  than  21  in  1869.  The  aggregate 
paid-ap  capital  of  these  iDstitntions  amounted 
in  1870  to  231,800,000  florins.  The  following 
institations  hod  the  largest  capital :  Austrian 
National  bank,  90,000,000  fl. ;  Austrian  Credit 
InstitntioQ,  40,000,000;  Austrian  Land  Credit 
Institution  (esUblished  in  1864),  9,000  000; 
Anglo-Austnan  bank  (1863),  14, 000, 000  \  Fran- 
co-Austrian bank  (1869),  8,000,000;  Anstro- 
Egyptian  bank  (1869)^,000,000;  Union  bonk 
(1870),  12,000,000.  The  nnmber  of  savings 
banks  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces  at  the  close 
of  1870  was  184^with  deposits  amounting  to 
285,800,000  fl.  The  total  value  of  the  com- 
mercial movement  of  Austria  (exclusive  of 
preciona  metals)  in  1670  b  shown  as  follows : 


lmp«l^ 

Eipom. 

""!-. 

oJSSl^irilory  if  jJiteiai 

ttiTC»,OOI) 

MA  141 

In  1869  the  imports  into  Austria  ftom  the  Ger- 
man states  represented  a  value  of  801,900,000 
fl. ;  the  exports  froia  Austria  into  Uie  German 
states,  241,000,000  fl.— The  development  of  the 
shipping  of  Austria  since  1841  is  sbown  by  the 
following  table : 


YEARS. 

V«l^ 

t™. 

lU..    ' 

S.BT4 

7,Stt 

t1B.WS 

as 

ti,m 

*a,»M 

Of  these  6,767,  carrying  267,134  tons,  were 
ocean  vessels;  91,  carrying  49,977  tons,  and 
17,749  horse  power,  steamships.  The  appar- 
ent decrease  daring  the  perii>d  from  1866  to 
1871  is  dne  to  the  loss  of  tae  Italian  provinces. 
la  1870  the  maritime  oonmiorce  of  Trieste 
amounted  to  226,290,000  fl.,  viz. :  imports, 
125,870,000;  exiwHfl,  100,420,000.  Trieste  is 
by  &r  the  most  Important  seaport  of  Austria, 
and,  besides  MarBeiUea,  perhaps  the  only  one 
on  the  European  continent  which  bos  advanced 
at  a  very  remarkable  rate.  The  following  ta- 
ble shows  the  most  important  among  the  other 
ports  of  the  empire : 


ro«n. 

■Mrt-  \m  1M*. 

T«. 

**'81 

lOMW 

^The  fundamental  law  which  divides  the  mon- 
archy into  two  states  or  dlviwons  bears  the 
date  of  Dec.  21,  1867.  According  to  this  law, 
each  of  the  two  divisions  (the  "  countries  repre- 
sented in  the  Reichsrath  "  and  the  "  conntries 
of  the  Hungarian  orown")  has  its  own  consd- 
totion,  but  they  are  united  under  the  same 
monarchy  and  have  in  common  an  imperial 
ministry  (ReiektminUterium)  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  those  affEurs  which  have  been  oon- 
stitntionally  defined  as  common  to  both  parts 
of  the  empire.  Such  are  the  foreign  affdr^ 
nearly  the  whole  department  of  war,  incln- 
dve  of  the  navy,  and  the  finances  of  the  joint 
monarchy.  Several  other  subjects,  though  not 
defined  as  common  afiairs,  are  to  be  equally 
treated  according  to  principles  from  time  to 
time  agreed  npon  by  the  two  legislatures.  In 
this  class  belongs  legislation  on  duties,  on  cer- 
tain indirect  taxes,  and  on  railways  in  which 
both  divisions  are  interested.  For  the  conn- 
tries  represented  in  the  Keichsrath  the  fol- 
lowing fundamental  laws  are  specially  recog> 
nizcd  as  valid  :  1,  the  "  Pragmatic  Sanction  " 
of  the  emperor  Charies  VI.  of  Dec.  6,  1724, 
which  regulates  the  order  of  snooeBsIon  and  de- 
clares the  indivisibility  of  the  empire ;  2,  ths 
diploma  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  of  Oct.  20,  1860, 
which  introduces  the  constitutional  form  of 
government ;  8,  the  fdx  ftindamentat  laws  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


142  ads: 

Dec.  21,  1667,  regnlating  the  representatioa  of 
tie  people,  defining  the  ^neral  rig-hts  of  oili- 
ceiu,  the  judicial,  adrainiBtrative,  and  eseoa- 
tive  power.  Bud  appointing  an  imperial  court 
fjieiehtgerieht).  The  Aastro-Hung&rian  mon- 
arcby  is  an  empire  hereditary  io  the  Hapaburg- 
Lorrune  dynasty.  After  the  entire  eitinotion 
of  the  male  line,  the  crona  ma;  be  inherited 
by  female  descendants.  The  emperor  attains 
his  m^ority  whea  18  yeare  old,  and  moBt  be- 
long to  the  Soman  Catholic  charch.  On  en- 
tering upon  the  government,  he  mast  take  an 
oath  to  support  the  constitution.  He  is  ad- 
dressed as  imperial  and  royal  apoetolical  ma- 
jesty, and  has  three  different  titles,  the  short- 
eat  of  which  is  emperor  of  Austria,  king  of 
Bohemia,  &o.,  and  apostolical  king  of  Hun- 
gary. The  emperor  shares  the  lenslative 
power  with  the  representative  assemblies  of 
CLsleitbania  and  of  Himgary,  and  with  the 
proviooial  diets.  Without  the  consent  of  these 
Dodies  no  law  can  be  made,  altered,  or  abol- 
ished. With  regard  to  the  aSUrs  common  to 
the  whole  empire,  the  Austrian  Beiobsrath 
and  the  Hungarian  diet  exercise  their  legisla- 
tive rights  through  two  delegations,  consisting 
each  of  60  members,  one  third  chosen  from  the 
upper  and  two  thirds  from  the  lower  house. 
The  delegations  serve  only  one  year,  and  meet 
alternately  at  Vienna  and  at  Pesth.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  imperial  ministry  for  the  common 
affairs  of  the  empire,  namely,  the  ministers 
of  foreign  affairs,  of  war,  and  of  the  imperial 
finances,  are  responsible  to  the  delegations. 
The  Reichsrath  of  the  Cisleithan  provinces 
consists  of  a  boose  of  lords  (Serrenhava)  and  a 
house  of  depoties  (AbgeordntUn-Hav*).  The 
upper  house  embraces  all  imperial  princes  who 
are  of  age,  the  chiefe  of  a  number  of  noble 
families  who  have  been  declared  hereditary 
members  of  the  house,  all  the  archbishops  and 

Srinoe- bishops,  and  an  unlimited  number  of 
istinguished  men  whom  the  emperor  may  ap- 
point as  life  meml>erB.  The  house  of  deputies 
m  18T2  consisted  of  308  members,  chosen  bj 
the  provincial  diets  from  their  own  members 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  Tlieir  term  ceases 
sooner,  however,  if  they  cease  to  l>e  members 
of  the  provincial  diet  If  a  provincial  diet 
does  not  send  delegates  to  the  Geichsratli, 
the  emperor  has  the  right  to  order  direct  elec- 
tions. The  provincial  diets  exercise  a  legisla- 
tive right  with  regard  to  subjects  which  have 
not  expressly  been  reserved  for  the  Reichsrath. 
These  diets  consist  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  tlie  province,  of  the  rector  of  the 
university,  and  o!  delegates  chosen  by  the  hold- 
ers of  large  estates,  by  towns  and  oUier  places, 
by  the  chambers  of  commerce  and  industry, 
and  by  the  rural  communities.  Roth  the 
Reichsrath  and  the  provincial  diets  are  con- 
voked annually.  The  ministers  of  C^sleithania 
are  responsible  to  the  Reichsrath,  which  may 
impeach  them.    The  decision  in  such  a  case  is 

E'ven  by  a  special  state  court  organised  by  the 
eichsratli.    Every  citizen  80  years  of  age  is 


eligible  to  the  provincial  diet,  bat  the  right  of 
voting  is  made  contingent  on  the  payment  of 
a  tax,  the  amount  of  which  is  fixed  by  law. 
The  partioular  ministry  of  Cisleithania  con- 
sists of  seven  sections,  namely:  interior,  wor- 
ship and  edncation,  commerce,  agriculture,  the 
defence  of  the  oonntry,  justice,  and  finances. 
The  provinces  or  crown  lands  are  governed  by 
governors  (3tatthfalt»T),.QT  provincial  premdents 
(LandefprSridenten).  Mnnioipal  officers  are 
elected  m  accordance  with  the  imperial  law  of 
March  ti,  1863,  by  citizens  possessing  a  cer- 
tun  amount  of  property  and  paying  a  certain 
amount  of  taxes.  The  administration  of  jus- 
tice was  reorganized  in  18S1,  and  again  by  the 
fundamental  laws  of  1867.  All  privileged  ju- 
risdiction has  been  entirety  almhshed.  There 
are  three  degrees  of  jurisdiction.  The  district 
comts  and  district  collegiate  courts  (694  in 
1869)  have  original  jarisdiction  in  civil  suits 
np  to  a  certun  value,  and  in  petty  criminal 


jurisdiction  in  all  other  civil  cases  and  in  all 
criminal  cases;  they  have  also  appellate  juris- 
diction in  cases  tried  by  the  district  courts. 
Ofi*enoes  of  the  press  are,  according  to  the  law 
ofMarchQ,  1869,  tried  by  juries.  The  provin- 
cial courts  lOberiaftde»geri^U),  of  whicn  there 
are  9  in  Cisleithania,  are  the  courts  of  last  re- 
sort for  cases  tried  by  the  district  courts,  and  of 
second  resort  for  civil  cases  tried  by  the  county 
courts.  The  highest  tribunal  of  the  monarchy 
is  the  court  of  appeals  {Obenter  OerichU'  vnd 
Cauatimuho/),  at  Vienna.  Tlie  civil  law  is  ad- 
ministered according  to  the  code  of  1811.  The 
criminal  code  of  1804  was  amended  in  1852. 
The  number  of  persons  sentenced  for  crime 
in  Cisleithan  Austria  in  1869  was  26,666,  or  1 
for  every  787  of  the  population. — The  finances 
have  at  bU  times  been  the  sore  point  of  the 
Austrian  administration.    Having  been  utterly 

S rostrated  by  the  Napoiaonio  wars,  their  con- 
ition  was  slowly  improving  when  the  revoln- 
tions  of  1848,  and  the  consequent  wars  in  Italy 
and  Hungary,  again  brought  Austria  near  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy.  The  government  pKper 
currency  fell  some  20  per  cent  below  par.  i  hf 
prospect  had  begun  to  brighten  when  the  east- 
em  war  and  the  pontion  of  armed  nentralitj 
maintuned  by  Austria  once  more  destroyed 
every  hope  of  bringing  the  income  and  the  ex- 

Snditure  to  balance  each  other.    The  income 
s  been  steadily  increasing,  but  so  has  the 
expenditure.    By  keeping  a  separate  aoooont 


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of  the  "extraordinary  eipenditure,"  the  Aus- 
triui  government  argana  showed  an  apparent 
improTement  of  the  financial  condition,  but 
this  was  an  illusion.  The  foregoing  table 
sbowe  the  eiceaa  of  expenditures  over  re- 
ceipts in  some  of  the  jears  fuUowing  the 
revolatiooapr  movements  of  1848.  Since  the 
reorganizatioD  of  the  empire  in  ISfiT,  there 
are  separate  budgets  for  the  common  al&irs 
of  the  whole  empire  and  for  each  of  the 
two  large  divisions.  In  the  budget  for  1872 
the  amoont  needed  for  the  common  affairs  of 
the  empire  is  estimated  at  110,647,498  florins, 
of  which  BG,]65,O0T  were  to  be  devoted  to 
the  anny  and  ll,SS4j690  to  the  narj.  From 
the  receipts  of  the  mraistry  of  war,  Uie  excess 
of  duties,  and  the  incomes  of  the  consnlat«s, 
17,208,883  were  to  be  obtained;  of  the  balance, 
93,488,616,  the  Cisleithan  provinceB  were  to 
ftinush  06,143,409,  and  the  Transleithan  prov- 
inces 28,293,213.  The  hadget  of  the  coontries 
reprBBented  in  the  Roichsrath  for  1871  fixes 
the  revenue  at  338,084,609,  the  Urgest  items 
bemg  80,300,000  from  direct  taxes,  187,078,646 
from  indirect  taxes,  33,461,068  from  the  state 
dom^  and  from  state  institntions.  The  ex- 
penses were  to  amount  to  849,611,643  fl. 
(99,984,711  fl.  interest  on  the  public  debt). 
Thns  there  wonld  again  be  a  deficit  of  11,727,- 
033.  The  consolidated  debt  of  Austna  on 
Dec.  31,  1870,  amounted  to  2,673,733,402  fl. ; 
the  entire  debt  to  2,693,269,691,  being  an  in- 
crease over  1869  of  3,000,000  fl.  The  aggre- 
gate debt  of  the  provinces  amounted  in  Jane, 
1670,  to  243,979,690  fl.— The  army  of  the  en- 
tire monarchy  was  reorganized  i»  1868.  Ac- 
cording to  the  new  regulations  the  liability  to 
military  service  is  universal,  b^ins  with  the 
completion  of  the  20th  year,  and  moat  he  ren- 
dsrad  personally.  The  army  is  divided  into 
the  standing  array,  the  navy,  the  landwehr, 
the  reserve,  and  the  landsturra.  In  the  Cislei- 
than  provinces  military  dntj  lasts  10  years  (8 

CLTS  in  the  line,  7  in  the  reserve).  In  the 
dwehr  those  who  have  been  in  the  line  and 
in  the  reserve  have  to  remain  2,  all  others  IS 
years.  The  standing  army  and  the  navy  are 
placed  under  the  imperial  minister  of  war  for 
the  common  afiyrs  of  the  empire;  the  land- 
wehr and  the  landatnrm  (which  is  to  com- 
priw  all  men  capable  of  doing  military  duty 
aotil  the  60th  year  of  age,  but  was  not  yet 
generally  organized  in  1671)  are  in  each  divi- 
sion of  the  empire  placed  under  the  minister 
for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  standing 
army  numbered  in  August,  1871,  264,041  men 
on  the  peace  footing;  in  time  of  war  the  army, 
inclndins  the  reserve,  would  number  820,811 
men;  while  the  landwehr  nnmbered  in  addi- 
tion 219,471  men.  The  subdivisions  are:  1. 
Infantry:  80regimentaof  the  line,  14  regiments 
of  frontier  men,  1  r^ment  of  Tyrol  riflemen, 
33  battalions  of  rifiemen.  2.  Cavalry:  14  regi- 
ments of  dragoons,  13  regiments  of  uhlans,  14 
regiments  of  hussars.  8.  Artillery:  IS  regi- 
menta  of  field  artillery,  12  battaUons  of  for- 


62 


-10 


nilA  143 

tress  artillery.  4.  Two  regiments  of  engineers 
and  one  regiment  of  pioneers.  6.  Five  corps 
for  military  transportation.  Among  the  foi^ 
tresses  of  Aastria,  Comom,  Olmlltz,  Peterwar- 
dein,  and  Temesvar  are  the  strongest.  The 
best  naval  ports  are  Pola,  Trieste,  and  Cattaro. 
The  Austnaa  navy  in  1871  consisted  of  47 
steamers,  among  which  were  11  ironclads,  20 
sailing  vessels,  and  6  tenders;  in  all  72  vessels, 
carrying  622  guns.  The  corps  of  naval  officers 
embraces  2  vice  admirals,  6  rear  admirals,  16 
captains  of  ships  of  the  line,  17  captains  of  frig- 
ates, and  18  captains  of  corvettes. — The  present 
archduchy  of  Austria,  anciently  inhabited  by 
the  Oeltic  tril>e  of  the  Tanrisci,  afterward  called 
Norici,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  in  14 
B.  C.  During  the  first  oenturies  of  the  Chria- 
tian  era  that  portion  of  Austria  north  of  the 
Danube  beloi^ed  to  the  possessions  of  th« 
Marcomanni  and  Quad! ;  part  of  Lower  Austria 
and  Btyria,  including  the  municipium  of  Vin- 
dobona  (Vienna),  to  Ponnonia;  the  rest  of 
Lower  Austria  and  Styria,  with  Carinthia  and 
part  of  Oarniola,  to  Noricum;  Tyrol  to  Hhielia. 
Atler  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  the  river 
Enns  constituted  the  boundary  between  the 
Teutonic  nation  of  the  Boioarii  (Bavarians)  and 
the  Turanian  Avars.  Charlemagne  annexed 
the  country  of  the  Avon  to  the  German  em- 
pire in  791.  It  was  then  called  Avaria  or  Mar- 
chia  Orientalis  (eastern  territory),  and  subse- 
quently Austria,  constituting  since  848  the 
easternmost  district  of  Germany.  Having  been 
conquered  by  the  Magyars  in  900,  it  was  nlti- 
mately  reannexed  to  Germany  by  Otho  I.  in 
966.  In  988  Leopold  of  Babenberg  was  ap- 
pointed margrave  of  Anstria.  His  dynasty  re* 
mained  in  possesNon  for  268  years,  adding 
largely  to  it«  territory  by  the  annexation  of 
6tyria  and  Camiola,  by  conquests  from  the 
Slavic  tribes,  and  by  inheritance.  Under  the 
reign  of  Henry  Jasomirgott  Austria  was  erected 
into  a  hereditary  dachy  in  1166.  On  the  death 
of  Frederick  JI.,  the  last  of  the  Babenberg  dy- 
nasty (1246),  the  German  emperor  Frederick  II. 
claimed  Austria  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  imperial 
crown.  Bntneitherhe  nor  his  son  Conrad  IV. 
succeeded  in  establishing  his  authority,  and  in 
1261  the  Anstrion  states  elected  Ottocar,  sec- 
ond sou  of  the  Bohemian  king  Wenceslas,  dnka 
of  Austria  and  Styria.  Having  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  as  German 
emperor,  Ottocar  was  defeated  by  him  in  1276, 
and  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  victor  all  his 
possessions  except  those  belon^ng  to  the  Bohe- 
mian crown.  From  that  time  up  to  the  present 
day  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  whose  original  pos- 
sessions were  in  Switzerland,  has  ruled  in  Aus- 
tria. Rudolph's  son  and  successor  Albert  ob- 
tained in  1801  the  Swabian  margraviate.  At 
his  death  in  1308  Aastria  had  already  an  area 
of  26,000  sq.  m.  Of  his  five  sons,  I^opold  was 
defeated  at  Horgarten  in  1816,  while  attempt- 
ing to  resubdue  the  revolted  Swiss  cantons, 
and  Frederick  III.,  sumamed  the  Handsome, 
waa  vanquished  by  Louis  tte  Bavarian  in  his 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


144  aub: 

fight  for  the  imperial  crown  in  18S3.  The  pos- 
aeasionB  of  their  honae,  which  were  divided  by 
them,  were  finally  nnited  in  the  hands  of  the 
fourth  brother,  Alb«rt  II.  Bnt  another  divi- 
sion took  place  among  the  heirs  of  the  latter, 
when  Albert  III,  got  Aoatria  proper,  and  Leo- 
pold all  the  resL  Leopold  waa  alajn  in  battle 
against  the  Swiss  at  Sempach  in  1886,  bnt  his 
desoendanta  remained  in  poHesuon  of  Styria, 
and  inherited  the  duchy  of  Austria  in  146T, 
when  Albert's  line  became  extinct.  Frederick 
IV.  of  Aastria,  having  been  elected  Oerman 
emperor,  elevated  Aastria  to  the  rank  of  an 
arcndnchy.  Hit  son  Maximilian  I^  who  nio- 
eeeded  him  in  14S3,  obt^ed  the  Netherlands 
bj  marrying  Mary,  the  heiress  of  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Borgrmdy,  and  Tyrol  by  inheritance  ; 
uid  by  marrying  his  son  Philip  to  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  brought  the 
Hapsbni^  fiunily  apon  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Phuip^s  son,  Ohsrleg  I.  of  Spain,  became,  nnder 
tiie  nunc  of  Charles  V.,  Gennan  emperor  in 
1619.  In  1G20  and  1621  the  latter  oeded  the 
Anatrian  poasessions  to  bis  brother  Ferdinand 
L,  who  siii>sequentJyal90  encoeeded  him  in  the 
empire.  Ferdinand  obt^ned  tbe  kingdoms  of 
Hnngory  and  Bohemia  as  eacceasor,  by  family 
treaties  as  well  as  elections,  to  his  brother-in- 
law,  King  Louis  II.,  who  fell  in  the  disastrons 
battle  of  Mob&cs  against  the  Turks  (1626). 
Thns  elevated  to  the  rank  of  one  of  the  great 
European  powers,  the  honse  of  Aastria  po»- 
sessed  an  ares  of  114,000  sq.  m.  But  the  pos- 
session of  Hungary  waa  not  undisputed.  John 
Zapolya,  waywode  of  Transylvania,  wded  by  the 
Turka,  tried  to  wrest  the  crown  of  8t.  Stephen 
from  Ferdinand ;  and  in  1629  Sultan  Solyman 
had  already  invested  Vienna,  when  the  pmdent 
generalship  of  Ooont  Salm  compelled  him  to 
retire.  By  a  treaty  concluded  in  I6S8,  Zdpolya 
got  eastern  Hungary  and  tbe  title  of  king, 
while  the  possession  of  Transylvania  was  guar- 
anteed to  bis  descendants.  Even  afler  Zfipol- 
ya's  death  (1S40)  Ferdinand  ooald  re£ot«r  into 
possession  of  lower  Eungary  only  by  paying  an 
annnal  tribute  of  80,000  dueata  to  the  Turks. 
The  war  with  the  latter  had  soon  to  be  re- 
newed, however,  and  Hungary  remained  a  bat^ 
tlefield  for  more  than  a  century.  (See  Hun- 
OABT.)  In  1664  Austria  was  once  more  divid- 
ed among  Ferdinand's  sons,  Maximilian  II. 
(German  emperor  1664-'T6)  obtaining  Lower 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia;  Ferdinand, 
Tyrol  and  Upper  Austria;  Charles,  Btyria,  Oa- 
rinthia,  Camiola,  and  GOrz.  The  final  reunion 
took  place  about  100  years  later.  Bndolph  II., 
SDCceBsor  to  his  father  Maximilian  (16T6-1612), 
one  of  the  feeblest  and  worst  emperors  Ger- 
many ever  bad,  was  compelled  to  cede  Bo- 
hemia, Hungary,  and  Austria  to  his  brother 
Matthias,  under  whose  reign  (1612-'19)  the  80 
years'  war  originated,  by  the  revolt  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Protestants  against  the  Hapshnrg  dy- 
nasty. Ferdinand  11.  of  Styria,  congin  of  Mat- 
thias (emperor  161  B-'3T),  having  defeated  the 
rival  king  elected  by  the  Bohemians,  Frederick 


of  the  Palatinate  (1G20),  led  a  war  of  exter- 
mination against  the  ProtestanEa  of  Bohemia 
and  Moravia,  expelled  them  by  thoneands  from 
hia  dominions,  and  annulled  all  ancient  privi- 
leges of  the  Btat«s.  In  the  course  of  the  war, 
Ferdinand,  shortly  aller  the  aasassLnation  of 
Wallenstein,  was  compelled  to  cede  LnsalJa 
to  Saxony  (1635).  Ferdinand  III,  (163T-'6'0 
brought  the  war  to  an  end  by  tbe  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648).  His  son,  Leopold  I.  (1667 
-17CIC),  by  his  miamle  drove  the  Hungarians 
into  alliance  with  the  Turks.  In  1683  Kara 
Hustapha  bedeged  Viemia,  which  was  saved 
only  by  the  timely  arrival  of  a  Polish  army, 
led  by  John  Sobieski.  Leopold's  armies  hav- 
ing reconquered  Hungary,  it  was  converted 
from  an  elective  kingdom  into  en  hereditary 
one  (1687).  Transylvania,  too,  was  occupied. 
In  1B99  Turkey,  defeated  in  many  sangmnory 
battles  by  Prince  Eugene,  ceded,  by  tbe  peace 
of  Oarlovitz,  the  coontrj  between  the  Dannbe 
and  Theiss  rivers  to  Austria.  Leopold's  deogn 
to  obtain  the  sncoeseion  in  Spun  for  his  second 
son,  Charles,  was  frustrated  by  the  diplomacy 
of  Lotus  XIV.  of  France.  This  occasioned,  on 
the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  (ITOO),  the 
war  of  tbe  Spanish  succesfflon,  in  which  Eng- 
land, the  Netherlands,  Portugal,  and  Bavoy 
took  sides  with  the  emperor  against  France, 
while  Louis  XIV,  was  aided  by  a  powerful  in- 
surrection in  Hungary,  under  R&k6czy.  The 
victories  of  Engene  and  Marlborough  rendered 
suooeas  certain  when,  by  the  death  of  Leopold 
and  of  bis  eldest  son  Joseph  1.  (1711).  his 
brother  Charles  became  mwiarch  of  Austria. 
The  allies,  fearing  the  preponderance  of  Ans- 
tria  if  the  crowns  of  Spain,  Naples,  and  Ger- 
many should  be  united  again,  desisted  from 
their  efibrta  agtdnst  France,  and  a  peace  was 
conclnded  at  Utrecht  in  ITIS,  by  which  tbe 
Spanish  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sar- 
dmia  (exchanged  for  Sicily  in  1720)  fell  to  Aus- 
tria, while  Philip  of  Ai^ou,  grandson  of  Looia 
XIV.,  was  acknowledged  as  king  of  Spain. 
By  this  treaty  theorea of  Austria  was  increased 
to  191,000  sq.  m.  The  treaty  of  Passarowits 
(1718)  aecured  new  advantages  on  the  Turkish 
border.  Having  once  more  waged  war  with 
France  and  Spain,  Charles  VI.  lost  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  a  portion  of  Milan  (1TS6);  while 
the  peace  of  Belgrade  (1739)  deprived  him  of 
neany  all  the  fmita  of  Prince  Eugene's  vic- 
tories over  the  Turks.  All  these  sacrifices 
Charles  consented  to,  principally  ft'om  a  de^ra 
to  obtain  the  general  recognition  of  the  so- 
called  "pragmatic  sanction,"  by  which  hia 
daught«r,  Maria  Theresa,  was  declared  the 
heiress  of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  Yet,  im- 
mediately after  his  death  (1740),  her  right 
of  snocesraon  was  contested   by  the  leading  - 

gDwers,  England  excepted.  Frederick  11.  of 
mssia  seized  Silesia,  which  formed  a  part  of 
the  Bohemian  dominions  of  Austria,  and  the 
electorof  Bavaria  assumed  the  title  of  archdnke 
of  Austria,  and  was  elected  German  emperor, 
under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.  (1743).    Noth- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


Ing  bnt  the  fldeUt;  of  the  HnngariBiu  saved 
Maxm  TbeKBO.  Bj  the  treatiea  of  Brealaa 
and  Dreaden  (lT4a  aitd  1745),  Blue  reBimed  her 
cluma  to  Silesia;  by  that  of  Aix-IO'ChapeUe 
(1748),  to  Parma,  Piacenza,  Gnastalla,  and  part 
at  Milan.  In  the  mean  time  the  emperor 
Charles  VH.  had  died  (1745),  and  MarU  The- 
reea'e  bnsband,  Francis  Stephen,  grand  duke 
of  Tnscanjr,  beloo^g  to  the  daoal  familj  of 
Lorraine,  had  been  elected  Oennan  emperor, 
ai  Francis  I.  In  order  to  get  Silena  back  from 
Pnuria,  Haria  Theresa  conspired  with  France, 
Bassio,  Saxon;,  and  Sweden  agwnet  Frede- 
rick ;  bnt  the  seven  years'  war,  in  which  Fred- 
erick covered  himself  with  glory,  reaolted  only 
in  the  reaffirmation  of  the  §tatui  qu«.  Francis, 
who  died  in  1765,  wassncceeded  aa  emperor  by 
his  son  Joseph  IL,  who  in  Austria  acted  only  as 
aeaietaiit  regent  until  the  death  of  his  mo^er 
(1780).  Daring  this  period  east«rn  Qalicia  oaA 
Lodomeria  were  taken  forcibly  from  Poland 
(1773),  the  Bakowina  was  obtained  from  Tnr- 
key  ^1777),  and  some  smaller  possessions  were 
acquired  in  Germany  by  the  peace  of  Teschen 
(1770),  increaung  t^e  Aostrian  d<HninionB 
ahogethertoanareaof  28S,T41  sq.  m.  Joseph 
II.,  reversing  the  traditional  policy  of  his  pre- 
deooMora,  granted  religiooe  hberty  to  Protes- 
tants, discontinued  the  censorship  of  the  press, 
Teor^aiuzed  pablio  edocation,  abolished  BOO 
ooaventa,  aai  developed  indnstrj'  by  a  protao- 
tive  tariff;  bnt  hie  arbitrary  measores  exas- 
perated the  Hnngariana,  and  drove  the  Austrian 
Netheriandsinto  rebellion.  The  latter  he  tried 
to  exchange  for  Bavaria,  a  project  which  was 
firutrated  by  the  efforts  of  Frederick  of  Prus- 
sia. No  less  mifortnaato  ia  his  war  ogunst 
Turkey,  Joseph  died  from  grief  (or,  aa  some 
believed,  fh>m  poison)  in  17B0.  His  brother, 
Leopold  n.  (1T90-'92X  reconciled  Hungary  and 
the  Netherlands,  made  peace  with  Turkey,  and 
Botared  into  the  coalition  against  revolutionary 
France,  but  was  unable  to  rescue  his  rister, 
Uarie  Antoinette.  Thus  his  son  Francis  (1792 
-1636)  was,  immediately  on  his  oooeaaion  to 
the  throne,  drawn  into  the  whirlpool  of  the 
revolutionary  wars.  By  the  peace  of  Oampo 
Formio  (1797)  he  tost  Lombarily  and  tbe  NeUi- 
erlaads^nt  obtwaed  in  exchange  a  large  por- 
tion of  Venetia.  Two  years  before  he  had  ob- 
t&ioed  western  Galicia  by  the  third  pai'tition 
of  Poland.  In  1799  Anstrio,  allied  with  Bqs- 
iria,  declared  war  against  the  French  republic 
for  tbe  second  dme,  bat  was  compelled  by  Bo- 
naparte to  accept  the  peace  of  Lun^viUe  (1301), 
by  which  his  brother,  the  archduke  Ferdinand, 
woa  deprived  of  Tuscany,  being  oompeuaated 
by  SalzDDi^  Passau,  Eiohstadt,  and  the  title 
of  prinoo-eleotor.  The  public  debt  of  Anstria 
hod  now  increased  to  1,200,000,000  florins. 
On  Ang.  11,  1804,  Francis  proclaimed  himself 
hereditary  emperor  of  Austria  (as  such  Francis 
I.),  nnitin^  all  his  dominions  under  the  name  of 
the  Aastnon  empire.  In  the  next  year,  having 
again  gone  to  war  with  France,  he  was  forced 
by  the  defeat  at  Austerlitz  to  ugn  a  most  iguo- 


miA  145 

nunious  peace  at  Preabnrg  (Dec.  28,  1806). 
Vhen,  by  the  organization  of  the  Rhenish  con- 
federation (Rhinebund),  under  the  auspices  of 
Napoleon  (1806),  the  btegrity  of  the  German 
empire  bad  been  destroy^,  Francis  lud  down 
the  imperial  crown  of  Germany  (Aug.  6,  1806). 
A  fourth  time  he  determined  apon  a  war 
against  Napoleon,  uded  only  by  England 
(1809),  bnt  the  result  was  most  disastrous. 
The  peace  of  Vienna  (Oct  14, 1809)  took  away 
from  Austria  about  42,000  so.  m.  of  territory 
with  8,500,000  inhabitants.  Utteriy  prostrated 
and  driven  into  baokruptoy,  Francis  did  not 
dare  to  withhold  his  consent  when  Napoleon 
proposed  to  marry  his  daughter  Maria  Louisa 
(1810),  and  in  1812  he  even  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  Napoleon  against  Russia.  But  when 
the  Rusdon  campaign  had  broken  Napoleon's 
power,  and  Prusda  had  risen  against  him, 
Anstria  joined  in  the  alhance  of  England,  Rua- 
uo,  Pmswa,  and  Sweden  (181E),  and  took  a 
con^icuous  part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  French 
empire.  By  the  peace  of  Paris  (1814)  the  Lom- 
bard and  V^ietion  territories,  now  onited  into 
a  kingdom,  and  all  former  possessions  returned 
to  Austria.  In  1815  Francis,  with  Alexander 
of  Russia  and  Frederick  William  III.  of  Fma- 
ua,  formed  the  "  holy  allianoe,"  for  the  resto- 
ration of  the  old  monarchical  system,  Vienna 
having  in  the  preceding  year  become  the  seat 
of  the  congress  convoked  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
constructing Europe.  The  suppres^on  of  lib- 
eral ideas  and  movements  throughout  Europe 
appeared  to  be  thencefortii  the  pnncipal  object 
of  the  AuBtriau  government,  of  which  Prince 
Mett«rmch  was  the  soul.  Austria  quelled  the 
popular  insurrections  in  Naples  and  Piedmont 
(1830  and  1821),  aided  by  ite  diplomacy  in  the 
suppression  of  the  popular  movement  in  Spain 
(1828),  favored  Turkey  in  its  struggle  with 
the  Greeks,  and  crashed  the  insurreotions 
wbtoh  In  Italy  followed  dose  upon  the  French 
revolntJon  of  1880.  In  the  interior  new  at- 
tempts were  made^  though  without  sueoeas,  to 
subvert  the  oonstitatton  of  Hangary.  The 
death  of  Francis,  who  was  succeeded  by  bis 
son  Ferdinand  (ISSS),  mode  no  change  in  the 
Austrian  administration.  At  an  interview  of 
Ferdinand  with  the  mooarobs  of  Rusua  and 
Prussia  the  holy  alliance  was  reaffirmed.  In 
the  oriental  imbro^io  of  1840,  Austria  uded 
with  England  and  Russia.  Unrelenting  rigor 
was  exercised  in  Italy.  The  Polish  insurrec- 
tion in  Cracow  (which  in  consequence  was  an- 
nexed to  Austria)  was  accompanied  by  an  at- 
tempt at  rising  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Golioia 
(February,  1846) ;  but  the  government  suc- 
ceeded in  quelling  the  movement  by  instigating 
the  wrath  of  the  peasants  against  the  noble- 
men, many  of  whom  were  massacred.  In  the 
Italian  provinces  the  opposition  was  fostered 
by  tbe  political  reforms  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and 
the  concessions  to  popular  opinion  wrung  fW>m 
the  other  Itohan  governments.  In  Hungary 
the  former  parliamentary  opposition  of  the  diet 
had  gradually  grown  into  national  enmity,  ee- 


□igitizedbyGoOglC' 


146  A08' 

pecially  ao  since  the  death  of  the  palatine, 
Archduke  Joseph  (1&47);  aimilar  movements 
appeared  in  Buhemia,  while  even  in  Austria 
jiroper  the  states  insiated  upon  somo  participa- 
tioD  at  least  in  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Prom  all  these  elements  a  etorm 
arose  in  1B48  which  brought  the  entire  Aus- 
trian monarchy  Ter<r  near  its  ruin.  On  March 
18,  shortly  after  the  revolution  in  Paris  which 
drove  Louis  Phihppe  from  his  throne,  the 
people  of  Vienna  rose  against  the  ministry, 
which  made  bat  a  feeble  show  of  resistance; 
Uetternich  was  compelled  to  resign,  and  the 
emperor  pledged  himself  to  convoke  an  assem- 
bly of  representatives  of  the  people,  to  form 
a  constitution  for  the  empire.  Bat  at  the 
same  time  the  Hungarian  diet,  led  by  Kossuth, 
demanded  and  obtained  an  independent  con- 


foUowed  cloeelyj  Badetzky  was  driven  from 
Milan,  and  Pilfiy  surrendered  Venice  to  the 
people.  While  thus  momentarily  successftd  in 
the  provinces,  the  revolution  created  the  direst 
oonrasion  in  the  centre  of  the  empire.  Of  the 
revolutionists,  some  were  in  favor  of  uniting 
tliose  provinces  in  which  the  German  national- 
ity predominates  to  Germany,  leaving  Hungary 
to  herself^  and  favoring  the  union  of  the  Ital- 
iftD  states  nnder  a  national  government ;  while 
others  were  unwilling  to  hazard  the  position 
of  Anstria  as  one  of  the  great  powers,  against 
the  vague  hope  of  a  reconstruction  of  Germany. 
In  Vienna  the  ministry  of  Connt  Ficquelraont, 
which  had  ancceeded  Hettemich,  proved  its 
incapacity  to  gra(>ple  with  the  nending  difficul- 
ties, and  the  political  power  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  central  committee  of  the  national  guard 
and  the  students'  l^on.  The  emperor,  un- 
willing to  resort  to  extreme  measures,  fled  to 
Innspmck  (May  17),  Another  nnsuocessM  at- 
tempt of  theministi7tobreak  the  power  of  the 
Btnaents  led  to  tlte  organization  of  a  CMumittee 
of  public  wolfiire  (Hay  26),  which,  until  the 
meeting  of  on  Austrian  parliament  (July  22), 
exercised  an  almost  unlimited  control,  compel- 
ling the  ministry  to  make  room  for  sucoeasors 
more  subservient  to  the  masses  (July  8),  When 
ntt«rly  prostrated  in  the  capital,  the  impenal 
power  b^an  to  gather  strength  in  the  prov- 
inces. A  popnlar  outbreak  at  Prague  was 
suppressed,  after  a  bombardment  of  the  city 

Sine  15-16),  hy  Prince  WindischgrStz.  In 
mbardy,  Radetzky,  who  had  retired  to  Ve- 
rona, opened  an  aggressive  campaign  in  June, 
captured  Vicenza,  Padua,  and  other  important 

tlacea,  and  routed  the  Sardinian  army  (the 
ing  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert,  having  tucen 
sides  with  the  revolted  provinces)  near  Custoz- 
za,  July  25.  The  national  Hungarian  ministry 
of  Batthydnyi  and  Kossuth,  preparing  the  way 
for  an  independent  Magyar  kingdom,  awakened 
the  fears  and  national  antipathies  of  the  Slavic 
races  which  would  necessarily  have  formed 
part  of  this  kingdom.  Jellachich,  the  governor 
(ban)  of  Oroatia,  strengthened  by  the  conni- 


vance of  the  imperial  court,  pronounced  against 
the  Hungarian  government,  Count  Lamberg, 
the  imperial  commissioner  despatched  to  Festh, 
was  there  killed  by  the  people  (Sept  88).  Im- 
mediately the  emperor  ordered  the  dissolution 
of  the  Hungarian  diet,  and  appointed  Jellachich 
supreme  military  commander  of  Hungary,  The 
diet,  denying  the  authority  of  the  emperor, 
organized  a  committee  of  safety,  with  Kossuth 
at  its  head.  When  the  garrison  of  Vienna 
(Oct  6)  was  departing  for  Hungary,  the  people 
of  the  capital,  sympathizing  with  tlie  Hun- 
garians, rose  once  more.  They  took  the  ar- 
senal, and  hung  the  secretary  of  war,  Connt 
Latour,  at  the  window  of  his  office.  The  par- 
liament declared  itself  permanent,  and  sent  an 
address  to  the  emperor  asking  for  a  new  min- 
istry and  the  removal  of  Jellachich.  The  em- 
peror, who  in  June  had  returned  from  Inns- 
pmck to  Vienna,  ag^n  fled  to  OlmCtz.  Tlie 
masses  of  tbe  capital  armed  themselves  under 
the  leadership  of  (he  Polish  general  Bem,  pre- 
paring to  resist  the  impending  attack  of  the 
army.  The  garrison,  joined  outside  the  city  by 
the  remnants  of  the  army  of  Jellachich,  which 
had  been  beaten  near  Buda,  and  by  the  army 
corps  of  Prince  WindiscbgrStz,  assaulted  Vien- 
na, Oct  28 ;  bat  the  people  mode  a  desperate 
resistance  until  the  Slet^  when,  the  Hungarians 
having  the  day  before  been  defeated  almost 
before  its  gat«s,  the  city  was  taken  hy  atorm 
with  immense  slaughter.  Many  of  the  popular 
leaders  were  shot,  among  others  Roberi;  Blum, 
member  of  the  parliament  of  Frankfort,  Mes- 
senhauser,  commander  of  the  national  guard, 
and  Jellinek,  editor  of  the  "Eadical.  On 
Nov.  22  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which 
Prince  Felii  Schwarzenberg  was  president. 
The  emperor  Ferdinand  was  induced  to  resign, 
Dec.  3,  1848,  in  favor  of  his  nephew.  Frauds 
Joseph,  a  youth  of  18  years,  whose  mother, 
the  archduchess  Sophia,  had  been  the  leading 
spirit  of  the  counter-revolationary  movement 
The  campaign  against  Hungary  was  com- 
menced at  once,  but  carried  to  a  sucoessful 


under  GOrgey,  surrendering  (Aug.  13,  1849) 
to  the  Bassians  at  Vil&gos.  (See  Huhgasv.) 
Hungary,  which  had  declared  its  indepen- 
dence, was  treated  as  a  conquered  country. 
Many  military  and  parliamentary  leaders 
were  shot  or  bung,  and  the  prisons  crammed 
with  the  nnhappy  victims  of  imperial  re- 
venge. Simultuieously  with  these  occurren- 
ces the  war  in  Italy  had  been  terminated. 
Within  a  few  days  Oen.  Radetzky  routed  the 
Sardinian  Brmy  twice,  at  Mortara  (March  21, 
1843)  and  Novara  (March  23),  and  obtained  a 

Eeace  by  which  Sardinia  was  obliged  to  reim- 
urse  Austria  for  the  expenses  of  the  war 
(16,000,000  livTCH).  Venice,  where  an  inde- 
pendent renublican  government  had  been  or- 
ganized unaer  the  lead  of  Manin,  was  invested 
by  Radetzky,  and  forced  to  surrender,  Ang. 
33,  1849,— The  revolution  having  bem  con- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


qnered,  the  Anstrian  government  commenced 
the  arduous  task  of  reorgtuiizing  the  monarchy 
upon  a  firmer  basis  than  before.  The  rarlia- 
ment,  whioh  after  the  bloodj  Btroggle  at  Vienna 
had  been  a^joamed  to  Krem^  in  Horavia, 
was  disBolvea  Hvoh  4,  1849,  and  a  oonatitu- 
tion  promnlfated  hj  the  free  will  of  the  em- 
peror, of  which  onlj  the  reactionary  parU 
went  into  operation.  The  efforts  of  the  nation- 
al parliament  at  Frankfort  to  reoonetract  the 
German  empire,  excluding  Anatria  from  it, 
were  Tiolenuy  oppoaed  by  the  Anatrian  gov- 
ernment, and  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Proswa 
dnrst  not  defy  this  opposition,  backed  aa  it  was 
by  that  of  Knasia  and  France,  by  accepting 
the  imperial  crown  offered  by  the  Frankfort 
ataembly.  Still,  by  assmning  the  leadership  of 
tii«  ooonter-revolationary  roovementH  in  Oer- 
many,  and  aiding  the  petty  princes  to  pnt 
down  the  people,  Prossia  obtamed  a  prepon- 
derating  inflneDce  in  northern  Qermany,  and 
made  aome  efforts  to  centralise  the  oonfedera- 
oy,  all  of  whioh  were  prostrated  by  the  ener- 
getic policy  of  Prince  BohTarEeaberg.  In 
1860  the  mplomatio  conflict  between  Anstria 
and  Fmsaia  seemed  to  point  to  a  crisis ;  armies 
were  put  in  motion,  and  a  fight  among  aome 
ootpoats  had  already  taken  place  near  Bronzell 
in  HeMe-Oaaael  (Nov.  S,  ISSO),  when  at  the  lost 
moment  Pmssia,  in  a  ministenal  meeting  at  01- 
mats  pf ov.  SB),  submitted  to  the  demimda  of 
Anatria,  and  the  German  diet  at  Frankfort  was 
raBstabllahed  the  same  as  it  was  before  1848; 
Austria,  on  her  part,  renoancing  for  the  time 
being  the  idea  of  entering  into  the  Germamc 
oonfedenttion  with  all  ber  possessions.  The 
energy  di^layed  in  the  management  of  for- 
«^  relations  was  manifested  by  the  Anstrian 
mmiater  of  the  interior.  Bach,  in  the  odmin- 
iibvtion  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire. 
All  remnants  of  the  revolutionary  period 
were  annihilated,  with  one  exception  only,  the 
abolition  of  socage.  The  oonstitntion  of  1S40 
was  annulled  Jan.  I,  I8G2;  trial  by  jury  waa 
aboliahed;  the  pnbUo  press  crushed  down  with 
the  utmost  severity;  and  the  influenoe  of  the 
clergy  reestablished.  Eitraordinary  efforts 
were  made  to  develop  the  resoorces  of  the 
monarchy  by  encouraging  agriculture,  industry, 
01^  commerce.  A  new  tariff  was  adopted,  and 
negotiations  were  oommenoed  witii  oUier  Ger- 
man states  for  the  establishment  of  a  complete 
cuBtoma  onion  with  the  Zollverein.  Prasaia. 
fearing  lest  her  infloence  might  be  outweighed 
by  tbAt  of  Austria,  oppoaea  this  movement; 
but  several  of  the  Zollverein  states  took  ddes 
agtunst  ber,  and  the  moment  seemed  to  be 
near  at  hand  when  her  ol^ections  woold  have 
been  overborne,  when  Schwarzen  berg's  andden 
death  (April  6,  1B62J  bronght  on  a  change  in 
the  policy  of  Anstria.  His  snooessor,  Count 
Bnol-Schanenstein,  declined  to  press  the  prop- 
omtions  made  by  Schwarsenberg,  and  con- 
tented himself  with  the  conclusion  of  a  com- 
mercial treaty  between  Anatria  and  the  Zoll- 
vereio  (18C8).    The  reconciliation  with  Prussia 


■BIA  147 

was  completed  at  a  personal  Interview  of  the 
emperor  and  Fredenck  William  IV.  On  Feb. 
6,  1863,  another  popular  outbreak  occurred  at 
Uilan,  but  was  suppreased  without  difficulty. 
A  diploroatio  rnpture  with  Switzerland,  where 
the  Italian  revolutioniata  hod  token  refuge,  was 


Hungarian,  LiMnyL  These  events  y 
portont  oijy  so  far  as  they  tended  to  perpet- 
uate the  severe  military  rule.  When,  toward 
the  end  of  1862,  the  MuntenegriDs  rose  ag^nst 
the  Turks,  Austria  sided  with  them,  and  Count 
Lelningen,  who  waa  sent  to  Constantinople 
(February,  1863),  obtamed  full  redress  of  their 
grievanoes. — At  the  time  of  the  complications 
which  led  to  the  Crimean  war,  Austria  pro- 
claimed her  neutrality,  and  on  April  20,  1664, 
a  treaty  was  oonoluded  by  Anstria  and  Prusma, 
hotii  pledging  themselves  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  war  only  whenever  the  interests  of 
Germany  should  appear  to  be  endangered.* 
The  czar,  indignant  at  what  seemed  to  him 
base  ingratitnoe  on  the  part  of  Austria,  en- 
deavored by  flatteiy  to  incite  the  smaller  Ger- 
man states  aguust  her,  and  went  even  so  far 
OS  to  threaten  an  appeal  to  the  Slavic  raoea. 
Thus  Austria  was  forced  to  change  her  neutral- 
ity pore  and  dmple  into  an  armed  one.  8he 
agreed  with  Turkey  to  ooonpy  the  Dannbian 
principalities^advanced  an  army  of  800,000  men 
toward  the  Polish  frontier,  and  proposed  to 
Rnssia  the  four  points  which  afterward  became 
the  basis  of  peace.  This  proposition  having 
been  r^ected,  Austria  assumed  an  attitude  so 
threatening  that  the  Russians  were  obliged  to 
retire  from  Tnrkish  territory.  An  Anstrian 
army  under  Gen-  Ooronini  entered  Wallachin, 
and  the  war  on  the  Danube  was  virtually  at  an 
end.  By  promising  to  the  western  powern  an 
active  support  whenever  they  would  pledge 
themselves  to  carry  on  the  war  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  effectnally  to  cripple  the  RusMan  power, 
Austria  induced  them  to  determine  upon  the 
Orimeon  expedition.  Now,  at  last  the  active 
oodperation  of  Anstria  seemed  to  be  certain ; 
indeed,  a  treaty  to  that  effect  was  agreed  to  by 
her  Deo.  2,  1864;  but  iu  oonaequence  of  the 
tardy  snceess  of  the  allied  armies  before  8»- 
bastopol  and  the  unwillingneas  of  the  other 
German  powers  to  accede  to  the  treaty,  she 
agun  fell  back  upon  her  former  vague  pronuses, 
merely  offering  her  good  otBces  to  the  contend- 
ing parties.  Not  even  when  the  Rusmana  once 
more  invaded  Turkish  territory  did  she  move 
agmnst  them.  Plenipotentiaries  of  the  belli- 
gerent poweri  met  at  Vienna  in  March,  1856, 
but  were  unable  to  agree  upon  a  baas  of 
peace,  and  finally  odjonrned.  During  the  prog- 
ress of  the  n^^tiations  Austria  had  distincuy 
pledged  herself  to  go  to  war  if  Russia  should 
remain  obstinate,  when  all  at  once  she  began 
to  reduce  her  army  on  the  frontier.  Financial 
embarrassments  and  the  cholera,  which  within 
a  few  months  destroyed  26,000  soldiers,  were 
tjie  ostenuble  cause  for  this  unexpected  move- 


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148  ADS 

roont,  the  real  cause  htstn^  probably  the  assor- 
ance  given  by  RoBfda  thatin  anj  case  she  would 
adhere  to  those  of  the  four  points  which  involved 
theepecialinteresteof  Austria.  The  emperor  of 
the  French,  who  fonnertj  had  been  anxIooB  to 
secore  the  fnendship  of  Anstria  on  any  terms, 
began  to  look  toward  Rosda,  and  eagerly 
seized  the  first  opportnnit;  of  coocindlng  peace 
(186S).  Dnring  the  war  the  work  of  central- 
ization hod  b«eo  carried  on  by  tJie  Aiistrian 
goTemment  with  apparent  anccess.  By  the  con- 
cordat with  the  holy  see  (1856)  Anstria  gave 
back  to  the  Roman  Catholic  clei^  all  the  priv- 
ileges and  influence  whioh  had  boen  wrested 
from  them  since  the  time  of  Joseph  II.  B7 
etimnlatiog  pablic  enterprise  and  promoting 
the  material  mteresta  of  Jl  clsesea  ih  the  popu- 
lation, the  government  was  earnest)/  endeavor- 
ing to  make  the  people  forget  the  events  of  1848 
and  1849.  The  military  niie  was  somewhat  re- 
laxed, and  a  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed 
*for  political  offences.— The  progress  of  internal 
reforms  was  soon  agun  iut«m]pted  by  foreign 
complications.  At  the  bepnning  of  1869  the 
Anstrian  statesmen  teamed  from  some  omi- 
DooB  words  addressed  on  new  year's  day  by  the 
French  emperor  to  Baron  Hfibner  that  Cavonr 
had  succeeded  in  (gaining  over  Louis  Napoleon 
to  the  designs  of  Victor  Emannel,  and  that  they 
most  be  prepared  for  a  war  not  only  against  Sai^ 
dinia  but  against  France.  In  this  new  c«nplica- 
tion  the  sympathies  of  Prussia  and  the  other 
German  states  were  strongly  enlisted  in  favor  of 
Anstria,  and  even  England  and  Rnssia  showed 
a  readiness  to  shield  her  from  the  impend- 
ing danger.  The  diplomatio  efibrta  of  the  neu- 
tral powers  were,  however,  thwarted  by  an 
nltlmatnm  which  Anstria  hastened  to  address 
to  Sardinia.  This  ultimatum  not  being  ac- 
cepted, Austria  declared  war,  and  appointed 
one  of  her  most  incompetent  generals,  Count 
Gyulay,  commander-in-chiet  The  hope  of  the 
Anstrians  that  they  conld  overpower  the  Sar- 
dinian army  ttefore  the  French  ooold  come  to 
Its  tii  was  not  fulfilled.  The  Sardinian  terri- 
Htory,  which  Coont  Oyolaj  had  invaded  on 
April  29,  bad  soon  to  be  evacuated.  The  vic- 
tory of  the  united  French  and  Sardinian  ar- 
mies at  Magenta,  Jane  4,  compelled  the  Aus- 
trians  to  abandon  also  Lombardy  and  to  retire 
upon  their  famous  qnadrilateral,  Hantua,  Ve- 
rona, Peschiera,  and  Legnago.  After  a  second 
defeat  at  Solferino,  June  24,  the  Anstrians 
deemed  it  best  to  make  peace  with  Louis  Na- 
poleon. An  ofi'er  of  Prusua  to  take  up  arms 
BB  an  ally  of  Austria,  in  defence  of  the  treaties 
of  1810,  was  regarded  as  unacceptable  because 
Prussia  insisted  on  having  in  this  case  the  chief 
command  of  all  the  non-Austrian  German  con- 
tingents. Anstria  consented  in  the  preliminary 
peace  of  VillaiVanca  (July  11),  and  in  the  de- 
'flnitive  peace  of  Zorich  (Nov.  10),  to  the  cession 
of  Lombardy.  Napoleon,  to  whom  the  cession 
was  made,  transferred  it  in  the  peace  of  Ztirich 
to  Sardinia.  The  promises  made  by  Sardinia 
that  the  dethroned  dynasties  of  Tiuoany,  Mo- 


dena,  and  Parma  should  be  restored,  and  that 
the  Italian  states  should  form  a  confederation 
into  which  Austria  should  be  admitted  on  ac- 
count of  Venetlfl.,  were  never  ftilfifled. — The 
disastrous  issue  of  the  war  was  followed  by 
new  convulsions  in  the  interior.  Public  opin- 
ion seemed  genentily  to  be  agree^  that  the 
empire  was  in  an  untenable  condition,  and 
that  sweeping  reforms  were  needed.  The  min- 
isters of  foreign  affairs  and  of  the  interior, 
Count  Buol-ScDBuenstein  and  Bach,  who  were 
r^arded  as  the  chief  representatives  of  the 
ruling  policy,  had  to  re^gn,  hot  no  other 
changes  of  importance  were  made,  llie  finan- 
cial troubles  again  made  themselves  felt,  and  a 
new  loan  of  200,000,000  fl.,  which  was  to  be 
raised  by  a  national  subscription,  proved  aoom- 
plete  failure.  A  first  attempt  to  reorganize 
the  administration  of  the  empire  was  made 
by  the  imperial  patent  of  March  B,  1880,  which 
gave  to  the  Reichsrath  a  limited  right  of  co6p- 
eration  in  the  legislation  and  in  the  control  of 
the  finances.  When  the  Reichsrath,  the  number 
of  whose  members  hud  been  increased,  met  in 
June,  its  m^ority  agreed  with  the  new  minister 
of  the  interior.  Count  Goluchowski,  In  advising 
the  abandonment  of  the  centi-alizing  and  the 
adoption  of  a  federelistic  policy.  The  emperor 
flilfillcd  this  wish  by  the  publication  of  the  im- 

Srial  diploma  of  Oct  20,  1S60  (the  October- 
'plom),  which  conferred  upon  the  diets  of  the 
several  crown  lands  the  right  of  legation  on 
all  aSiurs  save  those  expressly  reserved  for  the 
Reichsrath.  The  latter  class  embraced  only  the 
finances  of  the  empire,  and  the  foreign,  war, 
and  commercial  affairs.  The  Reichsrath  was 
in  future  to  contdst  of  100  members  elected 
by  the  provincial  diets,  and  of  the  members 
appointed  by  the  emperor.  The  novel  consti- 
tution which  Austria  was  to  receive  by  tiiis 
diploma . failed  to  be  acceptable  to  any  party. 
To  the  Poles  of  Galioia  and  the  Czeclis  of  Bo- 
hemia, who  demanded  complete  autonomy,  it 
did  not  go  far  enough  in  the  direction  of  fed- 
ersKsm.  Hungary  insisted  on  the  unconditional 
restoration  of  its  constitution.  The  German 
liberals  demanded,  on  the  one  hand,  a  more 
popular  composition  of  the  Reichsrath,  and  on 
the  other,  a  greater  centralization,  as  the  ex- 
cesdve  rights  conferred  upon  the  crown  lands 
must  in  the  natural  course  of  development  lead 
to  a  dissolution  of  the  empire.  Their  ail- 
ments made  an  impres^on  upon  the  court; 
Count  Goluchowski  was  dismissed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1860,  and  succeeded  by  Schmerling,  who 
in  1848,  as  minister  of  the  Gorman  empire 
during  the  regency  of  the  archduke  John,  nad 
aojjuired  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  liberal 
statesman.  The  imperial  patent  of  Feb.  26, 
1861  (theFehruar-Fatenf),  which  soon  follow- 
ed the  appointment  of  Schmerhng,  resumed  the 
work  of  welding  all  the  discordant  provinces  of 
the  polyglot  empire  into  a  strongly  consolidated, 
truly  oonstitntional  monarchy.  iTte  Reichsrath, 
which  received  all  the  nsnal  rights  of  parlia- 
ments, was  to  consist  of  a  Herrenkau*  or  house 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


<i  lords,  anil  a  hcnue  of  depatiea  munbering 
848  members,  ASaira  CMDinon  to  the  Don- 
HnngKrian  provinces  were  to  be  aoted  upon 
by  ^e  non-Hnngarian  membe™  as  '.'limited 
ReiefaBrath"  {Engertr  Eeiekarath).  The  first 
session  of  the  new  KeiohBrath  Qtaj,  ISSl) 
was  attended  by  depnties  from  all  t^e  German 
■od  moetof  tbeBlavioprovincea;  batHimgary, 
Oniatia,  Transylvania,  and  Venetia  were  not 
r^resented.  All  the  efforts  of  the  government 
to  indace  these  crown  lands  to  send  deputies 
prored  fraitless.  In  Hongary,  in  partioolar, 
all  partiea  united  for  a"pasuTe  reeiatanoe." 
The  Bazms  and  Ronmans  of  TratuylTania 
wen  prevailed  npon  in  186S  to  take  part  in 
the  Beiohsratb ;  bat  soon  the  Czeebs  of  Bohe- 
mia and  Moravia  reftised  a  ftirther  attendance. 
The  proceedinvB  of  the  Reicherath  did  not 
make  a  favorable  impression  npon  the  pnblio 
mind,  and  the  auiaal  deficits  continTied  to  swell 
the  pablie  debt  to  a  fearM  amount.  Bohmer- 
Bng  finally  saw  the  imposnbility  of  carrying 
through  his  plans,  and  resigned  in  Jnne,  1860. 
The  prominent  leatnre  of  the  foreign  pol- 
icy of  Anstria  doring  the  administration  ot 
Babmerling  was  the  strnggle  for  her  contin- 
ued ascendancy  m  the  Oerman  ccmfederation, 
which    ^peai^    (o    be    ttireatened   by   the 

Swing  power  of  Fmssia.  Schmerlina  en- 
vored  to  secure  the  admisuon  of  aU  the 
dominions  of  Anstria  into  the  German  confed- 
eration and  the  Gernum  ZoUvereis,  bnt  in  vun. 
In  order  to  gain  the  sympathy  ttf  the  liberala 
tiiroDghont  Germany,  who  it  was  tbon^t  had 
bMH  alienated  from  PmsBia  by  the  policy  of 
Bianuvk,  the  Austrian  government  proposed 
a  Hberd  reformation  of  the  federal  diet.  An 
inritalion  from  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  to 
the  Oerman  princes  and  the  bargomaatera  of 
the  free  cities  to  assemble  in  FranUbrt  on  Ang. 
17,  1868,  for  the  discnasion  of  thia  question, 
was  aocwted  by  all  tho«e  invited  elcept  the 
ting  of  YtOE^  whoee  oppOKition  proved  suffi- 
cient to  foil  the  plan,  fiotwitfastanding  these 
rei»eated  hnmiUations  by  Prostiaa  ^plomacy, 
the  Anstrian  minister  of  foreign  affiiira,  Count 
Bet^beif;,  soon  after  accepted  a  proposition 
tram  Prussia  Qiat  tbe  Bohleswig-Holatetn  diS- 
enlty  be  regulated  by  the  two  great  German 
powMS,  and  not,  ss  Uie  national  party  in  Ger- 
many denred,  by  the  federal  diet  Anstria  ao- 
oordingly  took  part  in  the  Sohleswlg-HDlBtein 
war,  finally  tenainated  on  Oct.  80,  1864,  by 
the  peace  of  Yioma,  in  whioh  Chriatian  IX.  of 
Denmark  ceded  the  duchies  of  Schleewig,  Hol~ 
stein,  and  Lauenburg  to  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria and  the  king  of  Prussia.  Soon,  however, 
the  Anstrian  court  became  anapicions  of  the 
Pmssian  alliance,  which  not  only  nUenated  the 
middle  states  ^om  Austria,  but  threatened  her 
with  new  diplomatic  humiliatJons.  A  falling 
ont  of  the  two  powera,  and  even  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  was  aeriously  feared;  but  it  was 
for  a  time  averted  by  the  Gastein  convention  of 
Ang.  14,  1S65,  according  to  which  Laaenhnrg 
was  incorporated  with  Prasda,  Holstein  occu- 


pied by  Austrian  and  Schleawlg  by  Pmsuan 

troops.      Meanwhile   the  liberal   Schmerling 


and  old  oonaervative  Uungarions,  with  Count 
Beloredi,  a  Czech,  as  president.  One  of  the 
first  acts  of  the  new  miniatry  was  the  bu»- 
pension  of  the  constitution  of  February,  1861, 
under  the  pretest  that  a  new  attempt  was  to 
be  made  to  come  to  a  Ml  nnderBtaitaiiig  with 
Hungary.  When  the  diets  of  the  German  and 
Slavic  provincee  were  convoked  in  November, 
those  of  Galioia  and  Bnkowina,  as  well  as  the 
Czech  majority  of  the  Bohemian  diet,  voted 
addresses  of  thanks  to  the  emperor ;  while  all 
the  German  diets,  with  the  ain^e  exception  of 
that  of  Tyrol,  which  was  under  the  control  of 
the  "  Catholic  "  party,  demanded  the  recc^ni- 
tion  of  the  continued  legal  existence  of  the 
constitution  of  Febroary.  The  Slavs  gener- 
ally rallied  for  the  support  of  the  new  ministry, 
and  the  conflict  lietween  the  Slavic  and  Ger- 
man nationalities  assumed  dimensions  previous- 
ly nnkaown.  The  negotiations  with  Hungary 
did  not  have  the  desired  effect.  Although  the 
emperor  on  Dco.  14,  1860,  opened  hims^  tbe 
liunguHan  diet,  and  although  the  Hungarians 
received  him  and  the  empreai,  who  soon  came 
likewise  to  Pestb,  with  unbounded  enthumasm, 
the  majority  of  the  diet  in^sted  on  greater  de- 
mands than  the  emperor  thought  it  compatible 
with  the  interests  of  the  dynasty  to  concede. 
Before  an  understaoding  had  been  arrived  at, 
the  complications  with  PmsMa  reached  a  crius. 
The  governments  of  both  Austria  and  Prusna 
were  fttUy  aware  of  the  grave  dangers  connect- 
ed with  Uie  solution  of  the  Schloewig-Holatein 
question.  Pmasia  meant  to  take  the  duohiea 
herself;  Austria  supported  the  duke  of  Au- 
guatenbui^.  Eariy  m  18SS  both  began  to  arm 
and  to  prepare  for  war.  Anatria  endeavored 
to  recover  the  aympathy  of  the  middle  states 
of  Germany ;  Prnssio,  on  April  8,  concluded  a 
defennve  and  offensive  alliance  with  Italy. 
A  motion  of  Austria  in  the  federal  diet  of  Ger- 
many (June  1,  186S)  to  have  the  claim  of  the 
Srince  of  Augnstenbnrg  to  Schleswig-Holatein 
ecided  by  the  federal  diet,  was  declared  by 
Prussia  to  be  a  violation  of  the  Gastein  con- 
vention. Proasian  troopa  were  immediately 
marched  into  the  dnohy  of  Holstein,  which  the 
Anatrian  commander,  Gen.  von  Gablenz,  yield- 
ing to  superior  numbers,  hastened  to  evacuate. 
The  m^ority  of  the  federal  diet,  regarding 
these  steps  as  disloyal  demonstrations  against 
tbe  authority  of  tite  confederation,  ordered 
(June  14),  on  motion  of  Austria,  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  entire  army  of  the  confederation 
with  tbe  exception  of  tbe  Prussian  corps. 
Prussia  declared  that  this  decree  was  a  radical 
subversion  of  the  fondamental  principle  of  tbe 
confederation,  and  that  she  now  considered  the 
original  pact  aa  broken.  Regarding  tbe  resolu- 
tion aa  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  all 
the  atates  which  bad  voted  for  it,  Pruasia  at  once 
began  its  military  operations.    Feldzeugmeister 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ISO  AUS' 

Benedek  was  appointed  coDunander-m-«hief  of 
the  northern  and  Archduke  Albrecht  of  the 
eouthern  anuiea  of  Austria.  The  Prossians  ad- 
vanced with  a  rapidity  for  which  Austria  and 
her  allies  were  not  prepared,  and  the  troops 
of  the  smaller  states  proved  as  of  old  entirelj 
inefficient.  ThePrusaiso  pn^reeathroogh  Sox- 
007  was  undisputed,  and  the  first  serious  en- 
counter took  place  on  Anstrian  soil.  The  mil- 
itarj  superiontj  of  the  Pruasians  soon  became 
apparent;  one  Austrian  corps aiteranotherwss 
beaten,  until  on  faij  G  the  bulk  of  their  army 
snfiered  a  crushing  defeat  at  Sadowa  near  KO- 
niggrfttz  in  Bohemia.  This  victory  of  Prussia 
filled  the  army  of  Aastria,  as  well  as  the  gov- 
ernment and  tiie  population,  with  consterna- 
tion. Ko  halt  was  made  in  the  retreat,  and 
all  the  provinces  north  of  Vienna  were  aban- 
doned to  the  enemy.  The  government  re- 
lieved Benedek  of  the  chief  command,  which 
was  transferred  (u  the  archduke  Albrecht, 
who  in  the  meanwhile  had  been  entirely  suo- 
ceeatul  in  the  campugn  in  Venetia,  having  de- 
feated the  Italian  army  at  Gustozza  (June  S4) 
and  driven  it  back  across  the  Hincio.  With 
him  a  part  of  his  army  was  called  to  the  north- 
ern seat  of  war.  Hoping  to  detach  Italy  trom 
the  alliance  with  Prussia,  the  Anstrian  govern- 
ment had,  moreover,  on  the  day  after  the  battle 
of  SadowB,  ceded  Venetia  to  Louis  Napoleon, 
and  requested  bis  friendly  mediation  for  bring- 
ing about  peace.  Italy  declined  to  follow  the 
advice  of  Napoleon,  and,  while  the  Prusuans 
marched  upon  Vienna,  agun  invaded  Venetia 
and  some  districts  of  Tyrol  A  naval  victory 
of  tlie  Anstrian  admiral  Tegetthoff  at  the  island 
of  Lissa  (July  30)  did  not  change  the  general 
proopeots  of  the  war,  and  had  no  influence 
upon  the  progress  of  the  peace  negotiations, 
which  throngh  the  mediation  of  France  bad 
be^an  at  Nikolsbnrg.  A  preliminary  peace 
was  concluded  on  July  26,  which  on  Aug.  28 
was  followed  by  tlie  definitive  peace  of  Prague. 
Anstria  consented  to  the  establishment  of  the 
North  German  confederation  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Prussia,  and  to  the  incorporation  of 
Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassan,  Franldbrt,  and 
Bchleswig-Holsteln  with  the  Prussian  domin- 
ions. Between  Austria  and  Italy  a  truce  was 
concluded  on  A  ng.  13,  and  a  definitive  peace  on 
Oct.  S  at  Vienna.  Aastria  rec<^i;nized  the  union 
of  Venetia,  which  Napoleon  had  ceded  to  Vic- 
tor Emanuel,  as  well  as  of  Lombardy  with  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  while  the  Italian  govern- 
ment agreed  to  assume  the  debt  of  Lombardy 
and  Venetia,  and  S6,000,000  florins  of  the  gen- 
eral Aostriau  debt,  and  also  promised  to  re- 
store to  the  dethroned  princes  of  Tuscany  and 
Modena,  who  were  relatives  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph, tlieir  private  movable  and  immovable 
property. — Count  Mensdorff,  the  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  Count  Maurice  Esterhizj, 
who  was  believed  to  be  the  chief  adviser  of  the 
emperor,  resigned  their  places  in  the  ministry 
on  Oct.  SO.  Mensdorff  was  succeeded  by  Baron 
Beust,  who,  as  the  representative  of  Saxony 


in  the  federal  diet,  had  gained  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  ablest  opponent  of  the  Prus- 
nan  policy  among  the  statesmen  of  the  middle 
states.  Beast  soon  submitted  a  novel  plan  for 
the  reconstruction  of  Austria.  He  was  as  much 
opposed  to  the  centralism  of  Schmerling  as  to 
the  feudal  federalism  of  Belcredi,  and  in  the 
place  of  both  recommended  a  strictly  dualistio 
basis  as  the  best  remedy  for  the  evils  which 
had  brought  Austria  to  the  brink  of  an  nn- 
fathomable  abyas.  As  the  hope  of  Beloredi 
and  his  old  conservative  Hungarian  Iriends  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  with  Hungary  wsh  dis- 
appointed, Beust  found  a  favorable  hearing  for 
his  ideas.  Tbe  main  point  of  bis  programme 
was  a  lasting  reoondlliation  with  Hnngary, 
and  to  that  end  the  adoption  of  the  propor- 
tions which  Deik,  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  minority  of  the  Hungarian  diet,  had 
made  to  Belcredi.  Beust  advised  the  em- 
peror to  appoint  at  once  a  Hungarian  minis- 
try, and  to  obtain  through  it  the  consent  of 
the  Hnngarian  diet  to  tbe  draft  of  the  agree- 
ment between  dsleithan  and  Translathan 
Austria,  as  proposed  by  De^b;  to  call  thoo,  in 
accordance  with  the  constitution  of  February, 
IBSI,  a  meeting  of  tbe  "limited  Reichsrath" 
of  Cisleithania,  lay  before  it  the  agreement 
with  Hungary  as  an  accomplished  fact,  and  to 
propose  to  it  sach  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  Febmary  as  tbe  concession  mode  to  Hnngary 
would  require.  The  advice  was  accepted; 
Belcredi  resigned,  and  on  Feb.  7,  1667,  Benst 
was  appointed  prime  minister.  Within  one 
month  the  most  important  points  had  been 
settled,  Hungary  aoandoned  the  idea  of  a 
purely  "personal  union^"  and  agreed  to  have 
the  army  and  the  foreign  affurs  in  common 
with  Cisleithania;  it  also  promised  a  revision 
of  the  laws  of  1648.  On  the  other  band,  the 
subordination  of  Croatia  to  the  Hungarian 
ministry  and  the  reincorporation  of  Transylva- 
nia with  Hungary  were  readily  conceded.  The 
Hungarians  were  notified  of  the  accomplished 
aareement  and  of  the  appointment  of  a  respon- 
siole  Hnngarian  ministry,  of  which  Count  Ju- 
lias Andr&ssy  was  tbe  president,  by  rescripts 
dated  Feb,  17,  1667,  and  Mgned  by  Franris 
Joseph  as  "king  of  Hungary."  On  tbe  next 
day,  Feb.  18,  the  provincial  diets  of  all  the 
German  and  Slavic  crown  lands  were  opened. 
Tbe  German  diets  generally  declared  &eai- 
selves  satisfied  with  &e  aettiement  of  the  Hnn- 
garian question;  most  oftheSlavio  diets  showed 
themselves  at  least  not  Irreconcilable;  hut  tlie 
Czechs  of  Bohemia  so  violentiy  opposed  tbe 
projects  of  the  government  that  the  Bohemian 
diet  had  to  be  dissolved.  The  Czech  leaders 
were  so  incensed  at  the  new  turn  of  Austrian 
politics  that  they  used  the  so-called  ethnograph- 
ical exhibition  at  Moscow  (May,  1667)  as  a  wel- 
come occasion  for  an  ostentatious  display  of 
Panslavistic  tendencies.  The  Reichsrath  of  tbe 
German  and  Slavic  provinces,  which  was  opened 
on  May  22,  1667,  formally  approved  the  agree- 
ment condndcd  with    llungary,  bat  at  the 


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game  time  declared  that  the  Oisleithan  prov- 
inoes  would  not  be  faHj  siitiafied  until  they 
should  receive  tlie  same  gaarantee  of  their 
constitational  rights  which  had  been  given  to 
the  Hungariaiu.  The  muoritr  of  the  BeichS' 
rath  demanded,  in  particular,  a  revimon  of  the 
concordat,  which  in  the  opinion  of  tlia  liberal 

CT  gave  to  the  pope  and  the  biahopB  privi- 
i  not  oompatible  with  a  constjtntional  mon- 
archy. The  nnmerom  maoifeatationa  for  and 
against  a  revisioa  of  the  concordat  prodnced 
a  profound  agitation ;  but,  though  Beust  nn- 
migtakably  leaned  toward  the  aide  of  the  lib- 
erals, he  prevented  definite  action  on  the  sab- 
jecL  On  June  8  Frauoia  Joseph  was  solemnly 
crowned  as  oonstitDtional  king  of  Hungary  in 
the  ancient  capital,  Budo.  The  relations  with 
foreign  powers  remained  peaoefDl ;  neither  the 
pubUcatioa  of  the  secret  treaties  which  Prnsaia 
after  the  peace  of  Prague  had  concluded  with 
the  south  Qerroan  itatea,  nor  the  viwt  of  the 
French  emperor  (Angnst,  1867)  at  Sabsbnrg, 
who  desired  to  bring  about  an  anti-Proadaa 
alliance,  oonld  shake  Benat's  conviction  that 
the  preaerration  of  peace  waa  indispensably 
oeoeaswy  fbr  ocan^ting  the  -work  of  reorgan- 
ization at  home.  The  greatest  difflonhy  In  the 
nesotialioaB  between  the  two  delegstion«  which 
had  been  appointed  by  the  Baobarath  and  by 
the  Himganan  diet  for  r^nlating  the  relations 
between  the  two  great  divinons  of  the  empire, 
wu  the  proportionate  distribution  among  uiem 
at  the  expenditures  fur  the  common  a^ra  of 
the  eiwire  and  of  the  public  debt.  The  agree- 
ment ftnally  arrived  at,  according  to  which  70 
roenL  of  the  expenditures  and  debt  waa  to 
borne  by  the  Oialeithon  provinces,  and  SO 
per  cenL  by  Uungary,  met  with  a  strong  op- 
porition  in  the  Reiohsrath,  as  it  was  regarded 
to  he  too  partial  to  Hungary;  bat  the  coutIo- 
ticm  that  a  full  nnderatanding  with  Hungary 
was  necessary  for  the  definite  reconstruction 
of  Oisleithan  Austria  upon  a  constitutional 
'     *is  outweighed  all  other  oonsiderations,  and 


of  the  Beichsrath  in  the  meanwhile  (the  lower 
home  on  Oct.  17,  the  upper  on  Deo.  2)  had 
adopted  four  fandament«I  laws  of  the  state 
(Staatt^ruTid^eietui),  which  in  many  pointa 
modified  the  constitution  of  February,  1861, 
and  secured  to  the  Gisleithan  provinces  a  truly 
constituUoual  form  of  goTemment  The  laws 
were  sanctioned  by  the  emperor  on  Dec  SI ; 
and  then  the  reooustitution  of  the  empire  on 
the  dnalistio  basia  of  a  division  into  Oisleithan 
and  Tranaleithan  provinoea  was  completed. 
On  Deo.  34  the  emperor  appointed  an  impe- 
rial ministry  (B«ieh*miaiil«rium)  for  the  com- 
mon affairs  of  the  empire,  conaisting  of  Count 
Benst  as  minister  of  foreign  afioira,  Uerr  von 
Becke  as  minister  of  finance,  and  Gen-  von 
John  as  minister  of  war.  The  first  ministry 
of  Oisleithania  was  announced  in  the  ofBciol 
gazette  of  Vienna  on  Jan.  1,  1B68.  Prince 
Carlos  Aaervpergwas  its  preudent,  and  among 


:RIA  15X 

its  members  it  counted  some  of  the  prominent 
leaders  of  the  liberal  party  in  the  Beichsrath, 
such  as  Dr.  Giskro,  minister  of  the  interior. 
Dr.  Herbst,  minister  of  justice,  and  Dr.  Brea- 
tel,  minister  of  finance.  Beust,  upon  whom 
the  emperor  in  reci^piition  of  his  services  had 
conferred  the  titles  of  count  aod  chancellor 
of  the  empire,  remained  for  nearly  four  years 
(December,  18B7,  to  November,  1871)  at  the 
helm  of  the  foreign  afioirs  of  the  empire. 
During  all  this  time  the  peaceable  relations 
with  other  powers  were  not  disturbed,  and 
Beast  gainea  at  home  and  abroad  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  one  of  the  ableat  atattamen  of 
Europe.  In  July,  1870,  the  peaceable  policy 
of  Austria  was  put  to  a  severe  teat  by  the  out- 
break of  the  war  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. The  ministry  of  the  empire,  whose 
meetings  at  this  time  were  also  attended  by 
the  prime  ministers  of  Claleithania  and  Hun- 
gary, and  preaided  over  by  the  emperor,  de- 
clared on  July  18  in  favor  of  an  att^tive  neu- 
trality, which,  as  Benst  explained,  did  not  ex- 
clude the  duty  of  watching  for  the  safety  of 
the  monarchy,  and  of  providing  against  all 
poaable  dangers.  The  continuance  of  peace 
enabled  the  ministers  of  Oisleithania  and  of 
Hungary  to  devote  tiieir  whole  attention  to 
internal  reforms.  One  of  the  first  acta  of  the 
Oideithan  ministers  was  to  demand  from  all 
public  officers  an  oath  to  support  the  constitn- 
tion.  The  gaps  which  still  existed  in  the  con- 
stitution were  gradually  filled  up.  A  law  on 
the  responsibility  of  the  mimstry  waa  adopted 
by  a  large  mtyority  of  both  houses.  The  mili- 
tary offices  which  hod  been  directly  dependent 
upon  the  emperor  were  abolished.  TTina  the 
archduke  Albrecht  was  relieved  tram  the  chief 
command  of  the  army,  and  as  inspector  of  tito 
standiiu|  army  placed  nnder  the  minister  of 
war.  The  command  of  the  navy  was  taken 
from  Archduke  Bainer  and  conferred  apon 
Admiral  Tegetthoff.  One  of  tbe  most  impor- 
tant reforms  waa  the  reorganization  of  the  army 
on  a  basia  substantially  identical  witii  that  cf 
the  military  organization  of  Pmsaia.  The  law, 
which  passed  the  house  of  deputies  by  the  large 
m^ority  of  118  votes  against  S9  (Nov.  18, 1868) 
provided  in  particolar  for  a  general  liability  of 
all  daaaea  of  the  people  to  military  aervioe, 
and  regulated  tbe  appointment  to  military 
offlces.  The  financial  condition  of  the  empiro 
steadily  improved,  and  although  tbe  annnal 
budgets  were  not  yet  free  from  deficits,  the 
productivity  and  taxability  of  the  country  so 
rapidly  advanced  as  to  difftise  everywhere 
new  confidence  in  the  financial  future  of  the 
empire. — But  in  apite  of  so  much  that  looked 


One  of  these  concerned  the  regulation  of  the 
religious  and  school  affaira.  Ou  May  2C,  1868, 
the  government  sanctioned  three  laws  adopted 
by  both  houses  of  the  Beichsrath,  which,  in 
accordance  with  the  views  of  the  liberal  party, 
aboliahed  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  eocle»asti<»l 


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152  AUS 

eonrte  over  the  marriage  relatirms  of  OathoUcs, 

tronaferred  the  supreme  direction  and  saperin- 
tendenceof  the  entire  department  of  inBtroctioit 
and  education  to  the  state,  and  resnlated  the 
relations  of  the  ohnrcbes  recognized  oj  the  state 
on  the  basis  of  equal  righta.  The  papal  nuncio 
in  Vienna  protest«d  agunst  these  laws  as  a  vio- 
lation of  the  oonoordat,  and  the  pope  deolared 
them  to  be  noil  and  Toid ;  bat  the  government, 
while  endeavoring  to  conciliato  the  biahops  as 
mnob  as  possible,  carried  them  throagh.  An- 
other important  victory  was  guned  bj  tlie  lib- 
eral party  in  1870,  when  the  Kovermneot  declar- 
ed the  concordat  of  18S5  to  De  no  longer  valid. 
Still  more  important  than  this  religious  conflict 
was  that  between  the  different  nationalities 
represented  in  the  Rdchsrath.  The  Ozecha  of 
Bohemia  and  Moravia  demanded  for  the  lands 
of  "the  crown  of  8t.  Wencealas,"  br  wht«h 
tiiey  nnderstood  the  provinces  of  Bohemia, 
Iforavia,  and  Silesia,  an  antonmny  eqnal  or  at 
least  similar  to  that  of  Hnngary,  and  inolnding 
in  particnlar  a  Czech  parliament  in  the  place 
of  Ozecli  deputies  to  the  Vienna  Reichsrath. 
The  Silesian  diet  almost  nnanimoasl;  protested 
agwnst  these  schemes;  but  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  the  Czech  population  gave  them  an 
enthnsiastio  snpport  As  the  Germans  in 
1886  controlled  the  diets  of  both  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  the  Czech  members  in  Angnst  re- 
signed their  seats,  and  presented  to  the  presi- 
dents of  the  diets  a  declaration  tallj  setting 
forth  their  views  and  plana.  At  the  new 
election  for  the  Bohemian  diet  all  the  81 
mgners  of  the  declaration,  with  bnt  one  ex- 
ception, were  reelected.  They  agun  refiised 
to  attend  the  diet  convoked  in  September, 
1869,  as  the  German  members  were  again  in 
the  majority.  The  Vienna  government  was 
willing  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the 
Czechs;  bnt  the  leaders  of  the  latter,  Rieger 
and  filadkowsby,  declined  to  attend  the  con- 
ference which  had  been  proposed  by  Qiskra, 
and  the  representatives  of  the  Czech  nation- 
ality whom  Oonnt  Potocld  in  April,  1870, 
called  to  Vienna,  were  equally  unwilling  to 
make  any  oonceeaions.  The  saccess  of  Hnn- 
gory  and  the  Ozeob  agitation  strengthened  the 
hope  of  the  Poles  of  Golida  that  they  also 
might  be  able  to  obtain  for  the  Polish  parts  of 
the  empire  an  antonomy  like  that  of  Hungary, 
and  that  thus  Gal icia  might  become  the  nucleus 
of  a  restored  Polish  realm.  Accordingly  the 
diet,  on  SepL  IS,  ISflS,  resolved  to  petition  the 
emperor  to  give  to  the  former  kingdoms  of  Go- . 
licia  and  Lodomeria  and  to  the  grand  duohy 
of  Cracow  a  separate  government,  nnder  the 
direction  of  a  ohancellor  or  special  minister, 
who  should  be  responsible  to  the  diet.  When 
the  committee  of  the  Vienna  Eeichstag  de-  , 
clared  the  Polish  demands  to  be  inadmissible,  ' 
the  Polish  members  of  the  Reichsrath  resigned,  | 
and  their  example  was  soon  followed  by  the  j 
m^ority  of  all  the  Slavic  deputies.  An  insurrec- 
tion which  in  October,  1BG9,  broke  ont  in  tbe 
Slavic  province  of  Dalmatia,  in  tbe  district  of  I 


Cattoro,  had  no  connection  with  the  nation- 
ality movements.  The  people  of  this  district, 
which  is  separated  ft-om  the  remainder  of  Dal- 
matia by  a  nigh  moontain  ridge,  and  who  nnm- 
ber  only  80,000  sonls,  had  formerly  been  ex- 
empt from  military  service,  and  therefore  made 
a  forcible  resistance  to  an  attempt  to  enroll 
them,  in  accordance  with  the  new  military  law, 
in  the  landwehr.  Alter  several  bloody  enoonn- 
ters,  in  which  the  imperial  troops  suffered  se- 
vere losses,  the  insurgents  submitted  in  Jan- 
uary, IBTO,  when  several  concessions  were 
made  to  them.  In  view  of  the  alarming  dimen- 
sions which  the  nationality  conflicts  asaumed, 
the  members  of  the  Cisleithan  ministry  were 
themselves  divided  in  tiieir  opinion  as  to  the 
best  policy  to  be  parsned.  The  minority,  to 
which  the  ministers  Flener,  Giekra,  Herbst, 
HsBuer,  and  Brestel  belonged,  were  nnwiUing  to 
make  farther  concessions  to  tbe  Czechs,  Polea, 
and  other  non-German  nationaUties.  and  de- 
sired to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  central 
Reichsrath  by  a  reform  of  the  electond  law. 
The  three  other  ministera,  Taafe,  Berger,  and 
Potocki,  favored  concessions  to  me  nationaU- 
ties and  to  federalism.  As  the  majority  of 
both  houses  of  the  Reichsrath,  which  was 
opened  on  Deo,  18, 1869,  sympathized  with  tbe 
minority  of  the  ministry,  the  emperor  in  Jan- 
nary,  18T0,  accepted  the  resignation  of  the 
minority.  Soon,  however,  when  the  emperor 
revised  to  sanction  several  measures  pro- 
posed by  the  new  ministry  which  bad  been 
formed  by  Flener,  a  new  ministerial  crisis  oc- 
curred, and  Oonnt  Potocki  was  on  April  4 
conunisdoned  to  form  another  misistry.  The 
overtures  made  by  Oonnt  Potocki  to  tbe  leaders 
of  the  Czechs  and  Poles,  and  the  diasolution  of 
the  Reichsrath  (May  28)  and  all  the  diets,  pro- 
duced an  immense  a^tation,  bnt  the  fiirther 
development  of  the  conflict  was  a^jonmed  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war.  The 
German  centralists  were  not  only  dissatisfied 
with  the  cabinet  of  Potocki,  but  also  with  tbe 
chancellor,  Connt  Beust,  whom  they  likewise 
charged  with  making  nndue  concesnons  to  the 
nationalities-  After  the  outbreak  of  the  Fran- 
co-German war,  the  Anstrian  government  gave 
new  offence  to  the  German  Anstrians  by  check- 
ing their  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of  imnpa- 
thy  with  the  canse  of  Germany.  The  Czeoha 
and  the  Poles,  on  the  other  hand,  mads  dem- 
onstrations in  favor  of  France;  and  the  leader 
of  the  Czechs,  Dr.  Rieger,  even  went  so  far  as 
to  make  Napoleon  a  direct  offer  of  an  alliance 
between  Prance  and  the  Czechs,  on  condition 
that  Napoleon  shonid  aid  the  Czechs  in  restor- 
ing the  independent  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 
Tbe  new  kingdom  was  at  once  to  embrace  the 
Austrian  provinces  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Anstrian  SUeaa,  to  which  subsequently  Pma- 
slan  Silesia,  Lusatia,  and  the  Slovak  districts 
of  northern  Hungary  were  to  he  added.  In 
the  new  Reichsrath,  which  was  opened  on 
Sept  0,  tbe  German  liberals  again  controlled 
a  minority  of  both  houses.    The  provincial 


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^t  of  Bohemia,  however,  tn  which  the  anited 
Gzecfae  and  federalins  had  a  m^ority,  decUiwd 
to  elect  delegates  to  the  Reioharath.  Althoogh 
aa  Imperial  remript  of  Sept,  SS  made,  in  reply 
to  an  address  fit>m  a  Czech  deputation  of  the 
Bohemian  diet,  proroiseB  of  large  conceanoiu, 
nieh  ae  the  coronatioo  of  the  Austrian  emperors 
with  the  Bohemian  orownand  the  indiviiibllltj 
ot  the  conntry,  the  Czechs  perusted  in  llieir 
leflual.  The  goremment  then  ordered  direct 
eteotions,  hj  which  24  Germans  and  liberals 
'i  adherents  of  the  "declaration" 


rath  had  a  qnomm,  thej  soon  passed  a  resolu- 
tion declaring  want  of  oonfldenoe  in  the  minis- 
trj,  which  consequently  tendered  its  resi^a- 
tion  on  Nov.  28.  The  emperor  aooepted  the 
resignation,  bnt  the  formation  of  a  new  cabinet 
was  not  accomplished  nntil  the  beginning  of 
the  year  18T1.  The  Oxech  leaders  on  Deo.  8 
addressed,  in  the  name  of  the  "political  na- 
tion of  the  Bohemians,"  a  memoir  to  the  Aua- 
trian  obaaceDor,  in  which  they  explained  their 
flews  on  the  foreign  policy  of  Anstria,  and  in 
]Mrtioalar  declared  their  sympathy  with  Rus- 
sia in  the  eastern  qnestion.  On  Deo.  14  the 
chancellor  retnmed  ttie  memoir,  informing  the 
Oceoha  that  the  ezpresdon  of  sncb  views  ex- 
ceeded tlieir  rights.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
diplomatic  corregp<»idenae  of  the  most  friendly 
cliamcter  was  begun  in  December  with  the 
government  of  Pmssia,  Anstria  waving  all  op- 
pomtion  to  the  reoonstmction  of  the  German 
empire  imder  the  leadendiip  of  Pmssla.  The 
expeoted  reorganization  of  the  ministry  toolc 
place  on  Feb.  7,  1871,  nnder  the  presidency  of 
Ooont  Hohenwart.  The  new  ministry  leaned 
on  th«  mipport  of  ^e  Blavs  and  the  feudal  and 
OaUiolio  parties.  The  Reichsrath  declared  it- 
self dissatisfied  with  the  pohcy  of  making  oon- 
oessions  to  the  nationalitiee,  but  the  emperor 
in  stem  words  declared  his  approval.  The 
majority  of  the  Reichsrath,  bemg  divided  in 
their  opinions  as  to  the  beet  ^policy  now  to  be 
porsnea,  granted  the  appropriations  demanded 
by  the  ministry,  and  foDod  some  consolation 
in  the  faot  that  Chancellor  Beust  in  the  Ger- 
man aa  well  as  the  Roman  qaeetions  appeared 
to  sympathine  with  the  liberals.    On  tne  ad- 

ionmment  of  the  Reichsrath,  on  .Tuly  11,  Count 
Eohenwart  made  some  important  concessions 
to  the  Czeciis  and  the  Poles.  The  latter  vp- 
pe&red  to  be  contented ;  bat  the  Czechs  Insist- 
ed on  the  adoption  of  the  whole  of  their  de- 
mands. In  Anmst  the  ministry  dissolved  all 
the  prorinciat  diets  in  which  the  German  cen- 
tralists had  a  m^ority,  and  ordered  new  elec- 
tions for  the  Reichsrath.  The  resnlt  gave  to 
Count  Hohenwart  the  assurance  that  now  all 
the  demands  of  the  Czechs  would  be  anbstan- 
tially  granted,  and  the  constitnCion  as  far  as 
naoeaeary  be  altered  by  the  new  Reichsrath. 
An  imperial  rescript  to  the  Bohemian  diet, 
which  acknowledged  "the  rights  of  the  Bohe- 
mian kingdom,"  cansed  unlrannded  entbuaiaam 


ntlA  153 

among  the  Czechs.  A  deputation  from  the 
Bohemian  diet  officially  presented  in  Vienna 
the  fimdameatal  laws  on  which  they  desired 
the  AtagMeh  (agreement)  to  be  based.  This 
presentation  brought  on  a  new  crisis.  A  crown 
council,  composed  of  the  Cisleithan  ministers, 
the  ministers  common  to  the  whole  empire,  and 
Count  Andr&ssy,  was  called  to  advise  the  em- 
peror. Both  Count  Beust  and  Count  Andrfiasy 
so  energetically  opposed  the  policy  of  Hohen- 
wart that  the  emperor  took  sides  with  them. 
As  the  Czech  leaders  refused  to  consent  to  any 
modification  of  their  programme,  Hohenwaii 
resigned  on  Oct.  25.  A  month  later  a  new 
Cisleithan  cabinet  favorable  to  the  German  cen- 
tralists was  appointed,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prince  Adoiph  Auerspei^.  Again  the  diets 
opposedtothe  new  ministry  were  dissolved  and 
new  elections  for  the  Reichsrath  ordered  ;  and 
egeia  the  miniBtJT-  sncceeded  iu  securing  a  min- 
isterial majority  in  the  new  Reichsrath.  The 
speech  widi  which  the  emperor  on  Deo.  97 
opened  the  B^chsrath  announoed  that  the 
government  wonld  accede  to  the  wishes  of  Oa- 
liciain  so  far  as  tiiey  were  compatit>le  with  the 
interests  of  the  empire,  and  that  measnres 
wonld  be  taken  to  make  the  ReichM^th  a  com- 
pletely representative  body.  On  Feb.  SO,  1672, 
the  miniMry  and  constitntionid  party  (Fffrrtu- 
tunfftpartei)  guned  a  great  triumph,  as  the 
Reichsrath  by  104  against  49  votes  adopted  aa 
additional  clause  to  the  electoral  law  which 
authorized  the  government  to  order  direct  elec- 
tions if  delegates  elected  by  provincial  diets 
should  re^gn  their  seats  or  be  prevented  from 
entering  the  Reichsrath.  Another  great  tri- 
rnnph  was  obtained  by  the  ministry  in  Bohemia, 
where  it  controlled  a  oondderable  m^orityin 
the  new  provincial  diet.  Of  tlie  54  delegates 
whom  the  new  diet  sent  to  the  ReichBrath,  40 
were  supporters  of  the  ministry,  which  could 
now  rely  on  a  two-thirds  m^ority  in  the  Reiohs- 
rath  even  if  the  Poles  should  not  vote  for  it. 
The  session  of  the  diet  was  cloeed  on  June 
88.  The  two  great  reforms,  the  introdnotion 
ef  which  had  been  regarded  as  the  chief  task 
of  the  ministry,  the  snbstitution  of  direct  elec- 
tion to  the  Reichsrath  for  the  indirect  election 
of  the  delegates  by  the  provincial  diets,  and  the 
Aiugleieh  (agreement)  with  the  Poles,  were 
not  yet  carried  through.  The  ministry  offered 
to  the  Poles  far-reaching  concessions,  bnt  at 
the  scune  time  declared  that  nothing  would  be 
conceded  incompatible  with  the  dnaliBtio  baas 
of  the  entire  empire.  The  Poles  in  turn  prom- 
ised that  in  their  struggle  for  ah  autonomy  like 
that  of  Hnngary  they  wonld  keep  within  the 
bounds  of  the  pre««ent  constitution  of  the  em- 
pire. (See  Galicia,  and  Hitn'oart.) — Among 
the  beO,  historical  works  on  Anstria  are  Mid- 
lith,  OeKhiekU  de*  Stterrtiohimken  Kaitfr- 
itaat*  (S  vols.,  Hambnt^,  1S84-'C0) ;  Lichnow 
sky,  GaehiehU  dei  ffauta  ffabtbvrff  (8  vols., 
Vienna,  18B9-'44) ;  Springer,  OemhiehU  (3m- 
terrMch*  *Mt  dem  Wiener  FrUdtm  (2  vols., 
Leipdo,  1884-'S);  Bidennann,  Getehiehte  der 


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dttreiehuehen,  6e»ainmUtaattid«e  (vol,  i,,  Inn- 

E^ruck,  1867):  Bogg«,  Von  VUagot  lu  tw 
Oegenaart  (vol.  i.,  Leipaio,  1S72);  Arehiv  J^ 
Kwidt  der  diterreiehuehin  GaehxeKUquelUn 
(Jrablished  by  the  Yienim  noademy  of  soieace, 
toIb.  i.  to  xiiv.,  Vienna,  1848-71). 

iCSnUl,  on  arohduahy  in  the  wesUm  half 
of  the  Anatro-UunKarian  monarchy,  bounded 
N.  by  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  £.  by  Hungary, 
8.  by  Styria  and  SaUbnrg,  and  W.  by  Saizbnrg 
and  Bavaria;  area,  12,288  Bq.m.;  pop.inlSTl, 
2,^6,224.  It  is  divided  into  two  provinoes  or 
crown  lands — Upper  Angtria  (Oatreieh  ci  der 
Eimt)  in  the  west,  and  Lower  AoBtria  (Oeit- 
.  reieh  unter  dor  Emu)  in  the  east,  the  river  Enns 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  them. — 
Uppeb  AtTSTKiA  haa  on  area  of  4,633  eq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  7SC,e22.  The  prinoipal  rivers 
are  the  Danube,  which  divides  tJbe  province 
into  two  portions,  the  Enna,  the  Trann,  and  the 
Inn,  tributaries  of  the  Danube,  and  the  BoIe- 
ach,  which  flows  into  the  Inn,  In  the  B.  W. 
are  nnmerons  Alpine  lakes,  some  of  them  of 
cuioderable  nze.  ADneral  springs  are  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  province,  bnt  few  of 
them  are  of  great  valae.  The  sorfaoe  is  moun- 
tunous.  8.  of  llie  Danube  the  Koric  Alps 
overflm|ead  the  ooontry,  ri«ng,  in  the  group 
near  Hallstadt,  to  the  height  of  more  than 
9,G00  ft.  N.  of  the  Danube  the  monntajn  sys- 
tem of  Bohemia  extends  into  the  province,  but 
attuDB  no  oonsiderable  altitude.  The  soil  is 
exceedingly  ferljle  in  the  valleys  of  the  Danube 
and  its  tribntaries,  but  elsewhere  atony  and 
dry.  Even  on  the  mountain  slopes,  however, 
the  inhabitants  have  made  it  productive.  The 
climate  is  bracing  and  cool,  from  the  moun- 
tcdnoos  nature  of  llie  country.  Aericnltore 
and  catUe-b  reeding  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tJons  of  the  people.  The  salt  works  at  Ischl 
and  Hallstadt  furnish  an  important  industry, 
hut  the  mannfactores  are  not  extensive,  and 
oonwst  chiefly  of  iron  artdolea  and  cotton  goods. 
Capital,  Linz.— LoWKB  Aitstsii  has  an  area 
of  7,9M  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,000,602.  The 
irincipal  rivers  are  the  Danube,  Enns,  Leitha, 
trems,  March,  and  Thaya.  The  8.  portion  is 
occupied  by  a  part  of  the  Norio  Alps,  with 
thur  branches;  the  chief  of  these  are  the 
groups  of  the  Wienerwald  or  Kahlengeberg,  a 
■pur  of  which,  the  Schneeberg,  is  9,700  ft.  above 
tne  sea.  N.  of  the  Danube  chains  of  hilla  ex- 
tend into  the  country  from  Bohemia,  but  there 
are  no  considerable  peaka.  The  valley  of  the 
Danube  is  here  broad  and  fertile,  and  the 
smaller  valleys  of  its  tributaries,  especially  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  province,  also  furnish 
large  tracts  of  arable  land.  The  climate  is 
somewhat  warmer  tlian  that  of  Upper  Austria. 
Agriculture  is  not  carried  to  the  perfection 
attained  in  that  province ;  but  the  manufitc- 
tar^  are  much  more  numerous  and  flourishing. 
They  include  machines  of  many  kinds,  car- 
riages, wagons,  optical,  musical,  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  metal  wares,  articles  of 
leather  work,  ulk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods. 


prii 


AUTOLT0U3 

Most  of  these  are  carried  on  in  the  neighbOT- 
hood  of  Vienna.  The  province  is  int«rsected  by 
several  lines  of  r^way,  and  there  is  a  brisk  trade 
with  the  neighboring  states.  Capital,  Vienna. 
— The  archduchy  of  Austria  was  the  nucleus 
around  which  the  empire  of  Austria  (now  the 
Austro-Hungarianmonarchy)grew  up.  Lower 
Austria  was  founded  as  a  ma^aviate  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne ;  in  1166,  Joined  with 
Upper  Austria,  it  became  a  duchy,  and  in  146S 
an  archduchy.  From  this  time  the  Uapsbnrgs 
steadily  added  to  its  territory,  and  it  was  soon 
merged  in  their  increasing  possesuons. 

lESno-HONfiAUil  MOKASCHY.     See  Ars< 

IDTADGl,  a  central  connty  of  Alabama, 
boonded  S.  by  the  Alabama  river;  area,  about 
6fiO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,628,  of  whom 
7,202  were  colored.  The  Selmo,  Rome,  and 
Dalton,  and  South  and  North  Alabama  rail- 
roads pass  through  the  connty.  The  surface 
is  uneven  and  ^e  soil  fertile.  In  1870  the 
county  produced  iei,lG6  bushels  of  Indian 
com,  86,660  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  7,e6S  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  two  cotton  factories  and 
a  cotton  nn  factory,  producing  articles  to  the 
value  of  1981,788.     Capitol,  Kingston. 

IDTHENHGB,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  No- 
vellm  of  Justinian,  so  colled  by  early  writers 
fl-om  its  being  a  literal  translation  of  the  origi- 
nal. The  term  was  afterward  applied  to  ex- 
tracts of  decidons  from  the  2/btieUa  by  which 
previous  deoiuons  or  definitions  coutdned  in 
the  Pandects  or  the  Codez  were  modified  or 
set  aside.  These  extracts  were  made  by  doc- 
tors of  the  law  and  inserted  in  the  Corpu* 
Jurit,  but  had  no  authority.  The  German 
emperors  Frederick  II.  and  III.  issued  in  their 
names  authentics,  and  ordered  the  civilians  of 
Bolognatointeroalatethem  in  the  code  of  Jus- 
tinian.   These  last  had  a  practical  authority, 

ICTO  Di  F£  (Port.,  act  of  futh ;  Span.,  auto 
d»ft),  a  public  day  held  by  the  inquisitioa  for 
the  punishment  of  heretics  and  the  absolution  of 
the  umocent  aocnaod.  The  term  is  also  appUed 
to  the  sentence  of  the  inquisition  read  to  the  con- 
demned Just  before  eiecntiou,  and  to  the  session 
of  the  coort  of  inquisition.     (See  iNqciBrnoK.) 

iCTOLlCDS.  1.  In  Greek  legend,  a  son  of 
Mercury  and  Chione,  father  of  Anticleo,  and 
thus  maternal  grandfather  of  Ulysses,  who 
spent  part  of  his  youth  at  his  residence  on  Mt. 
Parnassus.  He  was  renowned  for  his  cunning 
as  a  robber  and  a  liar,  and  possessed  the  pow- 
er of  metamorphodng  boUi  himself  and  the 
.things  stolen.  But  Sisyphus  overmatched  him 
in  cunning;  for  Autolycns  having  stolen  bis 
sheep  and  transformed  them,  he  identified 
them  by  marks  which  he  had  made  under  thev 
feet  and  compelled  him  to  restore  them.  IL 
A  tnathematician  of  Pitane  in  jEolis,  lived 
about  350  B.  0.  His  treatises  on  the  ''Motion 
of  the  Sphere  "  and  on  the  "  Risings  and  Set- 
tings  of  the  Fixed  Stars  "  are  the  oldest  extant 
Greek  works  on  mathematica.  Three  MS8.  of 
each  exist  at  Oxford,  but  no  complete  edition 


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AUTOMATON 


15S 


lua  been  pnbliBfaed.  A  Latin  tranalittion  a^ 
peared  at  Bome  In  16H7-'8 ;  and  a  fbll  aoconnt 
of  them  ia  given  b^  Delambre  in  bta  SUtoire 
it  Fattronomis  aneiennt. 

kVWmkjm  (6r.  otrdf,  self;  and  ^6ta>,  to 
move),  a  aelf-moring  niHchine,  or  one  which 
CODtains  nithin  itaelf  the  moving  power.  ThiB 
description  wonld  make  the  term  applicable 
to  watches,  moaical  boxes,  Ac,  but  it  ii9  gen- 
eraHf  used  to  desiffData  0QI7  thorn  machlnea 
vtdob  ore  mitde  to  imitate  the  motions  of  men 
and  animals.  Those  constracted  to  inutate  men 
are  sometime  called  androidei.  Probablj  ths 
aarljeet  allnidon  to  self-moving  machines  in  his- 
tory ia  to  the  tripoda  moved  on  living  wheela, 
and  instinct  with  life,  which  Homer  dascribea 
Vnlcan  aa  having  contrived.  Then  come  the 
walldng  statues,  female  dancers,  and  wooden 
cow  of  DffidatoB,  whose  inventdon  appears  to 
have  been  wonderfully  prolific  in  antomatonH. 
Archytas  oonatracted  his  wonderibl  dove  400 
veers  before  Christ.  In  later  times  we  have 
Friar  Bacon's  brazen  head  which  spoke,  and 
the  eagle  and  iron  fly  of  Regiomontanus,  the 
former  of  which  is  said  to  have  flown  from  the 
<nty,  sainted,  the  emperor,  and  returned;  and 
the  latter  after  flying  ronnd  the  room  retomed 
to  its  master.  But  the  love  of  the  marvellous 
baa  no  doubt  greatly  improved  npon  the  feats 
of  the  earlier  inventors.  The  flrat  androides 
wUoh  acquired  any  celebrity  was  made  by  Al- 
bertna  M^nns,  in  the  13th  century;  it  moved 
lik«  k  man  and  even  spoke.  Thomas  Aquinas 
k  Mtid  to  have  been  so  alarmed  by  it.  that  he 
broke  it  in  pieces  with  his  staff,  to  the  great 
grief  of  the  nnfortnnate  inventor,  who  exclaim- 
ed that  he  had  destroyed  the  work  of  80  years. 
Another  similar  invention  of  Descartes,  which 
he  named  his  danghter  Franinna,  shared  a  um- 
Har  fate;  the  eaptain  of  a  vessel  on  board  of 
which  it  was  placed,  thinking  the  devil  must 
be  in  a  machine  that  moved  so  like  a  human 
being,  had  it  thrown  overboard.  Obariemagne 
reoeived  from  Ilaronn  al-Rashid  a  present  of  a 
water  clock,  in  the  dial  of  which  a  door  opened 
at  each  honr,  and  when  at  noon  the  13  doors 
were  all  thrown  open,  as  many  knights  on 
horseback  isened  out,  paraded  round  the  dial, 
and  then  returning  shut  themselves  in  again. 
Similar  contrivances  are  still  extant  in  some 
ancient  European  cities,  as  Nuremberg  in  Ger- 
inaiiT'  and  Hensden  in  Holland.  A  very  amns- 
ii^  antomaton  group  waa  constructed  by  M. 
Oomns  for  Lonis  XIV.,  consisting  of  a  coach 
and  horses,  a  coaehman,  a  page,  and  a  lady  In- 
nde.  The  flgures  all  pertbrmed  their  appro- 
priate parts ;  the  coach  was  driven  up  to  the 
king  and  stopped,  and  the  lady,  let  out  by  the 
page,  presented  a  petition,  and  reentering  the 
carriage  was  driven  off.  Kext  to  Dtedalus, 
Yancanson,  who  lived  in  Paris  in  the  early 
part  of  the  lost  century,  appears  to  have  been 
poasessed  of  the  greatest  skill  in  this  depart- 
ment. He  exhibited  in  1788  a  flageolet  and 
tambonrine  player,  which  is  probably  the  most 
perfect  androides  ever  constructed,  as  hia  duck 


is  no  donbt  the  most  ^>erfect  automaton.    It 

Slaved  the  flageolet  with  the  left  hand  and 
eat  the  tombonrine  with  the  right,  executing 
many  pieces  of  music  with  wonderful  accuracy. 
He  iiJbo  exhibited  a  duck  in  1741,  which  moved, 
at«,  drank,  and  even  apparently  digested  and 
evacuated  its  food  like  a  live  duok.  The  flgnre 
wonld  stretch  out  its  neck  to  take  food  from 
the  hand,  and  then  would  swallow  it  with  the 
natural  aridity  of  a  duck,  even  the  motion  of 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  being  perceptible.  It  . 
wonld  rise  up  on  its  feet,  walk,  swim,  dabble 
in  the  water,  and  quack,  wonderfully  imitatiog 
the  natural  actions  of  the  duck.  In  its  mecha- 
nism it  was  constructed  in  many  parts — as  in 
the  wings— as  nearly  like  those  parts  of  the 
bird  OS  possible.  Vancanson  undertook,  near 
the  close  of  his  life,  to  construct  au  automaton 
which  would  display  all  the  mechanism  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  the  veins  and  arteries 
in  which  were  to  be  of  gum  elastic ;  but  the 
art  of  working  this  material  was  not  then  well 
understood,  and  there  being  long  delay  in  the 
arrival  of  an  anatomist  sent  by  the  sing  to 
attend  to  the  work,  Yancanson  became  dis- 
couraged and  gave  it  up.  A  father  and  son 
named  Droz  had  the  some  remarkable  talent. 
The  former  made  a  flgure  of  a  child,  which  sat 
at  a  dest  dipped  its  pen  in  the  ink,  and  wrote 
in  French.  The  latter,  bom  in  1762,  went  to 
Paris  at  the  age  of  22  with  a  female  figure 
which  played  dmerent  tnnes  on  the  harpsichord, 
foUowing  with  its  eyes  and  head  the  notes  in 
the  music  book,  and  rising  at  the  close  and 
saluting  the  company.  About  the  same  time 
the  ahb6  Kioal  made  several  automaton  fig- 
ures, some  in  a  group,  which  played  different 
instruments  of  music.  He  also  exhibited  at  the 
academy  of  sciences  two  heads,  which  articu- 
lated syllables.  Halzel  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  exhibited  a  famous  antomaton 
trumpeter  at  Yienna,  which  played  many  of  the 
French  and  Austrian  marches,  and  for  many 
years  afterward  was  exhibited  by  a  travelling 
troupe  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Earope.  Stilt 
later  is  the  antomaton  of  the  ingenious  Swiss 
mechanic  Uaillordet,  a  female  figure  that  per- 
forms 18  tunee  on  the  piano,  with  the  natural 
movements  of  the  fingers  and  eyes  and  heaving 
of  the  bosom.  It  continues  in  action  for  an  honr. 
With  it  are  an  antomaton  msgician ;  a  boy  that 
writes  and  draws;  a  little  dancing  figure  tltat 
moves  to  music  from  the  gloss  case  it  is  in ;  a 
humming  bird  that  comes  out  of  a  box,  sings, 
and  returns;  a  steel  spider ;  and  a  hissing  ser- 
pent. Kempelen's  automaton  chess-player  was 
no  true  automaton,  but  constructed  to  contain 
a  person,  by  whose  intelligence  the  movements 
were  controlled  and  the  game  played.  The 
doors  of  the  machine  were  opened  apparently 
to  expose  the  whole  interior;  but  they  were 
never  all  opened  at  the  some  time.  A  person 
could  thus  move  from  one  part  of  the  interior 
to  another,  keeping  himself  concealed.  Such 
a  one,  known  to  be  a  skilful  chess-player,  trav- 
elled with  the  exhibitioii,  and  was  never  seen 


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166 


AUTOPLASTY 


daring  the  cootiDuaiiM  of  the  game.  A  reiy 
iiig«iiiouB  aatomaton  clarinet  player  was  made 
bT  Van  Oeokelen  in  Holland,  and  exhibited  in 
New  York  about  1860.  It  performed  operatic 
and  clasBical  aelectiooa,  with  aocompaniment 
of  other  inatruments  plajed  hj  living  perform- 
ers; it  took  the  inEtrument  from  ita  month, 
moved  ita  head  and  eyes,  and  bowed  before  the 
ftudience.  It  was  woond  up  like  a  clock,  and  a 
drum,  like  that  of  a  hand  organ,  was  placed  in 
its  chest,  a  difTcrent  one  fur  erery  pieoe  of 
mosic.  The  moet  perfect  and  lateit  is  perhaps 
the  speaking  automaton  of  Fabennan  of  Vien- 
na, exhibited  in  New  York  in  1872.  It  is  the 
result  of  a  thoroagh  phyaological  stndj  of  lie 
human  organs  of  speech,  and  their  close  imita- 
tion hj  the  materials  and  meohaoioal  arte  of 
the  present  daj.  As  these  contrivances  have 
no  practical  utility,  serving  only  to  display  the 
ingenuity  of  the  maker,  tLeir  constroction  in 
the  United  Btatea  is  confined  to  children's  toys. 
ilTTOPUSnr  (Qr.  airit,  eelf;  and  v}(6eaav,  to 
shape  or  form),  a  sar^oal  operation  by  wtudi 
the  nose  or  other  superficial  portion  of  the 
body,  being  destroyed  by  accident  or  by  dis- 
ease, may  bo  renewed  or  replaced  by  a  portion 
of  skin  taken  from  another  part  of  the  same 
body.  This  art  is  said  to  have  been  proctjsed 
in  India  from  time  immemorial.  It  was  a  cus- 
tom to  punish  crime  by  cuttJog  off  the  nose,  or 
the  lips,  or  the  ears  of  the  criminal ;  and  for  a 
time  the  parts  were  immediately  replaced  and 
found  to  grow  again.  To  prevent  this  the  ex- 
cised parts  were  destroyed  by  fire ;  but  the  fact 
of  the  natural  part  adhering  after  it  had  been 
excised,  and  h^mg  as  a  common  wound,  sog- 
sested  the  idea  that  s  portion  of  skin  removed 
aom  any  other  part  of  the  iMdy,  and  applied 
immediately  to  the  mutiloted  part,  might  heal 
and  become  a  natural  snbstitntefor  the  part  re- 
moved. When  the  noee  was  cut  off  by  the  ex- 
ecutioner, the  surgeon  cut  a  trion^ialar  portion 
of  skin  from  the  forehead,  leaving  it  still  attach- 
ed by  a  small  pedicle  over  the  root  of  the  nose, 
and,  twisting  it  ronnd,  reversed  it  over  the  na- 
•al  region  to  supply  the  place  of  the  nose  which 
had  been  cut  off.  The  skin  adhered  and  the 
deformity  was  lessened,  hut  a  soar  remained 
upon  the  forehead  where  the  skin  had  been 
removed.  This  method  was  adopted  in  other 
countries,  where  the  nose,  the  eyelids,  or  any 
portion  of  the  face  had  been  ii^nred  by  accident 
or  by  disease.  Celsue  speaks  of  nasal  and  labial 
aotoplastj.  In  the  ISth  century  this  art  was 
practised  in  Calabria  by  the  Branca  fomily  of 
sni^ieonB,  who  introduced  the  practice  of  taking 
a  portion  of  skin  from  the  arm  to  replace  a  de- 
formity in  the  face,  instead  of  tummg  over  a 
piece  of  skin  from  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  port  repaired,  leaving  a  scar  close  by  al- 
most OB  bad  OS  the  original  deformity.  In  the 
following  century  Lanfranc,  an  Italian  surgeon, 
practised  the  art  of  nasal  antoplasty  with  suc- 
cess in  Paris;  and  the  celebrated  Gasparo  Ta- 
{liocozzi  (Taliacotios)  practised  the  same  art  in 
taly,  and  wrote  his  work  on  the  art  of  sutoplas- 


AUTDIT 

tic  snrgery,  which  is  still  in  good  repute.  Tbe 
last-named  surgeon  improved  the  operation  to 
sDoh  an  extent,  and  did  so  much  to  bring  it 
permanentiy  into  reotwnition,  that  the  reator*- 
tion  of  the  nose  or  other  lost  parts,  when  per- 
formed according  to  his  method,  received  hii 
name,  and  became  known  as  the  "Taliaeotion 
operation."  In  the  beginning  d  the  present 
century  this  art  was  revived  by  the  celebrated 
English  sotf^n  Carpne,  and  has  l>eeD  rnnch 
improved  by  Grtfe,  Dzondi,  Delpeoh,  Cooper, 
Dupuytren,  Roui,  Usfranc,  Blandin,  Velpean, 
Ltdlemand,  Dieffenbach,  and  other  celebrated 
surgeons  of  the  present  time.  New  method) 
have  been  introduced,  and  almost  any  superfi- 
cial portion  of  the  body  may  be  now  repaired 
by  antoplastio  surgery.  Three  methods  are 
adopted,  the  Indian,  the  Italian,  and  the 
Fren<^  and  one  or  the  other  is  preferred  ae- 
oording  to  the  parts  involved.  The  Indian 
method,  alreaidy  described,  oonsista  in  turning 
over  a  oontiguons  portion  of  wHn  to  repav  the 
deformity;  tlie  Italian  method  consists  in  tak- 
ing a  porti<Hi  of  skin  from  tlie  arm,  or  from  a 
distant  portion  of  the  body ;  the  French  meth- 
od consists  in  loosening  the  akin  on  either  side 
of  the  iigory,  so  as  to  detach  it  from  the  ports 
beneath,  drawing  it  together  until  it  corera 
the  lost  part,  and  then  uniting  the  borders,  by 
sutore  pins  and  ligatnres,  until  tbe  pert*  ad- 
here and  ^w  together.  This  is  far  the  best 
wherever  it  is  practicable.  The  resources  <rf 
this  art  are  now  very  considerable,  but  skill  is 
required  to  operate  well,  and  judgment  to  de- 
dde  whether  it  will  be  practically  nsefhl ;  for, 
where  tbe  general  health  of  the  patient  isonfa* 
Torable,  the  operation  may  be  unadvisablCL — 
Different  names  are  given  to  the  oper^on,  oo- 
oording  to  the  parts  rep^red  by  this  method : 
It  is  termed  "  blepbaroplsaty  "  when  applied  to 
tile  eydids;  "  otoplasty  "  when  applied  to  the 
ears ;  "  rhinoplasty  "  when  applied  to  the  nose ; 
"cheiloplaaty"  in  reference  to  the  lips:  "pal- 
atoplasty" for  the  roof  of  the  mouth;  anjd 
"  bronchoplasty  "  for  tbe  trachea. 

IDTraX  (Lat.  aufwnMtu),  the  third  Beas<» 
of  the  year.  In  the  northern  temperate  zone 
it  be^s  when  the  sun  in  its  apparent  do- 
scent  to  the  sonthem  hemisphere  crosses  the 
equatorial  line,  and  ends  at  the  period  of  the 
son's  greatest  sonthem  declinatran,  or  when 
he  enters  Capricorn.  This  astronomical  an- 
tumn  begins  about  Sept  S8,  and  lasts  till  abont 
Deo.  21.  But  in  popular  language  in  the  Uni- 
ted St&tes  autumn  c(»nprisea  uie  months  of 
September,  October,  and  November;  in  Eng- 
land, August,  September,  and  October.  In  the 
soutliem  hemispbere,  the  autumn  takes  place 
at  the  time  of  our  spring. 

ADTDN  (anc.  Bibraete,  afterward  Avgvttedu- 
ntim),  a  town  of  France,  in  Burgundy,  deport- 
ment of  SoAne-et-Loire,  on  the  Arrouz,  SOm.N. 
N.  W.  of  MAcoo;  pop,  in  1886,  12,889.  It  Uee 
at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  well  wooded  hills ;  the 
sarroondmg  coontry  is  rich  in  vineyords  ond 
com  fields.    The  town  contains  many  antiqni- 


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AUVEBGNE 

Ilea.  Hamve  and  corioiu  fragmenta  of  tbe 
■uoient  Romui  walle  still  atand ;  obo  the  >o- 
ealled  templeof  Janua,  of  impoaing  proportions 
and  solidity.  Bemdes  thoaa  there  are  two  ca- 
rious Roman  gates^  the  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, and  jast  without  the  gate  a  pyramidal 
mass  of  arclutecture,  built  probably  for  sepnl- 
ehral  porposes,  but  in  whose  honor  antiquaries 
are  in  doubt.    The  town  oontains  several  fine 

r'metis  of  church  architecture,  among  them 
catjjedral  of  St.  Lazare,  Romanesque  in 
style,  and  the  ohapelle  St.  Nazsire,  interesting 
for  its  richly  punted  glass.  Near  Autnn  are 
the  valuable  coal  basins  of  £pinae  and  Creuzot. 
The  episcopal  see  of  this  city  was  once  held 
by  TsUeyraud,  The  lAwn  figures  in  the  his- 
tory of  Gaol  as  the  capital  of  the  .£duL  Un- 
der the  Romans  and  the  Franks  it  wu  often 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  war.  Its  vicinity 
witnessed  considerable  fighting  in  the  war  of 
18TO-'71,  chiefly  between  the  troops  of  Gari- 
baldi and  those  of  Qen.  Werder,  An  attack 
OD  the  town  by  the  latter  was  gallantly  re- 
pulsed Nov.  80,  1870. 

lUTEKCNE,  an  old  province  of  France,  now 
forming  the  departmenta  of  Osntsl,  Puy.de- 
D&me,  and  part  of  Hante-Loire.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  very  different  in  their  climate 
and  productions.  Upper  Anvergne,  which  in- 
cludes chiefly  the  departments  of  Cantal  and 
Pay-de-DAme,  is  a  mountainous,  wild,  and  pic- 
turesque cattle-raising  district.  The  mountains 
which  intersect  it  are  a  branch  of  the  0£ven- 
nes,  and  lie  in  confused  ^ups,  sending  up 
several  summits  to  the  height  of  6,000  feet, 
sotoe  of  which  are  eitJDot  volcanoes.  Mont 
Dore,  the  highest  of  them,  is  an  almost  isolated 
cone,  and  has  its  sides  covered  with  scorin. 
Lower  Aavergne  eitends  along  both  banks  of 
the  Allier,  and  presents  a  continual  suoaession 
of  toTms  and  villages,  and  of  the  most  fertile 
hilla  and  valleys  of  France,  which  produce 
abnndontly  the  vine,  grutu,  and  fruits.  The 
province  takes  its  name  from  the  ancient  Ar- 
veml,  one  of  the  moat  powerful  tribes  of  Ganl 
in  Goaar's  time,  of  whom  the  present  Anver- 
gnata  are  supposed  to  be  the  almost  unmiied 
aesoendftnts.  Though  their  province  has  con- 
tributed a  number  of  distioguished  names  to 
tfaebistoryof  their  country,  the  Auvergnatsare 
ofben  spoken  of  as  the  Bceotians  of  France. 

ItX  CITES,  or  Lea  Cbjh,  a  seaport  town  on 
the  8.  W,  ooHst  of  Hayti,  capital  of  a  depart- 
■  ment,  aituated  on  the  bay  of  Oayes,  in  lat. 
18*  II'  N.,  Ion.  78°  50'  W.,  92  m.  W.  8.  W.  of 
Port-an-Prinee ;  pop.  about  8,000,  chiefly  ne- 
groes and  mulattoes.  The  exports  embrace 
■agar,  ootton,  and  coffee,  and  the  trade  ia  prin- 
oipally  in  the  hands  of  British  merchants.  In 
tihe  vioinity  are  many  mm  distilleries.  A  con- 
uderable  ami^^ling  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Jamaica.  The  hnrricane  of  Aug.  12,  1831,  de- 
stroyed part  of  the  town,  Icilling  seTeral  thon- 
■aiM  peraons.  The  civil  wars  since  1888  have 
slflo  proved  injurious  to  Aux  Cayes.  The  oli- 
mate  b  nnwholestHne. 


ACZO0X 


157 


irXlBU,  a  city  of  Prance,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Yonae,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Yonne,  80  m.  8.  E,  of  Paris;  pop.  in 
186S,  1E,49T.  Its  wines  are  mooh  esteemed. 
Its  manufacturea  are  calicoes,  cloths,  sergea, 
druggets,  earthenware,  violin  strings,  Sk.  It 
has  a  collie,  a  seoondary  ecclewaatical  school, 
a  museum  of  antiquities,  a  public  library  of 
about  26,000  volumes,  a  cathedral  with  a  fine 
flamboyant  Gothic  &Qade,  and  the  quunt 
church  of  St.  Germain,  with  carious  crypts,  in 
which  lie  buried  the  mediieval  counts  of  Anz- 
ene  and  its  vicinitT  (Auserrois). 

IDXOnE,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  CAte  d'Or,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Sa&ne,  17  m.  S.  £.  of  D^on ;  pop.  in  1866, 
G,911.  It  has  an  arsenal  and  barracks,  with 
manufactures  of  woollen  cloth  and  nails. 

IDZOlfT,  llbP<a^  a  Freneh  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  bom  in  Rouen,  died  in  Rome 
about  1S9S.  In  coiuonotion  with  Heard,  he 
appUed  the  telesoope  t«  the  mnral  quadrant. 
He  invented  and  applied  to  the  telescope  a 
movable  wire  micrometer,  on  whioh  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  in  1667.  By  the  ud  of  this 
instrument  be  obaerved  and  meoaured  the  di- 
urnal variation  of  the  moon's  diameter,  first 
explained  by  Kepler.  Auzout  was  an  efBdent 
optidan  and  maker  of  telescopes.  Ills  obser- 
vation and  oalcnlations  of  the  comet  of  1664 
suggested  to  Loms  XIV.  the  first  idea  of  found- 
ing an  observatory  at  Paris,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  academy  of  ed- 
enoes,  foonded  In  1666. 

iDZOOX,  nMin  Uali,  a  French  physician 
and  anatomist,  bom  at  Bt.  Aubin  d'Ecroville, 
department  of  the  Enre,  about  17S7.  He  is 
celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  method  of 
making  permanent  models  of  anatomical  prep- 
arations in  papier  mach&,  an  art  known  under 
the  French  name  of  anatomie  clattique.  The 
advantages  of  this  method  are:  lat,  that  the 
material  used  is  light,  not  essily  broken,  and 
nnafiboted  by  the  atmosphere  at  all  ordinary 
temperatures;  Sd,  that  minute  parts  can  be 
ropresented  in  eiklarged  dimensions,  and  colored 
to  imitete  nature;  and  Sd,  that  the  pieces 
representing'  the  different  parte  of  an  o^au 
ai^  the  dinerent  organs  of  the  body  con  be 
separated  from  each  other  and  put  together  at 
will.  Dr.  AuEouz  completed  his  invention  by 
1825,  and  eatablished  a  manufactory  at  St 
Aubin  for  the  production  of  anatomical  mod- 
els. He  obtuned  a  gold  medal  for  his  ana- 
tomical preparations  at  the  French  ezpoaition 
of  1884,  honorable  mention  in  188B  and  1844, 
and  a  second  gold  medal  in  1840.  lie  received 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1834.  At 
one  time  he  gave  annual  oourees  of  lectures 
upon  anatomy  and  physiology,  illustrated  by 
the  aid  of  his  own  preparations.  His  published 
works  are ;  Cantidirationt  genirala  mir  Vana- 
Unnie ;  Miijutire  lur  Is  ehoUra-morbu*,  £c. 
(Paris,  ISS2) ;  Z,efotu  ilimtntaira  d'anatomi* 
et  d»  phyHologie  (1889;  8d  ed.,  ISoS);  Da 
taree  molUt  et  cttmm*  dant  U  ehmal  (1863); 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


InnMtanea  da  ehttaux  forU  et  legen,  du  eh^ 
val  de  giurra  et  dt  lv:u,  &o.  (18S0). 

ITA  (Bnrmege,  Ang-uia,  a  fish  pond,  so  called 
becaose  the  originu  town  was  bailt  aronnd 
one),  formerly  the  capital  of  the  fiunnan  em- 
pire, styled  in  the  official  docnmenCs  of  the 
coontr^  SaUtnaptiTo,  the  oitj'  of  gema,  «tua- 
ted  on  an  island  formed  hj  tbe  Irrawadd;  riv- 
er OQ  the  N.,  the  Mfit-nge  on  the  E.,  and  the 
Ujit-tba,  an  offset  of  the  Ufit-nge,  on  the  S., 
and  on  the  S.  E.  angle  b^  a  canal,  throogh 
which  the  waten  of  the  Myit-nge  flow,  dug  to 
defend  that  face  of  the  city ;  lat  21°  66'  N.,  Ion. 
BS°  66'  E.  The  popnlation  was  formerly  from 
80,000  to  60,000,  but  is  now  maoh  less.  Atk 
la  divided  into  npper  and  lower,  or  inner  and 
onter  towns.  Eiolusive  of  suburbs,  the  whole 
place  ia  about  6i  m.  in  oironmferenoe,  and  is 
Hidoaed  with  a  brick  wall  15^  ft.  high  and  10 
ft.  thick;  an  embankment  of  earth  supports 
this  wall  on  the  inner  aide,  and  tliere  ia  a  small 
ditch  on  the  outside.  The  inner  town  includes 
the  palaoee,  royal  pagodas,  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  houses  of  the  outer  (own  are  for 
the  moat  part  wretched  huts  of  bamboos  and 
mats  thatched  with  grass.  The  residences  of 
the  chiefs  and  wealthy  men  are  generally  con- 
structed of  planks,  and  tiled;  bnt  tbe  town  is 
now  decayed  and  desolate. — Ava  waa  first  made 
the  capital  about  1364 ;  and  since  then  the 
Bnrman  kings  have  ahiited  the  capital  eight  or 
nine  times.  In  1689  every  substantial  edifice 
in  Ava  was  destroyed  by  an  earthanake;  in 
conseqnence  of  which  Monchobo,  tne  birth- 
place of  Alompra,  and  once  the  seat  of  the 
courii  again  became  temporarily  the  capital  of 
the  Barman  empire.  Afterward  both  Amara- 
pura  and  Ava  were  honored  by  the  preference 
of  the  kings,  until  within  a  few  years,  when 
the  capital  was  fixed  at  Mandelay. 

ATi,  Hig<i«  (ft    See  Bubmah. 

ITILIKCHE  (Ft.  avalanekt  or  analangi),  a 
mass  of  snow  precipitated  from  mountain  sides 
to  the  lower  levels.  Avalanches  are  common 
in  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  and  several  differ- 
ent forma  of  them  are  described.  The  drift 
avalanche  is  the  light,  dry  snow  swept  fh>m 
the  monntaina  by  strong  winds,  and  accnmn- 
lated  in  the  valleys,  sometimes  to  such  depths 
as  to  bnry  the  villages  it  falls  npon.  More  de- 
structive is  that  formed  by  the  damp,  cohering 
snow,  which,  begimiing  in  a  small  rolling  body, 
gathers  with  every  turn  increased  proportions 
and  velocity,  and  taking  np  in  ita  progress 
loose  rocks  and  earth,  or  the  shattered  limbs 
of  trees,  sweeps  off  not  only  bouses  and  villages, 
but  the  very  lands  on  which  they  stand.  It 
is  said  that  in  the  year  160O  100  men  were 
buried  by  auch  on  avalanche  in  Uie  Great  St. 
Bernard  ;  and  in  1624,  in  Italian  Switzerland, 
800  soldiers  were  thna  engalfed,  many  of 
whom,  however,  were  ot^rword  dog  out  alive. 
The  villages  in  the  high  valleya  of  the  RhOne 
have  been  particularly  exposed  to  these  dis- 
asters. In  182T  the  village  of  Briel  in  Valais 
was  almost  entirely  covered  with  an  avalanche. 


AVAES 

Tbe  rolling  avalanches  sometimes  change  in 
their  descent  to  sliding  masses,  and  Ihese  take 
in  their  progress  every  movable  body,  down  to 
the  solid  rock  of  the  mountains.  Hills  of  grav- 
el and  loose  rocka,  covered  with  forests  and 
dwellinga,  are  thus  carried  down  to  lower  lev- 
els, and  in  cases  of  vineyards  thus  removed, 
intricate  questions  of  proprietorship  have  aris- 
en. Ice  avalanches  are  produced  by  the  break- 
ing of  masses  of  ice  from  moving  glaciers. 
(See  Glaoisb.) 

ATiUiON,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Yonne.  on  the  Cousin,  2S  m,  8,  E.  of 
Auxerre ;  pop.  in  1866,  6,070.  It  is  surround- 
ed by  a  country  renowned  for  fertility  and 
beautf.  It  has  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
leather,  and  horns,  and  manuiactnres  of  wool. 

1VU08,  FarOluad*  FraMxet*  d',  mai^nis  of 
Peecara,  an  Italian  general  of  Ohiu'tea  Vt,  bom 
In  Naples  in  1490,  died  in  Milan,  Nov.  4,  1626. 
His  ancestors  came  from  Spain  to  Naples  in 
tbe  middle  of  the  IGth  centniy.  In  early  child- 
hood he  waa  affianced  to  Vittoria  Colonna, 
who  waa  then  only  four  years  old,  and  he  mar- 
ried her  while  he  waa  still  a  mere  lad.  He 
distjngniahod  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ba- 
venno,  where  he  was  wounded  and  captured. 
While  in  nrison  he  dedicated  to  his  wife  a 
poem  entiued  "Dialogue  of  Love."  Ransomed 
through  the  influence  of  a  favorite  of  Lonis 
SIL,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Vicenia  In  1613;  at  MUan,  which  city 
he  took  from  the  French  In  16S1 ;  and  at 
Como,  which  he  aacked  contrary  to  bis  prom- 
ise. In  1628  he  took  an  active  part  against 
the  French  at  Pavia,  La  Bicocco,  and  Lodi, 
and  bronght  about  the  ce^itnlation  of  Piz- 
righettone  and  Cremona,  and  the  capture  and 
sacking  of  Genoa.  The  decisive  victory  over 
Francis  1.  at  Pavia  (Feb.  24, 1626)  was  chiefly 
ascribed  to  the  valor  of  Avaloa,  who  was 
wounded,  and  received  the  congratulations  of 
friends  and  foee.  Be  was  made  generalis^mo, 
but  became  unpopolar  because,  after  having 
joined  the  league  of  the  duke  of  Milan  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  and  Germans  from 
Italy,  he  subsequently  betrayed  the  scheme  to 
Oharlea  V.  The  crown  of  Naples,  however, 
which  was  offered  to  him  by  tbe  Itahan  princes 
in  reward  of  hia  treachery,  he  refued  by  the 
advice  of  his  wife. 

AT  Alls,  a  stronghold  of  the  Hyksos  in  Lower 
Egypt    See  Eqtpt,  vol.  vi.,  p.  460, 

l¥ABg,  a  tribe  of  Turanian  origin,  who  first 
appear  in  European  history  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  6th  century,  when  the  bulk  of  them 
left  their  abodes  between  the  Caspian  and  the 
Don,  penetrated  to  the  Danube,  and  settied  in 
Dacio.  They  served  in  the  army  of  Justinian, 
allied  themselves  with  the  Longobards  agdnst 
the  Gepidea,  and  finally  occupied  Pannonia  and 
other  parts  of  modem  Ilnngary,  and  established 
their  dominion  over  tlie  Slavs  north  and  south 
of  the  Danube.  Their  sovereigns  were  called 
khans.  The  mightiest  among  them  waa  Baian 
(670-630),  whose  dominions  extended  from  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AVATAB 

Elbe  to  the  Black  tea,  and  to  whom  the  B;- 
untiQe  emperors  paid  tribnt«.  The  Avars 
leized  Dalmatia,  and  made  inroada  into  Italj 
end  into  the  heart  of  Germany.  In  B40  the 
BUts  revolted,  and  the  dominion  of  the  Avars 
over  tbem  came  to  an  end ;  bnt  they  still  main- 
tsincd  themselves  in  Pannonia.  Thej  allied 
themselves  with  Thasailo,  dole  of  Bavaria, 
sguDst  Charlemagne;  bat  that  monarch  finally 
broke  their  power  (791  and  7B8).  One  of  the 
Avar  khans,  Tudon,  jdned  Charlemagne,  and 
wsa  baptised  at  Aix-lvChapalle,  but  subse- 
qaentlj  abandoned  the  emperor  and  fought 
against  him  nntil  he  wsa  taken  prisoner  and  be- 
liesded.  About  837  the  Avars  disappear  wholly 
from  history.  Tbey  have  been  confounded  with 
their  fureranners  the  Unns,  and  with  their  sne- 
cessors  the  Magyars.  The  modem  Avars  of 
Lesgbistan  in  the  Oancasns  have  also  been 
erroneoiulr  considered  their  kindred.  Re- 
mains of  the  long-walled  camps  of  the  medite- 
vsl  Avars  are  stilt  to  be  seeo  near  the  Banabe 
m  Haogary. 

ATlTiB,  a  Sanskrit  word,  signifying  "  a  de- 
scending," usaally  applied  in  a  religious  sense, 
and  in  reference  to  the  inoamstion  of  the  Hin- 
doo deities.  Whence  the  doctrine  of  the  ava- 
tar is  derived  is  a  point  that  has  received  no 
satisfactory  solution.  The  most  important  ava- 
tars of  Vishnn,  one  of  the  persons  of  the  Hin- 
doo trinity,  are :  1,  that  of  the  fish,  in  which 
he  preserved  Msnu,  the  first  man,  daring  a 
deluge ;  2,  the  tortoise,  when  Vishnu  supported 
the  earth  while  the  gods  and  the  Asuras  ex- 
tracted the  immortal  drink  {amrita)  from  the 
sea;  3,  the  boar,  in  which  he  slew  the  chief  of 
the  Asuras,  the  opponents  of  the  gods ;  4,  the 
lion-man,  in  which  he  killed  the  deceased 
Asora  chief's  brother ;  8,  the  dwari^  in  wbiob 
form  he  played  a  trick  on  King  Bsli,  of  whom 
he  asked  as  maoh  gronod  as  he  oonld  measure 
in  throe  strides,  and  the  king  having  granted 
the  request,  the  god,  at  once  manifesting  him- 
self^ strode  over  earth,  ur,  and  heaven ;  S,  the 
msn  Parasnrama,  the  son  of  Jamadflgni  and 
Renoka,  when  he  rescned  the  Brahmaos  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  Kehatriyas ;  7,  Rama,  the 
son  of  King  Dnsaratha,  when  he  destroyed  va- 
rious demons  by  exploits  described  in  the  Ban- 
akrit  epic  of  Bamayana  ;  8,  Krishna,  the  great- 
est of  the  avatars,  when  he  assisted  the  family 


of  the  Miihabharata ;  9,  Buddha,  in  which  he 
persuaded  the  Asuras,  the  ancient  enemies  of 
the  gods,  to  abandon  their  faith  in  the  Vedas ; 
10,  Kalki,  the  name  of  the  avatar  of  Vishnu 
when  he  shall  come  agtun  to  restore  peace  and 
purity  on  earth. 

ATATCUi,  JI«m  (Rum.  Atatehiiutaya  Sof- 
ia), a  volcano  in  Kamtchatka,  near  the  S.  G, 
coast,  in  lat  63°  lES'  N.  and  Ion.  168"  60'  £., 
rising  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  9,000  it.  It 
has  a  crater  at  its  anmmit  several  hundred 
yards  in  circumference,  and  another  on  its  ude 
at  an  elevation  of  G,000  ft.  Among  the  last 
63  VOL.  n.— 11 


AYELLANEDA 


159 


recorded  eruptions  are  those  of  1887  and  1805, 
when  it  discnarged  with  great  violence  vast 

Snantities  of  lava,  stones,  and  water.  S.  (tf 
le  monntun  is  the  bay  of  Avateha,  on  which 
lies  the  town  of  Potropavlovsk. 

AVEBDEV,  a  village  in  Wiltsliire,  England,  6 
m.  W.  of  Marlborough,  notable  as  the  site  of 
the  remains  of  the  largest  Bmidical  temple  in 
Europe.  In  an  op^a  plain,  free  from  trees, 
6S0  blocks  of  stone,  varying  from  6  to  20  ft. 
above  the  ground,  and  3  to  12  in  breadth  and 
thickness,  were  brought  together.  One  hun- 
dred of  these  were  set  on  end  aronnd  an  area 
1,400  ft.  in  diameter;  and  these  were  enclosed 
by  a  ditch  and  mound  with  two  breaks  for 
openings.  The  area  within  the  bank  is  over 
38  acres.  From  the  arrangements  it  has  been 
coiyeotured  that  there  were  within  this  great 
circle  two  smaller  circular  temples,  besides  two 
aveanes  of  neat  stones  leading  to  the  entrancea 
from  a  distJbca  of  more  than  a  mile.  The  re- 
mains have  been  almost  entirely  destroyed  of 
late  years,  all  that  was  capable  of  removal 
having  been  gradually  carried  away. 

ITEIBO,  a  seaport  town  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Beii-a,  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Vouga,  on  a  bay  called  the  Barra  de  Aveiro, 
37  m.  S.  of  Oporto;  pop.  in  1863,  e,S57.  It  Is 
an  episcopal  see,  and  has  an  extennve  trade 
in  sea  salt.  In  the  1 6th  century  it  was  a  com- 
mercial place  of  great  importoaoe. 

ATHXANEDl,  Aleasi  Feniad*  de,  the  real  or 
assumed  name  of  the  author  of  the  spurious 
Segunda  pwtt  del  inyimioio  Sidalgo  J).  Qvii- 
xoU  (Tarragona,  1S14;  French  translation  by 
Le  Sage,  Paris,  l704-'6)-  Though  Avellaneda 
seems  to  have  been  known  in  an  obscure  man- 
ner to  bis  contemporaries  and  to  Cervantes 
himself,  the  authorship  of  the  book,  which 
appeared  under  his  name  many  years  in  ad- 
vance of  the  real  second  part  of  "Don  Quix- 
ote," has  been  assigned,  but  without  oonclunve 
authority,  to  Luis  de  Aliaga,  the  king's  con- 
fessor, and  also  to  Juan  Blanco  de  Paz,  a 
Dominican  friar.  Cervantes  refrained  trma 
noticing  the  publioation  until  the  69th  chapter 
of  his  own  second  part,  Mr.  Ttcknor,  in  hia 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  sajs  of  Ave- 
llaneda's  book  that,  "if  not  without  merit  in 
some  re^ieets,  it  is  generally  low  and  dull,  and 
would  now  be  forgotten  if  it  were  not  con- 
nected with  the  fame  of  Don  Quixote." 

AVEU.ANEDA,  GcrtrwUs  G«ms  de,  a  Spanish 
poetess  and  novelist,  bom  at  Puerto  Pnnoipe^ 
Cuba,  in  ISie,  died  in  SevUle  in  June,  1864. 
Her  father  was  a  Spanish  naval  officer,  after 
whose  death  she  went  to  Spain,  where  her  first 
drama,  Levneia^  was  favorably  received  at  Ma- 
drid in  1840.  In  184€  she  was  crowned  with 
laurel  in  the  presence  of  the  court  and  received 
a  prize  for  a  poem  exalting  the  clemency  of 
the  queen.  In  1848  she  married  Pedro  Ssba- 
dor,  a  young  Spanish  politician,  who  died  in 
the  same  year.  She  afterward  led  a  secluded 
life  at  Madrid  and  Seville.  ner2  vols,  of  lyrical 
poetry  (2d  ed.,  Mexico,  18C2),  her  16  dramas. 


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160 


AVELLINO 


and  her  8  vols,  of  prose  writings  secnred  for 
her  a  high  reputetioD. 

iVnilXO,  a.  fortified  town  of  S.  Ital^,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Principaio  Ultenora,  28 
m.  E.  of  Naples;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  bas 
a  cathedral,  several  fine  pablio  buildmgs,  and  a 
pnblic  granary.  It  is  celebrated  forita  filberts, 
which  are  largely  produced  in  the  vicinitj,  and 
are  hence  called  in  Latin  nveei  AvtllatuB,  and 
in  French  avelina.  There  ia  also  a  large  trade 
in  chestnats  and  grain,  and  manufactures  of 
hata  and  cLotb.  At  the  village  of  Atripalda,  S 
m.  distant,  are  the  remains  of  the  ancient  town 
of  Abeilinnm,  which  being  destroyed  in  the 
wars  twtween  the  Greeks  and  Lombards,  the 
inhabitants  aettled  on  the  present  site.  The 
town  has  suffered  much  from  earthqaalcefi. 

ATE  MlUl,  a  short  prayer  much  used  in  the 
Boman  and  Greek  Catholio  churches.  The 
first  danse  is  the  salutation  of  St.  Elizabeth  to 
.the  Blessed  Virgin,  with  the  namla  "Maria" 
and  "Jesus"  added.  The  second  clause  is  an 
ocdamatioD  employed  by  the  fathers  of  the 
connoil  of  Ephesus  and  the  people  generally, 
to  express  tjieir  Joy  at  the  decision  of  tlie 
question  raised  by  Nestorius  whether  Mary  is 
traly  the  mother  of  God.  It  is  nsooUy  Joined 
with  the  P»t«r  Noster. 

ATBinPGfiK,  lMr«M-    Bee  AnENBBcocm. 

IVBiri'lllUS,  mmt.    Bee  Sous. 

ATmrVKINE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  and  alio 
one  of  feldspar.  The  peculiarity  in  each,  for 
which  the  name  is  given,  ia  the  play  of  reflect- 
ed or  refracted  light  from  nnmeroos  points  in 
the  mass  of  the  stone — the  reflections  being 
bright  and  sparkling,  and  of  different  colors, 
while  the  ground  may  be  tranalncent  with  little 
brilliancy,  and  of  a  doll  color.  The  effect  is 
probably  prodaoed  ty  the  crystalline  faces  in 
the  Btraotnre  of  the  st«ne  refracting  the  light 
differently.  There  are,  however,  some  varie- 
tiea,  called  also  aventnrine,  in  which  the  play 
of  colors  resnlts  from  the  presence  of  numerous 
little  scales  of  mica,  or  other  foreign  ii^re- 
dients,  each  of  which  reflects  the  light,  and  all 
together  produce  a  similar  efieat  to  that  of  tiie 
tme  varieties  of  aventnrine.  An  artificial  gloss 
of  this  name  is  manufaotured  at  Venice,  w 
is  well  adapted  to  ornamental  purposes,  being 
even  more  beautiful  than  the  natural  minerals. 
Within  the  gloss  are  substances  apparently 
vitreous,  of  great  brilliancy,  of  the  color  of 
copper,  and  in  very  small  crystals  of  the  form 
of  tetrahedrons.  It  is  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  a  workman  in  Mnrano  throogh 
accident  {atentura)  letting  fall  braes  fiUngs 
into  molten  glass. 

ATENZOIB  (properly  Ibh  Zohb),  k\m  H* 
woi,  an  Arabian  physician,  bom  at  Peflaflor 
Spain  about  107S,  died  in  1102.  He  began 
the  study  of  medicine  at  the  age  of  10  under 
the  direction  of  his  father,  who  imposed  npon 
him  an  oath  never  to  make  use  of  poisons.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Averroes,  Avenzoar  tried 
to  bring  medicine  within  the  range  of  experi- 
mental science.  Severalofhisworks,  translated 


AYXBAOE 

into  Latin,  have  been  published.  Bis  Seetifi- 
eatio  iledicationU  tt  Segiminu  was  pablished 
at  Venice  in  1490  and  1489,  with  the  remarks 
of  Averroes  in  1514,  and  at  Lyons  in  1861. 

AVEUGE.  I.  Gewrti  (sometimes  called  groea 
or  extraordinary),  in  mercantile  law,  the  con- 
tribution made  by  all  the  parties  concerned  in 
a  sea  adventnre  to  moke  good  an  expense  or 
loss  snstained  by  one  or  more  of  them  for  the 
benefit  of  all.  The  fundamental  prinwplo  of 
the  law  of  general  average,  as  expressed  In 
Justinian's  Pandects,  and  adopted  by  all  com- 
mercial nations,  though  with  considerable  di- 
versity of  practice,  comes  from  the  Rbodian 
law,  the  first  linown  system  of  marine  law, 
which  thus  stated  the  rule:  "If  goods  ore 
thrown  overlward  in  order  to  lighten  a  ship, 
the  loss  incarred  for  the  sake  of  all  shall  be 
made  good  by  the  contribution  of  all."  It 
would  be  difficult  to  set  forth  the  essentials  of 
a  case  for  general  average  more  clearly  than 
they  have  been  stated  in  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States  (Barnard  e,  Adams,  10  How. 
270),  Mr.  Justice  Grier  delivering  the  opin- 
ion :  "  In  order  to  constitute  o  case  for  gen- 
eral average,  three  things  mnst  concur :  1.  A 
common  danger,  or  a  danger  in  which  ship, 
cargo,  and  crew  all  participate — a  danger  im- 
minent and  apparently  inevitable,  except  by 
voluntarily  incurring  the  lose  of  a  portion  of 
the  whole  to  save  the  remainder.  3.  Tliere 
must  be  a  voluntory  jettison,  jaetvt,  or  casting 
away  of  some  portion  of  the  joint  concern  for 
the  purpose  or  avoiding  tliig  imminent  peril; 
or,  in  ouier  words,  a  transfer  of  the  peril  from 
the  whole  to  a  particular  portion  of  Uie  whole. 
S.  This  attempt  to  avoid  a  common  peril  mnst 
be  Buooesofiil.  The  right  to  contribution  is  not 
made  to  depend  on  any  real  orpresumed  inten- 
tion to  destroy  the  thing  cast  away,  but  on  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  selected  to  suffer  the  peril 
in  place  of  the  whole  that  the  remainder  may 
be  sav^."  Kot  only  the  value  of  the  property 
destroyed,  but  what  follows  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  its  destruction,  as  iiyuries  to  other 
goods,  expenses  of  refitting,  and  the  wages  and 
provisions  of  the  crew  in  the  port  of  relief,  are 
subjects  of  contribution.  So  is  also  ransom 
paid  to  a  pirate,  by  both  the  common  and 
civil  law  (the  rule  of  which  on  this  point 
has  been  repealed  in  England),  and  in  gene- 
ral whatever  necessary  end  voluntary  loss  or 
expense  is  incurred  by  a  pari,  for  the  good  of 
all.  Goods  finally  saved  must  contribute  for 
loss  sustained  in  procnring  temporary  safety. 
By  the  French  ordinance,  goods  stowed  upon 
deck  ore  expressly  excluded  from  the  benefit 
but  not  iroia  the  burden  of  general  average, 
since  they  are  supposed  to  hamper  the  vessel 
and  increase  the  danger ;  and  such  is  the  general 
tenor  of  both  the  English  and  American  law. 
In  the  courts  of  all  three  countries,  however, 
an  established  nsage  to  carry  npon  deck,  as 
with  small  coasting  vessels,  ia  allowed  to  take  a 
I  case  out  of  the  operation  of  the  rule.  Both  the 
\  continental  and  the  American  law  is  somewhat 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


more  liberal  than  the  English  as  regards  the  Bob- 
jects  of  general  average,  bnt  tube  difference  con- 
nata  not  in  the  nature  but  in  the  application  of 
principles.  The  victuals  and  ammunition  of  a 
ahip  do  not  contribate  in  a  case  of  general  aver- 
age, Dor  whatever  is  necessaiy  to  we  penons  of 
thoaa  on  board,  as  wearing  apparel,  &c.,  nor  the 
pawengere  for  their  own  gafet?,  nor  the  crew  for 
their  wages,  lest  apprehenuon  of  personal  loss 
ahonld  deter  them  irom  personal  eacrifice.  The 
mle  of  the  civil  law  that  "those  things  alone 
which  paj  freight  contribate  "  ia,  with  alight 
Ijmitatiuna,  the  general  law  on  this  point  The 
rat«  of  contribution  is  in  proportion  to  the 
aafetf  obtained,  according  to  volne,  not  weight. 
The  rules  upon  which  this  a^nstment  is  made 
differ  in  different  countries,  and  are  not  well 
settled  anywhere.  It  ia  a  matter  of  anch  nice 
calculation,  that  in  moet  commercial  porta  the 
compntalJaa  and  ac^QHtmeiit  of  general  average 
eonatitate  a  special  branch  of  business,  attended 
tohjA  special  class  of  men.  By  the  civil  law, 
the  master  of  the  vessel  was  required  to  see  to 
this ;  and  the  provisions  of  the  French  ordinance 
are  somewhat  similar,  bnt  are  practicall;  dis- 
used, the  work  being  performed  bj  dipiekeun, 
as  they  are  called.  IL  Paititalar,  an  almost 
obsolete  barbarous  expression,  used  to  rignif;  a 
partiBl  loss,  which  must  be  borne  by  the  imme- 
diate loser  alone.  IIL  Petty  Averagta  are  sun- 
dry small  charges  borne  in  common  by  the  own- 
ers of  a  ahip  and  cargo,  like  pilotage,  towage, 
anchorage,  light  money,  quarantine,  &o. 

IfXKNO  (aao.  jicemiM),  a  lake  in  Italy, 
abont  B  m.  W .  of  Naples,  and  near  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Cnmte.  It  lies  in  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  and,  though  less  than  3  m.  in 
circumference,  is  of  great  depth.  It  has  no 
natural  outlet,  but  an  artificial  passage  for  its 
waters  into  the  gulf  of  Baira  was  made  by 


Agripn&  who  also  connected  it  with  the  Ln- 
crine  lake.     This  latter  passage  -'---'  -^  - 

a  volcanic  convnidon  wnich  in 


e  was  cloeed  by 


a  hill  of  considerable  hdght  in  the  place  of 
the  latt«r  lake.  Ho  attempt  has  been  made 
to  reopen  the  communication  thus  ohstmct«d; 
and  as  the  subterranean  tunnel  which  con- 
nected Avemo  direotly  with  the  sea  has  also 
been  blocked  up,  the  lake  is  again  withont 
an  outlet.  In  ancient  timea,  Avemus,  with 
the  wild  and  gloomy  scenery  about  it,  the 
pestilent  vapors  rinng  from  its  volcanic  shores, 
and  the  prevdllng  belief  in  its  unfathomable 
depth,  was  reputed  the  entrance  to  Hades,  and 
was  made  sacred  to  Proserpine,  By  this  path 
TJlysaea,  according  to  the  legend,  visited  the 
^oets  of  the  dead,  and  here  was  also  a  famoua 
oracle.  The  lake  retuns  few  of  its  ancient 
characteristics;  the  dense  woods  which  an- 
ciently covered  its  banka  were  cut  down  t>efore 
the  time  of  Strabo,  and  the  volcaoio  phenome- 
na appear  to  have  entirely  ceaaed.  The  ruins 
of  a  Roman  edifice,  probably  a  bath,  are  on 
the  S.  E.  border  of  the  lake. 

iTEUOM,  or  AverAali  (a  corruption  of  Ins  . 
Robhd),  an  Arabian  philosopher,  bcm  in  Cor-^ 


161 

dovaaboot  11  SO,  died  in  Morocco,  Deo.  13, 1198. 

Educated  by  eminent  masters,  be  became,  like 
his  father,  diatinguiahed  for  his  varied  knowl- 
edge, and  succeeded  him  in  the  office  of  mufti 
or  chief  judge  in  Andalusia,  and  subsequently 
held  the  same  position  in  Uorocco.  He  stood 
high  in  the  esteem  of  successive  rulers,  espe- 
cially of  AJ-Mansour;  bnt  the  latter,  yielding  to 
those  who  could  not  reconcile  the  philosophy 
of  Averroes  with  his  professed  devotion  to  the 
Koran,  and  perhaps  also  impelled  by  personal 
animosity,  banished  him  for  several  years,  but 
finally  restored  him  to  his  office.  lie  wrote 
on  astronomy,  particularly  on  the  apots  of  the 
sun,  and  on  many  other  scientific  subjects ;  but 
he  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  a  commentator  upon 
Aristotle  and  Plato.  He  grasped  the  ideas  of 
the  Greek  philosophers,  thongh  he  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
Latin  at  Venice  in  11  vols.  (1652~'S0),  the 
commentaries  filing  8  volumes,  and  8  volnmee 
containing  his  refutation  of  Algazzali's  work 
against  Greek  pbiloaophy,  his  great  medical 
wort,  EulUyat  or  improperly  ColUgtt  (of 
which  several  editions  have  been  pnbUsbed), 
and  miscellaneous  treatises.  As  a  philosopher 
he  tended  toward  pantheism  and  materiausm. 
His  professed  disciples  were  called  Averroista. 
Leo  X.  issued  a  bull  against  his  doctilnes  alter 
they  had  been  denounced  by  the  university  of 
Pans.  Renan,  in  his  AKtrrho^  et  VAverrho- 
itme  (Paris,  16Ji2),  gives  a  full  notice  of  bis  life 
and  works,  and  characterizes  him  as  the  chief 
representative  in  the  middle  ages  of  the  Peri- 
patetic philosophy  and  of  freedom  of  thought 
and  as  eiempt  from  all  purely  dogmatic  and 
religious  bias.  Among  other  recent  worka 
relating  to  his  doctrines  is  Utiller's  Philotophit 
vnd  iMohffie  von  Aterrluti4  (Munich,  18G9). 

AVfSBl,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  situated  in  a  remarkably 
fertile  region,  8 -m.  N.  ot  ITsoles ;  pop.  in  1872, 
31,17fl.  It  contains  a  oatnedral  and  many 
churches  and  conventa,  a  foundling  hospital, 
and  a  lunatic  asylum  founded  by  Murat,  which 
was  among  the  first  to  attempt  curing  the 
insane  by  occupation  and  recreation.  The 
sparkling  white  Asprino  wine  of  Averse  is 
often  sold  as  champagne,  and  its  sweetmeato, 
especially  almond  cakes,  are  great  deiicaciea. 
Averse  was  settled  by  the  Normans,  and  grants 
ed  in  in29  to  Rainnll^  one  of  their  leaders,  who 
received  from  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  the  title 
of  count  of  Averse.  In  lOBO  the  inhabitants 
of  Atello,  the  site  of  which  is  still  visible  in 
the  vicinity,  were  removed  hither.  In  1061 
the  oountv  was  annexed  to  Oapua. 

ATEBV8B0B0.    See  supplement. 

ITEBITES,  a  town  of  f  ranoe,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Le  Nord, 
on  the  Heipe,  60  m.  8.  E.  of  Lille;  pop. 
In  1866,  8,787.  It  is  one  of  the  fortresses 
which  protect  France  on  the  eaat,  built  under 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  aooOrding  to  the  sys- 
tem of  Vanban.    It  was  bombarded  tmmedi- 


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162 


AVETROH 


At«ly  aft«r  the  battle  of  Vaterloo,  almost  de- 
stroyed by  tbe  explosioD  of  a  niagaziiie,  and 
for  some  time  occupied  by  tlie  allies. 

IVEVKON,  a  S.  department  of  France,  form- 
ing a  part  of  tbe  old  province  of  Guienne, 
boandt^d  by  Contaj,  Loz^re,  Gard,  Hiranlt, 
Tarn,  Torn -et^ Garonne,  and  Lot;  urea,  8,876 
■q.  m.;  pop.  in  18T2,  402,474.  It  is  named 
from  an  affluent  of  the  Tarn,  whicb  rises  in  the 
department  near  its  £.  border,  flowe  W.  as  far 
as  Villefroncbe,  and  then  8.  to  the  confines  of 
the  department  of  Tarn.  The  Lot  flows  on 
the  N.  W.  border.  Aveyron  is  one  of  the 
most  monntainoQB  districts  of  France.  It  has 
mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  zinc,  iron,  and 
coal;  those  of  coal  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able in  the  country.  Cattle  are  raised  in  great 
nnmbcrs.  The  famons  Koqnefort  cheese  is 
largely  exported.  The  department  ie  divided 
into  tbe  arrondissements  of  Rodez,  VillefVaoche, 
Espalion,  Mlllaud,  and  tJaint-Affi-iqae.  Capi- 
tal, Rodez. 

ITEZIC.    See  D'AnzAO. 

IVICiBftON,  or  InMckfvL  See  Solomon 
BIN  Oabibol. 

ITICENNI  (a  corrnptJnn  of  Ib.t  Sina),  an 
Arabian  phrsician  and  philosopher,  b<»ii  in  a 
village  of  Bokliaro  in 
9S0,  died  in  1086  or 
10S7.  He  was  ednca- 
tad  at  Bokhara,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to 
stndy  with  snch  eitra' 
ordinary  zeal  that  be- 
fore he  reached  man- 
hood he  was  already 
&mons  as  a  physioiui, 
and  at  Si  he  had  writ- 
ten an  encycloixedia 
of  science  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of 
"  Book  of  the  Snm  To- 
tal." He  afterward 
wrote  a  series  of  com- 
mentaries on  this  work. 
Hedelivered  public  lec- 
tures on  logic  and  as- 
tronomy in  the  house 
of  a  rich  patron  of 
learning  at  Jorjan  in 

Khorasan,  and  afterward  became  vizier  to  the 
emir  of  Hamadan,  at  whose  court  he  taoght 
philosophy  and  medicine,  closing  his  lectures 
every  evening  with  feasting  and  dancing.  In- 
volved after  the  death  of  this  prince  in  a  secret 
correspondence  with  the  ruler  of  Ispahan,  be 
was  thrown  into  prison,  but  made  his  escape 
to  that  city,  and  there  spent  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  prosperity.  Before  his  death  lie 
reformed  the  excesses  of  bis  conduct,  freed  bis 
slaves,  and  gave  his  fortune  to  the  poor.  His 
medical  writing^  which  number  over  60  dis- 
tinct works,  were  long  held  in  the  highest  es- 
teem, and  the  most  important  of  them,  the 
A'anun  ("'Canon"),  wnaformony  eentnries  the 
standard  authority  even  in  Europe.    It  gave 


AVIGNON 

an  excellent  synopsis  of  the  views  of  the 
ancient  Greek  physicians.  It  was  published 
in  Latin  as  early  as  147a  (Padua),  in  Hebrew 
in  1492  (fol.,  Naples),  and  In  the  original  Ara- 
bic in  1598  (fol.,  Rome).  There  were  about 
SO  Latin  editions  of  the  "Canon"  during  the 
loth  and  16th  centuries.  Avicenna's  principal 
philosophical  work,  the  Aik-Sh^a,  or  "Rem- 
edy," has  never  been  printed. 

AVIGLUNO,  a  town  of  8.  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Basilicata,  11  m.  N.  W.  of  Potenza; 
pop,  about  10,000.  It  has  a  handsome  colle- 
giate church,  a  royal  college,  and  several  con- 
venta.  A  portion  of  tlie  totrn  was  destroyed 
by  a  land  slide  in  1924. 

IVICNON  (one.  Arenio),  a  town  of  8.  E. 
France,  in  Provence,  department  of  Vancluse, 
a6Q  m.  8. 8.  E.  of  Paris,  ^tuated  on  the  Rh6ne, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  an  elegant  suspension 
bridge  built  in  1844 ;  pop.  in  1866,  96,407.  It 
is  an  archiepiscopol  see,  and  has  a  lycenm,  a 
seminary,  a  public  library,  museums  of  anti- 
quities, paintingit,  and  natural  history,  a  bo- 
tanical garden,  an  agricultural  society,  and  an 
association  called  the  academy  of  Vancluse. 
Its  industry  is  active,  especially  in  the  cnltiva- 
tjon  of  madder,  in  the  manu&cture  of  sillu^ 


colored  cloths,  and  taffetas,  and  in  copper,  lead, 
and  iron  works.  It  carries  on  on  eitensivb 
trade  in  tbe  various  productions  of  Provence, 
particularly  in  grains  and  liighly  esteemed  red 
wines.  The  town  is  generally  well  built,  in 
the  form  of  an  almost  regular  oval,  and  its 
walls,  rather  beautiful  than  strong,  are  flanked 
with  towers,  adorned  with  battlements,  and 
surrounded  by  handsome  boulevards.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  but  there  are  magnificent 
wharfs  aJong  tiie  RhSne  and  numerous  ancient 
and  remarkable  edifices.  Among  the  latter  is 
the  palace  of  the  popes,  a  sombre  Gothic  struc- 
ture of  the  12th  century,  now  transformed  into 
a  prison  and  barracks.  This  city  was  the  capi- 
tal'of  the  Gallic  tribe  of  the  Cavares  prior  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AVILA 

the  (>onqiiest  of  Gaul  by  Jalins  Ctesar.  It  rc- 
m&ined  nntler  Boman  doininatioD  till  tho  6th 
ceutnrj,  when  the  Burgundiaas  toiik  poflsession 
of  iL  From  the  Borgundians  it  was  taken  by 
the  Goths,  who  id  turn  yielded  it  to  the  Franks. 
The  Saracens  captured  it  twice,  shortlf  before 
and  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (TS2),  and  both 
times  vere  forced  to  abandon  it  by  Charles 
Msrtel.  It  was  a  Corlovingion  city  for  about 
a  centnry  and  a  half;  then  several  times  ex- 
changed its  masters,  became  a  republic  under 
the  protection  of  the  German  empire,  adhered 
to  Uie  Albigension  heresy,  and  was  captured 
by  Louis  VJII.  in  1320,  who  mode  it  the  com- 
mon iuiieritonce  of  tiro  sons,  through  one  of 
whom,  Charles  of  A^jou,  it  became  attached 
to  the  crown  of  (Naples.  In  1S09  Pope  Clement 
v.,  at  the  request  of  Philip  tile  Fair,  established 
himself  at  Avignon.  The  city  and  its  depen- 
dencies were  purchased  by  the  suprome  pontiff 
from  Joanna  of  Naples,  and  all  the  popes  from 
Clement  V.  to  Gregory  XI.  (1309-'77)  made 
their  residence  here.  The  last-named  pope  re- 
stored the  papal  see  to  Rome,  but  during  the 
great  schism,  from  1378  to  1418,  several  of  the 
rival  popes  resided  in  Avignon.  The  14th  cen- 
tury was  thoB  the  period  of  the  town's  great- 
est splendor.  It  then  numbered  about  100,000 
inhaoitants.  Petrarch  was  among  its  many 
distinguished  residents.  After  the  close  of  the 
schism  Avignon  with  its  environs,  which  then 
formed  the  comtat  de  Venaissin,  was  governed 
by  the  legates  of  the  pope,  till  in  1T91  France 
sncceeded,  aftervarious  attempts,  in  reclaiming 
it.  Twenty-one  councils  of  the  church  were 
held  in  Avignon,  from  1050  to  1725. 

inu.  L  A  province  of  Spain,  forming 
the  S.  W.  part  of  Old  Castile,  and  bordering 
on  New  Castile  and  Estremadura;  area,  3,9S1 
»q.  m.;  pop.  in  1867,  176,768.  The  northern 
portion  of  the  province  is  generally  level,  of 
moderate  fertility,  and  the  inhabitants  are  on- 
gsged  in  agriculture.  The  southern  part  is  in- 
tersected by  numerous  rocky  mountam  ranges, 
with  verdant  valleys  between.  Here  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  is  the  most  important  branch  of 
indnstry.  The  Alberche  and  the  Ad^ia,  re- 
■pectivelj  affluents  of  the  Tarus  and  the 
Donro,  are  the  principal  rivers.  Two  centuries 
ago  the  province  was  wealthy  and  populous, 
but  it  has  gradually  decayed,  in  consei^nence 
of  the  burdensome  manorial  and  fendal  privi- 
leges, and  the  laws  of  entail  and  mortmain. 
Merino  wool  is  the  chief  article  of  production. 
Besides  the  capital,  it  contains  no  town  of 
importance.  !■•  Tlio  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing province,  an  episcopal  city,  situated  on 
the  Adaja,  53  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Madrid;  pop. 
■bout  7,000.  It  had  formerly  a  flourishing 
university  and  extensive  woollen  manufactures, 
but  ita  ancient  prosperity  has  departed.  The 
city  is  encompassed  by  a  wall,  still  in  eood  re- 
pair, with  towers  of  great  strength.  It  has  a 
Sne  old  cathedral  and  a  Dominican  convent, 
both  of  which  contain  some  beantifnl  mona- 
ments.     The  church  of  San  Vicente,  without 


AVOIRD0POI8 


163 


tho  walls,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  813,  is 
on  interesting  object. 

IVLONA  (one.  Aulon),  a  fortified  town  of 
Turkey,  the  best  seaport  of  Albania,  in  the-pa- 
shalic  of  Janina,  on  the  gulf  of  Avlona;  pop. 
about  6,000.  The  Christian  part  of  its  inhab- 
itants are  chiefly  employed  in  commerce.  The 
Turks  manufacture  woollen  fabrics  and  arms. 

IVOCirr,  or  iTMCt  {reeunirogtra),  a  bird  of 
the  order  of  the  grallaU>ru.  There  is  but  one 
European  and  one  American  species,  which  are 
very  closely  connected,  and  would  at  fi  rst  sight, 
by  an  unpractised  eye,  be  pronounced  identical. 
The  bill  is  lung,  slender,  and  reflected  upward 
at  the  extremity.  The  bird  is  webfooted,  but 
does  not  swim  easily  or  willingly,  though  it 
wades  quite  np  to  the  breast,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  qnalifled  by  its  long  legs,  which  are 
naked  np  to  tho  head  of  the  thigh.  The  pal- 
mated  webs  of  its  feet  enable  it  to  stand  and 
mn,  without  unking,  over  the  soft  mud  of  the 
seashore.  It  feeds  on  aquatic  animals,  such  as 
the  smaller  conchifers  and  mollusks,  and  on 
the  spawn  of  fishes.  The  American  avocet, 
reeuritirattra  Amerieana,  is  thns  described  by 
Giraud  in  his  "  Birds  of  Long  Island  " :  Loral 


space  white;  neck  and  fore  part  of  the  breast 
reddish  bnff;  lower  parts,  back  and  tul  wliite; 
wings  black,  with  a  broad  band  of  white 
formed  by  the  tips  of  the  secondary  coverts. 
Lower  portion  of  the  tibia  naked.  Legs  bine. 
Length  18  inches;  wing,  9.  A  few  breed  at 
£gg  Harbor,  where  they  are  known  as  the 
"blue-stocking."  It  builds  its  nest  of  sea- 
wrack  and  dried  sedge  among  tufts  of  long 
grass  by  the  edge  of  some  salt  pool.  It  is  com- 
mon in  all  parts  of  the  United  l^tates,  especially 
in  the  fur  countries. 

ATOIKDDPOIS  (Fr.  avoir  du  paid*,  to  have 
weight ;  or,  possibly,  as  it  was  formerly  spelled 
avtrdupoU,  from  the  old  Fr.  verb  arertr,  to 
verify),  a  standard  of  weiglit,  to  which  articles 
of  merchandise  sold  by  weight  are  referred, 
except  the  precious  metals,  gems,  and  medi- 
cines. The  pound  avoirdupois  contains  T,000 
grains;  the  pound  troy  contains  d,T6D.  The 
ounces  do  not  retain  the  same  proportions, 
there  being  IS  to  the  poand  avoirdnpois,  and 
12  to  the  pound  troy.  The  ounce  avoirdupois 
is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Roman  vncia, 
which,  according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  contained 
the  same  Dunher  of  gndns,  viz.,  4371 ;  hut  it 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


lU 


AVOLA 


AXATACATL 


is  rei7  imlikelj  that  these  emtil  wdghte  haTe  ' 
been  preserved  umformlj  the  same  for  so  long  a 
{teriod.  The  old  term  aToirdnpoie  is  first  met 
with  in  16S2,  in  some  orders  of  Henry  VIII. ; 
and  in  ISSe  a  pound  of  this  weight  was  depos- 
ited, bj  order  of  Qaeen  Eliiabeth,  in  the  ei- 
obequer,  as  a  standard.  This,  when  examined 
in  ifse  bj  the  oonunittee  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, was  fomid  to  be  11  grain  deficient  in 
wewht;  and  the  troy  weight  was  thereafter 
made  the  standard.  The  standard  gr^n,  pre- 
scribed by  act  of  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
Geoi^  IV.,  ii  such  that  "a  cnbio  iaoh  of  dis- 
tilled water  weighed  in  air  by  brsse  weights, 
at  the  temperatore  of  63°  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer, the  barometer  l>eiiig  at  SO  inches,  is 
eqnal  to  2G2-458  grains." 

iTOU  (anc.  Abolla\  a  town  of  Sicily,  on 
the  £.  coast,  IS  m.  S.  W.  of  Syracnse;  pop. 
about  8,000.  It  was  rebnilt  after  its  destmo- 
tion  bythe  earthquake  of  IQSa.  The  exqnimt« 
honey,  so  renowned  in  antiqaity  as  honey  of 
Hybla,  is  still  produced  in  its  Ticinity,  Avola 
has  a  tonny  fishery  and  a  refinery  for  home- 
grown  sogar. 

ATOH)  the  name  of  several  English  rivera, 
the  most  important  of  which,  the  Upper  Avon, 
rises  near  ^aseby,  in  Northamptonshire,  flows 
throogh  the  counties  of  Leicester,  Warwick, 
and  Worcest«r,  and  entering  Gloucestershire, 
empties  into  the  Severn  near  Tewkeshnry,  after 
a  course  of  about  100  m.  Stratford,  the  birth- 
place of  Shakespeare,  is  situated  on  the  bank 
of  this  stream. 

IVOH  8PBIMC9,  a  village  of  Avon  township, 
Livingston  co.,  N.  T.,  18  tn.  8.  8.  W.  of  Roches- 
ter; pop.  about  600.  It  i>  situated  on  a  terrace 
100  feet  above  the  Qenesee  river,  commandiae 
beautiful  views  in  all  directions,  and  is  reached 
by  the  Erie  and  New  York  Central  railroads. 
The  place  is  vimted  by  lai^e  numbers  in  sum- 
mer for  its  mineral  waters,  which  are  deemed 
beneficial  in  rhanmatism,  dyspepwa,  and  oata- 
neous  diseases. 

irOTKUS,  a  parish  of  Looiwana,  intersected 
by  Bad  river,  which  joins  the  Mississippi  near 
its  S.  £.  angle ;  area,  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
13,926,  of  whom  6,17Gwere  colored.  The  snr- 
face  is  nearly  level  and  is  subject  to  inundation. 
The  western  portion  is  fertile.  In  18T0  the 
parish  produced  173,880  bushels  of  Indian  com, 
24,985  of  sweet  potatoes,  78,386  lbs.  of  rice, 
10,189  bales  of  ootton,  826  hhds.  of  sugar,  and 
25,600  gallons  of  molasses.   Capital,  Marksvilte. 

IVKANCHBS,  a  town  of  France,  in  Normandy, 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department 
of  La  Manche,  ntuated  on  the  8fie,'within  8  m. 
of  the  sea  and  66  m.  S.  <rf  Cherbonrt;;  pop.  in 
1866,  8,642.  It  stands  npon  a  bill  looking 
toward  the  Channel  islands,  and  contains  the 
remains  of  a  fine  cathedral,  consecrated  in 
1121,  and  possesung  the  stone  on  which  Hen- 
ry II.  of  England  luielt  U>  do  penance  for  the 
murder  of  Beoket.  The  cheapness  of  living 
and  attractive  scenery  of  the  town  have  made 
it  a  resort  for  English  families.    In  the  14th 


has  several  pnbUc  institutia 


nclnding  a  libra- 


ry, and  some  mannfactures  of  lace  and  blonde. 

iW&  Ladt,  a  lake  in  Ai^lesltire,  Scotland, 
3  m.  S.  W.  of  Inverary.  It  is  84  m.  long,  and 
in  few  places  more  than  1  m.  wide,  encircled 
by  mgged  and  precipitous  mountains,  the  lof- 
tiest, Ben  Cruaclian,  8,670  feet  in  height.  Its 
snrfiice  is  dotted  with  small  islands.  On  In- 
nisb^  are  the  remains  of  a  small  Cisterdan 
nunnery,  and  a  chnrchyard'  containing  many 
curious  old  tombstonea.  On  Innis  Fraooh  are 
some  traces  of  an  ancient  castle,  formerly  the 
reddence  of  the  chief  of  the  M'Naughtons. 
Innish  Ohounel  was  for  several  centuries  the 
reddenoe  of  the  Argyll  tiunily.  Tlie  castie  of 
Kilchum,  whose  square  tower  was  built  fn 
1440  by  one  of  the  Campbells,  the  founder 
of  the  Breadalbane  family,  stands  on  a  rocky 
pmnt  <^  land,  near  the  head  of  the  lake.  It 
was  garrisoned  as  late  as  1746  by  the  king's 
troops,  but  is  now  deserted.  Several  small 
streams  flow  into  Loch  Awe,  one  of  which 
connects  it  with  Loch  Avicb,  and  another 
with  Loch  EtivB,  an  arm  of  the  sea.  The  lake 
is  celebrated  for  its  trout  and  salmon. 

U,  a  town  of  S.  France,  in  the  department 
of  Ari6ge,  21  m.  8.  E.  of  FoU ;  pop.  1,679. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  over 
3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the 
niidst  of  granitic  mountains  and  at  the  junction 
of  three  valleys  out  of  which  fiow  the  sources 
of  the  Ari^ge.  It  is  celebrated  for  pictaresqne 
scenery,  and  especially  for  cont^ning  the 
greatest  number  and  the  hottest  sulphurons 
springs  in  the  Pyrenees.  Near  the  hospital  is 
a  bath  estabUshed  in  1200  for  the  cure  of  lep- 
rosy, and  stUl  called  leper's  basin.  Ax  has  been 
widely  known  as  a  watering  place  nearly  100 
years,  and  contains  now  a  number  of  bathing 
establishments,  the  so-called  gnn  spring  being 
thehottesL  OvetSOspringsisBDetromtbejuno- 
tion  of  the  slate  and  limestone  with  the  gran- 
ite, varying  in  temperature  from  a  Httle  over 
100'  to  nearly  200°  F. ;  and  they  burst  fbrth  so 
abundantly  on  all  rades  that  the  place  has  been 
figuratively  described  as  being  built  over  a  sub- 
terranean reservoir  of  boiling  water. 

lUTlGllli,  a  Mexican  emperor,  died  about 
1477.  Be  was  the  father  of  Montesnma  II.,  and 
reigned  14  years.  He  was  already  Cunoujg  as  a 
warrior  when  he  became  emperor  of  the  Az- 
tecs, and  inaugurated  his  reign  by  a  successful 
expedition  against  Tehuantepec,  and  in  1467 
conquered  anew  the  cities  of  Cotesta  and 
Tochtepec  A  little  Iat«r  he  repelled  the  tribes 
who  strove  to  get  possession  of  the  Mexican 
capital,  and  maintained  a  vigorous  warfare 
against  his  neighbors.  He  was  defeated  by^e 
nativee  of  Uichoacan,  whom  he  attacked  with 
inferior  forces,  and  on  his  return  to  Mexico 
oelebrated  funeral  solemnities.     He  was  pre- 

Saring  another  expedition  when  he  died  sud- 
enly  and  prematurely.  The  palace  of  Axay^- 
call,  a  gigando  pile  of  stone  buildings,  became 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


60  yean  later  the  bsrraokB  of  tbe  Bp&niardg. 
His  treasnrea  were  discovered  by  Cortes  witbLa 
a  concaaled  door,  and  tbe  obroDtoler  of  the 
conquest  esclainis  that  "  it  seemed  as  if  all  the 
riohea  in  the  irorid  were  in  that  room."  They 
coDUsted  of  gold  and  ^Iver  in  bars  and  in  tbe 
ore,  many  jewels  of  value,  and  numerous  rich 
and  beantinil  artioles  of  ourioos  warkmansbip, 
as  imitations  of  birds,  insects,  or  flowers. 

IXE,  an  instrument  for  cntting  down  trees 
and  chopping  wood,  osually  formed  of  iron  and 
steel,  witn  a  handle  or  belve,  of  suitable  size 
and  lengtb  for  wielding  with  Ixtth  hands,  in- 
serted in  an  eye  nmnlng  horizontally  through 
the  head.  Smallerinstramentsof  similar  form, 
for  use  with  one  hand,  are  called  hatebets  (Fr. 
kaeietle,  diroiniitJve  of  hae^g,  aie).  The  axe 
is  one  of  the  earliest  tools  sa^^ested  by  tbe 
needs  of  man,  and  among  all  antique  relics  we 
lind  almost  invariably  some  species  of  axe.  Tbe 
bene  and  flint  tool  of  different  Indian  raoes; 
the  metallio  axe,  mixed  copper  and  tin,  of 
Sottth  America  and  Mexico,  safGcientlf  bard 
to  cut  porpliyry  and  granite;  the  similar  tool 
<^  the  Romans;  tbe  Druidical  cower  axe,  and 
the  roogh  iron  instrament  of  northern  nations, 
all  wiOiess  tbe  primitive  nse  of  this  implement. 
The  increased  soienoe  of  more  recent  times  oon- 
stmcts  the  axe  of  iron  edged  with  steel;  but 
anciently  the  nse  and  oombinatioo  of  these 
metalswere  comparatively  unknown.  Withtbe 
progress  of  oivilization,  tbe  increasing  wants 
of  Uie  race,  and  tbe  colonization  of  new  and 
fertile  countries,  the  use  of  axes  baa  propor- 
tionately increased  with  that  of  various  other 
edge  tools.  In  the  most  recent  American  pro- 
cesaes,  the  iron  used  in  making  axes  is  ham- 
mered bar  iron,  tbe  bars  of  different  lengtbs, 
but  definite  sizes,  differing  for  different  tools ; 
it  is  heated  to  a  red  beat,  out  of  the  reqaisite 
length,  and  the  eye  which  is  to  receive  tbe 
handle  ponobed  throngh  it;  it  is  then  reheated, 
and  pressed  between  concave  dies  till  it  assames 
tbe  proper  shape.  The  Spanish  axe  is  made  by 
the  old  process  of  hammering  ont  the  bar  and 
toming  it  in  a  loop  to  make  tbe  eye,  aa  this 
kind  of  axe  has  no  head.  The  axe  is  now 
heated  and  grooved  open  the  edge,  receiving 
in  that  groove  tbe  piece  of  steel  wliicb  forms 
the  stiarp  edge ;  borax  is  used  as  a  flux,  and  at 
a  white  neat  the  axe  is  welded  and  drawn  ont 
to  a  proper  edge  by  trip-hammers.  The  nest 
proceaa  is  hammering  off  tbe  tool  by  <  hand 
or  machinery,  restoring  the  shape  lost  in  draW' 
iog  out ;  it  is  then  ground  to  form  a  flner  edge. 
The  axe  is  now  hang  upon  a  revolving  wheel 
in  a  fomace,  over  a  small  coal  fire,  at  a  pecu- 
liar red  heat,  judged  by  tbe  eye,  afterward 
cooled  in  salt  and  water,  then  in  fVesh  water, 
Kod  removed  to  another  fiimace,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  last  temper  at  the  hands  of  skilled 
workmen.  Then  it  ia  gronnd  upon  stones  of  a 
finer  grain  than  before,  and  is  ready  for  tbe 
polialting  wheel.  Next  it  is  polished  to  a  finish 
that  shows  every  flaw,  and  enables  it  to  resist 
rust  and  enter  wood  easily ;  next  it  is  stamped, 


AXLE 


165 


the  head  blacked  with  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  aspbaltum  to  prevent  rust,  and  finally 
weiebed,  labelled,  and  packed  for  sale.— For- 
merly tbe  consnmer  depended  upon  tbe  rude 
forges  and  limited  skill  of  blacksmiths  to  supply 
axea,  but  since  tbe  increased  demand  there  ore 
many  small  mannfoctoriea  in  different  parts  of 
Europe  and  America.  The  largest  establish- 
ment in  tbe  world  for  manufacturing  axes  and 
edge  tools  is  that  of  tbe  Collins  company, 
situated  on  the  Farmington  river,  at  Collins- 
vilie,  Connecticut.  Here,  by  means  of  machi- 
nery invented  for  the  company  by  Mr.  E.  K. 
Root,  the  processes  of  axe-making  are  brought 
to  extreme  perfection.  The  establishment  was 
begun  in  1626,  on  a  small  scale,  by  Messrs,  8. 
W.  and  D,  0.  Collins,  After  some  years  it 
paaaed  into  tbe  bands  of  a  company,  known 
now  as  the  Collins  company.  The  amount  of 
capital  invested  here  is  $1,000,000.  Eighteen 
hundred  tons  of  iron,  S60  tons  of  oaat  steel,  and 
7,000  tons  of  coal  are  consumed  annually ;  from 
430  to  SOO  men  are  employed;  13  large  water 
wheels  and  two  engines  supply  the  motive 
power  of  tbe  machinery;  and  from  J, 600  to 
3,000edge  tools  and  other  implements  are  made 
daily.  The  largest  American  mannfacturers 
after  the  Collins  ctHupany  are  the  Dongas  axe 
company  of  East  Dongas,  Mass.,  and  Uiose  of 
Coboes,  N.  T. 

IXQ.    See  Abbaloh. 

iXIM,  a  town  of  Africa,  coast  of  Gninea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Anoober,  T3  ra.  W.  of  Cape 
Coast  CasUe.  Until  tbe  year  1642  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Portuguese,  when  it  was  token 
from  them  by  tbe  Dutch,  who  were  confirmed 
in  their  possession  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
and  in  1672  ceded  it  with  tbe  remiunder  of 
th^r  possessions  in  Gninea  to  Great  Britain. 

UINITE,  a  mineral  occurring  in  flat,prismatio 
crystals,  with  sharp  edges,  like  an  axe.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  nlica,  alnmina,  lime,  and 

IXLE,  a  piece  of  timber  oi 
which  supports  the  body  of  a 
wagon,  and  is  itself  aupported 
in  tbe  hubs  or  naves  of  wbicb 
serted.  A  great  change  was  introduced  about 
45  years  ogo  in  the  shape  of  axles  for  carriages, 
by  the  English  invention  of  air-tight  closed 
boxes,  which  with  slight  modifications  has  been 
adopted  all  over  tlie  world.  The  wheels  of 
carriage  axles  are  prevented  from  falling  out 
by  means  of  a  collar  on  the  axle,  which  enters 
the  hub  on  the  inside,  and  not  by  a  nut  and 

f'n  on  tbe  outside,  as  usual  in  common  vehicles. 
he  introduction  of  railroads  has  made  another 
change  necessary.  Axles  for  railroads,  instead 
of  revolving  in  the  hubs  of  the  wheels,  are 
strongly  keyed  in  them,  and  journals  are  tam- 
ed on  the  portions  outside  the  wheels.  These 
Journals  pass  through  and  revolve  in  boxes 
attached  to  the  frame  of  the  cars.  This  orrange- 
ment  has  been  fonnd  to  resist  vibrations  and 
jerks  resultmg  from  high  velocity  much  better 
than  the  old  plan.  It  was,  moreover,  necessary 


bar  of  Iron 
,  carriage,  or 
two  wheels. 


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166 


AXMINSTEB 


to  inaare  a  distance  between  the  rims  of  the  | 
wheels  invBriably  eqnal  to  that  of  the  rails.  It  . 
has  been  attempted  to  divide  axles  in  the  centre,  ' 
the  inoer  ends  of  the  two  half  axlee  being  moin- 
tuned  in  boxes  fixed  in  dides  on  a  frame,  and 
the  body  uf  the  carriage  acting  as  a  lever  on  a 
small  mechanisiD,  and  brining  each  axle  per- 

Cendicular  to  the  curve  of  the  road.  One  wheel 
as  al«o  been  made  to  revolve  around  the  axle, 
which  was  fixed  to  the  other  wheel,  and  turned  i 
with  it;  in  this  wa;  railroad  cars  would  turn  ! 
a  short  curve  without  straining  the  axle.  Such  . 
arrangements,  however,  have  never  been  ex- 
tensively introduced,  as  tlie  disadvantages  from 
complexity  and  loss  of  strength  outweigh  the 
advantages  gained  in  turning  curves.  In  horse 
cars  running  on  city  railroads,  the  difficnlty 
of  taming  street  comers,  through  curves  of 
Tery  short  radius,  is  simply  met  by  cansing 
the  outer  wheel  to  run  on  its  flange  on  a  flat 
rail  i  it  thus  acts  as  a  Jar^r  wheel  and  passes 
through  a  greater  distance  with  the  same  num* 
ber  of  revolutions  as  the  inner  wheel,  and  thus 
describes  a  curve,  notwithstanding  the  wheels 
are  all  immovably  connected  with  the  axles. 
The  difficulty  of  turning  curves  is  not  only  in 
the  straining  of  the  axles  immovably  fixed  to 
the  wheels,  but  also  in  the  rigid  parallellism 
of  the  forward  and  rear  axles,  which  opposes 
the  turning  of  a  curve  the  more  in  prot>ortion 
aa  the  cai'  is  longer ;  and  as  American  passenger 
cars  are  very  long  and  curves  very  common, 
the  so-called  truck  system  was  adopted,  con- 
sisting in  a  frame  turning  on  a  vertical  axle  or 
pivot,  and  supported  by  four  or  six  wheels,  of 
which  the  axles  are  parallel.  Buch  a  four  or 
six-wlieeled  frame  or  truck  is  placed  at  each 
end  of  the  car;  and  in  going  around  curves  the 
tracks  adapt  themselves  by  turning  on  the  cen- 
tral vertical  pivot  In  Enrope,  where  curves 
are  more  avoided  regardless  of  expense,  and 
cars  ere  shorter,  this  system  has  not  been 
adopted,  except  in  a  few  exceptional  localities, 
where  curves  of  short  radius  could  not  be 
avoided  in  the  construction  of  the  road.  The 
only  kind  of  locomotive  whore  the  wheels  are 
not  immovably  connected  with  the  axlo  are 
those  lately  built  for  common  roads,  in  some 
of  which  the  connection  is  ingeniously  made 
with  a  gearing,  so  that  notwithstanding  both 
wheels  act  as  driving  wiieels,  they  are  not 
compelled  to  mate  the  same  number  of  revo- 
lutions, and  thus  are  able  to  turn  any  short 
carve  in  a  common  road. 

iXMINSTiS,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Devon, 
England,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Axe,  24  m.  E. 
by  N.  of  Exeter ;  pop.  2,fl00.  It  is  well  known 
on  Bcconnt  of  its  rich  and  beautiful  carpets, 
woven  in  one  piece,  which  rivalled  tliose  of 
Turkey  and  Persia;  hut  the  manufacture  has 
now  ceased.  The  town  is  mentioned  in  Domes- 
day Book,  and  is  believed  to  have  existed  from 
very  early  tiroes.  An  action  was  fought  near 
Axminster  in  the  civil  wars  in  1644. 

iXOLOTL,  the  Mexican  name  of  an  amphibi- 
ous reptile,  described  by  naturalists  as  tireden. 


AXOLOTL 

This  tadpole-formed  reptile  has  the  vertebre 
biconcave,  and  the  body  elongated  and  formed 
for  swimming.  The  feet  are  four,  the  anterior 
being  four-toed,  the  posterior  five-toed ;  the 
sides  of  the  body  are  marked  by  several  small 
furrows,  and  an  imperfect  lateral  line  is  can- 
tinned  from  the  gills  to  the  tail.  The  head  is 
flattened,  with  a  rounded  or  tmncated  snont, 
near  the  end  of  which  are  the  nostrils;  the 
eyes  are  small,  ond  about  midway  between  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  and  the  nose ;  the  tail 
is  elongated  and  compressed,  and  tapers  to  B 
point.  A  thin  membrane  commences  near  the 
back  of  the  head,  riaing  gradually  to  tlie  mid- 
dle of  the  tail,  and  diminishing  again  toward 
the  tip;  underneath,  it  extends  from  behind 
the  vent  to  the  tip,  reaching  its  greatest  height 
at  its  anterior  third.  The  axolotl  l>eIongs  to 
the  perennibrancbiate  order,  or  those  whose 
gills  remain  through  life,  coexisting  with  rudi- 
mentary lungs;  hence  its  respiration  is  always 
aquatic.  The  gill  openings  are  large,  and  the 
gill  covers  are  continuous  beneath  the  throat, 
BO  as  completely  to  separate  the  head  from  tlie 
breast  The  gills  consist  of  four  semicircular 
cartilaginous  arches,  serrated  internally  like 
those  of  fishes,  and  externally  provided  with 


fine  branchial  fringes,  occupying  thickly  the 


tapering,  and  disposed  in  a  double 
generic  character  is  the  presence  of  four  ex- 
ternal flaps,  jirovided  with  respiratory  fringes. 
There  are  two  rows  of  teeth  in  the  upper  and 
lower  jaw.  There  ore  three  species  described; 
liredon  JUezieanvi,  Sliaw  ;  S.  tnacvlatut,  Ow- 
en; and  S.  Ikhtnoidet,  Baird.  It  is  probable 
that  other  species  exist^  as  there  are  many  local- 
ities in  Mexico,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas  where 
"  fish  with  legs  "  are  common.  The  axolotl  is 
about  10  indies  long,  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
with  blackish  spots.  Great  numbers  are  taken 
in  the  month  of  June  from  a  lake  about  3  m. 
from  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  from  water  whose  temperature  is  never 
below  60°  F.  At  this  time  they  form  the  prin- 
cipol  food  of  the  peasantry. — From  the  experi- 
ments of  Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh,  it  appears  that  the 
axolotl  is  the  larval  condition  of  the  salaraan- 
droid  batrochian  amblt/ttonta,  usually  regarded 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ASUK 

as  belonging  to  a  distinct  family.  Dorini;  an 
eicnrsion  in  August,  18fi8,  Prof.  Marsh  obtain- 
ed from  Lake  Comu,  a  Bmall  bractcisti  sheet  of 
water  in.  Wj-oming  territory,  severaJ  specimeng 
of  tiTcdon  lichenoidet  (Baird).  On  bringing 
Utem  to  Now  Haven,  they  went  tlirough  a 
metamorphosis  similar  to  that  previously  no- 
ticed by  Dnmiril  in  the  Meiican  aiolotl.  The 
first  indication  of  the  change  was  the  appear- 
ance of  dark  spots  on  the  sides  of  the  tail,  fol- 
lowed soon  by  the  disappearance  by  absorp- 
tion of  the  membrane  along  the  back  and 
below  the  tail.  Then  the  external  branchie 
began  to  be  absorbed,  and  the  animal  came 
more  frequently  to  the  surface  of  the  water  for 
air.  The  spots  gradually  extended  over  tlie 
body,  tlie  external  brancliiie  and  branchial  arch- 
<a  disappeared,  and  the  opening  on  the  neck 
were  closed  by  the  adbesion  of  the  opercular 
Sap.  The  body  diminished  in  size;  the  bead 
became  more  rounded  above  and  more  oval  in 
oatliDo ;  the  eyes  became  more  convex  and 
prominent;  the  opening  of  the  month  grew 
lai^r,  and  the  tongue  considerably  increased 
in  uze;  changes  took  place  in  the  teeth  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  structure,  and  finally  the 
animal  escaped  from  tlie  water  a  true  ambly- 
ttoma,  not  to  be  distinguished  from  A.  manor- 
lium  (Baird).  The  rapidity  of  these  changes 
was  greatly  aQect«d  by  liglit  and  temperature ; 
onder  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the 
entire  series  of  transformations  took  jilace  in 
about  three  weeks.  It  is  not  kaown  that 
the«e  changes  occur  in  Lake  Como,  which  is 
about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea ;  and  the  craa- 
tnre  no  doubt  breeds  in  its  siredon  or  Inrvol 
state.  This  leads  to  the  belief  that  all  siredons 
are  merely  larval  salamanders,  and  to  the  sus- 
picion that  many  other  so-called  perennibran- 
ehiate  batrachians,  as  menobraTUihtu,  liren,  and 
proltiu,  may  be  the  undeveloped  young  of  other 
well  known  species. 

iXDH,  or  AxoM  (ano.  Auxume),  a  city  of 
Abyssinia,  in  the  province  of  TigrS,  formerly 
capital  of  a  kingdom,  in  lat.  14°  fi'  N.,  Ion.  88° 
27'  E.,  12  m.  W.  of  Adowa;  pop.  about  4,000. 
It  is  7,200  ft  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Par- 
kyn  visited  this  city  in  1843.  There  stands  in 
it  a  church  considered  the  most  sacred  build- 
ing in  oil  Abyssinia,  "around  which  lie  scat- 
tered nntinished  and  broken  columns,  pedes- 
tals, and  other  remnants  of  the  oivilization  of 
former  ages."  This  church  is  about  200  years 
old.  Near  it  is  a  square  enclosure,  with  a  pil- 
lar at  each  angle,  and  a  seat  and  footstool  in 
the  centre,  all  of  granite.  Another  footstool, 
standing  apart,  about  30  yards  distant,  has  be- 
come celebrated  fur  its  Greek  and  Ethiopic 
inscription^  the  latter  in  such  minute  charac- 
ters and  so  indistinct  that  the  traveller  Salt 
could  transcribe  but  little  of  it.  They  give  a 
lilt  of  tribes  under  the  dominion  of  the  king  of 
Axam,  and  indicate  the  existence  of  on  exten- 
sive and  powerful  kingdom  in  Abyssinia,  where 
arts  and  arms  were  well  known  and  cnltivated, 
There  were   originally  Qd  obelisks  at  Asum. 


ATAOUCHO 


167 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these,  a  single 
shaft  of  granite,  60  ft.  high,  is  still  standing 
in  good  preservation.  It  is  destitute  of  hiero- 
glyphics, and,  instead  of  ending  in  a  pyramid 
like  the  Egyptian  obelisks,  terminates  in  a  kind 
of  patera,  indicating  that  it  is  of  Ureek  rather 


Bo)id  Bat,  Axnra. 

than  of  Egyptian  origin.  Tradition  says  it  was 
erected  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Aizanas  (the 
middle  of  the  4tli  century).  In  ecclesiastical 
history  there  is  preserved  a  letter  of  Constan- 
tiuB,  addressed  to  Aizanas  and  Sazanaa  joint- 
ly, calling  them  the  "  Aznmite  princes."  The 
stone  also  ^ves  the  name  of  the  Abyssinian 


monarch  as  Aizanas,  and  mentions  Sazanas. 
Axum  was  probably  the  first  place  in  Abyssinia 
into  which  Christianity  was  introduced.  It 
was  formerly  the  centre  of  the  ivory  trade. 

jITitCraO.  I.  An  interior  central  depart- 
ment of  Pern,  lying  mainly  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Andes,  watered  by  the  rivers  Mantaro 


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168 


AYALA 


(which  partly  bounds  it  N.),  Pampis,  uid  Apn- 
rim&o;  &rea,  aboat  8S,000  eq.  tn. ;  pop.  aboat 
150,000.  Con^stiog  partly  of  elevated  plains 
and  partly  of  deep  valleys,  it  has  a  varied  oli- 
mate,  cold  in  the  one  and  excessively  hot  in 
the  other.  It  is  only  partly  iuolnded  in  the 
great  metalliferous  re^oo ;  yet  gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  parts.  Agriculture  and  bee-keep- 
ing are  the  priocinal  indastriefi ;  and  there  are 
many  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  llamas,  and  vicnfias. 
The  department  derives  ila  name  trom  a  battle 
fought  Deo.  9, 1824,  near  the  hamlet  of  Ayacu- 
cho,  between  the  Spaniards  and  Sonth  Ameri- 
cans, iu  which  the  former,  though  0,810  strong, 
while  their  enemies  numbered  only  5,780,  were 
totallyronted,  with  alosB  of  2,000  lulled,  wound- 
ed, and  prisoners,  the  South  Americans  lodng 
less  than  a  thousand.  The  Spanish  viceroy 
and  commander,  Lasema,  was  captored,  and 
on  the  following  day  Gen,  Caoterao,  who  sno- 
oeeded  to  the  oomroand,  sorrendered  the  rest  of 
the  army  in  the  field,  Lasema  signing  a  capit- 
ulation, which  delivered  np  all  the  Spanish 
troops,  pOitB,  and  monitions  of  war  in  Pern. 
The  Boath  Americans  were  commanded  by 
G«i.  Sucre.  This  battle,  which  lasted  only  a 
few  honra,  virtually  secured  the  independence 
of  all  the  Spanish  poesessiona  in  South  Amer- 
ica, II.  A  town,  the  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing department,  forrnerly  called  Huamanga  or 
Guamanga,  220  m.  S.  E.  of  Lima,  in  a  valley 
abont  0,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  pop. 
with  suburbs,  about  35,000.  It  was  founded 
by  Pizarro  in  153S.  The  houses  are  general- 
ly of  massive  conatmction  son-onnded  by  gar- 
dens. The  cathedral  is  a  fine  structure,  and 
there  are  38  other  churches  and  chapels.  It 
is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most  thriving 
cities  in  South  America. 

ITALl,  ftin  Ufftt  it,  a  Spanish  poet,  chron- 
icler, and  soldier,  l>om  at  Murcia  in  1833,  died 
at  Calahorra  in  1407.  He  held  high  offices 
under  successive  kings  of  Cns^e,  was  one  of 
the  supporters  of  Henry  of  Traetamare,  and  at 
the  battle  of  K^era,  in  1367,  where  he  bore 
the  banner  of  tiiat  leader,  was  made  prisoner 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  carried  to 
England.  He  there  wrote  in  prison  his  Jti- 
mada  de  Palaeio,  or  "Rhyme  of  the  Court." 
Having  obtained  his  liberty,  he  returned  to 
Spun,  and  was  first  minister  of  state,  until  in 
1886  be  was  agun  taken  captive  in  the  battle 
of  Aljubarota  and  carried  prisoner  to  Portugal. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  which  begins  at  1S50, 
where  that  of  Alfonso  XI.  ends,  and  embraces 
46  years. 

ITINONTE,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
and  24  m.  W.  of  the  city  of  Haelvo,  near  the 
month  of  the  Guadiana;  pop.  about  6,000. 
The  town  is  strongly  fortified,  but  difficult  of 
acoesB,  owing  to  tlie  bar  at  the  month  of  the 
river.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  sardine,  tunny,  and  cod  fisheries. 

IIE-ATE,  a  curious  animal  discovered  by 
Sonnerat  in  Madagascar,  constituting  the  ge- 
nos  eheiromyt  of  Sonnini.    The  common  name 


seems  to  have  been  derived  either  from  an  ex- 
clamation of  the  natives  or  the  cry  of  ihe  ani- 
mal; the  generic  name,  meaning  "handed 
mouse,"  implies  its  resemblance  to  a  large  rat, 
with  feet  like  hands.  Cuvier  placed  it  among 
the  rodents,  near  the  flying  squirrels,  but  he  rec- 
ognized the  mouse-like  stmctare  of  the  head  ; 
Shaw,  Scbreber,  and  later  Owen,  ranked  it 
among  tbe  lower  qnadmmana,  the  iemvrida; 
while  van  der  Iloeven  regarded  it  as  a  link  be- 
tween the  monkeys  and  the  rodents.  Its  prob- 
able place  is  among  the  qnadiTtmona,  near  the 
lemurs,  though  it  has  interesting  affinities  to 
the  rodenta  and  bata.  The  incisor  teeth  are 
like  those  of  rodents  in  number,  position,  and 
length  of  root,  thongh  more  compressed  later- 
ally and  sharp-pointed ;  tbe  canines  are  absent ; 
the  molars  are  4  above  and  3  below  on  each 
side.  In  its  head  and  general  shape  it  resem- 
bles the  golagoe  of  the  lemur  family ;  the  large, 
flat,  erect,  and  naked  ears  are  like  those  of  tne 
bats;  the  last  two  joints  of  the  middle  flnger 
of  the  fore  feet  are  very  long,  slender,  and  bare, 
nsefnl  in  picking  larvie  ont  of  holes  in  trees, 
and  perhaps  in  climbing ;  all  the  feet  have  6 
fingers,  the  thumbs  of  the  bind  feet  being  op- 


Aja-Afe  (Cbelnmjn  U*d>cuarlciu>. 

Cble  to  the  others,  as  in  the  monkeys;  th« 
[  is  ronnded,  and  the  muzile  short  and 
pointed;  the  tail  is  long,  heavily  furred,  and 
trails  upon  the  ground.  The  color  is  rusty 
brown  above,  tbe  cheeks,  throat,  and  under 
parts  light  gray;  paws  nearly  black;  the  hair 
is  thick  and  downy,  of  a  golden  tint  at  the 
roots.  It  is  about  the  nze  of  a  bare,  the  tail 
being  as  long  as  the  body.  I'he  movementa 
are  slow,  but  more  active  than  those  of  the 
ions.  The  eyes  are  large,  yellow,  and  sensitive 
to  light,  as  in  all  nocturnal  creatures.  It  is 
believed  to  be  a  burrower,  though  it  is  also 
found  on  trees.  The  food  is  probably  both 
fruits  and  insects,  as  in  the  leiour  family;  it 
thrives  in  captivity  on  boiled  rice.  It  sleeps  by 
day,  curled  up  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree  or  other 
dark  place.  Unlike  the  qnadramana,  this  ani- 
mal has  tbe  mammEe  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen,  instead  of  upon  the  breaat. 

illSALOOK,  or  llMalak.    See  EpnEsre. 

il'ESHA,  or  Ibha,  the  favorite  wife  of  Uobam- 
med,  bom  at  Medina  in  611,  died  there  about 
67S.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Abubekr,  and 
was  bnt  nine  years  old  when  aha  was  betrothed 


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ATLESBDEY 

to  the  prophet,  who  oheriahed  an  Mpeciel  re- 
Mrd  for  her,  though  she  bore  him  no  children. 
The  24th  chapter  of  the  Kerau  wai  written  hj 
the  prophet  expreselj  to  silence  thoee  cynics 
who  doubted  Ajeaha's  pnritj.  She  anrvived 
Uohammed  aboat  46  years,  and  had  an  active 
put  in  the  conteet  against  AH,  who  took  her 
prisoner  with'  arms  in  her  hands,  but  pardoned 
oer.  Her  opinion  was  Bonght  BOmetimea  on 
diSonlt  points  in  the  Eoran,  and  had  the  force 
of  law  with  good  Sunnia. 

lTiX8Bl'K¥,  a  market  town,  pariah,  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  England,  connty  seat 
of  Buckinghamshire,  87  ni.  N.  W.  of  London ; 
pop.  of  the  borongh  in  1871,  26,760.  The  town 
IS  very  old  and  irregnlarly  bnilt,  but  well 
paved,  and  lighted  with  goa.  Straw  plaiting  ia 
eitensively  carried  on,  and  dncks  are  raised  in 
great  numbers  for  the  London  market.  The 
manDfactnre  of  lace,  formerly  an  important  in- 
dustry, has  diminished  greatly  of  lat«  years. 
There  is  one  silk  factory. 

iTLMEB,  Jaha,  bishop  of  London,  bom  at 
rUney  in  Norfolk  in  1521,  died  June  S,  1GB4. 
He  was  sent  to  Cambridge  by  the  marqnis  of 
Dorset,  atterward  duke  of  Suffolk,  but  gradu- 
ated in  divinity  at  Oxford,  alter  wnich  he  be- 
came the  duke's  chaplain  and  tutor  to  his 
ilanghter,  Lady  Jane  Grey.  On  the  accession 
of  Qneen  Mary,  in  1GS8,  Ayhner  was  compelled 
to  give  up  the  archdeaconry  of  Stow  in  Lin- 
colnshire, to  which  he  had  inst  been  appointed, 
and  fled  to  Switzerland.  In  his  exile  he  pub- 
lished a  reply  to  John  Knox's  "First  Blast," 
agoinet  the  propriety  of  women  holding  the 
■overeipt  sway,  and  complimented  EliEabetb. 
Retnrmng  to  England  aner  the  accession  of 
the  latter,  he  manifested  mnch  zeal  in  favor 
of  the  reformed  futh,  was  made  archdeacon 
of  IJncoIn  in  1563,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
synod  which  reformed  oni!  settled  the  doetrine 
sikd  discipline  of  the  AngUcan  church.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Lwdon  in  1676,  and  in  this  oa- 
pooity  became  so  nnpopnlar,  tm  account  of  his 
intolerance  toward  the  Catholics  and  the  Puri- 
tans, that  the  privy  council  rebuked  his  se- 
verity. He  was  a  ripe  scholar  and  a  piopniar 
preacher,  but  published  nothing  except  his 
courtly  answer  to  John  Enos. 

ATMUU8,  the  name  of  the  earliest  known 
inhabitants  of  the  Alpine  valleys  of  B.  E.  Pern 
sad  N.  W.  Bolivia,  whose  descendants,  save  a 
few  in  the  Peruvian  province  of  Puno,  are 
now  to  be  found  only  io  the  Bolivian  provinces 
of  La  PaJt  end  Oruro.  They  claim  descent 
from  the  Oollagnas,  who  at  a  very  remote 
period  migrated  from  the  north,  and  consti- 
tuted the  sacred  isle  in  Lake  Titicaca  the  cen- 
tre of  their  government  and  religion.  Though 
disUnot  in  language,  they  physically  resemble 
the  Indians  of  the  great  Qniohoan  or  Inca  fam- 
ily, who  were  iudebted  to  them  for  a  part  of 
tbeir  religious  rites  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
arts.  Tliey  worked  skilfully  in  gold  and  silver, 
tilled  the  ground,  built  splendid  edifices  oma- 
mested  with  Kulptore  and  punting,  and  were 


AYMAil-TEKNAT  169 

somewhat  versed  In  astronomy.  Their  poetry 
and  religion  were  spiritualistic ;  their  priests 
were  bound  to  celibacy,  and  the  dead  were 
held  in  religious  veneration.  Their  skin  is  of 
an  olive-brown  color ;  their  features,  tbou^ 
regular,  are  strongly  marked,  the  cranium  ca- 
pacions,  and  the  general  cost  of  the  counte- 
nance thoughtful  and  melancholy.  The  wo- 
men are  rarely  handsome.  The  Aymaras  have 
embraced  Christianity,  and  are  zealous  obser- 
vers of  all  the  rites  uf  the  Roman  Catholio 
faith,  in  the  performance  of  which,  however, 
they  introduce  some  relics  of  paganism.  Their 
chief  occupation  ia  husbandry.  As  the  Incas 
grew  in  power  they  gradually  But)dQed  the  Ay- 
maras,  and  ultimately  overran  their  whole  ter- 
ritory. The  Aymaras  probably  number  200,- 
000  at  the  present  day.  In  early  times  they 
were  accnstomed  to  mould  the  craniiims  of 
infante  to  a  conical  shape.    They  worahipped 


the  sun,  and  believed  the  present  Inminair  to 
be  the  fifth,  and  that,  after  a  long  period  of 
darkness,  it  emerged  from  the  sacred  island  in 
the  lake.  The  monnmenta  of  Tiagnanaco,  re- 
mains of  many  of  which  are  still  standing,  in- 
dicate a  much  higher  civilization  than  do  those 
of  Palenque.  (See  Titioaca.)  Their  tombs, 
sometimes  large  square  buildings  witlt  a  single 
opening  through  which  the  body  was  intro- 
duced, contained  12  bodies  placed  feet  to  feet 
around  a  confined  cavity,  sitting  in  their 
clothes.  Some  of  these  tombs  are  small  houses 
of  sunburnt  bricksj  some  are  square  towers 
of  several  stories,  containing  each  a  body ;  but 
whatever  be  the  size,  tliey  are  always  joined 
in  groups,  with  the  opening  facing  the  east. 

AVIUK-VERIJIT,  Jm^hs,  a  French  peasant 
of  Dauphiny,  a  pretended  diviner,  bom  at  St. 
Yeran,  Sept.  6, 1 662 ;  time  of  death  unknown. 
lie  was  originally  a  mason,  hut  early  abandoned 
that  occupation,  and  began  using  the  divining 


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170 


AYR 


rod,  emploTioff  it  at  first  in  discoveriDC  springs, 
rainee,  and  hiddeii  treasures,  and  finatij/  in  re- 
claiming stolen  property  and  in  detecting  the 
thiet^  He  acquired  a  great  reputation  in  this 
waj,  and  at  length  in  ]692,  a  vintner  and  bis 
wife  having  been  murdered  at  Lyons,  he  was 
employed  to  follow  op  the  mnrderer,  and  finally 
charged  the  crime  upon  a  hunchback  in  the 
Jail  at  Beaucaire,  who  confessed  bis  complicity 
and  was  broken  on  the  wheel.  The  conntry 
rang  with  tliese  events,  and  innumerable  |iam- 
]ililets  were  written  on  the  sabject  in  1692  and 


invited  to  Paris  by  the 
isplay  his  skill,  but  failed 
ittempted,  and  at 
n  imjiostor.  The 
as  never  entirely 


1693,     Aymar  w 
prince  de  CoDd6  t 
completely  in  everythinL 
length  admitted  that  he  was 
mystery  of  the  hunchback  t 
cleared  np. 

ATK,  the  connty  town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotldod, 
on  the  frith  of  Clyde,  neor  the  month  of  the 
river  Ayr,  80  m.  8.  W.  of  Glasgow ;  pop.  in  1871. 
1T,BS1.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  com- 
modious public  buildings,  a  large  fish  market, 
and  several  pleasant  squares.    The  Ayr  is  bme 


crossed  by  two  bridges,  celebrated  by  Bums  in 
one  of  his  best  known  poems.  A  good  har- 
bor is  formed  by  the  month  of  the  river,  but 
the  town  has  little  commerce,  though  it 


Bobert  Bulla's  Cottage,  d«u  A  jr. 


formerly  largely  engaged  in  (he  importation  of 
wine  from  France.  The  principal  industries 
are  fishing,  rope  and  sail  making,  and  iron 
fouading.  Ship  building  is  also  carried  on  to  a 
small  extent. — About  two  miles  irom  Ayr,  in 
what  was  formerly  the  varisb  of  Alloway,  is 
the  small  cottage  in  which  Bums  was  bom  in 
1TS9.  A  monument  has  been  erected  to  the 
poet  on  a  hill  not  far  off. 

ITBER,  Jaktb,  a  German  poet  who  flourislied 
at  Nuremberg,  died  in  1806.  He  is  the  author 
of  upward  of  SO  comedies,  tragedies,  burlesques, 
and  carnival  plavs,  which  were  published  at 
Nuremberg  in  1618,  under  thetitle  of  Op«4  The- 
tttrieum.  Tieck  inserted  five  of  these  plays  in 
the  first  volume  of  his  DeuUrhet  Theater. 

ATlSBIBi;  a  county  in  the  S.  W.  of  Scot- 
land, bounded  W,  by  the  Irith  of  Clyde,  and 
landward  by  the  counties  of  Renfrew,  Lanark, 
Dumfries,  Kirkcudbright,  and  Wigtown;  area, 
1.14B  sq.  m.\  pop.  in  1S71,  200,745,  It  is 
hilly  on  the  southern  and  eastern  nides,  tlic- 
principal  hills  rising  to  neariy  2,000  feet  It 
IS  intersected  by  several  small  rivers.  About 
10  m.  off  the  coast  lies  the  craig  of  Ailsa,  tbe  top 
of  a  submarine  monnt^n  with  basaltic  columns 


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AYSOCE 

cnndUr  to  those  of  StafFa.  The  county  aboonda 
in  coal,  particalarlj  that  known  as  blende  coal, 
which  ia  fonnd  in  a  state  of  coke ;  iron,  lead, 
anUmonj,  and  various  kinds  of  building  stone 
are  also  found ;  and  there  is  a  granite  valued  for 
null  stooeA,  and  a  black  stone  used  in  build- 
ing ovena.  The  ooanty  is  remarkable  for  its 
fine  crops  and  for  the  general  prosperity  of  its 
bnuers.  The  manufactares  are  considerable 
in  linens,  woullens,  cottons,  leather,  and  other 
aitiole;!.  The  relics  of  ouCiquit;,  Dmidical  and 
Roman,  are  nomerons,  while  there  are  also 
manj  ruina  of  boildinga  of  the  middle  ages. 
One  of  the  most  notable  of  these  in  point  of 
interesE  is  Tamberrj  oastle,  the  ancestral  resi- 
dence of  the  Bruce,     Capital,  Ayr. 

AlSd'E,  Sir  Gearge,  an  English  admiral,  bom 
abont  1613,  died  abont  1676.  He  entered  the 
navy  early,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I. 
In  the  civil  war,  aiding  with  the  parliament, 
he  had  command  as  admiral  in  the  Irish  seaa. 
In  1S51  he  reduced  Barlwdoes  and  Vir^ia, 
which  hod  held  out  for  the  king.  In  13.i2  he 
seconded  Blake  in  his  conteat  with  Van  Tromp 
and  De  Rnyter.  In  June,  1S66,  in  the  mem- 
orftble  navid  battle  of  the  fonr  days,  he  com- 
manded  a  squadron,  bnt  hia  ship  (the  Royal 
Prince,  the  largest  sbip  then  afloat)  ranning  on 
the  GaJuper  sands,  his  men  foreed  him  to  sur- 
render, and  the  Dutch  captured  his  veasel.  He 
was  held  a  prisoner  for  several  years. 

AITON,  or  Aitaaa,  Sir  bbert,  a  Soottiab  poet, 
prirate  secretary  to  the  qneens  of  James  I.  and 
Oharles  1.,  bom  at  Kinaldie,  Fifeshire,  in  15T0, 
died  in  the  palace  of  Whitehall  in  March, 
1038.  When  Jamea  VI.  of  Scotland  became 
king  of  England,  Ayton  was  rewarded  for  a 
very  eulogistic  Latin  poem  by  knighthood,  and 
aeverol  lucrative  omcea.  His  Latin  poems, 
chiefly  panegyrical,  were  published  in  his  life- 
time, and  much  esteemed.  His  English  poems, 
principally  preeerved  by  tradtCion,  were  scarcely 
Known  until  the  Ballontyne  olub  at  Edinburgh 

einted  a  collection  of  them  in  their  "  Miscel- 
ny."  Some  years  later  a  manuscript  contain- 
ii^  Ayton's  poems  was  picked  up  at  a  sale, 
and  the  whole,  edited  by  C.  A.  Pryor,  were 
pabliahcd  in  18H.  Bams  greatly  admired 
SDch  of  Ayton's  poems  as  he  had  seen — among 
them  the  oripnal  of  "An!d  Lang  Syne." 
Ayton  was  intimate  with  Ben  Jonaon  and  the 
leading  literary  men  of  his  time. 

AfTOIIir,  WIHIaa  EtanMaiM,  a  Scottish  poet, 
boro  in  Fifeshire  in  1813,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
Aug.  4,  1865.  He  was  edacatod  in  the  achools 
of  Edinburgh,  where  he  gained  diadnotion  in 
English  and  Latin  composition.  A  prize  poem, 
"Jadith"  (1831),  received  the  applause  of 
Prat  Wilson,  whose  daughter  he  afterward 
married ;  and  encouraged  by  him  he  pnbliahed 
his  first  volume,  entitled  "  Poland  and  other 
Poema,"  which  attracted  but  little  attention. 
Ur.  Aytonn  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1B40, 
and  became  well  known  as  a  wit  and  as 
aa  advocate  in  criminal  cases.  In  1845  he 
anoeeeded  Mr.  Moir  as  profeeaor  of  rhet<^e 


AYUHTAMIEirrO 


171 


and  belles-lettera  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
there  were  celebrated  for  their  pithy  treatment 
of  topics  and  their  'brilliant  style.  He  aban- 
doned the  liberal  political  views  toward  which 
lie  tended  in  his  youth,  and  after  the  death  of 
Prof.  Wilson  was  the  moat  prominent  among 
the  oontributors  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine. 
Id  this  periodical  Srst  appeared  hia  celebrated 
national  bolloda,  "  Lays  ^  the  Scottish  Cava- 
liers and  other  Poems  "(London  and  Edinburgh, 
1840 ;  10th  ed.,  1S5T).  Prof.  Aytoun  lectured 
with  great  success  in  London  in  1863  upon 
poetry  and  dramatic  literature,  and  in  1864 

Eahlished  "  Firmilion,  a  Spasmodic  Tragedy, 
y  T.  Percy  Jones,"  designed  to  ridicule  the 
raptures  of  some  of  the  young  poets  of  the  day. 
He  also  took  part  in  the  "Book  of  Ballads," 
edited  under  the  psendonyme  of  "  Bon  Qanl- 
tier."  His  last  poem  waa  "  Bothwell "  (2d 
ed.,  1856).  He  woa  one  of  the  most  efiectjve 
of  British  political  writera,  and  in  reward  for 
his  services  to  the  conaervative  party  he  was 
in  1853  appointed  by  Lord  Derby  sheriff  and 
vice  admiral  of  Orkney.  Theodore  Martin, 
one  of  hia  colaborera,  has  published  a  memoir 
of  his  life  (186B). 

ATDHTAMIEHTO,  the  name  of  village  and 
town  councils  in  Spain.  During  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Moors  and  Christian  Spaniards  it 
waa  the  policy  of  the  sovereigns  to  indncc  inhab- 
itants and  cultivators  to  setUe  in  tlie  depopu- 
lated country  as  fast  as  it  was  recovered.  Aa 
an  incentive  they  granted  to  the  villagea  and 
towns  municipal  privileges  of  a  character  de- 
rived ftom  Roman  antiqnity,  and  totally  an- 
tagonistic to  the  spirit  of  the  feudal  law.  The 
town  councils  were  to  be  composed  of  the 
jndge,  the  mayor,  the  regidoret  or  clerks,  the 
jtiradoa,  and  the  penonerM  or  deputies;  all 
theae  were  elective  officers,  except  the  Jndge 
or  corregidor,  who  was  appointed  by  the  king. 
The  only  qualification  for  a  citizen  was  Span- 
ish birth,  residence,  and  to  be  the  head  of  a 
family.  These  privileges  were  consanant  with 
the  most  ancient  rights  of  the  Spaniards  and 
their  Gothic  conquerors,  but  now  they  were  con- 
finned  \>j  fuero»  or  charters.  The  only  liabil- 
ity under  which  the  diatricta  thus  organized 
were  placed  waa  that  of  paying  a  tax  to  the 
king,  and  of  serving  in  arms  in  defence  of  the 
country,  under  their  own  alcalde.  Their  elec- 
tions were  by  ballot ;  persons  soliciting  a  vote 
or  using  undne  inflnence  were  disfranchised. 
The  king  himself  might  not  interfere  with  the 
proceedings  of  the  ayuntamiento,  which  hod 
supreme  control  of  all  local  expenditure  and 
taxation.  AH  the  citizens  in  these  districts 
had  equal  rights.  Noblemen  had  to  lay  aside 
their  rank  and  exclusive  privOeges  if  they  de- 
sired to  reside  in  the  district.  There  were  no 
special  privileges ;  all  men  and  all  religions 
were  equal  before  the  lew.  These  regulations 
continued  in  force  for  centuries ;  but  under 
the  house  of  Austria  and  the  early  Bourbons 
they  were  frequently  encroached  upon,  nntil  at 


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173 


AZArS 


the  period  of  the  French  invasion,  vhile  the 
mnnicipsl  organizations  of  ttie  villages  and  un- 
important towna  had  preserved  their  integrity, 
the  chartera  of  most  of  the  great  towns  and 
cities  of  the  kingdom  bad  been  violated,  and 
the  rights  of  the  people  abridged.  During 
that  invasion  tbe  constitution  of  1812,  reoog- 
nidng  and  restoring  all  the  ancient  fneros,  was 
adopted  by  the  people.  This  constitntion  was 
abrogated  b/  Ferdinand  VII.  on  his  reatora- 
tdon,  revived  by  the  revolution  of  1820,  and 
^ain  Boppressed  in  1823.  The  constitution  of 
1837,  however,  restored  the  ayuntAmientos. 
In  1840,  in  consequence  of  tlie  check  which 
this  syBtem  of  local  govemment  gave  to  tlie 
policy  of  tbe  court,  Queen  Christina,  by  the 
advice  of  the  French  government,  introduced 
a  measure  intended  to  restrain  the  political 
action  of  the  aynntamientoe.  This,  ajthongh 
it  at  the  time  led  to  disturbances,  was  snb- 
stantially  carried  out  in  1844. 

AZltS,  Pierre  H;Mlitkc,  a  French  philosopher, 
bom  in  SorrSze,  Langaedoc,  March  1, 1796,  died 
in  Paris,  Jan.  22,  184C.  He  waaeducatedatthe 
Benedictine  college  of  8orr6ze,  where  his  father 
was  teacher  of  music,  and  at  the  college  of  the 
Oratorions  at  Toulouse,  and  afterward  became 
secretary  to  the  bishop  of  Olfiron,  but  lost  this 
position  on  reftising  to  take  orders.  He  was 
at  first  a  partisan  of  the  revolntion,  but  having 
published  a  pamphlet  agunat  its  excesses,  be 
was  condemned  to  transportation.  He  foond 
a  refuge,  however,  in  the  nospital  of  the  sisters 
of  charity  at  Tarbes,  where  he  served  as  sec- 
retary and  bookkeeper.  There  he  wrote  bis 
"Discourses  of  the  8onl  with  the  Creator," 
and  bis  "  Religions  Inspirations,  or  the  Eleva- 
tion of  the  Soul  to  the  Spirit  of  God."  In 
these  works  he  first  put  forth  his  ideas  of 
eternal  justice,  and  the  natnral  and  necessary 
balance  of  good  and  evil  in  tbe  universe  and 
in  the  destinies  of  men.  After  remaining  18 
months  concealed  in  this  hospital,  he  retired 
to  Saint'Sauvenr,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyreneee, 
and  there  wrote  his  iwok  on  the  "  Misfortunes 
and  the  Happiness  of  Life."  Here  he  remained 
■is  years,  engaged  in  writing  his  philo'sopbical 
"  System  of  Compensations,''  the  best  known 
of  bis  works.  He  tiien  went  to  Paris,  married 
the  widow  of  an  officer,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  geography  in  tbe  military  school 
of  Saint-Cyr.  This  office  he  resigned  when 
the  school  was  removed  to  La  Fliche,  and 
was  afterward  appointed  inspector  of  booksell- 
ing at  Avignon,  where  he  puljlished  hia  great 
work,  Le  »jf>tim4  vniwnel  (2  vols.  8vo,  1812). 
The  following  year  he  went  to  Nancy  in  the 
same  capacity,  and  commenced  a  work  on  the 
destiny  of  man.  At  the  downfall  of  Napoleon 
he  lost  his  place,  and  retired  agwn  to  Paris, 
where  be  lived  some  time  in  poverty ;  but  his 
friends  at  length  obtained  for  him  a  pension. 
He  lectured  publicly  at  the  AthhUe  Royal  in 
Paris,  and  attracted  large  audiences;  and  in 
I82T-'8  he  held  conferences  in  his  garden  in 
Uie  anburbs  of  Pari^  which  were  attended  by 


the  «lite  of  both  sexes.  In  1826  he  published 
iMExplieationnnittrttlU;  in  1620,  Prineipt» 
ds  tnoraU  et  da  politique ;  in  18S3,  Caura 
d'explieation  univtrielle  ;  in  1884,  Idfepritite 
de  la  veriti  pramiire  ;  in  1 836,  De  la  vraie 
midteint,  ana  De  la  t>raie  morale;  in  1686, 
Phytiologie  du  bien  et  dv  mal,  for  which  the 
French  academy  awarded  a  prize  of  6,000 
franca ;  in  1880,  He  la  pkrinoloffie,  du  ma- 
gnititme  et  de  lafolie;  m  1840,  La  eimititu- 
tion  de  Vvniveri  et  replication  ginirale  del 
mouvem^ite  politique*,  for  which  tie  ocademy 
awarded  another  prize  of  2,000  francs. 

IZiLEA  (Gr.  i^aXla^,  arid),  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  erieaeea,  and  to 
the  sub-order  rhodorea,  named  in  ollunon  to 
the  dry  places  in  which  many  of  the  sptecies 
grow,  and  consisting  of  upright  shrubs  with 
large,  handsome,  and  fragrant  flowers,  often 
cultivated  in  gardens.  The  genus  comprises 
more  than  100  species,  most  of  them  natives  of 
China  or  North  America,  having  profuse  nm- 


belled  olnstera  of  white,  orange,  purple,  ot 
variegated  flowers,  some  of  which  have  long 
been  tbe  pride  of  the  gardens  of  Knrnpe.  The 
general  onaracteristics  of  the  genus  are  a 
6-part«d  calyx,  a  G-lobed,  f^nel  form,  slightly 
irregular  corolla,  5  stamens,  a  6-celled  pod,  and 
alternate,  oblong,  entire,  and  ciliated  leaves, 
furnished  with  a  glandular  point.  Thespecieb 
may  be  classified  into  those  which  have  glntl- 
nous  flowers,  and  those  whose  flowers  are  bat 
slightly  or  not  at  all  glotinona;  each  of  which 
classes  may  be  subdivided  into  those  which 
have  short  stamens,  and  those  which  have 
stamens  much  longer  than  the  corolla.  Of 
those  which  have  a  glutinous  corolla  and  short 
stamens  are  the  tieeota  and  the  glauea,  very 
nearly  resembling  each  other,  found  native  in 
North  America  fVom  Maine  to  Georgia,  grow- 
ing trom  4  to  10  feet  high,  and  having  many 
varieties  of  flowert^  either  white  or  tinged  wiUi 


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AZABA 

rose  color.  Of  those  which  have  a  glatinoQS 
corolla,  with  long  stamens,  are  the  nitida,  hu- 
pida,  and  ponlita,  the  first  two  being  Ameri- 
can species  and  found  in  mountainous  regions 
in  the  middle  states,  the  last  a  native  of 
Turkuv  and  the  northern  borders  of  the  Blaok 
sea,  and  distinguished  by  its  brilhant  j-ellow 
corolla.  Of  thoefe  whose  flowers  are  smooth 
or  bnt  slightlj  glntjnons,  and  have  long  sta- 
mens, ore  the  perielymtna,  or  upright  honey- 
suckle, found  on  hillsides  in  all  the  woods  of 
North  America;  the  eaiutetnt,  witb  a  white 
flower  which  has  a  red  tube,  an  earlj  and 
tender  Americui  ^ecies  ;  end  the  arhoraeem, 
a  rare  and  beantlnil  shrub,  witli  elegant  foli- 
age and  Terj  fragrant  rose-oolored  blosaoins, 
fonnd  abont  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains  of 
Penniylvonia.  Of  those  whose  flowers  are  not 
glatinooB,  and  which  have  short  stamens,  are 
the  »n«n4u,  nearly  resembling  the  pontiea  ; 
the  indica,  a  ChtneBe  species,  with  brilliant 
variegated  flowers,  cultivated  in  Europe  and 
America  as  a  greenhouse  plant;  and  the  Udi- 
folia,  also  a  native  of  Ohins,  with  evergreen 
leavea,  aod  larger  flowers  than  those  of  the 
preceding.  Ail  the  American  species  are  de- 
ddnouB.  In  cultivation  the  azaleas  love  the 
shade  and  a  soil  of  sandy  peat  or  loom. 


become  a  brigadier  general  in  the  Spanish 
army,  and  was  woonded  in  the  warfare  againat 
the  Algerine  pinitee  (1TT6).  In  1781  he  went 
to  South  America  as  one  of  the  otKomisaioners 
for  the  settlement  of  the  bonndary  between 
the  Spanish  and  Portngnesa  possemona,  and 
the  researches  which  be  prosecuted  till  1801, 
despite  the  vexatious  proceedings  of  the  local 
Bponish  officials,  gave  him  distinction  as  an 
authority  on  the  natoral  and  political  history 
of  Paraguay  and  the  Plata  region.  His  Etiai 
HIT  rhutoire  naturelU  del  qaadrupidei  de  la 
provitxee  du  Parapuof/  was  first  published  in 
French  (Paris,  1801),  and  afterward  in  Span- 
ish (Madrid,  1603)  under  the  anspioes  of  his 
brother,  the  chevalier  Joe£  Nioolas  ob  Azaba 
(bom  in  1781,  died  in  Paris  in  1804),  Spanish 
ambassador  to  France,  favorably  known  by  a 
Spamsh  translation  of  Middleton's  Cicero  and 
by  other  literary  achievements.  Felix  de  Ata- 
ra's' maatemece,  Voyage  daru  V Amirigue  mi- 
riditmaU  depuit  1781  jutqu'en  1801  (4  vols., 
Paris,  180B),  contdning  a  narrative  of  the  dis- 
covery and  conquest  of  Paraguay  and  the  Pla- 
ta river,  and  in  the  last  two  volumes  ornitho- 
logical descriptions  translated  by  Sonnini,  was 
edited  by  the  French  naturalist  Walckenaer, 
whose  commentaries  ea  well  as  those  of  Son- 
nini and  Cuvier  impart  additional  value  to  the 
work.  A  Spanish  translation  by  Vorela  has 
been  published  at  Montevideo. 

AZAEUB  fHeb.  'Atarj/ah,  or  A*arj/ahu,  helped 
of  Jehovah),  a  very  common  name  among  the 
Hebrews.  Uzziah,  king  of  Jndah,  is  also  called 
Azariab.  It  was  the  Hebrew  name  of  the 
friend  of  Danid  whose  Choldee  name  was 


AZEGLIO 


173 


Abednego.  Apart  &om  Hiese,  the  most  prom- 
inent persons  beariof  the  name  ore  a  prophet 
who  met  Asa  after  his  victory  over  Zerah,  King 
of  Ethiopia,  and  eihortod  him  to  pat  away 
idolatrona  worship ;  and  a  high  priest  who 
sided  Hezekioh  in  reforming  the  temple  wor- 
ship.— In  its  Greek  form,  Asuirias,  several  per- 
sons of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  apocry- 
phal books,  one  of  them  being  one  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Judas  Maccabsens,  who  suffered  defeat 
by  Gorgias. 


Italian  statesman,  artist,  and  author,  bom  in 
Turin,  Oct.  3,  1786,  died  there,  Jan.  16,  1889. 
In  his  youth,  as  he  says  himself  in  his  memoirs, 
he  was  a  swaggering  soldier  and  a  companion 
of  scamps.  His  father  being  appointed  in  1814 
Sardinian  ambassador  in  Rome,  fie  accompanied 
him  and  remained  there  almost  uninterruptedly 
for  eight  years,  acquiring  distinction  as  a  pun- 
ter, and  for  a  time  living  the  life  of  an  artietio 
hermit  in  the  ontekirts  of  the  Roman  Apen- 
nines. After  his  father's  death  in  1830  he 
married  a  daoghter  of  Manzoni,  and  after  her 
death  he  married  Loaisa  Blondel  of  Geneva. 
He  was  now  a  man  of  serions  thought  and 
strict  virtue,  and  a  decided  liberal.  His  cele- 
brated romances,  Ettore  M«ramoiea  (Milan, 
1BB3)  and  Nieold  At' Zopi  (1841;),. contiibuted 
to  roose  the  national  spirit  of  independenoe 
and  to  establish  his  literary  fame.  In  nis  Degli 
ultimi  eon  di  Eomagna  (Florence,  1848),  as 
well  as  by  hie  personal  influence  with  Pius  IX., 
he  advocated  a  liberal  poUcy,  while  his  politi- 
cal writings  (collected  in  1  vol.,  Turin,  18S1) 
fostered  a  reformat<»7  spirit  in  Sardinia  and 
paved  the  way  for  coming  changes.  In  1848 
ne  was  aide-de-carop  of  Durando,  who  com- 
manded the  papal  troops  against  Austria;  but 
when  the  latter  were  recalled  he  joined  the 
patriot  volunteers  in  flghting  the  battle  of 
Vicenza  against  Rodetsky,  and  was  severely 
wounded.  After  the  restoration  of  peace  bs 
was  chosen  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  Vic- 
tor Emannel  on  ascending  the  throne  appointed 
him  (May  11,  1649)  premier  and  minister  of 
foreign  i^aira,  and  it  was  mainly  his  inflnenoe 
which  saved  constitutional  instituticms  and 
paved  the  way  for  the  work  of  Cavour.  He 
dissolved  the  chambers  twice  on  account  of 
their  oppoeition  to  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
Austria,  which  he  caused  to  he  ratified  Jan.  9, 
1850.  Despite  Aieglio's  sympathies  with  pro- 
gressive measurea,  he  was  considered  as  over- 
conservative  for  the  new  order  of  things;  and 
he  finally  snocumbed  to  the  combined  infln- 
euce  of  Count  Cavour  and  Ratazri  and  the 
oppodtion  in  the  chambers,  retiring  Oct.  80, 
1853.  He  had  already  tendered  his  rerigna- 
tton  flve  months  before,  and  continaed  in 
oflloe  only  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  Ung. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  16GB,  he 
contributed,  as  the  king's  commissioner  iu 
Bologna,  to  the  preservation  of  order  in  the 
Romagna,  and  suoseqnently  was  for  a  short 
time  prefect  of  Milan,  his  impured  health  rs- 


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174 


AZEKBIJAN 


quiring  hia  retirement  and  obliging  him  to 
have  Lis  speeches  in  the  senate  read  i>j  otbera. 
A  man  of  independent  character  and  politioal 
opinions,  he  aevereiy  criticised  Oavonr,  Mai- 
zmi,  and  other  liberal  leaders,  and  among  other 
popular  roeaanree  opposed  the  intended  trans- 
fer of  the  capital  to  Roab.  His  daughter,  the 
marchioness  Ricci,  has  published  his  antubi- 
ograph;,  or,  as  he  designates  it,  his  ''moral 
autopsy,"  entitled  /  miei  ricordi  (3  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  Florence,  IStfT;  German  translation,  1869). 
A  supplementary  volame  of  correspondence 
between  Az«glio  and  Torelli  haa  been  edited 
byPaoli  (Milan,  1870).  In  1887  appeared  in 
Paris  his  ItalU  At  1847-1866,  and  his  C<w- 
retpondanee  politique,  edited  by  £.  Rendu. 
Carcano  pnbSsbed  at  Milan  in  1870  Az^lio's 
L»tten  a  mia  maglie  Luiaa  Blondel;  and  Bar- 
bera  of  Florence  nas  lately  published  his  .^rttti 
intditi. — His  brother  Lciai,  who  died  in  Rome 
Sept.  24,  1862,  was  an  eminent  member  of 
the  order  of  Jesaita,  editor  of  the  ultra-clerical 
(Hviltd  eaCli>liea,  and  the  author  of  a  work  on 
natural  and  one  on  international  law.  Hia 
eldest  brother,  Robbbto,  who  died  in  Turin, 
Deo.  24,  1862,  published  some  excellent  works 
on  art,  and  was  a  promoter  of  political  re- 
forms toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
Albert,  a  senator,  and  director  of  the  royal 
gallery  of  'paintings.  The  son  of  the  latter, 
tiie  marquis  Vittobio  Ehuanuelk  Tapabblli 
d'Aibhi.io,  an  aecompliahed  artist,  especially  in 
statuary,  was  ambassador  of  Sardinia  and  after- 
ward of  Italy  in  London  from  1860  to  1868. 

AZEEBUAV,  or  lzerU(}aB,  a  N.  W.  proTiuce 
of  Persia,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by  tbe  Rus- 
sian dominions,  E.  by  the  Persian  proTince  of 
Ohilan,  8.  by  Irak-Ajemi  and  Perstan  Kurdis- 
tan, and  W.  by  Turkish  Kurdistan  and  Arme- 
nia; area,  about  30,000  aq.  m.;  prop,  estimated 
at  8,000,000.  It  nearly  corresponds  to  the 
ancient  Median  province  of  Atropatene,  from 
whichitemodernnomeisderived.  Thecountry 
is  mountainous,  with  fertile  volleys  and  small 
plains.  Ut.  Savalan,  apparently  once  a  volca- 
no, is  npward  of  12,000  feet  high.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Aras  (the  ancient  Araxes),  which 
flows  along  the  N.  border,  and  its  afBuent,  the 
Karasu.  The  salt  lake  of  Urumiah  is  in  tliis 
province-  The  climate  is  generally  healthy  j 
the  summers  are  very  hot  and  the  winters 
very  cold.  In  the  plains  the  pomegranate  and 
olive  thrive  in  the  open  air.  The  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  province  are  not  developed ; 
bat  there  are  mines  of  iron,  lead,  and  copper. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mohammedans,  but 
there  are  some  settlementa  of  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians.   Capital,  Tabriz. 

AZETEDO  COCTIKHO,  JUt  jMqriH  da  Cnha, 
a  Portufcuese  bishop,  and  the  last  inquisitor 
general  of  Portugal  and  Brazil,  bom  at  Cara- 
poa  do3  Goitacazes,  in  Brazil,  Sept.  8,  1742, 
died  Sept.  12,  1821.  He  studied  at  Coimbra 
in  Portugal,  received  orders,  and  soon  became 
prominent  both  in  the  church  and  in  Brazilian 
politics.    He  published  in  1793  a  work  entitled 


AZORES 


Efuaic  eeonomieo  lahre  o  eommercio  de  Portu- 
gal «  root  eoloniat.  In  17S4  tie  was  mado 
bishop  of  Pemambuco.  He  published  in  Lon- 
don, m  1798,  a  pamphlet  against  the  proposi- 
tion to  abolish  the  slave  trade.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  was  elected  to  the  cort«s  as  a  rep- 

Eresentative  of  the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
[e  was  named  bisnop  of  Elvas,  but  declined, 
and  in  1818  was  appointed  inquisitor  general. 
He  wrote  a  memoir  on  the  conquest  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro  by  Duguay-Trouin  in  1711. 

IZEVEDO  V  ZuRiei,  Gaqwid  de,  coimt  of 
Monterey,  and  viceroy  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  died 
Uarcb  16,  JQ06.  He  succeeded  Luis  de  Velas- 
co  in  the  viceroyalty  in  1608.  He  equipped  a 
fleet  to  search  for  the  great  southern  continent, 
which,  under  the  command  of  Pedro  Fernan- 
dez de  Quiro,  discovered  several  islands. 

1ZIKC0CIKT>    See  Aoiitcoddt. 

IZUS  miBU.    See  Tuabisb. 

iZOF.    Bee  Azov. 

AZMC  ICE,  the  period  in  tlie  earth's  history 
preceding  the  appearance  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  A  few  years  ago  life  was  not 
known  to  have  eiisted  below  the  lower  Silu- 
rian rocks,  in  the  Cambrian  of  England,  or  in 
the  Taconic  (I-aurentian  and  Huronian)  of  this 
country.  If,  however,  eozofin  he  admitted  as 
an  animal  form,  the  first  appearance  of  life  is 
carried  back  in  time  very  much ;  and  now 
American  geologists  are  disposed  to  admit  an 
eozoio  age  between  the  Silurian  and  azoic. 

IZOBEB,  or  WcsIctb  leliids,  a  group  of  ialands 
belonging  to  Portugal  in  the  N.  Atlantic,  be- 
tween lat.  86°  B6'  and  89°  44'  N.,  and  Ion,  25° 
10'  and  Bl"  16'  W,,  about  80O  m.  from  the  coast 
of  Portugal;  area,  over  1,100  sq.  m.;  pop.  alMut 
260,000.  They  comprise  three  minor  groups, 
the  N.  W.  consisting  of  Flores  and  Corvo,  the 
central  of  Terccira,  San  Jorge,  Pico,  Fayal,  and 
Graciosa,  and  the  S.  £.  of  Son  Miguel  and  Santa 
Maria ;  and  they  extend  ftom  8.  E.  to  N.  W. 
about  400  m.  The  largest,  San  Miguel,  is  50  m. 
long,  and  tcaia  5  to  12  m.  broad.  They  are  all 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  have  suflTered  severely 
from  eruptions  and  earthquakes.  A  volcano 
rose  suddenly  to  the  height  of  8,500  ft  in  Ban 
Jorge  in  1806,  and  burned  for  six  days,  deso- 
lating the  entire  island.  In  1811  a  volcano  rose 
from  the  sea  near  San  Miguel,  and  after  vomit- 
ing ashes  and  stones  disappeared.  The  peak 
of  Pico,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is 
7,61S  ft.  high.  All  the  islands  are  rugged  and 
picturesque,  with  steep  shores.  The  climate  is 
moist  bat  agreeable,  and  vegetation  is  luxuri- 
ant, frnitii  abounding,  as  well  as  the  sugar  cane, 
coffee,  and  tobacco.  The  principal  exports  are 
wine,  brandy,  oranges,  lemony  bee^  pork,  and 
coarse  linens,  and  their  value  is  about  $1,200,- 
000  annually.  The  imports,  valued  at  |1^700- 
000,  comprise  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  iron, 
glass,  pitch,  timber,  rum,  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  fish, 
&c.  The  tonnage  entered  in  18G7wa8  119,271; 
cleared,  117,690.  There  are  no  good  harbors;, 
the  least  exposed  being  Angra,  on  the  island  of 
Terceira. — The  Azores  were  laid  down  on  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


AZOTE 

maps  of  the  14tb  centorj,  but  Uttle  was  known 
of  them  till  1432,  when  they  were  occDpied  bj 
the  Portugneee,  being  then  uninhabited,  and 
were  named  A[ora  from  the  great  nnmber  of 
banks  (Port,  afor,  hawk)  observed  on  them. 

1Z0T&     See  NiTRooKH. 

UOV,  or  1m^  a  town  and  fortreas  of  Ruasia, 
in  the  goverament  of  YekaterinoBlav,  OD  the 
river  Don,  about  T  m.  from  its  entrance  into 
the  sea  of  Azov,  24  m.  8.  E.  of  Taganrog ;  pop. 
about  6,000.  Bnllt  in  a  remote  time  near  the 
ancient  Greek  colony  named  Tonala,  it  carried 
on  an  extenijivc  commerce  with  the  northern 
peoples ;  but  the  «lt  deposited  by  the  river  has 
blocked  op  the  port,  and  its  commerce  has 
been  transferred  to  Taganrog.  In  the  ISCh 
centnrj  Azov  was  taken  by  the  Genoese,  who 
colled  it  Tana;  they  were  driven  out  in  1392 
by  Tamerlane.  In  14T1  it  was  taken  by  the 
Turks,  who  gflTe  it  its  present  name.  In  1696 
it  was  captured  by  Peter  the  Great  Daring 
the  next  century  it  changed  hands  sereral  times 
between  the  Ruasiang  and  the  Turks;  bat  in 
ITTi  it  finally  fell  into  the  handa  of  the  Bas- 
sians.  It  was  bombarded  and  almost  destroyed 
by  the  allies  in  1866. 

jUOV,  or  Izrf,  Sea  if  (anc.  Palut  MaatU),  an 
inland  sea  of  southern  Buswa,  lying  between 
lat,  4.5°  20'  and  47°  20'  N.,  and  Ion.  86"  and  89° 
E.  The  Turks  call  it  Balik-Don^bis,  or  Fidi 
sea,  from  the  abnndance  of  fish  in  its  waters. 
Il8  eitrerae  length  from  N.  E.  to  8.  W.  is  abont 
2S5m.;  breadth  about  110  m. ;  area,  14,000  sq. 
m.  The  waters  are  nearly  fresh,  very  shallow, 
encumbered  with  sand  banks,  and  navigable 
only  by  vessels  of  small  draught  The  sea  is 
properly  a  gulf  of  the  Black  sea,  with  which  it 
ii  connected  on  the  south  by  the  strait  of  Yenj- 
kale  or  of  Kertch  (anc.  So/porut  Cimmeriu*), 
about  30  m.  loug.  For  four  montha  it  is  fro- 
zen over,  the  navigation  opening  early  in  April 
and  closing  late  in  November.  The  Biwasb, 
or  Putrid  sea,  a  western  continnatlon  of  the 
Be*  of  Azov,  is  cut  off  by  a  long  narrow  slip  of 
land  called  the  tongue  of  Arsbat,  and  entered 
by  the  strait  of  Genitchi,  at  the  north  of  the 
tongue.  It  is  separated  from  the  Black  sea  by 
the  isthmus  of  Perehop.  The  Putrid  sea  is 
little  more  than  a  long  reach  of  swaraps.  The 
Don  is  the  largest  river  emptying  into  the  sea 

IZTECS,  properly  the  name  of  one  only  of 
the  various  tribes  or  nations  who  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  in  the  IStli  century  occupied 

the  plateau  of  Anahuao  or  Mexico,  though 
generally  naed  as  synonymous  with  Mexicans. 
These  tribes  were  the  Xochimilcos,  Chslcos, 
Tepanecas,  AcolhuHs,  Tezcucnns,  Tlascaitecas, 
and  Aztecoa,  which  collectively  bore  the  name 
of  Nahuatleoas,  and  their  language  was  called 
Nahnatl.  Tradition  variously  represents  these 
fsmllies  as  emerging  from  seven  caverns  in  a 
region  called  Aztlan  (tVom  the  Nahnatl  words 
Aztatl,  heron,  and  tlati  or  titlan,  place  or  place 
of),  or  AS  wandering  away  from  their  fellows 
Bubseqaently  to  a  grand  cataclysm,  and  after  a 
B4  VOL.  n.— 12 


AZTECS 


175 


distribntion  of  tongues.  These  traditioDs,  bow- 
ever,  do  not  fall  within  the  domain  of  history, 
and  critical  writers  have  generally  preferred  to 
confine  their  researches  witliin  the  period  fixed 
by  the  Mexican  paintings  or  records.  Several 
of  these  are  in  esistence,  and  although  differing 
considerably  in  their  chronology,  they  do  not 
carry  back  the  history  of  the  Aztecs  and  their 
affiliated  tribes  beyond  the  11th  and  J2th  cen- 
turies of  our  era.  There  is  abundant  evidence, 
nevertheless,  that  the  plateau  of  Mexico  was 
occupied  for  many  ages  anterior  to  the  arrival 
of  the  Nahnatlecas  by  a  people  of  much  higher 
culture,  of  whose  civilization  that  of  the  Az- 
tecs was  but  a  rude  reflection.  (See  Toltscs.) 
The  locality  of  the  traditional  Aztlan  has  been  a 
subject  of  much  speculation.  By  some  writers 
it  has  been  supposed  that  this  primitive  seat 
of  tlie  Nahnatlecas  was  in  Asia,  and  that  the 
paintings,  all  of  which  depict  the  passage  over 
a  body  of  water  in  canoes  «■  on  rafts,  represent 


AitSB  Wsrrion.    (From  *  Htiku  Scnlptiin.) 

a  migration  to  America  tiom  that  continent 
Most,  however,  imagine  Aztlan  to  have  been 
somewhere  to  the  north  of  Mexico,  beyond  the 
river  Gila,  the  so-called  etuas  grandet  found 
there  having  been  erroneously  thought  to  be 
the  work  of  the  Aztecs,  (See  Cabas  Gbakdbs.) 
But  it  is  worthjr  of  remark  that  no  native  his- 
tory, chronicle,  or  known  hieroglyphic  of  the 
Mexicans  assigns  a  northern  origin  to  the  Aztec 
tribea,  except  tlie  relation  of  Ixtliliuchitl,  who 
wrote  a  considerable  time  after  the  conqnest, 
and  who  in  this  matter  only  followed  the 
Spanish  snthors  who  had  preceded  him.  In 
the  painting  representing  the  migration  of  the 
Aztecs,  originally  publisned  by  Gemelli  Car- 
rcra  in  his  Giro  del  Mimdo,  the  sign  or  hiero- 
glyphic of  Aztlan  is  accompanied  by  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  teocalli  or  temple,  by  the  ade 
of  which  stands  a  palm  tree — a  circumstance 
which  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  cautious 
Humboldt,  aso])posed  to  the  opinion  that  Azt- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


176  AZl 

laa  VS3  to  be  looked  for  In  a  northern  latitude. 
The  palm  certainly  points  sonthward  as  the 
direction  whence  the  traditions!  migration  took 
place;  and  thia  indication  ia  Bopported  by  the 
fact  that  a  people  speaking  the  same  langna^ 
with  the  Aztecs  (the  Nohuatl),  and  having 
identical  habits,  laws,  and  reli^ons  observanceB, 
existed  as  far  south  as  Nicaragua,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  occupied  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  present  state  of  San  Salvador  in  Oentral 
America.^ — The  ueit  question  concerns  the  date 
of  the  departure  of  the  seven  tribes  from  Art- 
Ian.  According  to  Gemelli'a  panting,  this  event 
happened  in  the  year  1038  of  our  era;  accord-' 
ing  to  the  astronomer  Gnma,  in  1064.  Veytia 
fofiows  Gama;  bnt  Clavigero  fixes  the  period 
nearly  a  century  Inter,  in  1160.  But  great  nn- 
certainty  ia  attached  to  all  dates  previous  to 
the  foondatioD  of  the  city  of  Tenochtitlan  or 
Mexico,  which  all  accounts  conoor  in  fixing 
in  the  year  18S4  or  I92C.  Tradition  and  tte 
paintlnga  represent  that  various  halts  and  stop- 
pages tool  place  after  leaving  Aztton,  before 
the  seven  tribes  reached  the  valley  of  Mexico ; 
and  the  time  occupied  is  variously  estimated 
from  66  to  1S3  years.  According  to  the  punt- 
ing obtained  by  Botumi  representing  this  mi- 
gration, they  mode  not  less  than  22  atoppaces, 
Tarying  from  4  to  28  years  in  length — alto- 
gether occupying  162  yeara,  before  reaching 
Ohapnltepec.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  va- 
rious tribes  all  arrived  at  the  same  time  in  the 
Talley  of  Mexico,  but  came  in  and  took  up  their 
positions  soccesdvely.  They  found  the  coun- 
try rich  and  attractive,  and  occnpied  by  only  a 
remnant  of  an  anterior  and  powerful  people, 
who  had  left  numerons  monuments  of  their 
greatness.  From  these  they  learned  many  of 
the  arts  of  life,  the  cnltivation  of  the  soil,  and 
the  working  of  metals.  At  first  they  seem  tn 
have  lived  in  harmony  with  each  other;  but 
gradually  the  stronger  tribes  began  to  encroach 
upon  the  weaker,  which  led  to  combinations 
for  defence  among  the  latter,  and  to  a  long  se- 
ries of  bloody  forays  and  wars.  The  Mexicans 
(subsequently  so  called  from  Meii,  one  of  their 
war  chiefs)  ranked  as  the  seventh  tribe,  and 
seem  to  have  assumed  the  name  of  Aztecos 
par  excelUnee.  They  were  established  first  at 
Cbapnitepec,  bnt  grodnolly  encroached  upon 
the  Chalcos,  and  finally,  under  the  lead  of  a 
■nccesuon  of  military  chiefs,  became  the  most 

iiowerful  tribe  in  An^uac,  and  eatablished  their 
mperial  city  in  the  lake  of  Chalco.  This  event 
took  place  in  1824  or  18S6,  under  the  reign  of 
Tenuch,  and  the  city  waa  called  Tenochtitlan, 
the  place  or  seat  of  Tenoob  or  Tennch.  The 
site,  like  that  of  Venice — a  few  low  iaianda  in 
a  great  lake — waa  admirably  chosen  for  de- 
fence, and  the  Mexicans  exhaasted  their  art  in 
strengthening  the  position.  It  could  only  be 
approached  over  long  and  narrow  causeways, 
easily  defended,  and  which  even  the  Spaniards 
were  not  successful  in  forcing.  Commanding 
the  lake  with  numerons  fleets  of  boats,  they 
were  unassailable  from  the  water.    From  this 


stronghold  they  gradoolly  reduced  their  nei^- 

bors,  their  companions  from  Aztlan,  or  forced 
them  into  a  kind  of  dependent  alliance,  which 
served  stiil  further  to  build  up  their  power  and 
influence ;  so  that,  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of 
Cart«s,  the  Mexican  emperor  exercised  a  qoal- 
ified  dominion  over  nearly  all  the  aboriginal 
nations  embraced  within  the  present  bounda- 
ries of  the  repnblio  of  Mexico.  This  power 
waa  often  exercised  without  mercy,  and  many 
thousands  of  their  captured  enemies  were 
sacriUced  on  the  altars  of  their  sanguinary 
divinities.  How  severely  their  yoke  was  felt, 
and  how  eagerly  it  waa  thrown  off,  is  shown 
by  the  readiness  with  which  the  Tlascalans, 
their  own  kindred,  joined  the  Spaniards  in 
their  attack  on  the  Mexican  capital. — The 
form  of  govenunent  among  the  Mexicans  was 
on  elective  monarchy ;  and  the  legjslative 
power  resided  wholly  with  the  king.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  laws  belonged  to  certain 
judicial  tribunals,  and  was  conducted  with 
great  regularity  and  with  Draconic  stemnesa. 
Their  religion  waa  sanguinary  in  most  of  its 
practices;  yet  it  combined  the  elements  of  a 
milder  aystero,  probably,  than  that  of  their 
Tulhnatecan  predecessors,  whose  religion  was 
closely  allied  to  the  Buddhist  system  of  India. 
As  essentially  a  warlike  nation,  they  made  the 
highest  beatitudes  of  their  faith  the  rewards 
of  the  bravest  soldiers;  and  while  the  sonl  of 
the  common  citizen  after  death  was  believed 
to  be  subject  to  a  pui^torial  existence,  that 
of  the  warrior  who  fell  in  battle  was  canght 
up  at  once  to  the  abode  of  the  gods,  to  the 
bosom  of  the  sun,  the  heaven  of  eternal  de- 
lights. In  the  arta,  and  especially  in  their 
architecture,  the  Mexicans  achieved  an  advance 
corresponding  with  their  numerical  and  politi- 
cal growth;  and  the  islands,  which  at  the  ont- 
aet  supported  only  rnde  huts  of  cane  and  thatch, 
came  finally  to  be  covered  with  impoang  edi- 
fices of  stone  and  lime.  Metallur^  waa  ex- 
tensively practised,  and  gold  and  ralver,  cop- 
per, and  s  species  of  braaa  were  well  known 
and  elaborately  worked;  but  iron,  except  in  its 
meteorio  form,  was  unknown.  For  acconnta 
of  the  political,  social,  and  religious  practices, 
customs,  and  organization  of  this  interesting 
people,  whose  subversion  forms  the  most  dra- 
matic incident  in  the  history  of  this  continent, 
see  the  works  of  Sahogun,  Soils,  Clavigero^ 
Prescott,  and  Baldwin.  The  following  chro- 
nological table  is  from  an  unpublished  Mexican 
painting  or  MS.,  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  £.  G. 

Aitra  iMve  Aitlu A.D.  IIH 

AndTelnVilltTofMcilm IMS 

Tenatdnktiiui.  (bunder  of  McHiw,  cramniiKeB  to  rc^  ISM 

Asmmplditls,  •BOODd  king ISIt 

HulQUniiiialii 13M 

Chlmilpopaai 141S 

locobiulilii Hat 

Una  UowiUfiuuIilii  (Montsoiu  L) IMS 

AiiTualila,  klpa 1471 

TtcocleMiln  ("Tlm'^ 1480 

AhutUDtdn 14fi4 

MonctaruIDiItdB(H(«U>uiD*II.) itM 

EDCiyof  ths  ^aiilBils laiV 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


AZURARA 

iZnUKl,  C«BK  EuMS  it,  a  Portagueie  hia- 
torian,  bom  at  Azurara,  died  in  tlie  latter  part 
of  the  15th  centur;.  Although  he  waa  early 
mode  a  mook  and  admitted  into  the  order  of 
Obrist,  he  paasad  IlLs  youth  aa  a  soldier,  aad  in 
145B  iraa  appointed  to  reform  the  orohivea  of 
the  state.  Hia  principal  work  was  a  chronicle 
of  the  discovery  and  conqnest  of  Guinea,  This 
was  discovered  in  the  bibliotMgue  royalt  of 
Pans  in  183T,  and  published  (8vo,  Paris,  1341) 
by  the  Portuguese  ambaasador  at  the  Frenoh 
court,  the  visoonde  da  Carreira,  who  tranacribed 
the  MB.  with  his  own  hand. 

IZTJmTES  (Gr.  k,  not,  and  (t/n;,  leaven),  a  po- 
Jemical  term,  applied  to  the  weatem  church  by 
the  eaatem  or  Qreak  branch.  About  1025  a  con- 
totversj  Epnmg  np  as  to  the  kind  of  bread  that 


BAAL 


17Y 


I  ought  to  be  used  in  the  encharist.  The  Latin 
!  church  maintained  that  unleavened  bread  only 
i  was  allowable,  aince,  as  they  affirmed,  the 
I.ord's  last  supper  having  been  held  on  the  day 
before  the  Hebrew  paseover,  unleavened  bread 
was  the  only  kind  procnrable.  The  Oreek 
church  endeavored  to  prove  titat  the  lost  sup- 
per did  not  take  place  on  the  day  before  the  pass- 
over,  and  consequently  that  unleavened  bread 
oould  not  be  had ;  moreover,  they  chai^d  that 
the  use  of  unleavened  bread  was  a  relic  of- 
Judaism.  The  tenn  azymites  was  at  first  used 
as  one  of  reproach,  but  was  adopted  as  honor- 
able by  those  to  whom  it  waa  at^lied.  The 
controvoray  raged  long  and  hi^,  the  parties 
calling  themselves  azymites  and  prozymitas, 
anti-leavenera  and  pro-ledveners. 


B 


BTHS  second  letter  in  all  langnoges  whose 
.  alpbabets  have  a  Phanician  origin,  as  He- 
brew, Greek,  Latin,  Enriish,  French,  Qerman, 
ItaUaio,  Spanish,  and  Russian.  In  English, 
French,  and  German  it  ia  strictly  a  ptuato- 
labiaL  the  sound  being  produced  by  compresa^ 
ing  the  ur  within  the  mouth,  vocalizing  it  by 
the  vibrataons  of  the  membranes  forming  the 
palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth,  the  uvula  at  the 
same  time  closing  the  noeol  orifloea.  The 
•oond  can  be  imperfectly  formed  and  prolonged 
while  the  lips  are  tightly  closed.  The  perfect 
■oond  ia  produced  at  the  commencement  of  a 
syllable  by  a  sudden  opening  of  the  lips  for 
Ae  passage  of  the  vooalized  breath;  at  the 
dose  of  a  syllable  by  suddenly  closing  the  lips 
npoQ  the  vocalized  current.  It  differs  from  P 
in  that  in  sounding  the  latter  the  breath  passes 
OItt  without  CMnpreanon  and  vocalization.  In 
Bpanisfa,  in  later  Latin  and  modern  Greek,  the 
prevalent  soood  of  B  is  nearly  identical  with 
that  of  V,  produced  by  pressing  the  upper 
teeth  npon  toe  lower  lip,  causing  only  a  par- 
tial closure  of  the  mouth,  bo  that  the  sound 
can  be  indefinitely  prolonged.  Thus  in  modem 
Greek  (as  perhaps  in  the  ancient),  ^iXcbt  is 
prooonnoea  tan^ft,  the  ti  having  its  conso- 
nantal sonnd.  The  Greek  B  sometimes,  though 
not  always,  represented  the  Latin  V;  thus 
VirgUiu*  was  written  'aipyt}Mq  or  Oiip/Wjof. 
The  Hebrew  ieth  has  the  sound  of  V  except 
when  a  diacritical  point  indicates  that  it  is 
aon«nad  to  B.  In  the  passage  of  a  word  from 
cue  language  to  another  an  interchange  not  un- 
frequently  takes  place  between  Band  P,F(pA), 
Y,  and  lew  frequentiy  H.  For  example :  Lat. 
ab,  Gr.  oii,  Eng.  off;  Gr.  ^pm-cff,  Let.  mor[t]». 
In  Qerman,  B,  chieHy  at  the  end  of  words,  is 


wholly  with  the  lipt  open. — In  the  calendar  B 
is  the  second  dominical  letter.  In  mutdo  it  ia 
the  seventh  degree  of  the  diatonic  scale  of  C, 
and  the  12th  of  the  diatonic-chromatic  scale. 
According  to  the  tempered  system  of  tuning, 
the  ratio  of  B  to  the  fimdamental  note  0  b  -j^. 
In  the  ancient  diatonic  scale  B  was  not  u»ed 
S3  a  kay-note,  its  fifth,  F,  being  imperfect.  In 
the  German  notation  our  B  is  called  H,  B  flat, 
half  a  tone  lower  than  B,  being  called  B.  Aa 
a  numeral,  ()  among  the  Greeks  represented  3, 
and  with  a  stroke  beneath  2,000;  among  the 
Romans  B  waa  occasionally  used  to  denote  800, 
and  with  a  line  above  it  8,000. 


May  S8,  1B41.  After  extensive  studies  he  n 
appointed  by  the  Bavarian  government  injec- 
tor general  of  minea,  and  in  182Q  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  sftecnlatlve  theol- 
o^  at  the  newly  established  university  of  Mu- 
nich. He  was  a  devoted  follower  of  Buhme, 
whose  mystjcism  predominated  in  hia  philo- 
sophical theoriea  and  in  hia  devout  interpreta- 
tion of  Roman  Catholic  theology.  He  wrote  on 
the  natural  sciences  and  technolt^y,  but  his 
prinoipai  writings  are  metaphysical.  In  his 
Fermenta  Coffnitumit  he  extols  BOhme  as  the 
greatest  of  thinkers.  His  chief  disciple,  Franz 
Hoffmann  of  WOrEburg,  has  endeavored  to  re- 
duce Baader's  mystic  aphorisms  to  a  system, 
and  has  edited  his  complete  philoeophioal  works 
(18  vols.,  Leipsio,  18o0-'60). 

BAIL,  a  Semitic  word  signifying  owner,  lord, 
or  master,  and  in  the  highest  sense  denoting 
the  deity.  The  Hebrews  never  used  it  as  a 
designation  of  their  deity,  but  always  to  dis- 
tinguish some  god  of  the  surrounding  nations. 
In  this  sense,  with  some  a^jnnct  appended,  it 
indicated  several  local  deities:  Baal-zebub  was 
the  fly  god  of  the  Ekronites,  corresponding  to 
the  Zcic  ttir6niiio(  of  the  Greckf;  Baal-peor  aa- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


178  BAA 

8wered  to  the  Boman  Priapas;  Bajil-berith, 
Covenant  Bonl,  to  ZeSf  Bpumt  and  dcta  Jidi- 
V*  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  With  tlie 
ai-ticle  prefixed, 
it  deaignuted  the 
Baal  or  chief  de- 
ity of  the  Phts- 
niciaus.  Strictly 
Baal  meant  the 
highest  male  god 
(the  BQn  or  the 
planet  Jupiter),  as 
Ashtoreth  or  As- 
tarto  did  the  high- 
eat  goddess  (the 
moon  or  Venus), 
divinities  from 
whom  all  things 
visitile  and  invis- 
Q„i^  ible  had  their  ori- 

gin. The  Greeks 
and  Romans,  however,  sought  and  found  anal- 
ogies between  the  several  Baals  and  some  of 
their  subordinate  deities,  os  Uars  and  Iler- 
aules.  The  Bel  or  Bil  of  the  Babylonians 
Is  closely  related  to  the  Baal  of  the  Phisni- 
ciana,  the  former  name  being  a  contraction  of 


the  latter,  or  this  a  guttural  eztentuon  of  the 
former.  Baal,  Bal,  and  Bel,  as  prefixes  or 
suffixes,  enter  largely  into  many  proper  names 
of  places  and  persons.  Sach  are  Baal-ze- 
phoD,  Baal'gad,  Baol-hamon,  Jerub-baal,  Esh- 
baal,  Bal-odan,  and  Bel-shazzar.  The  Phieni- 
cians  carried  the  word  through  all  their  wan- 
derings, giving  Qs  the  Carthaginian  Asdru-bal, 
Adher-bd,  and  Ilanni-bal.  They  carried  the 
name  to  Ireland,  where  we  read  of  Beal  or  Bal, 
the  ancient  deity  worshipped  by  Bal  fires  on 
the  summits  of  the  hitis,  and  of  Bel's  cums, 
where  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Baal.  The 
Greek  B?^  and  the  Latin  Belns  are  merely 
the  Babylonian  Bel  with  a  terminal  syllable, 
though  the  Greeks  invented  for  him  a  descent 
of  their  own.  Whenever  the  Israelites  fell  into 
idolatry,  their  natural  tendency  was  to  worship 
Baal,  tiie  god  of  the  nations  with  whom  they 
came  into  most  immediate  contact. 

BiiLBEK  (in  Phmnician,  Baal  of  the  valley, 
but  rendered  by  the  Greeks  Heliopolu,  city  of 
the  gnu),  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  in  lat.  S4'  1' 
N.,  Ion.  S6°  11'  E.,  86  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Damas- 
cus, the  ruins  of  which  are  tlie  most  imposing 
in  the  country,  eiceptmg  those  of  PalmynL 
The  city  lay  in  a  pkin  of  CiEle-Syria,  ferta. 


ized  by  streams  rising  in  the  range  of  Anti- 
Libanus.  The  date  of  its  fonndation  is  uncer- 
tain, the  tradition  which  ascribes  ita  erection 
to  Solomon  being  wholly  unsupported.  It  is 
mentioned  under  the  name  of  Ileliopolis  by 
Josephns  and  Plinv.  Lying  in  the  direct  route 
of  trade  between  Tyre  and  the  East,  it  rose  to 
considerable  importance,  and  was  embellished 
with  nuagnificent  temples,  the  finest  of  which 
appear  to  date  from  the  time  of  Antoninas 
Pins,  A.  D.  IfiO,  who  built  or  enlarged  the 
great  temple,  which  was  then  considered  one  of 


the  wonders  of  the  worid.  Wheo  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
heathen  temples,  eicept  the  great  one,  which 
was  made  a  Christian  church,  were  siifTered  to 
decay ;  hat  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Moslem  in- 
vasion (63G)  Baalbek  was  the  most  splendid  city 
of  Syria,  adorned  with  monuments  of  ancient 
times  and  abounding  in  Inxnry.  It  made  a 
stout  defence  against  the  Moslem  invaders,  who 
imposed  apon  it  a  heavy  ransom.  For  more 
than  a  century  it  continued  an  opulent  mart, 
but  was  finally  sacked  in  748  by  the  caliph  vt 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAALBEK 

DamascQS,  the  principal  iababitflnts  being  put 
to  the  sword.  During  the  crnsodea  it  changed 
hands  repeatedlj.  It  was  sacked  by  TameHuiie 
inl'lOO,  and  so bsequently  taken  hytheMetaweli, 
a  barbarona  nomad  tribe,  who  were  nearly  ex- 
terminated by  the  Turks.  InlTSSanearthquake 
completed  ite  devastation. — The  moat  promi- 


BABADAGH 


179 


ncnt  objects  visible  from  the  plain  are  a  lofty 
portico  of  six  colomns  and  pari  of  the  walls  of 
the  great  temple,  and  the  walla  and  colomns  of 
a  tiDsller  temple  a  little  below.  The  greater 
temple  stood  npon  an  artitioial  platform,  be- 
tween SO  and  30  ft.  m  height,  and  extended 


F1k»  of  Ccllliv  (Mkn)  In  Tampla  of  Joplta-,  Bulbck. 

],CNXI  ft.  fh>m  eaat  to  weat.  It  is  probable  that 
it  wa»  never  completed.  Approaching  from 
the  eaat,  one  entered  a  nagnincent  portico,  ISO 
ft  in  length  and  87  in  depth.  Only  the  peden- 
tok  of  the  colomna  now  remiun ;  the  vast  flight 


of  eteps  which  led  up  to  it  have  also  disappear- 
ed. The  great  portal,  IT  tt,  in  width,  leads  into 
a  hexBgonal  court  about  200  it.  in  diameter,  in 
a  rainons  condition ;  on  its  western  side  an- 
other portal,  60  ft.  wide,  brings  one  to  a  qaad- 
rongular  court,  440  ft.  in  length  by  370  in 
breadth.  Around  the  sides  of  this  court  are 
numerous  oiedrto,  with  cotumns  in  front,  30  ft, 
deep,  and  elaborately  ornamented  with  carv- 
ings. The  peristyle,  290  ft.  in  lengtli  by  160  in 
breadth,  frunta  upon  the  quadrangle;  its  col- 
umns, originally  64  in  number,  are  about  78 
ft.  in  height  and  over  7  in  diameter,  usually 
consisting  of  three  blocks  only.  Tliis  magnifi- 
cent edifice,  of  which  only  six  columns  now  re- 
main staudins,  was  elevated  some  50  ft.  above 
the  surrounding  country,  upon  a  platform,  the 
western  side  of  which  contains  three  immense 
stones,  wtaoseunited  length  is  190  ft.,  the  largest 
being  64  ft.  long,  their  aversjte  height  13  ft., 
their  thickness  still  greater.  The  lesser  temple, 
which  like  the  other  is  uf  Corinthian  architec- 
ture, stands  npon  a  lower  platform,  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  peristyle  of  its  greater  neigh- 
bor; its  length,  including  the  colonnades,  was 
221)  ft.,  and  its  breadth  120.  Its  peristyle  con- 
sisted of  44  columns,  46  ft.  in  height,  of  which 
only  19  remain  standing.  Some  SO  rods  dis- 
tant stands  a  small  circular  temple,  elaborately 
ornamented.  The  material  nsed  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  temples  is  a  compact  limestone, 
qnarried  in  the  hills  south  of  the  town.  The 
raine  of  Baalbek  are  apparently  of  two  or 
three  distinct  eras.  The  huge  stones  which 
form  the  platform  are  of  Cyclopean  architec- 
ture- The  Roman  temples,  which  appear  to 
occupy  the  site  of  an  older  structure,  present 
some  of  the  finest  models  of  the  Corinthian  ar- 
chitecture. The  modem  villnge  of  Baalbek  Is 
little  more  than  a  heap  of  rubbish,  the  houses 
being  built  of  mud  and  sun-dried  brick.  The 
popolatMn  is  about  2,000. 

Bllff,  Ju  Tu,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  Haar- 
lem, Feb.  20,  1633,  died  at  the  Hague  in  1702. 
He  confined  himself  almost  exclusively  to  por- 
traiture, and  was  an  imitator  of  Vandyke,  to 
whom  he  was  little  inferior  in  color  and  ex- 
pression. He  painted  portraits  of  the  moat 
eminent  men  of  nisown  country,  and  of  Charles 
II.  of  England  and  many  of  his  court.  He  de- 
clined an  invitation  of  Lonis  XIV.  to  visit  Paris, 
on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  nnbecoming  in 
him  to  trace  the  features  of  the  despoiler  and 
conqueror  of  his  country. 

BABIDIGH,  a  fortified  town  of  European 
Turkey,  capital  of  the  Dobrudja,  or  N.  E.  Uul- 
garia,  in  the  eyalet  and  96  ra.lS.  £.  of  the  city 
of  Silistria,  near  I^ke  Rasacin,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the 
Black  sea;  pop.  about  10,000.  Near  the  en- 
trance of  the  lake  is  the  seaport  of  Kara  Ir- 
man,  through  which  Babadagh  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade.  The  town  lies  in  an  unhealthy 
situation  between  mountains  and  swamps.  It 
is  colled  after  Baba  the  snint,  whose  a<^oining 
tomb  attracts  Moslem  pilgrims.     It  contains 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


180 


BABBAGE 


five  mosqaes,  a  college,  And  an  aqueduct,  and 
waa  of  great  strategical  importance  in  the 
Tarko-Russian  conflicts  of  tne  18th  centarf 
and  in  the  Crimean  war,  when  the  forta  were 
ineffectDall}'  bombarded  bT  the  liuBsiaiiB  (March 
27,  18S4). 

BIBBIGE,  Ckarica,  an  English  mathematician, 
bom  at  Tetgnmontli,  Dec.  86, 1T92,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  20,  1871.  lie  was  a  fellow  stndent 
of  Sir  John  Herechel  at  the  univenitT  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  Lucaaian  professor  there  from 
1S38  to  183S.  He  became  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  the  calculating  machine.  (See 
OuxitTLATiHo  Maohirbs.)  He  was  one  of  the 
foondera  of  the  royal  astronomical  society  and 
of  the  British  association,  and  the  originator  of 
the  statistical  society,  and  wrote  extensively  for 
eoientific  and  philosophical  periodicals  onmatli- 
ematics,  magnetic  and  electric  phenomena, 
mechanical  science,  geology,  and  statistics. 
Among  his  works  are :  "  Letter  to  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  on  the  Application  of  Machinery 
to  Mathematical  Tables"  (1822);  translations, 
with  llerschel  and  Peacock,  of  Lacroix's  works 
on  the  dilferential  and  integral  calcalns ;  '^  Com- 
parative View  of  the  different  Institutions  for 
the  Assurance  of  Life"  (1826);  "A  Table  of 
the  Logarithms  of  the  Natnr^  Numbers  from 
1  to  108,000  "  (1826) ;  "  Reflections  on  the  De- 
cline of  Science  in  England  "  (1880);  "Econ- 
omy of  Mannfoctures  and  Machinery"  (18B2), 
which  passed  tbrongh  many  Engti^  editions 
and  foreign  translations,  and  has  been  called  by 
Blanqui  a  hymn  in  honor  of  machinery;  "A 
Ninth  Bridgewater  Treatise"  (1887),  defending 
mathematical  stndies  irom  the  cha^  of  a  ten- 
dency to  infidelity ;   "  The  Great  Eiposition 


(1851);  and  "Passages  from  the  Life  of  i 
losopher"  (1664).     Hla  ' 


Phi- 


I  London 
for  many  years  a  centre  of  intellectual  society. 

BIBCOCK,  Kmru.  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Norto  Colebrook,  Oonn.,  Sept.  18, 
1798,  died  in  Salem,  Mass.,  U.aj  4,  187G.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  nniversity  in  1821,  and 
was  for  two  years  tutor  in  Colanibian  college, 
D.  C.  Id  1823  he  became  pustor  of  the  Baptist 
ohnrcb  at  Poaghkeepsie,  S.  7. ;  in  1826  in  Sa- 
lem, Mass. ;  and  in  1833  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  Waterville  college,  Maine;  but  his 
health  failing,  he  resigned  in  1886,  and  accept- 
ed the  pastorate  of  the  Spruce  street  Baptist 
ohoTch  in  Philadelphia,  whence  he  returned 
after  three  years  to  his  first  charge  at  Pough- 
keepsie.  He  was  subsequently  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Peterson,  N.  J.,  and  suooeseively 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  I 
society,  of  the  American  Sunday  school  union,  | 
and  of  the  Peunaylvania  colDni7.ation  aocietj.  I 
He  edited  for  five  years  the  "Baptist  Memo-  I 
rial,"  and  published  a  "  Memoir  of  Andrew  ' 
Fuller"  (1830),  "History  of  Waterville  Col-  ■ 
lege"  (1886),  -Tales  of  Truth  for  the  Young"  [ 
(1837),  "The  Emigrant's  Mother"  (1859),; 
"  Memoirs  of  John  M,  Pock"  (1862),  &o.  [ 

U§Q^  the  Hebrew  name  for  Babylon  and 
the  Babylon^  empire.    In  the  language  of  I 


BABEL 

the  Chaldeans  it  was  probably  Bab-Il,  the 
"  gate  of  (the  highest)  God ; "  but  the  Hebrew 
form  is  explained  by  ialal  (or  hilhet),  to  con- 
found, in  allnaion  to  the  confounding  of 
tongues  consequent  on  the  building  of  the 
tower  of  BabeL  Tliia  tower  was  probably 
never  carried  to  any  great  elevation,  bnt  a 
sacrednesa  may  have  been  attached  to  tlie  spot 
on  which  it  was  to  be  built;  and  there,  long 
aiter,  was  erected  the  pyramidal  temple  of 
Bel-Merodach,  finally  repaired  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the  ruina  of  which,  at  Borsippa,  are 
now  known  as  Birs  Nimmd  (citadel  of  Nim- 
rod).  Except  in  one  passage  (Gen.  xi.  9),  there 
is  no  reference  in  Scripture  to  the  tower  of  Ba- 
bel; bnt  we  are  told  of  atemple  of  Bel  in  which 
Nehnchadnezxar  placed  the  spoils  of  Jerusalem, 
and  probably  those  of  his  other  conquests. 
Herodotus  describes  a  temple  of  Belns,  which 
according  to  him  consisted  of  a  "solid  tower 
of  a  stadinm  in  depth  and  width ;  upon  this 
tower  another  is  raised,  and  another  op<m  that, 
to  the  number  of  eight  towers."  This  gen- 
eral description  tallies  so  closely  with  the 
mound  of  Birs  Nimmd  aa  to  render  it  probable 
that  this  is  the  remains  of  the  temple  of 
Belus.  The  ruin  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
huge  irregular  mound,  rising  abmptiy  fhim  a 
wide  desert  plain,  with  moBses  of  vitrified  mat- 
ter lying  around  its  base.  Its  interior  is  found 
upon  excavation  to  be  composed  of  a  mass  of 
brick  partially  vitrified  by  fire,  showing  that  it 
is  the  ruin  of  a  structure  into  which  combus- 
tible material  largely  entered.  The  hricka  dis- 
interred from  the  mound  bear  inscriptions  in 
the  cuneiform  character,  in  moat  of  which  the 
name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  appears.  One  of  the 
inscriptions  of  this  monarch  reads :  "  A  former 
king  had  built  it  (they  reckon  42  ages) ;  but  he 
did  not  complete  ita  head.  Since  a  remot» 
time  the  people  had  abandoned  it,  without  or- 
der expressing  their  words.  Since  tliat  time 
the  earthquake  and  the  thunder  had  dispersed 
its  sun-dried  clay.  The  bricks  of  the  casing 
bad  been  split,  and  the  earth  of  the  interior 
had  been  scattered  in  heaps."  Attempts  have 
been  mode  to  represent  Uiis  temple  of  Betna, 
as  restored  and  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadneiuir. 
That  which  appears  most  probable  is  by  Sir 
Henry  Raw  linson.  Heaays:  "  Upon  a  platform 
of  crude  brick,  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  alla- 
vial  plain,  was  built  of  burnt  briok  the  first  or 
basement  stage,  on  exact  aquare,  273  ft.  each 
way,  and  26  ft.  in  perpendicular  height.  Upon 
this  stage  was  erected  a  second,  280  ft.  each 
way,  and  likewise  26  ft.  in  perpendicular 
height,  which,  however,  was  not  placed  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  of  the  first,  but  considera- 
bly nearer  to  the  southwestern  end,  which  con- 
atitntcd  the  back  of  the  building.  The  other 
stages  were  arranged  similarly,  the  third  being 
188  ft.  square  and  26  ft.  high ;  the  fourth,  146 
ft.  square  and  15  ft,  high;  the  fifth,  104  ft. 
aquare,  of  the  same  height  as  the  fourth ;  the 
sixth,  62  ft.  square,  and  again  the  same  height; 
the  seventh,  20  ft.  square,  and  once  more  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABEL 

same  b«ghL  On  the  Mventh  itoge  was  prob- 
ably plAo«d  the  ark  or  tabernacle,  which  geema 
to  have  been  again  U  ft.  high,  and  mnit  have 
nearly,  if  not  entire!/,  covered  the  top  of  the 
•eveDth  atory.  The  entire  original  height, 
allowing  three  feet  for  the  platform,  would 
thns  have  been  1S6  ft.,  or  withont  tne  plat- 
form 163  ft  The  whole  formed  a  ftorC  of  ob- 
Uqne  pyramid,  the  gentler  slope  facingthe  N. 
E.,  and  the  steeper  Inclining  to  the  8.  W.  On 
the  N.  E.  aide  vaa  the  grand  entrance,  and  here 
stood  the  Testibule,  a  separate  building,  the 
debris  from  which,  hanng  joined  those  from 
the  temple  itseli^  fill  up  the  intermediate  space, 
and  remarkably  prolong  the  mound  in  this  di- 
rection." The  several  stories  of  this  temple 
appear  to  bave  been  painted  in  several  colors : 
the  lowest  black,  representing  Saturn;  then, 
in  order,  Jupiter,  orange ;  Mais,  red ;  the  Sun, 
golden ;  Venus,  yellow ;  Mercory,  bine ;  the 
moon,  silver.  Above  these  was  the  shrine,  in 
which,  aocordmg  to  Herodotus,  was  a  golden 
tablBj  and  a  bed  well  famished,  bat  no  ima^. 
'Within  the  shrine,  be  adds,  "no  one  remains 
over  night,  except  a  native  female,  one  whom 
Uie  god  has  chosen  in  preference  to  all  others, 
as  say  the  Chaldeans,  who  are  prieste  of  that 
sod.  These  persons  also  mj,  oHserting  what  I 
do  not  heKeve,  that  the  god  himself  freqnents 
the  t«mpie,  and  reposes  on  the  oonoh."  The 
pnrposes  to  which  this  temple  became  devoted 
from  age  to  age  may  be  gathered  from  the 
foregoing.  Consecrated,  perhaps,  at  first  to 
the  ambition  of  a  mtmotheiatic  faith,  it  passed 
throogh  several  stages  of  Sabianism  or  wor- 
ship of  the  host  of  heaven,  until  the  rites  per- 
formed  in  it  sank  into  the  gross  idolatry  of  later 
timea,  and  it  was  polluted  by  the  vices  which 
grow  ODt  of  heathen  superstition,  as  intimated 
by  Herodotus.  In  one  respect  this  temple,  or 
rather  series  of  temples  built  on  the  same  spot, 
enbeerved  a  valuable  purpose.  The  Babyloni- 
ans were  ^ven  to  the  atuny  of  astronomy ;  the 
temple  served  also  as  an  observatory,  from 
which  the  moveraents  of  tbe  heavenly  bodies 
could  be  watched.  Assuming,  which  is  proba- 
ble, that  the  mound  of  Birs  Nimmd  represents 
the  moat  important  structure  in  nncient  Baby- 
lon, it  enables  na  to  correct,  at  least  approxi- 
mately, the  statements  of  the  later  historians  as 
to  the  height  of  tbe  walls  which  surrounded 
the  city.  This  temple  was  at  most  only  I6d  ft. 
high,  while  we  ore  told  that  the  city  wtdls  were 
800  or  850  ft.,  with  towers  having  a  height  of 
420  ft.  These  walls  would  therefore  be  nearly 
as  high  as  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  London  (8QG 
ft),  and  the  towers  almost  aa  high  oa  the  cross 
wbicb  surmounts  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome  (430  ft.}.  Of  all  human  structures  the 
apex  of  the  greatest  Egyptian  pyramid  (4S0  ft.) 
is  the  only  one  which  greatly  exceeds  that  as- 
cribed to  the  brick  towers  of  Babylon.  The 
only  other  mins  which  have  in  any  way  been 
proposed  to  be  identified  with  the  ancient  Babei, 
are  llioee  now  denominated  El-Eaarand  Babil, 
on  the  opposite  ude  of  the  Enphratea,  at  a  dia- 


BABEE 


181 


tance  of  about  12  m.  fh)m  Bira  Nlmrud.  (See 
Babtlon.) 

BAB-EL-HilTDiX  (Arabic,  "the  gate  of 
mourning,"  referring  to  the  dangerous  naviga- 
tion), a  strut  uniting  the  Indian  ocean  (gulf  of 
Aden)  with  the  Red  sea,  separating  Aua  from 
Africa,  and  utuated  between  tbe  shores  of 
Samhara  and  Arabia.  The  distance  acroea, 
from  the  projecting  cape  Bab-el-Moudeb  (anc 
PaliTidromia)  on  the  Arabian  shore  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  Africa,  is  about  18  m.,  the 
i^o&d  of  Perim  and  other  smaller  islands  ly- 
ing m  the  intermediate  apace,  and  lUviding  the 
strut  into  a  western  channel  with  a  depth  of 
180  fathoms  and  an  eastern  one  from  7  to  14 
fathoms  deep.  The  latter  is  most  practica- 
ble for  navigation.  Perim,  commanding  the 
struts,  has  been  in  Britiah  possession  rince 
186T ;  a  fort  bos  been  bnilt  at  Straits  point, 
and  a  revolving  light  was  erected  in  ISdl. 

BIBEK,  ZaUr  ed-lHi  MektHMd,  Hogal  empe- 
ror, bom  in  1463  or  1483,  died  in  December, 
19S0.    Ue  was  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane,  his 


which  happened  when  he  was  11  or  12  years 
old,  the  kmgdom  was  seized  by  his  nncle,  the 
sultan  of  Samarcond,  but  Baber  sucoeeded  in 
muntuning  bis  rights.  Baber's  earl/  life  was  a 
succesaion  of  wars  with  hia  neighbors.  He  was 
obliged  to  fiy,  and  went  to  Khoroson  with  800 
followers,  where  he  sought  assistance  from  the 
sultan,  wiiich  was  revised.  A  number  of  Mon- 
gole  joined  bis  standard,  and  Baber  marched 
on  Cabool  in  Afohanistan,  which  he  captured 
in  1604.  The  following  year  he  mode  an  ir- 
ruption into  the  Pnnjaab,  but  did  not  cross  the 
Indus,  and  returned  to  Cabool.  Be  became 
involved  in  dissennons  in  E^orasan  in  ISOB, 
and  for  many  years  was  occupied  with  attempts 
to  recover  his  potemal  possessions.  In  1519 
he  again  descended  into  Hlndostan,  crossed  the 
Indus,  and  conquered  aome  towns  in  the  Pun- 
jaub.  In  1624  he  advanced  to  Lahore,  which 
he  captnred  and  burned.  The  next  year  he  ad- 
vanc^l  to  Paniput,  about  60  miles  from  DelhL 
Here  he  encountered  the  troops  of  Sultan  Ibra- 
him Lodi,  the  A%han  sovereign  of  Delhi,  and 
completely  vonquished  him,  April  27,  1626. 
Baber's  lieutenants  occupied  Delhi  end  Agra, 
while  hia  son  tlamaynn  routed  another  Afghan 
army,  and  Baber  himself  marched  south  against 
the  Hindoos,  and  gained  a  victory  over  Rona 
Sanka,  the  moat  powerful  of  thoir  princes. 
From  this  time  Baber  occupied  himself  in  con- 
solidating bis  extensive  dominions.  He  made 
roada  with  stations  for  travellers;  directed  the 
land  to  be  measured  with  a  view  to  equable 
taxation ;  planted  gardona  and  introducea  frnit 
trees;  and  established  a  line  of  poiit  houses 
from  Agra  to  Cabool.  To  great  political  and 
military  talents  Baber  joined  literary  tastes 
and  accomplishments.  Ho  wrote  a  history  of 
bis  own  life  in  the  Mongol  language,  which  ha> 
been  translated.  He  founded  a  dynasty  in  In- 
dia which  lasted  almost  three  centuries,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


182 


BABEDP 


embraced  among  its  members  Akbar  and  An- 
rongzebe.  He  was  Bucceeddd  b;  UnmayDn, 
the  oldest  of  iiia  three  sons. 

BiBEEF,  or  BabtciT,  Fnafoli  TSaR,  a  French 
revolntionist,  bora  in  St.  QaentlD  in  17D4,  ei- 
ecQted  at  Vendftrae,  May  27,  1797.  lie  began 
life  oa  a  anrvejor's  assistant.  In  his  jonth  be 
was  arrested  on  accouot  of  bis  subveraive 
theories,  and  was  also  imprisoned  on  a  charge 
of  forgery,  of  which  he  was  acquitted.    He 

[irofeased  the  fnllest  sympathy  with  the  revo- 
ution  in  1792,  obtained  aeveral  public  ofSces, 
and  in  1794  established,  under  the  name  of 
Cains  Grscchua  Babeu^  a  journal  called  Le 
tribttn  du  peuple,  urging  the  most  eitreme 
socialistic  action.  His  followers  were  called 
Babonvistes.  la  March,  1705,  he  organized  a 
conspiracy  for  the  orerthrow  of  the  authori- 
ties and  the  constitntion,  and  for  carrying  his 
theories  into  practice  by  an  equal  distribution 
of  property.  Being  betrayed  in  May,  Babeuf 
and  bis  principal  adherents  were  arrested, 
and  were  tried  at  Venddme  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Babeuf  and  Darthi  were  sentenced 
to  death,  and  attempted  to  commit  suicide, 
bnt  were  stiil  alive  when  carried  to  the  scaf- 
fold. Of  their  accomplices  66  were  acquit- 
ted, and  7  transported,  inclnding  Bnonarotti, 
who  afterword  published  Contpiraticn  pour 
Tigaliti  diu  de  Babtnf,  with  an  account  of 
the  trial  (2  vols.,  Bmssels,  1828).  Among  Ba- 
benf s  works  ore :  Cadaitre  perpittitl  (Paris, 
1789),  and  Du  tj/itimt  dt  dipopulatum,  on,  la 
vie  et  la  erimet  de  Carrier  (1794).  fid.  Flenry 
refuted  bis  theories  in  B<Atvf  et  le  Meeialitme 
en  ir98(Paris,  ISBl). 

BIBIKET,  Jat^its,  a  French  physicist,  born  at 
Lnsignan,  March  5,  1704,  died  in  October,  1873, 
He  was  edncated  at  the  polytechnic  schooi, 
iHQght  mathematics,  phyeics,  and  meteorology, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  academy  and  an 
astronomer  in  the  hurean  of  longitudes  at  the 
Paris  observatory.  His  scientific  lectures,  cele- 
brated for  their  attractive  style,  were  fomUiarly 
known  in  Paris  as  the  caiueri^  dupire  Babi- 
fut.  He  wrote  in  the  annals  of  the  academy 
and  other  periodicals  on  meteorological  and 
mineralogical  optics,  terrestrial  magnetism,  the 
theory  of  heat,  and  the  meaiure  of  chemical 
forces,  and  made  important  improvements  in 
pneumatic  machines,  in  hygrometers,  otmome- 
ters,  goniometers,  and  in  geographical  maps 
{carta  homalographiqua) ;  but  his  unfortunate 

firedictions  in  regard  to  the  failure  of  the  At- 
antic  cable  and  to  various  meteorological  phe- 
nomena have  been  much  ridiculed.  Among 
his  works  is  Etuda  et  lecture*  ttir  lee  eciencei 
cPobtervation  et  lur  levr*  applicatiant  pra- 
tiquee  (6  vols.,  Paris,  I865-'fl7). 

BIBINGTON,  IntheBTt  on  English  conspirator, 
bom  at  Dethick  house,  Derbyshire,  about  15B6, 
executed  in  London,  Sept.  80,  IGSQ.  He  be- 
longed to  the  Boman  Catholic  branch  of  nn 
ancient  and  opulent  family,  and  when  hardly 
20  years  of  age  became  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  yonng  Catholics  who  were  fired  with  enthu- 


BABISM 

atasm  for  their  foith  and  for  the  rescne  of  Mary 
Stuart,  then  a  prisoner  near  the  Babington 
estates.  Betrayed  by  one  of  their  companions, 
BabinfltoD  and  his  13  accomplices  were  arrest- 
ed and  eseonted.  On  the  day  before  his  exe- 
cution he  wrote  to  Elizabeth,  whose  murder 
was  a  part  of  the  plot,  confessing  his  guilt  and 
implormg  pardon.  The  execution  of  Mary 
was  hastened  by  her  correspondence  with 
Babington. 

BIBDIGTOH,  VIIUiH,  an  Eusliah  physician, 
bom  at  Portglenone,  in  the  N.  of  Ireland,  in 
June,  1766,  aied  in  London,  May  29,  1883. 
He  was  early  connected  with  Guy's  hospital  as 
an  apothecary  and  lecturer  on  chemistry,  and 
after  1797  became  physician  in  that  institution, 
and  had  an  extensive  medical  practice  in  Lon- 
don. He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  geological 
society,  and  became  its  vice  president  and 
afterward  president,  making  liberal  donations 
to  the  musenm  and  hbrary.  Having  {inrchoaed 
the  earl  of  Bute's  fine  mineralogical  collec- 
tion, he  published  "A  Systematic  Arrange- 
ment of  Minerals"  (London,  1795),  and  "A 
New  System  of  Mineralogy"  (1799).  Among 
his  other  works  was  a  "  Syllabus  of  the  Course 
of  Chemical  Lectures"  (1802).  His  son-in- 
law,  Bichard  Bright,  M.  D.,  published  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  William 
Babington,  M,  D." 

BlBiSM,  the  doctrines  of  a  Uohammedsn 
sect  whidi  originated  in  Persia  abont  1848. 
Its  founder  appears  to  have  been  Miria  All 
Mohammed,  a  native  of  Shiraz,  who,  after  mak- 
ing a  pilgrimage  to  Meoca,  undertook  to  form 
a  new  religion  Irom  a  mizture  of  Mohamme- 
dan, Christian,  Jewish,  and  Parsee  elements. 
He  took  the  name  of  Bab-ed-Din,  "  the  gat« 
of  the  faith,"  which  he  afterward  abandoned, 
c^ling  himself  the  "Point,"  or  creator  of  tho 
trutli,  cMming  to  be  not  merely  a  prophet,  but 
a  personal  manifestation  of  the  Divinity,  while 
the  title  of  Bab  was  conferred  upon  one  of  his 
followers.  He  sent  out  missionaries  in  rarions 
directions,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  a 
young  woman,  known  in  the  sect  as  Gurret-nl- 
Ayn,  or  "  Consolation  of  tlie  Eyes."  She  was 
the  daughter  of  HacHi  Mullah,  a  distinguished 
jurist,  and  la  said  to  have  been  remarkable  for 
her  personal  beauty  and  intelllgeDce.  She  set 
the  example  of  appearing  in  public  unveiled, 
and  after  preaching  against  polygamy  and  other 
Mohammedan  practices,  she  finally  left  her  hus- 
band and  family,  and  devoted  lierself  to  the 
propagation  of  the  new  religion.  Her  purity 
of  character  was  never  questioned  by  either 
party.  The  adherents  of  the  Bab  soon  became 
numerous.  The  late  shah  did  not  molest  them, 
bnt  on  the  accession  of  Nasir-ed-Din  in  1848, 
apprehending  a  persecution,  they  took  up  arms, 
announcing  the  advent  of  the  Bab  as  univeraal 
sovereign.  Twolarge  armies  sent  against  them 
were  routed,  hut  the  insurrection  was  at  last 
crushed,  and  the  Bab,  who  had  held  aloof  from 
the  revolt,  was  arrested.  After  18  months' 
imprisomneDt  be  was  put  to  death  with  ono 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABO 

oT  his  disciples  in  1600.  This  gave  a  new  im- 
pebiB  to  his  doctrines.  At  sn  aflscmbly  of  the 
leaders  in  Teheran  a  yonng  tufln  of  16,  Mirza 

Gaharn,  son  of  the  governor  of  the  city,  was  re- 
cognized aa  Bab  and  took  the  name  of  "Eternal 
Highness,"  He  ordered  hia  followers  not  to 
take  up  artna  again  until  he  ahould  ^ve  the 
Hgnal.  An  attempt  of  three  Babists,  however, 
to  assasainate  the  ehah  in  18G2  led  to  a  new 
persecution.  Numbers  of  the  believers  were 
^multaneonsly  execnted  at  Teheran  with  lior- 
rible  tortarea,  and  among  the  victims  was  Gar- 
ret-nl-Aj'D.  She  was  treated  at  first  with  re- 
spect, being  of  noble  rank,  but  final);,  after 
being  forcibly  veiled,  waa  sentenced  to  be  burn- 
ed alive.  The  executioner,  liowever,  Hmotbcred 
her  before  setting  fire  to  the  pile.  The  Bab 
himself  waa  not  taptured.  Since  that  time  the 
Babista,  as  a  secret  sect,  are  supposed  to  have 
made  great  progress  in  Persia,  India,  and  a  part 
of  Turkey.— The  Babist  doctrine  asserts  the 
unity  of  the  Godhead,  but  apon  thia  it  engrails 
many  of  tlie  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics  and  Brah- 
mina.  All  beings  are  emanations  from  tbo 
Deity,  and  all  will  at  the  day  of  judgment  ho 
reabsorbed  into  the  divine  personality.  The 
Bab  has  not  revealed  the  whole  truth,  bot  will 
be  followed  by  a  succeasor  who  will  complete 
the  revelation.  The  Bab  is  anperior  to  Mo- 
hammed, aa  Mohammed  waa  superior  to  Jesus. 
The  number  18  is  sacred,  for  the  original  unity 
of  the  Deity  consisted  of  IS  persons,  of  whom 
the  Bab  was  the  chief.  At  the  death  of  a 
prophet  or  saint,  his  soul  does  not  cuit  the 
earth,  bnt  joins  itself  to  aome  other  soul  still  in 
(he  flesh,  who  carries  on  his  work.  Babiam 
enjoins  few  prayers,  and  only  upon  fiied  occa- 
sions. Women  are  to  discard  veils,  and  share 
in  the  intercourse  of  social  life.  Concubinage 
and  divorce  are  forbidden,  and  polygamy  is 
disconntenaneed,  though  not  absolutely  prohib- 
ited.— See  Let  religiont  et  philotophUi  dan*  I 
FAtie  ecntrale  (Paris,  1866),  by  Gobinean,  who  I 
gives  a  translation  of  "The  Book  of  Precepts,"  1 
the  sacred  book  of  the  Babists.  I 

UBO,  Frwu  MarlBB  Tea,  a  German  dramatist,  I 
bom  at  Ehrenbreitstein,  Jan.  14,  1T56,  died  in  '. 
Munich,  Feb.  6,  1822.  His  Otto  von  Wittelt- 
baeh  io,  next  to  Goethe's  Goeti  tcm  Jicrliekin-  ' 
ftn,  the  best  German  liistorical  tragedy.  His  | 
dramas  have  been  collected  in  two  volumes,  i 
(Berlin,  1T03-18M.) 

BiBOOH,  a  didsion  of  the  monkeys  of  the 
old  world,  belonging  to  the  genus  eynoeephalv* 
of  Cuvier.  Thia  genua  is  characterized  by  the 
po«ition  of  the  nostrils  at  the  very  end  of  the 
nnzzte,  which  is  lengthened  and  truncated;  . 
the  teeth  are  32  in  number,  as  in  man,  but  the  I 
canines  are  remarkably  strong,  and  the  lost  i 
lower  molar  has  a  fifUi  point;  the  ridges  over 
the  eyes  are  very  distinct,  and  the  occipital  . 
crest  for  the  origin  of  the  powerful  muscles  of 
the  skull  and  Jnws  ia  as  large  in  proportion  as 
in  the  true  carnivora;  the  face  is  lengthened, 
giving  the  appearance  of  that  of  a  dog,  whence  | 
the  generic  name,  and  in  the  adult  is  marked  | 


BABOON 


183 


with  lon^tndinal  furrows.  All  the  species 
have  cheek  pouches  and  callosities.  The  ba- 
boons are  among  the  largeat  of  the  quadruma- 
na,  and  their  strength  is  enormous;  their  dis- 
position is  lierce  and  malignant,  and  their  habits 
are  of  the  roost  disgusting  character ;  they  hardly 
possess  a  good  quality,  and  ore  almost  always 
rebellious  in  conhnement  and  dangerous  when 
at  liberty.  Their  dispositions  are  exceedingly 
fickle,  and  they  pass  on  the  slightest  provoca- 
tion from  a  pleased  condition  into  a  paroxysm 
of  rage.  In  a  wild  state  they  ore  very  cun- 
ning, and  when  attacked  are  most  dangerous 
enemies.  When  trained  from  their  youth,  they 
exhibit  a  considerable  degree  of  docility;  hut 
they  can  never  be  truated.  They  are  semi- 
terrestrial  ;  from  the  nearly  equal  lencth  of  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs,  they  run  well  on  the 
ground,  and  are  also  excellent  climbers ;  their 
anterior  extremities  are  remprkably  powerfU. 
Their  food  is  principally  vegetable,  consisting 
of  fruits,  roots,  the  tender  twigs  of  plants,  and 
occasionally  eggs  and  young  birds;  in  a  state 
of  captivity  they  will  eat  almost  anything.  In 
some  species  the  colors  are  bright,  and  the  fiir 
long  and  fine,  forming  a  kind  of  mane  on  the 
upper  parts.  They  are  generally  divided  into 
two  groups:  the  baboons  proiier,  with  long 
tails,  the  genns  eynocephalvi  of  Cuvier;  and 
the  mandrills,  wiUi  short  tails,  of  which  Bris- 
Bon  has  made  the  genua  papio.    There  are  six 


CbAcmi  (Cjnocflphaliu  pomriut). 

well  marked  species  of  the  former  group:  1. 
The  ohacma,  or  pig-taced  baboon  ( G.  pcrcnriv*. 
Deem.),  is  a  native  of  Africa,  io  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  color 
is  greenish  or  grayish  black  above,  palest  on 
the  flanks  and  fore  part  of  the  shoulders ;  the 
hair  on  the  neck  of  the  male  adnlt  is  long,  like 
a  mane,  whence  Geoflroy  St.  Ililaire'a  specific 
name  of  oomahu  ;  the  fiiee  and  extremities  are 
violet  black,  paler  round  the  eyes;  the  npper 
eyelids  are  nearly  white;  the  tail  is  long  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


toftad.  This  animal  is  ezceedlnglr  ferocions, 
even  when  broaght  up  from  youth  in  captiyity ; 
in  its  natire  haanta  it  hunts  greediij  after 


Do^ftovd  Baboon  (CjnooephiJu  buudJTu). 

scorpions,  which  it  devours  olive  in  great  qaan- 
tities,  liavitijE  first,  with  exceeding  quickness, 
broken  off  the  end  of  the  tail  containing  the 
Bting.  2.  The  dog-faced  baboon  ((7.  Aamoifr^iM, 
Linn.),  an  allied  species,  inhabits  Afi-ica  and 
the  borders  of  the  Per»an  gulf  of  Arabia.  The 
color  is  blockish  gray,  tinged  with  brown ;  the 
hair  on  the  fore  ports  is  very  long  and  shag- 
gy ;  the  face  ia  flesh-colored ;  the  females  and 
young  hove  short  muzzles,  of  a  bluish  color. 
It  is  equally  fierce  and  dangerous  with  the  pre- 
ceding, of  which  by  some  aathora  it  is  consid- 
ered a  variety.  S.  The  Oninea  baboon  ((7. 
pupio,  Desm.)  inhobits  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
The  color  is  brown  above,  paler  beneath ;  the 
cheeks  ore  yellowish ;  the  face,  ears,  and  hands 


Lltdo  Baboon  (Cj-ooccpllllui   OaOuln). 

are  black ;  the  nasal  cBrtila^ce  exceeds  the  jaws 
in  length ;  the  upper  eyolids  are  white.  In 
the  young  the  mazile  is  shorter  than  in  the 


adult,  in  tbb  as  in  all  the  other  spetnes.  This 
animal  is  of  large  Mze,  and  ve^  fierce.  4. 
The  Uttle  baboon  (0.  babuin,  F.  Cuvier)  ia 
supposed  by  its  desoriber  to  be  one  of  the  qnad- 
rumana  adored  by  the  Egyptians,  and  fre- 
quently seen  among  their  bieri^lyphic^  and  ia 
Erobably  the  timia  eynocephalvt  of  Luuueua. 
:  inhabits  northern  Africa.  The  color  of  Uie 
male  is  a  uniform  yellowish  green  above,  paler 
beneath ;  the  faoe  is  livid;  the  nasal  carulage 
is  not  longer  thon  the  apper  jaw ;  the  tail, 
though  raised  at  its  origin,  is  of  consider- 
able Tength,  reaching  below  the  hams.  6.  The 
ribbed-nose  liaboon  {G.  mormon,  Desm.,  or 
C.  maimoTi,  Linn.)  ia  a  native  of  the  Guinea 
coast,  mid  is  i 


This  and  the  next  species,  forming  the  genus 
papio  of  Brisson,  have  ue  tail  very  abort 
(ahnost  a  tatMrcle),  very  lai^e  iHohiatio  callosi- 
ties, a  more  eloiwated  muzzle  armed  with  for- 
midable teeth  and  a  greater  size  than  any  other 


MiBdriU  (CynocepMot  nmnioa). 

species,  and  the  most  fierce  and  disgnsting 
characters  of  the  baboon  tribe.  In  C.  mormon 
the  colors  of  the  adult  are  rich,  and  their  effect 
is  increased  by  the  blue,  red.  and  purplish  tints 
of  the  face,  nose,  and  naked  parte  of  the  skin; 
in  the  young  the  fur  is  of  a  uniform  tawny 
green,  paler  beneath,  and  yellowish  on  th« 
cheeks;  in  the  adalt  male  the  color  is  olive- 
brown,  mixed  with  gray  above  and  white  be- 
neath, with  a  yellow  heard,  and  the  furrowed 
mnzzle  of  a  livid  bine,  with  a  brigitt  red  nose 
and  dull  flesh-colored  lips;  in  the  young  the 
furrows  do  not  appear,  ond  the  tints  of  the 
naked  parts,  as  in  the  females,  are  less  vivid. 
The  species  is  usually  called  the  mandrill.  It 
recedes  much  in  form  from  the  typical  quad- 
rumana,  and  approaches  the  carnivore  in  its 
structure,  instincts,  and  appetites ;  it  has  b«en 
Icnown  to  t«ar  to  pieces  and  devour  livinir  prey 
with  the  ferocity  of  a  tiger.  6.  The  drill  {C. 
hueaphaiu,  F.  Cav.),  also  a  native  of  Africa,  is 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABYLON 


185 


nearly  as  fierce  and  powerful  a*  the  mandrill. 
The  oolor  above  U  greenish  brown,  tinged  with 
grsj,  benealb  white;  the  face  ia  a  imiform 


Ddl  (CrxoHipbiliu   laneophiiiu). 

don  black,  and  the  mazzle  has  no  furrows; 
the  under  lip  is  red.  The  females  are  amaller 
to  uze,  and  of  a  duller  color. — Other  baboons 
are  described,  bnt  not  with  sufficient  eiactaeas 
and  anthoritf  to  admit  of  a  general  recogni- 
tion. Some  species  of  the  geans  macacvt,  in- 
habiting IniUa  and  its  archipelago,  have  been 
incorrectly  called  baboons ;  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  M.  lilenut,  Geoff. ;  M.  rh«im, 
GeoS. ;  M.  lumettrinuM,  Geoff. ;  and  M.  niger, 
Deam.  These,  with  others,  are  intennediate 
between  the  gaenons  and  the  baboons,  and  in 
•ome  respects  resemble  the  trne  cynoee^kali. 
— A  peculiar  species  has  recently  been  intro- 


daoed  to  the  notice  of  natoraliats  by  Dr.  Rilp- 
nell  in  his  work  on  the  &ana  of  Abyssinia. 
This  is  the  gelada  {gtlada  RuppellU),  a  targe 


brown  liaboon,  having,  when  full  grown,  a 
very  remarkable  shaggy  mane  around  his  neck 
and  shoulders.  About  the  paws  the  hair  is 
nearly  black.  The  young  gelada  is  entirely 
destitute  of  tbe  hairy  mane,  and  is  mach 
lighter  in  oolor  than  the  adult  animal 

UBYLON  (Gr.  -Ba^nXin;  Ueb,  Babet),  an  an- 
cient city  in  what  is  now  Turkey  in  A«a,  in 
lat.  83°  8fl'  N.,  Ion.  44°  80'  E.,  lying  on  both 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  or  rather,  perhaps,  of 
a  broad  bayon  flowing  eastward  of  the  m^u 
channel,  which  formerly  ran  fire  or  six  miles 
to  the  west  of  its  present  course,  close  nnder 
the  walla  of  Boraippo,  the  site  of  the  mound  of 
Birs  Kimrud,  identified  as  the  ancient  Babel, 
about  300  miles  above  the  jnnction  of  the  Eu- 

C-ates  with  the  Tigris,  near  the  modern  vil- 
e  of  Hill'eb.  According  to  this  view  it  stood 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Euphrates  proper,  and 
at  such  distance  from  it  as  to  t>e  above  reach 
of  its  inundation ;  but  the  bayou  itself,  flowing 
directly  through  the  city,  lined  with  quays,  and 
bordered  by  great  buildings,  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  main  river.  (For  the  origin  and 
import  of  the  name,  see  Babel;  for  the  general 
history  of  the  city,  see  AsevHii,  BiBYLosiA, 
and  Cbaldu.)  Babylon  owed  its  chief  great- 
ness to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  describes  it  as 
"  the  great  Babylon  that  I  have  built  for  the 
bouse  of  the  kingdom  of  my  power,  and  for  the 
honor  of  my  m^esty."  Herodotua,  who  saw 
It  about  100  years  after  the  death  of  that  mon- 
arch, describes  it  thus:  "The  city  stands  on 
a  broad  plain,  and  is  an  exact  square  120  stadia 
in  length  each  way,  so  that  the  entire  circuit 
ia  480  stadia.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 
and  deep  moat,  full  of  water,  behind  which 
rises  a  wall  GO  royal  cubits  in  width  and  300 
in  height  (the  royal  cubit  is  longer  by  three 
fingers'  breadth  than  the  common  cubit),  .  .  . 
On  the  top,  along  the  edges  of  the  wall,  they 
constructed  buildings  of  a  single  chamber  fe- 
eing one  another,  leaving  between  them  room 
for  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  In  the  circuit 
of  the  wait  are  a  hundred  gates,  alt  of  brass, 
with  brazen  lintels  and  side  posts,"  As  120 
stadia  are  equal  to  14  miles,  the  walls  would 
measure  CS  miles,  eneloeing  an  area  of  196  sq. 
m.  Other  writers  reduce  the  circuit  of  the 
walls  by  a  fourth,  making  it  360  stadia.  As 
we  learn  that  within  tbe  walls  were  included 
gardens  and  posture  grounds,  it  is  not  be- 
yond belief  that  their  circuit  may  have  been 
aa  great  as  represente<l.  But  tbe  height  given 
for  the  walls  seems  incredible.  It  is  agreed 
that  tlio  royal  cubit  was  equal  to  22'4  inches. 
The  height  of  tbe  walls  would  then  have  been 
373  a  4  in.,  thickness  83  ft.  4  in.  For  all 
purposes  of  defence  a  wait  of  60  feet  is  as 
good  as  one  of  any  greater  height.  Strabo 
and  the  historians  of  Alexander  reduce  the 
200  cubits  to  00,  which  has  led  soma  to  sus- 
pect that  Herodotus  wrote  palms  instead 
of  cubits.  "My  own  belief,"  says  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  "is  that  the  height  of  the  walls 
of  Babylon  did  not  exceed  60  or  70  feet." 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Herodotus  adds  that  there  was  an  inner  wall 
of  less  thickness  than  the  first,  bnt  very  lit- 
tle inferior  to  it  in  strength.    Of  the  circuit 


of  this  inner  wall  we  are  not  informed.  H. 
Oppert  believes  that  he  has  found  traces  of 
both  walls,  and  in  the  plan  which  he  ^vcs  it  is 
represented  as  mnning  parallel  to  the  outer 
□no  at  a  distance  of  about  a  mile.  Others  be- 
lieve that  this  was  the  wall  of  Nebnchadnez- 
lor'a  new  city,  or  rather  citadel,  which  had  a 
circnit  of  five  miles.  Herodotus  also  says  that 
"  the  centre  of  each  division  of  the  town  was 
occupied  by  tho  fortress,  in  one  of  which  atood 
the  palace  of  the  bings,  surrounded  bj  a  wall 
of  great  strength."  The  rains  of  this  have 
been  found  in  one  of  the  three  great  existing 
mounds,  known  as  the  Kasr.  In  the  other 
division  was  "  the  aacred  precinct  of  Japiter 
Belus,  a  square  enclosure  of  two  stadia  each 
waj,  with  gates  of  solid  brass."  This  has  been 
identified  as  the  ruins  now  called  Bsbil,  a  mass 
of  onbumcd  brick  rising  to  the  height  of  140 
feet,  which  may  have  been  about  the  height  of 
the  original  wall.  The  accounts  of  different 
writers  may  be  thus  summed  up ;  The  Euphra- 
tes traversed  the  city  from  north  to  south. 
From  each  of  the  25  gates  on  each  side  ran 


a  brood  street  to  the  opposite  gate,  dividing 
the  city  into  626  squares,  each  aboat  2^  miles 
m  circumference.    The  river  bank  on  each  ude 


was  guarded  by  a  wall  with  gateways-  at  the 
foot  of  each  sti'cet,  and  steps  leading  down  to 
the  river.  Tho  usual  means  of  crowing  was  by 
boats ;  hut  a  single  bridge  was  thrown  over. 
This  consisted  of  stone  piers  sunk  in  the  bed 
of  tho  stream,  connected  by  wooden  platforms 
which  were  removed  at  night.  It  is  said,  but 
apparently  on  no  good  authority,  that  there 
was  also  a  tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the  river. 
The  famous  hanging  gardens  do  not  seem  to 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  Herodotua. 
According  to  other  writers,  they  were  built  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  gratify  his  wife  Amjitia,  a 
naUve  of  Media,  who  longed  for  something  in 
this  fiat  country  to  remind  her  of  her  mountain 
home.  They  consisted  of  an  artificial  moun- 
tain 400  ft.  on  each  side,  rising  by  succesrfve 
terrrocea  to  a  height  which  overtopped  the 
walls  of  the  city.  Tho  terraces  tlicmselvea 
were  formed  of  a  succession  of  piers,  the  tops 
of  which  were  covered  by  flat  stones  16  ft.  long 
and  4  ft.  wide.  Upon  these  were  spread  beds 
of  matting,  then  a  thick  layer  of  bitumen, 
covered  with  sheets  of  lead.  Upon  this  solid 
pavement  earth  was  heaped,  some  of  the  piles 
ticing  hollow,  so  as  to  afford  depth  for  the  roots 
of  tho  largest  trees.  Water  was  drawn  from 
the  river  to  irrigate  these  gardens,  which  thus 
presented  to  the  eye  the  appearance  of  a  moun- 
tain clothed  in  verdure.  Herodotus  speaks  of 
writJDg  a  special  work  on  the  history  of  As- 
syria. If  tliis  was  ever  written,  it  is  not  now 
extant.  Be  mokes  in  bis  general  history  only 
a  passing  reference  to  the  "many  sovereigns 
who  hod  ruled  over  Babylon,  and  lent  their 
ud  to  the  building  of  its  walls  and  the  adorn- 
ment of  its  temples."  He  does  not  even 
refer  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  name  was 
stamped  upon  the  bricks  of  every  important 
structure.  He  mentions  two  queens  as  having 
a  great  share  in  them.  These  are  Semirorais 
and  Nitocris,  of  whom  tlio  former  is  a  legend- 
ary character  (See  AsayBiA.)  Nitocris  seems 
to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  mother  of  Nabonadius.  (See  Babylonia.) 
Herodotus  affirms  that  this  queen  changed  the 
course  of  the  river  above  Babylon  from  a 
straight  to  a  winding  course,  so  that  it  c«m« 
several  times  in  view  of  the  village  of  Arde- 
ricca,  and  a  person  sailing  down  the  river 
bad  to  pass  three  limes  m  as  many  days 
in  sight  of  the  same  spot.  Sir  Henry  Baw- 
linson  says  that  no  such  cutting  ever  could 
have  existed ;  an  assertion  corroborated  by 
all  attempts  whicii  have  been  made  to  per- 
manently change  the  course  of  a  great  river 
flowing  through  an  alluvial  region.  She  also 
dug  an  immense  reservoir  420  stadia  in  circuit, 
facing  the  interior  walls  with  stone.  Into  this 
she  turned  the  river,  leaving  its  bed  dry  at 
Babylon,  so  that  she  could  lay  there  the  piera 
for  the  bridge.  All  this  was  done  to  shut  out 
the  Hedes  from  intercourse  with  Babylonia. 
If  such  an  excavation  had  existed,  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  traces  of  itsbonid  not  now  remain. 
In  a  region  where  for  100  miles  not  a  pebble  is 


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to  be  foond,  it  Is  diffionJt  to  oonceire  whence 
these  stone*  could  be  bronglit;  and  if  once 
brought,  it  is  equally  difficult  to  imagine  whith- 
er they  have  been  carried.  Thej  are  not  there 
now,  and  are  not  to  be  found  among  the  mins 
of  Seleacia  or  Cteaiphon,  built  from  the  frag- 
ments of  BabjloD.  A  careful  comparison  of 
existing  facts  with  the  relationB  of  the  wnters 
from  whom  the  occoiints  of  Babylon  have  been 
drawn  wiil  erinoe  that  these  acoounta  are 
greatl.T  exaggerated.  Still,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  Babylon  as  built  hj  Nebuchadnez- 
zar and  captured  b;  Cjrus  was  one  of  the  great 
cities  of  tlie  world,  Uioogh  of  necessity  built 
munly  of  perishable  materials.  The  descrip- 
tion given  by  the  great  king  iii  his  "standard 
inscription  "  appears  to  tell  the  true  etorj.  We 
quote  with  abridgments  a  few  passages:  "The 
double  enclosure  which  Nabopolassar,  my  fa- 
ther, had  made,  bnt  not  completed,  I  finished. 
Nabopolassar  made  its  ditch.  With  two  long 
eml)ankraents  of  brick  and  mortar  he  Iioand  its 
bed.  He  lined  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates 
with  brick.     He  made  a  bridge  over  the  En- 

Shrstas,  but  did  not  finish  it9  buttresses.  With 
ricks;,  bnrnt  as  hard  as  stones,  he  made  a  way 
for  the  branch  of  the  Sbimat  to  the  waters  of 
the  Yapur-Shapn,  great  reservoir  of  Babylon. 
I  finished  the  great  double  wall.  With  two 
long  embankments  of  brick  and  mortar  I  built 
the  side  of  its  ditch,  I  strengthened  the  city. 
Across  the  river,  to  the  west,  I  built  the  wnlb 
of  Babylon  with  brick.  The  reservoir  I  filled 
completely  with  water.  Besides  the  outer  wall, 
the  bnpregnable  fortification,  I  constractod  in- 
nde  of  Babylon  a  fortification  such  as  no  king 
had  ever  made  before  me,  namely,  a  long  ram- 
part 4,000  antmai  (S  miles)  square,  as  an  extra 
aefence.  Against  presumptaons  enemies,  great 
waters  I  made  use  of  abundantly.  Their  de|)tha 
were  like  the  depths  of  the  vast  ocean.  I  did 
not  allow  the  waters  to  OTerfiow ;  but  the  full- 
ness of  their  floods  I  caused  to  flow  on,  restrain- 
ing them  with  a  brick  embankment.  Thus  I 
completely  made  strong  the  defences  of  Baby- 
lon- Hay  it  stand  forever."  He  describes 
another  atracture :  "  inside  the  brick  fortifica- 
tions I  made  another  great  fortifl  cation  of  long 
stones  of  the  nze  of  great  mountains.  And 
tfais  building  I  raised  for  a  wonder ;  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  people  I  constructed  it."  This  is 
tbe  only  case  in  which  stone  is  mentioned.  I 
i^ot  improbably  this  wu  the  etmoture  spoken 
of  as  the  hanging  gardens.  He  describes  his 
palace  called  Tapratinui,  "the  wonder  of  the  | 
world,"  which  had  also  been  begun  by  bis 
father.  He  tells  bow  it  used  to  be  flooded  by 
the  inundations  of  the  river,  and  how  he  riused 
the  platform  of  brick  upon  which  it  stood ;  and 
^oes  on :  "1  cnt  off  the  floods  of  the  water,  and 
the  foundations  (of  the  palace)  I  protected 
against  the  water  with  bncks  and  mortar.  I 
finished  it  completely,  long  beams  I  set  up 
to  support  iL  With  pillars  and  beams  plated 
irith  copper  and  strengthened  with  iron  I  built 
tip  its  gat«s.     Silver,  and  gold,  and  precious 


LON  isr 

stones,  whose  names  were  almost  nnknown,  I 

stored  inside,  and  placed  there  the  treosnre- 
house  of  my  kingdom."  Here  again  there  is 
nothing  hot  brick  and  mortar  and  wooden 
t>eams;  the  gates  of  the  palace  Itself,  which 
Herodotus  saw  ondsupposeu  tote  of  solid  brass, 
were  of  wood  plated  with  copper  and  strength- 
ened with  iron.  The  shapeless  Kasr  alforda  no 
means  for  testing  tbe  accuracy  of  tlio  descrip- 
tion given  by  Nebnchadnezzar  of  his  palace; 
but  Uiere  is  a  ruin  which  in  a  measure  affords 
such  a  tesL  This  is  Birs  Nimrud.  (See  Ba- 
bel.) Tbe  height  of  this  mound,  crowned  by 
a  tower,  was  153  tt.,  and  as  it  was  beyond 
doubt  among  the  loftiest  of  the  Babylonian 
structures,  we  are  enabled  to  rectify  the  extrav- 
agant heights  attributed  to  the  city  walls. — 


Babylon,  at  least  in  its  later  period,  after  it  had 
sprang  up  to  be  the  capital  of  a  great  empire, 
was  noted  for  the  Inrary  and  depravity  of  ite  in- 
habitants. "Nothing,"  says Q. Curtius,  "eonld 
be  more  corrupt  than  its  morals,  nothing  more 
fitted  to  excite  and  allure  to  immoderato  nleas- 
nrea.  The  rites  of  hospitality  were  polluted 
by  the  most  shameless  lusts."  Once  at  least  in 
her  life  every  woman  was  obliged  to  prostitute 
herself  in  the  temple  of  Belus.  Of  the  popu- 
lation of  Babylon  there  exists  no  ground  for 
even  probable  estimate.     As  a  centre  of  em- 

[dre  and  commerce,  its  population  would  be 
imited  only  by  the  capacity  for  sub»stence  of 
the  fertile  region  from  which  its  supplies  were 
drawn.  Considering  its  vast  extent,  bnt  bear- 
ing in  mind  that  only  a  small  portion,  probably 
not  more  than  a  tenth,  was  built  over^  1,600,000 
is  not  an  improbable  conjecture. — The  site  of 
the  ancient  Babel  was  probably  at  Borsippa 
(Birs  Nimrud),  a  little  beiow  the  later  Baoy- 
lon,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  main  Eu- 
phrates. Borsippa  was  a  suburb  with  separate 
fortiflcationa,  for  Nal>onadius,  al^r  being  de- 
feated in  the  field  by  Cyrus,  threw  himself  into 
it,  leaving  Babylon  proper  in  the  charge  of  hir 
sou  Belshaczar.  For  an  unknown  perii^  Baby- 
lon was  a  town  of  minor  importance,  tlio  sue- 
cesrive  capitals  of  the  Ciialdean  kingdom  ly- 
ing lower  down  the  plain.  Babylon  first  comes 
prominently  into  notice  about  tbe  time  of  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


fbundatjon  of  the  dynastf  of  Nabonawar  rT47 
B.  0.).    Babylonia  having  been  reconqnerea  by 

Sennacherib,  it  became  about  680  one  of  the 
two  canitala  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  under 
Eaariiaddon,  the  bod  of  that  conqueror.  Ita 
great  importance  dates  from  the  fall  of  Nine- 
veh, when  Nahopoiassar  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  Chaldean  empire,  and  began  that  great 
Horiea  of  fortificaiiona  and  public  worke  which 
were  completed  by  his  eon  Nebnchodnezzor 
(604-661).  The  last  Buccemor  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, NabonadioB,  joined  tlie  leagae  formed 
to  check  the  threatening  power  of  Persia. 
Thia  bronght  upon  him  the  invauou  by  Cy- 
rus. Having  associated  with  himself  in  the 
gOTerament  his  bod  Belshazzar,  NabonodiuB, 
leaving  bim  in  command  of  Babylon,  advanced 
to  meet  Cynia.  Being  defeated  in  the  field,  he 
threw  himself  into  Borsippa,  while  Cyrus  ad- 
vanced to  the  Biege  of  Babylon.  The  city  whb 
proviuonod  for  a  long  siege  and  the  strength 
of  ita  walls  defied  direct  assault.  It  was  tnlien 
only  by  the  stratagem  of  diverting  the  river 
from  its  conree,  and  marching  in  through  its 
dry  bed.  Herodotus  relates  that  Oyrus  turned 
the  Euphrates  into  the  great  reservoir  exca- 
vated by  Nitocris.  This  appears  incredible; 
for  even  assoming  the  existence  of  this  reser- 
voir, its  waters  most  have  been  on  a  level  with 
those  of  the  river,  and  no  catting  could  have 
laid  bare  the  river  bed.  Xenopnon,  a  much 
better  authority  in  thia  matter,  says  that  Cyrus 
druned  the  bed  by  means  of  two  new  cnttings 
of  his  own,  from  a  point  above  the  city  to  an- 
other below  it.  If  we  suppose  tliat  the  river 
was  not  the  Eoplirstcs  itself,  bat  a  bayou  or 
aide  branch,  shallower  than  the  river,  the  whole 
operation  Ijecomes  perfectly  comprehensible. 
He  had  only  to  dam  up  the  mouth  of  the  bayon 
above  the  city,  and  deepen  the  channel  below 
by  which  it  reeaterad  the  Euphrates.  Id  an 
hour  alter  catting  away  the  bolkhead  below, 
the  channel  would  be  dry.  This  was  done  in 
tiie  dead  of  night.  It  was  a  complete  surprise. 
So  confident  were  the  besieged  in  the  impreg- 
nability of  their  outer  defences  that  they  neg- 
lected to  close  the  water  gates  which  fronted 
the  river  at  the  foot  of  each  street,  and  Bel- 
shazzar and  his  court  passed  the  night  in  rev- 
elry. When  morning  dawned  the  inner  de- 
fences had  all  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  be- 
siegers (S88).  Cyrus,  haringdismantled  Baby- 
lon, moved  upon  Bortuppa,  still  held  by  Nabo- 
nadius,  who  surrendered  and  received  kind 
treatment  Cyrus  assigned  him  a  residence 
and  estate  in  Caramama,  w*here  the  last  king 
of  Babylon  ended  his  days  in  peace.  For  a 
time  Babylon  was  a  royal  residence  of  the  Per- 
sian kings.  Two  attempts  were  made  to  re- 
volt, and  each  time  Babylon  stood  a  siege  and 
was  farther  dismantled.  It  ceased  to  be  a 
royal  city;  its  brick  walls  sad  palaces  fell  into 
decay ;  and  when  Alexander  the  Great  took 
possession,  it  waa  comporntively  a  ruin.  He 
mtended  to  restore  the  city,  and  make  it  his 
Asiatic  capital,  hut  his  death  prevented  the  ei- 


ecntion  of  the  scheme.    His  Syrian  snocewora 

chose  for  their  capital  Seleada,  a  few  miles  to 
the  northeast,  on  the  Tigris.  A  great  part  of 
this  city  was  built  with  materials  carried  from 
Babylon;  and  when  Seleucia  fell  into  decay, 
from  ita  materials  the  Parthians  built  Ctesipbon. 
Besides  these  great  cities,  the  Person  Madain, 
the  Gufah  of  the  caliphs,  and  in  a  measure  the 
more  modem  Bagdad,  have  been  succesovely 
built  &om  the  rains  of  Babylon.  The  place  had 
become  a  ruin  in  the  time  of  Strabo  (abont  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era).  6t.  Jerome,  in 
the  4th  century,  learned  that  it  had  been  con- 
verted into  a  hunting  ground  for  the  recreatdon 
of  the  Pendan  monarch,  who  in  order  to  pre- 
serve tiie  game  had  partially  restored  the  walla. 
From  that  time  it  paaaed  more  and  more  ont  of 
notice,  until  its  very  ute  become  ftH'gotten.  It  is 
only  MDce  1847  that  it  haa  been  satisfactorily 
identified.    Ita  modem  representative  is  the 


A  BibflOBlia  Bikk. 

village  of  Hilleh,  with  about  7,000  inhabitants. 
As  Birs  Nimrad  marks  the  site  of  Borappa,  the 
rains  of  Babylon  propwr  consist  mmnly  of  three 
mounds:  1.  Bahil,probablythetempleofBelnft 
This  is  an  oblong  mass,  200  yards  long,  140  wide, 
and  14011.  high.  S.  The  Easr,  or  palace  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar. This  is  an  irregular  square  abont 
700  yards  each  way,  surmonnted  with  the  re- 
mains of  a  square  structure,  the  walls  of  which 
are  composed  of  burnt  bricks  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  of  excellent  quality,  bonnd  together  with 
a  lime  cement,  and  stamped  with  the  name 
of  Nebncbadnezzor.  S.  A  mound,  now  oalled 
Amran,  of  an  irregular  triangular  shape,  the 
sides  being  1,400,  1,100,  and  850  ft.  This  ia 
supposed  to  be  the  ruins  of  a  palace  older  than 
I  Nebuchadnezzar,  for  bricks  have  l>eeu  fonnd 
there  inscribed  with  the  names  of  more  ancient 
kings.  Besides  these  there  are  merely  frag- 
menta  of  embankments,  which  may  be  parts  of 
some  of  the  walls. — For  ancient  Babylon  tha 
principal  authorities  are  Herodotus  and  Diodo- 
TOS  Sicnlns;  for  the  history  and  mins,  Raw- 
linson's  "Herodotna"  and  "  Rve  Ancient  Mon- 
archies," Lenormant  and  Chevallier's  "Ancient 


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BABTLOKIA 


History  of  the  East,"  Smith's  "Ancient  Histo- 
ry of  the  East,"  LoAus'b  "Chaldfe&,"  and  L&y- 
vd's  "Nineveh  and  Babylon."  To  these  may 
be  ftdded  Rich's  "Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of 
Babylon"  (1818),  and  "Narrative  of  a  Jonmey 
to  En^and  by  Bnssoroh,  Bagdad,  and  the  Ruins 
of  Babylon"  (I82fi);  Ohesney'e  "Enphratea 
Expedition"  (1B50)  ;  and  Oppert's  maps  and 
plans  (PB^i^  1868). 

BIBTLONU,  a  name  applied  to  tbeksonthem 
part  of  Mesopotamia  in  the  wider  sense,  of 
which  Babykm  became  the  capital.  Babel,  tlie 
correspoodiiig  Hebrew  name,  is  occowonally 
naed  in  Scriptore  in  this  sense;  but  the  usual 
term  to  designate  the  country  and  the  people  is 
Chnsdini,  which  in  the  Septuagint  and  most 
other  verdons  becomes  Chatdea  and  the  Ohai- 
deans.  Babylonia  included  the  spaoe  hctwaut 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  now  known  as 
Irak-Arabi  (see  Ibak-Ababi),  together  with 
the  strip  of  territory  west  (^  the  Euphrates, 
bordered  by  the  Arabian  desert.  This  conn- 
toy,  made  wonderfully  fertile  by  an  almofit 
imparaUeled  network  of  canals,'  and  peopled 
by  Bemites,  Cushites,  and  Turanians,  was  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  powerful 
Ungdomsof antiquity.  (See OniLnEA.)  From 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  down  to 
62C  B.  C.  the  history  of  Babylonia  is  chiefiy 
known  in  connection  with  its  contests  with  As- 
syria. (See  AssTBiA.)  About  that  year  lower 
Babylonia  rose  against  Assyria,  and  was  joined 
by  Medio.  Aeshnr-bani-pal,  the  Assyrian  king, 
placed  the  force  in  Babylonia  under  the  com- 
mand of  Nabopolassar,  apparently  a  Chaldean. 
But  Kabopolaasar  entered  into  a  leagae  with 
Oyasares  the  Mede,  to  whose  daughter  he  mar- 
ried his  son,  afterward  the  great  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, The  Assyrians  were  defeated  by  the  com- 
bined Medes  and  Babylonians,  and  Nineveh  was 
destroyed.  Babylonia  became  independent,  her 
boondaries  being  enlarged  on  the  north  by 
the  addition  of  a  few  miles  between  the  rivers, 
on  the  west  by  a  strip  beyond  the  Eaphrates, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  annexation  of  Suuana. 
The  greater  portion  of  Assyria  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Medes.  For  nearly  the  whole  of 
his  reign,  which  ended  in  604,  Nabopolassar 
was  occupied  in  organizing  his  kingdom.  To- 
ward its  close  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  attempt- 
ed to  extend  his  dominion  to  the  Enphra^. 
The  Assyrian  king  sent  ag^nst  him  an  army 
under  bis  son  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  Egyp- 
tians suffered  a  total  rout  at  Oarchemish  on 
the  Euphrates,  and  the  viators  took  possession 
of  the  whole  country  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  "river  of  Egypt " — not  the  Nile,  but 
a  small  stream  falling  into  the  Mediterranean 
at  Ei-Ariah.  Nebuchadnezzar  had  pursued 
the  beaten  enemy  to  the  frontier  of  Egypt 
when  he  received  tidings  that  liis  father  was 
dead.  Intmsting  his  army,  with  the  captives 
and  spoil,  to  the  command  of  his  lieutenant, 
to  lead  them  home  by  the  usual  oirouitous 
route,  he  bnrried  with  a  small  escort  straight 
across  the  desert.    The  chief  of  the  Chaldean 


priests  had  acted  aa  r^ent ;  and  when  Nebn- 
chadnazzor  appeared  the  crown  passed  to  him 
without  opposition.  He  reigned  4S  years 
(604-661).  With  the  eroeption  of  the  period 
of  his  seven  years'  madness,  probably  near 
the  close  of  his  life,  his  was  among  the  moat 
glorious  reigns  in  history.  Yet,  save  his  name 
stamped  upon  innnmenthle  bricks,  and  the 
"standard  mecription"  found  among  the  de- 
bris of  the  temple  of  Belus,  there  is  not  a  line 
of  native  contemporary  history  of  his  reign. 
The  standard  inscr^tioQ  speaks  only  of  the 
great  architectural,  military,  and  hydranlio 
works  which  he  constmcted  at  Babylon.  On 
that  series  of  events  which  connect  him  with 
the  history  of  the  Jews,  the  Bible  speaks  with 
considerable  minuteness  j  for  the  rest  we  have 
only  a  few  scattered  fragments  preserved  by 
the  ohronograpbere.  Hwodotns  never  names 
him ;  and  Xenophon  hod  another  hero  to  cele- 
brate. His  wars  lasted  about  86  years,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  became  master  of  Syria, 
Jndea,  Phmnicio,  Moab,  and  Edom,  and  twice 
carried  his  victorious  arms  into  Egypt,  far  np 
the  Nile,  apparently  enbjngating  the  country, 
and  placing  upon  the  throne  a  monarch  of  his 
own  ohooaing.  Bnt  during  all  this  time  he  was 
busy  in  completing  the  great  works  at  Babylon 
which  his  father  had  commenced.    For  these 


of  his  own  dominion ;  while  nts  settled  policy 


qnifflte  laborers.  He  was  tins  able,  without 
burdening  his  own  people,  to  carry  out  his 
great  architeotnral  schemes.  The  captives 
were  colonized  in  all  parts  of  Babylonia ;  forced 
labm"  was  required  of  them,  and  by  this  the 
walls  of  Babylon  were  raised,  the  temples  and 
palaces  built,  the  canals  and  reservoirs  exca- 
vated, which  formed  the  special  glory  of  the 
Babylonian  monarchy.  Making  all  allowonoe 
for  tiie  evident  exaggeration  of  later  historians, 
there  can  be  no  donbt  that  Nebnchodnezzar 
was  the  greatest  building  ruler  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  Still,  from  its  very  nature,  his  king- 
dom could  not  be  a  lasting  one.  Literally,  aa 
well  OS  metaphorically,  its  feet  were  of  clay. 
Its  chief  military  strength  lay  in  its  caval- 
ry. The  low  hot  country  could  furnish  no 
stout  infantry  capable  of  withstanding  the  at- 
tacks of  the  formidable  Medo-Persian  power 
which  was  growing  up  among  the  monntaine 
on  the  east.  Nebnchadnezzar  must  have  per- 
ceived this;  for,  in  the  absence  of  all  natu- 
ral defences,  be  set  himself  to  transform  his 
capital  into  an  immense  fortified  camp,  capa- 
ble of  holding  a  nation,  and  with  walls  un- 
pregnable  to  assault.  Within  three  years  afrer 
the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar  Cyras  revolted 
against  Astyages,  and,  placing  himself  at  the 
bead  of  tlie  now  formidable  Medo-Persian 
kingdom,  began  that  series  of  wars  in  which 
Babylonia  became  involved,  and  which  in  less 
than  20  years  ended  in  her  overthrow.    Nebn- 


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190 


BABYLONIA 


chadnezzar  'waa  mcceeded  hj  his  ion  Evil- 
mermlach,  of  whom  bnt  a  eingle  act  is  recorded. 
He  reJeaaed  Jehoiachin,  the  captive  king  of 
Jadah,  from  hia  imprisonmeDt  of  37  rears,  and 
treated  him  with  distioguished  favor,  though 
Etill  detaining  bin  in  Babjlon.  After  a  reign 
of  two  ;ears  Evil-merodach  waa  assassinated 
by  his  brotber-in-Iaw  Neriglisaar,  who  died  in 
less  than  foor  years,  and  was  sacoeeded  by 
his  son  Laborosoarcbod,  a  mere  boy,  who  in 
nine  montha  was  put  to  death  by  a  conspiracy 
formed  by  his  relatjons.  He  waa  succeeded 
(666)  by  KabonadiuB,  the  sixth  and  last  king 
of  Babylonia.  He  appears  to  have  belonged, 
like  Keriglisaar,  to  the  priestly  order;  and 
it  has  been  co^jectnred  that  he  was  married 
to  Nitocris,  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadneuar, 
and  that  she  was  queen  regnant.  Thia  con- 
jecture, if  admitted,  would  confirm  the  stat«- 
ment  of  Herodotus  that  many  of  the  defensive 
works  at  Babylon,  especially  deugDed  to  re- 
pel the  Medea,  were  the  work  of  a  qneen 
named  Nitocris.  It  is  certain  that  some  of 
these  were  cotutructed  during  the  reign  of 
Nabonadius.  If  we  may  asanme  that  his  queen 
was  a  daoghter  of  the  great  Nebuchadnez. 
zar,  end  co-sovereign  with  her  husband,  it 
would  be  quite  natural  that  traditiou  should 
give  her  the  credit  for  these  oonstructionB. 
Moreover,  we  are  told  that  Nabonadins  was 
not  related  to  the  boy  Laborosoarchod,  and 
BO  could  not  have  been  a  descendant  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar; but  in  Daniel  the  •jneen  ad- 
dresses Belshazzar,  the  sou  of  Nabonadins,  as 
the  son  or  descendant  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  If 
now  we  suppose  this  qneen  to  have  been  the 
qneen-mother,  and  ao  the  wife  of  Nabonadiua, 
all  the  acconnts  are  brought  into  harmony. 
She  speaks  also  with  a  kind  of  authority  natu- 
ral for  a  mother  in  addressing  her  son,  bnt 
hardly  to  be  expected  from  a  young  oriental 
queen  toward  her  husband.  The  qneen  also  ia 
especially  distinguished  from  the  wives  of  Bel- 
shazzar. At  all  events,  Nabonadiua  at  len^h 
perceived  the  danger  which  was  impending 
from  the  direction  of  Persia.  Cyras  was  en- 
gaged in  bia  war  against  Cnnsua,  king  of  Lydia. 
Nabonadins  joined  in  the  alliance  between 
Lydia  and  Egypt  against  Cyrus;  but  it  appears 
that  the  Babylonian  forces  did  not  arrive  in 
Ume  to  take  port  in  the  campaign  which 
ended  with  the  overthrow  of  Crcesos  at  Sar- 
dia.  Lydia  subjected,  Cyrus  turned  his  arms 
against  Babylonia.  In  689  the  Persian  army 
moved  to  the  Tigris,  They  wintered  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ciyndes,  and  in  the  spring 
crossed  the  Tigris  and  overran  the  whole  up- 
per country.  Nabonadins,  leaving  hia  yoong 
son  Belsliozzar  in  chai^  of  the  capital,  gave 
battle  nnder  the  walls  of  the  city.  The  As- 
syriana  were  defeated,  and  the  king  threw 
himself  into  the  strong  fortress  of  Horrippa, 
a  few  miles  distant  Oyrue  now  formally  in- 
vested the  city,  and  having,  after  a  long  (dege 
and  bold  enterprise  (see  Babtlos),  secured 
complete  possession  of  it,  was  about  to  attack 


BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY 

Borsippa;  but  Nabonadins  surrendered  with- 
out ottering  any  defence.  Thua,  in  6S8,  the 
Babylonian  kingdom  came  to  an  end.  The 
book  of  Daniel  relates  that  Darius  the  Mede, 
eon  of  Ahasnems,  was  made  king  over  the 
realm  of  the  Chaldeans,  being  then  G2  years 
of  age.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  id^tify 
this  Darius  with  several  pi'inces  of  Uedo-Per- 
sia.  All  these  attempts  involve  insuperable 
chronological  diificuJties.  Poaabiy  he  was  a 
Median  nobleman,  not  elsewliere  named,  whom 
Cyma  appointed  as  viceroy  over  Babylonia. 
This  seems  indeed  to  be  implied  by  the  phrase 
of  Daniel,  that  "he  was  made"  king.  His 
viceroyalty  lasted  only  two  years,  being  aunt 
likely  ended  by  hia  death;  and  Cyrus  then  per- 
sonally assnmed  the  sovereignty.  The  captive 
Jews,  who  were  sutgeot  to  the  direct  ruia  of 
Darius,  naturally  spoke  of  him  as  king,  and 
usually  reckoned  the  years  of  Cyrus  from  the 
beg^nlng  of  his  poTsonal  reign  at  Babylon. 
though  he  had  been  king  of  Perda  for  £0 
years.  Among  the  first  acta  of  Cyrna  after 
taking  upon  himself  the  government  of  Baby- 
lonia, was  to  issoe  an  edict  permitting  snch 
Jews  OS  chose  to  do  so  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
and  rebuild  the  temple.  The  date  of  the  issue 
of  the  edict  ia  one  of  the  epochs  which  have 
been  fixed  upon  as  the  close  of  the  70  yearn  of 
captivity.  (See  Bjbtlonibh  Captivitt.)  The 
overthrow  of  the  Babylonian  kingdom  marks 
the  period  when  the  empire  of  the  East,  so 
long  neld  by  the  Semitic  stock,  paaaed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Aryan  race,  who  retained  it  for 
IS  centuries,  when  it  was  again  wree(«d  from 
them  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest.  Bnt  for 
2,400  years  Babylonia  has  ceased  to  have  any 
special  hialory  of  ita  own,  being  sncceeavely 
under  the  sway  of  the  Persians,  Greeks,  Par- 
thians,  Neo-Peraions,  Soracens,  and  finally 
Turks,  under  whom  the  country  has  sank 
deeper  and  deeper  into  decav, 

BIBTLONISH  UPTIVITY,  the  period  during 
which  the  Jewish  people  who  liad  been  carried 
away  frcan  their  country  to  Babylonia,  with 
their  descendanta  or  any  part  of  them,  were 
forcibly  detained  in  a  foreign  land.  It  is 
reckoned  as  beginning  at  some  point  in  the 
reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  ending  in  the 
reign  of  Cyrus  or  of  Dsriua  I.  The  earliest 
point  thus  fixed  for  the  beginning  of  the  cap- 
tivity is  606  B.  0.,  when  Nebuchadneezar,  com- 
manding the  forces  of  bis  father  Nabopolasaar, 
firat  took  Jerusalem;  the  latest  616,  when  the 
building  of  the  second  temple  was  finished. 
But  here  ia  an  interval  of  88  years,  whereaa 
the  duration  of  the  captivity  is  several  times 
Btat«d  to  have  been  70  years.  There  are  two 
periods  of  this  length,  either  of  which  might 
properly  be  considered  as  measuring  the  cap- 
tivity. Counting  70  years  from  606  B.  C., 
when  Daniel  was  carried  ofT,  brings  ns  to  635, 
or,  loosely  speaking,  to  636,  the  date  of  the 
decree  of  Cyma  permitting  the  return  cf  the 
Jews.  This  would  naturally  be  the  tern  of 
Uie  caplirfty  in  the  mind  of  Daniel,  who  re- 


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BABTLOmSH  CAPTIVITY 

fers  to  the  predictdon  of  Jereniiab  thai  70 
jeut  shoDld  "aooomplish  the  duBoIations  of 
Jerusalem."  Kebuohadneczor  seTeral  times  in- 
Tsded  Jndea  to  ponkh  the  repeated  revolts 
of  his  vassals,  and  at  each  time  earned  off 
considerable  nmnbers,  bat  still  did  not  ko  to 
tbe  extent  of  devastating  the  oonntrr.  It  was 
not  till  the  rebellion  of  Zedekiah,  in  668,  that 
he  proceeded  to  the  extremity  of  destroying 
Jerusalem,  barning  the  temple,  and  carrying 
away  all  except  the  common  people  of  the 
conntry.  This  wbolmole  deatraction,  exeonted 
in  686,  woold  seem  to  t>e  a  natnral  period  from 
wbiolt  to  date  the  captivity.  From  this  time 
to  that  when  the  temple  was  reconstracted, 
616,  is  another  period  of  70  years,  covering  jnst 
the  time  daring  which  the  temple  worship  and 
sacrifioes  ware  necessarily  disoontinned. — The 
Indications  of  the  extent  of  the  captivity  are 
not  clear:  bnt  it  seems  certain  that  first  and 
last  it  ivclnded  a  very  oonuderable  portion  of 
the  popnlation.  The  few  nmnbers  ^vea  seem 
rather  to  relate  to  separate  eompames  of  cap- 
tivee-  When  the  decree  of  Oyras  permitting 
the  retnm  was  proclaimed,  a  company  of  42,- 
S60,  besides  7,S37  slaves,  at  onoe  set  oot  nn- 
der  Zembbabel ;  and  it  is  probable  that  there 
was  a  oonnderable  stream  of  emigration  book 
to  Jndes.  Bat  it  is  evident  that  only  a  snail 
proportion  of  the  Jewish  people  retnmed.  The 
temple  being  reestablished,  the  priests  wonid 
be  smong  the  most  likely  to  return ;  and  as 
ont  of  the  24  conrses  only  fonr  went,  it  has 
been  coiuectored  that  at  least  five  sixths  of  the 
people  remuned  in  their  new  homes.  There 
was  little  inducement  for  them  to  migrate  to 
Jndea,  an  oatlying  satrapy  of  a  great  empire, 
impoverished  by  war,  and  bordered  by  an- 
fiiendly  pieoples.  They  had  become  natural- 
ized in  their  present  homes,  where  their  treat- 
ment was  mild.  In  Psalm  oizzvii.,  where  the 
exiles  poor  ont  their  griefs,  the  only  complaint 
OS  to  tneir  treatment  in  captivity  is  that  they 
were  reqnired  to  sing  their  native  songs.  The 
bnrden  of  their  imprecations  is  against  the 
atrodties  oommitted  in  actual  warfare,  and 
against  their  former  neighbors,  the  Edomites, 
who  had  exulted  over  the  destrnction  of  Jeru- 
salem. They  were  captives  only  in  name.  They 
were  really  colonists,  not  slaves.  They  ttod 
followed  the  wise  advice  of  Jeremiah,  to  live 
peaceably  with  their  neighbors,  build  houses  and 
dwell  in  them,  and  plant  gardens  and  eat  of  the 
frait  of  them.  There  was  nothing  to  prevent  a 
Jew  from  rising  to  the  highest  eminence  in  the 
state-  Daniel  occupied  an  eminent  portion  in 
Babylon,  both  nuder  the  Chaldeans  and  the 
Peraians.  It  is  no  wonder  that  with  the  pm- 
denco  of  their  race  the  majority  chose  to  re- 
nt^ in  the  prosperons  regions  where  they 
were  bom,  rather  than  migrate  to  the  dis- 
turbed country  whence  their  fathers  had  been 
brought.  Before  long  they  were  scattered 
throngh  every  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 
We  find  no  mstanoe  of  hostility  to  them  for 
more  than  half  a  century  of  Persian  rule,  when 
66  Tou  n.— 18 


BABTKOnSSA 


191 


their  ancestral  enemy  Haman  sncceeded  in  ei- 
oiting  the  suspicions  of  the  vdn  and  Jealooa 
Ahasnerus,  the  Xerxes  of  classical  history. 
That  they  had  by  this  time  become  very  nu- 
merous is  evinced  by  the  loss  which  their  ene- 
mies met  in  the  attempt  to  massacre  them.  In 
the  eapital  alone  800  were  billed,  and  in  the 
provinces  76,000.  It  was  not  till  long  after 
this  date,  when  the  Persian  empire  had  fallen 
into  disorder,  that  any  considerable  proportion 
of  the  Jewish  popnlation  migrated  to  Palestine ; 
and  even  then  great  numbers  went  to  other 
countries,  where  for  centuries  they  were  known 
as  "the  dispersion," — It  is  probable  that  a 
portion  of  the  descendants  of  the  Israelite  cap- 
tives who  had  been  carried  to  Assyria  more 
than  a  century  before  the  first  Jewish  depor- 
tation under  Nebuchadnezzar,  gradnally  amal- 
gamated with  the  captives  from  Judea,  so  that 
the  present  Hebrews  all  over  the  world  belong 
to  the  twelve  tribes,  not  merely  to  the  two  of 
Judoh  and  Beqiamin  and  the  Levitea  who  lived 
amons  them.  This  amalgamatiQo  appiears  to 
have  began  early,  for  of  the  42,000  who  went 
up  with  Zembbabel  nnder  the  decree  of  Cyrus, 
about  SO,QOO  are  specially  noted  as  belonging 
to  Judah,  Bei^amin,  and  Levi,  whence  it  may 
be  furly  inferred  that  the  remaining  13,000  be- 
longed to  the  other  tribea. 

BIBTKOOU,  or  BaHrM%  an  animal  of  the 
swine  family,  peculiar  to  some  of  the  Malay 
islands.  It  is  abont  8}  ft  long  and  3}  ft.  high ; 
the  legs  being  longer  and  the  body  more  slender 
than  in  others  of  toe  swine  species.  It  does  not 
root  in  the  gronnd,  bnt  lives  upon  fallen  fhiits. 
The  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are  long  and  sharp. 
Those  of  the  upper  Jaw,  instead  of  growing 
downward  in  the  usual  manner,  are  reversed, 
growing  upward  fWim  bony  sockets  near  the 
snout,  and  curving  backward  until  they  almost  : 
touch  the  forehead.  They  sometimes  att^n 
the  length  of  8  or  10  inches,  and  ore  fonnd 
only  In  the  male.    Their  nse  is  nndetermined ; 


BibjnnuH  (Bni  lalitnui). 

they  cannot  be  weapons  of  offence.  Sraaehave 
supposed  that  they  serve  to  protect  the  eyes 
^m  the  spiny  plants  among  which  the-animol 
finds  its  food ;  but  they  would  for  this  pnrpose 
be  eqnally  necessary  for  the  female,  wbich 
must  seek  its  food  in  the  same  war  "  *^« 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


192 


BAOOASA 


male.  From  these  bom-like  tnskg,  and  its 
oomparatire  lightuMB  of  appearance,  it  de- 
riveB  itaHalajname,  which  Bignifieethe  "bog- 
deer."  It  is  qnite  ea  fleroe  as  t^e  wild  boar, 
and  an  excellent  ewimmer,  often  taking  to  the 
water  for  mere  pleaanre. 

UCCUi,  or  iHnnt,  aFrench  game  (tf  oarda, 
aaid  to  have  been  first  intfodaoed  Into  France 
from  Italy  at  the  time  of  the  ware  of  Ohorles 
Till.    ^7  nnmber  of  players  maj  partici- 
pate,  and  aa  manj  paokH  of  cards  maj  b«  naed 
as  necessary.    The  face  cards  each  ooont  ten, 
and  the  others  according  to  the  nnmber  of  their 
spots.    Alter  the  bete  have  been  made  the 
banker  deals  two  cards  to  each  of  the  players, 
inclndiog  himself.     The  aim  is  to  make  the 
nombers  9,  19,  S9,  or  as  nearly  those  as  poed- 
ble,  as  8,  18,  28;  and  any  player  is  at  liberty 
either  to  "stand"  or  be  "owitent"  ■with  the 
two  cards  first  dealt,  or  to  call  for  more  at  the 
risk  of  exceeding  30,  when  his  stake  is  forfeited 
to  the  dealer.    If,  after  the  first  distnbation  of 
two  cardB  to  each,  any  player  has  a  "notoral," 
that  is,  a  som  making 
9,  or  nert  in  value  19, 
he  declares  it  wins,  and 
the  banker  pays  all  who 
hold  superior  hands  to 
his   own,    and   daima 
from  those  holdinginfe- 
rior.  This  game  has  be- 

ics,  where  it  is  played 
in  a  slightly  different 
manner,  the  face  cards 
and  tens  coonljng  noth- 
ing, and  the  "natn- 
rals"  being  the  sums  9 
and  8. 

BACCUUT.atownt^ 
France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Menrthe,  16 
m,  by  rwlway  8.  E.  of 

Lon^ville;  pop.  in  18SS,  4,768.  It  is  pic- 
toresquely  gitoated  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  monn- 
tain  on  the  river  Menrthe,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  flint-^ass  manufactory,  which  employsl,100 
hands,  and  prodaces  over  8,000,000  francs' 
worth  annaally-  Themannfsctnrewasgreatly 
improved  and  cheapened  by  the  invention  of  a 
beUowB  for  shaping  the  glass  by  one  of  ita  work- 
men, Ismael  liobinet,  about  1823. 

BiCCBiKAUA,  or  DlM}ri«,  the  festivals  of  the 
Greek  god  Bacchus  or  Dionysoa.  The  most 
important  were  held  in  Atdca  and  Athena, 
and  were  four  in  number.  1.  The  country  or 
lesser  festival  was  held  in  bU  the  ooantry  dis- 
tricts of  Attica,  nnder  the  auperintendenoe 
of  the  demaroba  or  local  magistrates,  in  the 
month  Poseldeon  (December),  when  the  vin- 
tage was  just  over.  There  was  a  tumaltaoos 
procession  of  men  and  women,  some  riding  in 
a  cart  and  casting  scurrilous  jests  and  aba^ve 
language  at  the  bystanders,  and  some  carrying 
the  pballna,  the  emblem  of  the  generative  pow- 
er in  nAtnre.    The  phallic  hymn  was  sung, 


BAOOHAKAUA 

old  comedies  and  tragedies  were  enacted,  the 
slaves  had  temporary  lil>erty,  large  qoantdties 
of  wine  were  drnnk,  and  nnbonnd^  license  pre- 
vailed. 3.  The  wine  press  festival,  or  Lentea,' 
was  held  in  a  sabnrb  of  Athens  in  the  month 
Gamelion  (January),  when  the  wine  was  Just 
made  and  the  presaes  cleaned.  This  festival, 
which  was  celebrated  in  Asia  Minor  also,  was 
at  Athens  nnder  the  aaperintendence  of  the 
king- arcbon,  and  the  expenses  were  piUd  by 
the  state.  There  was  a  public  banquet,  a  pro- 
oenion,  and  dramatic  entertainments  in  which 
new  comedies  were  represented.  8.  The  fiower 
festival,  or  Antheetena,  waa  held  at  the  same 
place  as  the  Lencea,  in  the  month  Anthesterion 
(February),  and  lasted  three  days.  On  the 
first  day  the  vintage  was  broached  and  tasted, 
and  persons  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries 
of  Bacchus.  On  the  second  day  there  were 
games,  and  on  the  third  flowers  were  offered 
to  the  god.  During  the  festival  the  slaves 
were  free,  presents  were  sent  to  friends, 
end   pupils  pud  their  inatrnctors.     4,   The 


tovm  or  great  festival  was  hdd  at  Athens 
in  the  month  Elaphebolion  (March),  when 
the  city  was  filled  with  strangers  from  all 
Greece.  The  festival  was  celebrated  in  the 
most  magnificent  manner  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  chief  archon,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  state,  and  consisted  of  a  bon- 
Suet,  a  proceswon,  and  the  acting  of  trage- 
ies.  A  priee  was  awarded  for  the  best  play, 
and,  with  exceptions  in  favor  of  jEaohyluii, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  no  play  which  bad 
once  won  a  prize  could  be  refieated.  All  these 
festivals  were  seasons  of  riotous  merriment 
and  dnmkenneas.  In  the  proccesions  Bacehus 
himself  was  represented,  attended  by  delirious 
women  called  Lenm  or  Bacchantes,  who  car- 
ried thyrsus  atsfls,  cymbals,  aworda,  or  serpents, 
and,  made  Airions  by  ditbjrambic  songs,  flutes, 
and  wine,  danced  along  in  a  state  of  frenzy. 
Men,  covered  with  skins,  masked,  and  pduted 
to  represent  fauns  and  satyrs,  accompanied 
them. — The  Romans  celebrated  the  Bacchana- 
lia every  third  year ;  but  such  excesses  attend- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BACOHANTES 

«d  the  secret  initiation,  which  wu  held  ij 
night,  and  the  Booiatj  became  so  dangerons, 
tiuit  m  186  B.  C.  the  conaols,  hj  the  aDthorit? 
of  the  senate,  iMoed  a  prooUinatian  oommand- 
ing  that  no  Baoohonoha  should  be  held  either 
in  Rome  or  in  Italj.  After  thie  decree  the 
Uberalia,  the  fectival  of  Liber,  a  siinilu  bat 
more  moderate  rite,  was  celebrated  annually 
on  the  ISth  of  March,  and  on  that  daj  the 
young  men  assomed  the  tcfa  Wfrilu, 

BK(9Un§t  in  early  antiqnity,  those  wo- 
men who  took  part  in  the  seoret  fe«tiviUe«  in 
hmor  of  Baoohiuj  Babseqnentl;,  when  males 
were  alao  adnuttec^  the  term  wai  applied  to  all 
those  initiated  into  the  Baoohanolia.  In  the 
ilmg  of  medlnral  anivBrritf  stodentB,  the 
name  was  giren  to  those  who  had  not  yet  oom- 
pleted  their  first  year's  stndiei,  and  nnder  im- 
Dodii^  rites  and  planrible  pretexts  were  taxed 
Jbr  drmking  pn^eees  and  liutiated  in  debanch- 
eries  by  the  Mmors.  Later  the  name  waa  ap- 
plied to  idle  stodents  who  led  a  dissipated  life, 
MfQ^ng  under  the  pretence  of  oolleoting  the 
means  for  fiitiire  stnaiee.  They  were  organized 
into  bodies  with  constitndon  and  rituals,  and 
in  many  cities  pubUo  boarding  houses  were 
eetsbliahed  for  them.  Sometimea  they  man- 
aged to  become  teachers,  and  it  was  a  recom- 
mendation for  a  high  school  to  hare  many  each 
MhtJari.  For  heavy  fees  in  drink  they  gave 
insbuction  in  the  tricks  of  their  wandering  life 
to  yonnger  students,  who,  nnder  the  name  of 
7¥pon«fl,  acted  as  tiieir  servants,  stole  and 
begged  for  them,  and  were  harshly  treated. 
There  exist  iu  German  two  antobiographies  of 
inch  Bacchantes,  Bnrkard  lAagg  and  Thomas 
Plater.  The  reformation  stopped  these  prac- 
tjoes:  bnt  traoee  of  them  lingered  in  Germany 
and  England  down  to  the  IStn  century. 

UCCH14aiMIB,  a  river  of  northern  Italy,  iu 
Tenetia,  abont  (K)  m.  long,  which  rises  in  the 
Ahis,  N.  yf,  of  Yiceoza,  flows  past  that  dty 
aad  Padua,  and  empties  into  the  lagoon  M 
'""' r  Chioggia.    Large  boate  ascend  it 


BlCracs,  in  elassioal  mythology,  the  god  of 
wine,  known  among  the  Greeks  as  Dionyans, 
snd  oflen  called  by  the  Bomans  Liber.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  the  daugh- 
ter of  King  Oadmns.  Jnno  avenged  herself  by 
visiliDg  S^ele  in  disguise,  and  iudnoing  her  to 
demand  of  Jnpiter  that  he  should  appear  before 
her  clothed  m  the  attributes  of  aa  m^erty. 
No  mortal  conld  bear  this  sight,  and  Semele 
was  destroyed.  Japiter,  however^  preserved 
the  Bti1]-b4»ii  ctuld,  enclosed  bim  m  his  own 
thigh  untU  the  proper  period  for  birth,  and 
gave  him  to  the  dster  of  8emele  and  her  hus- 
band, and,  when  Jnno  persecuted  these,  to  the 
nymphs,  for  education.  The  nymphs  brought 
him  up  at  Nysa  in  Thrace,  where  Silenua  also 
aesistod  in  teaching  him.  Bsochns  taught  men 
the  cnltivatioa  of  uie  vine  and  the  art  of  wine- 
making.  He  oolleoted  bands  of  worshippere, 
prin^npolly  women,  and  siuTonnded  by  these, 
and  aoated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  panthers  or 


BAOOIOOm  193 

leintards,  he  passed  through  man^  ooimtries, 
and  even  penetrated  to  India.  His  followen^ 
maddened  with  wine  and  license,  and  oarrying 
the  thyTBoo,  a  hollow  waud  twined  with  ivy  and 
Tine  leaves,  attacked  those  even  of  their  own 
families  who  resisted  the  introduction  of  the 
new  religion.  Pentheus  of  Thebes  was  thus 
killed  by  his  own  mother,  who  was  among  the 
Bacchantes. — The  Greek  legends  of  the  adven- 
tures of  the  god  were  almost  innumerable.  He 
flayed  Damascus  alive,  who  opposed  bji"  in  Sy- 
ria; viait«d  Lyonrgus,  king  of  me  Edones,  with 
madness  in  which  he  killed  hJa  own  son ;  and 
after  the  king  sgun  became  sane,  caused,  him 
to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  wild  horses.  He  over- 
came the  Amazons.  Carried  off  to  sea  while 
he  slept  by  a  party  of  swlors  who  purposed 
selling  him  as  a  slave  in  Egypt,  he  caused  the 
vessel  to  stand  bHU  wMle  vines  and  ivy  grew 
around  the  most  and  spars,  and  wine  Sowed 
from  the  deck ;  then  he  assumed  the  form  of  a 
lion,  and  afterward  of  a  bear,  killed  the  cap- 
tain, and  changed  the  seamen  into  dolphins, 
preserving  only  the  pilot,  who  had  warned  the 
crew  against  molestdug  the  god.  The  tra- 
ditions concerning  him  are  vary  differently 
given  by  different  authors.  Even  concerning 
his  birth  the  legends  were  contradictory,  while 
the  methods  of  his  worship  in  different  conn- 
tries  were  vridely  at  variance.  He  was  repre- 
sented in  some  works  of  art  as  an  infant  but 
generally  by  the  Greeks  as  a  beantdfnl  boyj 
while  in  the  East  he  was  pictured  as  a  man 
of  middle  age  and  mt^estio  figor^  clothed  in 
long  robes.  His  festivals  and  religious  rites, 
which,  originating  in  Thrace,  became  wild 
orgies  and  scenes  of  license  in  Greece  and 
Rome  (see  Baoosakaua),  and  were  finally 
suppressed  in  the  latter  city,  were  probably 
onginaliy  simple  oeremoniee  in  honor  of  the 
rich  and  productive  power  of  natnre,  which 
he,  as  god  of  wine,  undoubtedly  represented. 
Among  the  powers  which  were  attribDt«d  to 
Bacchus  were  tiiose  of  prophecy,  of  healing 
certain  diseases,  and  of  inoreasiDg  the  prodno- 
tivenesB  of  the  earth. 

BACCHTUDiSt  a  Greek  poet,  bom  at  lulis  in 
the  island  of  Oeoe  about  613  B.  0. ;  the  period 
of  bis  death  is  uncertain.  He  was  a  nephew 
of  Simonides  and  a  contemporary  of  Pindar, 
and  passed  most  of  his  life  at  the  conrtof  Hiero 
of  Syracuse.  Fragments  of  bis  works  were 
published  by  Neue  of  Berlin  in  1623.  They 
are  also  found  in  Bergk's  Poeta  Lyrici  Oraei 
(]Sd  ed.,  Leipsio,  186S).  Themost  recent  edition 
is  by  Hortimg,  with  a  German  vermon  (in  the 
Onechue/u  LyrHe^r,  6  vols.,  18GT). 

BACCIO  DEUA  PORTA.    See  BAsroLoioiao. 

BACCIOCHl,  KafHit  Hl%  a  Bonaparte  prin- 
cess, consin  of  Nmioleon  III.,  only  daughter  of 
Eliso,  the  eldest  sister  of  Nutolecn  I.,  princess 
of  Lnooa  and  Piombino,  and  afterward  grand 
duchess  of  Tnscany,  and  of  Prince  Felice  Pa»- 
qoalo  Bacciochi,  a  Oorsican  nobleman  (see  Bo- 
safastb),  bom  in  Italy,  June  8,  1800,  died  in 
her  oh&teikn  Eour-el-Onet,  Brittany,  Feb.  8  or 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


194  B-4 

4, 1869.  la  I83S  she  married  Coimt  Oamerata, 
a  weal^r  landed  proprietor  of  Ahooda.  Sepk- 
rfttisK  A^m  him  in  16S0,  she  rended  oa  her  lOy- 
rian  dom^n,  engaged  in  lawaaite  for  inheritanoe 
agtunst  her  ancles.  She  devised  ineffeotnal 
plans  for  the  eeoape  from  BchCnbnmn  of  her 
oooain  the  doke  of  Beichatadt,  In  whose  &te 
die  took  a  profonnd  interest.  She  spent  the 
hitter  part  of  her  life  in  France,  and  beqnsath- 
ed  the  bulk  of  her  fortune  to  the  prince  im- 
perial, eon  of  Napoleon  III. — Her  only  eon, 
Napoisonk  Oahxsaia,  killed  himself  March  8, 
1868.  Her  nephew,  Oonnt  Feuob  B&ooiooki, 
bom  in  the  earlj  part  of  this  oentnrf,  died  in 
Paris,  Sept.  28,  isea.  He  inherited  the  large 
fortona  of  bis  grandfather,  prince  of  Lnooa 
and  Piomhino.  He  was  the  devoted  friend 
and  first  chamherlun  of  Napoleon  III.,  siiper- 
intendent  of  the  theatres  of  France,  and  short- 
ly before  his  death  was  made  a  senator. 

BACH,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  mnrical 
fiunily  in  Germany.  In  no  department  of  aci- 
enoe,  art,  or  literatore  has  any  single  funily 
ever  achieved  snoh  distinction,  Mther  from  the 
number  of  its  members  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  same  parsnit,  or  the  talents, 
Kenins,  and  learning  wnich  they  have  mani- 
fested in  it,  as  that  of  Bach  in  mnsio.  Fifty 
individnals  at  least  of  this  name,  whose  Uvea 
spread  over  a  period  of  2^  centories,  would 
deservedly  occupy  an  extended  space  in  an 
exolnsively  musical  oyoloptadia.  L  ¥tlt,  the 
fonnder  of  the  German  &mily  of  the  name, 
was  originally  a  baker  by  trade,  a  Protestant 
in  relinon,  at  Fresbnrg  in  Hungary,  whence 
about  the  year  1600  he  was  driven  by  persecu- 
tion, with  his  family,  and  songht  a  reftige  in 
one  of  the  small  cities  of  Thnringia.  He  had 
received  a  musical  education,  and  was  nol«d 
for  his  skill  upon  the  gnitar.  II.  Baas  (Jo- 
EASKKs),  the  eldest  bod  of  Yeit  Bach,  and  the 
ancestor  of  most  of  those  of  whom  mention 
will  be  made,  was  a  manufacturer  of  tapestry 
and  town  musician  at  Weohmar  In  Qotha.  He 
died  in  1626,  leaving  three  sons:  Johabr, 
born  in  16M,  who  was  appointed  organist  and 
director  of  the  dty  mnsio  at  ErforL  which 
oiBoes  he  retained  from  1685  till  his  death  in 
1678 ;  Chbistoi>h,  bom  in  181S,  died  in  1661 ; 
and  UL  Helatlch,  bom  at  Wechmar  in  161fi, 
died  at  Amstadt  in  1690.  He  was  instructed 
in  mnsic  by  his  father  nntil,  needing  a  teacher 
of  greater  knowledge,  he  was  sent  to  his  broth- 
er Jobann  at  Erftart,  where  in  a  few  yean  he 
became  a  very  aooomplished  organist  and  mn- 
ridan  in  the  fashion  of  that  epoch.  He  was 
employed  in  these  capacities  snooesaively  by 
the  city  authorities  of  Sehweinfort  and  Ei^rt, 
ontil  he  was  called  in  1641  to  Amstadt  as 
organist,  a  place  which  he  filled  with  great 
honor  till  his  death. — The  Bachs  of  the  next 
(the  fourth)  generation  were  nine  in  number. 
IT>  Jahaan  ^Ulas,  the  second  and  the  most 
noted  of  the  three  sons  of  Johann,  bom  in 
1646,  died  in  1717.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
father  he  snooeeded  him  as  organist  and  direo- 


tor  of  the  dty  mndo  at  Erflirk  T.  Gaati 
Oilstapk,  ddest  son  of  Christoph,  bora  m  1648, 
died  in  1697,  was  cantor  and  composer  at 
Schweinfhrt.  TL  Jekaaa  AHtewtas.  brother 
of  the  preceding,  bora  in  164fi,  died  in  1696. 
He  was  a  conrt  and  city  musician  at  Eisenach, 
a  sound  theorist  and  of  repnte  In  practical 
music,  and  was  the  Gather  of  the  great  Johann 
Bebasldan.  YIL  Jekaaa  Orista^  eldest  of  the 
two  sons  of  Heinrich,  bora  in  1648,  died  in 
1T08.  He  stands  in  musical  history  as  (me 
of  the  very  first  of  German  organists,  oootra- 
pnntiite,  and  composers  of  his  era.  He  stndied 
music  vrith  his  father  so  soccesaftUiy  as  at  the 
age  of  23  to  be  called  to  Eisenach  into  the 
eervioe  of  the  oonrt  and  city,  as  nvanist  At 
the  time  in  which  he  lived  hnt  Uttle  mnao 
comparatively  appeared  from  the  presi,  and  the 
works  of  one  wno  lived  the  retired  life  of  an 
organist  in  a  small  Saxon  city  contd  scarcely 
become  known  oat  of  his  own  immediate 
sphere.  His  oompotitions,  of  which  he  left  a 
vast  nnmber  in  manuscript,  composed  for  the 
ohurch  and  conrt  where  he  officiated,  prove, 
says  Oerber,  "  that  he  was  tmly  a  great  man,  as 
ridi  in  invention  as  he  was  strong  in  the  pow* 
er  of  mnsical  espreasion  of  emotion."  A  cen- 
tury after  his  death,  at  the  time  when  Hozart, 
Haydn,  and  Glack  had  become  models  in  com- 

Siodtion,  selections  from  his  works  were  per- 
brmed  in  Hamburg  with  great  suooess,  ezdt- 
ing  no  small  degree  of  astonishment  by  their 
freshness,  heanty,  and  freedom  from  the  tram- 
mels of  the  dry  contrapuntal  schooL  So  for 
as  the  musical  taste  of  his  age  allowed,  his 
works  in  general  are  fonnd  to  be  melodious  and 
truly  vocal,  at  the  same  time  being  remarkably 
fall  in  harmony  and  very  grand  in  effect.  One 
of  his  compositions,  dated  1684,  is  a  motet  In 
free  style,  in  which,  among  the  (at  that  tijne) 
novelties  of  construction  and  harmony,  is  found 
the  extreme  sharp  sixth.  On  the  hack  of  the 
sheet  upon  which  it  is  written  is  another  piece 
of  saored  mnsio  in  S8  parts,  Mtigato,  the  har- 
monic rdations  of  which  to  the  motet  are  per- 
fect. The  list  of  his  works  contains  also  a 
motet  for  St  Michad's  day  in  22  real  parts,  a 
piece  of  wedding  music  in  12  parts,  another 
motet  for  eight  voices,  instrumented  for  two 
choirs  and  orchestras,  a  solo  for  an  alto  voice 
with  accompaniment  for  violin,  three  viols 
dl  gamha,  and  bass,  &o.  Till.  Jahaaa  Mfehad, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  2d  son  of  Heinrich, 
was  born  at  Amstadt  about  1600,  and  became 
organist  and  city  scribe  in  one  of  the  Thorin- 
gian  towns.  He  was  an  industrious  and  effec- 
tive composer  for  the  ohnrch,  harpsichord,  and 
oi^an.  One  of  his  vocal  works,  performed  in 
Berlin  a  few  years  ago,  snrprisad  every  auditor 
by  its  beauty  and  modern  coloring.  His  daugh- 
ter became  the  first  wife  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach. — The  family  tree  gives  17  Bachs  of  the 
next  (the  fifth)  generation,  of  whom  the  most 
distinguished  were  the  following:  IX.  Jefeaaa 
lemard,  eldest  son  of  J.  .^gidins,  bom  Nov. 
28,  1676,  died  June  1,  1749.    He  was  organiat 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


of  the  Herohoots'  ehnrch  of  IiIb  nntiTe  cit;, 
Qwenttch,  of  a  ohorob  in  Ha^eborg,  and  in 
170S  anooesaor  of  Jobann  Ohnatoph  as  coart 
and  oitrf  orsanist  at  the  former  place.  He 
dutinKniBh'od  bimsolf  Mpeoiall]'  In  hia  ohoral 
prdndea,  and  hj  hie  OTertnres  in  Telemann's 
Btjle.  I.  JebiHB  Setwdaa.  in  some  remiocta 
the  greatest  mnsician  that  ttae  lived,  thira  tmd 
youngest  son  of  Johann  Ambrouns,  bom  at 
Gieeiucb,  Marob  21,  1666,  one  month  after 
the  birth  of  Handel  at  Halle,  died  at  Leipsio, 
Jnlj  80,  1760.  At  a  very  earlj  age  he  loet 
hie  mother,  and  had  hardlj  completed  his  10th 
year  when  his  father  died  also.  The  little  or- 
phan waa  then  plaoed  nnder  the  oare  of  big 
brother  Johann  CbHatoph,  organist  at  Ohrdmff, 
witli  whom  he  continned  his  mnwoal  Btndies 
and  began  the  practice  of  keyed  instrameutt — 
the  harpsiohora  and  organ.  His  pnpilage  here 
WM  short,  being  ended  by  the  death  of  Cbria- 
b)ph,  which  occurred  shortly  afterward.  He 
then  fonnd  a  place  ae  treble  singer  in  a  choir 
at  IiOneburg,  not  many  miles  from  Hambnrg, 
remaining  Uiere  nntil  hie  Toioe  chansed,  with 
the  advantages  of  an  exoellent  sohool  and  the 
beat  mnsical  instruction,  and  tn  the  receipt  of 
a  small  stipend,  yet  safficient  for  his  boyish 
neoesdties.  His  enthndasm  for  the  organ  end 
his  leal  for  mnaio  in  other  forms  and  styles,  at 
this  period,  are  snffintentlj  attested  by  bis  foot 
jonmeya  to  Hambnrg  to  hear  Reinke,  the  great 
orgnnist,  and  to  Celle  to  listen  to  the  French 
hand  in  the  service  of  the  prince.  With  the 
change  in  his  voice  came  the  loss  of  his  place 
and  Uie  necesrity  of  entering  npon  a  new-  field. 
Like  Handel,  he  bad  studied  tne  violin,  and  it 
was  now  bis  resource.  At  the  age  of  IB  be 
jonmeyed  to  Wdmar,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  oonrt  there  as  violinist.  His  leisure 
hours  were  still  devoted  to  the  organ,  to  oonn- 
terpoint,  and  oompositjon,  and  in  less  than  two 
years,  thoogh  hardly  SO  years  of  age,  he  waa 
called  to  Arnstadt  to  fill  the  place  of  organist, 

Sobftbly  in  the  ohnreb  where  his  father's  nnole 
einrioh  had  so  long  officiated.  The  three 
yeara  spent  in  Arnstadt  were  years  of  most 
devoted  study,  and  during  that  time  he  devel- 
<»ed  thoee  powera  which  afterword  placed  him 
above  nil  rivalry.  Besides  the  labor  which  be 
devoted  to  tbe  working  out  of  bis  own  oon- 
oeptiona,  he  let  nothing  escape  bim  which  ap- 
p««red  f^m  the  pens  of  Bmhns,  Reinke,  and 
Buxtehnda  He  was  so  charmed  with  the 
works  of  the  last  named  that  he  went  to  LO- 
beck  to  hear  bim  play,  and  prolonged  his  visit 
to  a  stay  of  three  months,  merely  to  listen  to 
Um  in  the  chnnsh,  for  his  acqnaintance  he  did 
not  make.  TnlTOThe  accepted  a  call  toMohl- 
hansen,  and  the  following  year  retnmed  to 
Wewmu'  in  Uie  capacity  of  eoort  organist  En- 
couraged by  the  continued  applause  of  the  court, 
he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  and  his  prin- 
e^Ml  oompotttions  for  the  oi^an  date  during 
tlw  seven  years  of  his  service  there.  Tn  ITli 
he  heoame  concert  master  to  tlie  duke,  with  the 
additional  duty  of  oompodng  and  oondnoling  the 


3H  195 

voeal  music  of  the  dnoal  ehapel.  Here,  donbt- 
lesB,  began  the  enormous  list  of  works  In  every 
form  of  sacred  mufdo,  which,  mostly  in  manu- 
script,  are  preserved  in  the  mnsical  libraries 
of  Berlin,  Leipsio,  and  other  cities.  Here,  too, 
he  had  constant  practice  in  writing  oroheatral 
works  and  instrumental  chamber  music,  and  fit- 
ted himself  for  a  larger  stage  of  action.  In  1717 
Marcband,  then  at  the  h^  of  French  organ- 
ists, appeared  in  Dresden,  and  charmed  King 
Augustus  so  greatly  by  bis  skill  aa  to  receive 
an  offer  of  a  very  iarge  salary  to  enter  his  ser- 
vice. Volomier,  also  a  Frenchman,  the  con- 
cert masl«r  of  the  king,  invited  Bach  to  the 
capital  to  a  trial  of  skUl  with  Marchand.  The 
Baron  accepted  the  invitation,  and  through  the 
kindness  of  Volnmier  had  an  opportunity  of 
hearing  his  rival.  With  the  knowledge  and 
consent  of  Angnstns,  Bach  sent  bis  challenge  to 
the  French  artist,  which  was  acoepl«d.  At  the 
time  fixed.  Bach  appeared  at  the  bouse  of  the 
minister  where  the  contest  was  to  take  place. 
The  king  and  company  waited  long,  but  Mar- 
cband came  not.  At  length  carae  news  that  he 
bad  left  the  dty  early  that  day  by  extra  post 
The  greatness  of  the  Qerman  organist,  however, 
more  than  made  good  the  loss.  Bach  retnmed 
to  Weimar,  but  soon  after  accepted  the  office  of 
kapellmeister  to  the  court  at  KAtben,  where  he 
remained,  oomposins  for  and  directing  the  or- 
chestra, till  1728,  when  the  city  authorities  of 
Leipric  elected  him  to  the  position  of  musi- 
cbI  director  and  cantor  of  the  Tbomas  school. 
At  the  age  of  88,  then.  Bach,  rich  In  all  that 
stndy  of  theory,  hearing  the  best  models  of 
his  age  and  oountry,  practice  as  member  and 
leader  of  orchestraa,  and  constant  exeroise  in 
composition  for  church  and  concert  room, 
oonid  give  him,  devoted  himaelf  to  teaching 
and  to  the  working  out  of  bis  lofty  conceptions 
of  the  murical  art.  Twenty-seven  years  he 
thns  lived  and  labored,  surrounded  by  his  pu- 
pils and  bis  large  family  of  sons,  composing 
mnmc  sacred  and  secular  in  all  the  forms  then 
known  except  the  opera  and  dramatic  oratorio, 
and  leaving  as  the  fraits  of  those  years  a  mass 
of  compositions  which,  for  nnmbor,  variety, 
and  eioellence,  form  perhaps  the  most  astonish- 
ing monoment  of  mnsical  genius  and  learning. 
Mozart  and  Handel  alone  can  at  all  come  in 
competition  with  bim  in  this  regard.  Of  the 
few  works  fh>m  his  pen  which  appeared  in  his 
lifetime,  most  are  said  to  have  been  ^igraved 
upon  copper  by  himself  with  the  aasistanoe  of 
his  son  Friedemann,  and  this  labor,  added  to  his 
others  so  nnmerona,  finally  cost  him  his  sight 
A  few  years  later,  at  the  age  of  fiS,  an  attack 
of  apoplexy  carried  him  to  the  tomb.  He  waa 
twice  married,  and  left  10  eons,  all  of  them  fine 
mnsioiana,  and  several  of  them  among  the  very 
first  of  that  great  period  in  tiie  hiatory  of  the 
art  of  which  Ifozart,  Haydn,  snd  Qlnck  were 
the  chief  ornaments.  This  great  musidan  had 
'  complain  of  a  want  of  due  apprecia- 
■  composer.  Veryoo — 
n  Ltipno,  the  duke 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


196  Bi 

WeiBBenfelB  oonferrod  npon  him  the  title  of  ka- 
pellmeister, .with  the  emolumeDts  of  the  offioe, 
without  requiring  hU  peraonal  attendance  at 
court;  and  m  1736  Ansnstus  of  Sazonj created 
him  "  royal  Polish  an3  Saxon  electoral  oonrt 
composer."  In  1747  he  was  persuaded  to  ac- 
cept an  invitAtion  from  Frederiok  H  Wag  of 
Pnuua,  to  visit  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Notice  was 
sjven  the  king  of  his  arrival  in  the  latter  aity, 
Jnst  as  a  private  concert  in  the  palace  was  to 
begin.  "  GentJemen,"  said  Frederick,  "  old 
Baohhasoome!  "  The  old  organist  was  instant- 
ly sent  for,  and  without  affording  him  time  to 
diange  his  dreaa,  he  was  brought  to  the  palace. 
The  king  had  several  of  SUbermann's  piano- 
fortes in  varioos  apartments — one  ma;  still  be 
seen  there — and  to  these  in  snocession  Bach 
was  taken  and  called  npon  to  try  their  powers. 
At  length  the  king  gave  him  a  theme  for  a 
ftigne,  which  was  so  wrought  oat  as  to  afford 
him  the  highest  gratification,  and  he  immedi- 
atelj  afterward  demanded  an  eztemporaneons 
fiigne  in  six  parte.  Bach  thought  a  moment, 
and,  selecting  the  theme,  worked  it  np  to  the 
astonishment  not  only  of  the  king  but  of  the 
several  diatingniahed  mnmcians  present.  Ufion 
his  return  to  Leipsio  he  wrote  out  the  fogne, 
added  to  it  another  in  three  parts,  and  a  rUerear 
also  in  dz,  both  npon  Che  same  tiieme,  together 
with  other  specimens  of  lus  powers,  and  pnb- 
Kahed  them  with  the  tJUe  of  "  A  Mnacal  Offer- 
ing." The  onlj  works  bj  Bach  pablished  dur- 
ing his  life  are  eiercises  for  the  narpsicbord,  in 
three  parts,  which  appeared  at  intervala ;  an  ^ 
with  80  variations ;  six  choral  prelndes  in  three 
parte  for  the  organ ;  variations  is  canon  npon 
the  choral  Vom  Simmtl  bceh;  and  the  "Musi- 
oal  Offering."  The  rest  of  his  works,  left  in 
mannscript,  have  come  ont  one  b;  one,  or  still 
remain  nnprinted.  The  Bach  aociety  at  Leip- 
sio, having  over  GOO  members  in  all  parts  of 
the  art  world,  has  been  engaged  since  I8C0  in 
publishing  a  complete  collection  of  his  works. 
Among  tnem  are  found  five  complete  seta  of 
vocal  pieces  for  the  church,  for  all  the  Bnndays 
and  feativala  of  the  jear ;  a  great  collection  of 
oratorios,  masses,  magnifioata,  sanotna,  pieces 
for  birth,  wedding,  and  funeral  occadona,  and 
not  afewoomiocompo«itionB;  five  "paadona," 
eo  called,  compositions  to  which  the  accounts 
of  the  suffering  and  death  of  Christ,  as  given 
b;  the  evangelists,  furnish  the  text:  more  than 
100  sacred  cantatas  are  preserved  in  the  libra- 
rr  of  the  Thomas  school  alone.  "The  Well- 
tempered  Clavier,"  a  colleotion  of  48  preludes 
and  48  ftigues,  is  knovm  to  every  earnest  stu- 
dent of  the  pianoforte,  as  remarkable  in  its 
adaptation  to  the  pnrpoee  of  enabling  the  per- 
former to  conquer  the  difficulties  of  that  in- 
strument. His  works  for  or^an,  harp^chord, 
orohMtrSj  and  every  eolo  instrument  in  use  a 
oentury  smce,  are  as  numerous  and  effective  as 
his  vooal  oompositlonB,  and  b^n  again  to  form 
a  part  of  the  programmes  in  the  principal  oon- 
oerts  of  central  Eorope.  As  a  virtuoso  u^n 
keyed  instromenta,  Bach  seems  to  have  antioi- 


pated  the  wonderftal  effects  produced  in  our 
own  days  by  Tbalberg,  and  even  liszL  In  his 
own  age  he  was  in  this  regard— as  has  been 
said  of  Shakespeare  as  a  poet — so  tar  above  all 
others  as  to  have  no  second.  The  fingering 
invented  by  Bach  was  the  basis  of  his  son 
Emanuel's  work  upon  the  planofbrte,  which 
opened  a  new  era  for  the  instrument,  and  led 
the  way,  throQgh  Mozart  and  Olementi,  to  the 
extraordinary  perfection  exhibited  by  the  vir- 
tnoBoa  of  OUT  own  time.  To  it  ho  was  brought 
by  his  own  works,  for,  as  he  himself  said,  "he 
had  often  been  compelled  to  study  long  at 
ni^t  how  to  play  the  compositians  which  he 
had  written  during  the  day."  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  points  in  Bach'a  compoeritions  are 
the  marvellous  Invention  they  exhibit,  and  their 
extraordinary  grandeor,  power,  and  ecienoe. 
— Of  the  sixth  generation  of  the  Bach  &mily, 
some  80  in  nninher,  the  more  diatingnished 
were  the  following:  XL  Jehua  but,  bom  at 
Eisenach,  Jnne  28,  1723,  died  in  1781.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Thomas  school  and  the 
university  of  Lwpsio,  mode  jnrispmdence  his 
profession,  and  settied  as  an  advocate  in  his 
native  city.  Bat  he  was  a  Bach,  and  music 
early  drew  him  from  the  law.  At  the  age  of 
28  he  was  made  aassistant  organist  to  his  father, 
and  finally  appointed  kapellmeister  by  the  dnke 
at  Weimar,  life  at  court  proved  disagreeable 
to  him,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  duke  he  re- 
turned to  Eisenach  and  to  his  former  position. 
He  was  an  industrious  and  aucceasAil  composer 
for  the  church,  and  while  at  Weimar  produced 
a  great  number  of  orchestral  worka.  Few  of 
his  compositions  were  printed.  XII>  WIIMb 
Fritifiia,  eldest  son  of  Johann  Sebastian, 
bom  at  Weimar  in  1710,  died  in  Berlin,  July 
1,1784.  Of  all  the  Bachs  bom  since  Sebastian, 
this  man  seemed  by  nature  the  best  fitted  to 
succeed  to  the  high  position  which  his  father 
held  in  the  art.  His  genius  was  of  the  highest 
order,  and  the  progress  which  he  made  in 
childhood  under  his  father's  instruolions  gave 
rise  to  the  brightest  hopee  for  the  future.  In 
his  early  and  extraordinary  mastery  both  of  the 
practice  and  theoiy  of  music,  he  seems  to  have 
more  nearly  rivalled  Mozart  than  any  other. 
His  compositions  were  remarkable  for  their 
power  and  depth,  and  by  his  command  of  the 
narpaiohord  and  organ  in  reproducing  instantly 
any  musical  idea  which  occnrred  to  him,  he 
aronaed  the  wonder  of  all  who  heard  him.  He 
studied  the  violin  with  the  celebrated  Grann, 
afterward  concert  master  to  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia,  with  equal  success.  He  passed  through 
rwilar  courses  of  instmction  at  the  Thomss 
school,  and  then  entered  the  university  at 
I>eipsic,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  jurispm- 
denoe  and  mathematics.  To  the  latter  adence 
he  specially  inclined,  and  retuned  his  fondnesi 
for  It  throughout  life.  Music,  however,  was 
not  n^lected,  and  in  his  28d  year  he  was  called 
to  Dresden  as  organist  in  the  Sophia  church. 
He  remun'ed  there  till  174T,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Halle  as  muno  director  and  organist, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


people 


where  be  remained  about  80  joors,  and  henoe 
U  oftea  named  in  maeical  works  "the  Halle 
BmK"  At  tha  »ge  at  6T  he  gvre  up  liig  place, 
and  deputed  to  Leipsio,  with  nothing  oertoin 
in  view.  'During  the  remaining  17  jean  of 
hia  life,  witbont  a  fixed  position,  he  was  a  sort 
<tt  vagabond,  teaching  and  praotiaing  mouo  in 
Branewiok,  GCttingen,  and  Berlin,  djin^  in  a 
nuserable  condition  at  the  age  of  74,  This  man 
was  recognized  hj  all  his  contemporaries  as  the 
greatest  moaoal  genioa  then  living.  Unfortn- 
natelj  he  was  also  a  man  of  execrable  temper, 
mde  in  his  mannera,  almost  bratal ;  posaeaaed 
of  a  profeaaional  pride  which  rendered  him 
inttdersble  to  other  artists ;  absaatrmiiided  in 
the  highest  degree ;  and  a  dmnkard.  Daring 
his  img  reddenoe  in  Halle  he  was  a  constant 
■onrce  of  troahle  at  the  ohorch  of  which  he 
was  organist.  When  on  his  way  thither,  he 
would  aometimea  forget  his  errand  and  wonder 
whj  the  bells  were  rin^ng;  sometimes  he 
wonld  enter  the  church  at  one  dooi\  forget 
himself^  and  pass  oat  at  the  other.  He  often 
gave  the  organ-blower  the  keja  of  the  iiistm- 
ment  in  order  that,  in  case  of  his  fotgetAilnesa, 
ecHne  one  else  might  take  his  place.  Sometimes 
be  wonld  forget  himself  while  at  the  instrnment, 
1  pla;  on  ontil  the  patience  of  priest  and 
>ple  was  alike  eihaasted.  In  consequence 
e  reproof  npon  snch  an  occauon,  the 
now  old  man  gathered  np  his  worldly  pos- 
aesaions  and  went  off  to  Leipsic.  The  works  of 
IViedemana  Bach  are  few  in  nnmber,  bot  theee 
few  are  snob  as  to  caose  every  mnsician  to  de- 
plore the  sad  waste  of  genios  and  talent  which 
his  life  exhibits.  Xm.  Kail  PU11»  EmbusI, 
sometimes  called  the  Hamburg  Bach,  third  son 
of  Jobann  Sebasdan,  bom  in  Weimar,  Uarch 
14,  1714,  died  in  Hamburg,  Sept  14,  1766. 
In  his  childhood  he  was  thoroughly  grounded 
in  masit^  practical  and  theoretical,  and  sAer- 
ward  followed  his  brother  Friedamami  to  the 
Thomas  school  and  nnlTerut;  in  Leipsio.  Like 
him,  too,  he  studied  Jurisprudence  there,  and 
porsaed  the  science  farther  in  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder.  In  this  city  he  founded  and  directed 
a  mnsiosl  society,  which  oiten  sang  oomposi- 
tioBS  from  bia  pen.  At  the  age  of  24  he  re- 
moved to  Berlm,  where  he  lived  privately  till 
1740,  when  he  was  appointed  chamber  mnid- 
cian  and  aooompanist  to  Frederick  II.  in  that 
monarch's  Bate  solos.  In  1707  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Hambnrg  as  mnsio  director.  He  was 
one  of  the  moat  prolific  composers  of  his  time, 
and  his  works  were  popular  to  sncfa  a  degree, 
that  the  list  of  those  pablished  daring  his  life 
snrpassee  in  extent  that  of  any  German  com- 
poser until  the  appearance  of  Joseph  Haydn. 
He  was  equally  great  in  all  departments  of  com- 
position  except  the  lyric  drama,  in  which  he 
oad  no  call  to  eiert  bis  powers.  The  ohorases 
of  his  oratorio."  Israel  in  the  Wilderness,"  and 
of  BiMne  of  his  more  extended  works  for  the 
church,  place  him  nearer  Handel,  perhaps,  in 
their  power,  beant?,  and  ravishing  vocal  effects, 
than  any  other  c<miposer.  Aaa  writerofacaigs, 


3H  197 

odes,  and  paalms,  he  gorpasaed  all  his  contem- 
poraries, and  some  of  his  collections  reached 
their  4th  and  6th  editions  soon  after  Iheir 
publication.  As  a  symphonist  and  writer  of 
chamber  music  he  held  the  first  rank.  Like 
the  works  of  Uozart  and  Beethoven  at  a 
later  period,  his  were  censured  as  being  full  of 
strange  modulations,  cmdities,  and  difficulties; 
but  toey  made  their  way  in  spite  of  the  orit- 
ics,  and  become  the  foundation  upon  which 
Haydu  erected  his  temple.  While  restrained 
wiuiin  due  limits  by  the  example  and  instrac- 
tiona  of  his  father,  he  neTertheleas  made  mnsio 
the  medium  of  expresuon  for  the  varying  emo- 
tions of  his  noturwly  poetic  spirit,  and  thoughts 
sablime,  pathetic,  and  hnmoroos  are  often  com- 
bined in  a  manner  then  utterly  new  and  sur- 
priung.  Haydn  was  a  most  diligent  stadent  of 
nis  works,  and  declared  in  his  old  age,  when 
he  Bt4Xtd  in  the  morioal  world  with  no  rival 
bat  Mozart,  "For  what  I  know,  I  have  to  thank 
Karl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach."  Ctementi  baa 
the  repntatJon  of  being  the  father  of  modem 
pianoforte  playing.  That  great  man,  however, 
acknowledged  in  Bach  his  master.  Be  became 
what  he  was  throagh  hia  study  of  Emanuel's 
works,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  pabUcation  of 
many  of  them.  The  works  of  Bach  for  this 
instrument,  trios,  sonatinas  with  accompani- 
ment, concertos  with  orchestra,  and  sonatas,  are 
numbered  by  hundreds,  the  motive  of  wnich 
he  explained  by  saying,  "In  my  opinion,  the 
grand  object  of  music  is  to  touch  the  heart, 
and  this  end  can  never  be  att^ed  by  the 
pianist  by  mere  noise,  dramming,  and  arpeggios, 
at  all  events  not  by  me."  His  great  work  upon 
the  pianoforte,  the  fonndatitm  of  all  the  vala- 
sble  ones  which  have  mnce  appeared,  was  tiie 
Veriueh  €i«r    dU  vahrt  Art  da*  Klavi«r  tn 

Sitl&n  ("Essay  on  the  true  Art  of  playing  the 
ftrpMchord,"  first  part,  Berlin,  1769),  which 
reacned  its  third  and  improved  edition  before 
hb  death ;  the  second  part,  treating  the  accom- 
paniment and  the  free  fantasia,  was  published 
in  1763.  The  basis  of  this  work,  as  may 
naturally  he  supposed,  was  found  in  the  In- 
structions and  example  of  his  father.  It  inter- 
prets and  renders  available  the  scienoe  of  Se- 
bastian Bach.  XIT.  Jehau  Oilitq*  Friedtkh, 
known  aa  the  Bttckebnrg  Bach^  tenth  son  of 
Johann  Sebastian,  bom  in  Leipsic  in  1732, 
died  Jan.  36,  I79fi.  He  studied  Jurisprudence 
like  his  brothers  above  named,  and  hke  them 
also  afterward  devoted  himself  to  munc  He 
received  the  appointment  of  kapellmeister  at 
an  early  age  from  the  duke  of  Ijppe-Sohaam- 
burg,  and  passed  his  life  in  his  service  at  BQoke- 
burg.  His  compositions  were  very  namerons, 
especially  for  the  church,  no  festival  beiug  al- 
lowed to  pass  without  a  new  work  from  hia 
pen.  Althqngb  neither  as  a  pianist  nor  as  a 
composer  reaching  the  rank  of  his  two  elder 
brothers,  he  was  worthy  of  his  name,  and  be- 
sides his  salary  recdved  valuable  presents  and 
testimoniab  from  hia  patrons.  His  published 
works  connat  principaUy  (^  songs  and  chamber 


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198 


BACH 


mnaic,  of  wttioh  ui  violin  quartets  originollr 
ftppeu^d  in  London.  XV.  Jakau  GkrMlaa, 
known  as  the  Milan  or  the  London  Bach,  the 
eleventh  son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  bominLeip- 
Bo  in  1730,  died  in  Jannarj,  1T82.  He  eqjojed 
bis  father's  instractions  antil  his  16th  jear, 
when  apon  his  death  he  went  to  Berlin,  to 
proeecQte  hia  lao^cal  studies  with  his  brother 
Emanuel.  He  bade  fair  to  rival  his  elder 
brothers  in  that  etjle  of  miiwc  which  seeios  to 
have  been  in  some  degree  peonliar  to  the  fiimil;, 
and  had  already  prodnced  several  smaller  com- 
podtions  Bucoesafiillj,  when  he  was  induced, 
at  the  B^  of  10,  by  some  of  the  Italian  vocalists 
of  Berlin,  to  visit  Italv.  During  a  short  stay 
in  Mil^  he  attracted  so  much  attention  bj 
his  abilities  as  to  be  elected  one  of  the  organists 
in  the  cathedral.  But  be  devot«d  himself  al- 
most exclusively  to  composition  for  the  voioe, 
and  in  1TGS,  upon  his  appearance  in  London, 
had  lost  mnch  of  his  previous  skill  as  a  virtooso 
Dpon  kejed  instruments.  His  stjle  was  so 
much  admired,  however,  that  he.  endeavored 
to  recover  his  former  great  skill,  bnt  was  never 
able  to  fallj  make  up  the  loss  his  hands  had 
■ostBined  through  disuse.  In  1T68  he  was  in- 
vited to  compose  an  opera  for  the  London 
•tage,  and  produced  OrioTie,  which  had  a  most 
■necessfol  run  of  three  months.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  works,  some  entirely  of  his 
OOmposidoD,  others  partially  so.  Many  of  his 
airs  are  admirable,  and  at  the  time  were  ei- 
oeedingly  popular,  bdng  always  natural,  ele- 
gant, aod  m  the  then  beet  Italian  style.  He 
was  partJcularly  noted  for  the  richnesH,  varie- 
ty, and  beauty  of  his  accompaniment^  which 
snowed  the  infinence  of  his  father  and  elder 
brothers  upon  him,  and  the  profonndness  of 
hia  theoretical  studies.  Bis  pianoforte  masic, 
however,  was  in  a  light  and  pleaHing  style,  very 
different  from  that  of  any  other  of  his  name. 
Emanuel  once  reproved  him  for  it,  in  a  letter 
to  which  he  answered,  "  I  am  obliged  to  use 
baby  talk,  that  children  may  understand  me." 
Bohubert  says  of  his  works :  "  His  church  music 
has  great  depth,  but  there  is  a  certain  worldly 
air  to  it,  and  one  finds  therein  a  sort  of  taint 
of  corruption.  All  the  operas  written  by  him 
for  Italy,  Germany,  and  England  show  a  mas- 
ter-^irit  in  the  realm  of  music.  This  Baoh 
had  it  in  his  power  to  be  whatever  he  would, 
and  he  may  well  be  compared  to  the  Proteus 
of  ftblo.  Now  he  spouts  water,  now  he  breathes 
forth  flame.  In  the  midst  of  the  trivialities  of 
fashionable  style,  the  ^ant  spirit  of  his  father 
may  be  discovered."  His  wife,  Ondlia  OiasM, 
was  long  prima  donna  in  the  London  opera. 

BACH,  Alondsr,  baron,  an  Anstrian  states- 
man, bom  at  Loosdorf,  Jan.  4,  1818.  He 
euooeeded  his  fetber  in  an  extensive  law  prao- 
tio«k  and  was  at  first  a  liberai ;  was  promment 
during  and  shortly  after  the  revolution  of 
March,  1848,  whan  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  justice,  but  soon  seceded  from  the  revolu- 
tionary  ranka,  and  as  member  of  the  oonstitu- 
ent  aaaembly  of  that  year,  and  minister  of  tlie 


interior  as  successor  of  Count  Sladion  (1849- 
'69),  he  became  an  uncompromising  advocate 
of  the  strictest  centralizing  principles  and  the 
most  decided  opponent  of  the  autonomy  of 
Hnngary  and  other  nationalities.  He  reoivan- 
ized  tlie  judiciary,  carried  out  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  peasantry  from  feudal  burdens, 
which  the  revolution  had  decreed,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  indemnity  to  the  owners  of  lano,  re- 
modelled the  political  administration  of  the 
crown  lands,  and  promoted  the  ooncordaL  De- 
tested by  the  liberals,  he  left  office  aitar  the 
Italian  war  of  18G9,  and  was  minister  to  Rome 
till  the  end  of  18SS. 

BICHAIACH,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prnsua,  26  m. 
by  rulway  B.  by  K  of  Coblenta,  on  the  left  bank 
of  theRhine;  pop.abontl,800.  It  la  surrounded 
by  an  old  wall  flanked  with  IS  towers,  has  a 
ruined  Gothic  church  of  St.  Werner,  and  the 
dilapidated  csstie  of  8tahleck,  and  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  excellent  wines,  especially 
muscatel,  atthongh  the  Bacharach  wines  at  the 
present  day  do  not  mainUJTi  their  ancient  re- 
pute. In  the  middle  sges  the  town  was  willi 
Cologne  a  chief  depot  of  the  wine  trade,  which 
is  stiU  active.  The  name  is  traditionally  de- 
rived from  a  rock  in  the  Rhine,  called  BaeeM 
ara  (altar  of  Bacchus),  the  exposure  of  whieb 
in  very  dry  weather  is  r^arded  aa  propfaetio 
of  a  good  vintage. 

BACHlCHOin',  Fn^A  le  MgMix  At,  a  French 
writer,  bom  in  Paris  in  1634,  died  in  1708. 
He  was  a  councillor  in  the  parliament  of  Pari^ 
and  acquired  celebrity  by  nis  satirical  publica- 
tions, in  prose  and  verse,  against  Mazarin.  He 
was  the  first  to  apply  the  term  frin>d»ir% 
(Blinsers)  to  the  oaroinal's  adversaries,  compar- 
ing Uiem  to  bo^s  throwing  stones  from  slings, 
when  the  parliament  of  Paris  became  recon- 
ciled with  Mazarin,  Bachaumont  sold  his  conn- 
oiUor's  commission.  With  his  intimate  fHend 
Chapalle  be  travelled  in  southern  France,  and 
the  witty  narrative  of  the  journey,  their  joint 
production,  was  separately  published  in  1704 
and  1732,  while  other  writings  of  Bachanmont 
are  included  in  Chapelle's  works  (ITG6). 

BICHE,  Aleisader  Dallas,  an  American  savant 
and  hydrographer.  bom  in  Philadelphia,  July 
19, 1809,  died  in  Newport,  R.I.,  Feb.  17, 1867. 
He  was  the  son  of  Richard  Bache  and  Sophia 
Burnet  Dallas,  and  a  great-grandson  of  B^a- 
min  Franklin.  He  attended  a  classical  scho<d 
in  Philadelphia,  and  in  his  16th  year  waa  ap- 
pointed a  cadet  at  West  Point,  where  he  grad- 
nated  with  high  honors  in  182G,  becoming  a 
lient«nBnt  of  engineers.  He  was  retained  for 
some  time  at  the  academy  as  an  assistant  pro- 
fessor, and  subsequently  served  two  years  under 
CoL  Totten  in  engineering  work  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Mias 
Nancy  Clarke  Fowler,  afterward  his  wife  and 
his  cDllaborator  in  astronomical  observationB. 
He  next  filled  the  chair  of  natural  philoeophy 
and  chemistry  in  the  university  of  Penneyl- 


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6ACHE 

A  ftan  ftccoont  of  his  ^rdnons  Isbon  In  that 
D«riod  for  the  promotion  of  mechanioal  irts 
ucontidned  in  the  "Journal"  of  the  institute 
for  1B28-'SB.  He  was  associated  with  Hare, 
£spj,  and  other  learned  men  in  the  Amerioan 
philoaopbioal  aooiety,  and  built  a  private  ob- 
Hcratoiy,  where  with  bis  asnatants  be  de- 
termined, for  Ibe  first  time  in  tbe  United 
Statea,  tbe  periods  of  the  daily  TariatJooB  of 
the  magnetic  needle,  and  made  other  norel 
and  interesting  obserratioiifl.  In  1686  he  was 
chosen  preudent  of  the  board  of  trnateea  of 


the  edacational  STstems  of  England,  France, 
Pmsua,  Austria,  Switieriand,  and  Italy.  On 
his  retnm  in  16S8  he  submitted  to  tbe  tna- 
tees  a  ftill  report  which  contributed  much  to 
improve  the  American  methods  of  pnblio  in- 
stnictdon.  Owing  to  delays  in  the  opening  ot 
the  college,  he  relinqniabed  bis  salary  ae  presi- 
dent, thongh  retaining  this  title  till  1812.  In 
the  meant^ile  be  oi^anized  a  system  of  flree 
edncation  in  Pbiladelphiaj  at  first  gratuitous- 
ly, and  subsequently  receiving  a  suarj  A-om 
the  city  anthoritiea.  While  engaged  in  lliis 
work  he  also  codperated  with  the  Bridah  os- 
sodation  in  tbe  determination  by  contempo- 
raneons  observations  of  the  flnctoations  of 
magnetio  and  meteorolo^cal  phenomena.  In 
18^  having  completed  the  organization  of 
the  schools,  which  served  as  models  for  many 
similar  institutions,  be  resumed  his  former 
ehair  in  the  university.  In  November,  1S48, 
he  wM  appointed  soperintendent  of  tbe  United 
Statea  coast  survey  as  snccessor  of  Mr.  Haas- 
ler.  To  this  work  he  imparted  a  valne  and 
efficiency  such  aa  it  bad  never  poeseased  before. 
He  was  also  superintendent  of  weights  and 
meunrea,  lighthonae  commissioner,  and  after- 
ward member  of  the  ligbthonse  board,  regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  and  a  vice  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  sanitary  oommis- 
rion.  The  degree  of  LL.  D.  was  conferred  npon 
bim  by  various  oniversities,  and  be  received 
medals  from  foreign  governments  and  institn- 
tiona.  He  was  successively  president  of  the 
American  philosophical  society,  of  tbe  Amer- 
ioaa  association  for  the  advancement  of  science, 
and  of  the  national  academy  of  sciences,  tbe 
eatabliahment  of  the  last  two  societies  having 
been  chiefly  promoted  by  bis  inflaence,  and  be 
was  aaaooiated  with  almoat  oil  distingDiahed 
sdentiflo  bodies  in  both  hemispheres.  He  be- 
queathed abont  149,000  to  tbe  national  acade- 
my of  adences  for  the  prosecution  of  reeearahea 
in  physical  and  natural  science,  by  assisting 
ezp«ruacmters  and  observers  in  such  manner 
as  shall  be  agreed  upon  by  Professors  Henry, 
AgSMiz,  and  Peiroe,  or  thdr  snooeasora,  or  by 
any  two  of  tbwn,  these  three  trustees  to  con- 
stitnte  a  board  fbr  the  selection  of  scientaflo 
snttjects,  and  for  tbe  publication  <rf  tbe  obeerva- 
tiom  and  experiments,  the  ezpenae  to  be  de- 
frayed ont  of^the  annnal  income  accming  from 
the  l^^y,  witbont  enoroaohing  on  tbe  capital 


BAOHELET  igg 

Among  bis  works  are:  "Observations  at  the 
Uagnetio  and  Ueteorolo^cal  Observatory  at 
the  (Mrard  College"  (S  vols.,  lB40-'47);  hia 
annnal  reports  on  the  coast  survey  and  on 
weights  and  meaanres;  numerona  contribations 
to  periodical  publications  of  scientific  societies, 
including  many  valuable  essays  in  tbe  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science "  (18S9-'6S) ;  and 
"T<ecture  on  Switzerland,"  published  from  hia 
HS.  in  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian  institn- 
tion  for  1870. 

BIOIE,  Be^laala  FtuIiIIi,  as  American  phyri- 
oian,  great-grandson  of  Bei^aminFronklin.boro 
in  MontJceOlo,  Va,,  Feb.  T,  1801.  He  gnAa- 
ated  at  Princeton  coUegc  in  1819,  and  at  tbe 
medical  department  of  toe  nniverstty  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1828 ;  entered  tbe  navy  as  assistant 
surgeon  in  1834,  and  in  1828  was  promoted  to 
be  BUKeou.  While  on  furlough  from  1B88  to 
1841,  He  occupied  tbe  profesaorsbip  of  natural 
sciences  and  natural  religion  in  Kenyon  col- 
lege, Ohio.  He  served  aa  fleet  surgeon  of  tbe 
Hedlteiranean  squadron  1841--'4,  and  of  the 
Brazil  squadron  1848-'50.  He  oiganized  and 
perfected  the  laboratory  at  New  York  whence 
ore  supplied  all  the  appurtenances  of  tbe  medi- 
cal department,  and  of  which  be  was  director 
from  iSGS  to  18T1.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  in  IBSl  he  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  gorermnent  by  rapidly  restocking 
the  laboratory  on  his  own  responsibility.  He 
was  placed  on  the  retired  list  in  1868,  and  in 
1871  was  promoted  to  be  medical  director  with 
the  relative  rank  of  commodore. 

BACHE,  Ikhard^  a  merchant  of  Philadelphia, 
bom  in  England  m  1787,  died  in  Berks  county, 
Penn.,  July  29,  1811.  He  come  to  America  in 
early  life,  and  married  inl?S7  the  only  daughter 
of  Benjamin  Franklin.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution  be  was  president  of  tne  republican 
society  of  Philadelphia,  and  from  1776  to  1782 
he  was  poBtmast«r  general  of  tbe  United  States, 

BiraE,  Sar■l^  the  only  daughter  of  Beqjamin 
Franklin,  and  wife  of  tbe  preceding,  bom  in 
Philadelphia  In  September,  1744,  died  in  1808. 
In  1780,  when  many  soldiers  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  were  going  barefooted  and  half-clad, 
money  was  collected  for  their  relief  and  ex- 
pended for  materials,  which  by  tbe  continued 
labors  of  many  women  were  soon  made  into 
the  needed  garments.  In  this  work  Urs. 
Bacbe  waa  prominently  engaged.  More  thou 
2,200  women  were  thus  employed  by  her  at 
one  time  in  sewing  for  the  army.  The  marqnis 
de  Chastellux,  then  vidting  in  Philadelphia, 
recommended  ber  to  tbe  ladies  of  Earope  as  a 
model  of  domestic  virtues  and  feminine  patriot- 
ism. On  many  ocoomons  she  displayed  benevo- 
lence and  patriotiam  by  serving  in  the  hospitals. 

BACHBff,  Jmi  iMk  nMsre,  a  French  oy< 
o]op«»dist  and  historian,  bom  in  1880.  He  baa  ' 
been  professor  of  history  in  various  oollegea, 
and  finally  in  tbe  lycenm  of  Bonen.  In  con- 
cert with  Oh.  Desobry  be  edited  a  Dietionnair* 
ds  bu>ffraphU  tt  d'hitCoire  (3  vols.,  1857),  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


aoo 


BACHMAN 


Ptetiimnaire  ginSral  det  Itttre*,  dn  ieaax  arU 
et  det  icitTiMt  moraUt  et  poiitiquet  (3  vols., 
I862-'S).  Among  Lis  hietorical  works  are :  La 
gtt«rre  decent  ant  (\852),  MahomttatUi  Arabet 
(18S8},  and  Let  hvmtiut  iUvttrtt  de  France 
(Rouen,  1887). 

SltmUlf,  J«hi,  on  Amerio&D  nalnralist  and 
clergjmss,  bom  in  Dntohesa  oonnty,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  4, 1790,  died  in  Cbarleston,  S.  0„  Feb.  84, 
I8T4.  In  1815  be  became  pastor  of  tLe  Ln- 
Iberan  oharch  in  Oliarleston.  He  was  a  oolla- 
borator  ot  Andabon,  and  the  prinoipal  anthor 
of  the  work  on  tbe  qaadrapeda  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Among  bis  other  writings  are  a  "  Defence 
of  Lnther"  (1853),  "  CbaracteriBtios  of  Genera 
and  Bpeciea  as  applicable  to  the  Dootrine  of  the 
Unity  of  the  Human  Race  "  (1854),  and  artiolas 
in  the  "  Medical  Jonmal  of  Sooth  Carolina." 

BACK,  Sir  fiMrgV)  an  English  navigator,  bom 
at  Stockport,  Nov.  6, 1796,  died  Jane  28, 1878. 
He  entered  the  navj  in  180S,  was  for  flva 
years  a  prisoner  in  France,  then  served  on  th* 
Trent,  Lieutenant  Commander  John  FrankUn, 
and  accompanied  Oapt.  David  Buchan  on  all 
expedition  to  Spitzbergen.  In  1619  be  aooom- 
paiiied  Sir  John  Fnmilin's  expedition  &om 
the  weetem  shore  of  Hudson  baj  to  the  north- 
ern ooaat  of  America,  near  the  Coppermine 
river.  Tbe  party  reached  Fort  Enterprise  in 
July,  1820,  and  determined  to  winter  there, 
while  Mr.  Back  returned  to  Fort  Ohipewjaa 
(a  distance  of  500  miles),  to  obtain  fresh  sup- 
plies. He  acquitted  himself  of  this  dnty  aAer 
undergoing  the  most  terrible  hardships  itom 
cold  and  hunger,  and  r^oined  his  party  in  March, 
1621.  The  expedition  retumed  to  Tork  Fac- 
tory in  1822,  and  early  in  1825  Lieut.  Back 
joioed  Franklin's  second  expedition,  deugned 
to  ooaperate  with  Beeohey  and  Parry  in  their 
efforts  to  discover  from  oppodte  qaartera  the 
northwest  passage.  He  penetrated  as  far  as 
lat.  70°  24'  N.,  Ion.  149°  37'  W. ;  and  on  Frank- 
lin's setting  oat  from  Great  Bear  lake,  on  the 
return  of  Uie  expedition,  be  was  left  in  charge 
of  the  remaining  officers  and  men  at  Fort 
Franklin.  On  the  breaking  np  of  tbe  ice  he 
started  for  York  Factory,  uid  tiience  set  mH 
for  England,  where  he  arrived  in  1827.  In 
1688  he  took  charge  of  the  party  sent  out  in 
search  of  Sir  John  Rosa,  and  was  exposed  to 
hardships  and  perils  no  less  appalling  than  on 
the  previous  expeditions.  Receiving  inteUi- 
genoe  of  Ross's  safety,  he  returned  nome  in 
1885,  obt»ned  bis  post  rank,  and  in  June,  16BS, 
took  command  of  the  Terror  on  a  freeh  Arctic 
voyage,  hut  without  accomplishing  anytiiing. 
He  was  knighted  in  1837,  and  made  rear  ad- 
miral in  1857.  He  has  published  a  "  Narrative 
of  the  Arctic  Land  Expedition,"  Ac.  (London, 
168S),  and  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  in 
H.  M.  ahip  Terror"  (1888). 

UCKCAMIfON,  a  game,  believed  to  be  of 
English  ori^n,  played  with  dice  and  80  pieces 
oalfed  men,  upon  a  board  or  table  peculiarly 
divided  and  marked.  Chancer,  Shakespeare, 
and  Bacon  menlJon  it  under   the  name  of 


BA0E6AMM0N 

"tabiea."  The  name  backgammon  is  suppoeed 
by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
words  ime,  back,  and  gamone,  a  game;  by 
others,  from  the  Welsh  haeh,  Uttle,  and  eammon, 
a  battle.  The  game  is  played  as  follows :  The 
men,  15  of  which  are  black  and  15  white,  in 
shape  like  those  nsed  in  draughts,  are  arranged, 
OS  shown  in  tbe  cnt,  on  a  board  each  quarter 
of  whioh  is  marked  with  six  lines,  alternately 
white  and  black  or  red  and  blaoic  Each  of 
these  quarters  is  called  a  table;  those  marked 
A  and  B,  in  which  tbe  gome  begins,  are  the 
inner  tables,  the  others  t£e  onter.  The  num- 
ber of  lines  across  which  a  player  is  allowed  to 
move  hismeniBdecided  by  the  dice;  and  the  ob- 
ject of  the  player  having  the  white  men,  for  in- 
stance, is  to  move  those  of  his  men  which  are 


the  board  they  may  be  placed.  The  player 
having  the  black  pnrsoes  a  similar  oonrse  in 
moving  his  men  gradually  around  to  his  inner 
table  A.  Neither  player  can,  no  matter  what 
throw  be  makes  with  the  dice,  place  his  men 
on  a  line  already  occupied  by  more  than  one 
of  his  opponent's  pieces.  Should  only  one  of 
theae,  however,  he  found  on  a  line  to  which  he 
has  otherwise  the  right  to  move,  be  can  "  take 
np  "  this  solitary  man,  that  ia,  remove  him  ftota 
the  board,  and  oblige  his  adversary  to  beoin  with 
bim  anew  in  the  fortbeet  table  from  Lis  own 
inner  one.  When  a  player  has  brought  all  his 
men  safely  into  bis  inner  table,  he  may  b^D 
Ci>  "throw  off"  his  pieces,  that  is,  remove 
from  tbe  board  a  man  standing  on  any  p<mit 
the  number  of  which  he  throws.  Should  be 
throw  doublets,  he  may  remove  four  from  the 
point  indicated  by  them.  The  pl^er  who  by 
this  means  first  rids  himself  of  all  his  men, 
wins  the  game.  Should  he  win  it  before  bia 
opponent  brings  all  his  men  into  hb  inner 
table,  he  is  said  to  "  gammon  "  him ;  if  before 


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BAOKUUTSEK 


BAOOK 


201 


msrme  paiuter,  bom  atEmdea  in  I6S1,  died 
in  Amstordam  in  1709.  Whilo  t,  mMoaaai'B 
dark  in.  Amsterdam  his  fondneoe  for  slupping 
led  him  froqnentl;'  to  the  port,  where  he  made 
•dmirftble  drawings.  He  went  out  to  sea  dur- 
ing storms,  and  on  landing  immediately  tnuu- 
feired  his  impressions  to  canvas.  The  OEar 
Peter  frequently  viuted  Backhuysen'a  studio, 
and  endeavored  to  make  drawings  of  vessels 
which  the  artist  had  deragned.  Bis  most  cele- 
brated sea  picture,  with  a  multitude  of  vessels, 
and  a  view  of  Amsterdam  in  the  distance,  is  in 
the  Lonvrvtog^tber  with  seven  other  pictures 
br  him. — Hia  grandson,  of  the  same  name,  a 
merchant  and  soldier,  and  flnallf  a  painter  of 
horses  and  battles,  bom  Aog.  SB,  1717,  died  in 
Bott^rdam,  April  16,  1783. 

UCKIB,  Imk,  an  American  Baptist  derg7' 
man,  bora  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1721,  died 
Nov.  20,  1606.  He  left  the  Congregational 
chnrch  for  the  SeporatistB,  derisivety  styled 
"Kew  Lights,"  a  seoession  from  the  "standing 
order  "  on  gronnds  oonneoted  with  controver- 
ries  that  grew  ont  of  the  great  revival  under 
Edwards  ami  Whitefieid.  The  Separatiato 
lai^ly  sympathized  with  the  Baptlste,  among 
whom  Mr.  Backus  became  a  leader.  To  his 
exertions  the  Baptist  denomination  in  Amer- 
ica is  largely  indebted  for  its  prosperity. 
He  was  sent  ib  1774  as  an  agent  to  claim 
from  oongress^  then  in  session  in  Philadel- 
phia, the  same  liberties  for  the  Baptist  that 
were  accorded  to  other  churches.  In  tils  wri- 
finga  npon  the  oouatitation  of  the  church  he 
advocated  the  entire  separation  of  the  chnrch 
from  the  state.  He  was  one  of  the  most  volu- 
mjnons  of  American  Baptist  writers,  and  left  a 
valuable  history  of  that  denomination,  of  which 
a  new  editioD,  edited  by  the  Bev.  David  Wes- 
ton, was  pnbluhed  in  1871,  under  the  aoapioes 
of  the  "  BackoB  Historical  Society." 

UCUX  D'iUS,  L(d(  Alkeit  fiktaUi,  baron 
de,  a  French  painter,  bom  at  St.  Pol,  Oct  21, 
1783,  died  at  Sfivrea,  Sept  12,  182*.  He  is 
celebrated  for  his  views  of  Swiss  scenery,  re- 
martcable  for  a  knowledge  of  natural  hietory 
and  topognmhy.  He  fought  at  Areola,  and  his 
picture  of  tiiat  hattie  is  regarded  as  his  ma»- 
ter-work.  He  accompanied  Napdeon  in  many 
eompaigiM,  aketching  the  movements  of  the 
troofM.  His  illnsbvted  works  comprise  Sowe- 
«in  piUoragvM  of  Switzerland,  of  the  Italian 
and  Spanish  oampaigna,  and  of  Paris  and  its  en- 
Tinma.  He  also  painted  olaseical  snbjeotB.  He 
wa«  aftpointed  tivigadier  general  in  1818,  and 
•ofaoeqaently  director  of  the  war  depots  in 
Paria,  bat  lost  this  office  in  1816. 

UCM4IB,  a  town  of  the  Philippines,  capital 
of  the  [Rvvince  of  Pam^nga  in  the  island  of 
Luson,  about  88  m.  N.  W.  of  Manila,  near  the 
Pampanga  river;  pop.  about  8,600.  During 
the  Btiaab  occupation  of  Manila  (1762-'4)  it 
was  the  capital  en  the  Philippine  Islands. 


UCOVt  ine,  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon,  bom 
abont  1628,  died  in  1600.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  tutor  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  who  imparted  to  her  and  her  three 
msters  (respectively  married  to  Lord  Burleigh, 
Sir  John  Bossell,  and  Sir  Henry  Killigrew)  a 
remarkable  degree  of  oIOBsiosl  and  theological 
leanung.  She  prepared  excellent  translations 
of  Bishop  Jeweu'a  Apologia  and  of  Ochinus's 
14  Italian  sermons.  Beza  dedicated  his  "  Medi- 
tations "  to  her,  and  she  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  and  pions  women  of 
her  day.  She  became  the  second  wife  of  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  to  whom  she  bore  two  chil- 
dren, Anthony  and  the  celebrated  Francis. 

BJUOK,  Fraads,  Tisooant  St  Albans  and 
Baron  Veralam,  an  English  philosopher  and 
lord  chancellor,  bom  at  York  house,  in  the 
Strand,  London,  Jan.  S3,  1661,  died  at  High- 
gate,  April  9,  1628.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon.  Early  in  life  he  gave 
agns  of  great  fertiUty  of  talent  His  healtii  was 
exoeedingl^  delicate,  so  that  he  was  often  af- 
fected to  fainting  by  slight  atmospheric  changes. 
This  constitutional  infirmity  accompanied  iiim 
even  to  hia  latest  days.  Nothing  is  known 
of  the  process  of  his  education,  except  that,  as 
both  his  parents  were  learned  persons,  in  the 
highest  walks  of  life,  he  must  have  been  early 
accustomed  to  study,  and  he  did  not  miss  the 
lessons  of  the  coortiy  society  by  which  he  was 
Burroonded.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  asked 
him,  yet  a  child,  how  old  he  was,  he  replied, 
"Two  years yonnger  than  your  m^esty's  happy 
reign."  In  his  11th  year  he  speculated  on  the 
laws  of  the  imagination.  A  year  later  he  was 
sent  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he 
was  matriculated  at  the  a&me  time  with  hia 
brother  Anthony,  June  10,  1G73.  As  a  student 
he  was  diligent  and  lahorions,  but  thought  for 
himself,  and  before  he  was  16  had  already  con- 
ceived a  lUslike  for  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
still  greatly  in  vogue  at  the  unirersity.  "  They 
learn  nothing  at  the  universities,"  he  afterward 
said,  in  the  "Praise  of  Knowledge,"  "but  to 
believe.  They  ore  like  a  becalmed  ship ;  they 
never  move  but  by  the  wind  of  other  men  s 
breath,  and  have  no  oars  of  their  own  to  steer 
withal."  Some  years  afler  he  quitted  Cam- 
bridge he  published  a  tract  on  the  defects  of 
uaiverdtiea,  in  which,  after  having  premised 
that  colleges  were  established  for  the  oommuni- 
catlon  of  uie  knowledge  of  our  predecessors,  be 

Sroposed  that  a  college  be  appropriated  to  the 
iscovery  of  new  truth,  "  to  mix,  like  a  living 
spring,  with  the  stagnant  waters."  These  sen- 
timents he  adhered  to  all  his  life,  for  in  his  will 
he  endowed  two  lectures,  in  either  of  the  uni- 
venities,  "by  a  lecturer,  whether  stranger  or 
English,  provided  he  is  not  professed  in  divin- 
ity, law,  or  phy»o."  And  in  one  of  his  latcet 
works,  the  nt^nished  philosophical  romance 
called  "New  Atlantis,"  ne  developed  at  consid- 
erable length  the  idea  of  a  college  for  the  "  in- 
terpreting of  nature,"  under  the  name  of  the 
"college  of  the  six  days' works."    At  the  dose 


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of  bifi  oollegUte  course  bis  fkther  wnt  him  to 
Paris,  under  the  oftre  of  8ir  Amjsa  Panlet,  the 
English  ambassador  at  that  court,  bj  whom  be 
was  shortlj  after  intnuted  with  a  misidon  to  the 
qneen.  He  then  travelled  in  the  French  prov- 
inces,  spending  some  time  at  Poitlera,  where  he 
prepared  a  work  npon  ciphers,  and  also  one 
upon  the  state  of  Europe ;  hnt  his  father  Ajiag 
flGT9)  while  he  was  engaged  upon  them,  he 
instantly  retamed  to  England.  He  applied  for 
on  offioo,  which  he  failed  to  get,  when  be  en- 
tered M  a  student  of  law  in  Gray's  Inn  (1680). 
On  Jane  27,  1SB2,  he  was  called  to  the  bar; 
in  lfi86  he  was  made  a  bencher,  and  in  ISeO, 
when  he  was  bnt  28,  oonnsel  ezitraordinarj  to 
the  qneen — "  a  grace,  says  his  biographer  Baw- 
ley,  "  Bcaroe  known  before."  At  that  time  the 
court  was  divided  into  two  partjes,  of  which 
one  was  headed  by  the  two  Cecils,  and  the 
other  by  the  earl  of  Leicester,  and  afterward 
by  his  son-in-law,  the  earl  of  Essex.  Bacon 
was  allied  to  the  Cecils,  being  a  nephew  of 
Lord  Burlei^  and  first  consin  to  Sir  Robert 
Cecil,  the  principal  secretary  of  state ;  and  yet 
his  affections  lay  with  Essex.  His  advance- 
ment, however,  did  not  correspond  either  with 
hisabilities  or  his  connections.  The  Cecils  rep- 
resented him  as  rather  a  apeonlative  man,  not 
fitted  for  business.  After  renewed  solicitations 
they  procaied  for  him  the  reverdon  of  the  re- 
gistrar of  the  star  chamber,  with  about  £1,000 
a  year,  bnt  he  did  not  come  into  possession  of  it 
for  20  years.  In  169S  he  was  returned  to  par- 
liament as  a  knight  of  Middlesex.  His  first 
speech  there  was  delivered  in  &vor  of  his  plan 
forthe  improvement  of  the  law;  another  speech 
related  to  the  postponement  of  certain  subsi- 
dies whioh  created  popular  discontent,  where- 
by he  provoked  the  anger  of  the  queen;  and 
being  remonstrated  with,  he  replied  that  he 
"  spoke  in  discharge  of  his  conscience  and  duty 
to  God,  to  the  qneen,  and  to  his  country  "—a 
noble  reply,  which  he  did  not  himself  always 
in  alter  life  remember.  Ben  Jouson  oompli- 
meuta  his  parliamentary  etoqnence  highly,  al- 
leging that  "no  man  ever  spake  more  neatly, 
more  pressly,  more  weightily,  or  suffered  lesa 
emptiness,  less  idleness  in  what  he  uttered ;  no 
member  of  his  speech  bat  consisted  of  its  own 
graces.  His  hearers  could  not  cough  or  look 
aside  fcom  him  without  loss ;  be  commanded 
when  he  spoke,  and  had  his  judges  angry  or 
pleased  at  big  devotion.  The  fear  of  everv  man 
that  heard  him  was  lest  he  should  make  an 
end."  In  the  spring  of  1C94  the  solicitorohip 
became  vacant,  %y  the  promotion  of  Sir  Ed- 
word  Coke  to  the  office  of  attorney  general, 
and  Bacon  applied  for  it,  strenuonsly  backed 
by  Essex ;  but  he  did  not  succeed,  the  superior 
infinence  of  the  Cecils  being  agwnst  him.  Es- 
sex, however,  as  some  compensation  for  his  dis- 
appointment, made  him  a  present  of  Twicken- 
ham court,  worth  about  £1,800,  and  so  heanti- 
fnl  that  Bacon  called  it  the  w^eu  of  paradise. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  £]iEabetb  rqjeeted 
the  official  clums  of  Bacon  on  the  groond  that 


although  he  was  a  man  of  wit  and  learning,  ha 
was  yet  "not  very  deep."  During  this  year 
Bacon  published  his  first  political  tract,  en- 
titied  "A  Declaration  of  the  Causes  of  the 
Great  Tronbles,"  a  vindication  of  the  course 
of  England  in  respect  to  continental  policy. 
Three  years  laf«r  (I5ST)  he  issued  a  small  ISmo 
called  "Essays,  Reli^ous  Meditations,  and  a 
Table  of  the  Colors  of  Good  and  Evil."  It  oon- 
tained  but  10  essays  in  all,  of  which  he  says 
that  he  hopes  they  will  be  "like  the  late  new 
half^>ence,  which,  though  the  pieces  are  small. 
the  silver  is  good."  Abounding  in  condensea 
and  practical  thought,  ezpresMd  with  much 
tamprioity,  and  without  mnch  imagery,  they 
yet  evinced  a  mind  of  wonderful  aagadty  and 
comprehensive  reach.  They  were  translated 
almost  immediately  into  French,  Italian,  and 
Latin,  and  have  proved,  as  subsequently  aug- 
mented both  in  number  and  length,  the  most 
popular  of  his  writings.  Dugald  Stewart  has 
properly  remarked  of  the  book  that "  it  may  be 
reaa  ftom  beginning  to  end  in  a  few  hours,  and 
jet,  after  the  twentieth  reading,  one  seldom  fails 
to  remark  in  it  something  overlooked  before." 
Dr.  Whately  pablislied  in  1867  a  new  edition, 
with  an  excellent  introduction  and  many  vtdu- 
able  notes.  By  Bacon's  contemporaries  it  was 
gratefiilly  received. — Bacon's  necuniary  affairs 
at  this  time  were  in  a  wretchea  state ;  in  order 
to  retrieve  them  he  twice  tried  to  form  Incra- 
tive  matrimonial  connections;  but  these  plans 
also  miscarried,  and  he  was  twice  arrested  for 
debt  Early  in  1699  a  large  body  of  the  Irish, 
denied  the  protection  of  the  laws,  and  hnnted 
like  wild  beasts  by  an  insolent  soldiery,  fled  the 
nei^borhood  of  cities,  sheltered  themselves  in 
their  marshes  and  forests,  and  grew  every  day 
more  intractable  and  dangerous.  It  became 
necessary  to  subdne  them,  and  Esses  was  ap- 
pointed lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland ;  bnt  Ins 
conduct  In  his  office  was  so  rash  and  haughtT 
that  Bacon,  after  vainly  remonstrating  wiu 
him,  was  at  length  compelled  to  turn  against 
him.  By  this  means  be  lost  the  aid  of  that 
powerful  noble,  without  making  either  vet7 
many  or  very  sincere  Aiends  on  the  other  side. 
His  conduct  in  respect  to  Essex,  who  was  tried 
and  condemned  for  his  offences  in  the  year 
1600,  exposed  Bacon  to  the  charge  of  ingrati- 
tude and  double-faced  friendship;  and  though 
Mr.  Basil  Montagu,  in  his  life  of  Bacon,  labored 
hard,  and  to  some  degree  Juetiy,  to  acquit  him 
of  the  obloquy  with  which  he  was  then  visited, 
he  bos  scarcely  escaped  all  blame  in  the  Judg- 
ment of  postAritj.  Bacon  not  only  appeared 
in  the  court  agwnst  the  man  who  had  been  his 
benefactor  and  ft-iend,  but,  In  pursuit  of  the 
good  will  of  the  queen,  be  used  all  his  skill  as 
a  lawyer  to  heighten  the  guilt  of  his  crime. 
He  did  not,  however,  gun  macb  from  bis  fidel- 
ity to  this  sovereign,  who  either  did  not  discern 
or  wilfully  neglected  his  merits.  On  the  acc««- 
rion  of  James  in  1608  he  had  everything  to 


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tingnuh  himaelf  as  a  Mtron  of  leaniing.  Ba- 
oon  pooaeaMd  the  ad<uti(Aftl  title  to  tus  fovor 
ttttt  Us  aloqneiioe  and  information  gave  him 
neat  weight  in  parliameDt.  Appointed  bf  the 
nonae  oa  the  oommittee  to  make  a  representa' 
&oa  of  the  miaoondnot  of  the  ro/al  porveyors, 
he  ^Bchai^ed  the  task  with  so  maoh  discretion 
that  while  he  satiafied  tile  ting,  he  won  firom 
the  house  a  TOte  of  thanks.  Jamee  made  him 
one  of  his  oonnsel,  an  office  to  which  a  imaU 
pendon  was  attaohed,  and  from  that  time  be 
eontinned  to  rise  in  spite  of  th«  onpoaition  of 
the  Ceoila,  and  the  rivaltr  of  Sir  Edward  Ooke, 
the  attorney  general  In  1607  he  was  made 
ioliintor  Keneral,  hj  which  his  practice  in  West- 
minster hall  was  rapidly  extended.  About  the 
same  time  he  married  Alice,  daughter  of  Bene- 
diot  Bamham,  a  wealth;  alderauu  of  London — 
thus  SQCoeeding  in  his  third  attempt  at  a  wealthy 
marriage.  His  tact,  bis  knowledge,  and  his 
eloqnence  oombiued.  r^sed  him  to  the  highest 
point  of  reputation  m  the  commons,  while  his 
standing  at  the  bar  was  ever^  day  c<mflrmed, 
and  his  &7or  at  court  was  increased.  But 
these  political  and  personal  stragvlea  did  not 
separate  him  from  those  philoeopnical  inqui- 
ries which  were  the  first  love  of  his  heart. 
In  lOOS  he  published  "The  Advancement  of 
Learning"  (anbsequentty  expanded  into  the  Be 
.Jii^ni«»tu},  a  wore  which  inaugurated  an  era  in 
thehistorjofSugliahliterstareandsdenoe.  It 
profeased  to  be  a  sorvej  of  existing  knowledge, 
with  a  descrtptiOD  of  the  parts  of  science  yet 
unexplored,  and  might  be  regarded  as  a  plotnre 
both  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  intellectual 
world,  and  of  ita  ontl7iD(^  untrodden  deserts. 
This  work  alone  womd  nave  been  snfficient 
to  place  Bacon  among  the  intelleotnal  (^ts 
of  his  raoe.  Yet  his  active  and  vigorous  mind 
continued  to  bnay  Itself  with  other  specula- 
tions ;  bendes  bis  many  speeches  in  the  oom- 
mona  and  his  arguments  at  the  bar,  he  wrote 
numeroDH  tracts,  suoh  as  "A  Disooorse  on  the 
Happy  Union,"  "An  Advertisement  tonching 
the  Otwtroveray  of  the  Ohoroh  of  England," 
and  pamphlets  upon  law  reform  and  other 
topics  of  prevalent  interest.  All  the  while  be 
waa  also  employed  in  meditating  the  great  ^o- 
•tun  Orfanitm  Sewntianaa,  of  which  sketches 
were  prepared  in  the  shape  of  his  Cogitata 
et  Fun,  /Wm  Laiyriat&i,  and  Tempori*  Par- 
(«M  Ma^iMut.  His  lesser  writings  he  under- 
took, as  he  Bsya^  to  secure  him  a  degree  of  re- 
spect and  consideration  in  the  general  mind, 
which  might  afterward  serve  to  oonoiUate  it 
toward  the  peoollarity  of  his  opinions,  or  to 
answer  as  a  bnlwark  agunat  unfriendly  as- 
saults. In  this  intention  he  wrote  and  sent 
forth  in  1609  "  The  Wisdom  of  the  Ancienta," 
a  book  in  which  the  classical  fables  are  made 
the  vehicle!  of  oripnal  and  striking  thonghts, 
clothed  in  remarkutle  beautr  <^  language,  and 
ornamented  with  graoefU  flgnrea.  Ueantime 
his  political  advaooement  went  steadily  for- 
vaid.  In  1611  he  was  a  Joint  judge  of  the 
kidght  marshal's  oonrt;  ana  the  next  year  he 


was  appointed  attorney  general,  and  elected  a 
member  ot  the  privy  council.  While  he  held 
the  office  of  attorney  general  he  was  engaged 
in  several  Important  cansea.  He  was  the  pros- 
ecutor of  Oliver  St.  John,  of  Owen  and  Talbot, 
and  of  the  old  olergyman  Peacham,  who  was 
indicted  for  the  beaaon  oont^ned  in  a  sermon 
which  was  never  preached.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  examined  in  uie  Tower  under  tortare,  and 
that  Bacon  was  present  assiBting  at  the  opera- 
tion. It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  founder  of 
modem  philosophy  should  have  consented  to 
the  barbarous  system  of  extorting  evidence  bj 
the  rack.  A  more  important  trial  was  that 
of  the  earl  and  oonnteis  of  Somerset  and  their 
accomplices  for  the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas 
Overbury,  in  the  conduct  of  which  he  earned 
the  highest  distinction.  Thepeonniaryerobar- 
rassments  under  which  he  onoe  suffered  were 
of  course  now  at  an  end.  His  professional 
practice  was  large ;  the  office  of  attorney  gen- 
eral was  worth  £6,000  per  annum;  as  registrar 
of  the  star  chamber  he  was  entitled  to  £1,600 

Eer  annnm;  his  father's  seat  at  Gorhambnrv 
ad  paued  to  bim  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  his  brother;  and  be  waa  also  poasessed  of 
a  oonsiderable  estate  in  Hertfordsuire,  besides 
the  fortune  acquired  through  hia  wife.  In 
1616  Bacon  relinqutabed  the  bar,  but  retted 
his  chamber  practice.  In  the  spring  of  the 
following  year  the  lord  chancellor,  Elleamere, 
resigned  the  seals,  which  were  handed  over  to 
Bacon,  with  the  title  of  lord  keeper.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1618,  he  was  created  lord  high  chancel- 
lor, and  the  aame  year  waa  raised  to  the  peer- 
age aa  baron  of  Vemlam.  His  higher  tiUe  of 
YiBCOunt  St  Albans  was  not  conferred  upon 
him  till  1631.  Bacon  entered  upon  bis  Judicial 
duties  with  elaborate  pomp,  and  delivered  a 
long  and  eloquent  speech  in  the  presence  of 
the  Judges  and  the  nobility. — The  A'ocum  Or- 
ffamim,  the  great  restoration  of  the  sciences, 
which  had  been  the  burden  of  the  thoughts 
of  his  life,  waa  first  printed  in  October,  1630. 
Twelve  times  it  had  been  copied  and  revised 
i>efore  it  aasomed  the  shape  in  which  it  was 
committed  to  posterity.  The  fall  title  of  Ba- 
con's work  was  the  Novum  Organum  live  In- 
dicia Vera  d*  Int«rpretatu»ie  Natura,  et  Regno 
ffominie,  and  the  title  aums  up  its  principal 
ol^ect.  He  proposed  to  replace  the  aaholastio 
logic  representeil  in  the  Organon  of  Aristotle 
by  a  new  organon,  in  which  the  true  and  solid 
principle  of  investigating  nature  should  sup- 
plant the  old  principle  of  mere  verbal  dialec- 
tics, and  lead  to  "  fruit "  in  the  shape  of  genu- 
ine knowledge.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  he- 
oauae  it  waa  addressed  especially  to  tlie  learned 
men  of  Europa  and  in  axioms,  or  abort  pith; 
sentences,  that  it  might  strike  upon  their  mindi 
by  its  repetitions,  and  be  ea^y  engraved  upon 
the  memory.  It  is  yet,  however,  but  a  part 
of  a  larger  work — of  ^at  Itutauratio  Mofna — 
in  whion  ha  deaigned  to  rehabilitate  not  only 
the  methods  of  science,  but  science  itself,  and 
of  which  the  Dt  Auffmmti*  was  an  (q)eiiing 


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204  BA( 

chapter,  and  the  whole  of  modem  disoorerr 
the  oompletion.  Baoon'a  lending  thon^t  was 
the  good  of  hamuiitj.  He  held  that  itadj, 
inBtesd  of  employing  itaelf  ia  wearwome  and 
Bterile  roeeolations,  ehonld  be  engaged  in  mas- 
tering tiie  MoretB  of  nature  and  Bfe,  and  in 
appljmg  them  to  hnmon  ose.  His  method  in 
the  att^mnent  of  this  end  was  rigid  and  pure 
obaerration,  aided  by  experiment  and  frnobfied 
by  induction.  Instead  of  hypotheHeB  he  asked 
for  facta,  gathered  Uborioimly  &om  Oio  watoh 
of  nature's  silent  revolations,  or  extorted  ekil~ 
taUj  by  inatrnments  and  trials,  and  earned 
forward  by  oareftd  generalizations  from  the 
world  of  ^e  known  to  the  onknown.  From 
effects  to  cansee,  and  not  from  cansea  to  effeota, 
was  the  Bpirit  of  hia  recommendations.  And 
that  he  might  not  mislead  any  one  by  mere 
general  views,  Baoon  constructed  the  new  l<^o 
of  observation  and  indnotion,  and  sought  to 
exemplify  it  in  nomeroos  instances.  It  is  in 
tikis  latter  process  that  he  has  the  least  sac- 
oeeded;  bnt  it  woald  be  nqjust  to  Jndge  of 
Bacon's  system  by  its  hilnrea.  He  did  not  pro- 
pose to  himself  in  the  Ifonum  Orfftomm  la 
make  discoveries,  but  simply  to  cause  them  to 
be  mode,  or  to  teach  the  art  by  which  t^ey 
oonld  be  made.  He  compared  himself  to  those 
statues  of  Ueronry  which  indicate  the  way 
although  they  do  not  pass  over  it  themselveo, 
or  to  a  trumpet  which  soanda  the  charge  while 
it  takes  no  port  in  the  battle.  Yet  even  in 
this,  the  least  happy  part  of  his  work,  Bacon 
ezhibita  a  flue  aoientiflc  aense,  and  anticipates 
discoveries  reserved  as  the  reward  of  later  re- 
search. He  clearly,  for  instonoe,  invented  a 
thermometer  (1.  ii.  aph.  18);  he  instituted  in- 
genious experiments  on  the  oompreMibility  of 
oodles,  and  on  the  denuty  and  weight  of  ^r; 
he  snggeata  chemical  prooeasea  (aph.  48);  he 
suspected  the  law  of  universal  attraction  (aph. 
Sfi,  8S,  and  4C),  afterward  demonstrated  by 
Newton;  be  foresaw  the  true  explication  of 
the  tides  (aph.  46,  48),  and  tiie  cause  of  colors, 
which  he  ascribes  to  the  manner  in  which 
bodies,  owing  to  their  different  texture,  reflect 
tlte  rays  of  light  Nor  did  Bacon,  as  some 
have  wrongly  eapposed,  confine  his  method  to 
tbe  natural  sciences  alone ;  be  clearly  intended 
its  Dse  in  p^yobologiool  investigations  as  well ; 
and  the  metaphysics  of  the  Scotch  school  are 
an  attempt  to  render  mental  science  according 
to  his  rules.  This  immense  and  unprecedent- 
ed book  was  received  with  admiration  by  a  dis- 
oeming  few,  but  with  ridicule  and  scorn  by 
the  would-be  wits  and  geniuses.  Bacon's  old 
enemy  Coke  wrote  upon  the  title  page  of  a 
presentation  copy,  having  the  device  of  a  ^p 
passing  the  pillars  of  Hercules, 

■■  It  dcHrTBth  mt  to  ba  rMd  In  nbook, 
Bat  to  ba  (Msbtad  In  tbs  lUp  of  IbOk." 

Others  said  that  he  wrote  of  philosophy  like  a 
lord  chancellor.  King  James,  in  his  pedantio 
oonceit,  compared  it  to  the  peace  of  God,  which 
paasetb  all  onderstanding.  Tet  there  were 
some  who  peroeived  its  tmth,  among  the  rest 


Ben  Jonsm  and  Sir  Henry  Votton :  the  latter 
of  whom,  addressing  him,  M^d,  "  Your  lord- 
ship hath  done  a  great  and  everlasting  benefit 
to  all  the  children  of  nature,  and  to  nature  her^ 
self  in  her  uppermost  extent  of  latitude :  who 
never  before  nod  so  noble  and  so  tme  an  in- 
terpreter, never  so  inward  a  secretary  of  her 
cabinet" — But  the  glory  of  Bacon  ascended 
on  the  eve  of  a  most  disgraced  &U.  Hia 
moral  dignity  was  not  on  a  level  with  his  intel- 
lectual peaetration.  He  had  a  broad,  and  deep, 
and  vigorous,  but  not  a  lof^  nature.  Giving 
himself  up  to  improvidence,  his  need  of  numey 
betrayed  nim  into  practices  of  corruption.  In 
the  house  of  commons  on  March  16,  1631,  Sir 
Robert  Phillips  reported  from  a  committee  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  mto  the  abuses  of  courts  it 
joatloe,  two  cases  of  oormption  against  the  lord 
chancellor.  One  of  these  was  on  a  petition  (tf 
a  man  named  Aubrey,  who  alleged  that  he 
had  paid  Bacon  £100  to  advance  a  suit;  and 
another  on  that  of  one  Egerton,  who  had  given 
him  a  gratuity  of  JC400.  Before  the  close  of 
tbe  proceedings,  similar  coses  to  tbe  number 
of  24  were  presented.  The  commons  referred 
the  case  to  the  house  of  peers,  as  tbe  only 
tribunal  oapable  of  trying  tne  lord  chancellor. 
Baoon  resolved  to  sttmd  up  manfully  agunst 
his  accnsers;  but,  his  health  giving  way,  he 
could  only  write  to  tbe  lords.  He  retniested 
that  his  case  should  be  conducted  according  to 
the  strictest  mles  of  justice,  to  which  the  lords 
replied  that  it  should  be.  His  friends  he  as- 
sured in  tbe  strongest  terma  of  his  innocence. 
In  14  oases  it  was  ^own  that  the  presents  were 
given  long  after  the  soita  were  terminated :  in 
other  cases  the  decrcee  which  he  rendered  had 
been  against  Iho  donors;  and  in  other  oases 
the  preeenta  were  comddered  not  as  gifts  but 
as  loans,  and  he  had  decided  against  his  credi- 
tors. Yet,  when  brought  to  the  test,  Bacon 
Bubmittod  to  the  accusations.  His  anbmismon, 
it  is  alleged,  was  brought  about  by  the  king, 
who  even  perauaded  Bacon  to  sacrifice  himadf 
to  the  popular  excitement,  On  April  22,  1631, 
he  wrote  to  the  lords  that  he  abandoned  his 
defence,  and  moved  them  to  condemn  and  cen- 
sure him.  The  house  required  that  be  should 
ftmiah  categorical  answers  to  the  several  ar- 
ticles of  charge,  which  he  i^d,  saying  to  each, 
"I  do  plainly  and  ingennonsly  oonfeas  that  I 
am  guilty  of  corruption,  and  do  renounce  oU 
defence,"  Ac.  A  deputation  of  the  lords  b^ng 
appointed  to  wait  on  him,  to  ask  if  the  confee- 
don  was  his,  he  said :  "  It  is  my  act,  my  hand, 
my  heart  I  beseech  your  lordahips,  be  merd- 
fril  to  a  broken  reed."  His  humiliation  was 
complete,  and  his  spirit  was  omahed  within 
him.  He  hoped  tiiat  the  king,  or  his  son,  or 
their  favorite  Buckingham,  would  interfere  to 
stay  the  sentence ;  bnt  they  refused.  On  the  Sd 
of  May  be  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £40,000, 
and  to  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  during  the 
king's  pleasure.  He  waa  released  from  im- 
prisonment after  two  days,  and  the  fine  waa 
subsequently  remitted;  but  his  disgrace  was 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ftul.  Onoe  afttftrard  b«  th  nmunoned  to 
Attend  parUament;  bat  he  never  recovered  hia 
■tanking,  and  h«  apent  die  remaloder  of  bis 
day*  in  aoientiflo  stodiee,  and  among  the  few 
fiwnda  wliom  adverrit*  had  left  him.  Hib 
"ffiator;  of  HenjT  VII.,"  "Ap<^hthegmB," 
aom«  works  on  natural  hiatorv,  and  a  new 
and  eulai^ed  edition  of  the  "EaaajB"  (1626), 
vara  all  that  h«  pabliahed  after  his  fall. 
The  itnpDtatJons  on  hia  honor  were  donbt- 
lem  cxacaarated  hj  the  prejudice*  of  the 
Aaf,  bnt  ma  own  confeamcou  force  na  to  believe 
that  tber  were  well  founded,  or  else  that  he, 
in  base  anbaervieno;  to  the  noort,  snbeoHbed 
hhnaelf  a  liar.  Mr.  Badl  Montagu,  in  hia  life 
ot  Bacon,  adopts  the  latter  alternative,  and 
Hgnee  against  bis  cormptidn  in  favor  of  his 
weafcneaa.  The  practice  of  receiving  oifta  wu 
an  babctnal  one;  and  Bacon  probably  spoke 
the  tmtb  when  he  averred  that  he  had  Deen 
the  joBteet  obancellor  tar  manj  jears.  He 
died,  sftTing  in  bia  will  that  "my  name  and 
nienKry  I  leave  to  fcreign  nationa  and  to  my 
own  coontrrmen,  aft«r  some  time  be  passed 
over." — Lorl  Bacon  bad  a  capacity  no  leas 
adapted  to  grapple  witb  Hie  principles  of  legal 
acdeoce  than  to  illnstrate  other  aeportmenta 
o(  knowledge.  He  Uved,  however,  at  a  time 
when  the  English  law  conisisted  moatlf  of  bar- 
ren preoedeals,  and  jndgea  were  adverse  to  any 
roaaoning  tiiat  had  not  some  an&liwy  to  cacea 
■Ireadj  decided.  The  earliest  of  his  writings 
OB  law,  which  he  entitled  "£lemente  of  the 
Common  Law  of  England,"  con^ting  of  two 
treetuM  on  "  Maxims  of  the  Law  and  the  other 
Uaea  of  the  Law,"  appears  to  have  been  writ- 
ten in  IB9S.  It  was  dedicated  to  Qneen  Elisa- 
betb,  hat  he  elicited  do  encouragement  to  pro- 
oeed  in  the  work.  The  "Maxima  "  exhibit  the 
nme  nice  discrimination  of  analogies  that  waa 
afterward  shown  in  his  popolar  treatise  on  the 
"Colorsof  Good  andEvil."  Bacon  says  in  the 
preftce  that  be  bad  collected  GOO  maxims,  bat 
that  he  thoi^^t  best  first  to  publish  some  few, 
that  he  might  from  other  men's  opinions  eiUier 
Keeire  spprohathm  in  hia  course,  or  advice  fbr 
Ihaalternutoftbose  which  remain.  He  received 
netther.  The  "Maxims"  expounded  werebot 
Si  in  nnmber,  and  all  the  residne  were  by  this 
C(dd  reeeptJcH)  loet  to  the  world.  Few  oaeea 
are  dted  from  the  bootm,  for  which  he  gives 
the  reaaon  that  it  will  appear  to  tboee  who  are 
leAmed  in  the  laws  that  hia  instanoee  "  are 
mostly  J  adged  cases,  or  sustained  bv  simUitnde 
of  reaaon,  bnt  that  in  some  cases  he  intended 
to  weigh  down  antborities  by  evidence  of 
reaaon,  and  therein  rather  to  correct  the  law 
tlUD  either  to  soothe  a  received  error,  or  by  on- 
profibible  anbtlety,  which  oormpteth  the  sense 
of  the  law,  to  reconcile  contranetiee."  It  is  a 
coDunon  remark  that  hewaa  not  eqnal  to  some 
others,  partionlarly  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  ap- 
Ijing  and  reasoung  from  caaea,  hat  it  Is  entire- 
/  antrne  if  bj  that  be  meant  less  diacrimination 
it  aiHadged  caaee.  On  tihe  ctaktrary,  no  roan 
•xoelledaiininezactjadgmentof  sntborildea; 


? 


bnt  often  he  fonnd  these  anthorities  nnsnppcat- 
ed  by  jnst  principles,  or  eo  conflicting  that  the 
rale  was  to  be  songht  from  reasDnlng,  inde- 
pendent of  reported  cases.  Sixteen  years  later, 
when  be  had  become  attorney  general,  he  again 
referred  to  this  subject  in  "A  Proposal  for 
Amending  the  Laws  of  England,"  a  tract  ad- 
dressed to  Eing  James,  in  which  he  speaks  of 
the  method  of  expounding  the  laws  noon  the 
plan  which  he  bad  attempted  in  bis  early  trea- 
liaea,  as  certun  to  be  productive  of  great  ad- 
vantage, and  professes  bis  willingness  to  resume 
his  labors  if  desired  by  the  king  to  do  ao.  The 
tdng,  however,  did  not  accept  the  proposal. 
Dniing  the  five  years  that  he  survived  his  im- 
peachment and  removal  fk>m  office,  Bacon 
agun  recurred  to  this  fhvorite  project,  or 
rather  he  seems  never  to  have  laid  it  aside.  A 
treatise  on  nniversal  Justice,  oonsisting  of  97 
aphorisms,  ia  centred  in  die  Dt  Avgmentu, 
pnblished  during  that  period,  which,  he  says, 
he  wiahes  "to  serve  as  a  specimen  of  that 
digest  which  we  propose  ana  have  in  hand." 
The  digest  referred  to  is  explained  in  an  offer 
addressed  to  the  king  about  Qiat  time.  The 
plan  be  had  in  view  was  somewhat  different 
from  that  which  he  had  formerly  proposed.  It 
was  to  arrange  into  some  order  all  the  laws, 
whether  statnto  or  common  law.  The  offer  met 
with  the  same  fate  as  the  preceding  one.  Bacon 
says,  in  a  letter  to  Bishop  Andrews:  "Ihada 
purpose  to  make  a  portienlar  digest  or  recom- 

EUement  of  the  laws  of  mine  own  nation ;  yet 
ecause  it  is  a  work  of  assistance  and  tbot 
which  I  cannot  master  by  my  own  forces  and 
pen,  I  have  lud  it  aside."  Of  bis  other  law 
writings,  the  "Beadings  on  the  Btatnte  of 
Usee "  is  the  most  elaborate.  It  has  now  no 
practical  valne,  in  conseanence  of  the  change 
m  the  laws  wroaght  by  time,  but  it  is  esteemed 
by  those  who  have  examined  it  critically  a 
very  profonnd  treatise. — Bacon's  life  haa  been 
written  by  the  Bev.  William  Bawley,  who  was 
his  secretary  and  chaplain  {London,  1668} ; 
by  W.  Dogdale,  in  the  ''Baooniana  "  of  Thomas 
Tenison  (167B);  by  Bobert  StepbenB  (1784); 
by  David  Mallet,  at  the  head  of  an  edition  of 


bis  works  is  that  of  Spedding,  Ellis,  and  Heath 
(London,  1S67).  BaaQ  Montagu's  edition  (IBSS 
-'84)  was  the  occasion  of  Macanlay's  famons 
essay  on  Lord  Bacon.  Boom,  Ma  vie  et  ton 
i^^fluenctJ  by  lUmusat  (Fans,  1867),  is  a  valu- 
able work.  An  important  monogrsj)h  on  Lord 
Bacon,  entitled  Front  Saeon  von  Vtmlam,  by 
Enno  Fischer,  was  pnblished  in  Leipsio  in  ISGfl. 
BAOOH,  Jahi,  an  English  sculptor,  bom  at 
Soathwark,  Nov.  24,  1740,  died  Aug.  T,  1799. 
He  was   apprenticed   at  an  early  age  to  a 

Krcelain  mannfactnrer,  in  whose  employment 
learned  the  art  of  painting  on  china, 
and  also  of  making  ornamental  Sgares  in  that 
material    At  the  age  of  18  he  sent  a  small 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


flgore  of  Peace  to  the  aooiety  for  the  enoonrage- 
ment  of  arts,  and  recdved  a  premiom  of  tea 
"      '  '  e  oocasionB  he  oar- 


ried  off  Bimilar  prizes  from  the  aocietj.  Bacos 
was  employed  at  Lambeth  to  make  Btatnes  of 
artiflcisl  stone,  an  art  which  ho  did  much  to 
develop  and  render  popular.  On  the  opening 
of  the  royal  academj  in  1768  he  became  one  of 
its  stadents,  and  the  next  jeai  guned  the  first 
jgold  jnedal  for  BoulptDre.  In  1770  he  was 
chosen  an  associate  of  that  bod  J.  His  principal 
worliB  were  two  basts  of  Geot)^  III. ;  a  mono- 
ment  to  the  founder  of  Gny's  hospital,  Sonth- 
wark;  amonomenttoLord  Chatham,  in  Gnild- 
haU;  a  monmnent  to  Lord  Halifax,  in  West- 
minster abbey;  the  statae  of  Blackstoue  in 
All  Souls  college,  Oxford;  a  statae  of  Eenr; 
YI.  for  tiie  ante-chapel  at  Eton ;  a  recambent 
flgnre  of  the  Thames,  in  the  oonrtyard  of  Som- 
erset HoQse;  the  stataes  of  Howard  and  John- 
son in  St.  Paul's  cathedral ;  and  a  second  monn- 
ment  of  Chatham  in  Westminster  abbey. 

BACOH,  htmari,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, bom  in  Detroit,  Uich..  Feb.  19,  1B02. 
He  was  educated  at  Yale  coUege  and  at  An- 
dover  theological  seminary,  and  in  March, 
1826,  became  pastor  of  the  first  Congregation- 
al charch  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  which  position 
he  held  till  September,  1666,  when  he  withdrew 
from  active  pastoral  duty.  From  1866  to  1671 
he  was  acting  professor  of  revealed  theology  in 
Yale  college ;  and  since  1871  has  been  lecturer 
there  on  ecclesiastical  polity  and  American 
church  history.  From  about  1626  to  1888  he 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Christian  Spec- 
tator," a  religions  magazine  published  at  New 
Haven.  In  184^  he  aided  in  establiehing  the 
"New  Englander,"  a  bi-monthly  periodical, 
with  which  he  is  still  associated.  From  1848  to 
1881  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  "  The  In- 
dependent" newspaper  of  New  York.  Among 
hie  works  are:  "Life  of  Richard  Baxter" 
(1880) ;  "  Manual  for  Young  Church  Members  " 
(1888) ;  "  Thirteen  Historical  Disconrses,  on  the 
Completion  of  Two  Hundred  Years  from  the 
Beginning  of  the  First  Church  in  New  Haven  " 
(1839);  "  Slavery  Discussed  in  Occasional  Es- 
says from  1833  to  1886"  (1846);  "Christian 
Self-Culture  "  (1868) ;  "  Introdnctory  Eesay  " 
to  Conyheare  and  Howson's  "Life  and  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul "  (1868) ;  and  many  addresses 
before  colleges  which  have  been  separately  pub- 
lished.— His  sister  Delia,  bom  m  1811,  was 
eminent  bb  a  t«acher,  and  anthor  of  "  Tales  of 
the  Puritans  "  (1830),  "  The  Bride  of  Fort  Ed- 
ward "(1889),  and  "The  Philosophy  of  Shake- 
(^)e8re'8  Plays  "  (1857),  in  which  she  attempted 
to  show  that  Francis  Bacon  was  their  anthor. 
She  redded  for  some  time  in  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  and  died  in  Hartford  in  Angast,  18S9. 

BACOH,  Katkaalel,  commonly  called  the  Vir- 

ria  rebel,  bom  in  London  about  1680,  died 
January,  1677.  He  emigrated  to  Yir^ia 
in  167fl,  during  the  administration  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Berkeley.  His  abilities  as  a  lawyer,  his 
wealth    and  popular   deportment,  gave  him 


great  influenoe.  Almost  immediately  after  bii 
arrival  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  gov- 
ernor's council.  At  that  time  the  colony  was 
distracted  by  discontents.  Gov.  Berkeley  waa 
highly  unpopular  on  accoont  of  his  inefficiency 
in  protecting  tlie  settlers  from  Indian  ravage^ 
his  din>oBition  to  restrict  the  franchise,  and 
the  hign  rate  of  taxes.  When  the  people  took 
arms  ostensibly  to  repel  the  savages,  but  in 
reality  to  force  the  autnoritdes  to  do  tiieir  doty, 
Bacon  became  the  leader  of  the  movement  in 
July,  1676.  Berkeley  was  compelled  to  make 
concessions,  dismantle  the  forts,  diasolTe  the 
old  assembly,  and  issue  writs  for  a  new  elec- 
tion. But  he  did  not  keep  faith  with  the  in- 
surgents, and  a  desnltory  civil  war  broke  out^ 
in  the  course  of  which  Jamestown,  the  capital 
of  the  colony,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  In 
the  end  the  governor  was  obliged  to  seek  abet- 
ter in  some  English  vessels  lying  in  James 
river,  but  before  Bacon  oonld  complete  his 
plans  in  respect  to  a  new  government  he  died' 
of  a  disease  contracted  during  one  of  his  Indian 
campugns.  Soon  after  his  death  Uie  rebellion 
itself  was  extinguished. 

BACON,  Sir  SlthalRS,  an  English  statesman, 
lord  keeper  of  the  seal  during  the  first  SOyean 
of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  bom  at  Gnisel- 
hnrst,  Kent,  in  ISIO,  died  Feb.  SO,  1679.  He 
studied  atC^rpusChristi,  Cambridge,  and  after- 
ward in  Paris.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  in  16S7  was 
appointed  solicitor  to  the  conrt  of  angmento- 
tiona.  Nine  years  later  Henry  YIII.  made 
him  attorney  to  the  court  of  wards,  an  office 
in  which  he  continued  during  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  BeingaProtestant,  he  was  excluded 
from  favor  nnder  Mary ;  bat  on  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  (1668)  he  was  chosen  to  her  privy 
council,  and  soon  ailerwnrd  received  the  great 
seal,  with  the  rank  of  lord  chancellor.    At  the 


of  the  church  of  Borne,  he  presided. 
Being  scspected  in  1664  of  having  a  hand  in  a 
book  published  by  one  Bales  which  qnestioned 
the  title  of  Hary,  qneen  of  Scots,  to  succeed 
Elixabeth— a  view  of  the  case  not  then  held  by 
the  court — he  was  dismissed  from  the  privy 
coundl,  and  from  all  participation  in  public 
affairseiccptinthecourtof chancery.  Through 
the  efforts  of  bis  brother-in-law  Cecil  he  was 
afterward  restored  to  ftvor.  He  was  the  fa- 
ther of  Sir  Francis  Baoon. 

BACOH,  Beger,  an  English  Frandscan  scholar, 
bora  near  Hchester,  Somersetshire,  in  1314, 
died  at  Oxford  in  12S3  or  12S4.  At  an  early 
oge  he  was  sent  to  Oxford,  and  thence  he  went 
to  the  university  of  Paris,  then  the  most  famous 
in  Europe,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  theology.  Aboat-1240  he  returned  to 
Oxford  and  entered  a  Franciscan  monast«i7, 
where  he  studied  Aristotle  and  all  the  ancient 
sob  olastio  philosophy,  mathematics,  physics,  and 
astronomy,  and  mside  many  ezpenments  with 
Instrumente  constmcted  by  himself.    The  igno- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIOS 

msce  ud  jealonsj  of  the  other  moiikB  and 
of  tbe  clergy  ta  geneml,  and  hostility  created 
bj  Bacon's  denniioiation  of  their  inimoralitj, 
led  to  his  being  accii»ed  of  atndying  and  prac- 
tisna  magic ;  and  his  lectures  at  Oxford  were 
prohibited  and  the  circulation  of  his  writings 
conGned  to  the  convent  Robert  Grosseteste, 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  befriended  Bacon ;  and 
io  1365,  when  Clement  IV.,  who  had  been  a 
ctfdbal  legate  in  England,  was  raised  to  the 
papacy,  he  despatched  Raymond  de  London  to 
the  Franciscan  monk  to  procure  some  of  his 
vritings.  Bacon  sent  him  the  Opvs  Majia, 
together  with  two  other  supplementary  works, 
tbe  Opru  Minv*  and  the  Opia  Tertium.  It  is 
not  known  what  reception  Olement  gave  them, 
bat  he  had  scarcely  got  them  in  hand  when  he 
died,  12S8.  For  ten  years  thereafter  Bacon 
was  allowed  to  prosecnte  his  stndies  in  peace  ; 
bat  in  1278  Jerome  of  Aaooli,  superior  of  the . 


BACTEEITIM 


207 


Francis 


1  order,  and  afterward 


Tindei 


le  of  Nicholas  lY.,  was  appointed  legate 
to  the  coart  of  France,  and  was  induced  to  aom- 
mon  Bacon  to  Paris,  where  a  council  of  Fran- 
ciscans condemned  bis  writings  and  sentenced 
him  to  be  confined  to  his  ceil.  He  was  then 
b  his  64tb  year,  and  ten  years  he  passed  in 
conSnement.  Finally  his  release  was  obtuned 
throagh  the  influence  of  promioent  persons  in 
England,  though  some  anthorities  state  that 
he  died  in  prison.  Beyle  and  others  reckon 
101  of  bis  treatises  on  varions  snbjects.  His 
ctuef  printed  works  are :  PertpKliva  (Frank- 
fort, 1614);  ^tevlum  Alehimia  (Nnrem- 
b«g,  IfiBl) ;  Im  SteretU  Artii  et  Natura 
Operibv*  (Paris,  1M2) ;  -Da  Setardandit  3e- 
Mctvti*  Aeeideatibtit  (Oxford,  1600);  and 
the  Opii»  Majwt,  edited  by  Dr.  Jehb  (Lon- 
iloD,  17S3),  which  contuns  a  digest  of  fils 
writings,  and  is  the  principal  monument  of  his 
fame.  Uanuscripta  d  his  works  exist  in  the 
Oottonian,  Harieian,  Bodleian,  and  Trinity  col- 
lege libraries.  A  second  manQscript  of  the 
Opu*  Tertium  was  found  in  the  library  at 
Dousy  by  Victor  Cousin,  who  gave  an  ac- 
count of  it,  with  an  elaborate  criticism  of  Bacon 
and  his  philosophical  character  in  the  Journal 
da  tavant*  for  1848.  Roger  Bacon  cl^ms  for 
human  reason  the  right  to  exercise  control 
overall  tlie  doctrines  submitted  to  its  approba- 
tion ;  he  inmsts  npon  the  dignity  and  importance 
of  aU  the  sciences,  and  establishes  experience 
rather  than  reasoning  as  the  proper  method  of 
research.  He  fell  into  many  errors  on  the 
subject  of  alchemy  and  astrology,  bnt  his  scien- 
tific genioB  was  wonderfid  for  his  time.  His 
writings  anticipate  (according  to  some  anthori- 
ties) the  discovery  of  the  telescope;  he  was 
acquainted  with  the  composition  of  gunpow- 
der ;  and  the  whole  tone  of  his  mind  and  scope 
of  his  thought  wore  two  or  three  centnries  in 
adcanoe  of  his  generation. 

KifS,  or  Bi«^u^  a  county  in  sonthera  Hun- 
gary, surrounded  on  three  sides  by  tbe  Danube 
and  Theias;  area,  S,973  sq.  m.-  pop.  in  1870, 
G70,U9.    The  county  is  mostly  level,  and,  with 
66  YOt.  II. — 14 


the  exception  of  a  few  barren  tracts,  is  noted 
for  its  great  fertility  and  splendid  pastures. 
It  produces  wheat  of  the  best  qnalitv,  wine, 

tobacco,  and  fine  cattle  and  horses.  The  inte* 
rior  is  traversed  by  the  Francis  canal,  near 
which  Zombor,  the  capital,  is  situated.  Other 
important  towns  are  Szabadka  or  Maria- 
Thereaiopel,  on  the  railroad  uniting  Zombor 
with  Szegedin,  and  Neusatz,  on  the  Danube. 
The  population  consists  chiefly  of  Magyars, 
Germans,  and  Raaciana  or  Serbs.  Shortly  after 
the  outbreak  of  tbe  Hungarian  revolution  in 
1848,  the  county  became  the  principal  seat  of 
the  Serb  riung  against  the  Magyars,  and  for 
more  than  a  year  witnessed  all  the  horrors  of 
a  war  of  races.  After  iJie  war  it  formed  with 
the  Banat  the  Serb  waywodeship  (Yoivodina), 
but  has  since  been  restored  to  its  former  status. 
— BitS)  a  town  in  the  8.  W,  part  of  the  county, 
is  situated  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Danube ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,886, 

BlCBJjm,  Jilts,  a  Hungarian  poet,  bom  at 
Tapolcza,  in  the  county  of  Zola,  May  IJ,  1768, 
died  in  IJnz,  Upper  Austria,  May  13,  I84A. 
His  first  work  was  A  magyarok  vitiuigt 
(*'  The  Valor  of  the  Mafo^ara,^'  Pesth,  178C). 
He  cooperated  with  Kazinczy  in  editing  the 
Magyar  Miueitm,  and  with  him  was  imphcated 
in  the  deraocralia  conspiracy  of  the  abbot  Mar- 
tiuovich  of  1T&4,  and  was  sent  to  prison  at  the 
Spielberg,  where  he  was  confined  about  two 
years.  Having  marrried  the  German  poetess 
Gabriele  Baumberg  and  settled  in  Vienna,  be' 
was  obliged  to  leave  that  city  in  1809  for  trans* 
lating  Napoleon's  proclamation  to  the  Hunga- 
rians, and  took  refnge  in  Paris.  He  was  deU»- 
ered  up  to  the  Austrian  anthorities  after  the 
peace  of  1811,  and  kept  under  surveillance  In 
Linz.  He  published  his  collected  poems  at 
Pesth  in  1827  and  at  Buda  in  1835. 

BACrSUra,  a  minnte  and  exceedingly  tow 
v^etable  form  or  monad,  liable  to  appear  in 
any  fluid  or  solid  substance  containing  vitalized 
matters.  It  is  a  mere  point  of  organized  matter, 
highly  refractive,  spherical  in  form,  and  moves 
with  considerable  activity.  The  first  forma 
of  living  organisms,  which  M.  BSchamp  called 
microzymas,  hare  been  found  in  chalk,  and  are 
among  the  smallest  living  beings  that  can  be 
seen.  They  are  found  also  in  concentrated 
alkaline  solutions,  in  all  the  tissues  of  organic 
beings,  in  various  morbid  products,  in  the 
sugar-producing  cells  of  the  liver,  in  tiie  blood 
of  man  and  animals,  in  the  liquids  of  the  e^s, 
larvffi,  and  perfect  form  of  insects,  in  tbe  sap 
of  plants,  and  very  extensively,  if  not  univer- 
sally, in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 
They  act  as  powerful  organic  ferments,  as 
vegetable  cells,  in  the  transformation  of  oano 
sugar  and  fecula  into  glucose.  They  are  de- 
rived from  tbe  air,  in  which  the  germs  are  in 
suspension,  and  undergo  various  degrees  of 
development  before  they  begin  to  act  as  fer- 
ments. They  undoubtedly  play  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  both  healthy  and  morbid  processaa ; 
they  assist  in  the  ripemng  of  fruits,  in  elabo- 


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208 


BACTRIA 


rating  certain  matters  for  the  Doarisbment  of 
genns,  in  the  constant  regeneration  of  animal 
and  vegetable  organs,  and  in  the  formation 
and  action  of  colla.  They  may,  according  to 
Bichamp,  develop  themselves  and  grow  equal- 
ly well  in  an  acid,  alkaline,  or  neutral  men- 
Btrnam.  The  normal  microzymas,  or  organic 
graDules,  or  molecular  gratinlations,  as  they 
are  callod,  in  plants  and  animals,  maj  develop 
into  bacteriums,  and  many  forms  of  both  may 
exist  in  the  saiae  plant.  The  inoculation  of 
bacterium  in  a  plant  or  animal  causes  their  in- 
creoEcd  number,  not  hj  multiplication,  but  by 
so  modifying  the  medium  that  the  normal  mi- 
crozjmas  more  readily  develop  themselves  into 
bacterium.  Many  of  the  phenomena  of  spon- 
taneous generation  find  their  explanation  in 
these  all-pervading  and  minute  organisms.  Ac- 
cording to  Bastion,  whQe  some  of  these  mo- 
nads originate  by  sultdivision  of  prc&iisting 
individu^  (homogeneus),  otiiers  aripnate  d« 
novo,  just  as  crystals  hy  certain  chemical  laws. 
He  thus  goes  ^rther  than  those  advocates  of 
spontaneous  generation  who  believe  that  bao- 
teriums  originate  by  transformation  of  living 
matter  (heterogenesis) ;  for  his  mode  of  spon- 
taneoQS  generation  he  proposes  the  name  of 
arehehiotis.  Torulfe  are  very  simitar  bodies, 
and  are  the  germs  of  the  yeast  of  fbngns. 
Some  bacteriums  also  may  develop  into  fun^. 
(See  Yeast.) 

BlCntU,  or  Badrian*,  an  ancient  country  of 
Asia,  bounded  8.  and  S.  E.  by  the  Paropami- 
sus  (Hindoo  Eoosh)  and  H,  by  the  Ozus,  and 
corresponding  to  the  modem  territories  of  8. 
Bokhara,  Balkh,  and  Ehoondooz.  It  was  m- 
habited  by  a  warlike  people,  akin  to  the  Medea 
and  Persians,  and  generally  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  original  stock  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  races.  Zend  was  the  language 
of  the  country.    Bactro,  or  Zariaspe,  its  capi- 

a  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern 
kh,  was  the  neodquarters  of  the  Magi  and 
a  centre  for  the  ancient  Persian  worship. 
Bactria  was  in  very  early  times  a  powerful 
kingdom,  hut  became  a  province  of  Persia 
abont  tlie  time  of  Cyrus.  It  was  conquered 
by  Alexander,  who  left  a  colony  of   14,000 


Greeks  there,  and  after  his  death  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  dominions  of  tlie  Seleucidte. 
Abont  255  B.  C.  its  governor,  Diodotns  or  The- 


BADAJOZ 

odotus,  revolted,  and  it  was  an  independent 
Greek  kingdom,  with  some  dependencies  or 
affiliated  realms  toward  India,  from  that  time 
till  abont  I2fi  B.  C,  when  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Parthians.  It  was  overrun  by  Genghis 
Khan  and  Tamerlane  in  the  ISth  and  14th 
centuries.  A  good  deal  of  light  was  thrown 
upon  the  history  of  Bactria  by  the  discoveryi 
in  1824  hy  Col.  Tod  of  ft  large  namher  of  an- 
cient coins  in  ttie  topu  or  burial  places  of  Af- 
ghanistan. The  names  of  kings  and  inscrip- 
tions in  Greek  or  Zend  are  found  on  these, 
which  have  been  closely  studied  by  Prinsep, 
H.  H.  Wilson,  Lassen,  and  other  scholars. 
They  are  in  the  London  and  Paris  museums. 

BiCZKO,  Ladwig  t«a,  a  German  author,  bom 
at  Lyck,  East  Prussia,  June  8,  1756,  died  in 
KOnigaberg,  March  27,  182S.  He  became 
blind  in  his  21st  year,  from  an  attack  of  small- 
pox, and  in  1816  was  made  superintendent  of 
the  blind  asylum  at  KOnigsberg.  Among  his 
works  are  a  history  of  Prussia  in  6  volumes, 
and  a  history  of  the  French  revolution.  He 
wrote  also  several  romances  and  dramas. 

BiDUOZ*  L  A  province  of  8pain,  in  Estre- 
madura,  bordering  on  Portugal ;  area,  6,687 
S3,  m.;  pop.  in  1867,  430,049.  It  has  a  diver- 
sified surface,  broken  by  several  mountain 
ranges,  is  well  wooded,  and  includes  many 
alluvial  lands  of  remarkable  fertility,  though 
agriculture  is  backward.  The  Gnadiana  trav- 
erses the  province  from  E.  to  W.  The  climate 
is  hot  and  unhealthy.  There  are  mines  of 
lead,  copper,  silver,  and  qaickwlver,  and  one 
of  gold.  Linen,  leather,  and  soap  are  the 
principal  manufactures.  Among  the  most  no- 
ted towns,  besides  the  capital,  are  Merida,  Za- 
fra,  and  the  fortresses  Albuquerque  and  Oli- 
ven^a,  near  the  Portuguese  frontier.  U.  A 
fortified  town  (anc.  Pax  Augvtla,  corrupted 
by  the  Moors  to  Faragoiua,  whence  Badsjoz), 
capital  of  the  preceding  province,  and  of  Estre- 
madura,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Gaadiana,  5  m. 
from  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  and  203  m.  8.  W. 
of  Madrid;  pop.  in  1867,  22,895.  It  is  built 
on  a  hill  nearly  300  ft.  high,  crowned  with 
the  ruins  of  a  Moorish  castle.  On  the  land 
side  the  city  is  protected  by  a  wall  flanked 
with  bastions,  around  which  are  a  moot  and 
outworks,  and  on  the  heights  beyond  several 
forts.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  mag- 
nificent stone  bridge  of  28  arches,  originally 
built  in  the  16th  century.  There  are  many 
Moorish  remains,  including  a  mosque.  The 
cathedral  was  begun  by  Alfonso  tlio  Wise, 
and  contains  several  paintings  by  Morales. 
There  were  formerly  eight  monasteries  and 
convents,  but  the  buildings  are  now  occupied 
for  other  purposes.  Badiyoz  has  manufacto- 
ries of  soup  and  coarse  cloth,  and  carries  on 
an  active  trode  with  Portugal.    The  frontier 

C'tion  of  the  town  and  its  strong  defences 
B  made  it  a  conspicuous  object  of  attack 
in  the  numerous  war^  in  Spain.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Moors  by  Alfbnso  IX.,  king  of  I.«on, 
in  1230.    It  was  besieged  by  tlie  Portugnese 


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BADAKHSHAS 

T^ithout  Bncoesa  in  IS60,  and  again  dnriiig  the 
vK  of  the  enccessdon  in  1T05.  During  the 
French  inradion  it  was  besieged  bj  Kellermann 
and  Victor  in  1608  and  1809,  and  was  surren- 
dered to  Marehftl  Soult  March  11,  1811,  by 
the  treachery  of  Imaz,  commander  of  the  gar- 
rison. Berwford  made  aa  uneucc4:Bsful  at^ 
tempt  to  recover  it,  and  it  was  afterward  be- 
sieged by  Wellington,  and  carried  by  assanlt 
with  fearful  loss  on  the  night  of  April  fi,  1612. 
The  city  was  aacked  for  two  days  and  nights 
by  the  British  soldiers,  Wellington's  Iobs  dar- 
ing the  20  days'  siege  woa  G,000,  of  whom 
3,500  fell  in  the  final  assault. 
llDlKBSHAIf,  a  mountainona  coon  try  of 
,  Central  Asia,  subject  to  the  Uzbeck  chief  of 
Koondooz,  situated  between  lat.  36°  and  38° 
N.,  and  Ion.  69°  and  73"  E.,  bounded  N.  by 
Khokan,  E.  by  the  table  land  of  Pamir,  S.  by 
Chitral  and  Katiriatan,  and  W.  by  Eoundooz; 
area  estimated  at  40,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
600,000.  The  country  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Oms  or  Araoo  Darya,  and  is  very  uneven, 
witbagradnal  slope  to  tJie  west.  The  principal 
valleys  are  those  of  the  Amoo  and  its  tributary 
the  Koksha.  Tlie  lower  valleys  and  pluns  are 
fertile,  bnt  the  mountains  are  bare  and  sterile. 
The  highest  central  range  is  the  Ehoja  Uoham- 
med,  tbo  peaks  of  which  reach  an  fdtitade  of 
7,000  ft,  above  the  sea,  or  from  3,000  to  4,000 
nbove  the  surrounding  plains.  In  the  east  and 
sonth  the  mountuns  are  higher  and  more  rug- 
ged. They  are  composed  largely  of  limestone, 
oonttdning  lapis  lazuli.  Rubies  are  found  in 
crystal  deposits.  The  Inhabitants  are  T^iks, 
who  speak  the  Persian  langnage  and  belong 
to  the  Sliiah  sect  of  Kohammedans.  Badakh- 
ilian  was  a  dependency  of  the  Uogul  empire, 
and  after  its  fall  paid  a  doubtful  allegiance  to 
Gabool.  In  1823  it  was  reduced  by  the  Uz- 
becks  of  Koondooz.  Its  ancient  capital,  Fyza- 
bad,  and  many  other  cities  and  towns  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  former  still  lies  in  ruins,  A 
large  part  of  the  people  were  slaughtered  or 
sold  into  slavery,  and  in  many  fertile  districts 
the  population  is  still  very  thin.  The  present 
capital,  Jenn,  on  the  lelt  bank  of  the  Koksba, 
105  m.  £.  of  Koondooz,  is  made  up  of  sereral 
scattered  hamlets,  with  abont  1,600  inhabitants. 
UDEN,  a  grand  dncby  of  Germany,  situated 
between  lat  4T°  80'  and  49°  60'  N.,  and  Ion. 
7°  30'  and  9°  00'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  Bavaria,  E.  by  Wortemberg 
and  the  Prussian  province  of  llohenzollem,  S. 
by  Switzerland,  and  W.  by  Rhenish  Barnria  and 
AUacc;  area,  6, 010sq.m.;  pop. in  1867, 1,434,- 
970,  of  whom  931,007  were  set  down  as  Cath- 
olics, 475,018  Protestants,  2,436  other  Chris- 
tian sects,  25,699 Jews;  pop.inl871,  1,461,426. 
In  1BI6  the  population  was  1,006,899 ;  it  in- 
creased abont  10,000  a  year  till  1646,  after 
which,  owing  to  emigration,  there  was  a  period 
of  decrease  till  1865,  since  which  time  there 
has  been  a  gradnat  increase.  The  grand  duchy 
is  divided  into  the  administrative  districts  of 
Cunstance,  Freiburg,  Corlsrohe,  and  Mannheim. 


BADEN  209 

The  capital  is  Oarlsmhe,  which  in  1871  had 
S6,622  inhabitants.  The  most  important  com- 
mercial city  is  Mannheim,  with  39,614  inhabit* 
ants ;  and  the  most  renowned  cities  arc  Heidel- 
berg, the  seat  of  a  celebrated  university,  and 
Baden-Baden,  the  famous  watering  place. — On 
the  western  side  of  Baden,  and  stretching 
along  the  Rhine,  is  a  fertile  strip  of  land,  from 
which  the  rest  of  the  country  nses  toward  the 
east.  In  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  is  the 
Schwarzwald  (Black  Forest),  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Enz,  an  affluent  of  the  Neckar. 
North  of  the  latter  river  is  the  Odenwnid 
mountain  range,  connected  by  ranges  of  hills 
with  the  Schwarzwald,  but  much  less  elevated. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Black  Forest  are  the 
Foldberg,  4,789  ft.,  and  the  Belchen,  4,490  ft. 
The  highest  point  of  Che  Odeuwald,  the  Eatz- 
enbnckel,  is  about  2,000  ft.  high.  Between  the 
Rhine  and  the  little  river  Dreisam  is  the  Eai- 
serstnhl,  an  independent  volcanic  group  nearly 
10  m.  in  length  and  5  in  breadth ;  the  highest 
point  of  this  group  is  1,784  ft.— The  principal 
river  is  the  Rhine,  which  forms  the  boundary 
of  the  duchy  on  the  south  and  west  The 
other  most  important  rivers  are  the  Neckar, 
Mun,  and  Elz.  The  Danube  rises  in  Baden, 
on  the  extreme  east  of  the  Black  Forest,  under 
the  name  of  the  Brege.  Near  Donaoeschiugen 
it  unites  with  the  Brigach,  and  with  another 
rivulet  from  the  palace  yard  of  Donaaescbin- 

Sen,  when  it  takes  the  name  of  Danube.  Ba- 
en  has  a  nnmber  of  small  mountain  lakes,  the 
Mummel,  Titti,  &c.  A  part  of  Lake  Constance 
belongs  to  Baden, — In  the  pMns  and  valleys  the 
climate  is  mild  and  agreeable,  but  in  the  higher 
parts  it  is  cold  and  moist,  with  snow  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  with  fi^quent- 
ly  very  sudden  transitions  from  winter  to  sum- 
mer. But  on  the  whole  the  climate  is  very 
salubrious. — In  the  valleys  and  plains  the  »oil 
yields  wheat,  maize,  barley,  beans,  potatoes, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco ;  in  the  mountaiiious 
district,  rye,  wheat,  and  oats  are  cultivated. 
The  eitendve  vineyards  produce  excellent 
wines,  and  the  finest  fruits  abound.  The  man- 
ofactures  are  chiefly  confined  to  iron  and  hard- 
ware, and  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton. 
The  Black  Forest  is  distinguished  for  manufac- 
tures of  wooden  ornaments  and  toys,  watches, 
wooden  clocks,  musical  boxes,  organs,  and  bas- 
ket work.  St  Blasien  is  an  important  seat 
of  ribbon  and  cotton  manufacture.  The  fab- 
rication of  jewelry  and  of  tobacco  and  cigars 
occupies  the  next  rank  in  importance.  The 
chiccory,  paper,  and  cloth  monnfactures,  the 
tanneries,  and  breweries  ore  also  noticeable. 
There  are  extensive  government  salt  works  at 
Dflrrhdm  and  Rappenan.  The  most  excellent 
iron  mines  are  those  of  Oberwert  and  Kan- 
dem.  Gold  washing,  formerly  extensively  car- 
ried on  along  the  Rhine,  is  now  little  practised, 
Baden  has  more  than  SO  mineral  spring!^  the 
most  frequented  of  which  are  Baoen-Baden, 
Badenweiler,  Antogast,  Rippottsaa,  and  Ueber- 
lingen.    The  exjiorts  are  wine,  timber,  brcod- 


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210  BA] 

stuffs,  hemp,  tobacco,  fhiits,  oil,  salt,  and  taasn- 
factnred  articlea.  The  principal  importa  are 
colonial  produce,  southern  fruits,  medicinea, 
horses,  wool,  cotton,  silk  goods,  iron,  steel, 
and  Tarious  articles  of  Inmrr.  The  currencj 
ia  the  Rhenish,  60  krentzers  to  the  florin  or 
golden.  The  weights  and  measures  are  ac- 
cording to  tha  decimal  system. — There  are 
two  onireruticB,  one  Protestant  at  Heidelberg, 
founded  in  1386,  and  one  Catholic  st  Freiburg, 
founded  in  1457.  At  Pforzheim  is  an  institu- 
tion for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  at  Freiburg 
one  for  the  blind.  The  Gurlsrahe  pol7technio 
school,  establi^od  about  1S32,  is  one  of  the 
best  in  Germany.  The  population  of  the  np- 
per  Bbine  springs  from  the  Alemaujii ;  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mnrg  and  the  lower  Rhine 
the  Franfeisb  race  preponderates;  tlie  popula- 
tion along  the  lake  shores  are  of  Suerian  (Swa- 
bian)  ana  Yindelician  origin.  The  character 
of  the  people  is  marked  b;  honesty,  industrj, 
and  courage;  but  the  population  of  the  Black 
Forest  is  most  typical  of  the  ancient  German 
character. — The  executive  government,  besides 
the  grand  dnke,  is  composed  of  six  depwtmenta, 
the  ministers  being  responnble  to  the  legislature. 
The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  parlia- 
ment of  two  chambers,  called  the  first  and 
second.  The  first  chamber,  having  31  members 
in  18T8,  consists  of  the  princes  of  the  reigning 
line,  the  heads  of  t«n  noble  families,  the  pro- 
prietors of  large  hereditary  landed  estates,  the 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Freiburg,  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Protestant  church,  two  deputies 
of  the  universities,  and  eight  odier  members 
appointed  for  life  by  the  grand  duke;  the  sec- 
ond chamber  of  63  representatives,  chosen  for 
eight  years,  22  from  towns  and  41  from  rural 
districts.  In  1867-'8  the  revenue  was  22,824,871 
florins,  the  expenditures  22,884,871,  showing 
a  deficit  of  10,000  florins,  a  little  more  than 
(4,000.  Id  ISeS-'Q  there  was  a  deficit  of  nearly 
6,000,000  florins,  more  than  (2,000,000.  The 
efltunatea  for  1870-'71  showed  a  probable 
excess  of  466,982  florins,  something  less  than 
(200,000.  The  general  public  debt  on  Jan.  1, 
1S71,  was  37,644,068  florins,  and  the  railway 
debt  118,016,028.  There  were  590  m.  of  rail- 
way, S7T  m.  of  telegraph,  and  4ST  sailing  and 
steam  vessels  engaged  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Rhine  and  tlie  Neckor.  Military  service  is  oblig- 
atory upon  all,  the  period  being  three  years  in 
active  service,  four  in  the  reserve,  and  five  in 
the  landwehr;  the  annual  contingent  is  4,700 
men.  The  actual  force  in  time  of  peace  is 
18,695  men  of  all  arms,  besides  668  artillery- 
men garrisoning  the  fortress  of  Rastadt,  and 
in  time  of  war  may  be  raised  to  48,705. — 
The  southern  portions  of  Baden  are  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  peopled  by  Celts,  who 
were  dispossessed  by  Alemanni.  The  country 
subsequently  formed  a  part  of  tha  Frankish  em- 
pire. Berthol^,  b.  supposed  descendant  of  the 
Alemannion  dukes,  was  master  of  the  cattle  of 
ZShringen,  near  Freibnrg,  and  the  first  duke  of 
ZahringeD,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  11th  cen- 


tury. His  descendants  assumed  the  title  of 
margraves  of  Baden,  but  in  1190  the  family 
was  spht  into  two  branches,  Baden,  and  Hoch- 
berg,  and  other  divisions  took  place  afterward, 
as  well  as  various  acqui^tions  by  marriage  or 
purchase.  Christopher  I.,  who  died  in  1627, 
united  most  of  the  possessions  of  the  bouse, 
but  on  his  death  the  margi'aviate  was  di- 
vided between  his  two  surviving  sons,  who 
thus  formed  the  two  lines  of  Baden-Baden 
and  Baden-Borlach.  Tbe  line  of  Baden-Ba- 
den become  extinct  by  the  death  of  Augus- 
tas George  in  1771,  and  its  possessions  were 
united  with  Baden-Duriach,  under  the  long 
and  prosperous  reign  of  the  margrave  Charles 
Frederick.  By  the  treaty  of  Lunfiviile  in  1801, 
Baden  acquired  a  conffldersble  addition  of  terri- 
tory, and  was  iurther  increased  in  180S,  when 
the  margrave  received  the  title  of  prince  elec- 
tor, and  by  tbe  treaty  of  Presburg  in  1806.  In 
1606,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire, 
the  elector  joined  the  confederation  of  theRhine, 
and,  upon  occaraou  of  the  marriage  of  the  heir 
apparent  with  fit^plianie  Beanhamais,  received 
from  Napoleon  Uie  title  of  grand  duke  and 
1,660  square  miles  of  additional  territory ;  some 
smaller  additions  in  1809  and  1810  increased 
Baden  to  its  present  extent.  After  the  battle 
of  Leipnc  in  1818  the  grand  dnchy  returned 
to  the  German  confederation.  It  then  formed 
a  territory  of  about  6,800  sq.  m.,  with  t  popula- 
tion of  something  more  than  1,000,000.  The 
pnblio  debt  was  large,  and  the  taxes  burden- 
some ;  and  moreover  a  strong  desire  had  grown 
up  among  the  people  for  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment. This  led  to  earnest  discuesious  in  the 
chambers,  and  to  some  administrative  reforms. 
The  revolutionary  movements  of  1880  produced 
little  effect  upon  Baden ;  but  after  tbe  procla- 
mation of  the  French  republic  in  1848  a  revo- 
lution broke  ont  in  Baden,  which  was  soon  snp- 
pressed.  (See  Hboekb.)  In  May,  1849,  a  new 
revolution  expelled  the  grand  duke,  set  up  a 
provisional  government,  and  was  only  overcome 
m  July  by  aid  of  the  armed  force  of  Prussia. 
{See  Rastadt.)  la  1852  the  grand  duke  died, 
and  there  arose  a  qneation  as  to  the  sncceaaion, 
which  was  further  complicated  by  a  dispute 
between  the  civil  power  and  the  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Freiburg.  The  question  of  succesaon 
was  finally  disposed  of,  the  grand  duke  Frede- 
rick William  Louis  assuming  the  authority. 
He  married  in  1866  the  daughter  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  now  emperor  of  Germany.  On  the 
division  between  North  and  South  Germany 
in  1866,  Baden  was  forced  by  its  geographical 
position  to  side  with  South  Germany,  although 
its  sympathies  were  with  Prussia,  At  the 
close  of  1870  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Ger- 
man empire.  The  troops  of  Baden  form  the 
largest  part  of  tbe  ]4tb  German  army  corps. 

SADEN.  ■•  A  town  (anc.  Agua  Pannonw) 
of  Lower  Austria,  on  the  river  Sehwechat,  14 
m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  186B,  10,438. 
It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  as  a  bathing 
place,  having  13  hot  sulphur  springs.     Tbe 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BADEN-BADEN 


211 


town  baa  also  dye  works,  and  steel,  brass, 
famitare,  and  otb«r  manniaotories.  IL  A 
town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Aargan, 
on  the  Limmat,  18  m,  N.  E,  of  Aarau  ;  pop. 
about  8,000.  Its  liot  Bulphur  springs  were 
well  known  to  the  Ronmos,  who  built  a 
coatle  upon  the  «t«  where  the  city  now 
Btonds.  The  hottest  and  most  celebrated  of 
the  springa  is  called  Yerenabad.  The  rock; 
heights  on  each  side  of  the  river  form  a  portal 
through  which  the  Limmat  nms.    Before  the 


by  a  tnonel  800  feet  long  under  the  castle 
hill.  Baden  from  the  ICth  to  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  oentuTT  was  the  seat  of  the  Swiss 
diet  In  the  town  hoase  of  Baden  Eugene  of 
Savoy,  who  acted  as  representative  of  the  em- 
peror of  Austria,  signed  the  final  treaty  of  peace 
terminating  the  war  of  the  Spanish  snocesnon, 
Sept  7,  1714. 


BIDEN-UDEIT,  ft  German  watering  place,  in 

the  grand  dnchv  of  Baden,  situt^t^d  on  the  Oos, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Black  Forest,  18  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Carlsruho;  permanent  pop.  in  1671,  10,083, 
There  are  nearly  30  hot  springs,  Sowing  from  • 
the  rock  at  the  foot  of  the  castle  terrace.  The 
waters  vary  in  t^raperatore  from  115°  to  154°  F., 
and  are  carried  in  pipes  to  the  different  baths 
thronghoQt  the  town.  A  pint  of  water  frvm 
the  Urspmng,  one  of  the  hottest  and  most  co- 
pions  of  the  springs,  weighs  T,Sfl2  grains,  and 
contains  88'8  grtuns  of  solid  matter,  16  of  which 
consist  of  common  salt,  G|  of  salphate,  muriate, 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  and  the  remainder  of  a 
small  portion  of  magnesia,  traces  of  iron,  and 
abont  half  a  cubio  inch  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
The  nnmber  of  risiters  to  the  baths  has  of  fate 
been  abont  G0,000  a  year,  the  seasoti  being  at 
its  height  in  Jnly  and  August.  There  are  nn- 
merons  hotels  and  several  pnblio  baths.  The 
principal  place  of  resort  for  visitors  is  the  C<m- 


tenatiantkant,  which  is  sorronnded  by  pleasure 
grounds  and  contains  an  assembly  room,  res- 
tanrant,  library  and  reading  room,  and  the  for- 
merly ao  celebrated  gaming  tables,  the  licenses 
of  which  expired  in  18T2,  and  have  not  been 
renewed.  The  drives  and  promenades  sbont 
the  town  are  beautiful.  There  is  a  parish 
chnrch  containing  the  remains  of  the  mar- 
graves of  Baden,  who  resided  here  for  several 
oentariea,  an  English  church  bnilt  in  18S7,  and 
a  Qreek  chapel.  The  remans  of  Roman  vapor 
baths  have  been  discovered  just  beneath  the 
new  castle.  The  picturesque  ruins  of  the  old 
castle  of  the  margraves  still  crown  the  sununit 
of  the  Schlossberg,  and  the  new  castie,  the 
summer  residence  of  the  grand  duke,  stands 
lower  down  on  the  hill  directly  overlooking 
the  town.  It  was  founded  in  1471,  bnmed  by 
fbe  French  in  1688,  and  subsequently  restored. 


Beneath  are  curious  dungeons  connected  with 
the  old  Roman  baths,  and  in  the  upper  part 
are  portridts  of  the  Baden  family. 

BlDEN-BlDEir,  LaiwlK  WllhelH  I.,  margrave 
of,  a  German  general,  bom  in  Paris,  April  8, 
1665,  died  at  Rastadt,  Jan.  4, 1707.  LouisXIV. 
was  his  godfather.  He  served  first  under  Mon- 
tecnculi  against  Turenne,  and  then  under  the 
dnke  of  Lorraine.  At  the  siege  of  Vienna  by 
the  Turks,  in  1683,  he  threw  his  forces  into 
the  city,  and  by  a  brilliant  sally  effected  a 
junction  with  King  Sobieski  and  the  duke  of 
Lorraine,  who  hnd  come  to  its  relief.  In  1689 
he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Nissa,  snd  in  1691  at 
Sslankamen.  He  also  took  an  active  part  in 
the  WOT  against  France  in  1603,  and  atter  the 
death  of  Sobieski  in  1696  afipired  to  the  crown 
of  Poland ;  but  the  elector  of  Saxony  was  pre- 
ferred to  him.    He  agfua  commanded  in  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


212  BAI 

campaign  of  ITOS,  in  the  war  of  the  Bpanish 
BQCcessioD,  and  took  Land&u,  bnt  was  aubsC' 
quentl;  defeated  bj  Villars  at  Friedlingen  and 
at  Bf^chstadt.  He  built  tlie  famocB  lines  of 
.  gtollhofen  from  the  Block  Forest  through  BQbl 
and  Stollhofen  t«  the  Khine. 

BADCEB  (melei,  Cuv.),  a  caraivorons  plan- 
tigrade qLiadrap«d  of  the  order  mammalia, 
orizinallj  classmed  with  the  bears,  raccoons, 
and  ooatis  hj  Linnajne,  bnt  separated  by  more 
recent  naturalists.  The  badgers  have  4  false 
molars  in  the  upper  and  8  in  the  under  Jaw,  S 
and  4  on  each  dde  respectively,  followed  by  a 
camassier  and  a  single  tuberculous  tooth  cS 
large  size.  They  are  the  least  camiroroas  of 
the  family  to  which  they  belong,  with  the  ^n- 
gle  exception  of  the  beara.  They  have  G  toes, 
before  and  behind,  deeply  buried  in  the  fiesh, 
and  provided  with  powerful,  compressed  claws, 
adapted  for  burrowing  in  the  earth,  or  digging 
for  rooU,  which  are  their  principal  food.  The 
body  is  long,  flat,  and  coiupre^ed ;  the  head 
small  and  flat,  with  an  elongated  snont;  the 
legs  sturdy  and  powerful ;  the  ttul  short.  Be* 
low  the  anus  there  is  a  slit,  from  which  exudes 
a  very  fetid  oleaginous  matter,  similar  in 
character,  though  not  in  odor,  t«  that  of  the 
civets  and  genets.  The  badgers  are  inoffensive, 
timid,  nocturnal  animals,  ueeping  during  the 
day  in  their  burrows,  which  are  curiously  con- 
structed, with  a  single  entrance,  but  with  many 
different  chamberB  within,  terminating  in  a  cir- 
cular qiartment,  well  lined  with  dry  grass  or 
bay,  in  which  the  male  dwells  alone,  escnewing 
the  company  even  of  his  female.  The  badger 
is  a  very  cleanly  animal,  carefully  removing 
everything  that  might  become  offensive  from 
his  dwelling,  never  dqjodting  his  excrements 
near  its  entrance,  and  instantly  evacuatjng  it 
in  case  of  its  Iwing  polluted  by  any  other  ani- 
mal. The  flesh  is  m  some  places  much  es- 
teemed aa  an  article  of  food,  and  it  is  nsuelly 
very  fat.  The  badger  makes  a  vigorous  defence 
when  attacked ;  and  as  its  bite  is  terrible,  it 
requires  a  brave  and  powerfiil  terrier  dog  to 
drag  it  from  its  burrow. — The  geographical 
distnbution  of  the  badger  extends  over  the 
whole  of  Europe,  northern  and  central  Asia, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  North  America.  It 
does  not  extend  into  Africa  or  South  America, 


n  the  former  of  which  continents  it  i 


~P.t; 


sented  by  the  rattel  {ffulo  mellkora),  as  (t  is 
in  the  latter  by  the  vorious  kinds  of  moufette 
{mtphitit).  In  Australia  there  exists  no  plan- 
tigrade animal  of  any  kind.  In  the  eastern 
peninsula  and  the  Indian  islea  the  piece  of  the 
badger  is  supplied  by  the  telagon  (mj/daut  me- 
lieepa).  This  genus  contains  at  the  moat  only 
three  species,  and  some  writers  have  reduced  it 
to  a  single  one,  asserting  that  the  American 
badger  19  a  mere  variety  of  the  European,  and 
the  Indian  a  distinct  genus ;  for  neither  of 
which  opinions  does  there  appear  to  be  any 
foundation.  1.  The  common  badger  of  Europe 
(Jf.  Dalgnru  or  tarut)  is  about  the  Mze  of  a 
moderately  large  dog,  but  longer  and  fatter  in 


the  body,  and  tower  on  the  legs.  The  head  Is 
long  and  pointed,  the  ears  so  short  as  to  lie  con- 
cealed by  the  fur.  The  tail  barely  reaches  to 
the  mid-thigh.    The  hair  is  long  and  ooarae. 


except  that  on  the  belly  and  breast  which  is 
short  and  resembles  fiir.  The  head  is  white, 
with  a  black  chin  and  two  black  bands  passing 
backward  from  the  comers  of  the  mouth,  in- 
cluding the  ears  and  eyes,  and  meeting  at  the 
nape.  Every  hair  of  the  upper  part  of  the  bad- 
ger has  three  distinct  colors,  yellowish  white 
at  the  roots,  black  at  the  middle,  and  ash-gray 
at  the  top,  which  gives  a  uniform  sandy  gray 
color  to  all  its  upper  parts.  The  throat,  breast, 
belly,  and  limbs  are  Jet  black.  The  female  bad- 
ger produces  three,  four,  or  five  young  in  the 
early  spring,  suckles  them  for  about  five  weeks, 
and  then  gradually  accustomg  them  to  shift  for 
themselves.  When  taken  early  the  yonng  cube 
are  ea^y  domesticated.  Badgers  are  hunted  in 
some  parts  of  England  by  moonlight,  priucipal- 
ly  for  their  hides,  which,  when  properly  dreesed, 
are  held  to  make  the  best  pistol  furniture. 
Their  hair  is  of  great  value  for  shaving  brushes 
and  for  paint  brushes.  The  hind  quarters,  when 
salted,  are  good  eating,  but  are  not  much  in  use 
in  England.  In  China  badgers'  hams  are  a 
choice  dainty.  S.  The  American  badger  (M. 
LahradoTKa)  measures  about  Si  feet  from  the 
snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  extends  to 


Xmntaui  BoWn  (Uekl  Lilndorii*). 

6  inches  more.  Its  head  is  less  attenuated  than 
that  of  the  European  species,  though  equally 
elongated.   The  claws  of  its  fore  feet  are  mDcb 


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BADIA  Y  LEBUCH 

longer;  ita  tail  ie  Bhorter,  its  far  of  &  much 
softer  and  more  ailky  character,  and  its  colors 
differeot.  It  &equeata  the  sandy  plains  skirt- 
ing the  foot  of  the  iiocky  mountaiiw,  so  far 
north  as  the  Peace  river,  and  abonnds  in  the 
country  wat«red  b;  the  Uiesoori ;  but  ita  sooth- 
em  and  western  limits  have  not  been  defined. 
It  is  a  far  more  corairoroas  animal  than  it^ 
European  congener,  and  is  also  believed  to  hi- 
bernate during  the  winter  months,  which  habit 
is  not  common  in  either  of  the  other  species.  It 
preys  on  the  marmots  of  the  plains,  the  i 
mophilvs  ffoodii  and  Siehardtimii,  and  oi 
the  smaller  qnadrnpeds,  as  field  mice  and  the 
.  like,  and  also  feede  on  v^etable  matters.  It 
extends  into  Mexico,  where  it  is  called  illa- 
eoyotl  OT  eoyotlkumuli ;  and  very  fine  specimens 
have  been  sent  ft'om  California,  8.  The  Indian 
badger,  balisanr,  or  sand  bear  (if.  or  areUmyi 
eeliari*},  is  about  the  size  of  the  European  bad- 

Ser,  but  stands  much  higher  on  its  legs,  and  ie 
istingnished  by  it«  attenuated  muzzle,  ita  trun- 
Qat«d  snout  rewmbUng  that  of  a  bog,  and  its 
short  tail.     Its  body  somewhAt  reecmblcB  that 


BAERLE 


213 


Indlu  B>dg«T  (Malu  oi^krla). 

of  the  bear;  and  when  attacked  it  uts  erect 
like  that  animal,  and  seems  to  possess  a  sii 
power  la  its  arms  and  claws,  which  are  truly 
formidable.  In  color  and  the  nature  of  its  fur 
it  closely  resembles  the  European  species.  The 
markings  of  the  head  are  exactly  like  tlio» 
the  English  badger,  but  its  throat  is  white,  and 
the  black  bands  from  the  muzzle  to  the  car,  in- 
stead of  meeting  at  the  nape,  encircle  the  white 
of  the  throat,  forming  a  distinct  gorget. 

BADU  T  LEBUCH,  D«iiig«,  a  Spanish  travel- 
ler, known  as  Ali  Bey,  born  in  17Tfl,  died  near 
Aleppo  in  1818.  He  learned  Arabic  at  Valencia 
and  London,  and  nnder  the  name  of  Ali  Bey 
and  in  the  disguise  of  a  Mnssnlman  spent  two 
years  (I803-'5)  in  Uorocco  on  terms  of  high 
favor  with  the  emperor.  He  then  made  a  pil- 
gnmage  to  Mecca,  stopping  some  time  in  Trip- 
oli, Cypms,  and  Egypt,  atlerward  visiting  Je- 


rusalem and  prominent  places  in  Syria,  and 
reaching  Constautinople  in  the  autumn  of  1307. 
He  was  there  for  the  first  time  suspected  of  not 
being  a  real  Mussulman.  He  fidd,  and  return- 
ing home  in  1809  entered  the  pubUc  service 
under  King  Joseph  Bonaparte,  on  whose  ex- 

Bilsion  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country, 
e  published  an  account  of  his  travels  at  Paris 
in  1S14,  under  tlie  title  Voyage*  d'Ali  Bei  en 
Afrique  et  ea  AeU  pendant  let  anniei  1803  d 
1807,  in  which  he  described  places  and  things 
which  no  Christian  before  him  hod  seen. 
Four  years  later  he  set  out  on  a  second  jour- 
ney to  the  East,  but  died  soon  alter  his  arrival 
in  Syria. 

BADIDS,  Jsdtns,  or  Jmh,  a  Flemish  printer  and  ' 
author,  bom  at  Assche  {whence  he  was  snr- 
namod  Asoensins)  near  Brussels  in  H62,  died 
in  153fi.  Ue  was  well  educated,  especially  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  wliich  he  taught  for  19  years 
at  Lyons,  working  at  the  same  time  as  a  print- 
er. Early  in  the  Idth  century  ho  founded  in 
Paris  his  fiunous  printing  establishment,  the 
Prelum  Ateeinianum,  from  which  issued  some 
of  the  most  famous  editions  of  classic  authors. 
He  was  himself  the  author  of  various  transla- 
tions and  annotations,  of  a  life  of  Thomas  i 
Kempis,  of  a  satire  on  women  entitled  Navi- 
eula  Slultarum  Mulierum,  and  other  works,  in 

5 rose  and  verse.  He  was  the  father-in-law  of 
lobert  Stephens. — His  sou  Conbad  succeeded 
him  in  the  printing  bnsiness,  removed  to  Ge- 
neva in  1549,  and  died  about  15S6.  He  wrote 
Satiret  ehTetieaTia  da  la  euiiina  papalt  in 
French  verse. 

BIGIU  (anc.  Cattra  Viniana),  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  84  m.  8.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Cordova;  pop.  about  ll,flOO.  Grain  and  oil 
are  the  chief  articles  of  to-ade,  and  are  export- 
ed to  Malaga.  The  site  of  tlie  old  Roman 
town  is  still  distJngnishable. 

BIER,  Karl  f>«it  vm,  a  Rnssian  naturalist, 
bom  in  Esthonia,  Feb.  17,  1793,  died  Nov.  29, 
lS7fl.  He  studied  at  Dorpat  and  WQrzburg, 
and  in  1819  became  professor  of  zoology  in  the 
university  of  Efinigsberg,  whore  he  organized 
the  zoological  museum.  In  1834  he  was  called 
to  St.  Petersburg  ta  become  the  librarian  o( 
the  academy  and  one  of  its  most  prominent 
members.  lu  1837,  by  order  of  the  czar,  he 
conducted  scientific  explorations  on  the  north- 
ern shores  of'  Russia  and  made  valuable  de- 
scriptions of  the  plants  and  animals.  He 
wrote  numerous  treatises  upon  zoOlogy  and 
botany,  especially  those  of  northern  Russia. 

BAERLE,  Ga^ard  W  (Lat  Barlam),  a  Dutch 
poet,  theologian,  and  historian,  bom  in  Ant- 
werp, Feb.  12,  1584,  died  in  Amsterdam,  Jan. 
14,  1648.  He  studied  theology  at  Leydcn, 
and  in  1617  was  elected  professor  of  lo^c 
there.  He  adopted  the  principles  and  wrote 
in  defence  of  Arminius  and  the  Remonstrants, 
fbr  which  he  was  at  length  deprived  of  his 
professorship.  He  then  studied  medicine  and 
obtained  a  doctor's  degree  from  Caen,  but 
T«muned  at  Leyden,   supporting  himself  by 


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214 


BAEZ 


j^dug  private  instraction,  till  1S8I,  when  he 
was  elected  professor  of  philosoph;  and  rhet- 
orio  in  the  newl;  founded  atheoraum  at  Am- 
sterdam. He  wBB  one  of  the  best  Latin  poets 
of  that  period,  and  has  left  records  oi  the 
goTemmeDt  of  Connt  Maurice  of  Nassaa  in 
Brazil,  and  of  the  reception  given  to  Maria  de' 
Medici  at  Amsterdam  in  1688. 

BlEZ,  BieuTMtxn,  president  of  the  Domin- 
ican repablic,  bom  at  Azno,  Santo  Domingo, 
earl;  in  this  centnr;.  He  inherited  a  large 
fortane  from  his  father,  a  mulatto,  who  was 
prominent  in  the  revolution  of  1S08;  cooper- 
ated with  Santana  in  the  establishment  of 
Dominican  independence;  and  was  president 
'  from  1S49  tJU  1863,  when  he  was  supplant- 
ed  b;  Sanlana,  who  expelled  him  from  the 
oonntry.  After  the  deposition  of  8antana  in 
Mar,  1896,  Bae^  wGo  had  spent  the  interval 
in  New  Tork,  resumed  the  presidency,  OcL  6, 
1866 ;  bat  he  was  once  more  ousted  b  j  Santona 
Jane  II,  1868,  and  obliged  to  remain  abroad 
tall  after  the  evacoation  of  Dominica  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1666,  and  in  December  of  that 
year  he  was  elected  for  a  third  prendentiat 
term.  This  was  intermpted  in  March,  1866, 
by  an  insorrectdon  led  by  Gen.  Pimente!  in 
&vor  of  Cabraj,  in  conseqaenoe  of  which  Baez 
was  banished  to  St.  Thomas.  A  new  revoln- 
tion  in  December,  186T,  drove  Cabral  from 
power  and  restored  Baez.  After  rarions  di- 
rect and  indirect  negotiations,  he  signed  on 
Nov.  29,  1BS9,  two  treaties  with  President 
Grant,  one  for  the  cession  of  the  bay  of  Sa- 
mana  and  the  other  for  the  annexation  of  the 
Dominican  repnblic  to  the  United  States,  snb- 
jeot  to  the  approval  of  the  people  of  the  re- 
public, which  was  ostensibly  obtained  in  an 
election  (decreed  by  Baei;  Feb.  10,  IBTO)  held 
under  the  protection  of  American  men-of-war. 
The  United  States  senate,  however,  refhsed  to 
ratify  the  treaty.  A  commisuoit  was  appoint- 
ed by  President  Grant,  nnder  authority  of  con- 
gress, to  visit  and  examine  the  island,  and  re- 
ported in  April,  18T1,  in  favor  of  annexation  ; 
but  the  measure  was  pressed  no  farther.  Its 
fUlure  encouraged  Oabral  and  Pimentel  to  re- 
new the  civil  war. 

BlEZl  (one.  Beatia\  a  city  of  Sp^n,  in  the 
province  and  23  m  K  E.  of  the  city  of  Jaen, 
8  m.  N.  of  the  Guadalquivir ;  pop.  13,400.  It 
has  a  cathedral  and  several  fine  public  edifices, 
of  which  the  most  noteworthy  are  the  uni- 
Tersity,  the  oratory  of  8t  Philip  Neri,  the 
marble  fountain  with  caryatides  in  the  ploi^ 
and  the  arcb  of  Baesa.  In  the  days  when 
it  was  held  by  the  Moors,  it  had  a  popu- 
lation of  60,000,  was  surrounded  by  a  strong 
.  double  wall,  and  contained  the  residence  ^ 
several  Moorish  kings.  The  sculptor  Gaspar 
Becerra  was  bom  here  in  1620.  The  trade 
and  manufactures  are  inconsiderable. 

BIFFIN,  WOliaH,  an  English  navigator,  bom 
in  1684,  died  in  1622.  In  1612  he  accompanied 
James  Hall  on  his  fourth  arctic  expedition,  and 
on  his  return  wrote  an  account  of  it,  in  which 


BAOAUI>.£ 

a  method  is  laid  down  for  the  first  time  of  de- 
termining the  longitude  at  sea  by  an  observa- 
tion of  tiie  celestial  bodies.  In  1S18  he  ex- 
plored the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  wrote  a 
narrative  of  his  voyage.  In  ISI6  Baffin  oooom- 
panied  Robert  Bylot  as  mat«  on  a  voyage  to 
the  northwest  in  the  Discovery.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  again  sailed  with  Bylot,  and  on 
this  occasion  discovered  ^e  bay  which  haa 
since  home  his  name.  Baffin  published  an 
account  of  both  voyages,  and  gave  a  very  ac- 
curate description  of  the  boy.  He  afterward 
made  voyages  to  the  Bast,  and  in  1621  Jobed 
an  English  expedition  to  the  Pernan  gulf, 
which  united  with  the  Persians  to  expel  the  ■ 
Portngneee,  and  was  killed  at  Ormoz. 

BiFFn  (or  BTLffT)  BIT,  an  extensive  gnlf  or 
inland  sea  on  the  N,  E.  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, communicating  with  the  Atlantic  by  Davis 
strait  and  with  the  Arctic  ocean  by  Smith 
Bonnd  to  the  north,  and  Lancaster  sound  to 
the  west.  It  extends  about  800  m.  from  8.  E. 
to  N.  W.,  has  an  average  width  of  280  m.,  and 
is  inelnded  between  the  parallels  of  88°  and  W 
K,  and  the  meridians  of  60°  and  80°  W.  It 
was  named  in  honor  of  William  Baffin.  It  was 
visited  by  Oapt.  Ross  in  1818,  by  Capt  Parry 
in  1819,  by  Inglefield  in  1852,  who  established 
the  existence  of  a  channel  connecting  it  with 
the  great  polar  sea,  and  by  McClnre  in  1860-'63, 
who  was  the  lirst  to  sail  from  Behring  strait  to 
Baffin  bay.  The  coasts  are  rocky  and  precipi- 
tous, rising  in  many  placee  to  the  height  of 
1,000  feet,  and  presentmg  a  vast  number  of 
lofty  peaks  of  very  singular  shape.  Innumera- 
ble sounds  and  creeks  open  on  each  side  of  the 
bay.  Black  wholes  of  large  size,  seals,  and 
walrus  are  captured  here,  and  bears  and  black 
foxes  and  various  sea  fowl  are  found  on  the 
shores.  The  depth  of  water,  as  far  as  ascer- 
tained, varies  from  200  to  1,060  fathoms. 

BJJTV,  called  the  Pure,  a  Venetian  womon 
of  remarkable  talent  and  beauty,  who  was 
captured  in  1680  by  corsairs  while  on  the  way 
with  her  father  from  Venice  to  Corfti,  and 
carried  to  Constantinople,  where  she  became 
the  slave  and  afterward  the  sultana  of  Amu- 
rath  in.,  over  whom  she  exercised  extraordi- 
nary Influence.  Amurath  snljected  the  female 
attendants  of  Baffb  to  the  torture  in  order  to 
extract  from  them  the  secret  of  her  fascina- 
tion; bnt  OS  they  conld  confess  nothing,  the 
legitimacy  of  the  sultana's  influence  whs  so 
longer  questioned.  Alter  the  death  of  the  snl- 
tan  she  became  adviser  of  her  son  Moham- 
med III,,  and  her  influence  did  not  wane  till 
1608,  when  her  grandson  Ahmed  consigned 
her  to  the  old  serngiio,  where  she  died. 

BlGiCDX,  or  Bagaidl,  a  body  of  Gallic  peas- 
ants who  revolted  against  the  oppression  of  the 
Romans  about  A.  D.  270,  headed  by  one  Victo- 
ria, called  by  the  soldiers  Mother  of  Legions. 
They  besieged  and  took  Augustodunnm  (Au- 
tun),  and  utterly  destroyed  what  was  previously 
a  flourishing  metropolis.  Claudius  temporari- 
ly quelled  them,  and  Aurelian  remitted  their 


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tkiH,  and  grsntad  them  a  general  amneBtr. 
Under  Diocletian,  in  291,  thej  rose  agwn,  and 
IHocletiaii,  bimself  engaged  in  patting  down 
the  Persiana  and  the  barbarians  of  the  lower 
Danabe,  sent  Maximiau  a^lnst  them.  The; 
rallied  nnder  two  leaders,  Jsiianus  and  Aman- 
dna,  who  aasnmed  the  title  of  emperor.  The 
coins  of  these  Baganditin  emfierors  are  still 
extant,  and  bear  pagan  inst^riptions,  althoagh 
thef  were  reputed  to  be  Christiana,  llazimian 
soon  compelled  the  BoRande  to  capitulate. 
The  two  emperors  fell  in  battle.  The  place  of 
this  sangninarj  contest  was  long  known  as  the 
Fottet  dit  Bagaudet.  The  Bagaade  long  oon- 
tinned  to  be  troublesome,  and  infested  the 
forests  and  fastnesses  of  Gaol  with  an  irregu- 
lar kind  of  brigandage  nntil  the  end  of  the 
western  empire. 

BIGDAD,  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  sitnated  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Tigris,  here  aboat  TOO 
feet  wide,  in  Ut  88°  80'  N.,  Ion.  44°  26'  E. ; 
p<^nlati<»i  estimated  at  aboat  100,000,  of  whom 


EukloTi  Tomb. 

about  1G,000  were  Jews,  8,000  native  Chris- 
tiana, and  the  remainder  Mobaiomedan  Arabs, 
Eords,  Tarkg,  and  Persians.  Bagdad  is  une- 
qually dirided  by  the  river  Tigris,  two  thirds 
being  on  the  left  bonk,  and  the  remainder  on  the 
right,  and  the  two  divisions  are  connected  by 
two  bridges  of  boats.  The  town  is  fortified  on 
one  side  by  a  high  brick  parapet  wall,  flanked 
at  intervals  with  bigh-bastioned  towers  and 
Borroanded  by  a  wide  fosse.  The  citadel  ia 
situated  on  the  N.  W.  extremity.  A  large 
suburb,  enclosed  by  ramparts  to  reaiat  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Arabs,  is  on  the  other  i«ide.  The 
houses  in  Bagdad,  like  those  of  other  oriental 
towns,  present  on  the  exterior  either  dead 
walls  or  rains,  and  the  streets  are  narrow, 
winding,  and  onpaved.  The  interiors  of  the 
bonses  of  the  wealthier  classes  are  comforta- 
ble in  an  eastern  sense,  and  compare  favora- 
bly with  those  of  Damaacas  end  other  cities. 
There  are  several  mosques  ornamented  with 


)AD  215 

glazed  tiles  of  various  colors,  and  crowned 
with  domes.    There  are  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Ar- 
menian, and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and 
several  Jewish  synagogues.     A  new  Jewish 
school  was  established  in  1S72  by  the  alliance 
wrailiU  univenelle.    A  large  general  hospital 
has  recently  been  erected.    The  bazaar  built 
by  Daoud  Paaba  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
£aat,  and  well  stocked  with  home  and  foreign 
manufactures.    Tlie  view  of  the  city  from  the 
river  presents  a  pleasant  spectacle,  the  luxu- 
riant date  groves  and  orange  gardens  forming 
an   agreeable .  contrast   with    the   domes   and 
minarets.      In   summer    the    heat   is   intense, 
and  sometimes  the  thermometer  for  several 
days  ranges  between  110°  and  120°  F.     Five 
miles  below  Bagdad  the  Saklavieh  or  Isa  ca- 
nal brings  during  the  season  of  the  floods  a 
portion  of  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  into 
the  Tigris.    The  coromercial  importance  of  this 
city  has  greatly  declined,  though  during  the 
last  2G  years  its  decay  has  been  somewhat 
checked.    Lar^e  rafts  support- 
ed by  200  or  800  inflated  skins 
ore  much  nsed  for  the  trans- 
portation of  goods.     Fleets  of 
boats  of  from  40  to  70  tons 
burden  ascend    and   descend 
the  river  with  cargoes  to  and 
from  the  Persian  g^,  and  car- 
avans carry  goods  in  different 
direclJonB  from  this  great  em- 
porium.   The  products  of  the 
region  round  Bagdad  are  to- 
bacco,  timbao   (a   plant   osed 
as  a  substitute  for  tobacco), 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  cotton, 
rice,   fine  wool,    goats'  hair, 
gall  nnts,  and  yellow  berries. 
The  fruits  are  grapes,  melons, 
apricots,  quinces,  figs,  cherries, 
pomegranates,   oranges,    lem- 
ons, citrons,  pears,  and  dates. 
Wild  assesabound  on  theplains. 
Besides  the  above-mentioned 
'  artjolee,  the  city  exports  also  horses,  pearls, 
coral,  honey,  raw  silk,  bitumen,  naphtiia,  salt- 
petre,  and  salt.     The  imports  from  Asiatic 
Turkey  and  Europe  are  soap,  mlks,  woollen 
cloths,  prints,  opium,  and  copper ;  from  Arabia, 
raisins,  gum,  coffee,  and  drugs.    The  revenue 
derived  ^om  the  tax  on  transit  goods  is  estima- 
ted at  $3,600,000.    An  English  compnnv  baa 
projected  a  railway  from  Bagdad  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, by  way  of  Aleppo.    Bagdad  ia  the 
seat  of  a  Turkish  voli  or  governor  general, 
whose  vilayet  contains  an  area  of  about  10,000 

am.,  comprehending  parts  of  Kurdistan  and 
nziston,  most  of  Al-Jezireh,  and  Irak-Arabi. 
— The  city  was  built  by  the  caliph  Al-Mansour 
as  his  capital,  762-'e,  and  called  Medinat  el-Sa- 
lem,  "  City  of  Peace."  It  was  a  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  Abbasside  caliphs,  was  beaeti- 
fied  by  Haronn  al-Raahid,  and  under  his  son 
Al-Hantoun  became  the  great  scat  of  Arabian 
literature  and  learning.    In  8T3  the  dty  was 


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216 


BAGE 


Baid  to  have  2,000,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
conquered  in  1258  hj  Halaku,  the  grandson  of 
Geaghis  Khan,  and  bj  Tamerlane  in  1401,  hj 
the  Persians  and  Tarka  saDcessirely  in  the 
I5th  centar;,  bj  the  Fenians  again  in  1628, 
and  by  the  Turks  flnaUy  in  1088.  It  suffered 
eeverelj  froni  plague  in  1831,  and  from  {amino 
in  1870-71. 

BiGE,  B«kert,  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Derby  in  1728,  died  at  Tamworth  in  1801. 
He  was  a  paper-maker,  in  which  trade  ha  con- 
tinued for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  His 
principal  works  are  "Mount  Heneth,"  "Bar- 
ham  Downs,"  "The  Fair  Syrian,"  and  "James 
■Wallace."  Sir  Walter  Scott  wrote  his  life  for 
Ballantyne's  "  Novelist's  Library," 

BAGEHOT,  WiHcr.    See  sapplament. 

BACGESEN,  Jcm  ImmsimI,  a  Danish  poet, 
bom  at  KorsOr  in  Seeland,  Feb.  15,  1784,  died 
in  Hambnrg,  Oct.  8,  182S.  lie  was  educated 
at  Copenhagen,  and  gained  considerable  repn- 
tation  while  still  young  bj  his  comic  tales  and 
a  collection  of  odes  and  aonga.  The  most  re- 
markable of  his  writings  is  his  Laiyrinthen,  a 
species  of  autobiography.  He  wrote  manr 
lyrical  poems  in  German — a  language  which 
he  need  with  the  same  facility  as  his  native 
tongue.  A  collection  of  these  appeared  at 
Hamburg  in  1803,  and  at  Amsterdam  in  1808. 
His  best  German  work  is  his  poem  PartAe- 
nait,  of  which  a  French  translation  appeared 
in  1810.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
Danish  language  at  Kiel  in  1611.  A  few 
years  later  he  returned  to  Denmark,  but  finally 
left  his  native  country  in  1630.  A  new  edition 
of  his  Danish  writings  appeared  in  1845,  in  12 
volumes,  at  Copenhagen.  A  oolleotion  of  hia 
German  writings  was  also  made  in  1686. 

BAGHEBIA,  or  BagarU,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in 
the  province  and  dm.  E.  S.  E.  of  Palermo,  on  the 
railroad  from  Palermo  to  Termini;  pop.  13,200. 
Near  it  are  numerous  villas  of  the  nobility. 

BAGHIBIl,  a  kingdom  of  central  Africa, 
S.  £.  of  Lake  Tchad,  between  the  Bornoo  and 
Wadai  countries,  bounded  W.  by  the  Shari 
river  and  ita  affluents;  greatest  length  from 
N.  to  S.,  about  210  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  ICO 
m. ;  pop.,  inclnsive  of  the  pagan  dependences 
intheoutiyingS.  E.  provinces,  about  1,500,000, 
ohieSy  negroes,  and  nominally  Uohammedana, 
though  there  are  still  many  remains  of  pagan 
rites.  The  country  is  principally  a  plain,  nearly 
1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  there  being  no  moun- 
tains excepting  in  the  extreme  north  and  in  the 
outlying  S.  and  S.  E.  provinces.  The  capital 
is  Masenya,  in  lat.  11°  38'  N.,  Ion.  16°  E.  The 
army  consists  of  10,000  infantry  and  3,000  cav- 
alry. The  chief  products  are  millet,  sorghoni, 
sesamnm,  beans,  ground  nuts,  a  kind  of  grass 
called  jojo,  rice,  cotton,  and  indigo.  Wheat  is 
raised  only  for  the  private  use  of  the  sultan. 
The  principal  trees  are  the  tamarind  and  the 
deteb  palm.  The  climate  is  extremely  hot. 
There  are  no  mines.  The  horses  are  line,  and 
the  ShouwB  Arabs  wandering  between  Baghir- 
mi  and  Lake  Tchad  have  large  flocks  of  abeep  ' 


BAGOT 

and  cattle.  The  people  (Bagarmi)  are  superior 
in  appearance  and  character  to  other  central 
African  tribes,  and  the  women  are  among  the 
finest  in  Negroiand;  but  the  men  are  cruel  in 
warfare  and  castrate  their  prisoners. — Baghir- 
mi  became  an  independent  kingdom  in  the  16th 
century,  and  was  afterward  converted  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. In  1815,  after  a  long  war,  it 
became  tributary  to  Bomoo  and  Wadai.  The 
title  of  the  ruler  is  boTtga  (saltan).  Dr.  Barth 
(1852)  was  the  first  European  to  visit  the 
country. 

B1GNSBE8,  the  name  of  two  bathing  towns 
of  8.  W.  France,  in  the  Pyrenees,  boih  known 
to  the  Romans,  though  under  what  names  is 
•moertain.  L  BagMUM-fe-Ugtm,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Hantes-Pyrdn^ea.  capital  of  an 
arrondissement,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adoar, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  Campan,  13 
m.  S.  of  Tarbes;  pop.  in  1868,  8,433.  Ita 
warm  and  hot  mineral  springs,  more  than  40 
in  number,  attract  numerous  invalids  and  pleas- 
ure-seekers. It  has  manufsotories  of  bar6gea. 
II.  Bagi^rw  tit  Lwfcsw,  in  the  department  of 
Hante-Garonne,  18  m.  B.  E.  of  the  preceding; 
pop.  in  1860,  S,921.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees,  in  the  beantifhl  valley  of  Lnchon, 
about  S  m.  from  the  Spanish  frontier.  It  has 
hot  and  cold  mineral  springs,  and  is  surrotiud- 
ed  by  fine  scenery.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
oopper  mines  and  slate  quarries. 

BAGHOLiS,  a  hamlet  of  France,  in  the  de- 

Birtment  of  Ome,  in  a  valley  13  m.  8.  S.  E.  of 
omfront  This  village,  celebrated  for  its  baths 
and  mineral  springa,  was  bnilt  in  the  17th 
century,  but  has  been  in  later  times  madi  im- 
proved and  adorned  with  Sue  buildings  and 
{iromenadaEL 

BAOOiS,  a  eunuoh  in  the  service  of  Artax- 
erxes  Ochns  of  Persia,  who,  though  a  native 
(^  Egypt,  aided  the  king  in  the  recoaqnest  of 
that  country.  He  was,  however^  so  much  dis- 
pleased by  the  saorjtege  of  the  kmg  to  the  sa- 
cred animals  and  other  ol(ject8  of  worship  in 
Egypt  that,  after  his  return  to  Peraa,  he  poi- 
soned him,  and  rused  Arses,  his  youngest  son, 
to  the  throne,  having  mnrdered  all  the  others. 
Soon  becoming  offended  with  the  new  king 
also,  he  destroyed  him  and  made  Darins  Oo- 
domannus  king  (886  B.  0.),  He  afterward  at- 
tempted to  poison  Darins,  but  was  detected 
and  poisoned  himself.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  Bagoses  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephns,  who  led  the  troops  of  Artaxerxcs  Ochns 
to  Jndea,  seized  the  temple,  and  compelled 
every  Jew  to  pay  a  tribute  of  SO  shekels  for 
each  Iamb  sacrificed. 

BAGOT,  Sir  Gharics,  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  at  Blithfield,  Sept  23,  1781,  died  at 
Kingston  in  Canada,  Uay  18,  1643.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  William,  first  Lord  Bagot. 
In  1807  he  was  appointed  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs;  in  1S14  was  sent  on  a 
special  mis«on  to  France;  in  1820  was  ambas- 
sador at  St.  Peterabnrg,  and  in  1824  in  Holland. 
On  the  death  of  Lord  Sydenham  in  1841  he 


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BAGPIFE 

WKS  made  goveraor  general  of  the  Ooiutdu, 
wbich  office  he  held  till  hla  death. 

■IWIPE,  a  wind  instrnnient  of  great  anti- 
<\ai\ij,  which  seemB  to  have  been  &  favorite  with 
raany  nations  of  Europe  in  the  dawn  of  miwical 
taste,  bnt  is  so  identified  at  the  present  day 
viUi  the  Scotch  Highlanders  as  to  be  consid- 
ered almost  pecnlisr  to  them.  Its  invention 
is  traced  bock  to  the  mjthical  age  of  Greece, 
while  among  the  Romans  the  instratnent,  al- 
most identioal  in  form  with  that  now  in  use, 
was  familiarlj  known  as  the  tibia  uirieularig. 
It  was  aUo  known  to  maaj  of  the  Soandinarion 
tribes,  and  was  probably  introduced  into  Ire- 
land and  Sooliand  by  the  Danes  and  Norwe- 
pans  at  a  very  early  period.  The  instmment 
coosista  of  a  leather  bag,  inBated  through  a 
Talred  tube  by  the  month  or  a  bellows,  con- 
nected with  which  ia  a  fiute  part  called  the 
chant«r,  perforated  with  holes,  and  famished 
with  a  reed,  the  action  of  the  air  from  the  bel- 
lows upon  which  produces  the  mosio.  Three 
pipes  or  drones,  two  of  which  are  in  onlson 
with  D  on  the  chanter,  while  the  third,  or 


compass  of  the  bagpipe  render  it  available  for 
the  performance  only  of  tones  consisting  of  a 
few  not«a,  and  all  set  on  the  same  key.  As  it 
is  ignored  by  educated  musicians,  we  find  but 
litUe  mnwo  written  for  it,  and  the  pipers  play 
almost  entirety  br  ear.  It  is  said  that  schools 
exist  in  some  of  the  Scottish  islands  for  instrno- 
tion  on  the  bagpipe,  and  the  Highland  society 
of  Edinbargh  offer  annual  premiums  for  the 
sake  of  encooro^ng  the  art. 

BlGUDiS.    Bee  Muebda. 

UGRIUDES,  or  Bagndltss,  a  royal  family  of 
'a  and  Geot^a,  whose  foander         ~ 


nchadnezzar,  who  were  allowed  by  Valarsaoes, 
flrstkingof  Armenia  of  Parthian  race,  about  140 
B.  0.,  the  privilege  of  putting  the  crown  spon 
the  head  of  the  Armenian  monarchs.  About 
A.  D.  800  the  tiunily  adopted  Ohristianity,  and 
in  the  Sth  and  6th  centuries  resisted  the  efforts 
of  the  Neo-Persiaos  to  bring  the  Armeniaos 
back  to  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  TheByzantine 
emperors  and  afterward  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad 
conferred  the  dignity  of  governor  of  Armenia 
npon  several  of  the  Bogratides.  The  Bagratide 
Ashod  or  Asliot,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Sth  cen- 
tury, first  assumed  the  title  of  shah-in-shah 


nte.  This  dynasty  reigned  in  Armenia  till  1079, 
frequently  faring  the  supremacy  with  princes 
of  other  houses.  Another  Ashod  had  ascended 
ttie  throne  of  Georcia  about  790,  and  his  son 
Itagrad  firmly  estaUishod  the  family  on  it  in 
611.  This  dynasty  maintained  its  indepen- 
dence till  the  oconpation  of  Georgia  by  the 
RosaiAns  at  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

UfiUTIOll,  Peter,  prince,  a  Rossian  general 
of  the  Geoi^an  Bagratide  family,  born  about 


BAHAMAS 


217 


nss,  died  Oct  7,  1812.  He  entered  the  Rus- 
uan  army  as  a  common  soldier,  and  first  served 
in  the  wars  against  the  mountaineers  of  the 

Caucasus ;  then  under  Snvaroff  against  the 
Turks  in  1788,  when  be  took  part  in  the  storm- 
ing of  Otchokov,  and  asainst  the  Poles  in  1T94. 
Under  the  same  generslhe  fought  with  distinc- 
''  "    against  the  Preoch  in  Italy  and  Switzer- 


campaign;  at  Znaim  he  suceessfiilly  resisted 
Marat  and  Lannes,  whose  forces  outnumbered 
his.  Having  been  created  a  lieutenant  general, 
he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  Austrian 
army  at  Austerlitz,  nnder  Prince  I.ichtenstein. 
In  the  Prussian  campaign  of  1807,  his  resist- 
ance made  the  battle  of  £ylan  so  terrible  that 
even  Napoleon  shnddered  at  its  bloody  results. 
With  equal  stubbornness  he  fought  at  Fried- 
land,  ia  I  BOS  he  overran  Finland,  and  oo- 
enpied  the  Aland  isles;  and  in  1609  he  com- 
manded against  the  Tnrks,  and  besieged  Silis- 
tria,  though  without  final  success.  In  1813  be 
fought  an  unsucoesaftd  battle  with  Davoust  at 
Mohilev,  but  suooeeded  nevertheless  in  Joining 
the  Busman  main  array.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  terrible  battle  of  Moih^sk  or 
Borodino,  Sept.  7,  1812,  Just  a  month  before 
he  died.  He  married  in  1610  a  lady  of  great 
beanty  and  wealth  descended  from  Catharine 
I.  At  the  congress  of  Vienna  she  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  fashion  and  gallantry,  and  snb- 
sequentl;  lived  in  Paris  in  grand  style.  In 
1880  she  married  secretly  Col.  Caradoc,  after- 
ward  known  as  Lord  Howden,  from  whom  she 
soon  separated  herself.     She  died  in  1856. 

BICDL,  or  Baghil,  a  small  state  in  N.  W. 
India,  on  the  8,  bant  of  the  Sutlfg,  in  laL  81° 
N.,  Ion.  77°  E. ;  area  about  100  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  40,000.  The  surface  is  generally  monn- 
twnons,  with  two  suromita,  Bahadurghar  and 
Bara  Devi,  6,S38  and  7,003  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  revenue  of  the  state  is  only  £6,000,  but  it 
mfuntwns  an  arm;  of  3,000  men. 

BIBIMAS,  a  chun  of  islands  belonging  to 
Great  BritMn,  eitending  N.  W.  and  S.  E.  \»- 
tween  the  N.  coast  of  Santo  Domingo  and  the  £. 
coast  of  Florida,  and  lying  between  lat.  21°  and 
37°  80'  N.,  and  Ion.  70^  80'  and  79°  6'  W. 
They  are  about  800  in  number,  of  which  only 
about  IS  are  inhabited,  a  great  many  of  tbem 
being  merely  small  rocky  islets.  The  most 
important  of  ttiem  are  Grand  Bahama,  Great 
and  Little  Abaco,  Andros,  New  Providence, 
Elenthera,  San  Salvador,  Rum  Cay,  Great  Ei- 
uma,  Watling  Island,  Long  Island,  Crooked 
Island,  Atwood's  Key,  and  Great  and  Little 
Inagua,  The  group  is  about  800  m.  long,  and 
has  an  estimated  area  ofupward  of  8,000  sq.m.; 
pop.  in  1871,  89,162.  Most  of  the  islands  of  the 
group  are  situated  on  the  Bahama  banks.  They 
are  generally  very  flat,  long  and  narrow,  formed 
of  calcareous  rock,  with  a  light,  sondy  soil ; 
though  without  mniung  streams,  tliere  are 
numerous  springs.  Fruit  is  produced  in  abun- 
dance.   Maize,  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  orangey 


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•218 


BAEAWALPOOR 


limes,  lemons,  &e.,  are  among  the  products  of 
the  islands ;  there  are  also  several  valuable 
woodB,  as  mahogany,  fiistic,  lignam  vit»,  Ac. 
In  the  more  sontberlj  ialajidB  are  large  salt 
ponds.    The  principal  exports  are  salt,  sponge, 

Eineapples,  and  orangca.  The  climate  is  sala- 
rioua,  and  very  beneficial  to  consumptives. 
The  imports  in  ISaS  amounted  to  £240,581,  and 
the  exports  to  £188,002.  The  government  is 
sdmimatered  by  a  governor,  aided  by  an  execu- 
tive council  of  9  members.  There  is  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  B  members  and  a  representative 
council  of  28  members.  The  capital  is  Nassau, 
on  the  island  of  New  Providence,  whioh  during 
the  civil  war  in  the  Uiuted  States  was  a  fiunons 
place  of  resort  for  blockade-nnners.  The  com- 
mercial activity  by  which  it  was  then  charac- 
terized bas  since  fallen  away. — 8au  Salvador, 
called  Gaanahani  by  the  natives,  was  the  first 
land  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492.     The 


BAHIA 


9  tben  inbabited  by  an  inofi'eniDvo 
whom  the  Spaniards  carried  away  ani! 
forced  to  labor  in  the  mines  of  Santo  Domingu 
and  the  nearl  fisheries  of  Cnmana.  They  then 
reinainea  unoccupied  till  1629,  when  the  Eng- 
lish settled  them.  These  were  dispossessed  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1S41,  and  the  islands  repeat- 
edly changed  masters  nutil  they  were  annexed 
permanently  to  the  British  empire  by  the  treaty 
of  1783.  At  the  close  of  the  American  revolu- 
tionary war  many  of  the  royaliats  settled  in 
the  Bahamas. 

BABIWALPOOR.    See  Bhawai.poor. 

BAHU  (Port,  and  Span.,  bay).  L  A  prov- 
ince of  Brazil,  bounded  E.  by  the  Atlantic, 
N.  W.  and  N,  by  Pemambuco  and  Sergipe, 
W.  by  Goyaz,  and  S.  by  Minas  Geraes  and 
Espiritn  Santo;  area,  about  200,000  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1867,  estimated  at  1,400  000,  includ- 
log    nearly  800,000  slaves.    It    is    traversed 


from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  by  a  mountain  range 
having  various  local  names  end  sending  forth 
lateral  olfshoots.  The  magnificent  primeval 
forests  are  disappearing  before  the  increas- 
ing cultivation  of  the  soil,  though  many  of 
them,  especially  in  the  Berra-Mar  region,  noted 
for  their  wealth  of  timber,  still  remain.  The 
mountainous  regions  are  the  least  fertile,  owing 
to  excessive  dryness.  The  prineipal  river  is 
the  Sao  Francisco,  which  forms  the  N.  and  N. 
W.  boundary,  and  has  a  rather  fertile  valley; 
but  the  mnat  productive  region  of  Bahia  and 
the  most  densely  populated  of  Brazil  ia  the 
country  along  the  coast,  called  the  Reconcavo, 
with  many  villages,  farm  houses,  plantations, 
and  over  20  small  towns.  The  province  is 
rich  in  palm  trees  of  prodigious  size;  in  ca- 
shew, nayha,  and  ^m-yielding  trees;  in  medi- 
cinal plants,  and  m  manioc,  ihiita,  and  vege- 


tables.   Minerals  abound,  but  are  not  worked. 

The  discovery  of  diamond  fields  by  a  slava 
in  1844,  in  the  Bcrra  Sincura,  led  to  a  great 
Influx  of  popnlation.  Bahia  eiports  more 
sugar  than  all  the  rest  of  Brazil.  It  is  famous 
for  its  tobacco  and  for  the  increasing  produc- 
tion of  cotton,  rivalling  that  of  Pemamboco. 
The  rice  is  of  superior  quality;  the  Brazil 
wood  equals  that  of  Pemsmbuco,  but  the  cof- 
fee is  inferior  to  that  of  Rio.  It  waa  one  of 
the  first  of  the  Brazilian  provinces  peopled  by 
Europeans,  and  the  aborigines,  who  chiefly  in- 
habit the  mountains,  are  more  rapidly  declin- 
ing here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire, 
II.  Bahia,  or  San  Mradar,  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding province  and  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  situated  on  All  Saints'  bay  (Bahia  de 
Todoe  OS  Santos),  about  BOO  m.  N.  E.  of  Bio  de 
Janeiro,  in  lat  18°  8.,  Ion.  88°  80'  W. ;  pop.  over 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAHIA 

150,000,  composed  abont  e<jti«ll)r  of  whites, 
bUieks,  and  mixed  races.  Among  tlia  whites 
are  many  foreiKa  merchants,  especiallj  from 
Hamburg  and  Bremen.  The  baj  &om  which 
the  city  and  province  derive  their  name  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  being  87  m.  long 
from  N,  to  S.,  and  27  m.  wide  from  E.  to  W., 
with  two  entrances  from  the  south,  on  either 
side  of  the  island  of  Itaparico,  and  a  depth  of 
water  varying  from  B  to  40  fathoms.  Tliu  bay 
contains  several  small  islands,  and  is  defended 
by  a  few  forts.  The  city  is  utnated  on  the  E, 
shore,  near  the  entrance  and  just  inside  Cape 
Sao  Antonio.  It  is  built  partly  on  the  shnre, 
but  chiefly  on  high  ground.  The  lower  town 
is  dirty  and  has  very  narrow  streets.  The 
houses  are  ohiefly  of  atone,  and  some  of  them 
fire  stories  high.  In  the  Praya,  the  great 
business  street,  which  runs  4  m.  along  the 
wharves,  are  the  church  of  the  Conception, 
built  of  stone  imported  irom  Europe,  the  ex- 
change, the  warenonses,  the  arsenal,  and  ship 
Csrds.  The  number  of  churches  and  relwious 
ouses  exceeds  60.  The  arcbbiahop  of  Bahia 
is  primate  of  BraziL  In  the  upper  town, 
which  is  well  pavod  and  has  pleasant  streets 
and  a  number  of  handsome  residences,  con- 
etmcted  with  balconies  and  blinds  in  place  of 
windows,  is  the  most  renowned  Brazilian  ca- 
thedral (formerly  the  Jesuit  church),  built  of 
Earopeaii  marble  and  containing  pictures  of 
Loyola  and  St.  Francis  Xavior.  The  ancient 
Jesnit  college  has  become  amilitary  and  medical 
school.  There  is  a  large  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
an  extensive  library,  and  a  theatre.  Among 
other  poblio  buildings  of  the  upper  town  are 
eeveral  hospitals  (partly  supported  by  lotteries), 
and  the  palaces  of  the  governor  and  the  arch- 
bishop. Id  the  wooded  promenade,  laid  ont  on 
an  abrupt  promontory,  is  an  obelisk  in  honor  of 
John  VI,  The  eiporte  inclnda  sugar,  cotton, 
coffee,  tobacco,  nuts,  cacao,  bides,  noms,  rum, 
^assara,  tapioca,  dyewoods,  and  rosewood. 
The  value  of  diamonds  exported  is  estimated 
at  $3,000,000  annually.  The  imports  are  cot- 
ton goods,  woollen  and  linen  cloths,  fish,  flour, 
provinon^  hardware,  wine,  copper  and  iron, 
soap,  coals,  and  other  articles.  Estimated 
value  of  exports,  (8,000,000;  value  of  imports, 
nearly  $10,000,000.  The  importations  from 
England,  which  formerly  constituted  the  great- 
eat  part  of  the  import  trade,  have  lately  declin- 
ed, and  the  trade  with  the  German  ports  is  also 
lees  active  than  formerly.  About  400  British 
vessels  enter  and  leave  the  port  annually,  and 
the  shipping  of  all  nations  includes  nearly  800 
vessels.  The  commerce  with  the  United  States 
m  the  nine  months  ending  Jnne  80,  16T0,  in- 
cluded SI  inward  and  outward  vessels,  with 
cargoes  of  an  aggregate  value  of  abont  $400,- 
000.  The  coasting  trade  is  exclusively  carried 
on  by  Brazilian  vessels. — The  bay  was  discov- 
ered in  1503  by  Americns  Vespucina,  and  the 
city  was  founded  in  1510  by  the  Portuguese 
navigator  Correa,  who  called  it  San  Salvador. 
In  1649  the  present  name  was  adopted  on  its 


BAHKEIN  219 

becoming  the  oapital  of  the  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions, which  oistinction  was  transferreo  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1763.  Tlie  city  suffered 
greatly  during  the  commotions  which  led  to 
the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal.  The 
Portuguese  evacuated  it  on  Jnly  1,  18211,  since 
which  it  has  acquired  vast  commercial  impor- 
tance as  the  foremost  Brazilian  city  next  to 
Rio.  Since  1858  there  has  been  railway  com- 
munication between  Bahia  and  Joazeiro.  Cap- 
tain Collins  of  the  United  States  steamer  Wa- 
ctiusett  captured  here  on  Oct.  7,  18M,  the 
confederate  cruiser  Florida. 

BiHE,  Jchau  Chriiflwi  Felix,  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Darmstadt,  June  18, 17!I8.  He 
was  educated  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  pro- 
fessor there  in  1826,  and  subsequently  chief 
director  of  the  university  library,  and  of  the 
lyoenm  and  the  philological  seminary.  Hb 
principal  works  are :  OuehichU  der  rdmuehen 
LiteratUT  (3  vols.,  Carlarnhe,  1838;  4th  ed., 
1868),  and  Hfrodot  (1832-'6 ;  new  ed.,  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  185B-'61). 

BIHRDT,  Kari  FrMrtch,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, bom  at  Bischofswerda,  Aug.  2S,  1741, 
died  in  Halle,  April  2S,  1732.  He  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  but  his  violent  attacks  upon 
the  cle^y  and  orthodoxy,  and  his  adventurous 


a  prisoner  of  state  in  the  Prusuan  fortress  of 
Magdeburg,  where  he  wrote  his  autobiography 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  1790).  His  writic^s  eiyoyed  a 
transient  popularity,  especially  Br^ft  w>er  die 
Bibel  im  Volk*Um.  Ue  denied  the  authen- 
ticity of  miracles,  and  was  a  severe  critic  of 
the  Scriptures.  Eotzehue  published  i)r.  £aArdt 
mit  dtr  eitemsa  Stim. 

BAHKEIH  (or  AVAL)  [H.AKD8,  a  group  oonMst- 
ing  of  one  large  island  and  several  smaller  ones 
in  the  Perman  gulf,  in  a  bay  on  the  £.  coast 
of  Arabia,  between  lat  25°  80'  and  26°  80' 
N.,  and  Ion.  50°  and  60°  80'  E. ;  pop.  about 
60,000.  The  most  important  of  them  is  Bah- 
rein, about  27  m.  long  and  10  broad.  The 
interior  is  hilly ;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  pro- 
duces wheat,  barley,  dates,  flga,  and  other 
tropical  iVnits.  Springs  are  plentiful  in  the 
interior,  but  on  the  coast  fresh  water  ia  pro- 
cured in  skins  from  springs  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea,  by  aivere,  Manamah,  the 
largest  town,  has  a  good  harbor  and  is  the 
centre  of  commerce.  The  island  next  in  size 
is  Mobarrek,  so  named  from  the  capital,  «ta- 
ated  on  its  southern  side.  It  contains  two  or 
three  forts  close  to  the  seashore,  and  the 
sheikh's  palace.  The  Bahrein  islands  are 
noted  for  their  extensive  pearl  fisheries,  which 
were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  employ  a 
large  number  of  boats,  each  manned  witn  from 
8  to  20  men.  Tiie  annual  value  of  the  pearls 
is  estimated  at  from  $1,000,000  to  $1,500,000. 
Tortoise  shell,  shark  fins,  and  dates  are  also 
exported.  The  inhabitants  are  Arabs,  gov- 
erned by  a  sheikh  tributary  to  the  suitau 
of  Oman. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


s 


220  BAIM 

BiUE  (now'  Baja),  an  aocient  seaport  town 
and  watering  place  of  Italy,  about  10  m.  W. 
of  Naples,  on  the  b«j  of  BaiEe,  between  the 
Lucriue  lake  and  Cape  Migennm,  and  opposite 
the  town  of  Puteoli.  The  narrow  strip  of  coaat 
aheltered  bj  a  Bemicircnlar  ridge  of  hills  on 
which  BtUs  stood  was  covered  with  the  palaces 
and  baths  of  the  Boman  nobles.  For  want 
of  room  the;  often  bnilt  ont  into  the  eeo,  and 
remains  of  submarine  fonndatjons  are  sUll  visi- 
ble. The  leadintc  attraotioDB  of  B^ie  seem  to 
have  been  its  mild  climat«,  its  oamerous  hot 

irings,  and  its    delightful    seenerr.      J  alius 

Ksar,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero,  and 
Caracalla  all  frequented  this  spotj  and  it  was 
tlie  favorite  resort  of  Horace  and  most  men  of 
wit  and  fashion  in  his  daj.  Koralista  spoke 
of  it  as  a  hot-hod  of  viee  and  luxury.  It  re- 
tdned  its  prosperity  until  the  invasion  of  The- 
odorio  the  Goth.  With  the  fall  of  the  empire 
it  ceased  to  he  visited ;  its  villas  were  left  to 
decay,  and  the  whole  coast  is  now  a  desert. 
The  i^ringa,  no  longer  confined,  hare  formed 
stagnant  pools,  ^ving  off  unwholesome  exhala- 
tions in  summer.  The  ^oand  is  strewn  with 
ruined  fragments  of  bncks,  morbies,  and  mo- 
aaica.  The  only  buildings  remaining  are  three 
or  four  edifices  of  a  circular  form,  two  of  which 
were  in  all  probability  warm  baths.  Another 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  temple  of  Venus. 
The  whole  coast  haa  evidently  nndergono  great 
changes  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  sunk  several  feet  below  its  an- 
cient level. 

BAIKAL  (Russ.  S^atoe  More,  holy  sea),  a  lake 
in  the  B.  W.  part  of  eastern  Siberia,  on  the 
boundary  of  the  government  of  Irkutsk  and  of 
the  new  province  of  Transbaikalia,  between 
lat.  61°  and  58°  N.  and  Ion.  103°  and  110°  E. 
Ita  length  from  S.  S,  W.  to  N.  N.  E.  is  about 
875  ra.,  and  its  breadth  from  20  to  TO  m.,  mak- 
ing it,  next  to  the  Caspian  ond  Aral,  the  largest 
inland  body  of  water  in  Asia.  The  greatest 
depth,  according  to  souudiugs  token  in  18T2,  is 
over  600  fathoms  at  the  extreme  S.  W.  part  of 
the  lake.  It  is  surrounded  by  desolate  shores 
and  by  rugged  though  picturesque  mountains, 
densely  covered  with  forests,  from  whence  issue 
innumerable  streams.  The  Upper  Angara  river 
floiTS  into  the  lake  at  its  N.  end,  and  the  Lower 
Angara  issues  from  it  near  the  S.  end,  being 
its  only  ontlet.  The  Seleuga,  fioiving  into  it 
on  the  S.  E.,  is  its  largest  tributary.  The 
greatest  island  of  the  lake,  Olkhon,  is  separatod 
by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  W.  coast.  The 
principal  fisheries  are  in  the  Angara  river,  to 
which  many  kinds  of  salmon  are  carried 
through  the  Yenisei  from  the  Arctic,  especially 
the  omul  [ealmo  autumnalU  or  miffratoTiru). 
Baikal  is  one  of  the  very  few  li^es  which 
contain  fresh-water  seals.  Sturgeons  abound 
in  the  Selenga  river.  They  are  captured  in 
large  numbers,  and  their  skins  exported  to 
Cliina.    The  golomynka  (ealyonimvs  BataaUa- 


lai,  is  never  taken  alive,  but  cast  dead  upon 


BAIL 

the  beach  in  great  quantities,  espcctdly  after 
storms.  Ita  oil  is  sold  to  the  Chinese,  The 
annual  value  of  the  fisheries  is  estimated  at 
200,000  robles.    The  number  of  swling  vessels  is 

abont  50,  and  there  are  several  steamers;  and 
the  activity  in  the  mines  of  Transbaikalia,  and 
the  trade  with  the  Amoor  Country  and  China, 
are  fast  increaaing.  From  November  to  Hay 
the  lake  is  traversed  on  the  ice.  The  shores  of 
the  lake  and  of  the  Angara  and  Selenga  rivers 
are  chiefly  settled  by  Rnssians.  There  are  va- 
rious tribes  which  have  been  incorporated  since 
1S56  under  the  name  of  the  Baikal  Cossacks. 
The  Tunka  Alps  border  the  S.  shore  of  the  lake, 
and  one  of  their  summits,  the  snow-clad  Khar- 
ma  Davan,  is  6,000  ft.  high.  The  Baikalian 
mountains  proper  stretch  N.  E.  from  the  Lower 
Angora,  imd  are  remarkable  for  their  fantaatie 
peaks,. numerous  rivulets,  volcanic  formations, 
thermal  springs,  and  wealth  in  gold  and  silver 
and  various  gems.  Earthquakes  ore  frequent, 
and  were  especially  violent  in  1891-'2. 

SAIL  (law  Fr.,  bailler,  to  deliver),  in  law,  the 
delivery  of  a  person  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
sheriff  or  other  officer  afler  arrest  into  the  COb- 
tody  of  one  or  more  sureties,  who  undertake  to 
be  responmble  for  such  person.  The  same 
term  was  also  used  to  designate  the  sureties 
themselves,  and  this  came  to  be  its  most  com- 
mon signification.  Bail  in  civil  cases  is  either 
for  appearancOj  called  bail  below,  or  to  the  ac- 
tion, called  bad  above.  The  sureties  in  the 
first  give  an  undertaking  to  the  arresting  ofB- 
cer  that  the  defendant  shall  appear  in  the  cause 
in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  court, 
and,  if  the  case  is  one  requiring  special  bail, 
that  he  shall  cause  such  hail  to  be  duly  entered 
and  perfected.  For  the  sufficiency  of  this  bail 
the  officer  is  responsible,  and  when  it  is  accept- 
ed by  him  the  defendant  is  discharged  from  liia 
custody.  Sureties  in  b^l  to  the  action  under- 
take for  the  appearance  of  the  party  when  final 
judgment  shall  have  been  rendered  and  process 
shall  have  been  issued  thereon  to  take  the  body 
of  the  defendant  in  satisfaction.  The  sureties 
may  be  excepted  to  by  the  plaintilt^  in  which 
caae  they  must  justify  their  responsibility  on 
oath;  but  if  not  excepted  to  in  due  time,  or 
if  they  justiff  ailer  exception,  the  defendant's 
appearance  is  entered  and  the  bail  below  is 
discharged.  The  bail  piece  is  a  certificate  is- 
sued to  the  sureties  attesting  the  taking  of  bail. 
Formerly  the  plMntiff  was  entitled  to  bul  as 
of  course  in  most  caaes,  but  now  by  the  pro- 
visions of  various  statutes  it  is  not  generally  de- 
mandable  in  civil  suits,  either  in  England  or  in 
the  United  States,  except  upon  a  showing  tbal 
some  tort  has 'been  committed  to  the  damage 
of  the  plaintiff  or  that  his  demand  springs 
from  the  official  or  professional  misconduct  or 
default  of  the  defendant,  or,  if  the  suit  is  upon 
contract,  that  there  was  fraud  in  contracting 
the  debt,  or  in  endeavoring  to  put  property 
beyond  the  reach  of  process  for  its  collection. 
The  showing  is  by  affidavit,  and  thereupon  an 
order  is  mode  by  a  judge  or  commissioner  that 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


tiie  defendant  be  held  to  bait  in  a  specified  sum. 
Although  on  giving  hiul  the  defendant  is  Bet  at 
libertj,  he  is  snppmed  to  be  constant);  in  the 
custody  of  his  snretieB,  who  may,  at  any  time 
iwfore  their  liability  has  been  fixed  by  forfeit- 
ure of  the  condition  of  their  obligation,  arrest 
and  enrrender  him  into  custody  in  exoneration 
of  themselves.  "Common  bail"  ia  fictitious 
boil  Boppoeed  to  be  entered  by  the  defendant 
in  caaes  where  special  bail  is  not  reqnired,  or 
which  the  plaintiff  enters  for  the  defendant  if 
he  makes  defaolt. — In  criminal  caaes  it  is  pro- 
Tided  by  the  statute  1  William  and  Mary,  and 
also  by  the  constitntiona  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  states,  that  excessive  bail 
shall  not  be  required;  but  what  is  excessive 
bail  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  offi- 
cer or  court  empowered  to  decide  npon  it. 
Formerly  the  accused  party  was  not  allowed 
to  give  bail  in  coses  of  felony,  but  now  he 
is  permitted  to  do  so  except  in  coses  of  the 
hignest  crimes,  and  even  then  unless  the 
proof  of  gailt  is  apparent  or  the  presumption 
great.  The  nnderb^itiK  of  the  sureties  is  for 
the  appearance  of  the  defendant  to  abide  the 
order  of  the  court,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  re- 
cognizance.— The  term  bail  is  also  sometimes 
applied  in  law  to  those  who  become  sure- 
ties for  a  party  for  the  payment  of  money  or 
the  performance  of  some  other  act,  in  cases 
where  no  arrest  has  been  or  could  be  made. 

BULET,  GuulUJ,  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Mount  Holly,  S",  J.,  Dec  8,  1807,  died 
at  sea,  June  5,  18G9.  He  studied  medicine  in 
Philadetpliia,  taking  his  degree  in  1828.  After 
malung  a  brief  viut  to  China  in  the  capacity  of 
physician  to  a  ship,  he  began  his  career  as  an 
editor  in  Baltimore,  in  conducting  the  "Ueth- 
odist  Protestant"  In  1831  he  removed  to 
Cincinnati,  and  in  1830  joined  James  G.  Bimey 
in  conducting  the  first  anti-slavery  newspaper 
in  the  West,  the  "Cincinnati  Philanthropiat" 
During  the  first  year  their  printing  establish- 
ment was  twice  assailed  by  a  mob,  the  press 
thrown  into  the  Ohio  river,  and  tlie  books  and 

Sapors  bnmed.  In  1841  his  press  was  again 
eatroyed  by  a  raob,  but  he  continued  Uie  pub- 
lication of  his  paper  in  Cincinnati  till  after  the 
presidential  election  of  1844.  He  was  after- 
word selected  to  be  the  editor  of  o  new  anti- 
slavery  paper  at  Washington,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  and  foreign  anti-slavery  so- 
ciety, and  the  "  Philanthropist "  becamemerged 
in  the  "  National  Era,"  the  first  number  of 
which  appe.ired  Jan.  1,  1847.  In  1848  be  hnd 
his  last  conflict  with  popular  violence,  when  a 
mob  for  three  days  besieged  his  office.  The 
"Era"  WAS  on  infiuential  organ  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party,  and  had  some  literair  preten- 
sions. It  was  the  medium  for  the  first  publi- 
cation of  Mrs.  Stowe's  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 
At  the  time  of  his  death  Dr.  Bailey  was  on  a 
voyage  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health. 

UlLET,  JtHb  Wkllau,  an  American  natn- 
mlist,  bom  at  Ware,  Mass.,  April  29,  1811, 
died  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  27,  1857.    He 


LET  221 

f^raduated  at  the  West  Point  military  academy 
m  18ii2,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant  in  the 
artillery.  After  passing  six  years  at  several 
military  stations  in  Virginia  and  Carolina,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry,  botany, 
and  mineralogy  at  the  military  at^cmj  m 
1839.  He  was  especially  distinguished  as  a 
microscopist.  He  publi^ed  a  volume  of  "Mi- 
croscopic Sketches"  containing  about  8,000 
original  flgurra,  and  gave  much  attention  to , 
the  minnte  animal  and  vegetable  organiiims  at 
that  time  all  included  under  the  general  term 
infusoria,  and  to  the  whole  family  of  alga. 
Among  the  principal  snbjectd  of  his  research 
were  the  fossil  deposits  of  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg in  Virginia,  the  rice  fields  of  tlie  South- 
and  the  dredgings  of  the  coast  survey  and  of 
the  line  of  soundings  across  the  Atlantic,  made 
by  Lieut,  Berryman  in  reference  to  the  laying 
of  the  teWraphia  cable.  He  mode  a  micro- 
scopical collection  of  more  than  8,000  objects, 
fixed  upon  slides,  catalogued,  and  marked.  His 
collection  of  algie  was  equally  complete,  con- 
sisting of  about  4,S00  specimens,  systematically 
arranged  in  portfolios.  These  collections,  to- 
gether with  all  his  books  on  botany  and  micros- 
copy, sketches,  scientific  correspondence,  and 
a  large  store  of  rough  material,  he  bequeathed 
to  the  Boston  society  of  natural  history.  He 
also  made  improvements  in  the  microscope. 

BULET,  JuHS  M.    See  supplement. 

BllLGT,  or  Bally,  Hathu,  an  English  lexicog- 
rapher, a  schoolmaster  at  Stepney,  near  Lon- 
don, died  in  1742.  His  most  important  publi- 
cation was  an  "  Etymological  English  Diction- 
ary" (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1726;  2d  cd,,  17W; 
best  ed.,  by  J,  Nicol  Scott,  folio,  1764),  whioli 
furnished  the  basis  of  Dr,  Johnson's  famous 
work.  He  was  the  author  also  of  a  DUliona- 
rium  Bomeilieum,  and  of  several  school  books, 

BAILEY,  PUUp  Jims,  an  English  poet,  bom 
in  the  parish  of  Basford,  Nottinghamshire, 
April  22, 1816.  He  assisted  his  father,  Thomas 
BaiJoy,  in  editing  the  "  Nottingham  Mercury," 
and  also  studied  law,  being  colled  to  the  bar  in 
London  in  1840;  but  his  poem  of"Fe3tua," 
finished  in  1636  and  published  in  18S9,  hav- 
ing attracted  great  attention,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  literature.  He  has  since  published 
"The  Angel  World"  flSSO)-  "The  Mystic" 
fl8u5);  "The  Age;  Politics,  Poetry,  and  Crit> 
icism  "  (1868) ;  and  "  International  Policy  of 
the  Great  Powers"  (]861>, 

BULET,  StHMl,  an  English  philosopher,  bom 
in  Shetndd  in  1791.  He  was  a  banker  foi 
many  years,  and  has  spent  bis  whole  life  in 
Sheffield.  He  attracted  great  attention  by  hia 
"  Essays  on  the  Pursuit  of  Truth  and  on  the 
Progress  of  Knowledge"  (1831),  and  "Essays  on 
the  Formation  and  Publication  of  Opinions" 
{183S),  Among  his  later  works  are:  "The 
Theory  of  Reasoning"  (18B1);  "Discourses  on 
Various  Subjects,  Literary  and  Philosophical " 
(I8C2);  "Letters  on  tlie  Philosophy  of  the 
Human  Mind"  (1856-'63);  and  "On  the  Re- 
ceived Text  of  Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Writ- 


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BllLET,'ne«4era«,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  PJattsbnrgh,  N.  Y.,  in  1803,  died  in 
Washington,  Feb.  10,  1877.  He  entered  the 
narj  in  1S18,  and  Vfes  made  lieutenant  in  1827, 
commnnder  in  1849,  and  captain  in  185B.  In 
1801  he  was  ordered  to  the  ?t«ani  fri^^ate  Col- 
orado, and  participated  in  the  bombardment  ot 
the  confederate 'worka  aear  Fensacola.  In  the 
capture  of  the  MisaiBsippi  forta  bj  the  aqnadron 
of  Flag  Officer  Farragut  (April,  1863),  he  com- 
manded the  second  diriaion  of  the  attacking 
force.  On  the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in 
1862  he  was  mode  commodore,  and  aa  acting 
rear  odmiriU  euceeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
eastern  gulf  blockading  aqnadron,  where  he 
was  verj  auccessAil  in  breaking  up  blockade- 
running  on  the  Florida  coast.  lie  was  prcono- 
ted  to  rear  admiral  Jnly  23,  1866,  and  in  the 
following  October  placed  on  the  retired  list 

BilUfF  (Fr.  bailli,  Lat.  balitus),  a  person  to 
whom  Bome  aothority  or  charge  is  committed. 
The  term  as  osed  bj  the  Normans  designated 
the  chief  ma^Btratea  of  counties  or  shires,  and 
bailiwick  is  still  retained  in  writs  and  other 
jndicial  proceedings  as  defining  the  extent  of 
jurisdiction  within  which  the  process  may  be 
executed,  osusUy  the  same  as  conntj.  It  come 
into  general  nse  as  a  designatJou  of  any  judicial 
or  ministerial  offlc«  performed  by  a  deputy  of 
a  local  magistrate ;  but  as  the  judicial  fnnclions 
of  sheriffs  and  lords  liaving  private  jurisdiction 
declined,  bailiffs  were  known  as  the  ministerial 
deputies  of  sheriffs.  A  bound  bailiff  (vulgarized 
into  bum-bailiff)  is  a  sheriff's  officer  who  has 
^ven  BuretieB  to  the  sheriff  for  his  official  con- 
duct The  term  bullff  was  also  applied  in 
England  to  magistrates  of  certain  towns,  keep- 
ers of  castles,  &c.,  and  is  still  used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  one  or  other  of  these  senses,  but  more 
commonly  expresses  a  steward  or  agent  of  a 
lord  or  other  large  land  proprietor.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  sometimes,  but  rarely,  used 
for  a  sheriff's  deputy  or  constable,  ond  is  ooco- 
uonallv  met  with  as  a  legal  designation  of  on 
agent  liable  to  account  for  the  rents  or  profits 
of  property  intmsted  to  him.  In  Scotch  law 
a  Bjnonymons  term,  bailie,  is  applied  to  a  min- 
isterial officer  to  whom  writs  are  directed.  It 
is  also  used  to  designate  a  city  magistrate  simi- 
lar to  on  alderman  in  England. 

BAILUrr,  IdriM,  a  French  scholar  and  writer, 
bom  at  Neuville,  in  Picardy,  June  18,  1649, 
died  Jan.  21,  1708,  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  but  devoted  his  life  to  study  and  au- 
thorahip.  His  most  important  publication  was 
entitled  "Judgments  of  the  Learned  upon  the 
Principal  Works  of  Authors,"  a  book  of  criti- 
cism which  taught  better  rulea  than  it  illuatra- 
ted.  He  alsoprodnoed  a  book  on  "Devotion 
to  the  Holy  Virgin,"  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
which  extended  to  4  volumes,  a  life  of  Des- 
cartes, a  history  of  Holland  fl-om  1609  to  1600, 
and  nomerous  other  worka.  For  28  years  he 
was  librarian  to  M.  de  Lamoignon,  advocate 


BAILLIE, 

general  of  tbe  parliament  of  Paris,  and  made  a 
catalogue  of  his  library  in  85  vols,  folio. 

BllLLEEL,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Nord,  near  the  Belgian  frontier;  pop.  in  1866, 
5, 970.  Its  manufactures  embrace  lace,  thread, 
linen,  perfumes,  beet  sugar,  snuff,  crockery,  and 
pottery.  Bailleul  cheese  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
cellence, 

BIILUIGE  (territory  of  a  bailiff),  a  French 
term  equivalent  to  bailiwick  in  English.  In 
Switzerland  the  term  was  applied  to  districts 
into  which  the  aristocratical  cantons  were  di- 
vided, and  over  which  bailiffs  were  appointed 
by  the  governed,  and  also  to  those  teiritories 
which  were  subject  to  two  or  more  of  the 
cantons  and  governed  by  bwliffs  appointed  by 
and  responsible  to  such  cantons.  These  Swiss 
baillioges  anciently  formed  part  of  the  Milanese. 
Their  names  were  Mendrisio,  Balema,  Locarno, 
Lngono,  Vol  Ma^a,  Bellinzona,  Riviera,  and 
Val  Brenna.  Most  of  these  were  ceded  to  the 
Swiss  cantons  in  1512  by  Maximilian  Sforza,  in 
gratitnde  for  Swiss  aid  in  recovering  the  duchy 
of  Hilen  from  tlie  troops  of  the  ^ench  kiikg, 
LoulaSIL  In  1802  the  conton  of  Teswn  was 
formed  by  Bonaparte  out  of  the  Italian  bai- 
liwicks, which  arrangement  was  confirmed  by 
die  Enropean  sovereigns  after  his  abdicatioa 
in  1814,  and  also  by  the  Helvetic  diet 

BULLIE,  JoiBU,  a  Scottish  poet,  boni  at 
Bothwell,  Lanarkshire,  in  1782,  died  at  Hamp- 
atead,  near  London,  Feb.  23,  1861.  Her  father, 
a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  who  afterward  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  in  Glasgow  univer- 
sity, gave  her  a  sound  education.  When  her 
brother.  Dr.  Matthew  Baillie,  commenced  prac- 
tice in  London,  she  and  her  sister  Agnes  re- 
moved to  that  city  and  took  up  their  residence 
at  Hampstead,  where  they  lived  for  over  60 
years.    In  1788,  at  the  age  of  86,  Miss  Baillie 

Published  the  Ist  volume  of  her  "Flays  on  the 
essioos,"  and  successive  volumes  appeared  in 
1802, 1812,  and  1836.  Each  of  these  plays  was 
intended  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  a  single  ruling 
pasnon  on  life  and  character.  A  volume  oi 
miscellaneous  plays  appeared  in  1804;  it  con- 
tained a  Highland  tragedy  called  "The  Family 
Legend,"  which  Scott  (who  made  her  acquain- 
tance in  1806)  caused  to  be  represented  at  the  _ 
Edinburgh  theatre  early  in  1810,  with  a  pro- 
logue by  himself  and  an  epilogue  by  Henry 
Mackenrie.  "Be  Montfort"  ran  for  II  nights 
at  Oovent  Garden  theatre,  Mrs.  Siddons  and 
John  Eemble  playing  the  leading  parts.  At  a 
later  period  Keon  prodnced  this  play,  bnt  it 
failed.  Her  plays  "Hcnriquez"  and  "The 
Separation  "  were  also  brought  out  in  London. 
She  also  wrote  two  plays  published  scparatelv, 
called  "  The  Martyr  "  and  "  The  Bride."  Her 
dramas  were  written  rather  for  tbe  closet  than 
the  stage,  and,  though  greatly  admired  by  tlie 
most  competent  critics,  had  bnt  moderate  suc- 
cess when  acted.  Beddes  ballads,  fugitive 
pieces,  occasional  poems,  and  songs  (many  of 
them  in  the  Scottish  dialect,  and  humorous). 
Miss  Baillie  published  metrical  legends  of  exalt- 


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BAIUJE 

ed  ohsracters,  and  &  prose  diHertation  called 
**  A  View  of  the  General  Tenor  of  the  New  Teita- 
ment  regarding  the  Natnrs  end  Dignitj  of  Je- 
taa  Ohrist"  Mi^  Boillie  was  greau?  esteemed 
bf  two  generBtions  of  Bcholara.  Her  poetioal 
works  were  collected  and  published  in  16S1. 

BULLIE,  MaOkaw,  a  ScottiBh  physician,  b«m 
at  the  manse  of  Shotts,  I.anarkshire,  Oct  27, 
1761,  died  at  Cirencester,  Gloucestershire,  Sept 
2S,  1B2S.  He  was  the  elder  brother  of  Jo- 
anaa  Bsillie,  and  nephew  of  William  and  John 
Hunter,  the  anafaimistB.  Having  spent  several 
jears  at  the  Glasgow  university  and  one  ?«ar 
at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  he  went  to  London 
in  1T80  to  stndj  ander  the  direction  of  Br. 
William  Hnnter,  to  whom  two  years  after  he 
became  sasiatant  and  demonstrator.  In  1TS3, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  Banter,  who  bequeathed 
him  his  anatomical  theatre  and  the  nae  of  his 
mnseam  for  30  years,  Ifr.  BuUie  commenced 
giving  lectnrea  in  conjonotion  with  Mr.  Crnik- 
shank,  the  anatomist.  He  was  for  13  years 
physician  to  St.  George's  hospital,  and  in  1790 
pabiiahed  a  very  valaable  treatise  on  morbid 
anatomy,  which  was  translated  into  German, 
French,  and  Italian.  He  afterward  published 
a  4to  volume  of  illnetrations  to  this  work.  By 
ihe  time  he  was  40  his  fees  in  one  year  (during 
which  he  said  he  bad  scarcely  time  to  take  a 
regular  men!)  amounted  to  £10,000.  He  be- 
queathed hie  medical  library  and  his  valuable 
collection  of  anatomical  preparations  to  the 
collie  of  phywcians,  with  £flOO  to  keep  them 
iu  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  His  tectnies 
were  pnblisbed  afW  his  death. 

UUUB,  B*t«t)  a  Scottish  theologian,  bom 
at  Glasgow  in  IGB9,  died  iu  July,  16S3.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Glasgow  nniveruty  and 
ordained  by  Archbishop  Law  in  1833,  In  the 
reli^DS  controversies  of  the  day  he  generally 
preserved  a  moderate  tone.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  general  assembly  of  1688,  which  protest- 
ed against  the  episcopacy,  aud  in  1040  was 
chosen  as  commissioner  to  London  to  prefer 
charges  sgaiaat  Archbishop  Land.  On  Jiia  re- 
turn to  Gusgow  in  1843  ha  became  a  professor 
of  divinity  io  the  nniveruty,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  West- 
minster assembly  of  divines,  where  he  main- 
tained the  rights  of  the  presbytery  with  great 
spirit.  Afler  the  execution  of  Oharles  I.  in 
1049  he  was  sent  to  Holland  to  invite  Charles 
IL  to  accept  the  crown  and  covenant  of  Scot- 
land. After  the  restoration  in  ISSO  he  was 
made  principal  of  the  Glasgow  university.  Dr. 
Bsillie  wrote  Opiu  Hiitorieum  et  Chronologi- 
eunt  (Amsterdam,  1663)  and  many  other  works, 
mostly  theological  pamphlets  and  disco  ssions. 
His  "  Lettera  and  Journals,"  of  great  historical 
valne,  were  first  published  in  1T7C,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Home  and  Robertson  (new  ed.,  8  vols. 
8»o,  lS41-'3). 

BULLOT,  Ptcm  Harta  Fraafirii  de  Bales,  a 
French  violinist,  bom  at  Paasy,  near  Paris, 
Oct  1,  1771,  ^ed  in  Paris,  Sept  16,  18«.  He 
waa  a  profeeaor  in  the  conservatoire  for  many 


«T 


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BAHXT  233 

years,  and  wrote  several  treatises  and  addresa- 
es  on  masical  subjects.  He  travelled  in  Russia, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  England,  and  whs  con- 
udered  witbont  a  rival  in  the  severely  olassioal 
style. 

BAILLT,  Jeaa  Bylvali,  a  French  astronomer 
and  statesman,  horn  in  Paris,  Sept  16,  1786, 
gaijlotined  Nov.  12,  1793.  His  father  was  an 
artist,  and  intended  that  he  should  follow  the 
same  profession ;  but  he  was  attracted  more  by 
poetry  and  belles-lettres  nntil  his  acquaintance 
with  La  GaiUe,  when  he  turned  his  attention 
to  astronomy.  In  176S  he  was  admitted  to 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  published  a  redno- 
tion  of  La  Ciulle'a  observations  on  the  zodiacal 
Btors.  He  competed  with  Lagrange  for  the 
academy's  prize  on  the  theory  of  Jupiter's 
satellites  in  1764.     His  treatise  on  that  subject, 

Snblished  in  1706,  contains  a  history  of  that 
eportment  of  astronomy.  In  1T71  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  the  light  of  those  bodies. 
The  1st  volume  of  his  "  History  of  Astronomy  " 
appeared  in  1776,  the  4th  in  1788.  To  theae 
he  afterward  added  a  volume  on  oriental  as- 
tronomy. He  also  published  letUrs  to  Voltaire 
on  the  origin  of  the  sciences  and  of  the  peo[da 
of  Asia,  and  on  Plato's  Atlantis.  In  1TS4  he 
was  chosen  secretary  of  the  academy  of  sden- 
cee  and  admitted  to  the  French  academy,  and 
the  neit  year  to  the  academy  of  inecriptionsL 
About  this  time  he  wrote  his  graceful  and 
eloquent  iloget  on  Charles  V.,  Comeille,  Leib- 
nitz, Moliire,  and  La  Oaille.  Iu  17S4  he  waa 
one  of  the  oommiBsioners  to  investigate  Mes- 
mer's  discoveries,  and  made  a  clear  and  saga- 
cious report  on  the  subject  He  espoused  the 
democratic  canse  in  the  revolution,  was  elected 
from  Paris  in  1789  first  deputy  of  the  K«t»- 
itat,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the  popu- 
lar division  of  the  states  general  in  Versdtles. 
When  the  national  assembly  was  formed,  he 
retained  the  presidential  chair,  and  dictated 
the  oath  by  which  the  members  swore  that 
they  would  "  resist  tyrants  and  tyranny,  and 
never  separate  until  they  had  secured  a  free 
constitution."  In  July,  1789,  he  was  chosen 
mayor  of  Paris,  and  discharged  his  duties  dur- 
ing 30  months  with  great  firmness  and  wis- 
dom. His  vigor  in  suppressing  a  riotous  dem- 
onstration on  the  Champ  de  Knrs,  July  17, 
1791,  and  in  defending  Che  queen  from  charges 
brought  against  her,  having  lessened  his  pop- 
ularity, he  resigned  his  ofSce  in  fieptemh^, 
but  was  induced  to  retein  it  two  months  long- 
er. He  then  lived  for  some  time  at  Nantea, 
and  afterward  with  Laplace  at  Melon ;  bnt 
iu  1793  he  was  seized  by  the  Jacobin  sol- 
diery, and  dragged  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
charged  with  being  a  royalist  conspirator  and 
executed.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  noblest 
victims  of  the  reign  of  terror.  Several  posthu- 
mous works  of  his  have  appeared  ;  the  most 
noted  are  an  "  EHsay  on  tlie  Origin  of  Fables 
and  Andent  Religions,"  and  his  "  Memoirs  of 
an  Eye-witness  of  the  Revolution,"  embracing 
the  period  from  April  to  October,  ITBB. 


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or  implied,  nsuallj  the  redeliverj  of  the  thinK 
itself  or  its  eqniviUent,  or  some  disposition  of 
it  accordiogto  the  direction  of  the  bftilor.  The 
different  kmds  of  bailment  ore :  1,  a  deposit  for 
aofe  keeping ;  2,  lending  or  hiring  for  ose  of 
bailee;  3,  ft  pledge  or  pawn  as  security  for 
something  done  or  to  be  done  by  pawnee ;  4, 
delivery  of  a  thing  for  the  porpose  of  having 
work  done  npon  it,  or  of  being  carried  to  aomo 
plsoe  deatgnated.  When  the  baiiraent  is  escla- 
nvelj  for  the  nae  of  the  bailee,  as  where  a 
thing  is  borrowed  for  use  by  bailee,  the  striot- 
eet  d^p-ee  of  care  is  required.  If  the  traat  is 
to  keep  the  thing  buled  or  to  do  somethii^  in 
reepect  to  it  for  the  benefit  of  bailor  without 
compensation,  ordinary  care,  anch  aa  a  man 
tteatowB  upon  his  own  property,  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired; and  if  he  ia  habitnally  careless  aboot 
bis  own  affairs,  he  is  not  boond  to  do  more  for 
another  than  he  does  for  himselt  If  the  trust 
is  for  mutual  benefit,  as  when  goods  are  to  be 
kept  or  something  done  respecting  them  for  a 
reward,  ordinary  diligence  ia  to  be  eieroised, 
SQch  OS  prudent  and  oarefai  men  would  give  to 
their  own  affairs.  In  respect  to  two  olgaseB  of 
bailmenta,  the  mle  of  law  is  peculiar,  viz.,  the 
cases  of  innkeepers  and  common  carriers; 
both  of  whom  are  made  responsible  abaolntely 
for  the  goods  intrusted  to  them,  except  agwnst 
inevitable  accident  called  the  act  of  God,  and 
against  the  act  of  the  public  enemy.  It  is  not 
sufficient  that  they  nse  the  utmost  care ;  the; 
are  held  to  be  insurers  of  the  safety  of  the 
goods  eicept  as  above  speoiiled.  The  innkeep- 
er therefore  is  answerable  for  the  property  of 
his  guest,  even  if  lost  by  theft  or  burglary ;  and 
a  carrier  for  the  goods  in  his  charge,  against 
every  casualty  eicept  loss  by  lightning  or  tem- 
pest, and  he  is  not  exonerated  in  case  of  de- 
stmotion  by  fire,  in  which  last  particular  the 
role  iseven  more  severe  than  it  is  in  respect  to 
the  innkeeper.  The  English  kw  of  bailmeut 
was  quite  imperfect  until  the  time  of  Lord 
Holt,  who  resorted  to  the  civil  law  to  supply 
the  deficiency  then  existing  in  the  a^naged 
oases.  His  classification,  as  given  in  Goggs  v. 
Bernard,  Lord  Raymond's  Reports,  BOB,  is  fa- 
mous. Sir  William  Jones  was  the  first  English 
writer  who  treated  of  this  subject  at  length ; 
but  he  had  been  anticipated  in  France  by  Fo- 
thier,  whose  work  on  "Obligations"  is  now 
an  acknowledged  anthority  in  En^ish  aud 
American  law.  The  American  treatises  of 
Justice  Story  and  Mr.  Edwards  give  the  results 
of  the  more  recent  cases. 

saw,  Edward  Htdgta,  an  English  sculptor, 
bom  at  Bristol,  March  10,  1788,  died  Hay  22, 
ISUT.  His  father  was  a  ship  carver.  The  son 
was  placed  in  a  counting  house,  but  his  taste 
for  art  led  him  to  take  up  the  vocation  of  a 
modeller  in  wax,  in  which  he  gained  some 
reputation.  In  1607  he  went  to  London,  and 
entered  the  studio  of  Flaxman.  From  the 
society  of  arts  and  sciences  he  received  the 


BAINBRIDGE 

silver  medal,  and  from  the  royal  academy  bo 
gained  both  the  gold  and  silver  medals,  and  a 
purse  of  BO  guineas;  his  subject  on  the  latter 
occasion  being  '*  Hercules  restoring  Aloestis  to 
Admetus."  At  the  age  of  25  he  prodnced  the 
statue  of  "Eve  at  the  Fountain."  Among  bis 
other  works  were  "Hercules  casting  lAchas 
into  the  Sea,"  "Apollo  discharging  his  Ar- 
rows," the  coloaaal  statue  of  Nelson  in  Trafal- 
gar square,  well  known  statues  of  Eari  Grey, 
Sir  Aatley  Cooper,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  por- 
tions of  Uie  sculptures  at  Buckingham  palace, 
"Eve  listening  to  the  Voice,"  "Preparing 
for  the  Bath,"  "The  Graces^  "The  sleeping 
Nymph,"  and  "The  fatigued  Huntsman." 

BliLT,  FruMH,  an  English  astronomer,  bora 
in  1TT4,  died  in  1844.  He  was  a  London  bro- 
ker, and  author  of  several  works  on  annuilie& 
assurances,  and  kindred  sul^ects,  but  devoted 
the  last  years  of  bis  life  almost  wholly  to  the 
service  of  the  aatronomioal  society  and  the 
British  association.  He  prepared  the  astro- 
nomical society's  star  catalogue,  and  contrib- 
uted many  important  papers  to  its  memoirs. 
Sir  John  Herschel  wrote  his  biography. 

SUN,  Alemisr,  a  Scottish  phUosopher,  bom 
in  Aberdeen  in  1618.  He  was  educated  at 
Marischal  college,  and  was  teacher  of  moral 
and  natural  uhflosophy  there  1841-'6,  pr<rf'es- 
Bt^  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Andersonian 
univerMty  1846~'6,  asustant  secretary  of  the 
metropolitan  sanitary  commissioners  1847-'8, 
and  of  the  general  board  of  health  1848-'50, 
examiner  in  logic  and  moral  philosophy  at  the 
university  of  London  1867~'6S,  examiner  in 
moral  science  for  the  India  civil  service  I85S- 
'60  and  1863,  and  professor  of  logic  and  English 
literature  in  the  nniverwty  of  Aberdeen  186l>- 
'64.  In  the  latter  year  he  again  became  ex- 
aminer in  the  univernty  of  London.  He  be- 
came a  contributor  to  the  "  Westminster  Re- 
view" in  1840,  wrote  for  the  "  Oycloptedia " 
and  other  publicationa  of  the  Messrs.  Chambers, 
including  text  books  on  various  sciences  for 
their  school  series,  and  edited  Paley'a  ''Moral 
Philosophy,"  with  dissertations  end  notes 
(1852).  His  principal  works  are :  "TheSenses 
and  the  Intellect"  (18G6};  "  The  Emotions  and 
the  Will"  (1850);  "The  Study  of  Character" 
(1861);  "En^ish  Composition  and  Rhetoric" 
(revised  ed.,  1866);  "Mental  and  Moral  Bd- 
enoe"  (1868);  and  "Logic"  (1870). 

BllSBBIIMiE,  WUUaa,  an  American  naval  of- 
ficer, born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  July  26,  18SS.  He  had  a 
command  in  the  merchant  service,  when,  upon 
the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in  1T98,  he  re- 
ceived the  commission  of  UeuteuBDt.  Id  Sep- 
tember of  that  year,  vrhile  oruiising  olf  Gua- 
deloupe, his  vessel  was  captured  by  a  French 
squadron,  and  he  and  his  officers  and  men  were 
held  as  prisoners  until  December  following. 
On  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  was  pro- 
moted, and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
brig  Norfolk,  in  which  vessel  he  cruised  in  the 
West  Indies  during  a  large  portion  of   the 


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BAIRAU 

troable  with  Franoe.  In  H^j,  ISOO,  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  itppoiated 
to  the  frigate  Georre  Wauiington,  which  was 
ordered  to  carry  a  large  amount  of  tribnte  to 
tbe  regency  of  Algiers.  After  the  completion 
of  this  misuun  the  dey  oompelled  him,  by 
threats  of  capture  and  of  a  declaration  of  war, 
to  convey  an  Algeriue  embassy  to  Constan- 
tinople,  where  Bainbridge  during  a  stay  of  two 
monthH  was  treated  with  great  distinction.  He 
retnmed  to  tbe  United  States  in  1801,  and  was 
soon  employed  in  the  Mediterranean  again  in 
command  of  the  frigate  Esaei.  Upon  tbe  dec- 
laration of  war  agdnst  the  United  States  by 
Tripoli  in  1808,  he  was  appointed  to  the  frigate 
PMIadelphia,  one  of  the  veeeels  of  the  squadron 
sent  Hgamst  that  power  onder  the  command 
of  Commodore  Edward  Preble.  He  displayed 
great  vigor  in  this  serrioe,  capturing  on  Aug. 
as  a  Moorish  frigate  with  an  American  prize ; 
but  on  Oct.  SI  his  vessel  ran  aground,  and  was 
captured  and  carried  to  Tripoli,  where  Bain- 
bnd^e  and  his  men  to  the  number  of  81S  were 
retamed  as  prisoners  till  the  close  of  the  war, 
a  period  of  19  months.  On  his  return  to  the 
United  States  in  ]80G,  Bainbridgo  was  received 
with  very  general  demonstrations  of  kindness 
and  respect.  A  court  of  inquiry  was  held  lor 
the  loss  of  the  Philadelphia,  and  the  result  was 
an  honorable  aoqaittol ;  and  under  the  act  of 
April,  180G,  reorganizing  the  navy,  ha  became 
the  seventh  on  the  list  of  captuns.  On  the 
declaration  of  war  in  1S13  Capt.  Bainbridge 
nnited  with  Capt.  Stewart  in  an  effective  re- 
monstrance ag^st  the  government's  project 
of  laying  up  the  ships  of  war  through  fear  of 
the  immense  superiority  of  the  enemy  at  sea. 
In  September,  1812,  Bainbridge,  now  a  com- 
modore, was  appointed  to  tbe  command  of  a 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Constitution,  44 
guns  (flag  ship),  Essex,  S2,  and  Hornet,  and 
sailed  from  Boston  on  Oct.  2S  for  a  cruise. 
On  Dec.  29,  in  a  severe  engagement  off  San 
Salvador,  the  Constitution  captured  the  British 
frigate  Java,  40  gnns,  the  Java  losing  her  com- 
mander, Gapt.  Laml)er^  and  174  men,  and  the 
Constitntion  33  men.  On  his  return  to  the 
United  States  Bainbridge  was  everywhere  re- 
oeived  with  enthu«asm;  congress  voted  a  gold 
medal  to  him,  and  silver  ones  to  his  officers, 
and  $50,000  were  distributed  to  the  crew  as 
prize  money.  In  161G  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  a  squadron  of  20  sail,  intended 
to  act  against  Algien,  but  peace  was  concluded 
before  it  reached  the  MMiterranean.  Bain- 
bridge, however,  during  this  command,  settled 
disputes  with  the  Barbary  powers.  Upon  his 
return  he  was  appointed  to  command  afloat  at 
Boston.  In  ]81S-'21  he  again  commanded  in 
the  Mediterranean.  From  this  time  until  his 
death  he  was  almost  constantly  employed  in 
important  shore  service,  being  for  some  time 
president  of  the  txiard  of  navy  commissioners. 
BAUUM,  a  Peruan  term  designating  the  two 

trincipal  holidays  of  Islam,  which  are  ceie- 
rated  with  great   festivitiei^  especially  the 


BAIED 


235 


UttIeBairam(Tnrk.;tut(!Avi6ainim;  Arab.aid 

«l-taghir,  the  little  feast,  or  aid  d-fethr,  the 
feast  of  fast-breaking).  It  succeeds  Ramadan, 
beginning  at  sunrise  of  the  first  day  of  the 
month  of  Bhevval,  and  lasts  three  days,  the 
mosijues  being  illuminated,  the  sultan  holding 
public  receptions,  salutes  being  fired,  and  every 
one  who  can  afford  it  putting  on  new  dresses. 
The  Turkish  capital  and  its  environs  exhibit 
during  this  penod  great  animation.  Sixty 
days  after  the  little  Bairam  is  the  festival  of 
the  great  Bairam  (Turk,  hvyvh  bairam.,  gen- 
erally harhan  bairam;  Arab,  aid  el-hebir,  the 
great  feast,  or  aid  el-harbarL  the  feast  of  sacri- 
fice). It  begins  on  the  lOth  of  the  month  of 
Zilh\]e,  and  lasts  four  days,  during  which  sheep 
and  oxen  are  sacrificed,  and  the  same  festivitiea 
observed  as  during  the  little  Bairam.  Every 
&mily  or  two  families  in  conjunction  kill  a 
lamb.  At  Mecca  sheep,  oxen,  and  camels  are 
slaughtered,  and  the  flesh  is  distributed  among 
the  poor  pilnims.  Tbe  sultan  on  both  occa- 
Btons  visits  the  mosqne  with  great  ceremony. 
Ha  also  holds  public  receptions  attended  by 
the  foreign  ministers  and  Turkish  officials,  the 
latter  being  treated  to  a  banquet,  and  16  of 
them  receiving  presents  of  robes  furred  with 
sable.  Formeriy  the  ambassadors  also  received 
presents, 

BlIED,  Sir  DavM.  a  British  general,  bora  at 
Newbyth,  Scotland,  Deo.  6,  ITOT,  died  Aug. 
18,  1829.  He  went  to  India  as  captain  in  the 
73d  Highlanders,  and  in  1780  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner  in  the  disastrous  affair  near 
Co^jevcram  in  tbe  Camatic,  where  Hyder  Ali 
destroyed  an  entire  British  detachment.  He 
was  held  captive  at  Seringapatam  nearly  four 
years,  and  when  that  fortress  was  taken  by 
assault  in  17S9,  Burd,  then  a  m^or  general, 
commanded  and  led  the  storming  party.  For 
his  gallantry  on  this  occasion  he  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament.     Dissatisfied  with  the 

C reference  shown  to  Wellesley,  he  obtained 
lave  of  absence  in  180S,  and  retnmed  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  received  with  great  dis- 
tinction. In  1806  he  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  Dutch  settlements  at  the  Gape  of 
Good  Hope;  in  1807  he  led  a  division  in  the 
attack  on  Copenhagen ;  and  in  1808  he  joined 
Sir  John  Moore  in  Spain,  succeeding  to  the 
command  when  thatofficer  fell  at  Corunna,  He 
was  severely  wounded,  however,  and  obliged 
to  retire  from  active  service.  He  was  knighted 
in  1604,  and  created  a  baronet  after  the  victory 
of  Corunna  in  1809. 

BAIBD,  Bakert,  D.  D.,  on  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  bom  of  Scotch  parentage  in 
Fayette  county,  Penn.,  Oct.  6,  1708,  died  at 
Yonkers,  N.Y.,  Nov.  IB,  1868.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Jefferson  college,  Pennsylvania,  and 
at  the  Princeton  theological  seminary,  and  in 
1822  took  charge  of  an  scsdemy  in  Princeton. 
He  became  agent  of  the  missionary  society  of 
New  Jersey  in  1828,  and  did  much  toward 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  present  system  of 
pnblio  soliool  education  in  that  state.    In  1B2S 


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226  BAIRD 

he  was  appointed  agent  of  the  American  Son- 

da7  school  nnion,  and  succeeded  in  raigiDg  the 
anDual  revenue  of  the  society  from  |S,OIXI  to 
$28,000.  In  1835  lie  visited  Europe,  and  re- 
muned  abroad,  with  the  exception  of  two  brief 
TJMts  home,  for  eight  yeara,  striving  to  revive 
the  Protestant  faith  in  the  eouthem  countries 
of  Europe,  and  to  promote  the  canse  of  tem- 
perance in  tlie  northern  coantriea.  Upon  tlie 
formetioD  of  the  foreign  evangelical  society, 
afterward  merged  in  the  American  and  foreign 
Christian  union,  he  was  made  its  agent  and 
corresponding  secretary.  In  the  Bummer  of 
1842  Dr.  Baird  pubtiahed  in  Scotland  a  work 
entitled  "  Religion  in  America,"  which  was 
translated  into  several  of  the  continental  lan~ 
gua^es.  Among  his  other  works  wore  "A 
Vifflt  to  Nortliem  Europe,"  " Proteetantiam  in 
Italy,"  "Iliatory  of  the  Albigensea,  Woldenses, 
and  Yaudois,"  and  "  History  of  the  Temper- 
ance Societies  of  the  United  States," 

UIKD,  Speuer  FiDertaa,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, bom  at  Reading,  Penn.,  Feb.  3,  1823. 
He  was  educated  at  Dickinson  coilese,  and 
in  1646  became  professor  of  natoral  science  in 
that  inatjtntion.  In  1850  he  waa  appointed  as- 
sistant secretary  of  tlie  Smithsonian  institution 
in  Washington,  which  position  he  still  occupies 
(I8TS).  His  Hrst  scientific  and  literary  work 
of  any  magnitude  was  a  translation  from  the 
German  of  the  Bilder-Atlat  of  Heck,  a  sup- 

Element  to  the  Converiatioju-Lexikon  of  Brock- 
auB,  in  which  he  was  oseisted  by  several  schol- 


of  plates,  New  York,  1849  et  wj.).  His  next 
important  publication  was  the  report  on  the 
mammals  of  North  America,  constituting  vol. 
viii.  of  the  "Reporta  of  the  Survey  of  the 


BAIREUTH 

Railroad  Rontes  to  the  Pacific."  This,  whioli 
appeared  in  1857,  waa  followed  in  18S8  by  a 
still  more  extended  work  (vol.  ix.  of  the  series) 
upon  the  birds  of  North  America.  In  1864 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  a  work,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  inatJtntion, 
upon  the  birds  of  the  new  world  generally, 
under  the  title  of  "Review  of  American  Birds 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion." He  has  also  been  engoged  for  several 
years  in  preparing  a  new  account  of  the  birds 
of  North  America,  which  is  now  (1873)  in 
preaa,  and  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  Br.  T.  li. 
Brewer  of  Boston.  In  1971  be  was  appointed 
by  President  Grant  United  States  eommismoner 
of  fish  and  fisheries,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
inquiries  into  the  causes  of  the  uecreoae  of  the 
supply  of  food  fishes  of  the  United  States,  and 
tiie  methods  of  restoring  it  Numerous  minor 
papers  upon  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fish- 
es of  North  America  have  appeared  from  his 
pen  in  the  "Proceedings"  of  the  academy  of 
natural  sciences  of  Philadelphia,  the  New  York 
lycenm  of  natural  history,  and  elsewhere. 

BAIBECTH,  or  Bijrekth,  a  city  of  Bavaria, 
capital  of  the  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  on  the 
left  bonk  of  the  Red  Main,  about  60  m.  by  rail- 
way N.  N,  E.  of  Nuremberg  ;  pop.  m  1871, 
17.837,  chiefly  Protestants.  The  town  is  well 
built  and  partly  surrounded  by  ancient  walla. 
It  has  a  castle,  ridbg  school,  gymnasium,  thea- 
tre, public  library,  and  public  garden,  an  actJve 
trade,  principally  in  grain,  several  breweries 
and  distilleries,  and  manufactures  of  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  leather,  and  earthenware. 
There  ore  three  palaces  in  the  vicinity.  The 
Hermitage  palace  is  a  fonoiM  bnilding,  where 
Frederick  the  Great  and  bis  sister  the  mar- 
gravine ot  Bairenth  resided,     Sohwanthaler's 


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BAIUS 

bronze  statue  of  Blc1it«r,  who  died  and  waa 
buried  here  in  1623,  is  in  the  Gjamtuiams- 

51atx,  and  on  insciiptioa  in  gold  letten  tnftrks 
lis  hoQse  in  the  Fried  richsatrasse,  In  front 
of  the  old  castle,  now  osed  for  government 
offices,  is  a  monument  in  honor  of  Uaiimil- 
ian  II.  erected  in  18<10,  and  in  the  square  in 
Kvnt  of  the  new  caatle  Btands  an  equestriim 
■tatae  of  the  margrave  Christian  Ernst.  Tlie 
oomer  stone  of  a  ^eat  festival  theatre,  design- 
ed b;  Richard  Wagner  for  the  promotion  of 
the  Qerman  iyrio  drama,  and  esp«oiaUy  for  the 
petformimoe  of  his  own  Nibelungen  trilogj, 
was  laid  at  Bairenth  in  1872. — Bairenth  was 
formerlj  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  the 
■ame  name  (previonsly  of  Kalmbach),  the  LiS' 
tory  of  which  was  long  aasociated  with  that 
of  the  principality  of  Anspach.  Christian,  a 
son'  of  tbe  elector  John  George  of  Branden- 
bni%  who  at  the  beginning  of  ^e  ITth  century 
anc^eded  as  mler  of  Bairenth,  while  his  brother 
became  prince  of  Anapach,  removed  the  oapital 
from  Knlmbach  to  Bairenth.  In  1TS8,  on  the 
death  of  the  margrave  Frederick,  who  had 
greatly  promoted  public  prosperity,  Baireuth 
and  An^aoh  were  united  into  one  princi- 
pality, and  both  ceded  to  Prasna  in  1791. 
After  pasting  under  tbe  power  of  the  French 
in  1806,  Bairenth  waa  transferred  to  Bavaria 
in  1810. 

BAIVS,  or  De  Bay,  MkhacI,  a  Flemish  theolo- 
fisn,  bom  at  Mellaln  fiainanlt  in  1613,  died 
Sept.  16,  1689.  He  was  edaoated  at  the  nni- 
Teriity  of  Lonvain,  in  which  he  became  a 
profeeaor  and  nltimately  chancellor.  His  zeal- 
ona  advocacy  of  the  doctrine  of  St.  Anguatine 
bron^bt  him  into  collision  with  his  colleagnes, 
who  m  1562  laid  16  of  his  moat  objectionable 
dc^mas  before  the  university  of  Faria,  which 
in  IQGO  o^mdemned  16  of  them  as  heretical 
•nd  the  other  three  aa  false.  Notwithstanding 
this  decision,  the  Spanish  court  sent  Bdaa  as 
its  representative  to  tbe  oonndl  of  Trent  in 
1S6S.  In  the  (wo  following  years  he  pDblished 
rarioDS  controversial  works,  which  called  forth 
on  Nov.  1, 15BT,  the  denunciatory  boll  of  Pope 
^Ds  v.,  which  anathematized  76  of  his  la- 
Torite  dogmas,  but  did  not  name  him.  Bains 
afterward  recanted  and  professed  obedience, 
-waa  engaged  a  few  years  later  in  similar  con- 
troversiea,  and  made  a  second  retraction  in 
1680.  Tlie  contest  was  renewed  from  time  to 
time  nntU  big  death.  His  works  were  pub- 
lidied  at  Cologne  in  1696,  and  hia  doctrines 
snbaeqnently  became  tbe  basis  of  Jansenism. 

BUiZCr,  BatnU,  or  BayiiU,  L  An  Otto- 
mao  anltan,  bom  in  1S4T,  died  in  1408.  He 
anoceeded  his  Eatiiw  AmoraCh  I.,  who  waa 
killed  at  the  hour  of  victory  in  the  battle  of 
Kosoro  in  1389,  and  toprevent  any  trouble  with 
hia  family  strangled  his  yonnger  brother.  He 
was  incessantly  occupied  in  the  first  years  of 
bis  reigo  in  sabdning  his  rehelliona  aubjects  or 
adding  Co  his  ooBqaests.  In  Europe  bis  armiea 
penetrated  beyond  the  Danntre,  into  Wallaohia 
and  Hnngary,  sabdoed  the  oountries  around 


BAKA03 


237 


the  Balkan,  and  devaatatod  parts  of  Greece. 
He  brought  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  onder 
the  Turkish  government.  In  1391  ho  subdued 
Philadelphia,  the  last  of  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia,  aud  in  1894  lud  aiege  to  ConstantJno- 

Ele,  continning  it  for  years.  European  nations 
ecame  alarmed  at  hia  progress,  and  Sigis- 
muQd,.king  of  Hungary,  with  a  large  army 
reinforced  by  a  select  body  of  French  troops, 
set  out  to  check  hia  pn^ress;  but  in  1396 
Bajazet  utterly  routed  his  army  near  Nico- 

Solis.  He  overran  the  whole  ckT  the  Morea, 
Dt  his  career  of  conqnest  was  checked  by 
Tamerlane,  who  invaded  his  possesaions  in 
Asia  Minor.  The  two  conquerors  met  on 
tlie  plains  of  Angora  in  Oalatia  with  im- 
mense armies  in  1403,  and  Bi^azet  was  total- 
ly defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  and,  accord- 
ing to  acconnts  which  modem  historians  do 
not  consider  literally  trae,  was  carried  abont  in 
an  iron  cage  till  his  death.  On  account  of  the 
rapidity  of  his  movements  B^azet  was  called 
llderim  (tbe  lightning).  He  was  aucoeeded  by 
Mohammed  I.  II.  An  Ottoman  sultan,  eon  of 
Mohammed  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantino- 
ple, bora  in  1447j  died  in  1913.  On  bis  &lher's 
death  in  14S1,  hia  brother  Zizim  disputed  the 
BQcoeaaion.  Ha  waa  defeated,  however,  and 
fled  to  Egypt,  and  afterward  to  Khodes,  wnence 
B'Aubnsson,  tbe  grand  master,  sent  him  to 
France.  Bi^azet's  hatred  pursued  him  in  his 
exile,  and  is  believed  to  nave  procured  his 
death  by  poison.  B^jazet  was  conUnnally  en- 
gaged in  WOT,  with  varying  aucces,  agunst 
the  Venetians,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Per- 
idans.  Hia  reign  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
the  rebellion  of  three  of  his  eons,  claimants  c^ 
the  throne,  in  which  Belim,  the  youngest,  was 
at  last  aocoessflil,  and  B^azet  abdicated  in  his 
favor,  and  was  poisoned  by  him  a  few  days 
later.  During  the  reign  of  Bajazet  II.  the 
Venetians  obtained  tbe  right  to  appoint  a  con- 
sul at  the  Bublime  Porte,  and  treaties  were 
concluded  with  Poland  and  tbe  czar, 

BUtZID,  or  BayaiM,  a  fortified  town  of 
Turkish  Armenia,  160  ro.  E.  S.  E.  of  Erze- 
mm,  S,  W.  of  Mount  Ararat ;  pop.  variously 
estimated  at  from  6,000  to  15,000,  mostly 
Knrda.  It  Ilea  around  a  hilt  crowned  by  a 
citadel,  and  has  a  palace,  arsenal,  moaqnej 
and  monastery.  The  town,  which  is  the  cap- 
ital of  a  sanjak,  has  declined  sjnoe  the  Rus- 
sian conquest  of  Georgia. 

BiKlGS,  Taais,  a  Hunrarian  atatearaan  and 
prelate,  died  in  1B31.  The  son  of  a  sert  he 
became  by  hia  talents  secretary  of  King  Mat- 
thias Corvinus,  who  ennobled  him,  and  after 
whose  death  he  labored  for  the  accession  of 
Ladielas  II.  of  Bohemia  to  the  throne  (141)0). 
Tbe  latter  accordingly  made  him  chancellor, 
which  office  he  relinquished  in  1506  for  a  car- 
dinal's hat,  having  previouaiy  been  the  in- 
cumbent of  various  episcopal  aees,  and  finally 
of  the  archbishopric  of  Gran.  He  even  as- 
pired to  the  holy  see,  but  anoceeded  only  in 
being  appointed  legate  ia  Hnngary,  and  in 


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BAC 


.AHARI 


bebg  allowed  to  hold  einmltaDeonslj,  oontrary 
to  law,  manj'  ecclesiastica]  endowments  and 
fuDctions.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Julias  II. 
(1518)  he  revisited  Roin&  still  in  the  hope  of 
winning  the  papacy;  and  when  this  hope  was 
blasted  bj  the  election  of  Leo  X.,  be  obtain- 
ed permission  to  preach  «  orusode  against  the 
Turtcs.  But  the  army  of  peasants  and  vaga- 
bonds  which  rallied  under  D6zsa  in  obedience 
to  his  appeals,  instead  of  fighting  the  infideta, 
tamed  their  anna  agiunst  Uie  Uiingarian  no- 
bility and  committed  frightfo]  ravages,  natil 
they  were  ronted  by  John  Z&polya.  This 
peasants'  war,  and  the  somewhat  anspicious 
part  played  in  the  whole  movement  by  Bs- 
kaos,  have  been  graphically  described  in  Mag- 
yaror»tdg  1614-Sen  ("Hungary  in  1614"),  by 
BaroD  E6tv6a  (3  vols.,  Peath,  1847-'8).  The 
&milias  £rd6di  and  F&lffy  inherited  tiie  vast 
fortmie  of  Bakacs. 

BAKIUHIU,  the  oldest  of  the  African  Be- 
ehnana  tribes,  occupying  the  great  Kalahari 
desert,  between  the  Orange  river,  lat  ES°  8., 
and  Lake  Ngami,  and  between  Ion.  24"  and  the 
Great  Fish  river.  They  are  found  roaming 
with  the  Bushmen,  but  ret^n  the  diaracteris- 
tics  of  the  Bechuana  tribea,  and  exhibit  an 
inclination  ia  indnstrial  pursuits  and  settled 
life.  They  cultivate  the  thin  soil,  rear  goats, 
and  carry  on  a  small  traffic  in  fhrs. 

BAKES,  the  name  of  counties  in  four  of  the 
United  States.  L  A  central  ooanty  of  Alaba- 
ma, bonnded  E.  by  tiie  Coosa  river,  and  watered 
by  affinenta  of  that  streani  and  of  the  Alabama 
and  Oahawba ;  area,  060  eq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,194,  of  whom  1,187  were  colored.  The  Sel- 
ma,  Korae,  and  Dolton,  and  the  South  and 
North  Alabama  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  11,728 
bowels  of  wheat,  131,811  of  Indian  com,  6,238 
of  oats,  39,S71  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,860 
bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Grantville.  II.  A 
N.  K  county  of  Florida,  hounded  N.  and  N.  E. 
}}j  Geoipa,  from  which  it  is  partly  separated 
hytheKforkofthaSt.l[ary'sriver;  area,  570 
•q.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,826,  of  whom  2aO  were 
colored.  It  is  watered  by  several  streams  and 
amall  lakes,  and  the  Okefenoke  swamp  extends 
in  the  N.  W.  portion.  The  Florida  Central 
rtulroad  passes  through  the  county.  In  1870 
the  count;  produced  10,408  bugbels  of  com, 
1,716  of  oats,  6,160  of  sweet  potatoes,  SS  bales 
of  cotton,  2S  bhds.  of  sugar,  and  8,075  gallons 
of  molasses.  Coital,  Sanderson.  UL  A  S. 
W.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  S.  E.  by  Flint 
river  and  intersected  by  Ichawoynoochaway 
creek ;  area,  1,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1S70,  6,843, 
of  whom  4,Q55  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  153,086  buabela  of  Indian 
com,  6,664  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  5,666  boles 
of  cotton.  Capital,  Newton.  IV.  A  8.  E.  coun- 
*  ty  of  Oregon,  bonnded  E.  by  Idaho,  and  S.  by 
Nevada;  area  about  6,000  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,804,  of  whom  660  were  Chinese.  It  is  wa- 
tered by  the  Owyhee  and  Malheur  rivers,  and 


odier  branches  of  the  Saptin  or  Snake,  which 
nuts  on  its  E.  border.  The  Blue  monntains 
skirt  the  N.  W.  comer.  The  county  has  mines 
of  gold  and  silver.  In  1B70  the  chief  produc- 
tions were  2,306  bnshels  of  wheat,  87,426  of 
oata,  17,732  of  barley,  7,877  of  potatoes,  and 
1,944  tons  of  hay.    Capital,  Anburn. 

BiKER,  Hward  UtkliMa,  an  American  sen- 
ator and  soldier,  l>om  in  London,  England, 
Feb.  24,  1811,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's 
Bluff  m  Virginia,  Oct.  21,  1861.  The  family 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1616,  settling 
first  in  Philadelphia,  and  afterward  at  Belle- 
ville, III.  Having  l>een  admitt«d  to  the  bar. 
Baker  took  up  his  residence  at  Springfield,  HI. 
He  was  elected  member  of  the  legislature  in 
1887,  of  the  state  senate  in  1840,  and  represen- 
tative in  eongreas  in  1844.  When  the  war 
with  Ueiico  broke  out  in  1346,  he  resigned  his 
seat  in  congress,  became  colonel  of  a  regiment 
of  volunteers  from  Illinois,  was  present  at  the 
aiege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  battle  of  Oerro  Gordo.  In  1648  he  was 
again  elected  to  congress,  but  declined,  having 
become  connected  with  the  Panama  railway. 
In  1852  he  settled  in  California,  where  he 
practised  law  with  success,  took  an  active  part 
ut  political  diacttaaions,  and  was  nominated 
by  the  republicans  for  congress,  but  was  not 
elected.  He  removed  to  Oregon,  and  in  1860 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  from 
that  stat«.  When  the  civil  war  broke  oat 
he  raised  a  r^ment  in  New  Tork  and  Phil- 
adelphia, of  wnich  he  was  appointed  colonel, 
having  declined  a  commisuon  as  general.  At 
the  battle  of  Ball's  Blu^  where  he  command- 
ed a  brigade,  he  received  several  bniletA,  one 
of  which  passed  throagh  his  head,  killing  him 
on  the  field. 

BlUK,  HcwT,  an  English  natoralist  and 
teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  bom  in  Lon- 
don, May  B,  1698,  died  Nov.  25, 1774.  ■  He  was 
brought  up  to  the  bookselling  bnsinesa,  bat 
aAerward  devoted  himself  to  scientific  etudiea, 
and  especially  to  observations  with  the  mi- 
croscope and  to  botany.  Ho  introduced  into 
England  several  valuable  exotic  plants;  among 
others,  the  large  Alpine  strawberry,  and  &» 
rhsum  palmatum,  or  tme  rhubarb.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  society  of  antiquaries  and  of 
the  royal  society.  He  contributed  several  pa- 
pers to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  and 
published,  besides  his  microscopic  ohservationB, 
a  small  collection  of  poems.  Many  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  in  tlie  instruction  of  deaf 
mutes,  whom  he  taught  to  articolate  after  tlie 
method  of  Wallis  and  Holden.  He  married 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Daniel  Defoe. 

BIKES,  Osmn  Oeavte,  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church,  born  in  Marlow,  N.  IL,  Jnly  SO,  1812, 
died  Dec.  20.  1871.  At  the  age  of  15  he  en- 
tered WilbrsJiam  academy,  and  in  1630  went 
to  the  Wesleyan  university,  Middletown,  Conn., 
where  he  studied  tliree  years,  receiving  a  de- 
gree, although  bad  health  prevented  him  from 


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finldiing  the  usual  stDdiea.  In  1834  lie  wu 
apptiiabod  teacher  io  Newbory  seminar;,  Vt, 
aad  ia  1889  became  its  principal.  This  portion 
he  oocapied  till  1841,  wiien  he  entered  the 
work  of  thi!  pastorate.  In  184T  he  waa  elected 
h>  a  chnir  in  theology  in  the  Kethodist  geoe- 
ral  Biblical  institute  at  Concord,  N,  H.,  Binoe 
become  the  school  of  theology  of  the  Boston 
naiveraity.  SnlMequently  he  wbb  chosen  presi- 
dent of  this  institution,  where  he  remained  tiil 
1853,  when  he  was  elected  bishop.  His  chief 
labors  were  in  behalf  of  theolt^cal  education. 
Among  other  writinKS,  he  was  tbe  author  of  a 
commentary  on  the  ecclcfiiastical  law  and  poiity 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church. 

BiKEK,  Sir  gaaiel  WUtc,  an  English  explorer, 
bom  June  8,  1821.  In  1848,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  he  establisbed  a  model  farm 
and  coSbe  estate  in  the  island  of  Ceylon.  lie 
^ve  some  aocoant  of  his  life  there  in  "The 
Rifle  and  the  Hound  in  Ceylon"  (185S)  and 
"Eight  Years'  Wanderings  in  Ceylon"  (1S65). 
In  18S1  he  organized  a  large  expedition  fur  the 

Surpose  of  discovering  the  head  waters  of  the 
ile,  with  the  especial  design  of  meeting  and 
■noconng  Speke  and  Grant,  who  had  set  ont 
from  Zanzibar  for  the  some  pnrpose.  Baker, 
accompanied  by  his  wife,  a  Hungarian  by  birth, 
set  ODt  from  Cairo,  April  IB,  1861,  and  on  the 
13th  of  June  reached  the  junction  of  the  At- 
bars  with  the  Nile.  For  nearly  a  year  he  ex- 
plored the  regions  of  Abys^nis  whence  comes 
the  Blue  Nile,  and  in  June,  1863,  returned  to 
Khartoom,  at  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and  the 
White  Nile.  Here  he  organized  a  party  of  9S 
Mraona  to  explore  the  coarse  of  the  Wbit« 
Nile.  They  set  ont  Dec.  18,  1863,  suling 
southward  up  the  river.  They  reached  Qondo- 
koro,  lat.  4°  M'  N.,  Ion.  31"=  48'  E.,  on  Feb.  3, 
1S43.  Here  on  the  16th  Baker  was  met  by 
Grant  and  Speke,  who  coming  from  the  south 
had  discovered  (he  Victoria  N'yanza,  which 
they  believed  t«  be  the  nltimate  source  of  the 
Nile.  They  had  left  the  river  for  some  dis- 
tance, but  thought  it  probable  that  there  was 
■till  another  great  lake  connected  with  the 
Victoria  N'yanza.  Baker,  resolved  to  supple- 
ment the  explorations  of  Grant  and  Speke, 
started  fhnn  Gondokoro  by  land,  March  se, 
1S63,  the  route  being  first  eastward,  then  nearly 
south,  then  trending  toward  the  west.     The 

ianmej  was  adventoroos  and  toilsome,  and 
Irs.  Baker  suffered  a  annstroke  which  nearly 
ooet  her  life.  On  Marsh  14,  1894,  Baker  came 
irt  sight  of  a  great  ftesh-water  lake,  heretofore 
nnkiiown,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Albert 
N'yanzA.  (See  N'tanza.)  After  navigating 
a  small  portion  of  the  lake,  he  set  out  on 
his  homeward  journey  early  in  April,  1864; 
bnt  owing  to  illness  and  the  disturbed  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  he  did  not  reach  Gondo- 
koro until  March  23,  186S,  He  then  returned 
to  England,  where  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  and  published  an  account  of  his 
explorations,  "The  Albert  N'yanza"  (London, 
1866).     In  1809  he  returned  to  Afhca,  was 


BAKHTOHISEEAI  229 

created  a  pasha  by  the  kbedive  of  Egypt,  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  pnt 
down  the  slave  trade  carried  on  by  the  natives 
and  Arabs  in  the  bawn  of  the  Nile. 

BIKEWELL,  a  market  town  of  Derbyshire, 
England,  situated  on  the  river  Wye,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Derwent,  20  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
Derby;  pop.  in  1871,  10,727.  It  is  tiie  prop- 
erty of  the  duke  of  Katland,  whose  seat,  Had- 
doQ  Half,  is  two  miles  from  the  town.  It  has 
a  spacious  cruciform  church  founded  in  Saxon 
times,  showing  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture of  different  periods,  and  ou  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Wye  are  tracee  of  a  castle  bnilt  by 
Edward  the  Elder  in  924.  Cotton  mills  were 
first  established  here  by  Arkwright,  and  there 
are  ootl  and  lead  mines  in  the  vicinity.  There 
are  also  chalybeate  springs  and  warm  bathe, 
formerly  much  resorted  to.  Chatsworth  house, 
the  splendid  residence  of  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire, is  three  miles  distant. 

BAKEWHJ.,  ■•)  '  "  ' 
born  at  Dishley  i 
died  Oct  1,  1796.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
1 760  as  proprietor  of  the  Dishley  farm,  where  he 
introdnced  the  long-homed  breed  of  cattle  aud 
paid  special  attention  to  the  development  of 
sheep.  His  horses  and  piga  were  also  noted  in 
their  day.  His  aim  was  to  secure  cattle  that 
would  fatten  on  the  amslteat  quantity  of  food. 
Mr.  Bakowell  introduced  into  Engli^  agricul- 
ture the  practice  of  flooding  meadows.  He 
never  contributed  anything  to  literature,  but 
Arthur  Tonng,  in  bis  "Annals  of  Agriculture," 
fully  described  and  praised  his  plans  and  im- 
provements. 

BiKHlIT,  a  town  of  8.  Rasda,  in  the  govern- 
ment and  188  m.  E.  of  the  town  of  Yaksteri- 
noslav ;  pop.  in  1867,  10,Sfl3.  The  town  has 
large  establishmente  for  rendering  tallow,  and 
near  it  are  coal  mines  and  alabaster  quarries. 

BiKHTCmSEBAI  (Turkish,  palace  of  gardens), 
a  Tartar  town  of  the  Crimea,*  now  included  in 
the  Russian  government  of  Tanrida,  in  lat.  44° 
47'  N.,  Ion.  38°  64'  E.,  38  m.  N.  E.  of  8e- 
bastopoi,  in  a  long  deep  valley  on  the  bonka 
of  the  Tohumk  6u;  pop.  in  1867,  11,448,  of 
whom  1,600  were  Caraite  Jews,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians,  and  tbe  rest  Tartars.  The  khan 
terai,  or  palace  of  the  ancient  khans  of  the 
Crimea,  consists  of  a  range  of  spacious  build- 
ings one  story  high,  richly  adorned  with  aro- 
besqaes  and  inscriptions,  a  splendid  inosque, 
beautiful  marble  fountains,  and  Inzuriaot  gar- 
dens. The  manufactures  consist  of  morocco 
leather,  saddlery  and  other  leather  articles, 
heeza  (a  spirit  distilled  from  millet),  silks, 
common  cutlery,  gold  and  silver  plate,  pot- 
tery, and  arms.  About  four  miles  distant  are 
the  renowned  seat  of  the  Oaraites,  Tohnfnt 
Ksl^  or  Jews'  Castle,  and  a  deserted  monas- 
tery containing  70  cells  hewn  ont  of  the 
solid  rock.  Bakhtchiserai  first  became  the 
residence  of  tbe  khans  about  1476.  In  the 
16th  century  their  dominion  extended  not  only 
over  the  Crimea,  but  over  all  the  ootlyiog 


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S80  BA£HTE6AN 

tN^totr  from  the  Daniibe  to  the  Oaacsmie. 
Gradually,  however,  Knssia  nndennioed  their 
Kndiority,  nntil  in  1T8S  it  became  eztjoct. 
During  the  siege  of  Sebaatopo)  (18S6)  Bakh- 
tohiaeriu  wae  the  headquarters  of  the  Roauan 
army. 

KUVTECAH,  a  lake  of  Fenria,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Fare,  in  lat.  29°  30'  N.,  and  between 
Ion.  SS"  80'  and  64°  80'  E. ;  leDgth  E.  and  W. 
upward  of  SO  m.;  breadth  6  ro.  It  dries  op 
in  Bonmier,  lenviue  immenM  qnanldties  of  aalt. 

BiKmSHWA,  the  name  of  a  Ohristion  Nes- 
torian  family,  which  during  the  6th,  9th,  10th, 
and  11th  centuries  gave  six  famona  phyricians 
to  the  conrt  of  Bagdad.  Caliph  Al-Uadi,  after 
having  been  restored  to  health  by  the  ^iil  of 
Ben  Giargis  Bakhtishwa  in  T86,  proposed  that 
all  the  phyucians  who  bad  nnsaccesefblly  prac- 
tised npon  bim  should  be  put  to  death ;  bnt 
Bakhtishwa  aaved  the  Uvea  of  his  colleagnea 
by  administering  poison  to  the  caliph.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  0th  oentury  Oiahril  ben  Giur- 
DJs  ben  Bakhtiahwfl,  afl«r  helping  Haroan  al- 
Rashid  over  an  apopleotio  fit,  was  eentenoed 
to  death  becanse  the  caliph  had  a  relapse. 
His  life  was  only  aaved  by  the  death  of  the 
eaJiph.  The  roost  learned  of  the  Bakhtishwas 
waa  Abn  6a,  who  flonrished  abont  the  middle 
of  the  10th  oentary.  He  is  the  reputed  author 
ot  a  medical  work  in  GO  ehapters,  dedicated  to 
Oaliph  Motaki,  and  entitled  the  "Garden  of 
Medicine." 

BAKONT,  or  FnMt  tt  BakMy,  a  moentain 
range  in  Hungary,  S.  of  the  Danube,  between 
the  Raab  and  Lake  Balat^m,  separatiDg  the 
great  and  littie  Hnngarian  plains.  Its  ave- 
rage height  is  about  3,000  ft.  It  is  crowned 
with  dense  forests,  and  has  quarries  of  very 
fine  marble.  Immense  herds  of  swin^  are  fed 
in  the  forest,  and  the  keepers  figure  as  robbers 
in  Hnngarian  lit^raCure. 

BIKD,  or  BakMi  1.  Formerly  an  indepen- 
dent khanate,  now  a  government  of  Rnsua,  in 
Transcancada,  bordering  on  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  compriung  the  territory  of  Shirvan  and 
part  of  Daghestan ;  area,  14,923  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
I86T,  48S,220,  inolnding  RuBsians,  Caucastaus, 
Armenians,  and  Parsees.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  easternmost  ranges  of  the  Cancaaus,  and 
vatered  by  the  Enr  and  the  Aras.  The  penin- 
sula of  Apsheron,  comprised  witliin  this  gov- 
ernment, IB  remarkable  for  its  mad  volcanoes 
and  naphtha  springs.  Near  the  town  of  Baku 
there  are  about  100  bitominoos  springs,  seve- 
ral of  which  are  worked,  prodacing  watte  and 
black  naphtha.  The  principal  Bonrces  are  wtn- 
at«d  at  a  spot  called  Balegan,  abont  6  m.  from 
the  city  of  Bakn.  The  quantity  annnally  ob- 
tained in  the  district  amonnt«  to  about  SR.OOO 
lbs.  of  the  pure  and  9,600,000  lbs.  of  the  black 
naphtha.  The  naphtha  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
lllominating  purposes.  The  country  for  seve- 
ral miles  round  the  town  of  Bakn  is  impreg- 
nated with  infiammable  matter.  About  15  m, 
N.  E.  of  the  town  is  a  fire  temple  of  the  Gne- 
bree  nearly  a  mile  in  oironmfereiioe,  from  the 


BAKU 

centre  of  which  rises  a  bluish  Same.  Ilere  are 
some  small  houses,  and  the  inhabitanta  when 
they  wish  to  smother  the  flame  cover  the  place, 
euclosed  with  walls,  by  a  thick  loam.  When 
an  iaciHon  ia  made  in  tlie  fioor,  and  a  torch 
applied,  the  gas  ignites,  and  when  the  fire  is 
no  longer  needed  it  is  again  Bappresaed  by  clos- 
ing the  aperture.  Not  far  from  the  town  there 
is  a  boihng  lake  which  is  in  constant  motion, 
and  ^ves  out  a  flame  altogether  devoid  of  heat. 
After  the  warm  showers  of  autumn  the  whole 
country  appears  to  be  on  flre,  and  the  flames 
frequentiy  roll  along  the  mountains  in  enor- 
mouB  masses  and  with  incredible  velocity.  The 
fire  does  not  bam,  nor  is  it  possible  to  detect 
the  least  heat  in  it,  nor  are  the  reeds  or  grass 
affected  by  it.  These  appearances  never  occur 
when  the  wind  blows  from  the  east.  In  for- 
mer times  the  burning  field  was  one  of  the  most 


the  Rusfflans  a  voluntary  human  Baorifice  was 
annnally  offered  here — a  youth  who  leaped 
with  his  horse  into  one  of  the  Assures.  A  few 
adherents  of  this  sect  still  make  pilgrimages 
to  the  great  atesbgali  to  worship  the  fire  and 

Krform  penitential  ezerciaes,  chiefly  by  night. 
le  place  is  a  walled  quadrangle  with  an  ^tar 
raisea  on  a  flight  of  steps  In  the  centre.  At 
each  of  the  four  corners  stands  a  chimney  26 
ft.  high,  from  which  issaes  a  fiame  8  ft.  long. 
Round  the  walls  of  this  aanctum  are  a  number 
of  cells  in  which  the  priests  and  Guehrea  re- 
Hde.  The  peuinanla  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
salt  formation :  in  diSerent  parts  of  it  there  are 
10  salt  lakes,  only  one  or  two  of  which  are 
worked,  yielding  annually  about  10,000  tons. 
There  are  no  trees  in  this  peninsula,  bnt  por- 
tions of  the  territory  have  a  layer  of  roould  on 
which  are  ruBed  wheat,  barley,  maize,  melona, 
fruita,  rice,  cotton,  and  saffVon.  Opium  is  pre- 
pared, and  a  Bpecies  of  red  and  highly  flavored 
onion  nut  found  elsewhere  is  cultivated.  IL  A 
seaport  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  CaBpian, 
the  capital  of  the  preceding  government,  in  lat, 
40*"  22'  N.  and  Ion.  49''40'  E,,  atnatod  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  penlnsida  of  ApsheHin; 

?)p.  in  1S67,  12,888,  chiefly  Mohammedans, 
he  houses,  terraced  like  those  of  other  oriental 
towns,  are  built  of  naphtha  and  earth.  The 
town  is  protected  by  a  double  wall  built  in  th« 
time  of  Peter  the  Qreat,  baa  a  custom  house,  mil- 
itary school,  16  Mohammedan  private  schools, 
28  mosques,  Russian,  Greek,  and  Armenian 
chnrohea,  and  a  palace  of  the  ancient  khans 
built  about  the  7th  centnry,  and  now  nsed  as 
on  artillery  arsenal.  The  walls  were  once 
washed  by  the  Caq>ian,  but  they  are  now  16 
it.  from  it;  and  in  other  places  the  sea  has  en- 
croached upon  the  land,  and  the  ruina  of  sub- 
merged bnitdings  are  discovered  at  a  depth  of 
13  ft.  The  port  of  Bakn  ia  the  most  important 
on  the  Caspian,  and  a  principal  Russian  naval 
station.  The  chief  articles  of  trade  are  naph- 
tha, iron,  dlk,  shawls,  linen  and  woollen  goods, 
ootton,  tobsooo,  ind^  fruits,  fish,  aalt,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAKDNIN 

B&ffh>ii.  There  are  no  fectoriet.  Bakn  erisUd 
in  iixe  4th  centarj.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Siu-acens,  and  after  the  downfall  of  the 
caliphate  it  paued  into  the  power  of  the 
princes  of  Shi rvan.  In  1BO0  it  was  anneied  to 
the  Persian  monarchy,  and  later  was  taken  by 
the  Tnrkit  bnt  recaptured  by  Shah  Abbas  I. 
In  172it  the  oity  oapitolated  to  the  Russians 
Dnd«r  Matnshtdn,  but  was  returned  to  the  Per- 
sians at  the  peace  of  nss.  Later  it  was  taken 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Oanoasns,  and  in  180S 
it  was  again  taken  by  the  Rnssiaua  under  Gen, 
Balkh^trEF  and  finally  annexed  to  Russia. 


1876-  He  belonged  to  an  old  family,  left  the 
military  service  to  study  philosophy,  and  he- 
oame  conspicnons  by  bis  affiliations  with  revo- 
Indtmary  Frenolimen,  Uermana,  and  Poles,  and 
as  a  resolnte  s^tator.  He  resided  alter  1641, 
when  he  left  Russia,  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Switaerland ;  and,  deohning  to  return  to  Rqb- 
OB,  bis  estates  were  confiscated.  In  1S4T  he 
was  expelled  fh>ni  France  at  the  request  of  the 
CUT  for  havmg  made  an  inflammatory  speech 
in  faror  of  a  Polish -Rossi  an  alliance  for  the 
overthrow  of  Rassian  despotism.  After  the 
revoiotion  of  1848  he  was  prominent  at  the 
Blavio  coDgresa  in  Prague  and  In  the  ensaing 
oonfliot  after  which  he  fled  to  Berlin.  Ex- 
pelled from  Prussia,  ha  appeared  in  May,  1849, 
as  a  member  of  the  revolutionary  government 
and  aa  the  most  daring  leader  of  the  ontbreak 
in  Dreeden.  Oaptared  at  Ohemnitz  after  the 
suppression  of  the  insnrrectdon,  he  was  incar- 
cerated for  eight  months  in  a  Saxon  fortress. 
His  sentence  to  death  in  Uay,  13S0,  being 
aommnt«d  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  he  was 
surrendered  to  the  Austrian  government,  whii'h 
likewise  oondemned  him  to  death  and  com- 
moted the  sentence,  and  which  in  its  tarn  gave 
faim  np  to  Ruseia,  where  he  was  confined  in 
St.  Petersburg  and  in  Schldsselbui^  til!  after 
the  Crimean  war,  when  he  wue  sent  to  Siberia, 
He  availed  himself  of  a  permisdon  to  settle  in 
the  Amoor  Country  for  escaping  to  Japan, 
and  reached  the  United  States  early  in  18St, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Europe,  latterly  re- 
siding chiefly  in  Switzerland,  still  engaged  mora 
or  lesa  in  revolntionarv  and  jaurnalistio  enter- 
priseo.  He  vfBB  the  Aa.thoTo{]{turi4eheZuitinde 
(LenMio,  1847),  and  of  other  publications. 

THit**  (Heb.  Sitam),  a  soothsayer  and  di- 
viner of  Pethor,  on  "the  river"  (Euphrates), 
whom  Balak,  king  of  Uoab,  alarmed  at  the 
discomfiture  of  his  neighbors  the  Amorites  by 
the  Hebrews,  sent  for  to  prouonnce  a  curse 
upon  the  invaders.  Balaam  ref^ised,  saying 
that  he  could  not  corse  the  people  whom  God 
had  hleased ;  bnt  upon  being  further  urged,  he 
agreed  to  say  only  what  should  be  commanded 
by  God.  He  set  out,  riding  upon  an  ass ;  bnt 
on  the  way  he  was  met  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  visible  to  the  aaa,  but  not  to  the  rider. 
The  asB  reAiaed  to  pass  the  opposing  angel,  and 
Uiree  times  turaed  out  of  the  way,  bei^  each 


BALAKLAVA  231 

time  beaten  by  Balaam.  At  last  the  ass  spoke 
in  a  human  voice,  asking  why  he  had  been 
beaten.  Then  Balaam's  eyes  were  opened,  and 
he  saw  the  angel  of  the  Lord  standmg  with  a 
drawn  sword  to  bar  his  way.  The  angel  told 
him  to  go  on  to  Balak,  but  he  must  only  say 
what  should  be  commanded  to  him.  Balaam 
went  to  Balak,  and  after  due  sacriSccs  deliv- 
ered his  message,  which  proved  to  bo  a  bless- 
ing upon  the  Hebrews,  instead  of  the  desired 
curse.  This  was  repeated  four  times,  with  the 
some  result;  and  on  the  last  occasion  Balaam 

Credicted  that  the  Israelites  should  overthrow 
toab,  Edom,  Amalek,  and  other  neighboring 
tribes.  Some  Biblical  critics  consider  the  story 
of  Balaam  (Numbers  xxu.-ixiv.)  as  an  inter- 
polation; other  expounders  have  interpreted 
the  speaking  of  the  ass  as  a  vision  or  trance  in 
whi(£  the  diviner  thought  he  saw  an  angel, 
and  ftnoied  that  be  hoara  the  ass  speaking. 

BiUKUVA,  a  small  seaport  town  of  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the  S.  W.  coast 
of  the  Crimea  and  a  small  bay  of  the  Black 
sea,  about  8  m.  8.  S.  E.  of  Sebaatopol;  pop. 
about  7B0.  Known  in  antiquity  as  Symbolon 
Portus,  the  bay  of  Balaklava  was  called  in  the 
middle  ages  Cembalo  and  Bella  Chiava,  being  a 
possesuon  of  the  Genoese,  who  built  a  fortress 
on  the  helghta  above  the  harbor,  Catharine 
n.  sent  to  Balaklava  2,000  Greek  and  Arme- 
nian soldiers  as  guards  of  the  coast,  and  their 
deaoendants  formed  fr<xn  I7B6  to  I8GQ  the 
so-called  Balaklava-Oreek  battalion.  In  the 
Crimean  war,  the  British  trooDs  under  Lord 
Raglan,  a  few  days  after  their  landing  in  the 
peninsula,  compeUed  the  small  Russian  garri- 
son  to  surrender,  Sept.  SQ,  16G4,  and  estab- 
lished their  naval  headquarters  there,  building 
fortifications  and  a  railway  to  Sebastopol,  and 
laying  a  submarine  cable  to  Vama.  Balaklava 
was  attacked  on  Oct.  26  by  the  Russians,  who 
stormed  four  redonbts,  feebly  defended  by 
Turkish  troops,  and  captured  II  guns;  bnt 
after  the  repulse  of  their  cavalry  by  the  High- 
landers and  their  defeat  by  the  English  heavy 
brigade,  they  made  no  further  efforts  to  ad- 
vance. The  earl  of  Cardigan,  upon  an  order 
alleged  to  have  been  given  b^  Lord  Lucan  for 
the  capture  of  oert^n  Russian  guns,  led  the 
charge  of  his  light  brigade,  composed  only  of 
abont  600  horsemen,  against  the  formidable 
array  of  the  enemy,  his  men  cutting  their  way 
through  and  hack  again  under  the  play  of  the 
Rusaion  batteries.  The  survivors  of  this  bril- 
liant but  nseleaa  exploit  did  not  exceed  ISO. 
The  first  who  fell  was  Capt.  Nolan,  the  officer 
who  conveyed  the  disputed  order  from  Lord 
Lucan.  The  English  evacuated  the  place  in 
June,  1856.  Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
entrance,  the  harbor  is  now  used  only  for  the 
coasting  trade  with  other  Orimean  poiits.  On 
an  elevated  rock,  about  4  m.  W.  of  the  town,  is 
the  old  monastery  of  St  Geo]^,  with  a  new 
Greek  olmrch,  and  a  maritime  convent,  the  in- 
mates of  which  officiate  as  priests  for  sailors. 
Either  the  monastery  or  a  neighboring  locality 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


U  sapposed  to  be  the  ute  of  the  celebrated  tem- 

f'le  of  Disaa  Taorioa,  of  wliioh  in  the  legend 
pbigenia  wag  priestesa. 

BlLiLUKl,  a  mosical  inatniment  with  two 
or  three  strings,  plajed  with  the  flngera  like 
the  gaitar,  very  popular  in  Rnuia  for  accompa- 
niments, and  found  in  almost  all  the  cottages 
of  the  peasantry.  Russian  ballads  have  beian 
collected,  under  the  title  of  this  national  instra- 
ment^  in  French  (1837)  and  in  German  (1868). 
BILINCE,  an  instrument  intended  to  measore 
different  amounts  or  masses  of  matter  by  the 
determioatioR  of  their  weight,  using  as  stand- 
ards of  comparison  certain  fixed  unita,  as  the 
gramme,  the  pound,  the  ton,  &c.  The  instm- 
ment  is  founded  on  the  law  that  gravitation 
acts  in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  raasa,  and  on  the 
meohanicnl  principle  that  when  a  solid  body  is 
suspended  on  one  pointy  the  centre  of  gravity 
will  place  itself  always  perpendicularly  nnder 
that  point.  If  therefore  a  oeam,  ab,  flg.  1,  is 
supported  in  the  middle  at  e,  and  movable 
around  this  point,  its  centre  of  gravity,  i,  will 
place  itself  under  the  point  c  ;  and  if  disturbed 
from  that  position,  this  centre  will  oscillate  like 
a  pendulum,  and  the  beam  will  finally  come  to 
rest  only  with  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  per- 
pendicular passing  through  the  point  of  sup- 
port. It  is  evident  that  when  the  distances 
from  a  to  0  and  from  A  to  c  are  equal,  the  two 
sides  of  the  beam  eqnal,  and  the  whole  made 
of  bomogeneons  material,  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion will  be  arrived  at,  and  also  when  at  a  and 
i  equal  weights pp  are  suspended ;  the  gravity  of 
such  scales  and  weights  muat  be  oonsidered  con- 
centrated in  the  points  of  sospension  a  and  b, 
and  their  common  centre  of  gravity  will  be 
either  in.  nnder,  or  above  the  point  of  support, 
according  as  the  line  ab  uniting  them  passes 


through,  nnder,  or  above  the  snppiHl  c  Bat 
suppose  we  place  an  additional  weight  r  in 
one  of  the  scales,  then  the  oommon  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  weights  in  the  scales  will 
be  shifted  toward  the  side  of  that  additional 
weight.  Suppose  it  to  be  in  d,  then  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  whole  balance  will  be  in  the 
line  dt,  anidng  the  centre  of  gravity  d  of  tbo 


weightawith  that  of  the  balances;  if  then  it  it 
somewhere  at  m,  it  is  evident  that  the  balance 
can  no  longer  maintain  the  horizontal  posttjoo, 
bat  will  only  come  to  rest  when  m  is  under  c, 
or  the  line  em  has  attained  a  perpendicular  posi- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  the  angle  which  tbe 
beam  in  this  case  makes  with  a  horizontal  line  is 
eqnal  to  the  angle  lem.  If  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity is  in  the  point  of  support,  the  balance  la 
indifferent ;  that  is,  it  will,  when  charged  with 
equal  weights,  remain  at  rest  in  any  position. 
And  if  the  centre  of  gravity  is  above  the  point 
of  support,  we  have  a  case  of  so-called  unstable 
equilibrium ;  the  balance  will  with  eqoal  easo 
tip  over  to  the  right  or  left,  and  the  beam  can 
never  be  brought  into  the  horizontal  position.  In 
cither  case  the  balance  is  useless,  and  it  followa 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


from  this  tbst  Gx«  centre  of  gravity  must  be 
nuder  tbe  point  of  anpport,  and  the  Bensitive- 
neaa  of  the  instnuneDt  depends  to  a  great  ex- 
tent OD  the  distance  between  these  two  points. 
This  derived  degree  of  aenaiUveness  variee  with 
the  purposes  for  which  balances  ore  to  be  used. 
The  moBt  delicate  balaocea  are  those  used  for 
phrrical  and  chemical  investigation ;  and  in 
order  to  aecnre  the  greatest  possible  degree  of 
aenaidveness  the  conditions  are  as  follows : 
1.  Tbo  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  moat  lie 
as  near  aa  possible  nnder  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion ;  it  ia  evident  that  when  this  centre  of 
gravity  «  is  raised,  the  point  m  will  be  raised 
also,  and  the  angle  tern  will  becoms  larger, 
which  resulta  in  ■  greater  deflection  of  the 
beam  in  case  there  is  no  proper  equilibiiam. 
Fine  balances  are  provided  with  an  upright  rod 
above  their  point  of  BuspeDHtan,  on  wltich  a 
small  weiglit  may  be  screwed  up  or  down,  in 
ordertoruiseor  lower  the  centre  of  gravity,  and 
BO  to  increase  or  diminish  the  delicacy  of  the 
'inatrament.  In  fig.  I  this  rod  is  represented 
below,  which  is  only  admianble  when  no  great 
degree  of  sensitiveness  is  required,  aa  in  this 
case  the  centre  of  gravity  is  lowered  too  much. 
S.  The  beam  should  be  as  long  as  compatible  with 
ttrengtb.  Aa  the  distance  ed  beoomes  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  len^h  of  the  arras,  any 
diflTerence  in  the  two  weights  with  which  the 
balance  is  charged  will  be  the  more  perceptible 
the  longer  the  amiH  are.  8.  The  beam  uiould 
also  be  aa  light  as  compatible  with  strength ; 
the  smaller  uie  weight  of  the  bianco  itael^  the 
greater  the  influence  of  minute  differences  in 
the  load  will  be  to  shift  the  position  of  the 
point  d  trom  the  centre.  Therefore  the  beams 
of  chemical  balances  are  made  like  an  elongat- 
ed frame,  with  large  openings  between,  on  the 
aame  principle  aa  die  walkingbeams  of  steam 
en^es  are  constructed.  4.  The  points  of  sus- 
pension of  the  two  scales  mast  be  such  that 
the  line  uniting  them  passes  exactly  through 
the  point  of  Bnpport ;  if  this  line  passes  under 
that  point,  the  sensitiveneas  of  the  balance  will 
diminish  too  mnch  when  the  load  is  increased. 
This  takes  place  in  any  case  ba  a  small  degree, 
as  no  beam  is  so  perfectly  inelastic  that  a  slight 
flexion  will  not  take  place  under  the  maxi- 
mum load.  6.  The  distances  of  the  points 
of  suspension  of  the  scales  a  and  h  from  the 
centre  e  should  be  perfectly  equal ;  this  is  best 
verified  by  changing  the  weights  in  the  two 
■calea,  when  if  the  equilibrium  remains  nn- 
chaoged  their  distances  are  equal.  Some  bal- 
ances have  screw  arrangements  to  correct  small 
differences  in  this  respect.  In  fig.  2  a  chem- 
ical balance  ia  represented  as  nsed,  in  a  glass 
case,  which  serves  to  protect  it  not  only  from 
dust,  bnt  also  against  air  currents  which  might 
prevent  a  tmly  sensitive  balance  from  ever 
coming  to  rest,  and  thus  make  correct  weigh- 
ing* impoerible.  The  taming  point  of  the 
beam,  In  order  to  reduce  the  Motion  to  the 
least  smonnt,  is  a  knife-edge  or  triangular 
prism  of  hardened  steel  passing  at  right  angles 


through  tbe  beam,  and  resting  when  in  use 
Qpon  polished  platw  of  agate  (one  each  side  of 
the  beam),  which  are  set  exactly  upon  the  same 


horizontal  plane.  This  knife-edge  is  polished 
and  brought  to  an  angle  of  80°.  The  pointa  of 
suspension  are  also  kuife-edges,  one  set  across 
each  extremity  of  the  beam.  Great  care  ia 
required  that  the  lino  connecting  them  shall 
be  precisely  at  right  angles  with  the  line  passing 
throngh  the  centres  of  motion  and  of  gravity. 
The  index  or  pointer  is  sometimes  a  long  nee- 
die,  its  line  pas«ng  through  the  centre,  and  ex> 
tending  either  above  or  below  the  beam,  or  it 
is  a  needle  extended  irtan  each  extremity  of 
the  beam.  In  either  ease  it  vibrates  with  the 
motion  of  the  beam  over  a  graduated  arc,  and 
rests  upon  the  zero  point  when  the  beam  is 
horizontal.  The  degrees  upon  each  side  of  the 
lero  of  the  scale  indicate,  as  tlie  needle  oscil- 
lateapast  them,  the  intermediate  point  at  which 
this  will  stop,  thus  rendering  it  annecessary  to 
wait  its  coming  to  rest.  In  order  to  save  the 
knife-edges  from  wear,  the  beam  is  made,  in 
delicate  balances,  to  rest  when  not  in  nae 
upon  a  forked  arm,  and  the  pans  upon  tbe 
Soor  of  the  case  in  which  the  instrument 
stands.  The  agate  surfaces,  being  lifted  by 
means  of  a  cam  or  lever,  raise  the  beam  off  ita 
supports  and  put  it  in  action ;  or  the  supports, 
by  a  similar  contrivance,  are  let  down  from  the 
beam,  leaving  it  to  rest  npon  the  agate ;  the 
pans  in  the  latter  case  must  always  remain  sus- 
pended.— However  perfectly  a  balance  may  be 
made,  there  is  always  great  care  to  he  exer- 
cised in  its  use.  Errors  are  easily  made  in  the 
estimation  of  the  nice  quantities  it  is  used  to 
determine.  The  sources  of  some  are  avoided 
by  a  dmpie  and  ingenious  method  of  weighing 
suggested  by  Borda.  The  body  to  be  weigbea 
is  exactly  counterpoised,  and  then  talcen  out 
of  the  pan  and  replaced  by  known  weights, 
added  till  they  produce  the  same  effect  A 
false  balance  most  by  this  method  produce  cor- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


234 


BALANCE 


rect  reBulfs.  The  weights  employed  for  deli' 
cate  balances  are  either  troy  Rraioft,  one  of 
eaoh  of  the  units,  one  of  each  of  the  tena,  and 
tbe  same  of  the  hundreds  and  thousands,  as 
also  of  the  tenths,  hundredths,  and  thonsandthg 
of  a  grain ;  or  they  are  the  French  gramme 
weights,  with  their  decimal  pnrtB.  The  latter 
are  the  loost  commonly  nsed  in  chemical  assays 
and  analyses.  Tbe  larger  weights  are  of  brass, 
the  smaller  of  platinum,  and  wese  are  always 
handled  by  means  of  a  pair  of  forceps.  Tbe 
beam  of  tbe  balance  is,  according  to  tde  meth- 
od introduced  by  fierzelius,  frequently  marked 
by  diviMonal  lines  into  tenths,  and  one  of  the 
Boiall  weights,  as  a  tenth  or  hundredth  of  a 
grain,  or  a  milligrunme,  is  hent  into  the  form 
of  a  hook,  BO  that  it  may  be  moved  along  the 
beam  to  any  one  of  these  lines  to  bring  the 
balance  to  exact  eqnilibrinm.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  picking  up  and  trying  one  weight 
after  another  is  avoided,  and  the  proportional 
part  of  the  weight  used  is  that  mdicated  by 
the  decimal  namber  np<»i  the  beam  at  which 
it  rests  to  produce  eqnilibrinm.  The  best  ma- 
terials  for  a  balance  are  those  which  combine 
strength  with  lightnesa,  and  are  least  liable  to 
'  be  affected  by  the  atmosphere  and  acid  rapors. 
Brass,  platinum,  or  steel  is  used  fbr  tbe  beam ; 
but  probably  alnminom  will  prove  to  be  better 
adapted  for  this  purpose  than  either.  Tbe  pans 
are  commonly  of  platinum,  made  very  thin, 
and  snspended  by  6ne  platinom  wires.  The 
support  is  a  brass  pillar  secured  to  the  floor 
of  the  glass  case  in  which  the  instrument  is 
kept.  Doors  are  provided  in  front  and  at 
the  sides,  by  which  access  is  bad  to  the  instm- 
ment;  but  these  are  commonly  kept  closed, 
and  are  always  shut  in  delicate  weighing,  that 
the  beam  shall  not  be  disturbed  by  currents 
of  air.  So  delicate  are  the  best  balances,  that 
when  lightly  loaded  and  left  to  vibrate,  they 
may  be  affected  by  the  approach  of  a  person 
to  one  side  of  the  glass  case,  the  warmth  radi- 
ated from  the  body  causing  the  nearest  arm 
of  tbe  beam  to  be  slightly  expanded  and  elon- 
gated, 80  as  to  sensibly  preponderate.  The 
degree  of  sensibility  is  estimated  by  the  small- 
ost  weight  in  proportion  to  the  load  that  will 
cause  the  beam  to  be  deflected  from  a  horizon- 
tal line.  It  is  said  that  a  balance  is  in  posses- 
sion of  Bowdoin  college,  Maine,  which,  with  a 
charge  of  10  kilogrammes  in  each  scale,  is  sen- 
sitive to  X  of  a  milligramme.  Becker  and  Sons 
of  New  York  made  tbe  balance ;  and  they  make 
ordlnarychemicalbatances  which  with  one  kilo- 
gramme in  each  scale  are  sensitive  to  one  tenth 
of  a  milligramme ;  their  small  balances  now  in 
D90  in  the  assay  office.  New  York,  show  a  dif- 
ference in  load  t^  less  than  -^  port  of  a  mil- 
ligramme.— The  torsion  balance,  invented  by 
Coulomb  to  mesanra  minute  electrical  forces,  is 
still  more  delicate  than  the  beat  beam  balance. 
It  consists  of  a  brass  wire,  hnng  by  one  end 
and  stretched  by  a  light  weight,  carrying  at  its 
lower  end  a  horizontal  needle.  Any  force  ap- 
plied to  one  end  of  this  needle,  tending  to  rotate 


BALANGUINI 

it  horizontally,  will  be  measured  by  tbe  angle 
through  which  it  causes  tbe  needle  to  movej 
that  is,  by  the  torsion  of  the  wire.  (See  Elko- 
TEioiTT.)— The  steelyard,  the  Soman  itatera, 
is  one  of  tlie  forms  of  the  balance,  the  two 
arms  being  of  nneqnal  length,  the  body  to  be 
weighed  being  suspended  in  a  pan  or  otlierwlse 
trom  the  short  arm,  and  tbe  counterpoise,  which 
is  a  constant  weight,  l>eing  slid  along  the  longer 
arm  nntil  equilLbrinm  is  established.  As  this 
occurs  when  the  weight  on  one  side  mnltiplied 
by  Its  distance  from  the  fulcrum  is  eqnal  to  the 
weight  on  the  other  multiplied  b;  its  distance 
from  the  fiJornm,  and  as  on  one  side  the  weight 
is  constant  and  on  the  other  the  distance  from 
the  centre  of  motion  is  variable,  the  unknown 
weight  must  be  determined  by  tbe  distance 
of  the  constant  weight  from  the  centre. — 
The  Danish  balance  differs  from  the  common 
steelyard  in  having  the  counterpoise  fixed  at 
one  end,  and  the  fulcrum  being  slid  along  the 
graduated  beam.  The  gradoatlon  commences  . 
at  a  point  near  the  counterpoise,  at  which  tbe 
beam  with  the  pan  suspended  at  the  other  end 
is  in  eouilihrinm,  and  tue  numbers  increase  to- 
ward toe  pan.  A  balance  called  the  bent  lever 
is  employed  to  some  extent  for  pnrpoees  not 
requiring  extreme  aocnrocy.  The  pan  is  at- 
tached to  one  end  of  the  beam  and  the  other 
carries  a  constant  weight,  from  the  bent  form 
of  tbe  lever  tills  weight  is  raised  to  a  height 
varying  with  the  weight  placed  in  the  scale 
pan.  A  pointerattachedljitheconstant  weight 
and  moving  along  a  graduated  arc  indicates  by 
the  number  at  which  it  stops  the  weight  of  the 
body  in  the  scale  pan.  Its  indications  are  the 
least  to  be  depended  upon  when  the  constant 
weight  approaches  to  the  horizontal  or  vertical 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of  motion.  The 
scales  generally  used  in  the  United  States  for 
weighing  loaded  wagons  and  canal  boata  are 
modiflcations  of  the  steelyard,  wherein  the 
weight  of  tbeee  ponderous  bodies  is  divided 
by  means  of  levers,  and  a  known  fraction  of 
it  sustained  by  one  end  of  a  beam,  the  other 
end  of  which  is  graduated  for  a  moving  weight. 
Modem  modifications  of  the  steelyard  contain  a 
pan  hang  at  the  end  of  tbe  arm  to  receive  larger 
weights,  while  the  sliding  weight  is  used  (mly 
to  balance  the  fractional  parts. — Spring  bal- 
'ances  are  popular  instruments,  and  consiat  of  a 
helix  of  wire  enclosed  in  a  cylinder.  Tiie  body 
to  be  weighed  is  suspended  to  a  wire  passing  np 
through  the  centre  of  the  helix  and  fastenra  to 
the  upper  coil,  which  carries  a  pointer  down  a 
narrow  slit  in  the  cylinder,  thus  indicating  tbe 
weight  on  the  graduated  sides  of  the  cylinder. 
BALiNSmin,  or  Bai«ligM,  an  ialetof  the  Ma- 
lay archipelago,  in  tbe  Snlu  group,  claimed  by 
Spain  as  part  of  tbe  province  of  Zamboangan 
in  the  Philippine  island  of  Mindanao,  in  laL  S° 
67'  80"  N.,  loD.  121°  Sfl'  E.  It  is  about  8  m. 
long  and  I  broad,  and  gives  its  name  to  the 
moat  daring  Malay  piratee.  In  1848  it  was 
captured  by  the  Spaniards,  who  had  11  officers 
and  170  men  killed  and  wounded;  4C0  of- the 


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BALABD 

?r«t«s  were  killed,  refosittn  to  take  quarter. 
he  furts  and  hcinHea  of  the  island  were  level- 
led to  th«  ground,  and  to  make  it  uninhabita- 
Ue  aboDt  8,000  oocoB  palma  were  cut  down. 

BiUED.  liMie  lirtrnt,  a  French  chemist, 
bora  in  Montpellier,  Sept.  80,  1S02,  died  in 
Uarch,  1876.     Be  was  an  apothecary  and  sub- 

Snently  profeasor  of  pharmacj  and  chemiBtr]^, 
I  acquired  celebrity  in  1826  bj  the  discovery 
of  bromine  in  aea  wat«r,  also  by  the  extraction 
of  nilphat«  of  Boda,  which  inereaaed  the  anpply 
and  lowered  tho  price  of  potash.  >Ie  wrote 
on  these  and  other  sobjec^  in  the  Annala 
it  chimis  et  eU  phytiqve,  and  in  the  Menutiru 
of  the  academy.  He  aacceeded  Th^nard  in  tbe 
chur  of  chemi8tT7  in  the  faculty  of  aciences  of 
Paris,  and  Peloaze  in  the  college  de  France  in 
1851.  He  became  a  member  of  the  academy 
tn  1844.  In  IBSS  he  was  appointed  inspector 
general  of  superior  instrnctiou  and  honorary 
professor  at  the  faonlty  of  acienoes. 

BUJBDG,  a  French  watering  place,  in  the  de- 
partment of  H^ranlt,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  Montpel- 
lier; pop.  SCO.  The  aprings  were  known  to 
the  Romans,  who  formed  aqueducts  and  built 
a  temple  here.  They  have  a  temperature  of 
about  ise°  F.  in  summer  and  US^  in  winter, 
and  are  reoommendod  fbr  paralysis.  A  pnblio 
hoqntal  gives  gratnitoos  relief  to  the  deatitate 
and  to  Boldien. 

UUSOtE,  a  dty  in  the  prewdency  of  Ben- 
gal and  province  of  Oriaaa,  India,  the  principal 
seaport  of  Cuttack,  120  m.  B.  W.  of  Calontta; 
pop.  abotit  11,000.  It  formerly  had  factories 
of  almost  all  European  nations,  but  has  much 
declined,  the  principal  trade  being  limited  to 
imports  of  the  products  of  the  cocoannt  and  of 
coir,  cowries,  tortoise  shell,  and  salted  fish  from 
tbe Ualdive islands,  in  exchange  for  rice,  sugar, 
and  English  manufactured  goods  and  hard- 
ware. It  is  provided  with  dry  docks  for  the  sc- 
oommodation  of  amall  vessels  at  sprihg  tides. 
Denmark  ceded  the  town  to  England  in  1S44. 

UUSSA-OIlKMiTH,  a  town  of  Hungary, 
capit&l  of  the  county  of  K6gr&d,  situated  in 
a  delightful  region  on  the  Eipel,  42  m.  N.  of 
Pesth;  pop.  in  18T0,  S,43S.  It  has  an  old 
mountain  castle,  and  carries  on  considerable 
trade  in  oil  and  vine.  In  1S26  a  peace  was 
conolnded  here  between  Anstria  and  Tarkey. 

BALiTON,  Uke  (Ger.  PlatUiute),  a  large 
lake  in  8.  W.  Hungary,  in  the  counties  of  Zaia, 
VesiprSm,  and  Somogy ;  length,  from  8.  W. 
to  N.  E.,  about  47  m. ;  greatest  breadth  9  m. ; 
depth  from  ST  to  80  feet ;  area,  about  450  aq. 
m.  It  is  fed  by  the  river  Szalo,  and  discharges 
its  waters  through  the  8i6,  which  &lls  into 
the  Ssrviz,  an  atilnent  of  the  Danube.  The 
lake  abounds  in  fish.  The  fo^  a  kind  of 
targe  perch,  is  found  only  in  this  lake ;  it  fre- 
quently weighs  10  to  16  and  sometimes  30 
pounds.  There  is  also  a  species  of  white  fiah 
resembling  the  herring,  which  appears  in  large 
shoala  during  the  winter.  Oraba,  crayflsh,  tor- 
toises, and  mussels  are  found.  Iron  sand  oooura 
(Ht  the  shores,  which  exhibits  under  the  mi- 


oroKOpe  gruna  of  garnet,  ruby,  tc^taz,  am&- 
thyst,  and  other  preoiona  stones. 

BILBI,  iMans,  an  Italian  geographer,  bom 
in  Venice,  April  25, 178B,  died  there,  March  14, 

1848.  After  holding  a  professorship  of  geogra- 
phy, sciences,  and  statistics  in  Italy,  he  bpent 
many  years  in  Portugal  while  preparing  seve- 
ral works  relating  to  that  country.  He  subse- 
Saently  resided  in  Paris,  receiving  assistance 
'oni  the  French  government,  in  18S2  went  to 
Padua,  and  finally  to  Vienna,  where  tbe  Aus- 
trian government  gave  him  a  pension.  Hia 
principal  worts  are ;  Allot  ethnographiqve  du 
globe  (Paris,  1826),  a  work  of  superior  arrange- 
ment, containing  tJie  latest  researches  of  Ger- 
man philolt^fists,  and  Akrifi  dt  giographU  (2 
vols.,  1633),  a  summary  of  geographical  ad- 
ence.  which  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
all  tne  Enropeon  langnages  (Engliah  transla- 
tion, "  Abridgment  of  Geography,  '  New  York, 
18S6).  With  La  RenaudiSre  and  Ruot  he  nsed 
to  some  extent  unpublished  writings  of  Malte- 
Brun  in  preparing  a  Traiti  iUmentain  de  gi- 
ogra^kie  (2  vols.,  1830-'81).  Among  bis  other 
publications  are :  La  irumaTchia  franfaite  a>m- 
parit  aux  prineipawe  itatt  de  PEurope  (Paris, 
1828);  Baianee  politique  du  globe  (1828); 
V  Empire  ruue  eomparie  aux  prineipavx  itatt 
du  mtmde  (1S39};  "The  World  compared 
with  the  British  Empire"  (18S0).  His  son, 
the  sBographer  Edoritio  Balbi,  has  edited 
a  collection  of  his  Scritti  geografiei  (5  vols., 
Turin,  18«-'a). 

BiLBI,  GInani  d«  Jam  or  JintMb  (from 
his  birthplace,  Genoa),  a  Dominican  l^iar  of  the 
ISth  century,  author  of  a  universal  cycloptedia 
or  Catholieon  (about  13BS),  which  owes  its  ce- 
lebrity principally  to  the  fact  that  it  became 
one  of  the  earliest  monuments  of  the  art  of 


natur,  was  printed  at  Mentz  by  FansC  and 
SchOffer  in  1460,  and  was  reprinted  at  Anga- 
burg  in  1409  and  1472,  at  Nuremberg  in  1483, 
at  Venice  in  1487,  and  at  Lyons  in  1620. 

BiUI,  CnitHi  de,  a  favorite  of  the  count  de 
Provence,  afterward  Louis  XVllI.,  bom  in 
1753,  died  in  Paris  about  1836.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  tbe  marquis  de  Caumont  de  la  Force, 
and  was  lady  in  waiting  to  the  countess  de 
Pravence,  and  the  wife  of  tbe  Genoese  count 
de  Balbi,  who  became  insane  in  consequence 
of  her  misconduct.  The  count  de  Provence 
continued  to  lavish  vast  amounts  upon  her  even 
after  the  smallpox  had  destroyed  her  beauty. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  she  per- 
suaded him  to  leave  France,  but  he  snbse- 
qnently  discarded  her,  and  she  was  expelled 
from  many  capitals  on  acoount  of  her  dissipa- 
tion and  intrigues.  On  her  return  to  France 
she  was  exiled  to  Montanban,  where  she  estab- 
lished a  gamblinghouse.    Sbadied  in  obscurity, 

ULBINCS,  Dedwu  (Mln,  a  Roman  emperor, 
slain  in  A.  D.  238.  He  was  a  senator,  and  twice 
consul,  and  was  elected  emperor  by  the  senate 
in  oopjunotion  with  Moximus,  in  opposition  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


236  BALBO 

Mazimiii — a  third  emperor,  the  jonng  Qordla- 
niia,  beiag  Hdjoioed  to  them  hj  the  clamora  of 
the  people  and  the  Boldierj.  Maiinii]!  being 
killod  bj  his  own  mntinona  soldiers  at  the  siege 
of  Aquiieis,  Maximns  wm  triamphantl7  receiv- 
ed in"  Borae ;  hut  soon  falling  ont  with  Balbi- 
nnB,  he  depended  odIj  for  his  support  upon  a 
body  of  Germanic  barbarians  against  the  pr»- 
torians,  who  disliked  both  emperors.  While 
the  citizens  were  witnesnng  the  Capiloline 
games,  the  two  rtilers  were  put  to  death  bj  the 
pratorians,  who  proclumed  the  boy  Gordianns 
sole  emperor, 

SALBU,  Ctnre,  coont,  an  Italian  Btateaman 
and  author,  born  in  Turin,  Nov.  21,  1789,  died 
there,  June  8, 186S.  Throaah  the  favor  of  Na- 
poleon, he  was  appointed  auditor  to  the  French 
privy  cooncil  in  180T,  afterward  secretary  to 
the  French  commissioners  In  Tuscany  and  the 
Papal  Stales,  and  in  1812  commissioner  of  II- 
lyna.  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  he  was 
secretary  of  lection  in  London  until  the  out- 
break of  the  Sardinian  revolution  in  1S2],  when 
he  returned  to  Tnrin.  He  translated  Leo's 
work  on  the  mmucipal  institntjons  of  Lombor- 
dy  fh>m  German  into  Italian,  under  the  title 
of  Commimi  Italiani.  His  repotation  was 
firmly  established  hy  bis  ^teraTue    d'ltalia 

g43),  in  favor  of  national  independence.  His 
lla  ttoria  d'ltalia,  daW  oritfintfijio  al  1814 
(Gth  edition,  Bastia,  1646)  was  distinguished 
by  the  same  patriotio  spirit  and  by  historical 
merit.  In  1848  he  formed  the  first  constitu- 
tional cabinet  of  Charles  Albert,  which,  how- 
ever, lasted  but  a  few  mondis,  and  after  the 
Sardinian  revorseH  in  the  field  he  eiierted  great 
influence  as  a  leader  of  the  moderate  party  and 
BQpporter  of  D'AzeyUo.  His  bit^aphy  was 
published  by  Ricotti  (Florence,  13fi6),  and  a 
monoment  by  Vela  has  been  erected  in  his 
honor  in  Turin. 

BALBOi,  TaiM  Rmlei  da,  a  Spanish  American 
discoverer,  bom  at  Xerea  de  los  Caballeros,  Eb- 
tremadnra,  in  1476,  beheaded  at  Casdlia  de  Oro, 
Darien,  in  IGIT.  He  was  a  nobleman  who 
esc^)ed  fKim  his  creditors  to  Uiapaniola,  and 
flnhseqnentlyjoinedEnciso's  Darien  expedition. 
Quarrels  between  rival  commanders  made  him 
<^ef  of  the  new  settlement.  His  humane  pol- 
icy reconciled  the  Indians,  and  while  engaged 
in  exploring  the  isthmus  he  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  a  mountain  from  which  he  discovered 
the  Pacific,  Sept  26, 1513.  He  erected  a  cross 
on  the  spot,  and  took  possession  of  the  whole 
region  for  Spun.  Bat  before  the  news  of  tbis 
important  discovery  reached  Madrid  Enciso's 
intrigues  had  resulted  in  Balboa's  displacement 
by  Davila,  who  soon  lost  the  advantages  gained 
by  his  predeoeasor.  The  Spanish  government, 
at  length  enhghtened  in  regard  to  the  great 
achievements  of  Balboa,  named  him  deputy 
-  eovemor;  but  Davila  opposing  hie  installation, 
he  went  in  search  of  new  settlements.  This 
exasperated  Davila  still  more,  but  his  wrath 
was  for  a  time  appeased  by  the  intercesfflon  of 
influeDtial  peraoBSgee,  and  he  even  gave  his 


BALBUS 

daughter  in  marriage  to  Balboa.  The  contin- 
ued success  of  the  latter,  however,  revived  his 
J'ealonsT,  and  he  seized  a  pretext  for  charging 
im  with  treason,  and  sal^ecting  him  to  a  mock 
trial.  Baltioa  and  four  of  his  friends  were  eie- 
cnted,  be  protestiDg  to  the  last  his  innocence 
and  his  loyalty. 

BiLBUGfiAfl,  a  town  of  Ireland  in  the  county 
and  18  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Dublin ;  pop.  about 
3,600.  It  is  the  seat  of  thriving  manufactures 
of  cotton  goods  and  hosiery.  The  cotton  stock- 
ings made  here  are  remarkable  for  the  fineness 
of  their  texture;  many  females  are  also  employ- 
ad  in  embroidering  mnslins.  In  1780  Baron 
Hamilton,  with  the  help  of  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment, eetablished  cotton  works  here,  ana  built 
a  pier,  to  which  an  inner  dock  was  afterward 
eaded  hy  a  member  of  the  same  family.  The 
railroad  crosses  the  liarhor  by  a  viadnct  of  11 
arches  of  SO  ft.  span.  Balbri^^an  is  a  favorite 
watering  place. 

BALBUEMl,  Bcrvirla  de,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
prelate,  bom  at  Val  de  PeDas  in  1668,  died  in 
Porto  Bico  in  1627.  He  was  educated  in  Mex- 
ico, became  provost  in  Jamaica,  and  in  16S0 
bishop  of  Porto  Rico.  He  wrote  El  liglo  dt 
oro  ("The  Age  of  Gold  "J,  a  pastoral  romance, 
the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the  new  world; 
La  grandeta  Mtjicaaa  (new  edition,  1821) ;  and 
El  Berrtardo  (8  vols.,  Madrid,  1 624 ;  new  ed.,  8 
vols.  8vo,  1808),  an  epic  which  is  among  his 
most  finished  productions. 

BILBVS.  I.  Lad«  ContflM  (M^or),  a  Boman 
consul,  bom  in  Gades  (Cadiz)  in  the  Ist  century 
B.  C.  He  served  in  the  Sertorisn  war,  after 
which  Boman  citizenship  was  conferred  on  his 
family.  Shortly  afterward  he  removed  to  Rome. 
He  accompanied  Crasar  jnto  Spain  in  61,  and 
into  Gaul  in  68,  and  was  appointed  vratfecUi* 
Jabruta  to  his  legions.  During  the  Gallic 
wars  he  spent  mnoD  time  at  Rome,  where  he 
managed  Cfesar's  private  property,  and  acted 
as  agent  for  the  sate  of  spoils  taken  from  the 
enemy.  In  66  his  foes  end  those  of  the  tri- 
umvirs charged  him  with  having  assumed  ille- 
gally the  privil^ea  of  a  Roman  citizen ;  but  he 
won  the  trial,  owing  to  his  defence  by  Pompey, 
Crassns,  and  especially  by  Cicero,  fialbos  did 
not  bear  arms  against  the  Pompeiaus  in  the 
civil  wars,  but  reniiuned  at  Rome  working  in 
the  interest  of  Ciesar,  and  finally  succeeding 
in  gaining  Cicero  for  the  dictator's  cause.  On 
tlie  assassination  of  Ctesar  Balbus  retired  to 
his  country  seat,  where  he  remained  until  the 
arrival  of  Octavins  in  Italy.  He  then  has- 
tened to  Naples  to  meet  the  latter,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Rome,  and  who  appointed 
him  fodlle,  prsetor,  and  in  40  consul,  he  being 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  adopted  citi- 
zen who  filled  that  office.  In  bis  will  he 
bequeathed  20  denarii  to  every  Roman  citi- 
zen. He  wrote  a  diary  of  the  most  eventful 
occurrences  in  bis  own  end  Crasar's  life,  and 
provided  for  the  continuation  of  the  "  Com- 
mentaries on  ttie  Gallic  War."  Four  of  his  let- 
ters to  Oicero  are  extant.    IL  LmIbi  Csnelln 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BALDE 

gfmor),  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Rdes.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  oivil  war  he 
made  ineffeotaal  attempts  to  detach  the  consul 
L.  Corneliae  Lentnlus,  ao  intimate  friend  of  his 
bmilf,  from  his  allegianpe  to  Pompey.  Bolbus 
attended  Omsar  throughont  ali  the  campugns 
of  tliis  period,  and  after  their  lerminatioii  wae 
appointed  pontiff.  While  qoceator  to  Asinios 
PoUio  in  Farther  Spain  in  44  and  43  B.  C.  he 
gnatij  anlai^ed  and  improred  his  native  citj. 
But  his  qniestorship  was  marked  b?  A-and  and 
oppreaBion,  and  he  nitimatelj  fled  to  Africa 
(43),  and  20  jeara  afterward  reappeared  as 


which  proonred  him  the  honor  of  a  trinmph 
Rome,  the  first  ever  enjoyed  by  an  adopted  cit- 
iien.  Balbns,  like  his  ancle,  amassed  a  large 
fortone.  He  bnilt  a  theatre  at  Rome,  and  was 
a  favorite  of  Augustas.  III.  QxlitH  LadBi^ 
a  Roman  philosopher,  of  the  earlier  half  of 
the  1st  oentnrj  B.  0.,  whom  Cicero  compared 
to  the  beat  Greek  philosophers,  and  made  the 
eipodtor  of  stoical  opinions  in  his  dialoKne 
JU  Ifatura  Deorum.  IF.  Ladu  OiUtIm,  a  Ro- 
man Jurist,  probably  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  one  of  those  who  were  executed  by 
order  of  the  triumvirs  Octavius,  Antony,  and 
Leptdos.  r.  lltM  iHplii,  a  Roman  tribune, 
who  in  68  B.  O.  sought  to  obtain  for  Pompey 
the  honor  of  wearing  a  laurel  crown  and  all 
the  insignia  of  a  triumph  at  the  Circensian  and 
other  games,  in  consideration  of  his  Asiatic 
Tictoriee.  He  was  next  an  nnsuooessful  candi- 
date for  the  mdileship,  tliough  sustained  by  Pom- 
pey. In  6S  he  was  prator,  and  in  S9  governor 
of  Gilicia.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  oivil  war 
he  joined  the  Pompeians.  After  the  over- 
throw of  hia  party  at  Pharsalia  he  was  ban- 
ished, but  the  mediation  of  Cioero  put  an  end 
to  hia  exile.  He  wrot«  a  work  on  contempo- 
rary events,  an  extract  of  which  is  given  in 
SoetoniUB. 

ULDE,  Jakek,  a  Oerman  Latin  poet,  bom  at 
Ensisheim,  Alaaoe,  in  1608,  died  at  Nenbarg, 
in  the  Palatmate,  Aug.  9,  1S68.    He  was  a 

Jrofemor  of  hterature,  joined  the  society  of 
esus,  and  became  chaplain  of  the  elector  of 
Bavaria.  His  complete  works,  including  lyri- 
cal and  other  Latin  poems,  were  published  in 
Munich  in  8  vols.,  1729.  He  has  been  called 
the  German  Horace,  and  Herder  translated 
several  of  his  compositions.  New  editions  of 
his  Carmma  Lyrica  and  Batrachomj/amaehia 
appeared  at  Manster  in  1858-'B,  the  latter  with 

BALDI,  BeimiriLu,  an  Italian  scholar,  bom  in 
Urbino,  June  6,  1668,  died  there,  Oct.  12,  161T. 
Ee  was  a  fellow  student  with  Tasso,  and  be- 
eame  an  intimate  Mend  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  and  was  in  possession  of  the  rich  abbey 
of  Gnastalla  from  1686  to  1611.  He  was  fa- 
miliar with  16  langnages,  and  the  author  of 
abont  100  miscellajaeoas  works  on  mathemat- 
ics, geography,  history,  Ac,  and  commentaries 
"    '  '----■-•■--       His  sonnets  and  his  didactic 


poem  in  blank  verse.  La  Nautiea  (1690 ;  French 
prose,  Paris,   1840),  are  among  llio 


los,  Arabic  and  Persian  grammars,  and  Turkish, 
Hungarian,  and  Arabic  dictionaries. 

BlLDl'B,  or  BaUny  in  northern  mythology, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga,  and  the  most  beau- 
tifnl  and  beloved  of  the  gods  of  Odin's  race. 
He  was  the  hosband  of  Nanna  and  the  father 
of  Forseti.  His  home  was  in  Breidablik,  th« 
moat  beautiFUl  part  of  Asgard,  the  norUienL 
Olympus.  Baldnr  having  long  been  troubled 
by  dreams  and  evil  omens,  indicating  danger  to 
his  life,  his  mother  travelled  through  the  whole 
universe,  eliciting  from  every  created  thing  a 

firomise  not  to  iqjnre  the  god.  She  only  Def- 
ected to  ask  this  from  the  mistletoe,  which 
seemed  to  her  entirely  harmless.  Loki,  tho 
most  deceitfid  among  the  gods,  and  an  en«ny 
of  Baldur,  remarked  this  omission,  and  cut 
from  the  mistietoe  a  niece  for  the  point  of  a 
dart.  The  other  goas,  surrounding  Baldur, 
made  proof  of  his  invalnerability,  in  sport,  by 
easting  at  him  their  weapons,  wiui  stones  and 
oinbs  of  wood ;  but  nothing  iqjured  him.  Then 
Loki  approached  and  induced  the  blind  god 
Hodur  to  throw  the  dart  he  had  mode  trom 
the  forgotten  mistletoe.  Baldur  was  pierced 
by  it  and  killed.  The  gods,  lamenting  his  loss, 
sent  his  brother  Hermodur  to  Hel,  the  under 
world,  to  ask  upon  what  condition  the  goddess 
of  the  dead  would  release  him.  The  reply  was 
that  he  could  only  be  spared  if  everytning  in 
tho  world  would  weep  for  him.  All  consented 
except  Loki,  who  had  di^oised  himself  as  a 
giantess.  The  gods  then  celebrated  Baldur's 
nmeral  with  the  greatest  pomp.  His  body  was 
carried  to  the  seashore  and  bnmed  on  his  great 
ship  Hinghorni,  which  was  lifted  out  of  the  sea 
by  the  aid  of  the  giantess  Eirrokin.  Nanna 
died  of  grief,  and  her  body  was  homed  witii 
his.  By  the  ancient  Germans  Baldur  was  wor- 
shipped as  the  god  of  peace ;  other  northern 
nations  seem  also  to  have  imagined  him  as  a 
deity  similar  to  the  Greek  Apollo. 

BALDWIM.  L  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  N.  by  Little  river,  and  intersected  by 
the  Oconee;  area,  26T  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,618,  of  whom  6,774  were  colored.  Thasar- 
face  is  diversified.  The  river  bottoms  are  high- 
ly fertile,  but  much  of  the  land  in  other  places 
is  nearly  worn  out.  The  Milledgeville  branch 
of  the  Georgia  Central  rwlroad  and  the  Macon 
and  Augusta  railroad  pass  through  the  connty. 
The  chief  productions  in  18T0  were  8,663  bush- 
els of  wheat,  39,867  of  Indian  com,  18,286  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  4,088  bales  of  cotton. 
Capital,  Milledgeville.  II.  A  S.  county  of  Ala- 
bama, separated  on  the  E.  froin  Florida  by  the 
Perdido  river  and  hay,  bounded  S.  by  the  gulf 
of  Mexico  and  W.  by  Mobile  bay  and  the  Mo- 
bile and  Alabama  rivers,  and  intersected  by  the 
Tensaw  river ;  area,  about  1,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,004,  of  whom  2,846  were  colored.  The 
Mobile  and  Montgomery  railroad  passes  through 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


tiie  coantf.  The  ernface  is  level  or  moderatel; 
uneven.  The  soil  is  sandj  and  nnproductlve, 
bnt  eapportg  a  valaabk  growth  of  pine  timber. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,025 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  19,411  of  eweet  pota- 
toes, ST  boles  of  cotton,  and  9,864  lbs.  of  wool. 
Capital,  Ulakety. 

BILDWIX  (Fr.  Saudouia  or  Baldwin),  the 
name  of  several  counta  of  Flanders. — Bald- 
vim  I>,  surnamed  Iron-Arm,  was  a  son-in-iaw 
of  Charles  the  Bald,  king  of  France,  and  died 
in  879.— BtMwIi  IL,  the  Bald,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, died  in  918.  Ue  waged  war  against  the 
kings  of  France,  Endea  and  Charles  the  Sim- 

B la.— Baldwin  1¥.,  the  Bearded,  died  in  1036. 
!e  increased  his  famil;  domain  bj  several 
conquests,  espteciall.v  that  of  Valenciennes,  and 
received  from  the  emperor  Henr/  II.  tbe  island 
1^  Walcheren.— BaMwIa  T.,  of  UUe,  the  DSbon- 
naire,  son  of  the  preceding  and  son-in-law  of 
King  Robert  of  France,  died  in  1067.    He  con- 

SDered  Jlainault,  was  regent  of  France  daring 
16  muiority  of  his  nephew  Philip  I.,  and  helped 
William  of  Normandr,  his  aon-iu-law,  in  the 
oonqaest  of  En^and. — Baldwla  TUL  died  in 
1I9&.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Philip  Augostna, 
bnt  became  reconciled  and  swore  allegiance  to 
him  in  1192. — BaldwlH  IX.,  son  of  the  preceding. 
See  Baldwih  I.  of  Constantinople. 

BILDWIH,  the  name  of  two  emperora  of 
Constantinople. — Baldtrls  I.  (the  ninth  Flem- 
ish count  of  that  name),  bom  in  Valenciennes 
in  llTl,  died  in  1206  or  1200.  Ho  brought  to 
a  close  a  war  with  Philip  Angnstas,  appointed 
hb  uncle  William,  his  brother  Philip,  and  Hon- 
ehard  d'Avesnes  r^^nta  of  Flanders,  took  hoi}' 
orders  in  Brussels  in  1200  or  1201,  and  joiDed 
the  crusaders,  together  witli  his  brother  Thier- 
ry. Subseanently  he  cooperated  with  the  Ve- 
netians under  Dandolo,  and  with  the  conni- 
vance of  Alexis,  son  of  the  deposed  Byzantine 
emperor  Isaac,  in  the  captore  of  Constantino- 
ple, when  be  was  crowned  as  emperor,  Uay 
16,  1204.  His  power  was  only  nominal,  the 
crusaders  dividing  the  Byzantine  provinces 
among  their  other  leaders.  Baldwin  delivered 
Thrace  from  the  Torkish  invaders,  but  the 
Greeks  having  invoked  the  assistance  of  the 
Bulgarians  against  him,  be  was  captured  April 
14, 120G,  near  Adrianople,  and  subjected  to  tor- 
tures from  whieh  he  died,  fiumeaoconntfi,  how- 
ever, leave  it  doubtful  whether  he  fell  in  battle 
or  died  in  prison. — Baldwin  IL,  Iiist  Latin  em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  bom  in  121T,  died  in 
1273.  He  was  a  son  of  Peter  de  Oourtenay,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Robert  in  1228,  and,  though 
aided  by  the  pope  and  King  Lonis  IX.,  was 
finally  driven  from  Constantinople  by  Michael 
Palffiologns,  who  gained  possession  of  the  city 
by  stratagem  in  July,  1261.  Baldwin  fled  in 
disguise  to  the  island  of  Negropont,  and  from 
thence  to  Italy,  where  he  died  in  obsourity. 

BlLDWOf,  the  name  of  five  kings  of  Jerusa- 
lem.—BaMwIa  L,  bom  in  IOCS,  died  in  1118. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  the  fifth  oonnt  of  Flan- 
ders, and  jcdned  his  brother  Godfrey  de  Bouil- 


lon in  the  first  crusade.  He  quarrelled  with 
Tancred  and  other  crusaders,  retired  toEdessa, 
where  be  was  elected  count,  and  in  1100,  after 
the  death  of  Godfrey,  was  chosen  to  the  throne 
of  Jerusalem.  In  11Q2,  after  commanding  in 
the  disastrous  battie  of  Rama,  he  was  besieged 
in  Jaffa  by  the  Saracens,  bnt  put  them  to  flight. 
The  nest  year  he  was  repulsed  before  St  Jean 
d'Acre  (Ptolemaia),  but  he  captured  it  with  the 
aid  of  the  Genoese  in  1 1 04,  after  a  20  days'  dege. 
In  1109  he  took  Berytus  (Beyrout)  after  a  nege 
of  Todays,  and  in  1110  Sidon(Saida).  He  fell 
ill  during  an  expedition  to  Egypt  and  died  on 
his  homeward  journey  to  Jerusalem.  Hia  in- 
teetines  were  buried  in  a  place  which  is  called 
the  aepulchre  of  Baldwin,  and  the  rest  of  his 
remains  were  interred  in  Jerusalem  by  the 
side  of  his  brother. — Baldwin  IL,  sutnamed  Du 
BocBO,  died  Aug.  21,  1131.  He  was  the  son 
of  Hugh,  MHmt  of  Rethel,  and  a  (Musin  of  the 
preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as  ruler  of 
Edessa  in  1100.  In  1118  he  was  crowned  king 
of  Jerusalem,  and  in  1119  relieved  Antioch 
from  the  Uoslems.  In  February,  1124,  while 
attempting  to  rescue  Jocelin,  oount  of  Edes- 
sa, and  Galeren,  hia  relative,  he  was  captured, 
and  ransomed  in  August  togetlier  with  Joce- 
lin, Tyre  having  been  conquered  during  his  ab- 
sence by  the  regent  Eustache  Gamier.  After 
his  return  to  Jerusalem  Baldwin  made  an  in- 
eSectual  attempt  to  take  Aleppo,  but  he  soc- 
ceeded  in  other  military  exploits,  and  condder- 
ably  extended  the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom. 
The  order  of  the  templars  was  sanctioned  by 
the  Roman  see  under  his  reign.  He  was  one 
of  the  bravest  knights  of  his  day,  and  remark- 
able bbthfor  his  valor  and  his  piety.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son-in-law  Folk  of  Aiyon. — 


bis  &therFuU[  in  1148,  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  mother  Melisanda.  In  1148  he  Joined 
the  emperor  Oonrad  and  Louis  VII.  of  France 
in  the  siege  of  Damascus.  After  the  fulnre 
of  this  enterprise,  he  restored  and  fortified  the 
ancient  town  of  Gaza;  and  in  1153  be  cap- 
tured Aecalon  alter  a  dege  of  seven  monthly 
and  made  his  brother  Amanry  its  ruler.  In 
1169  ha  took  Offsarea,  which  he  gave  to  Ke- 
nand,  prince  of  Antioch.  He  secured  the  alli- 
ance of  llie  Greek  emperor  Manuel  by  marry- 
ing his  daughter  Theodora,  but  died  childless, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Amanry, 
He  was  regarded  as  a  model  knight. — Baldwin 
IVv  nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1160. 
succeeded  his  father  Amaury  in  Z1T3,  died 
March  11,  1166.  It  waa  In  hia  reign  that  Sala- 
din  assumed  the  title  of  sultan,  and  began  hir 
warfare  with  the  Fruiks  of  Palestine,  narrowly 
missing  the  capture  of  Baldwin  near  Sidon  in 
1178,  but  being  defeated  in  1182  near  Tiberias. 
Attacked  with  leprosy  in  1188,  Baldwin  caused 
hie  nephew,  the  son  of  his  sister  Sibyl  by  her 
first  marriage  with  Count  WilLam  of  Montfer- 
rat,  t«  be  crowned  as  BaMwIa  V^  and  at  the 
same  time  chose  Gay  de  Lusignan  aa  eeoond 


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BALDWIN 

hnaband  of  bis  »ster  and  ragent  daring  StU- 
win's  minoritj.  On;,  however,  was  Boon  dis- 
placed at  the  demand  of  the  barons,  and  retired' 
to  Aao&lon,  where  he  defied  a  weak  effort  of 
Baldwin  to  bring  bint  to  trial.  Baldwin  IV. 
died  while  an  embaaay  from  his  oonrt  was  on 
the  way  to  Earope  to  invoke  asBistance  againat 
Salgdin.  Baldwin  V.  was  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  hj  hia  mother  (1186)  in  order  to 
Baaure  the  crown  for  Lnaignan,  who  according- 
ly sncceeded. 

ULDWUr,  Jaha  Ituwlrm,  on  Amerioao  jonr- 
nalist  and  arohfeologiet,  bom  at  North  Stoning- 
ton,  Oonn.,  Sept.  28, 1809.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
was  thrown  entirely  npon  his  o  wn  esertiona.  He 
fitted  himself  in  the  common  aohool  and  at  an 
academy  to  enter  college.  Not  being  able  to  par- 
roe  a  collegiate  con  rae,  be  b^gan  the  etady  of  law, 
bat  eoon  abandoned  it  for  theoli^y,  and  while 
paraoing  hia  theolt^oal  studies  at  the  divinity 
school  in  New  Haven  went  through  the  eourse 
pnrsoed  by  the  freshman,  sophomore,  and  Junior 
fflasBM  in  Tale  college,  from  which  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  A.  M.  In  1888  he  waa 
licensed  to  preaob,  and  was  settled  at  North 
Branford,  Oonn.,  where  he  remuned  seven  or 
eight  yeans.  He  acquired  the  French  and  Oer- 
man  languages,  and  by  1644  had  began  to  give 
spedol  attention  to  arobteology  and  ita  bearing 
upon  the  cnnent  schamoa  of  ancient  history. 
He  abo  wrote  much  for  magazines  and  news- 
papers, and  became  editor  of  the  "Obarter 
Ow,"  an  antj-slavery  newspaper  published  in 
Hartford,  and  afterward  of  the  "Common- 
wealth," pabliabed  in  Boston.  In  1869  he  be- 
came editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Worcester 
Spy,"  one  of  the  oldest  Joornals  in  New  Eng- 
land. In  1863  he  waa  elected  to  congress,  and 
waa  twice  reSleoted.  In  1847  he  poblished 
"Baymond  Hill,"  a  small  volome  of  poems. 
While  a  member  of  congress  he  continned  hia 
arcbesological  atndiea,  and  in  186B  published  a 
work  on  "  Prehistoric  Nations,"  and  in  18T2 
one  on  "  Ancient  America." 

ULEAUC  ISLUDS,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
Uediterronean,  the  prindpal  of  which  are  Ma- 
jorca, Uinorca,  and  the.  penal  settlement  of 
Cabrera,  forming  a  province  of  Spain,  situated 
opposite  that  of  Valencia,  between  lat.  89°  8' 
and  40°  5'  N.  and  Ion.  2°  20'  and  4°  21'  E. ; 
area,  1.860  aq.  ro. ;  pop.  in  1867,  284,898. 
Formerly  the  islands  of  Iviza  and  Formente- 
ra,  lying  between  M^orca  and  the  mainland, 
were  generally  con«dered  a  part  of  this  group. 
Both  Majorca  and  Minorca  are  mountainons, 
the  highest  mountain  rising  over  5,000  feet 
above  tbe  sea.  The  climate  is  delightfhl,  and 
the  soil  extremely  fertile,  but  agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding  are  neglected,  despite  of  fine 
paetnre.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  very  large,  bow- 
ever,  and  mules  and  asaes  are  reared  for  ex- 
portation. The  principal  products  are  olives, 
oranges,  figs,  ana  other  fruits,  red  and  white 
wine,  and  aaffron.  The  exports  comprise  these 
articles  as  well  as  oil,  brandy,  home-made  palm 
brooms,  baakets,  and  wooden  wares.  The 
68  vol.  iL-L-ie 


BALFG  239 

trade  is  ohiefly  oarried  on  in  M^oroa  and 
Minorca.  The  inbabitante  resemble  tbe  Cata- 
lans. The  lai^raage  of  the  common  people  is 
a  corrupt  Catalan  dialect  mixed  with  words 
from  various  eastern  languages.  The  islands 
were  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  imder 
their  present  name,  which  they  derived  from 
pAXitiv,  to  throw,  in  reference  to  the  great 
skill  of  t^e  inhabitants  as  slingere.  Early  set- 
tlements were  made  by  the  Phoenicians  and 
Cartboginiana.  During  tbe  Punic  wars  the 
islanders  served  as  slingers  in  the  armies  of 
both  Carthage  and  Rome.  Subseanently  their 
piracies  oansed  them  to  be  Babdued  by  tbe 
Romans  under  Q.  0.  Hetellus  (133  B.  C),  hence 
samamed  Balearicus.  They  snoceaaively  fell 
into  tbe  hands  of  tbe  Vandals,  the  Visigoths, 
and  the  Moora;  were  held  by  Charlemagne 
six  years,  and  retaken  by  the  Moors,  who  were 
not  eipelled  till  the  18th  century.  Conquered 
by  James  I.  of  Aragon  in  1229,  they  formed 
after  his  deatii,  for  about  70  years,  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  M^orca,  and  in  184S  reverted  to 
Aragon. 

SiliCHOV,  Jen  tuvm  RlNlai,  a  French  en- 
grarer,  bom  at  Aries  in  171G,  died  in  Avignon, 
Aug.  16,  1765.  Hia  finest  work  is  the  full- 
length  portrut  of  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland, 
after  Rigaud,  in  ttie  Dresden  ^lery.  Among 
his  worts  were  three  fine  plates  ^^r  Claude 
Vemet,  and  one  ofBte.  Genevieve,  after  Vanloo. 

BUXS,  BmMk.  via,  a  Flemish  painter,  bom 
in  Antweip  in  1660,  died  there  in  16S2-  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Adam  von  Oort,  tbe  teacher  of 
Rubens,  perfected  his  art  in  Italy,  and  became 
the  instructor  of  Vandyke  and  Buyders,  and 
tbe  first  of  Flemish  punters  who  sucoeeded  in 

[inrity  of  coloring.  His  cabinet  pictures,  chief- 
y  classical  subfects,  with  landscapes  by  Jan 
Breughel  and  Kierings.  enjoyed  great  popular- 
ity. Altar  pieces  of  his  are  in  tbe  Antwerp 
cathedral. 

BALESrai,  litaalf,  an  Italian  painter,  bora 
in  Verona  in  1686,  died  April  2,  1740,  or  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts  in  1784  or  1744.  He 
lel^  commerce  for  art,  studied  in  Venice,  Bo- 
logna, Rome,  and  Naples,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  St.  Luke  in  Rome,  which 
conferred  a  prize  upon  his  "Defeat  of  the 
Giants."  In  169S  be  removed  to  Venice,  and 
afterward  to  Verona.  He  was  one  of  the  last 
great  representatives  of  the  Venetian  school. 
lie  engraved  in  aquatint,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  copperplate  engraver  Oiovan- 
ni  Baleetra. 

BALFE,  KMuKl  WIIIUm,  an  Irish  composer, 
bom  in  Dublin,  May  ife,  1608,  died  in  London, 
Oct  20,  1670.  When  eight  years  old  he  played 
a  concerto  on  the  violin  at  a  publio  concert. 
At  the  age  of  nine  he  wrote  the  ballad  called 
"The  Lover's Mistalte,"  effectively  introduced 
into  the  play  of  "Paul  Pry"  by  Mme.  Veatris. 
He  lost  his  father  in  1628,  and  went  to  London 
with  Mr.  Charles  Horn,  the  composer,  as  an 
articled  pupil  for  seven  yeara.  He  was  soon 
engaged  as  prindpal  violinist  at  tbe  Dmry 


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240 


BALFODB 


Lone  oratorios,  and  in  the  Dmrj  Laaa  orohea- 
tra,  under  Thomas  Oooke.  In  162G  he  went 
on  the  stage.  His  voice,  which  he  had  culti- 
vated, was  a  rich  haritone,  bat  he  ntterl;  failed 
from  timidity  as  Oasper  in  Der  UvUehHU,  at 
the  Norwich  theatre.  ImmediBtelf  afterward 
Count  Mazzora,  who  fancied  that  he  resembled 
a  son  whom  his  wife  h&d  lost,  took  young  BaJfe 
with  him  to  Rome,  where  the  countess  received 
him  yerj  tenderlj'.  Here  bo  remained  far  « 
jear,  stadying  under  the  best  masters.  After 
tbis,  still  tiirongh  the  boant;  of  Count  Ifaxzaro, 
he  bad  sinular  advantages  at  Milan,  where  his 
first  prodaction  of  anj  pretension,  a  ballet  called 
La  Pet/route,  was  performed  with  great  succeHS. 
Pasfflng  on  to  Paris,  where  Boesini  held  out 
hopes  of  an  engagement  at  the  Italian  opera, 
he  applied  himself  to  study  for  several  mooths, 
and  at  last  appeared  as  Figaro  in  the  "Barber 
of  Seville,"  with  Sontagaa  Eosina.  His  career 
as  a  dramatic  singer  was  trinmphant,  in  Italy 
aa  well  as  in  France,  after  this.  He  sang  in 
Ifen  York  in  18S4,  and  in  183G  retnraed  to 
LondoiL  accompanied  bj  his  wife,  who  had 
been  Mile.  Lina  B^zer,  ^ma  donna  of  the 
troupe  in  Sicily.  He  sang  at  the  andeut  and 
philnarmonic  concerts  in  London,  and  appeared 
at  Dmry  Lane  in  his  "  Siege  of  Roohelle,'* "  The 
Jewew,"  and  Chiara  de  Sotmbgrff.  The"UBid 
of  Artois,"  written  for  Mme.  Malibran,  and  in 
which  she  won  one  of  her  greatest  triomphs, 
came  nezt.  A  variety  of  operas,  among  which 
"Falstaff"  deserves  particular  ntenticui,  fol- 
lowed, and  most  of  tnem  were  popnlar.  Is 
ieS9  Hr.  Balfe  became  manager  of  the  Ei^liah 
opera  honse,  but  did  not  succeed.  Bia  "  Bohe- 
mian Girl,"  the  most  popular  and  one  of  the 
best  of  all  his  works,  filled  the  treasury  at 
Dmry  Lane,  and  is  still  a  favorite  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  Toward  the  close  of 
Mr.  Balfe's  life  it  was  saccesefolly  produced  in 
Paris  under  the  composer's  direction.  "The 
Daughter  of  St.  Mark,"  "The  Enchantress," 
"The Bondman,"  "TheBoseof  CastJle,"  "The 
Puritan's  Daughter,"  "Satanella"  (1868),  and 
otlier  operas  were  subsequently  prodaced,  and 
many  of  them  were  represented  with  ^«at 
TS  in  Germany.. — In  tlie  spring  of  1867  his 


danghter,  Miss  Viotobia  Balfb,  mipeared 
the  stage  in  I.ondon  as  a  vocalist.  In  1860  i 
married  Sir  John  Crampton,  fh)m  whom  she 


IB  divorced  in  1863 ;  and  in  1864  she  married 
the  Spanish  duke  de  Frias.  She  died  in  Ma- 
drid, Jan.  21,  1871. 

liLFOnt,  Ueuafcr,  a  Scottish  anthor,  boni 
in  the  parish  of  Monikee,  Forfarshire,  March  1, 
1767,  died  Sept.  ]8_,  182*.  He  was  aiiprentioed 
to  a  weaver,  failed  in  bosineBa  in  London  (1815), 
and  eventually  became  a  clerk  of  the  Mesara 
Blackwood  in  Edinburgh.  Mr.  Canning  ob- 
tained for  him  a  grant  of  £100  fVom  the  nation- 
al trenBury.  He  wrote  "Campbell,  or  the 
Scottish  Probationer"  (1819);  "The  Found- 
ling of  Glenthom,  or  the  Smuggler's  Cave " 
(1828);  and  "HighlandHary."  Heeditedthe 
poems  of  bis  friend  Richard  Gall,  and  contrib- 


BAU 

nted  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review."  D.  M. 
Moir  paUished  a  posthumous  seteotion  from 
hb  writings,  witii  a  biographioal  notice. 
BALfVEB,  FnOMli  M.  Bee  sapplentent 
BILFWM,  Sir  Jaaes,  a  Scottish  jurist  and 
poUtioian,  bom  in  Fifeshire  early  in  the  16th 
century,  died  abont  1688.  He  was  educated 
for  the  Soman  Catholic  church,  bat  Joined  the 
Protestants,  took  part  in  the  conspiracy  against 
Cardinal  Beaton,  was  made  [wiBoner  at  the 
surrender  of  tbe  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and 
with  £noz,  who  called  hhn  tiie  blaqAenoue 
B^^four,  was  imprisoned  in  tbe  French  galleys. 
He  escaped  in  1560,  again  changed  his  i^lgion, 
attached  himself  to  Bothwell's  fertmMs,  was 
made  privy  councillor,  and  received  many 
otiher  appointments,  inclnding  ihe  governor- 
ship of  Edinbnr^  castle:  He  was  present  at 
the  murder  of  Itixrio,  and  aoeuseo  of  com- 
plicity in  the  death  of  Damley.  He  gave  up  to 
the  confederate  lords  the  c^brated  letters  in- 
trusted to  him  for  safe  keeping  b^  Bothwell, 
mi  which  it  was  attempted  to  eatabhsh  Maiy'a 
gnilt.  Mnrray  aflerward  made  him  ppesidont 
of  the  court  of  eesMon,  and  Morton  employed 
him  with  Skene  in  complUng  the  revirion  of 
the  Scottish  statotes,  known  as  "The  Prack- 
tieks."  One  of  his  last  acts  was  compasmng 
Morton's  death  by  funusbiog  the  deed  signed  by 
him  at  the  Ijme  of  the  assasrination  of  Damley. 
BUJOCB,  WsMh,  an  American  cler^nian, 
bom  in  the  parigh  of  St.  Niniana,  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  about  1776,  died  in  Cbarlestown, 
Mass.,  Jan.  3,  18SS.  He  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  of  uie  chorch  of  Scotland,  and  after 
preaching  a  few  years  emigrated  to  America. 
He  was  still  in  the  faith  of  the  Scottish  kirk, 
but  at  the  age  of  80  became  a  Baptist.    A  few 

fears  later  some  circnmstanoea,  among  which 
e  always  reckoned  the  letters  of  Prof  Stuart 
of  Andover  to  the  Rev,  W,  E.  Channing,  written 
in  1819,  led  him  to  think  of  tbe  doctrines  of 
Univerealism,  and  finally  to  embrace  them.  In 
1828  he  avowed  his  opinions,  and  was  from 
that  time  a  laborions  writw  and  preacher  in 
support  of  the  dootriuea  he  then  espoused. 

BALFBIISH,  or  Batfamh,  a  town  of  Persia, 
in  the  province  of  Mazanderan,  utuated  on  the 
river  Babbul,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  0 
arches,  about  12  m.  from  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  abont  100  m.  K.  £.  of 
Teheran;  pop.  about  60,000.  It  is  sitnated  in 
a  swampy  but  fertile  country,  in  tbe  midst  <k 
tall  trees.  It  fonnerly  had  an  extensive  trade 
with  Russia,  and  many  fine  bazaars  and  col- 
leges, but  has  much  declined  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  the  plague  and  the  cholera,  and  the 
unhealthy  climate. 

BiU,  or  Utfle  Java,  an  island  of  the  Malay 
archipela^,  the  westernmost  of  the  Little  Sonda 
islands,  situated  between  Java  and  Lombok,  70 
m.  long  by  8G  m.  average  breadth;  area  aboat 
8,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  600,000.  The  geol- 
ogj  reeembles  that  of  Java,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait  The  island  is 
traversed  E.  and  W.  by  mountain  ranges,  which 


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BAUOL 

tenniiuta  in  a  vtdoanio  peak  over  11,000  ft. 
high.  The  eruption  in  181Sof  anotherToIoano, 
QonoDg  Batur,  7,000  ft.  high,  oansed  great 
loss  of  life.  The  ooaat  ia  ragged,  and  has  few 
harbors.  The  land  ia  prodnotiva,  and  abnn- 
dantl;  watered.  The  chief  {vodncts  ia  the 
EODlb  are  grain  and  sweet  potatoes,  and  in  the 
□mth  rioe.  The  imports  are  opiam,  betel, 
iTixj,  gold,  and  ailver ;  and  the  exports  inclode 
hideo,  oil,  ediUo  Inrde'  nests,  and  c^er  articles. 
The  nativM  we  skilftil  artafioera  in  gold  and 
iron,  and  maniifaotDre  firearms.  The7  are  sup- 
posed to  be  descended  from  Hindoo  eolootsts 
of  Java,  and  are  with  those  of  Lombok  the 
onlf  people  in  the  archipelago  who  obserTe 
Hindoo  riteH.  The  Kavi  is  the  reli^oos  Ion- 
enage,  and  the  Sonda  ia  epokeit  bf  the  maaaea. 
WidowH  are  killed  bj  their  nearest  relatives, 
and  th^  bodies  boraed.  Among  the  nobles 
the  practice  irf  baming  the  dead  also  prevails 
to  some  extmL  Uanr  of  the  higher  classes 
are  fond  of  letters,  and  have  large  ooUectiona 
of  MBS.,  chiefly  translations  from  Javanese 
and  Malay.  There  are  in  the  idand  aboat 
4,000  HohammedauH  and  6,000  Chinese.  The 
iiiland  was  divided  in  1S15  into  nine  prinoipali' 
ties  or  rqjahshipe,  the  village  adminiatratian  be- 
ing about  the  same  as  in  Java.    The  prince  of 


from  Deva  Agong,  the  deified  progenitor  of 
the  Balinese.  The  most  powerful  of  all  the 
prin<»pftlitie8  is  Earang  Assam,  in  the  north- 
east, which  is  dynastioftlly  united  with  the 
neighboring  island  of  Lombok.  The  Dutch 
in  1846  resented  on  alleged  insult  to  one 
of  their  diplomatic  agents  by  captniing  the 
chief  fortress,  BaliJing,  and  extorting  a  treaty, 
the  violation  of  which  led  to  a  new  expedition 
ia  1847,  in  which  they  were  defeated  with 
c<mBiderable  low.  Sabseqnent  expeditions  were 
more  encoesafal,  both  in  oheokinf;  the  Bali  pi- 
rates and  inducing  the  mling  pnnoea  to  make 
important  ooncesuons.  The  Dutch  have  a 
setdement  at  fiadong  on  the  6.  coast 

BILIM.    SeeBuiioL. 

tUJZX,  or  !(■«,  a  town  of  British  Ilon- 
dnras,  OeBtral  America,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  laL  17°  2B'  N.,  Ion. 
88'  8'  W.  ;  pop,  abont  12,000,  many  of  whom 
are  negroes.  It  is  bnilt  along  a  single  street 
ronaing  parallel  with  the  seaaliore ;  from  this 
extend  only  a  few  inconsiderable  side  streets, 
almost  every  bouse  in  the  town  facing  the  mun 
thorooghfiare.  The  principal  baildinge  are  the 
market  (an  iron  stractarc),  the  government 
savings  hank,  a  hospital  and  an  insane  asylom, 
and  several  ahurches.  There  are  also  nnmer- 
oQs  schools.  The  trade  of  Balize  is  consider- 
able; oochineal  and  msb^^ny  are  the  leading 
articlea  of  export.  Balize  was  first  settled  by 
the  English  about  1S70 ;  and  after  numerous 
contests  with  the  Spaniards,  who  claimed  pos- 
sesion of  the  site,  it  was  finally  confirmed  to 
the  British  by  the  treaty  of  1TS3.  It  ia  the 
seat  of  tlie  legialatnre  of  British  Honduras. 


BALEH 


241 


BJLEIV  HSdlTinS,  an  extensive  range 
bonnding  the  great  plains  of  Bnlgaria  S.  of  the 
lower  Danube.  The  true  Balkan,  or  ancient 
Hmmua,  commences  on  the  Black  sea  at  01410 
Emineh  or  Hnmna,  lat.  42°  4S',  and,  after 
making  a  cnrve  to  the  north,  rans  W.  S.  W.  to 
the  sources  of  the  Moritsa,  the  ancient  Hebrus^ 
comprising  about  four  degrees  of  longitude, 
dLviding  Bnlgaria  from  Roomelia  or  Thraoe. 
Here  it  is  intersected  at  an  acnt«  angle  by  a 
range  miining  N.  W.  and  B.  E.  from  Roumelia 
into  Servia,  and  called  by  the  sndents  Rho- 
dope  and  Scomins,  by  modems  Despoto  Bagh 
and  Dupanaha  Bagh.  Further  west,  after  m^- 
ing  a  s^rp  cnrve  toward  the  southern  frmitier 
of  Bsrvio,  It  becomes  the  Uount  Orbelns  of  the 
ancients.  Between  Bervia  and  Albania  it  is 
the  Kons  Scardns,  or  Kara  Dagfa,  and  thence 
crosses  Albania,  joining  the  Dinario  Ahts  and 
approaching  the  Adriatio  sea.  The  omhoots 
of  the  Balkan  both  N.  and  S.  are  very  numer- 
ous, extending  toward  the  Carpathians  on  one 
side,  and  the  mountains  of  Macedonia  on  the 
other.  The  average  elevation  of  these  moun- 
tains is  about  4,000  tt  The  loftiest  peaks  rise 
aboDt  4,000  ft.  higher.  The  Balkan  is  the  uat- 
oral  northern  defence  of  Turkey.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  passes,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of 
Shumla,  by  which  the  Enssisns  under  Oeneral 
Diebitsch  efiect«d  a  passsge  in  1S2B.  Borne  of 
the  rivers  which  take  their  rise  in  the  Balkan 
are  of  condderable  importance.  Those  which 
flow  from  the  northern  watershed  are  tributa- 
ries to  the  Danube,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  which  ran  into  the  Black  sea.  On  the 
■oath  the  Maritsa  and  its  tributaries  flow  into 
the  ,£gean  sea.  Prom  the  western  range  the 
Uorava  (Maraus)  and  the  Drina  (Drinns)  &ow 
north  through  Servia  from  Uonnt  Orbelns.  On 
the  south  the  Hesta  or  Kara  Bn  fNestos),  Stru- 
ma (Strymon),  and  Vardor  (Anus)  carry  off 
the  waters  into  the  gulfs  of  Contessa  and 
Salonioa.  The  mountuns  are  principally  of 
granitic  formation.  Marble  ia  abundant  in  the 
southern  ranges.  Gold  and  ulver  were  found 
by  the  anoients.  Copper,  iron,  and  lead  mines 
also  exist 

BAL&iSH,  BalUaA,  or  UNgfi,  a  lake  of  S.  W. 
Biberio,  between  lat.  44°  and  47°  N.,  and  Ion.  74° 
and  7i°  E. ;  length  from  S.  E.  to  8.  W.,  250  m. ; 

Keatest  breadth,  70  m. ;  area  shout  8,000  sq.  m. 
has  no  visible  onUet.  It  is  enclosed  by 
mountains  on  the  E.  and  W.  On  the  S.  and 
8.  W.  it  receives  the  Hi,  whose  valley  was  a 
century  ago  the  principal  domain  of  the  Dzun- 
garis.  They  were  nearly  annihilated  by  the 
Chinese,  who  introduced  various  settlers  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  lake  ia  frozen 
during  winter.  It  oontsins  only  small  fish. 
The  Rossian  government  has  attempted  to  nav- 
igate part  of  the  Ili  nnce  1662. 

SU.KH.  L  A  country  of  central  Asia,  the 
main  part  of  ancient  Baotria,  situated  between 
lat  85°  and  87°  S.,  and  Ion.  68°  and  flB°  E., 
hounded  N.  by  the  Oius,  E.  by  Badakhahan, 
W.  by  the  desert,  and  S.  by  the  Hindoo  Koosh 


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tad  its  western  continuation ;  sreft,  oearlj 
80,000  aq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,000,000,  chiefly 
TTzbecks.  The  Houthem  part  is  rockj,  but  has 
many  flue  valleys;  the  eastern  ie  mountainouB, 
bat  lem  barren  tkaa  the  western  and  northern 
parts.  Its  inhabitants  comprise  both  peaceful 
and  warlike  tribes.  Many  are  engaged  in  the 
oararan  trade  between  Russia,  China,  and  In- 
dia; others  are  mechanics  and  agricalturieta. 
Ballih  formerJj  included  Koondooz,  Khooloom, 
and  other  diatricta  wliich  have  now  become 
separate  govemraents.  It  formed  part  of  Ca- 
bool,  and  after  the  fall  of  the  Dorraai  dynasty 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  raler  of  Bokhara. 
In  18G0  it  was  coDqaered  by  Dost  Mohammed, 
and  the  widow  of  Feis  Uohammed  of  Balkh 
furnished  in  1867  funds  to  Shere  Ali  for  gath- 
ering a  considerable  army.  In  1871  a  treaty 
was  concluded  which  fixed  the  opper  Ozus  as 
a  boundary  line  between  Afghanistan  and  Bo- 
khara, Balkh  belonging  again  to  the  fonnergov- 
emment,  thonsb  in  an  unsettled  condition  and 
Tirtaally  ralea  by  Rassian  influenoe.  II<  A 
city  (ano.  Bactra),  capital  of  the  preceding 
country,  in  lat.  86*  48'^N.,  Ion.  67°  18'  E.,  on 
the  Balkh  or  Deha2  river,  a  tributary  of  Che 
Oxus,  350  m.  S.  E.  of  Bokhara  and  180  m.  N. 
W,  of  Oabool;  pop.  abont  2,000.  Its  ori^n  is 
Bfflociated  with  Kaimnrs,  the  mythical  founder 
of  a  Persian  dynasty,  and  it  flourished  as  the 
capital  of  a  Greek  kingdom  nnder  the  succes- 
sors of  Alexander  the  Great.  (See  Bavtbia.) 
Devastated  by  Gen^is  Khan,  Tamerlane,  Na- 
dir Shah,  and  others,  and  deprived  of  most  of 
its  former  commerce  rince  the  discovery  of  the 
Gape  of  Good  Hope,  it  has  lost  its  splendor, 
traces  of  which,  however,  linger  in  ruins  ex- 
tending over  20  m.,  and  It  is  still  called  by  the 
natives  the  mother  of  cities. 

■ALL,  GiM  vtSee  Bask  Ball. 


He  was  a  priest  who  had  been 
peatedly  excominunicated  for  prcaehiug  "  er- 
rors and  schisms,  and  scandals  against  the  pope, 
the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  clergy;"  and 
when  Wjcliffe  began  to  preach  he  adopted 
some  of  that  reformer's  doctrines  and  engrafted 
them  on  his  own.  He  joined  Wat  Tyler's  re- 
l>el1ioii  in  1381,  and  at  Bkckhoath  preached  to 
a  hundred  thousand  of  the  insurgents  a  violent 
democratic  sermon  on  the  test, 

Wlim  Adua  delTed  and  En  ipuL 
Wiio  w»  than  the — " * 


His  sermons  and  letters  contributed  greatly  to 
spread  the  insnirection.  After  the  death  of 
Wat  he  was  seized  with  others  of  the  leaders 
and  either  beheaded  or  hanged. 

BALL,  Hums,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Charleatown,  Mass.,  June  3,  1819.  He  was 
oriiginally  a  portrait  painter  in  Boston,  but 
about  18.52  began  to  devote  himself  exclusively 
to  modelling.  His  first  prodnction  in  the  plas- 
tic art  was  a  miniature  bust  of  Jenny  Lind, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  a  life-dze  bast  of 


BALLAMTHE 

Daniel  Wet)Bt«r,  esteemed  an  excellent  likeness. 

After  executing  a  life-size  statue  of  the  same 
statesman  he  passed  several  years  in  Europe, 
and  upon  his  return  to  Boston  received  a  com- 
mis^on  for  an  equestrian  statae  of  Washington, 
which  was  cast  in  bronze  by  the  Ames  manu- 
facturing company  at  Chicopee,  Mass.,  and 
S laced  in  the  public  garden  of  Boston  in  1S68. 
le  revisited  Europe  in  18S6,  passing  some  time 
in  Rome  and  Florence.  His  remaining  works 
include  a  bust  of  Rnfus  Choate,  statuettes  rf 
Webster,  Lincoln,  snd  Clay,  a  life-size  statue  of 
Edward  Everett  (in  the  Boston  public  library), 
a  statae  of  Edwin  Forrest  in  the  cliaracter  of 
Ooriolanus,  one  of  Eve,  and  a  number  of  ideal 
busts  and  ststues.  In  1S71  his  statue  of  Gov. 
Andrew  of  Massachusetts  was  placed  in  th« 
state  house  at  Boston. 

BULANCHE,  Ttun  81km,  a  French  writer 
and  philosopher,  born  in  Lyons  in  )77S,  died 
in  Paris,  Juno  12,  1847.  He  first  followed 
the  trade  of  his  father,  who  was  a  bookselltr 
and  a  printer.  In  1601  he  published  Du  ttnti- 
ment  cojtridiri  dam  tet  rapporta  ante  la  litti- 
rature  et  Utartt.  In  1814  appeared  his  histor- 
ical novel  Antigone,  and  auhBequently  an  Sitai 
tur  la  XTittitutunu  tecialet  dant  Uurt  rapporlt 
ante  let  idiet  tiovTtllet,  in  which  he  sou^t  to 
reconcile  national  tradition  with  the  progre«- 
«ve  law  of  modem  society.  These  works 
made  little  impression  upon  the  general  public; 
but  his  L'homme  tant  nom  (1820),  a  novel 
which  bitterly  denoanced  some  old  revotntion- 
ary  leaders,  was  more  successful.  After  this 
publication  Ballanche,  who  had  previously  re- 
moved to  Paris,  devoted  himself  to  purely 
speculative  studies.  In  spite  of  their  abstruse- 
□ese,  his  subsequent  works  were  eagerly  seugbt 
for.  In  Orphie'iia  symbolically  expounded  the 
way  in  which  every  ereat  social  evolution  must 
be  accomplished.  The  pTolegominu,  which 
serve  as  an  introduction  to  Orphie,  and  bis 
great  work  Falingenitie  loeiaU,  contain  a  fhll 
exposition  of  his  prophetic  and  mystical  theo- 
ries. Tliese  theories  are  summed  Dp,  though 
not  made  more  intelligible,  in  La  tuicrn  d'Hs- 
ial,  ch^  d'ltn  clan  icoaait,  which  was  his  last 
publication.  He  was  much  respected  by  Oha- 
teanbriand  and  Mme.  BScamier. 

BiLUMTTNE.  I.  Jshm,  a  Scottish  printer, 
bom  at  Eelao  in  1772,  died  in  Edinbnrgli,  Jan. 
17, 1833.  He  was  a  schoolfellow  of  Walter  Scott 
at  Kelso  grammar  school.  In  1795  be  began 
practice  as  a  solicitor  in  his  native  town,  and 
the  next  year  started  a  weekly  journal  called 
the  "Kelso  Mail,''  '■>  which  Scott  contributed. 
By  the  advice  of  the  novelist  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh,  to  carry  on  the  printing  budnesa. 
The  first  volumes  issued  from  what  he  colled 
the  "  Border  Press  "  were  the  first  and  second 
of  Scott's  "  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border," 
brought  out  in  a  manner  greatly  superior  to 
any  Scotch  printing  of  that  time.  The  third 
volume  followed  in  1803.  From  that  time  he 
printed  all  of  Scott's  works,  and  the  Ballan- 
tyne  press  attained  a  high  reputation.     From 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAIXARAT 

ISOS,  when  th«  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Hinstrel " 
<n«8  pnblisbed,  to  hia  ftulure  in  1828,  S<iatt  was 
a  secret  partner  with  BallaDtyne,  not  onlj  ia 
the  nri&tijif;  bnaineas,  bat  in  the  proprietorHhip 
of  toe  "  Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal,"  which 
Ballimtjne  oondncted  with  spirit  and  Eaccesa. 
Ballantjnc  was  in  the  secret  of  the  authorship 
of  "  Waverley,"  and  was  almost  the  only  per- 
son to  whose  criticism  and  snggeetionB  Scott 
piud  any  attention.  For  manj  years  he  printed 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine ;"  and  in  1822  145,000 
Tolnmea  of  Scott's  works  were  iasned  from  Bal- 
lantyne's  press.  Unfortuni(t«ly,  Seott  also  be- 
came principal  in  a  pnblishing  house  of  which 
John  Ballantyne  was  the  ostensible  head.  After 
stn^fliDg  for  some  years,  with  heary  losses, 
this  oonoem  was  broken  ap,  and  tlip  Batlan- 
tynes  shared  in  Scott's  inisfortnnes.  Wilson 
described  James  Ballantyne  as  "the  beat  de- 
elaimer  extant,"  and  Lockbart  said  he  was  one 
of  the  best  readers  he  ever  heard.  He  was  con- 
sidered for  2S  years  the  best  theatrical  orator  in 
Bcotland.  11.  Jrta,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  at  Kelso  abont  1774^  died  June  le,  1821. 
Aifler  having  filled  the  office  of  olerk  in  a  Lon- 
don bank  for  some  time,  he  returned  to  his 
native  place,  where  he  kept  a  clothier's  shop; 
bnt  he  was  nnfortanate  in  bufdnesa,  and  m 
leOS  went  to  Edinbnr^  as  clerk  to  his  brother 
JamM.  In  1S08  be  became  nominal  head  of 
the  pnblishing  boose  of  John  Ballantyne  and 
company.  After  the  foilare  of  this  concern  he 
became  a  literary  anotionoer  in  Edinburgh. 
His  iivelineaa,  hnmor,  eccentricity,  and  oon- 
Tivial  habits  greatly  endeared  him  to  Scott, 
and  he  was  reoeat^ly  mentioned  by  Wilson, 
in  "Blackwooa's  Uagazine,"  for  his  social 
qnalities.  He  wrot«  an  onsuccessful  novel, 
"  The  Widow's  Lodgings,"  and  for  a  short  time 
condncted  a  weekly  periodical  oalled  "Tlie 
Sale  Room,"  to  which  Scott  contributed  some 
minor  poems,  inclading  the  hnmorons  piece 
entitled  "The  Sultan  of  Serendib,  or  the 
Search  after  Happiness." 

BALLAmAT,  a  city  of  Victoria,  New  Soath 
Wales,  next  to  Uelboume  and  Sydney  the 
largest  town  of  Anstralia,  situated  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,48T  ft  above  the  sea,  66  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Melboame.  It  is  divided  into  Ballarat  West 
and  Ballarat  East,  separated  by  the  Yarowee 
creek.  Ballarat  West  was  erected  into  a  city 
in  September,  18T0;  pop.  in  1871,  40,6B1  (of 
whom  1,500  were  Chmese),  and  with  the  sur- 
rounding district,  74,260.  The  town  owes  its 
TtfAi  growth  to  being  the  centre  of  perhaps 
the  richest  gold-bearing  district  of  the  world. 
The  public  buildings  in  1871  comprised  a  spa- 
cious hospital  erected  on  high  firound,  an  or- 
phan asylnm,  a  benevolent  asylum,  a  public 
bath,  a  free  public  library,  a  theatre,  eight 
banks,  three  town  halls,  and  66  churches.  In 
the  same  year  Ballarat  bad  four  daily  newspa- 

Jers.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  Ballarat  in 
nne,  18B1;  in  December,  1865,  it  was  pro- 
olaimed  a  municipality.  Soma  of  the  gold 
tnines  were  in  1871  as  deep  as  some  of  the  coal 


BALLET  243 

[nts  in  England,  with  horses  employed  in  them, 
and  worked  by  eipensive  steam  machinery. 
In  all  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  on  the 
Ballarat  gold  fields  215  engines  of  6,461  horse 
power  engaged  in  surface  minins,  and  140  en- 
gines of  S,89D  horse  power  need  m  ijuartz  min- 
ing. The  district  around  Ballarat  is  also  well 
suited  for  farming  purposes. 

BALUKD,  a  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  sepa- 
rated from  Missouri  by  the  Mississippi  river, 
and  from  Illinois  by  the  Ohio ;  area,  GOO  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,576,  of  whom  1,477  were 
colored.  It  has  a  moderately  uneven  surface, 
with  plenty  of  good  timber  land.  The  soil  of 
the  southern  portions  of  the  county  is  quite 
fertile,  but  in  the  north  it  is  poor.  The  ^ief 
productions  in  1870  were  70,7S4  bushels  of 
wheat,  C77,T69  of  com,  28,223  of  oats,  18,198 
of  Irish  and  17,220  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
2,868,455  lbs.  of  tobaooo.     Capital.  Blandville. 

BUiiEMBTEDT,  a  town  of  the  duchy  of  An- 
halt,  Germany,  at  the  foot  of  the  Lower  Harts, 
on  the  Getel,  15  m.  8.  E.  of  Halhertatadt ;  pop. 
in  1837,  4,600.  Connt  Esico  IV.  of  Baiien- 
stedt  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  10th 
century  a  collegiate  church,  which  was  soon 
afterward  changed  into  a  Benedictine  convent. 
After  1625  a  castle  took  Uie  place  of  the  con- 
vent, which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  peaa- 
ants.  In  1765  it  became  the  residence  Of  the 
dukes  of  Anhalt-Bernbnrg. 

SALUn'  (Or.  j3aiAlf«v,  It.  iallarg,  to  dance), 
a  dramatic  representation  oomposed  of  dancing 
and  pantomime  with  music.  Many  passages 
in  the  Greek  writers  show  that  the  ballet  of 
action  was  in  great  credit  among  them.  The 
Bomans  reached  in  it,  nnder  the  reign  of  Aogus- 
tuB,  a  rare  edgree  of  perfection.  Three  dancen 
above  all,  Batbyllns,  Pjiadea,  and  Hyllus,  ao- 
oomplished  wonders  by  their  varied  perform- 
ances, in  whioh  artistic  skill  and  trntbtulnes 
of  pantomime  were  admirably  blended.  Py- 
lades  personified  tragic  subjects,  while  Bathyl- 
Ids  excelled  io  the  representation  of  the  comic. 
These  entertainments  continued  popular  down 
to  the  fall  of  the  empire;  bnt  it  was  only 
in  the  later  period  that  women  appeared  on 
the  stage ;  and  among  the  most  favorite  per- 
formers at  Constantinople  was  Theodora,  who 
became  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Justinian. 
The  middle  ages  present  no  records  of  the  bal- 
let; but  in  1489,  on  occasion  of  the  marriage 
of  the  duke  of  Uiinn,  a  spectacle  of  the  kind 
excited  such  admiration  that  it  was  introduoed 
in  several  countries.  France  was  foremost  in 
encouraging  this  entertainment ;  in  1581  Oatii- 
arine  de'  Medici  had  a  great  ballet  performed, 
"  Circe  and  her  Nymphs,"  the  expenses  of 
which  amonntod  to  3,600,000  livres.  The  pop- 
aiarity  of  the  ballet  all  over  Europe  was  in- 
creased in  the  18th  century  by  Noverre,  whom 
Garriok  oalled  the  Shakespeare  of  the  dance. 
He  elevated  the  character  of  the  ballet,  im- 
proving it  as  a  whole  and  in  its  details,  and 
propagated  its  principles  through  the  principal 
European  cities,  where  be  was  either  the  foun- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


8U 


BALUNA 


ier  (ft  Oit  reformer  of  the  bidlet;  finally,  he 
returned  to  Fruioe,  and  became  chief  ballet 
msat^r  of  the  royal  academy  of  umsio.  "A 
ballet  perfeot  in  all  its  parte,"  according  to 
Koverre,  "is  n  pictore  drawn  tronx  life  of 
the  roannere,  dresseB,  ceremonies,  and  customs 
of  all  aalJone ;  it  moat  be  therefore  a  complete 
pantomime,  and  through  the  eyes  spieak  to  the 
Tery  soul  of  the  spectator,  and,  being  a  regular 
representation,  ought  aa  far  aa  possible  to  be 
auder  the  ^neral  ralea  of  the  drama.  If  it 
does  not  pomt  out^  with  per^icuity  and  with- 
oat  tlie  ud  of  a  programme,  the  pasdons  and 
iooidenta  it  is  intended  to  describe,  it  is  a  di~ 
vertiBement,  «  sacceesion  of  dances,  and  noth- 
ing better."  Appropriate  mnnc  is  also  a  con- 
stituent part  of  a  good  bullet.  The  Vestris 
fomily  shone  on  all  Ue  European  stages  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  and  early 
in  the  ISth.  Beudes  the  balltt  d'action  or  bal- 
let paotominie,  which  is  the  only  genuine  bal- 
let, there  are  di««rtit*tmettte,  consisting  of  little 
dae  than  ateps,  lei^>s,  pironettM,  and  «ntrwAaf*. 
These  are  sometimea  mtrodooed  in  opemt,  as  in 
£obert  U  Diabie. 

BIUIN A,  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland,  oounty 
Hayo,  separated  from  county  8Iigo  by  the  river 
Uoy,  T  m.  &om  its  mouth  in  Killala  bay,  and 
6T  m.  N.  of  Oalway ;  pop.  about  6,GD0,  inolnding 
the  suburb  of  Ardnaree,  on  the  right  or  Bligo 
side  of  the  Mor,  and  1,300  inmataa  of  the  onion 
workbonse.  fiallina  is  well  built,  in  a  fine  ait- 
natiMi.  It  oontaiuH  a  parish  ohorch  and  sot- 
eral  Frotaatant  chapels,  and  has  conuderable 
agrionltural  industry  and  important  salmon 
fisheries.  Its  trade  has  of  late  years  largely 
inoreaaod.  The  town  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  1708. 

BAUJUASLOE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  Oon- 
nanght,  84  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Galway;  pop.  in 
1871,  8,aOO,  The  river  Suck  divides  the  town 
into  two  parts,  the  latger  of  which  is  in  oounty 
Oalway  and  the  other  in  Roscommon ;  they 
are  connected  by  bridges  and  causeways,  over 
whioh  passes  the  road  from  Athlone  to  Galway. 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  and  has  enormous  horse 
£lirB  and  an  aotive  trade  in  gr^. 

UUUfl,  Eari  JMsph  HapelMB,  a  Bohemian 
chemist,  bom  April  21,  ISOfi,  died  in  Prague, 
Maroh  17,  1868.  He  studied  in  Prague  and 
beoune  professor  of  chemistry  in  that  city. 
He  introduced  the  use  of  the  sacoharometer  in 
breweries,  distilleries,  and  the  manufacture  of 
beet-root  sugar.  His  principal  wort  is  Die 
Gdhrangmhrnnit  wuMtucJu^Uch  hegrindetund 
t»  ihr«r  Antcendwig  ai^f  WHtibareituns,  Bi«r- 
iraueTai,  ^a<imtvi«vn3>T»n.nerai  v,nd  B^ener- 
Mugwig  prahtitch  dargetUlU  (4  vols.,  Prague, 
lS4fi-'7 ;  Sd  and  enlu'ged  ed.,  ISSi). 

BlUIM,  or  BalM.  L  Jtk^  king  of  Scot- 
land, born  about  1SC9,  died  in  Normandy  in 
1814.  He  was  a  desoendant  of  the  ddest 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  of 
King  William  the  Lion,  and,  after  the  death  of 
the  princess  Uargaret  of  Norway,  granddaugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Alexander  lU.,  the  nearest 


BALLIOL 

heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  opposed  by  Robert 
Brnoe  and  John  Hastings,  descendante  of  young- 
er daugliters  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  by 
several  others.  (See  Bbuoe.)  The  claims  <^ 
the  rivals  being  submitted  by  ^eement  to 
Edward  I.  of  Engluid,  he  dedded  in  favor  of 
B.alllol,  but  on  condition  that  he  should  do  hom- 
age to  him  for  the  crown  of  Scotland.  He 
was  accordingly  crowned  at  Scone  in  Novem- 
ber, 1202,  and  in  December,  with  the  principal 
nobles  of  bis  puty,  swore  allegiance  to  Edward 
at  Newcaatle-on-Tyne.  Shortly  afterward,  be- 
ing called  upon  to  aid  Edward  ngautst  France, 
he  r^ionnced  his  allegiance,  made  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  declared  war.  Utterly  de- 
feated after  a  short  and  violent  struggle,  be 
was  obliged  to  cede  the  crown  of  Scotland  to 
the  English  king  in  12Bfl,  who  held  him  uid 
his  SOD  prisoners  in  London  till  12S9.  On  his 
release,  finding  himself  ostracized  by  public 
opinion  in  Scotland,  he  retired  to  his  ch^eau 
oiBwUeal  in  Normandy. .  His  father  and  moth- 
er were  the  founders  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford. 
II.  Eriwird,  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, died  at  Doncaster  in  1868.  The  king  of 
England  invited  him  over  ftom  Normandy  in 
1824  and  1827,  merely  to  threaten  Robert 
Bruoe.  In  1882  be  was  called  upon  by  tlie 
diq)08sessed  Anglo-Norman  barons  to  lead 
them  into  Scotland  to  recover  their  estates 
there.  He  entered  the  frith  of  Forth,  landed 
at  £inghom,  defeated  the  earl  of  Fife,  and 
with  8,000  men  marched  acroes  the  country  to 
meet  the  earl  of  Mar  encamped  on  the  oppodte 
side  of  the  river  Earn  with  a  force  of  80,000. 
A  second  Scottish  army  lay  within  a  few  miles 
of  Balliol's  fiank.  Vnring  the  night  the  invad' 
ing  foroe  croeaed  the  Earn,  and  with  slight 
loss  achieved  an  astonishing  victory  at  Dupplin 
Moor,  above  13,000  Scots,  inolnding  the  earls  of 
Mar  and  Uoray,  and  hundreds  of  knights  and 
barons,  falling  ia  the  battle.  At  Perth  Balliol 
defeated  the  second  army,  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  March.  The  disatfected  flocked  to 
Balliol's  standard,  and  he  was  crowned  king 
of  Scotland  at  Scone,  Sent  24,  only  seven 
weeks  after  his  landing  at  Kinghom.  Balliol, 
having  privately  rendered  homage  to  Edward 
III.,  lay  cardee^y  at  Annan,  where  he  was  in 
turn  surprised  by  the  earl  of  Moray,  brother 
of  the  one  slain  at  Dupplin,  and  barely  escaped 
to  England,  after  a  reign  of  three  months. 
Edward  III.  now  took  up  the  cause  of  BaUiol, 
whom  the  battle  of  Hajidon  Hill,  July  10, 1883, 
ag^n  placed  on  the  Scottish  throne.  The 
Bcots  were  so  weakened  by  this  defeat,  that 
he  might  have  retained  his  power  had  he  not 
been  too  obsequious  to  the  English  monarch. 
By  a  treaty  he  gave  up  Berwiok-npon-Tweed, 
and  surrendered  Berwickshire,  Roxbnrghshire, 
Peeblesshire,  Dumfriesshire,  and  the  Lothians. 
The  Scottish  nation  now  became  disgusted, 
and  turned  to  the  yonn^  king  David  Bruce ; 
and  after  1338  Balliol  mamtained  only  a  nomi- 
nal footing  in  Scotland,  being  most  of  the  tima 
a  refugee  in  Eo^and.    In  1866  Edward  III.  pnr- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BALLISTA 

ohued  hia  cslumi  on  tbe  Soottieii  throne  for 
5.000  marks,  imil  w  annait;-  of  £3,000,  uid 
Balliol  r«tired  to  Yorkshire.  He  left  no  ieane. 
ItUilOTA,  a  military  engine  of  the  Komans, 
nied  ID  the  liege  and  defence  of  fortified  plaoee. 
Neitlier  from  the  desoription  of  authora  nor 
from  anj  carved  or  painted  representation  ex- 
tant— aJthoogb  Trtuan's  column  preaenta  seve- 
ral apecimenB  of  these  machines — can  any  dis- 
tinct understanding  be  had  of  the  principle  or 
Srocesa  of  working  these  primitive  Bubstitntes 
>r  artillery.  They  wore  all  indnded  under 
one  geaeral  term  of  tornunttan,  which,  sa  ia 
shown  bj  its  root  tor^uere,  to  twist,  wonld 
Imply  that  the  propulsion  was  given  by  tneana 
of  the  tcmioD  of  ropea  or  fibres.  Yet  the 
use  of  the  term  is  not  deeisire,  since  torjtttre 
came  in  time  to  agnify  limply  to  hurl  a  mis- 
aile  by  any  means.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  method  of  its  operation,  the  ballista  was 
originally  an  engine  for  hnrling  stones  with 
a  parabolic  ascent,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
battlemenls  of  walls  and  the  roofii  of  bnild- 
litga  in  their  fall.  The  ordinary  baliista  threw 
stooea  of  three  variona  w^hCa,  according  to 
which  standard  the  power  of  the  engines  was 
rated,  as  our  eannon  are  by  their  calibre; 
these  were,  half  a  hundredweight,  a  handred' 
weight,  and  three  hundredweight — which  last 
^ipears  to  have  been  the  maximum.  Josephns 
}  ballistn,  the  destmotive  power  of 


the  distaooe  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Vitruviua  ^ 
also  meotjons  smaller  ballistn,  which  threw 
atones  not  exceeding  two  pounds  in  weight,  | 
and  which  seem  to  have  been  used  as  field  ar-  | 
tillery,  and  to  have  been  plied  from  the  rear,  i 
over  the  heads  of  the  front  ranks,  into  the 
enemy'a  linesi^ln  the  middle  ages,  ballista 
wa*  ue  term  applied  to  the  orosabow,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  of  England  there  was  an 
oCBcer  named  ballUlarita,  the  keeper  of  the 
crossbows,  whose  pay  was  a  shilling  a  day,  and 
an  attiiiaUtr  ballutarum,  whose  daty  it  was 
to  provide  the  harness  and  accoutrements  of 
the  crossbowmen.  In  the  olaasica,  however, 
the  eatapidla,  not  the  ballista,  la  the  large 
wall-croesl>ow,  used  in  the  place  of  cannon. 

BiUiOOK.    See  ASsoNAirnoB. 

UU.OT  (Gr.  jMUctv,  to  throw),  originally  a 
little  ball  caat  into  a  box  aa  a  mode  of  deciding 
anything;  now  more  usually  applied  to  snf- 
fn^e  by  written  or  printed  ticket,  in  distino- 
tion  from  viva  taee  annoonoemeat,  or  by  hold- 
ing Dp  the  hand,  or  other  visible  demonstration, 
In  Athens  it  was  the  common  mode  of  voting 
lathe  MiemMies  of  the  people,  and  in  the  courts, 
at  first  by  cMting  pebbles  into  boxes,  and  after- 
ward beans,  white  for  the  afflrmative  and  black 
for  ijte  aegt^ve.  If  this  mode  of  voting  had 
secrecy  speoially  in  view,  it  acctmipliBhed  it 
bat  imperfactlir.  The  asaemblies  and  courts 
were  held  in  the  daytime  in  public  plaoee,  and 
the  Tot«n  were  separated  from  the  p^nlar 
only  by  a  cordon  of  ropes.     When, 


BALLOT  246 

therefore,  the  voters  went  up  to  the  boxes  and 
deposited  their  ballots,  it  was  possible  to  know 
how  they  voted.  Complete  secrecy  might 
have  been  designed  in  the  court  of  the  Areop- 
agus, which  made  its  decisjons  at  night,  and 
without  the  presence  of  an  audience.  Ostra- 
cism, which  was  a  vote  of  the  people  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  a  citjsen  for  a  fixed  number  of  years, 
was  done  by  writing  the  name  of  the  obnoi- 
ions  party  on  a  shell.  It  appears  that  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people  at  Athens  in  a  legislative 
capacity  passed  or  rejected  a  law  prooisely  aa  it 
was  proposed,  without  amendment,  as  in  mod- 
ern times  in  France  and  in  some  of  our  own 
states  a  proposed  measure  has  sometimes  been 
■nhnittea  to  the  people  for  their  approval 
or  rijeotton. — At  Rome  secret  voting  by  bal- 
lots or  tioketa  was  employed,  the  valoo  of 
which  was  Bometimea  demonatrated  by  a  re- 
snlt  different  tram  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  popular  opinion  aa  openly  ex- 
pressed. Oieero,  who  did  not  favor  the  ballot, 
because  of  its  tendency  to  diminish  the  power 
of  the  patricians,  nevertheless  admits  that  not- 
witfaatanding  the  laws  had  been  prostrated, 
yet  sometimes  they  wonld  reappear  in  the 
silent  snfirages  of  the  people  ("juaieii*  taeitit 
aut  oeeulti*  d»  htmere  »tf^raffiU").  Pliny  ob- 
jeat«dta  the  ballot  (taeita  tuffragia),  as  afford- 
ing a  screen  to  oormption ;  but  Gibbon  attests 
its  valne, — In  modem  times  the  ballot  has  been 
sometimes  demanded  for  legislative  bodies,  bnt 
not  often  conceded,  the  prevailing  view  being 
that  the  action  of  sacfa  bodies  onght  as  far  as 
possible  to  be  open  to  tiie  observation  and  orit- 
idera  of  their  constituents.  It  was  in  use  in 
the  Venetian  senate,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  was  once  adopted  in  Scotland  for  a 
abort  time.  In  many  English  corporate  bodies, 
manicnpalas.well  as  private,  the  ballot  has  long 
been  in  use;  and  perhi^  it  was  in  imitation 
of  their  elections,  rather  than  from  any  settled 
oonviotion.  of  its  importance  to  a  free  electioii 
by  the  people,  that  it  came  to  be  employed 
in  the  Sew  England  colonies.  Once  planted 
there,  it  has  never  been  abandoned,  bnt  on  the 
contrary  the  systera  of  open  voting  which  was 
established  in  some  of  the  more  southern  colo- 
nies hsa  grsdnally  given  way  to  it.  The  ballot 
in  the  United  States  is  a  written  or  printed 
ticket  having  upon  it  tiie  names  of  the  persons 
fur  whom  the  elector  deeirea  to  vote  for  the 
several  offices  to  be  filled  at  that  election,  with 
the  proper  desiniation  of  the  office  for  which 
each  ia  named.  This  in  nxao  states  is  so  folded 
as  to  conceal  the  written  or  printed  matter, 
and  delivered  to  an  inspector,  who  immedi- 
ately deposits  it  in  a  sealed  box,  where  it  re- 
mains until  the  polls  are  closed,  when  a  pnbllc 
cavassing  of  the  ballots  by  the  inspectors  be- 
gins. In  thia  mode  complete  secrecy  is  Bought 
to  be  attained,  and  the  courts  have  ruled  that 
the  elector  cannot  be  compelled  afterward  in 
judicial  proceedings  to  disoloae  how  he  voted. 
It  being  found  that  political  managers  some- 
times reeorted  to  tioketa  of  a  peculiar  color,  or 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


346 


BALLOO 


with  marks  on  the  back,  in  order  that  thej 
might  be  able  to  determine  and  mark  those 
who  voted  aguDst  them,  the  law  in  aome  states 
has  forbidden  the  nae  of  an;  otherthon  bsUota 
on  plain  wbit«  paper.  The  secret  ballot  has 
also  been  in  nse  in  France,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  Greece.  It  is  also  now  employed  in  the 
Australian  colonies.  The  methods  in  ose  there 
are  not  uniform :  in  some  the  voter  receives  a 
ticket  with  the  names  of  all  the  candidates 
upon  it,  iVom  which  he  strikes  off  those  he 
does  not  desire  to  vote  for,  and  then  deposits  it 
in  B  box ;  in  others,  he  designates  his  preference 
bv  making  a  mark  opposite  the  names  of  his 
ohosen  candidates,  A  system  somewhat  Te- 
sembling  ballot  voting  prevails  in  other  coun< 
triee,  bat  locking  the  distinctive  element  of 
■ecreoy,  and  therefore  not  classed  nnder  tliis 
head.  In  German  states  the  voting  is  by  writ- 
ten or  printed  ticket  delivered  publioly  to  the 
otBcer,  who  reads  off  and  records  the  vote  im- 
mediately, and  with  as  much  publicity  as  if  it 
had  been  given  woo  voe». — In  England  the  bal- 
lot  was  proposed  and  received  considerable 
support  in  the  Ix^nning  of  the  I8th  centary, 
bat  it  was  not  til!  1690  tJiat  it  became  the  sab- 
Ject  of  mnoh  disonssion.  In  that  year  O'Con- 
sell  proposed  it  in  the  house  of  commons,  and 
it  received  21  votes.  Mr.  Qrote  for  several 
years  afterward  was  ita  most  conspicnons  sup- 
porter, but  it  hod  the  approval  of  Uacaolay, 
Oobden,  and  at  length  Brougham,  among  others 
less  noted.  It  was  finally  adopted  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Gladstone  ministry  in  1S73, 
with  elaborate  regulaCJons  to  aecare  secrecy. 

BAUXHI.  L  Hfset,  an  American  clergyman, 
bom  at  Richmond,  U.  H.,  April  80,  1771, 
died  in  Boston,  Jane  7,  1852.  He  was  the  eon 
of  a  Baptist  clergyman,  who  waa  conscientiously 
opposed  to  receiving  any  remuneration  for  his 
professional  serrices ;  and  consequently  he  had 
so  few  advantages  of  education,  that  in  learn- 
ing to  write  he  was  obliged  to  nse  birch  bark 
instead  of  paper,  and  charcoal  instead  of  pen 
and  ink.  At  the  age  of  19  he  joined  the  Bap- 
tist chnrcfa  under  his  father's  care ;  but  having 
declared  his  belief  in  tbe  final  salvation  of  all 
men,  he  was  excommunicated.  He  began  to 
preach  at  the  age  of  21,  and  in  1T94  was  settled 
at  Dana,  Mass.  In  1801  he  removed  to  Bar- 
nard, Vt.,  where  in  1804  he  wrote  his  "  Notes 
on  tbe  Parables  "  and  "  Treatise  on  the  Atone- 
ment." In  1807  he  became  pastor  of  the  Uai- 
versalist  church  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1816 
removed  to  Balem,  Mass.,  and  in  1817  to  Bos- 
ton, where  he  became  pastor  of  the  second 
TJniversalist  church,  in  which  relation  he  eon- 
tinned  for  SG  years.  In  1319  he  commenced 
the  "  TJniversalist  Magazine,"  which  be  con- 
dacted  alone  for  several  years,  and  afterward 
in  coiyunction  with  the  Rev.  Thomas  Whit- 
temore.  In  1831,  wded  by  his  grand-nephew, 
Hosea  Ballon,  he  commenced  the  "  Univeraalist 
Expositor,"  a  quarterly  publication,  to  which 
be  oontinned  to  contribute  nntil  his  death. 
Among  his   published   works,  besides  those 


BALLYMEKA 

mentioned,  are  S6  "Lecture  Sermons,"  SO  "Se- 
lect Bermona,"  on  "Examination  of  the  Doe- 
trine  of  Future  Retribution  "  (1646),  and  a  vol- 
nme  of  poems,  mostly  hymns,  many  of  whicli 
are  embodied  in  the  "  Cniversolist  Collection," 
edited  by  Adams  and  Chapin.  He  preached 
more  than  10,000  sermons,  none  of  wbicb  were 
written  till  after  their  delivery.  Two  of  his  bro- 
thers, Bei^jomin  and  David,  also  became  Uni- 
verssiist  preachers.  Two  memoirs  of  him  have 
been  published,  one  by  his  son,  M.  M.  Ballon, 
the  other  by  Thomas  Whittemore  (18B4).  II. 
Hhm,  a  Universalist  clergyman,  grand-nephew 
of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Oct.  18, 
1T96,  died  at  Bomerville,  Mass.,  May  27,  1801. 
In  1816  he  became  pastor  at  Stafford,  Conn., 
and  subsequently  at  Roxbury  and  Medford, 
Moss.  In  1663  he  was  elected  president  of 
Tufts  college,  Bomerville,  Mass.,  and  after  vis- 
iting Europe  for  the  pnrpose  of  studying  the 
systems  of  collegiate  education,  he  entered  upon 
the  dnties  of  the  college  in  1806.  In  1822  he 
hod  become  one  of  the  editors  of  tbe  "  TJniver- 
salist Mugarine,"  now  published  under  tbe 
name  of  "The  Tmmpet,"  and  in  1882  in  con- 
junction with  his  uncle,  he  establiahed  tbe 
"Universalist  Expositor,"  the  title  of  which 
was  snbseqnently  changed  to  the  "  Universalist 
Qnorterly."  He  wrote  "The  Ancient  History 
of  Universalism"  (182S;  2d  ed.,  1843);  edited 
Sismondi's  "History  of  the  Omsades"  (1888): 
and  published  a  "Collection  of  Psalms  and 
Hymns  for  the  Use  of  Universalist  Societies 
and  Families  "  (1837).  Ul.  Matuln  Huray,  son 
of  Hosea  Ballou,  of  Boston,  bom  in  Boflbm 
in  1622.  He  bos  edited  literary  journals  en- 
titled "Ballon's  Pictorial  "and  "The  Flag  of 
Our  Union,"  and  written  a  "  History  of  Cuba  " 
(18G4),  "  Biogrsnhy  of  the  Rev.  Hosea  Ballon," 
"Life  Story  of  Hosea  Ballon,"  and  "A  Treas- 
ury of  Thought ;  an  Encyclopffidia  of  Quota- 
tions "  (1872).  In  1872  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  and  chief  editor  of  the  "  Boston 
Globe,"  a  quarto  dally  journal.  ]T>  Mmm, 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  HoDroe,Maa8., 
in  1811.  He  is  author  of  a  "Memorial  of  San- 
ford  "  and  the  "  Divine  Character  Vindicated," 
and  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Univer- 
salist Quarterly." 

BAU^rOH  8P1,  a  post  village,  the  capital  of 
Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  situated  in  a  valley  on 
a  branch  of  the  Eayaderoseerae  creek,  7  m.  8. 
W.  of  Saratoga  Springs;  pop.  in  1870,  2,970. 
Its  mineral  springs  were  once  extenuvely  fi-e- 
quented,  but  bave  declined  in  popular  estima- 
tion. It  has  a  court  house,  bank,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  several  churches.  The  Sara- 
toga and  Schenectady  and  Rensselaer  and  Sara- 
toga rulroads  pass  through  the  place. 

BAIXTHEKI,  a  market  town  of  Ulster,  Ire- 
land, in  county  Antrim,  on  the  river  Brud,  28 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Belfast;  .pop.  in  1871,  «,788. 
It  is  largely  engaged  in  the  hnen  mann&ctnre, 
and  has  weekly  markets  for  tbe  sale  of  linens, 
grtUD,  and  provisions.  The  Belfast  and  North- 
ern Counties  rulway  passes  through  it. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BALM  OF  GILEAD 

BILM  OF  GILEiD,  n  plant  of  the  genns  amy- 
ru,  the  baltamodendron  Oileademe  of  De  Gan- 
ilolle.     Its  leaves  jield  when  bruiBed  a  BtronK 
aromatjc  scent    From  this  plant  la  obtainea 
the  balm  of  Gilead  of  the  shops,  also  called  bal' 
sam  of  Mecca  or  of  Syria.     This  has  a  jellotviBh 
or  greeniah  color,  a  warm  and  somewhat  bit- 
ter aromatic  taste,  and  a  fragrant  Emell.     It  is 
valued  as  an  odoriferous  ointment  or  cosmetic 
bj  the  Turks,  who  often  adulterate  it  for  the 
toorket     The  amyris  is  a  low  tree  or  shrub, 
growing  in  several  parts  of  Abfssima  and  Syria. 
It  has  spreading,  crooked  branches,  small  bright 
greea  leaves  growing  in  tlireas,  and  small  white 
lowers  on  separate  footstalks.    The  petals  are 
four  in  nnmber,  and  the  fruit  is  a  small  e^- 
ahaped  berry,  containing  a  smooth  nut.    To 
obtain  the  juice,  the  bark  uf  the  tree  is  cut  at 
the  time  when  its  sap  is  in  ita  strongest  period 
of  circalation.     As  the  juices  ooie  through  the 
wound  they  are  received  into  small  earthen 
bottles,   every  dav's    produce   being   poured 
into  larger   bottles 
and  corked.    When 
freali,  the  smell  of 
the  balsam  is   ex- 
qniately    fragrant, 
but  if  left  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere 
it  iosea  this  quality. 
The  quantity  of  bij- 
sam  yielded  by  one 
tree  is  said  never  to 
exceed  60  drops  in 
a  day.    It  is  there- 
fore   very    acarce, 
and  can  with  difll- 
cultj  be  procured 
in  a  pure  and  un- 
adulterated    state, 
even  at  Constanti- 
uople.    Its  stimula- 

tingpropertiesnpon  3^  ^  q„^ 

the  skm  are  such 

that  the  f^ce  of  a  person  nnaccostomed  to  use 
it  becomes  red  and  swollen  after  its  application, 
and  contjnues  so  for  several  days.  The  Turks 
nse  it  as  a  cosmetic,  and  also  take  it  intemalty, 
in  minute  dosea,  in  water,  to  stimulate  the 
stomach.  It  seems  to  have  been  as  highly 
esteemed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Syria 
as  it  ia  by  the  modem  Turks  and  Arabs.  Jo- 
sephns  states  that  the  balm  of  Gilead  was  one 
of  the  trees  given  by  the  queen  of  Sheba  to 
King  Solomon. — The  abU*  baUamea,  which 
furnishes  Canada  balsam,  and  tha  popjiluji  bal- 
tamifera,  var,  candieatu,  the  buds  of  wliich 
are  covered  with  a  resinous  vamish,  are  both 
sometimes  known  as  balm  of  Gilead  trees. 

BiLHES,  Jatae  Lad*,  a  Spanish  theologian 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Yich,  Catalonia,  Aug. 
23,  1810,  died  there,  July  9,  1848.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1832,  and  was  for  a  time  professor  at 
the  university  of  Cervera.  He  resisted  the 
movements  of  the  reTolutionary  party  in  Spun, 
tiioiigb   he  sympathized  with  liberal  iustitu- 


BALSAM 


247 


tions.  In  his  opinion,  the  hope  of  the  future 
lay  in  the  union  between  Catholicity  and  po- 
litical liberty,  liis  principal  works  are:  El 
Proteitantiamo  comparado  eon  el  Catolicitmo 
en  *u»  Ttlacumei  con  la  civUizaeioit  tuTopea  (4 
vols.,  Barcelona,  ie42-'4),  which  paased  through 
several  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into 
English  and  other  languages;  El  etiterio 
(Madrid,  1845;  French  and  German  transla- 
tions, 1850-'62);  and  Filoiofia  fundamfntal 
(4  vols.,  Barcelona,  1816;  French  translation, 
8  vols.,  1862 ;  English  version  by  Henry  P. 
BrownsoD,  2  vols.,  New  York,  18B7).  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  political  writings  appeared 
m  184T,  and  biographies  of  Balmes  have  been 
pubhshed  in  Spanish,  French,  and  German. 

BlLinBiL,  a  summer  residence  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  the  Scottish  highlands,  parish  of 
Crathie,  Aberdeenshire,  on  tlie  right  bank  of 
the  Dee,  44  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Aberdeen.  The 
castle  stands  on  a  natural  platform,  at  the  foot 
of  Craig- an -go  wan,  about  BOO  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  estate  was  leased  in  1848  and  purchased  in 
18112  by  Prince  Albert.  It  comprises  an  area 
(rfover  100,000  acres,  including  1,000  acres  of 
woodland,  and  a  deer  park  of  80,000  acres. 
The  scenery  is  highly  romantic,  and  the  neigh- 
boring country  is  famous  for  its  deer  stalking, 
grouse  shooting,  and  lake  and  river  fisliing. 
Neor  the  Ben-a-bourd,  one  of  the  moat  pictu- 
resque mountains,  is  the  monument  to  Prince 
Albert  erected  by  the  queen  in  1868. 

BlUMViS,  Henry,  a  Scotch  Protestant  re- 
former, bom  at  Kirkcaldy,  FLfeshire,  in  1620, 
died  in  Edinburgh  in  157fl.  He  stuped  in 
Scotland  and  Germany.  His  open  profession 
in  1542  of  the  Protestant  faith  caused  his  dis- 
missal from  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  after 
which  he  joined  the  En^ish  and  was  imprisoned 
in  Blackness  castle  till  1G41.  He  was  implica- 
ted in  the  conspiracy  resnltiug  in  the  murder 
of  Cardinal  Beaton,  declared  a  traitor,  and  ex- 
communicated. At  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews  he  was  captured,  and  confined  with 
Knox  and  others  in  the  costie  of  Rouen,  France, 
wherehe  wrote  a  treatise  on  justification,  which 
was  annotated  by  Knox  and  published  in  Ed- 
inburgh in  1664,  nnder  the  title  of  "Confes- 
sion of  Faith."  On  his  release  in  1650,  he  par- 
ticipated in  tlie  contest  against  Mary,  became 
one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  of  Berwick, 
was  reappointed  to  the  bench  in  156S,  and  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  revision  of  the 
Book  of  Discipline.  Subsequently  he,  Buchan- 
an, and  others  were  counsellors  of  Murray  in 
the  case  of  Mary  Stuart. 

BllSAM,  in  botany,  a  class  of  plants  forming 
the  genus  impativn*,  of  the  natural  order  ge- 
raniaeat.  It  has  186  species,  moat  of  which 
are  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  China,  but 
some  have  long  been  known  in  European  gar- 
dens. The  generic  characteristics  of  the  balsams 
are  a  succulent  stem  filled  with  a  watery  juice, 
simple  leaves  growing  without  stipules,  irregu- 
lar tlowers  with  one  of  the  petals  spurred,  five 
stamens,  distinct  stigmas,  and  a  capsule  with 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


fire  valves,  and  remarkable  for  lfa«  elastdo  force 
witli  which  it  burets  and  expels  the  Beeds. 


GudsD  Bilum. 

The  /.  horteruii,  babaniine,  or  garden  balsam, 
a  beaotiful  and  popular  annual,  sometimeB 
improperly  called  lady's  slipper,  with  finely 
variegated  white,  pink,  red,  porple,  and  lilac 
flowers,  is  the  best  known  member  of  tiiis 
genus.  This  lovea  a.  moiat  rich  soil,  and  is 
raised  best  from  the  seed  in  a  moderate  hot~ 
bed.  The  jaice  of  some  of  the  species  of  impa- 
Uem,  mixed  with  alam,  is  nsed  by  the  Japa- 
nese to  dye  their  finger  nails  redl 

BlUiMSi  By  the  French  chemists  this  word 
is  applied  only  to  tho»e  reanous  vegetable 
Jnicea  which  contain  benzoic  acid ;  and  of  these 
there  are  but  six,  namely,  the  balsam  of  Pern, 
tbe  balaam  of  Tola,  dragon's  blood,  benzoio, 
storax,  and  liqnidambar.  But  by  the  Germans 
and  English  the  term  is  not  thus  limited  in  its 
mgnifioation,  being  applied  to  all  resins  obtained 
ttoni  trees  and  shrubs,  aa  also  to  some  pharma' 
oentical  preparations,  dividing  them  into  two 
classes — one  containing  benzoic  acid,  and  the 
otber  not.  The  former  class,  consisting  of  the 
nx  named,  are  aromatic,  reunons  SDlwtances, 
composed  of  resin,  benzoic  acid,  and  a  volatile 
oil,  the  last,  according  to  the  quantity  pres- 
«it,  tending  to  give  liqnidity  to  the  substance. 
They  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  water  b^g 
added  resin  is  precipitated,  making  tbe  flnid 
milky.  In  ethertheyare  only  partially  soluble, 
and  not  at  all  in  water.  The  peculiar  sn^l  of 
thebalsams  is  lost  by  exposure  to  tbe  air.  Their 
taste  is  described  as  hot  and  acrid.  The  plants 
which  famish  them  belong  to  the  orders  ityra- 
eea,  UguminMa,  and  baUamaeea.  The  second 
classof  balsams  are  tbe  semi-liquid  and  resinous 
juices  composed  only  of  resin  and  a  volatile 
oil,  and  obtained  mostly  fVom  plants  of  the 
orders  Mn%ferm,  tetehinthaeea,  and  Itgaminoia. 
The  tarpentinea,  and  Canada,  copaiba,  and 
Mecca  balsams  belong  to  this  class.  They  do 
not  diffw  essentially  in  their  properties  ftvm 


the  other  balsams.  The  nse  of  balsaros  ts  prin- 
cipally in  medicine,  hut  they  also  enter  into 
the  composition  of  varnishes,  and  are  employed 
for  some  other  purposes,  which  wiil  Ite  men- 
tioned in  the  description  of  each  one.  Ben- 
zoin and  turpentine  will  be  treated  of  under 
their  own  titles. — A  full  history  and  descrip- 


(English) ;  and  an  able  paper,  made  np  from 

this,  is  published  hy  Dr.  Muspratt  in  his  work 

chemistry,  with  which  will  be  fonnd  draw- 


ings and  botanical  descriptions  of  the  plants 
producing  the  balsams.  So  much  error  and 
uncertainty  has  prevailed  in  tbe  accounts  of 
tbb  sabstonce,  that  very  elaborate  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  by  Dr.  Pereira  and  othera 
to  define  ite  true  character,  and  that  of  the 

Elants  producing  it.  There  appear  to  be  two 
alsams  in  Peru,  one  called  the  white  balsam, 
and  the  other  the  black,  which  is  the  real  bal- 
sam of  Peru  of  commerce.  Both  are  obtained 
from  the  myTospermum  pube»ceiu  of  De  Oan- 
dolle,  the  one  from  tbe  fruit  by  pressure,  and 
the  other  by  iuoiwon  from  the  stem ;  and  both 
are  procured  exclusively  "from  the  so-called 
Balsam  Coast  in  Central  America,"  the  Pacifio 


B«lsMB  of  Pen  (Uynxpermam  polMsmiu), 

coast  of  San  Salvador,  between  lat.  13°  and  14' 
N.  Sonsonate  appears  to  be  the  most  impor- 
tant district  for  the  production  of  the  balsam; 
and  the  tree  which  there  yields  it  is  posinbly  a 
different  snecies  from  the  myTotptrmwH  pube»- 
emu,  and  naa  been  temporarily  called  by  Dr. 
Pereira  the  myrotpermtiin  of  Sonsonate.  Black 
balsam  eindea  from  incisions  in  the  trunk  of 
this  tree,  and  is  said  to  be  an  admirable  remedy 
for  effecting  the  speedy  cure  of  wounds.  Spirit 
of  balsam  is  made  Irom  the  fiowera,  <nl  of 
balsam,  an  excellent  anodyne,  from  U>e  seeds 
and  nuts,  and  white  balsam  from  tbe  capsules. 
The  tincture  or  essence  of  balsam,  called  ial- 
aamilo,  is  extracted  from  these.  The  methods 
practised  hy  the  Indiana  of  preparing  the  white 


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and  black  balBomB  are  ver;  differetitl;  deMiibed 
hj  d'iffereDt  aathorities,  and  these  descriptions 
are  given  in  the  paper  referred  to.  I'he  black 
balaam  ia  a  eirnp  of  the  conaist«iicj  of  hone;', 
o!  a  deep  red-bronn  color,  translacent,  of  a 
strong  smell,  and  an  intolerably  acrid  bitter 
twte.  Owing  to  its  high  price  it  U  found  profit- 
able to  adulterate  it,  and  this  ia  done  witJi 
olive  oil,  oil  of  tarpentine,  and  copaiba.  It  is 
tested  by  mixing  a  few  drops  rf  it  with  twice  as 
many  of  concentrated  solphuriu  acid,  and  then 
adding  water;  if  pure,  a  little  resin  is  obtained. 
Copaiba  may  be  detected  by  the  amell.  When 
pure,  },000  parts  of  balsam  will,  by  tlio  benEoio 
add  it  contains,  saturate  76  parts  of  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda.  The  composition  of  the 
balsam,  according  to  Stolze,  is  as  follows : 


BnrwB,  g1l)tb(lT  ulnbU  re 


.    f-W  percrat 


This  balsam  is  used  in  perfumery,  in  ihe  man- 
Dfactare  of  sealing  wax,  lozenges,  tinctures, 
pranatiimB,  and  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla  in 
uqaeurs,  chwjolaW,  &o. — Balsam  of  Tolu  ig 
obt^ed  in  New  Granada,  South  America,  in 
the  region  of  Tola  and  Turbaco,  a  few  miles 
S.  of  Cartcgena,  and  also  along  the  Magdalena 
river.  The  tree  which  proiiaces  it  is  the 
mf/roipermfim  tolviferum.  The  balsam  differs 
very  httle  from  that  of  Peru,  only  it  becomes 
leMnified  more  easily.  Their  chemical  oompo- 
NtioD  ia  the  aame.  When  fresh  it  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  soft  like  turpentine,  but  gradually 
becomes  harder.  It  has  an  agreeable  odor  like 
benzoin,  and  a  sweetisli  taste.     It  is  often 


BilBm   ot  Tain    (UjTMpeni 


adulterated  with  reain,  which  may  be  detected 
by  the  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  are  set 
tne  when  sulpboric  acid  ia  poured  upon  it  and 


AMS  349 

the  ndztnra  heated.  If  no  resin  is  present, 
the  odor  oi  benzoic  and  cinnsmio  acid  is  per- 
ceived.— Dragon's  blood  is  the  product  of  an 
East  India  tree,  called  the  ealamv»  draco,  and 
ia  also  obtained  in  Africa  and  South  America 
from  a  nnmber  of  other  treea.  It  ia  prepared 
in  the  form  of  drops  and  small  balls  of  a  dark 
red  color,  and  is  also  put  up  in  sticks  and  ir- 
regolar- shaped  cakes.  Its  use  is  for  coloring 
varmahea,  atuning  marble,  preparing  gold  lao- 
quer,  and  for  tooth  powdera  and  waahes.  It 
was  formerly  need  in  medicine  as  an  astringent, 
but  is  now  regarded  as  inert. — Btorax  is  rarely 
met  with  unadulterated  with  foreign  matters; 
a^d  the  various  mixtures  sold  by  tbia  name 
have  caused  uncertainty  as  to  its  real  charao- 
ter.  It  ia  often  confounded  with  liquidambar, 
but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  ita  peculiar 
vanilla-like  odor,  which,  as  well  as  the  ityrav 
family  of  plants,  fWim  which  it  ia  procured, 
connect  it  more  closely  with  benzom.  The 
species  of  the  tree  ia  the  offieiTtalu;  it  grows 


in  Asialio  Turkey,  and  the  shipments  of  this 

balsam  are  from  Trieste.  It  is  of  liquid  con- 
sistency, and  of  gray,  brown,  or  black  color, 
according  to  its  purity.  Jta  uses  are  in  medi- 
cine as  an  expectorant,  and  as  an  ingredient  in 
ointment. — Liquidambar  ia  the  resmous  pro- 
duct of  the  common  sweet  gum  tree  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  only,  however,  in  the 
warm  latitudes  of  Mexico  and  Lonisianathat 
this  tree  yields  its  balsam.  This  la  of  thin  con- 
sistence, yellowish  oolor,  agreeable  smell,  and 
acrid  taste.  It  becomes  thicker,  of  darker  col- 
or, and  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  benzoic 
acid,  as  it  increases  in  ^e.  It  may  be  astd 
for  the  same  purposes  as  storax,  but  is  more 
highly  esteemed  and  better  known  in  Europe 
than  in  this  country. — The  Chinese  lac,  or 
varnish,  is  described  by  Dr.  Ure  as  a  balsam 
of  the  benzole  acid  class,  and  derived  from  the 
bark  of  the  auffia  tintati*. — The  Canada  bal- 
aam is  the  gam  that  exudea  from  the  balsam 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


250  BALSAMS 

fir,  (Aia  baliatnea,  of  the  nortbem  statoB.  It 
is  collected  bj  breaking  tbe  veaiclee  which  form 
OD  tbe  trunk  and  branches,  and  receiving  their 
contents  in  a  bottle.  Its  color  ia  whitish,  slight- 
ly yellow,  and  ita  odor  like  that  of  the  turpen- 
tines.    Its  analysis  is  thaa  given  by  Bonastre : 

EiunOdolL 18-B  paroeiH. 


It  is  naed  in  the  preparation  and  preservation 
of  objects  for  the  microscope,  and  in  a  few  on- 
important  medicinal  compoonds. — The  copaiba 
balsam  is  obtained  from  the  eopaifera  <0ki- 
nalU,  a  tree  of  Brazil  and  Ouiano.     It  u  of 


BalMm  CDiMflM  (CotaUhm  DiBelull*). 

yellowish  color,  aemi-lii^uid  consistency,  a  hit- 
ter sharp  taste,  and  a  disagreeable  snlfocatinK 
smell.  It  will  dissolve  one  fonrth  its  weight  of 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  andcontinnetraDsluceDt. 
With  alkalis  it  gives  cryatalllne  compouoda. 
It  contains  an  oU  that  dissolves  caoutchouc. 
Its  oomposi^n,  according  tA  Durand,  is: 

VoliUlaoll SSW  perceDt. 

COpHltHIKU 1*16 

Bnin»nniln l-« 

WMWMd  lOM. T-W 


Its  ose  is  principally  in  medicine,  for  altering 
the  secretions  of  the  mucous  membranes  by 
which  it  iseioreted,  namely,  those  lining  the  re- 
spiratory and  urinary  organs.  The  resin  is  said 
to  be  more  active  therapeutically  than  the  oil. 
It  is  also  used  for  liqueurs,  and  for  making  pa- 
per transparent.  It  is  often  largely  adulterated 
with  castor  oil  and  with  turpentine.— Mecca 
balsam,  called  e^so  opobalsam,  is  the  product 
of  the  baltamodtndron  GiUadeiue  of  the  East. 
Its  properties  are  similar  to  those  of  balsam  of 
oopiuba  and  liquid  turpentines.     (See  Balm  cv 

GiLUD.) 


BALTARD 

SlLTl  (formerly  Jogefo^rod),  a  town  of  Rns- 
wa,  capita]  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
government  of  Podolia,  on  the  Eodyma,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  sonthem  Bug,  160  m.  B.  Kof  Kame- 
netz;  pop.  in  1867,  14,528.  Its  suburb  on  the 
6.  side  of  the  river,  now  in  the  government  of 
Kherson,  formerly  belonged  to  Turkey,  while 
the  chief  part  of  the  town  was  in  Poland.  It 
has  three  Greek  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic 
church,  a  synagogue,  two  schools,  and  facto- 
ries of  candles,  soap,  and  tallow.  It  carries 
on  a  brisk  trade,  principally  in  manufactured 
articles,  homed  cattle,  horses,  hides,  wool,  and 
cereals.  Two  fairs  are  annnally  held  here. 
In  1790  the  greater  part  of  the  place  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians. 

BALTIOCBUI.  I.  Mmto,  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Barielta,  April  27,  1800.  He  was  for 
some  time  a  Journalist,  and  has  pnblisbed 
La  giojetta,  Ctaudio  Vannini  (Naples,  1836), 
Ugone  di  Cortona  (18S8),  and  other  poetry,  and 
made  translations  from  Byron  and  Shelley. 
In  1848  he  was  one  of  the  chief  editors  of  a 
scientific  and  literary  periodical  and  of  a  polit- 
ical journal,  and  afterward  he  was  for  a  time 
Srominent  in  politics  at  Naples,  and  presi- 
ent  of  tbe  committee  of  public  instruction. 
IL  ntbele,  an  Italian  historian  and  noveliat, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Naples,  Feb. 
11,  1803.  His  NoMUtU  morali  (182ii)  and 
Ittoria  di  ilatanieUo  (1831)  have  passed 
through  many  editions.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  a  historical  romance  and  of  disqnisitions  on 
tbe  life  and  writings  of  Campanella  (1840-'48), 
and  on  the  philosophy  of  Kant  (1854). 

BtLTi  LIMAN  (anc  PMdalia,  or  Portm  Mv- 
lUrum),  a  bay  and  port  on  Uio  European  side 
<rftJie  Bosporus,  in  laL  41°  W  N.  and  Ion.  89" 
8'  E.,  between  Rumili  Hissar  and  Therapi^ 
It  was  formerly  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  the 
Turkish  Heets.  A  convention  was  concluded 
here  May  1,  1849,  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  Russia  sbonld 
have  for  seven  years  an  equal  riglit  with  Tur- 
key to  interfere  in  the  aflairs  of  the  Danubian 
principalities,  and  keep  there  10,000  men  as  an 
army  of  occupation. 

BALTiKD.  I.  LMdi  Ftem,  a  French  architect 
and  engraver,  bom  in  Paris,  Jnly  9,  17t!5,  died 
Jan.  22,  1846.  Ho  was  architect  of  the  Pan- 
theon and  of  the  Paris  prisons,  and  execnted 
the  obapels  of  the  houses  of  detention  of  St. 
Lazare  and  Ste.  Pilagie,  the  greater  partof  the 
hall  of  justice  in  Lyons,  and  other  remarkable 
buildings ;  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  pub- 
lic works,  and  in  1818  became  professor  at  the 
academy  of  fine  arte.  He  left  many  superb 
works  descriptive  of  monuments  and  illnstra- 
Md  by  his  own  plotea;  published  the  "Athe- 
nfeum,"  a  journal  of  art;  and  excelled  in  the 
engraving  of  historical  and  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects. II,  \ifi»t,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom 
in  Psris,  June  19,  1605.  Ho  .studied  under 
his  father  and  in  Italy,  became  arcliitect  of 
the  government  and  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and 
chief  superintendent  in  the  academy  of  fiiia 


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BALTIO  SEA 


361 


arts.  He  directed  manj  oonrt  festivals,  re- 
Btored  some  of  the  principal  ohnrchea  of  Paris, 
bnilt  the  chorch  of  St.  Augustine,  which  was 
opened  is  1868,  and  was  the  arcbiteat  of  the 
central  halls  in  Paris.  He  has  continued  the 
pnblication  of  the  Grandi  prix  d'amhiteeture, 
which  had  been  began  bj  his  father ;  prepared 
nnder  the  patronage  of  the  duke  do  Luynes 
the  plates  for  a  work  od  Norman  and  Swabian 
DionnmentB  in  Italv ;  and  published  the  text 
and  designs  of  the  Villa  MidieU  (184T-'8), 
and  cither  works.  One  of  his  earlier  prodno- 
tiona,  Le  ihiAtre  de  Pompii,  exoouted  in  Ital;  in 
1837,  gained  him  a  me&l  at  the  Paris  exposi- 
tion of  1856;  and  his  Projet  d«  rmtauration 
d»  Saint  Eiulaeht  was  greatly  admired  at  that 
<^  1859.  lie  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
eeademj  of  fine  arts  in  ISflS.  IIL  Pifsper, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Paris,  Koy, 
1,  17BS,  is  also  sn  excellent  architect,  and  bo- 
caioe  in  1660  ioBpeotor  of  the  new  Lonvre 
boildings.  IT.  Jihs,  a  third  brother,  bom  in 
Paria,  Jnne  3,  1807,  is  a  portrait  painter. 

BALTIC  SEl  (ano.  Pdaga*  Scj/thieitm  or  Mare 
Snnievm  ;  Ger.  OtUea,  eastern  sea),  an  inland 
sea  of  N.  Europe,  nearly  enclosed  by  Sweden, 
Russia,  Germany,  and  Denmark,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  Oattegat  and  the  North  sea  by 
the  Soimd  and  the  Great  and  Little  Belt.  Its 
extremes  of  latitude  are  Wismar,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, 63°  63'  N.,  and  Tornea,  on  the  gnlf  of 
Botbiua.  S6°  61'  N.  Its  greatest  length  be- 
tween these  points  is  900  m.  Its  widt£  varies 
from  200  to  TS  m.  Its  area,  including  the  gul& 
of  Bothnia,  Riga,  and  Finland,  is  estimated  at 
about  160,000  sq.  m.  This  is  exclusive  of  the 
Catt^at  and  the  Sksger  Rack,  for  which  a 

fortheradditionof  18,000  to  18,000  -     ' 

be  made. — ^The  direction  in  which 


the  i 


m.,  then  N.  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Stockholm, 
69*  21',  a  further  distance  of  200  m.  It  is  to 
these  portions  that  the  term  Baltic  sea  is  in  its 
limited  sense  reetrioted ;  fur  at  this  point  it 
Beparat«s  into  two  great  gulfs.  Of  these  the 
gulf  of  Finland  runs  nearly  due  E.  between 
Finland  and  Estbonia,  while  the  gulf  of  Both- 
nia runs  a  little  £.  of  N.  between  Finland  and 
Sweden.  The  gnlf  of  Finland  is  250  m.  long, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  SO  to  70  m.  That  of 
Bothnia  is  abont  4O0  m.  long,  with  120  m. 
of  average  width,  although  at  its  narrowest 
part  it  is  not  above  40  m.  wide.  Another  im- 
portant inlet  is  the  gnlf  of  Riga  or  Livonia, 
8.  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  extending  be- 
tween Livonia  and  Conrland,  70  m.  horn  E. 
to  W.,  and  about  90  m.  from  N.  to  S.— The 
Baltio  is  shallow.  The  great«st  depth,  be- 
tween Gothland  and  Windao,  was  found  in 
18T1  to  be  7^0  tt  At  a  depth  of  600  to  700 
ft.,  at  tho  latter  end  of  Joly,  the  tempera- 
tare  was  83°  to  SS'6''  F.  No  marine  plants 
were  foond  in  this  cold  area,  and  only  a  few  an~ 
nelida.  Life  was  very  abundant  to  the  depth 
of  about  300  ft.,  while  plants  were  seldom 


found  at  a  depth  of  more  than  SO  tL  Hie  en- 
trance to  the  sea  is  crowded  with  islands  and 
shoals,  and  as  the  Baltic  itself  has  no  regular 
tides,  the  varying  currents,  depending  npon 
prevailing  winds  and  changing  temperature, 
add  to  the  difilcultiea  of  the  navigator.  The 
western  portions  of  the  sea  have  a  depth  of 
not  more  than  16  fathoms.  Toward  the  east 
it  deepens,  and  midway  between  Memel  and 
Oelana  there  is  found  from  60  to  100  fathoms 
water.  The  gnlf  of  Finland  suddenb-  shoals 
fW)m50  to  from  4  to  IS  fathoms.  The  gulf 
of  BolJmia  has  no  greater  average  depth,  bat 
its  navigation  is  less  obstructed  by  shoals  and 
sand  banks. — The  basin  of  the  Baltic  is  difficult 
to  determine  accurately,  as,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  mountains  of  Sweden  and  Norwaj 
on  the  north  and  northwest,  all  its  other  bor< 
ders  stretch  away  in  vast  plains,  oocnpying  a 
large  part  of  Enrope.  This  great  district  is 
exceedingly  well  watered ;  upward  of  200 
rivers  flow  into  the  Baltic ;  the  lakes  in  it« 
neighborhood,  with  many  of  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  rivers,  are  almost  innnmerable ;  and 
altogether  this  sea  receivee  the  drainage  of 
neaily  one  fifth  of  Europe,  The  most  peculiar 
part  of  this  basin  is  in  its  S.  W.  comer.  Here, 
althongh  the  nearest  mountcuns  are  those  of 
the  Hartz,  yet  the  baun  of  the  Baltio  Is  not 
above  20  or  2B  m.  wide.  The  Elbe,  which 
mns  within  60  m.  of  the  Baltic,  flows  Into  the 
North  sea;  so  also  the  Eider,  which  rises 
close  to  its  shores.  These  and  their  tribntaries 
belong  to  another  system ;  yet  so  flat  is  the 
country  that  the  different  waters  continnally 
nnite,  and  a  canal  8  m.  long  has  served  to 
connect  the  Baltio  with  the  Elbe,  by  joining 
a  small  affluent  of  the  latter  with  the  Steck- 
nltz  and  Trave,  between  Lnbeck  and  Lanen- 
burg.  The  Baltio  receives,  among  others,  the 
waters  of  the  lakes  of  Ladoga,  Onega,  and 
Mffllar,  and  of  the  rivers  DOna,  Niemen,  Vis- 
tula, and  Oder.  The  rivers  which  flow  from 
the  south  and  southeast  are  the  longest. 
The  greet  amount  of  mnd  and  sand  earned 
down  into  tho  sea  has  considerably  changed  its 
soundings  in  various  parts,  filling  up  the  mouths 
of  many  of  the  rivers  and  harbors,  and  gener- 
ally Turing  the  bed  of  the  entire  sea,  creating 
many  smadl  islets  and  shoals,  and  rendering 
navigation,  particularly  alon;;  the  Danish  shores, 
difficult  and  dangerous.— Being  a  close  sea,  with 
its  entrance  protected  from  the  approach  of 
the  tidal  wave,  the  Baltic  baa  no  tides.  There 
is,  however,  observed  at  irregular  periods  a 
rise  in  the  water,  eqnal  sometimes  to  3^  ft. 
This  occurs  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but 
chiefly  in  autumn  or  winter,  or  at  a  time  oi 
heavy  rain,  or  during  lowering  weather.  Tho 
water  maintains  its  height  for  days,  and  somo' 
times  weeks,  and  often  overflows  its  usual 
limits.  Dr.  Schulten,  a  Swede,  in  1804,  by  a 
series  of  close  observations,  ascertained  that 
this  rise  was  ocoarioned,  not  by  heavy  rains, 
winds,  melting  snow,  or  ice,  to  all  of  which  it 
had  been  aeoribed,  bat  by  the  unequal  pressure 


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of  Hie  atmospbere  npon  different  portlonB  of 
the  surface  of  the  sea ;  the  greateet  height  of 
the  water  correBpondiog  to  the  greatest  de- 
pression of  the  har(Hiietri«a]  columo,  and  the 
greatest  vsriatJon  of  the  barometer  in  that  re- 

gon,  a  inohea,  oorrespoading  to  a  rise  and 
II  of  84  inches  in  the  vater.  The  waters 
of  the  Baltio  are  muoh  leee  aall  than  those  of 
the  North  sea  or  tJie  Atlantio  ocean ;  the  rela- 
tive proportion  maj  be  stated  as  about  -^  to 
^  hi  the  North  sea.  The  entire  sea  is  everj 
jetr  more  or  less  encombered  with  ice,  and  its 
Straits  are  DsnaUj  impassable  from  December  to 
April.  Severe  frosU  have  made  tie  sea  several 
times  passable  on  the  ice  in  its  widest  parts,  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Prussia,  espeoiallj  in  the 
14th  and  15th  oentnries.  In  1809  a  Rnsnan 
Kin;  crossed  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  on  the  ice. — 
Thwe  seems  (o  be  no  doubt  that  the  Baltic  is  do- 
ereasing.  The  innmnerable  lakes  which  lie  be- 
tween it  and  the  White  sea  are  bnt  the  remnants 
of  what  was  once  a  oontinnoas  sea.  This  is 
proven  bj  the  existanoe  of  similar  animalB  in 
tiioee  lakes,  altboogh  these  are  no  longer  salt  A 
grodnsl  drains^  is  no  doobt  lessening  the  vol- 
ume of  all  the  bodies  of  water  et31  left  in  the 
baidn  of  the  Baltio.  It  is  in  the  eoutb  that 
BQch  changes  have  been  moat  remarked  in 
modem  timee.  LQbeok,  which  when  oripnallj 
bnilt  was  a  seaport  town,  is  now  13  m.  from 
the  shore.  The  isle  of  Bt(gen  is  nearly  joined 
to  the  German  shore,  and  annnallj  extends  its 
bonnds,  while  the  names  of  its  various  parta 
show  that  not  long  since  that  which  is  now  one 
large  ialaod  was  a  clust«c  of  small  islets.  Olof 
BflJIn,  a  Swedish  mathematician,  oalcnlated  the 
rise  of  the  shore  at  one  inch  per  eunnm,  and 
thie  is  probably  not  too  high, — The  Baltin  is 
extremely  rich  in  fish  of  vaHous  kinds.  Seals 
are  foond  in  ctmsiderable  numbers,  loidare  chas- 
ed for  their  oil  and  skins.  Whales  are  aometimee 
seen.  Along  the  shores  of  East  Prassia  and 
the  isle  of  ROgen  qoantities  of  amber  are  col- 
lected. The  countries  sarronnding  the  Baltic 
are  all  rich  in  nsefnl  natoral  products,  and  its 
waters  are  therefore  crowded  with  the  ships 
of  all  naticms, — The  anfiients  were  bnt  dIghtV 
ftcqoainted  with  the  Baltic  The  origin  of  the 
name  Baltic  is  not  certainly  known,  some  ety- 
mologists deriving  it  from  the  Danish  belt,  a 
^rdle ;  some  from  the  Lithaanian  balta,  white, 
in  allDsi<Hi  to  the  great  qnantitj  of  snow  which 
annnaUy  fells  in  its  neighborhood.  Others 
have  referred  it  to  the  Balti,  the  family  name 
of  the  kings  of  tlie  Visigoths.  The  name, 
however,  is  old,  and  appears  to  have  been  first 
used  b;  Adam  of  Bremen,  who  described  tJ:ie 
eea  in  the  11th  century.    The  most  import«nt 

Krte  on  the  Baltic  and  its  varions  arms  are  Bt 
itersbnrg,  Riga,  Hemel,  Ednigsberg,  Dantzic, 
Stralsnnd,  Lttbeok,  Copenhagen,  Oariscrona,  and 
Stockholm. 

BiLIUHHW,  a  northern  oonnty  of  Maryland, 
bounded  N.  by  Pennsylvania  and  S.  by  the 
Patspsoo;  area,  718  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1B71, 
830,741,  of  whom  47,921  were  colored.    The 


larger  portion  of  &e  sarfaoe  ia  nndulatlng, 
with  wooded  ridges  enclosing  fertile  valleya, 
and  with  bold  hills  often  rising  to  a  height  of 
800  ft.  above  tide  water.  The  principal  varie- 
ties of  rock  are  granite,  gneiss,  hw^blende, 
Umestone,  and  a  ledge  of  primitive  rook  nin- 
ning  through  the  sontheastem  portion  of  the 
county.  On  the  Great  and  Little  Gunpowder, 
the  Patapeoo,  Gwynn's  and  Jones's  falls  are 
large  cotton,  woollen,  and  carpet  factoriea, 
furnaces,  fonnderies,  paper  'and  floor  mills. 
Copper  and  iron  are  foimd  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  in  this  and  Harford  eonntiea 
are  the  most  productive  mines  of  dirome  in 
tiie  United  States.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Texas  and  Cockeysville  are  extensive  quarries 
of  marble,  from  which  came  the  large  mono- 
liUts  of  tiie  oapitol  at  Washington,  and  the 
fine-grtdned  alum  marble  osed  in  hnilding  the 
patent  office.  The  soil  is  moderately  rich. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  264,688 
bnshela  of  wheat,  81,182  of  rye,  856,754  of 
Indian  oom^  876,068  of  oete,  201,754  of  pota- 
toes, S^,7B1  t<WB  of  hay,  and  544,888  lbs.  of 
butter.  The  v^ue  of  the  principal  maoufao- 
tQreBinl866waB:  floor  and  moid,  t3,4Sfi,887; 
cotton,  $2,118,414;  machinery,  11,100,000; 
woollens,  f486,250;  iron,  (613,694;  paper, 
$297,400;  hides  and  l««th(x-,  (294,961 ;  liquors, 
$163,377.  The  county  seat  was  trwuferred  in 
1864  from  Baltimore  to  Towsontown. 

BATTDIOIE,  a  city  of  Baltimore  coonty,  Md., 
ranking  sixth  in  the  United  Statee  for  size  and 
popnlation,  ritnated  in  lat  89°  17'  K.,  Ion.  76° 
87'  W.,  on  an  arm  of  the  Patapsco  river,  14  m. 
from  Chesapeake  bay,  178  m.  from  the  Atian- 
tic,  88  m.  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Washington,  97  m. 
S.W.  of  Philadelphia,  and  186  m.  8.W.  of  New 
York.  The  popnlation  in  1790  was  18,503; 
1800,26,514;  1810,85,688;  1820,62,788;  1880, 
80,626;  1640,  102,313;  1850,  169,064;  1860, 
aia,418;  1870,  267,3S4.  In  18T0,  227,7M 
were  whites  and  89,668  colored;  210,870  were 
natives  of  the  United  Statea,  and  56,464  of 
foreign  countries.  The  um  of  the  Patapsco 
on  which  the  city  is  ritoated  is  about  8  m. 
long,  varying  in  width  from  -^  to  1}  m.,  having 
its  extreme  breadth  oppo^te  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city,  a  suburb  called  Canton.  This  in- 
let gives  an  easy  access  to  the  city,  and  a  har- 
bor sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  2,000  vok- 
seis.  The  harbor  is  divided  into  an  outer  and 
inner  bay ;  the  inner  bay  is  styled  the  bama, 
and  has  but  12  feet  of  water.  The  outer  bay 
consists  of  a  harbor  between  Fell'a  Point  and 
Canton  on  the  north  and  east,  and  Whetstone 
Point  opponte,  on  the  south,  and  is  capable  ot 
floating  tJie  largest  merchant  ^ipe.  Owing  to 
the  accumulation  of  deposit  for  many  years, 
the  harbor  had  at  one  time  become  shoal  in 
numerous  parts,  but  by  proper  dredging  it  has 
been  made  available  for  steamers  of  tiie  largest 
class.  The  entrance  to  the  port  is  defended  by 
Fort  UoHenry,  sitnated  on  a  point  of  land 
between  the  harbor  and  the  Patapsco.  This 
wo*  aQOcesefnlly  defended  against  the  British 


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I1«et  in  1814  hj  Ool.  Oeonte  Armistood  and 
the  force  under  his  eomniaad.  It.  wan  on  this 
occasion  tliat  the  famous  song  of  the  ''Star- 
Spangled  Htvnncr"  was  oomposed  b;  Francis 
S.  Key,  while  a  prisoner  on  board  one  of  the 
British  TeMels.  Fort  Cairolt.  an  immense  for- 
tification on  SoUer's  Point  tkts.  abont  8  tn.  be- 
hw  the  eity,  after  involving  the  government  in 
a  heavy  expcnditare,  has  been  roofed  over  and 
absndoned. — The  general  appearance  of  Balti- 
more is  striking  and  picturesque.  It  is  reg- 
niarly  laid  oat,  ita  anrface  is  nndnlating,  its 
RtreetB  are  of  good  width,  and  there  iii  ampie 
sewerage.  An  aspect  of  cheerful  elegance  pre- 
Tails;  the  larger  mansions  are  generally  in 
good  taste,  and  not  crowded  togel^er,  and  the  I 
dwellings  of  the  poor  are  generally  neat  and  I 
thrifty.  There  are  very  few  of  the  large  t*n- 
ement  bontes  common  in  other  cities.    The  I 


MORE  253 

light  and  cheerful  appearance  of  the  city  is 
greatly  owing  to  the  quality  of  the  brioic  used 
in  building.  The  clay  is  of  6ne  texture  and 
agreeable  oolor,  and  when  taken  from  the 
kilnit  '"•  neither  a  very  dnit  nor  a  glaring  red. 
The  Ualtimore  coonty  marble,  a  fine,  liard, 
and  beautifnlly  white  specie*  of  limestone,  ex- 
tensively employed  in  bnilding  ehnrches,  pub- 
lic buildings,  and  in  some  private  residencee, 
adds  a)ra  materially  to  this  effect.     The  chief 

Points  of  view  are  known  as  Federal  hilt  and 
Qtterson  park.  The  former  staodB  on  tbe  sontb 
side  of  the  inner  basin,  crowned  by  a  ngnal 
Htntion,  and  commands  an  extensive  prospect 
of  the  shipping,  the  city  to  the  north  and  west, 
snd  the  river  and.  bay.  The  park,  oompriHog 
abont  ee  acres,  lies  to  the  east  of  Fell's  Point, 
and  overlooks  the  principal  docks  and  ahip 
yards,  Canton,  and  the  surrounding  country. 


Biltlman,  ftom  Tedtnl  TUB. 


On  the  N.  nde  of  the  city  is  Dmid  park,  a  fine 
pleamre  ground  of  600  acres,  with  an  nndalat- 
tng  surface,  partly  in  wood  and  partly  in  open 
meadow.  It  has  recently  been  purchased  at  a 
cost  of  about  t800,000,  and  its  architectural 
decorations  are  as  yet  bnt  few.  Its  chief  charm 
ia  in  ita  secluded  wriks,  rides,  and  bridle  potlis. 
Tlie  nnnual  revenue  of  the  ptvrk  is  derived 
from  a  tux  of  one  fifth  of  the  gross  receipts  of 
the  city  pawenger  rwlways.  Within  the  bor- 
ders of  Druzd  parii  is  Druid  lake,  the  last  of 
the  chain  of  costly  lakes  and  reservoirs  recent- 
ly constructed  to  supply  the  city  with  pure 
water.  From  main  elevations  in  Drnid  park. 
Mid  especially  from  the  head  of  Druid  lake, 
fine  views  of  the  city  and  river  can  be  ob- 
tained.— Besides  the  main  streets,  three  great 
avenues  on  the  east,  north,  and  west  have 
been  surveyed,  and  are  partly  graded,  paved, 
and  bnilt  npon.    These  are  at  least  ISO  feet 


wide,  planted  with  trees,  and  form  an  elevated 
drive  around  the  city.  There  aie  12  public 
squares.  The  largest  of  the  public  buildings  is 
the  exchange,  which  contains  the  custom  house, 
post  ofRce,  Merchants'  bank,  exchange,  readmg 
rooms,  a  vast  rotunda  for  public  sales,  &c. 
The  AtheniBuin  is  of  the  Italian  style  of  archi- 
tecture ;  it  contains  the  rooms  of  the  historical 
society  and  the  mercantile  library  association, 
a  very  flonriehing  institution,  with  a  large 
number  of  members,  and  39,000  volumes  on 
its  shelves.  The  Maryland  institute  "for  the 
promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts"  is  a  large 
structure,  8SG  ft,  long  by  60  wide :  it  is  built 
npon  plies,  and  over  the  centre  or  Marsh  mar- 
ket. An  annual  exhibition  of  the  products  of 
American  mechanical  industry  is  held  in  the 
main  hall,  which  is  260  ft.  long.  It  also  con- 
tains a  library,  lecture  rooms,  school  of  design, 
chemical  school,  &o.    The  new  city  hall,  now 


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251  BALX 

Dearlj  finished  (I8TS),  ia  one  of  the  tiOMt  mn- 

nicipal  Btnictnres  in  tbe  conntrj.  It  oocupies 
ax  CDtire  squ&re,  on  HolUdaj,  North,  Lexing- 
toD,  and  tnyette  streets,  and  is  126  ft.  in 
height  to  the  top  of  the  centre  building  and 
S22  to  the  top  of  the  dome.  Tbe  renuieance 
dtjle  predominatee.  The  material  used  for  the 
outer  walls  h  Marjland  marble,  with  an  inner 
eainng  of  brict,  and  the  building  is  fire-proof. 
Its  entire  cost  will  be  |3,000,000.  The  conrt 
house,  on  Monnment  eqnsre  and  Lexington 
street,  has  ample  aceommodations  for  t£ree 
courts  beeidee  Tarions  offices.  Near  it  is  the 
record  office,  a  flre-proof  building  of  solid 
granite.  The  jail,  built  in  18M,  and  containing 
aJ]  tbe  modem  improTements  in  prison  disci- 
pline, is  a  sabstontial  Btraoture  of  hammered 
etone,  flanked  hj  square  towers,  with  a  high 
wall  on  the  sides  and  rear.  The  petutentiarj, 
a  large  brick  bnilding,  a^jeins  it  on  the  soath- 
east  The  city  contains  189  ohurohes,  viz. :  21 
Protestant  Episcopal,  18  Presbjterian,  28  Ro- 
man Catholic,  OS  Uethodist  Episcopal  (of 
which  6  are  colored),  8  Uethodist  Protestant, 
2  Independent  Methodist,  6  African  Uethod- 
ist, 6  Kefbnned,  1  Ohristian,  9  Baptist;  12 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  3  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion, 2  Independent,  1  Seamen's  Union  Bethel, 
8  Friends',  1  Universalist,  1  Umtarian,  8  Swe~ 
denborgian,  9  Jewish  STnagognes,  and  6  United 
Brethren.  Man;  of  the  charchee  are  verj  fine. 
Tbe  Roman  Oatholic  cathedral,  the  most  im- 
podng,  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  surmount- 
ed bj  a  loftj  dome  and  two  bell  towers.  The 
church  of  St  Ignatius  Loyola,  St.  Alphonsna, 
and  many  others,  are  rich  in  architecture  and 
decorations.  Manjof  the  Protestant  churches 
are  elegant.  Of  other  public  baildinga,  the 
vast  state  tobacco  warehouses  well  repaj  in- 
spection.— The  total  namher  of  charitable  in- 
stitutions is  22.  The  more  prominent  of  these 
are  the  new  state  insane  asjlnm  ;  the  iit.  Hope 
retreat ;  the  Majyland  institution  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  blind,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  city ;  St.  Mary's  industrial  school  for 
boys;  the  orphan  asylums  of  St.  Anthony 
of  Padua  and  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul;  and 
the  Baltimore  infirmary,  under  the  super- 
Tision  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  church 
home,  on  Broadway  near  Baltimore  street, 
helongint;  to  the  Episcopal  oharch,  and  the 
Union  Protestant  infirmary,  are  under  the 
management  of  ladies.  In  the  W.  port  of  the 
city  is  an  elegant  edifice  called  tbe  aged  wid- 
ows' homo,  and  near  it  is  a  similar  stnicture 
for  aged  men.  The  house  of  refuge  and  city 
almsDoose  are  situated  near  the  Frederick 
tnmpike,  about  two  miles  A'om  the  city.  Dur- 
ing the  year  ISTl  over  $600,000  was  bequeathed 
by  wealthy  citizens  to  charitable  purposes. — St. 
Mary's  college,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
under  the  charge  of  the  Sulpitians,  with  a 
theological  seminary,  was  foonded  in  1791,  and 
muntained  itself  with  vigor  for  many  years, 
possessing  very  extensive  grounds  and  build- 
inga,  a  Gotbio  ehapel,  and  a  library  of  16,000 


volumes.  The  seminary  had  70  pupils  in  18T1. 
Tbe  college  was  suppressed  in  1861.  Loyola 
college,  in  another  pert  of  the  city,  supplies  its 
place  for  Roman  Cdtboiics;  this  is  under  the 
charge  of  Jesuits,  and  was  opened  in  1865; 
in  18T1  it  had  158  students  and  a  library  of 
21,000  volumes.  The  Roman  Catholic  female 
seminary  of  Notre  Dame  was  chartered  in 
18S4,  and  in  IBTl  had  170  pupils.  Baltimore 
college  waa  chartered  in  1803,  and  subsequent- 
ly united  to  the  medical  school  under  the  title 
of  the  "  University  of  Maryland,"  but  the  aca- 
demical department,  independent  of  the  school 
of  medicine,  alone  went  into  operation.  This 
academy  wsa  not  generally  flourisbing,  and  in 
1364  was  finally  given  up,  and  a  scientific 
school  estabhshed  in  tbe  building.  The  medi- 
cal school,  on  the  contrary,  has  always  been 
active;  at  one  time  it  stood  highest  in  tbe 
United  States,  and  is  now  in  excellent  condi- 
tion; in  1871  it  had  10  instructon  and  172 
students.  It  has  a  masmve  building  on  Lom- 
bard street,  completed  in  1812.  The  Washing- 
ton university  was  established  in  1828,  but  has 
never  been  very  flourishing,  and  ita  medieal 
school,  which  in  1871  had  6  instructors  and  170 
students,  is  the  only  department  ever  organized. 
The  Baltimore  female  college  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal) was  chartered  by  the  state  in  1810,  and 
in  its  course  of  study  and  power  of  conferring 
degrees  is  similar  to  the  colleges  for  male  etu- 
denta;  it  had  176  pupils  in  1871.  The  con- 
vent of  the  Visitation  has  a  very  large  female 
school underchargeofthesisterhood.  Thefirst 
public  school  was  opened  in  1829.  By  one  of 
the  sections  of  the  act  providing  for  public  edu- 
cation throughout  the  state,  paiwed  by  the  legis- 
lature in  1870,  the  control  of  tbe  public  school 
system  of  Baltimore  is  vested  in  the  mayor 
and  city  council.  Tbe  entire  management  d 
the  sohoola  is  intrusted  by  the  mayor  and 
council  to  a  board  of  20  commieaionera,  one 
lh)m  each  ward,  elected  annually.  On  Jan. 
1,  1672,  there  were  under  the  authority  of  this 
board  tbe  city  college,  2  female  high  schools, 
18  male  and  19  female  grammar  schools,  28 
male  and  81  female  primary  schools,  10  day 
and  8  evening  colored  schools,  and  2  schools 
unclassified;  total  number  of  schools,  113. 
Male  teachers,  70 ;  female  teachers,  608 ;  total 
number  of  teachers,  678.  Number  of  pay 
pupils,  11,627;  iree,  18,780;  total  on  roll  Jan. 
1,  1872,  25,857.  Number  in  all  the  schools 
during  1871,  34,872 ;  number  in  colored  schools, 
2,048;  increased  attendance  over  1870,  7,316. 
The  total  amount  expended  for  school  pur- 
poses in  1871  waa  $688,108.  To  those  who 
can  afford  it,  a  charge  of  $1  a  term  of  13  weeks 
is  made  for  each  pupil ;  all  others  are  adnaitted 
tVee  on  application  to  the  board  of  education. 
The  Bible  is  daily  read  in  all  the  schools,  the 
version  of  King  James  to  the  Protestants,  and 
the  Douay  version  to  tbe  Roman  Catholios,  in 
separate  apartments.  Tbe  principal  libraries 
are  the  state  law  library,  contuning  8,000 
vols.;  Odd  Fellows',  21,186;  and  mercantile, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


2S,000.  There  are  poblished  in  the  city  9  i1ail7 
newspapers,  of  which  8  are  in  German ;  1  tri- 
weekly; 16  weekly,  of  which  3  arein  Gennfln; 
B  monthly ;  and  1  quarterly,  the  "  Southern  Re- 
view." The  Peabodj  institote  was  founded  by 
the  munificence  of  Mr,  George  Peabody.  His 
first  gift,  of  {300,000,  subsequently  bcreased  to 
11,000,000,  is  to  establish  a  gallery  of  the  finest 
works  of  art,  a  library  of  the  first  class,  and, 
daring  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  concerts 
and  lectures.  The  institute,  a  marble  bailding 
facing  the  Washington  monument,  contains  tho 
concert  hall  on  the  first  floor  and  the  library 
on  the  second  floor.  The  library  numbers 
nearly  S0,000  volames  of  standard  works,  and 
is  increasing  at  the  rat«  of  from  4,000  to  6,000 
votnmes  annually.  It  is  a  library  of  reference, 
and  its  books  are  free  to  all  for  use  within  the 
rooms.  To  the  east  of  the  present  building  a 
lot  has  been  purchased  upon  which  an  acad- 
emy of  art  will  be  erected.  Johns  Hopkins,  a 
wealthy  citizen,  has  deeded  hia  residence  and 
gronnds  near  the  city  limita,  on  the  Harford 
road,  to  trustees,  to  be  held  in  trust  after  his 
death  for  a  university,  and  has  farther  pro- 
vided for  its  liberal  endowment. — From  her 
several  monuments,  Baltimore  is  frequently 
designat«d  as  the  "monumental  city.  In 
1809  the  legislature  granted  permission  to  erect 
a  monument  to  George  Wosliington.  This  was 
erected  at  the  intersection  of  Charles  and  Hon- 
oment  streets,  on  a  lot  of  ground  given  for  the 

Earpose  by  Col.  John  Eager  Howard.  It  is  a 
'oric  column  of  white  marble,  rising  from  a 
base  SO  ft  square  and  S6  ft.  high,  the  shaft 
of  the  column  is  160  ft.  high,  and  is  sarmonnt- 
ed  by  a  colossal  statue  of  Washington  15  ft. 
high.  Tho  Battle  monument  is  in  the  centre 
of  UonnmeDt  square,  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  Calvert  and  Fayette  streets.  This  is  also 


of  white  marble,  and  is  53  ft.  high.    It  was 
erected  to  the  memory  of  the  citizens  who  fell 
in  the  d^Mioe  of  Baltimore,  Sept  IS  and  18, 
69  TOL.  II.— 17 


MORE  255 

1614.  It  consists  of  ft  square  base  with  a  ped- 
estal ornamented  at  eacli  comer  with  a  sculp- 
tured griffln.  A  fasciated  column  rises  from 
the  base,  with  bands,  upon  which  are  iuscribed 
tho  names  of  those  who  perished.  A  statue 
representing  the  genius  of  Baltimore  surmounts 
the  column.  On  North  Broadway  a  plain  mar- 
ble pediment  and  shaft,  surmounted  by  a  statue 
of  Thomas  Wildey,  commemorates  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Odd  FeUows  in  the  United 
States. — The  bank  of  Maryland  was  established 
in  1T90.  The  failure  of  this  institution  in  1634 
caused  riota  in  the  succeeding  year,  when  the 
mob  sacked  several  houses  hclunging  to  promi- 
nent directors  of  the  bank.  In  1792  a  branch 
of  the  United  States  bank  was  established  in 
Baltimore,  the  charter  of  which  exjiired  in 
18^5.  In  1T9S  the  bank  of  Baltimore  was 
chartered;  in  1804  the  Union  bank  of  Mary- 
land; in  ISDS  the  Mechanics'  bonk;  and  in 
1810  the  Franklin,  Marine,  Farmers'  and  Mer- 
chants', and  tlie  Commercial  and  Farmers'. 
Other  banking  institutions  were  chartered  sub- 
sequently, and  there  are  now  14  national  banka, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  (11, 241, 086;  6 
state  bankd,  with  $2,563,018;  and  T  savings 
batiks.  There  are  28  insurance  companies, 
chiefly  fire,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $3,601, - 
685,  besides  numerous  agencies.  The  city  has 
62  hotels,  9  markets,  and  8  lines  of  city  pas- 
senger r^lways. — Baltimore  is  divided  into  20 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  city 
council,  consisting  of  20  members  in  the  first 
branch  and  10  in  the  second.  In  1T69  the 
"Mechanical"  fire  company  was  organized, 
and  purchased  their  first  engma  for  $250. 
The  paid  fire  department  now  comprises  9 
engines  and  8  hook  and  ladder  companies. 
The  expenses  of  the  department  for  1871  to 
Nov.  1  were  $125,197  89.  The  fire  inspector 
reports  166  fires  within  the  city  limits  m  the 
aame  period;  loss,  $476,894  67;  loss  by  fire  in 
1870,  $432,717  07.  In  connection  with  the 
fire  department  there  is  a  fire  alarm  telegraph 
with  94  stations,  ramifying  to  every  portion 
of  the  city;  its  cost  for  1871  was  $15,249  84. 
The  police  force  is  governed  by  a  board  of  three 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  legislature. 
Under  this  board  are  a  marshal,  deputy  mar- 
shal, 4  captains,  6  lieutenants,  and  489  uni- 
formed patrolmen.  The  city  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  wnterfrom  Roland  lake,  about  7  m.  distant, 
and  226  fl.  above  tide.  Mount  Royal  reservoir 
is  near  the  N.  limits  of  the  city,  160  ft.  above 
tide.— On  July  4,  1828,  the  corner  stone  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohiorailrood  was  laid  by  Charles 
Carroll  of  Carrollton.  This  road  now  extends 
to  Golambns,  Ohio,  a  distance  of  516  m.,  and 
is  one  of  the  grandest  works  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  The  otiier  railroads  centring  here  are  the 
Baltimore  and  Susquehanna,  usually  called  the 
Northern  Central;  the  Philadelphia,  Wilming- 
ton, and  Baltimore;  the  Washington  branch  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio;  the  Western  Mary- 
land ;  and  the  Baltimore  and  Potomac.  The 
last-named  road  was  opened  for  travel  in  1873. 


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256  BALT 

For  the  ose  of  several  of  thead  railrouda  an  ho- 
mense  tunnel  traverses  the  city,  with  open  cuts 
at  intervals,  from  the  western  limits  to  tide 
water  at  Canton.  There  is  also  a  railroad 
from  Aimapolia,  the  state  capital,  which  joins 
the  Wttshington  branch  rood.  The  "  Tide-wa- 
ter canal  "has  never  proved  productive;  bnt 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  has  of  late 
years  been  prosperons. — Baltimore  soffered 
severely  during  tae  civil  war,  bnt  nnce  that 
time  has  rapidly  increased  bow  in  popntatioa 
and  commercial  activity.  Two  Unes  of  Euro- 
pean steamers  now  start  from  her  harbor; 
and  through  her  two  great  arteries  of  traffic, 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  IfortJteni  Cen- 
tral railroads,  this  city  is  tnccesefnll;  compet- 
ing for  the  trade  of  tile  west  and  northwest. 
The  coasting  trade  is  also  extending.  In  1871 
there  were  inspected  at  Baltimore  187  steam- 
ers, with  a  tonnage  of  40,To2.  Of  the  vessels 
trading  to  her  port  398  were  American,  858 
British,  and  S8  Itorth  German.  The  total  ez- 
porU  for  1871  were  $18,000,000,  an  increase  of 
nearly  60  per  cent,  over  1870.  The  principal 
articles  exported  were  fionr  and  meal,  grain, 
tobacco,  cotton,  rosin,  oil  cake,  petroleam,  ba- 
oon,  butter,  cheeae,  and  lard.  The  principal 
artictea  imported  were  coffee,  sogar,  gnano, 
hides,  iron,  tin  plates,  cotton,  flour,  grain,  and 
naval  stores,  llie  receipts  of  Cumberland  coai 
for  ISTl  were  I,4£i8,9a0  tons;  of  grain,  11,- 
774,803  bnshels;  of  cotton,  112,889  bales;  of 
navalstores— spirits  turpentine  23,8S2bbla.,  ros- 
in 79,352  bbls.,  tar  11,302  bbls.,  pitch  1,941  bbls. 
The  inspections  of  floor  were  1,128,028  bbls. ; 
of  tobacco,  49,BT1  hhds.;  of  leather,  852,046 
sides.  Importations  of  sugar,  12S,619  hhds., 
49,129  bags,  65,044  boxes;  of  coffee,  666,995 
bags.  The  oanning  of  oysters,  Iroits,  and  veg- 
etables is  estimated  to  reach  the  annual  value 
of  $5,000,000.  The  boot  and  shoe  trade  is 
becoming  one  of  importance.  New  cotton  fac- 
tories are  bnildtng  and  old  ones  adding  to  their 
oapacity;  numberof  spindles  in  1872,  187,000; 
number  of  hales  of  ootton  used,  from  40,000  to 
60,000.  The  productive  indnstrj  of  Baltimore 
comprises  2,2fll  establishments,  employing  28,- 
178  hands,  with  a  vaLne  in  prodncts  of  $51,- 
106,278.  The  assessed  value  of  property  with- 
in the  city  limits,  which  is  much  below  its  real 
volne,  is  $207,181,660.  The  debt  of  the  city  is 
$27,809,025  47.  From  this  are  to  be  deducted 
$12,023,006  25,  on  which  the  interest  is  pro- 
vided for  by  various  works  of  public  improve- 
ment, and  $10,786,888  16  invested  in  other 
productive  investments;  actual  debt,  $4,9 
071  06 ;  unproductive  investmenta,  $4,477,864 
79.^It  was  not  till  1729  that  the  assembly  of 
Maryland  passed  an  act  entitied  "An  act  for 
erecting  a  town  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pa- 
tapaco  in  Baltimore  county,"  although  settle- 
ments bad  been  made  at  an  earlier  date,  the 
first  of  which  was  by  Charles  Oorsnch,  a  Qua- 
ker, who  in  1662  patented  60  acres  of  land  on 
Whetstone  Point,  opposite  the  eastern  section 
of  the  present  city.    In  1662  David  Jones,  the 


first  settler  on  the  K,  ude  of  Uie  harbor,  gftve 
his  name  to  the  small  stream  which  now  di- 
vides Baltimore  into  "old  town"  and  "new 
town."  On  Jan.  12,  1730,  a  town  of  60  acres 
was  hiA  ont  W.  of  Jones's  falls,  and  called 
Baltimore  in  honor  of  Ceoilius  Calvert,  Lord 
Baltimore.  In  the  same  year  William  Fell,  a 
ship  carpenter,  having  purcliosed  a  tract  E.  of 
the  fftUs,  cftUed  it  Fell's  Point  In  1782  a  new 
town  of  10  acres,  in  20  lota,  was  laid  ont  on 
the  east  of  the  &lls,  and  called  Jonestown,  in 
honor  of  David  Jones,  the  first  settler.  This 
name  has  long  been  forgotten,  and  as  a  settle- 
ment existed  there  before  that  of  Baltimore,  it 
was  called  "  old  town."  Jonestown  was  united 
to  Baltimore  in  174C,  dropping  its  own  name, 
and  two  years  afterward  Butimore,  whidt 
property  lay  up  about  the  head  of  the  "  basin," 
near  the  foot  of  the  present  South  Charles 
street,  waseztendedasioreastwardlyasJones's 
falls,  under  an  express  provision  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  act  recognizing  a  right  to  "  elect 
delegates  to  the  assembly  as  representatives 
from  the  town."  This  was  the  earliest  mani- 
festation of  that  ringnlar  jealonsy  which  has 
ever  since  been  shown  in  the  legifdatnre  by  the 
Maryland  connty  members  against  the  city  of 
Baltimore.  In  1752  Baltimore  oonbiined  bnt 
26  houses  and  200  inhabitante.  In  1756  sev- 
eral of  the  nnfortnnate  Acadians  took  refuge 
in  Baltimore,  and  were  hospitably  received. 
The  connty  town  was  removed  from  Joppa  to 
Baltimore  in  1767,  and  the  courts  and  records 
were  established  there ;  during  the  next  year 

Erovision  was  made  for  the  erection  of  a  court 
ease  and  prison.  The  conrt  house  stood 
npon  the  site  of  the  present  Battle  monument 
in  Covert  street,  but  much  higher,  and  the 
whipping  post  was  to  be  seen  adjoining  till  1808, 
when  tlie  old  court  house  was  pulled  down. 
In  177S  William  Goddarf  began  the  first  news- 
paper in  Baltimore,  entitied  the  "Maryland 
Jonraal  and  Baltimore  AdvertJser."  In  the 
same  year  communication  was  opened  with 
Philadelphia  by  means  of  stage  coaches  and 
sailing  packets,  and  a  theatre  was  also  erected 
on  Albemarle  street.  In  1T75  Baltimore  con- 
tained 664  houses  and  6,934  inhabitants.  In 
1776,  Philadelphia  having  been  menaced  by  the 
British,  congress  estabtished  itself  in  Baltimore, 
in  Jacob  Fite's  building,  on  the  B.'E.  conier  at 
Baltimore  and  Liberty  streets.  John  Adams 
says  of  this  building  in  his  journal :  "  The  con- 

Sess  sits  in  the  lest  house  at  the  west  end  of 
arket  street  (as  Baltimore  street  was  fonnei^ 
ly  called),  on  the  south  side  of  the  street;  a 
long  chamber  witii  two  fireplaces,  two  large 
closets,  and  two  doors.  The  house  belongs  to 
a  Quaker,  who  built  it  for  a  tavern."  The 
place  where  this  "last  house  at  the  west  end  " 
once  stood  is  now  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
city.  In  1760  the  first  custom  house  in  Balti- 
more was  established ;  before  that  time  all 
registers  and  clearances  were  obtained  at  An- 
napolis, In  1784  the  first  market  house,  which 
stood  near  the  intersection  of  Market  with  Gay 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BALTIMORE 

rtreet,  baving  been  fonod  inadeqaate  to  supply 
the  wants  of  an  inoreadng  population,  was  bu- 

STseded  b^  three  new  ones:  the  centre  or 
arah  market,  the  Hanover,  and  the  Fell's 
Pcant  market.  At  the  same  time,  1784,  the 
streets  were  lighted  with  oil  lamps,  and  three 
constables  and  14  watchmen  were  appointed 
for  the  securitj  of  the  town.  At  the  dose  of 
the  revolntionary  war  the  commerce  and  trade 
of  tbe  oit;  rapidly  increased,  and  a  large  nntn- 
ber  of  intelligent  merchants  settled  here.  Some 
of  tbe  most  enterprising  of  these  were  from  the 
north  of  Ireland,  of  Scotch  descent,  and  by  their 
exertions  and  wealth  Baltimore  became  famed 
as  a  coinmeroial  port  Lines  of  packets  and 
stage  coaohes  were  established  for  commonica- 
fion  with  points  on  the  shores  of  Chesapeake 
bar,  >B  well  as  in  tbe  interior  of  the  state;  in 
1787  turnpikes  were  aathorized  to  Washington, 
Frederick,  and  Retetertown,  bat  were  not  ftill; 
completed  till  1609,  In  1789  the  oonree  of 
Jonea's  falls  within  the  citj,  which  ran  along 
by  the  rite  of  the  present  oonrt  boose,  was 
altered  hj  onttbg  a  new  channel  from  Bath 
street  to  G-aj  street  bridge,  and  the  old  bed  of 
the  stream  was  filled  up.  In  1792  a  large  num- 
ber of  refugees  from  Santo  Domingo  came  to 
tbe  oity,  where  many  of  their  descendants  atill 
reside.  In  1796,  the  population  beiug  about 
20,000,  and  tbe  town  liaviog  attained  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity,  it  was  erected  into  a  city, 
the  oorporatioD  being  styled  "  the  mayor  and 
oity  council  of  Baltimore,"  and  James  OaUioon 
was  elected  as  the  first  mayor.  Since  that 
date  the  city  has  rapidly  increased  in  popula- 
tion. On  April  le,  1861,  a  body  of  federal 
troops,  comprising  a  portion  of  the  0th  Hassa- 
chosetts  regiment  and  the  7th  Penns^vania, 
while  passing  through  Baltimore  on  their  way 
to  Waahington,  were  attacked  by  a  mob  widi 
missiles  and  firearms.  In  the  conflict  which 
ensued  9  citizens  were  killed  and  3  womided, 
and  2  soldiers  were  killed  and  23  wounded. 
For  soTcral  days  great  eicitement  prevailed  in 
tbe  city,  which  eaosed  President  Lincoln,  at 
tbe  insttuice  of  the  mayor  of  Baltimore  and  the 
governor  of  Maryland,  to  issue  an  order  that 
no  more  troops  destined  for  Washington  should 
be  brought  through  Baltimore.  Commnnica- 
tion  with  the  city  and  the  removal  of  stores 
therefrom  were  suspended  by  order  of  the 
mayor  and  board  of  police.  On  May  18  Gen. 
Butler,  who  had  taken  possesrion  of  the  Relay 
House  on  the  fith,  with  a  body  of  federal  troops, 
took  military  possession  of  Baltimore.  He  was 
succeeded  by  (Jen.  Banks,  and  on  July  19  Gen. 
Dii  assumed  command  of  the  troops  stationed 
at  Baltimore,  and  the  city  thenceforth  remained 
peaceful  and  tran<^ail. 

BU-TIMOSE,  UH.    See  Calvest. 

IlLTMOBE  BIBD,  or  BilttaNre  Oriole  lyphan- 
U$  Baltimore,  Vieill.),  a  bird  belonging  to  the 
family  of  ttumida  (starlinffs),  and  peculiar  to 
the  American  continent,  which  it  inhabits  from 
Canada  to  Brazil.  It  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  our  summer  victors,  and  is  universally  ad-  { 


BALTIMORE  BIRD 


257 


mired,  both  for  the  riohnees  of  ila  plumage 
and  tiie  sweetness  of  its  song.  It  is  also 
called  "golden  robin,"  "hang  bird,"  and  "fire 
bird."  The  adult  male  has  the  head,  neck  all 
round,  fore  part  of  the  back,  wings,  and  taiL 
black ;  quilb,  excepting  the  first,  mar^ned 
with  white ;  the  whole  under  parts,  the  lesser 
wing  coverts,  and  the  posterior  part  of  the 
back,  bright  orange,  tinged  with  vermilion  on 
the  neck  and  breast ;  the  tips  of  the  two  mid- 
dle tail  feathers,  and  the  ends  of  the  others,  of 
a  dull  orange ;  bill  and  feet,  light  blue ;  iris, 
orange;  length,  7j  inches;  extent  of  wings, 
12  inches.  This  is  the  plumage  of  tbe  third 
year,  before  which  tbe  colors  are  less  bright, 
and  more  or  less  mixed  with  olive,  brown,  and 
white.  Tbe  female  is  half  an  inch  shorter, 
with  the  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  back 
brownish  black,  mixed  with  dull  yellow ;  hind 
port  of  the  back  light  brownish  yellow,  bright- 
est on  the  rump;  lower  parts  duller  than  in 


BalClmon  Oriole. 

the  mate.  The  orioles  enter  Louiriana,  proba- 
bly from  Keiico,  in  early  spring,  and  gradually 
make  their  way  north,  to  return  In  antumn. 
Their  motions  are  very  lively  and  graceflil. 
They  are'  often  seen  clinging  by  the  feet  in 
search  of  insects,  which  form  their  principal 
food  in  the  spring.  Their  song  consists  of  from 
four  to  ten  loud,  fUl,  and  mellow  notes,  very 
agreeable  to  the  ear.  The  nest  is  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  a  very  skilfuEy  constmcted  net- 
work of  strings  and  fibres,  suspended,  like  a 
Eonch,  from  the  end  of  a  branch,  and  shaded 
y  overhanging  leaves.  The  eggs  are  frton 
four  to  six  in  number,  sbont  on  inch  long,  of  a 
pale  brown  color,  spotted,  dotted,  and  lined 
with  dork  brown.  The  period  of  incubation 
is  14  days.  In  Louisiana  two  broods  are  reared, 
in  a  season.  During  migration  their  flight  ia 
high  and  straight,  and  mostly  during  the  day. 
(See  Obiolg.) 


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258  BALTZER 

BALTZEB,  Jrtiu  Biptlit,  a  German  Roman 

Catholic  theologian,  bom  at  Aaderaach,  Julj 
16,  1803,  died  in  Bonn,  Oct.  1,  1871.  lie  left 
the  univerBity  of  Bonn  in  1827,  was  ordained 
in  Oologne  in  182H,  received  his  diploma  at 
doctor  of  divinity  at  Municii  in  1880,  and  rab- 
aequentl;  became  professor  at  Breslan.  lie  was 
ft  dieciple  of  Hermes,  bat  afterward  inclined 
to  the  philoBOpbical  school  of  Antbon  Gfln- 
ther.  The  holy  see  reoBested  him  to  relin- 
qnish  hia  professorship,  but  he  would  not  re- 
sign, though  he  discontinued  his  lectures.  His 
course  was  approved  by  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities of  Berlin,  but  his  subsequent  protest 
against  the  Vatican  resulted  in  his  anspen^on. 
in  18B3  he  went  to  Home  at  the  request  of 
Cardinal  Schwarzenbcrs  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  proposed  condemnation  by  the 
pope  of  GOnther's  writings.  One  of  his  early 
works  is  Hin«ti*angen  a^f  den  Qrwidekarai- 
ter  det  Hermaitcken  Sy»tem»  (Bonn,  18S2) ;  and 
among  his  subsequent  writings,  indicating  bis 
partial  conversion  to  GOnther's  teachings,  is 
Beitrdge  tur  VtrmitUlung  einet  riektigen  Ur- 
theiU  &6eT  KatKolieUmut  und  Frotettajitumiu 
(2  vols.,  Breslau,  183«-'40}. 

BlLTZiX,  WUbdH  Edurd,  a  German  cler^- 
man  and  author,  bom  at  Uohenleine,  Prnsaio, 
Oct.  24, 1814.  He  studied  in  Leipsic  and  Halle, 
became  a  tutor,  and  was  chaplain  of  the  hos- 
pital of  Delitzsch  ft'oiD  1841  till  the  befpnning 
of  1847,  when  he  fonnded  at  Nordhansen  a 
free  religions  commnnity,  after  having  failed  to 
havo  his  nomination  to  various  dioceses  con- 
firmed by  the  anthorities.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  to  the  Frankfort  preliminary  parlia- 
ment, and  afterward  to  the  Prussian  national 
aasemblj.  He  continnes  to  preside  over  the 
community  at  Nordhansen  (187S),  and  has 
aoqaired  great  influence  by  his  sermons  and 
pablications.  In  18S8  he  founded  a  society 
and  a  Journal  for  the  promotion  of  vegeta- 
riamsm ;  and  he  publisned  in  1870  on  the 
same  aabject  Die  tittlieke  SHU  d«r  naturgt- 
mlUttn  LSttntaeite.  His  writings  include  Dai 
togenanntt  Apottolitelie  Giaubenibekenntnii* 
(Laipsic,  1847);  AllffumHne  KeligiojiegaehUK- 
U  (Nordhansen,  l&i\y,AlU  und  neue  Weltan- 
tehauung  (18B2-'9);  Dot  lebm  Jem  (2d  ed., 
18S1);  Von  der  Arbeit  (1864);  D<u  prew- 
tuehe  VBTfae*ungihii<^lein  (4th  ed.,  1864); 
Oott,  Welt  und  Metueh  (1869) ;  and  Seligioai- 
Uhrbv^h  fiir  Sehule  itrtd  Sam  frsier  Oemein- 
den  (1st  part,  containing  Lehrhwh  fur  den 
ereten  UnUrrieht,  2d  ed.,  1870). 

BUiDE,  Jew  de  la,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  bom  at  Verdun  about  1422,  died  in 
Ancona  in  October,  1491.  Having  become  a 
priest,  he  ingratiated  himself  with  the  bishop 
|of  Poitiers,  became  his  executor,  defrauded  his 
heirs,  trafficked  in  prefermenta,  and  succeeded 
in  eaining  the  conJSdenoe  of  Louis  XL,  who 
made  him  secretary,  almoner,  bishop  of  Evrenx, 
and  eventnally  prime  minister.  About  1466 
his  efforts  for  the  abolition  of  the  "Pragmatic 
Sanction"  gained  for  him  from  Pope  Paul 


BALZAO 

II.  a  cardinal's  bat.  Having  been  detected  in 
a  treuflonable  correspondence  in  1469,  tiie  king 
confined  him  at  the  castle  of  Locle  in  an  iron 
cage,  from  which  he  was  released  after  11 
years  at  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Siitua  IV., 
who  showered  wealth  and  honors  npon  him 
and  sent  him  as  legate  to  Paris.  Upon  the 
death  of  Sixtus  (1484)  he  fied  from  France,  and 
Pope  Innocent  VIII.  made  him  bishop  ancces- 
Mvely  of  Albano  and  of  Preneste,  and  protec- 
tor of  the  order  of  Malta. 

BALCFFI,  Caetue,  an  Italian  prelat«s  bom  in 
Ancona,  March  SB,  1766,  died  in  Imola,  Nov. 
II,  1666.  He  n>ent  a  con^derable  time  m 
nuncio  in  South  America,  and  is  su'd  to  have 
i>een  accompanied  by  the  abb6  Mastai  Ferretti, 
afterward  Pius  IS.,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
bishop  of  Imola,  and  was  appointed  cardinal 
Dec  21,  1846,  and  archbishop  in  1860.  His 
"Rel^ouB  History  of  America"  (Rome,  1848) 
contains  new  and  interesting  documents,  which 
he  found  chiefly  at  Bogota.  A  French  trans- 
lation of  his  "Divinity  of  the  Church  mani- 
fested by  its  Charity,  or  Universal  Outline  of 
Roman  Catholic  Charity,"  was  pnblished  in 
18C8  by  the  abb6  Postel  (2  vola,  Paris). 

BAICZE,  ftteuM,  a  French  historian,  bom  at 
Tulle,  Dec.  24,  leso,  died  in  Paris,  July  28, 
1T18.  Be  studied  jurisprudence  at  Toulouse, 
where  he  became  secretary  of  the  archbishop. 
In  1667  Colbert  made  him  his  librarian,  and 
in  1670  he  was  appointed  professor  of  canon 
law  in  Paris,  retaining  these  ofBces  till  1700. 
Louis  XIV.  placed  him  in  1707  at  the  head 
of  the  royal  college,  but,  displeased  with  hia 
Sutoire  genSrale  de  la  maiton  d'Aucergne  (S 
vols.,  1708-'9),  caused  his  work  to  be  snp- 

Eresaed,  threw  him  into  prison,  and  confiscated 
.is  property.  He  was  set  at  liberty  in  1713, 
liut  did  not  recover  hia  poution.  Besides  1,600 
USS.  in  the  national  library  of  Paris,  he  left 
46  printed  worka,  including  Eegum  Franeorum 
Capitulana  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1780),  and 
MUcellanea  (7  vols.,  1678-1716 ;  new  ed.,  4 
vols.,  Lucca,  1761).  He  was  a  prominent  cham- 
pion of  llie  liberties  of  the  Gallican  charcb,  and 
his  Viet  det  papee  ^Avignon  (3  vols.,  1G9S) 
was  placed  on  the  Index  by  the  Roman  »e«. 
He  rendered  great  servicea  to  literature  b; 
collecting  authentic  M6S.,  comparing  them 
with  printed  editions,  end  pnbli^ing  annota- 
tions roll  of  erudition.  His  house  was  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  scientific  and  literary  men,  whom 
he  as«sted  in  every  way.  He  introduced  the 
custom  of  long  banquets  for  the  promotion  of 
intellectual  intercourse,  which  became  so  fash- 
ionable during  the  18th  century. 

BALZAC.  I.  Hsiarf  le,  a  French  novelist, 
bomatTonra,Mayl6,lT99,  died  in  Paris,  Aug. 
20, 1860.  On  leaving  school  he  was  placed  in  n 
notary's  office.  He  soon  became  discontented 
with  this  podtion,  and  left  it  against  the  will 
of  his  father,  to  devote  himself  to  literature. 
He  had  no  facilitr  in  the  art  of  componlion, 
and  his  style  was  nnformed.  Before  the  age 
of  28,  however,  he  had  published  half*  dozen 


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novels  ttnd  romanoea.  These  and  manj  more 
in  the  next  sevea  years,  iuolndin^  attempla  in 
almoBt  all  rarieties  of  prcwe  fiction,  appeared 
under  different  asBnmed  names,  as  Horsoe  de 
8t  Aubin,  Lord  R'hoone  (anagram  of  Honorfi), 
and  VeUlergrS  (psendonTme  of  his  collaborator 
Lepoiterin  Salnt-Alrae),  Aboanding  in  defects 
of  plot,  incident,  and  etjle,  they  only  give  here 
and  there  a  rare  gleam  of  the  excellent  qaali- 
ties  that  shine  in  his  later  writings.  Some  of 
them  were  writtten  nnder  the  preesore  of  pov- 
erty, and  merely  to  sell.  Of  their  inferiority 
Balsac  wss  always  as  consoions  as  hia  critics; 
nor  woold  be  consent  that  they  ehonld  bear 
hia  name.  The  larger  part  of  them  have  been 
reprinted  unoe  his  death  nnder  the  title  of 
(Euvret  de  jeunaie.  In  1826  he  associated 
with  himself  a  printer  of  the  name  of  Barbier, 
for  the  pnrppse  of  carrying  on  an  enterprise  in 
which  printing,  pubhuiing,  and  writing  were 
combined,  and  paper-making  was  to  have  been 
added.  It  soon  proved  a  lamentable  f^nre, 
after  having  been  long  enough  in  operation  to 
involve  Balzao  in  debts  that  harassed  him  for 
yeoTB  aiterward,  and  firom  which  in  the  end  he 
relieved  himself  by  the  prodacts  of  his  pen. 
The  first  volnme  to  which  he  signed  his  name 
was  Le  dtmier  Ohouan,  pnblished  in  18S9,  a 
historical  novel,  written  in  I^  Vendue,  amid 
the  scenes  so  faithfully  described  in  ita  pages. 
His  next  work,  Phytiologie  du  mariage,  drew 
public  attention  to  the  origintdity  and  sabttety 
of  the  anthor's  genius;  Lapeav  de  chagrin,  in 
1881  (included  in  hia  ConU*  phUatophiqua), 
increased  the  general  admiration.  From  this 
time  to  the  close  of  his  life  he  continued  to 
produce  in  rapid  sncoesdon  that  remarkable 
series  of  romances,  novels,  and  tales  to  which 
he  gave  the  general  title  of  CoiaidU  humaint, 
inclnding  his  celebrated  Seinei  d«lavie  privie, 
Seinet  de  la  oie  de  proninee,  Seijiei  de  la  vie 
pariHenne,  ice  ;  Mude*  philMopkiquet,  and 
£tudet  analytiqueg.  He  proposed  to  himself 
nothing  less  than  the  complete  delineation  of 
every  phase  of  modern  French  society.  This 
great  work,  with  nil  its  natural  limitations  and 
manifold  defects  of  exeontion,  yet  remains  a 
marvelloQs  monament  of  genius  and  indastry. 
Portions  of  it  convdered  as  independent  works, 
snch  SB  Eugenie  Grand^t,  Ciiar  Sirotleau,  Le 
pire  Goriot,  and  Le»  illutumi  perduee,  are 
DUsterpieoes  in  themselves.  Among  his  other 
works  are :  La  filU  aitx  ytvx  d'or  ;  Memoiret 
de  detix  jeunet  mariiet ;  Lei  parentt  pautm  ; 
Le  eontrat  de  mariage;  Vautrin ;  and  Contet 
drilatiquet.  According  to  his  mster,  between 
1S87  and  1348  he  wrote  97  works,  containing 
nearly  11,000  pages,  and  thrice  as  large  as  ordi- 
nary octavo  volnmes.  Most  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  foreign  lan- 
guages. Among  the  many  biographies  of  him, 
the  moat  interesting  are  those  by  his  sister 
lanre  and  Th£ophile  Oautier  (Paris,  1850).  His 
best  works  are  distiognished  for  depth,  acnto- 
nes!^  And  boldness  of  observation,  bnt  hia  mi- 
□Dte  ftccaraoy  of  external  descripljon  and  tal- 


ness  of  detail  often  become  wearisome,  clc^  the 
movement  of  the  story,  and  detract  from  the 
interest  that  should  centre  ronnd  the  m^n 

flgnres.  He  is  sometimes  gross  even  to  cyni- 
cism, which  be  mingles  with  traits  of  exquisite 
purity  and  delicacy;  bnt  both  the  grossnesa 
and  dehcacy  generally  reside  in  his  subjects. 
He  rarely  projects  his  own  personality.  It  has 
been  regretted  that  he  had  no  high  ideal ;  bnt 
that  did  not  enter  into  his  system  of  art  He 
aimed  only  to  present  the  realities  of  life.  He 
advances  no  theory,  pretends  to  no  moral 
teaching.  Treating  largely  of  female  emotions, 
he  found  among  women  his  warmest  admirers. 
On  occasion  of  the  publication  of  his  Mideein 
da  eampagne  in  163D,  he  received  a  complimen- 
tary letter  from  the  countess  Evelina  Han- 
ska,  a  Polish  lady,  which  was  the  commence- 
ment of  a  long  and  intimate  correspondence. 
After  her  husband's  death,  Balzac  went  to 
Poland  and  married  her  (1S46V  His  health 
was  already  seriously  impairea  by  excessive 
work  and  by  drinking  coffee  in  large  quantities 
as  an  habitual  stimnlns.  A  few  months  after 
his  return  from  Poland,  and  after  having  fitted 
nn  his  house  in  the  me  Fortun^e  (Champs 
^ysSea)  with  exquisite  works  of  art  for  a  per- 
manent reffldence,  he  died  of  hypertrophy  of 
the  heart,  and  was  buried  at  P^re  Lachaise, 
amid  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  Yictor 
lingo  pronouncing  the  funeral  oration.  IL 
I^are  ds,  aiater  and  biographer  of  the  preced- 
ing, bom  in  1800,  She,  married  M.  Allain,  sur- 
named  Snrville,  an  engineer.  She  wrote  fairy 
tales  and  other  stories  for  her  children,  which 
have  acquired  great  popularity.  Her  brother's 
novel,  Und^utdam  2a  tit«  (IMS),  was  founded 
upon  one  of  her  tales  entitled  Le  voyage  en 
Uoucau.  She  published  in  1868  £abae,  m  He 
et  ie»  aitvret,  containing  his  correspondence  and 
many  interesting  details  of  his  life. 

BILZAC,  Jeia  Lvib  Cms,  seigneurde,  a  French 
writer,  horn  in  Angonlfime  in  1694,  died  at 
Balsac,  Feb.  18,  1664.  His  father,  a  nobleman 
of  Langnedoc,  and  a  favorite  of  Henry  IV.,  as- 
sumed thename  of  Be  Balzac  after  a  small  estate 
on  the  Obarente.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Malherbe, 
accompanied  Cardinal  de  la  Valette  to  Italy,  and 
became  his  agent  in  Borne ;  and  on  his  return 
to  Pans,  when  his  correspondence  had  estab- 
lished for  him  a  high  literary  reputation,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  admired  visitors  of  the 
hfitel  Rambouillet,  a  favorite  of  the  bishop 
of  Lnjon,  afterward  Cardinal  Richelien,  and  a 
member  of  the  newly  established  French  acad- 
emy. His  rapid  success  excited  much  jealousy, 
especially  among  the  old  school  of  prose  writers 
and  the  order  of  tiie  Fenillants,  whose  general, 
Father  Gouln,  nnbliahed  a  most  vimlent  attack 
upon  him.  Bajzso,  weary  of  these  assaults,  left 
Paris  for  his  country  seat,  and  was  lience  called 
the  hermit  of  the  Charente.  Toward  the  end  of 
his  life  he  often  retired  for  reli^oua  meditation 
to  the  Capuchin  convent  of  AngoolAme,  where 
he  had  two  rooms  bnilt  for  bis  own  use.  He  dis- 
tributed large  amonots  among  the  poor,  and  be- 


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260  BAHBARBA 

qaeathed  Ainds  to  the  acAAemj  fbr  as  annaal 
prize  in  rbetoric,  which  is  still  distributed.  He 
was  CTeatly  admired  bj  Christina  of  Sweden, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  Arutippe.  Hie 
iVtnec,  a  fulsome  eulogy  of  Louis  JUII.,  and 
written  in  the  pompooa  style  characteristic  of 
Le  SoeraU  ehrilien  and  of  most  of  his  worts, 
was  censored  bj  the  SorboDoe.  He  contribu- 
ted mnch,  however,  to  improve  prose  writing, 
especially  b;  his  Letira  (new  ed.,  8  vols.,  Paris, 
1806).  A  complet*  edition  of  his  writings  by 
Caasaigne  in  2  voU.  folio  appeared  in  Paris  in 
1665,  and  a  select  edition  by  A.  Halitonme  in 
S  vols.  Svo  in  IB2S.  D.  F.  Morean  de  Meraau 
published  Ptn*Ua  de  Baleae  in  1607.  Abont 
200  of  his  MS.  letters  to  Chapelain  have  lately 
been  published  by  the  committee  of  historical 
monulnenta,  and  included  in  a  volume  entitled 
Milanget. 

BAHBIKU,  a  district  in  the  N.  W.  central 
part  of  Africa,  between  lat.  10°  and  16°  N.  and 
Ion.  6°  and  9°  W.  The  eastern  part  is  a  nearly 
level  plain,  ealyect  to  overflow  by  the  riven, 
which  tnm  a  considerable  portion  of  it  into 
marsh.  The  western  portion  is  hilly,  and  in- 
olades  the  eastern  vaes  of  the  Kong  monn- 
tains.  The  elimat«  is  snltry  except  in  the  hilly 
portions.  The  runy  season  begins  in  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  and  contJnnes  witn  violent  winds 
and  thnnder  until  November.  The  principal 
river  is  the  Joliba  or  Niger,  which  descends 
from  the  mountains  near  the  western  boundary. 
NnmeroDS  villages  lie  upon  the  banks  of  this 
stream.  Bambarra  prodnees  a  great  variety 
of  garden  vegetables;  the  indigo  plant,  which 
grows  spontaneously;  the  butter  tree,  which 
yields  an  ash-gray  butter,  an  article  of  trade ; 
and  some  nngalor  frnita,  one  of  which,  the 
rhamnui  Ictut,  is  acid  in  taste  and  resembles 
gingerbread  in  color.  Many  districts  have  ex- 
tensive forests  and  fine  postures.  Homed  cat- 
tle, sheep,  goats,  and  horees  of  a  fine  breed  are 
numerous.  Poultry  abounds.  The  rivers  sup- 
ply an  abundance  of  fish,  which,  when  dried, 
IS  an  article  of  considerable  trade.  The  abo- 
ri^nea,  who  are  the  peasuitry  of  the  country, 
ore  barbarous.  The  Moors,  who  have  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  towns  along  the  Joliba, 
exercise  a  great  degree  of  authority  with  the 
petty  sovereigns  of  tlie  country,  and  with  the 
Mandingoes  and  Foolahs,  two  large  negro  tribes 
fh>m  the  Kong  mountains,  who  are  Moslems. 
They  compose  the  great  part  of  the  population 
of  the  townsj  and  are  mechanics  and  merchants. 
The  towns  mhabited  by  these  tribes  and  the 
Moors  are  independent  of  the  rule  of  the  petty 
independent  chiefs.  Bambarra  has  a  very  ac- 
tive trade.  The  Mandingoes  export  ivory.  The 
Moors  carry  on  extenuve  commerce  through 
the  Sahara  with  the  countries  along  the  Medi- 
terranean. Besides  gold,  the  principal  articles 
of  commerce  are  slaves,  ivory,  and  coanie  cot- 
ton cloth,'  which  are  exchanged  for  salt  fWim 
the  desert,  tobacco,  hardware,  &c.  Chief  town, 
Bego ;  other  important  towns,  Bammakoo,  Nya- 
mina,  and  Sansanding. 


BAMBOOCIO 

BiMBiXfi,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  drda 
of  Upper  Fraaconia,  on   the   Lndwig'a   canal 

and  the  river  Kegnitz,  abont  4  m.  above  its 
confluence  witli  the  Main,  38  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
^Nuremberg;  pop.  in  1871,  2C,748,  including 
8,000  in  the  garrison.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Boman  Catholics.  The  town  is  well 
built  on  eminences  in  a  detightfhl  and  fertile 
region,  and  is  divided  by  the  Regnitz,  which 
is  crossed  by  five  bridges.  The  diuhes  of 
the  old  ramparts  Lave  been  converted  into 
gardens  and  promenades,  the  finest  of  the  lat- 
ter being  the  parks  of  the  Theresienhain  on 
the  Lndwig'g  canaL  The  most  remarkable 
public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  one  of  tJie 
nnest  in  Germany,  rebuilt  in  Byzantine  style, 
with  monimients  of  the  emperor  Uenn*  II. 
and  hie  consort  Cunigunda  and  of  Pope  Clem- 
ent 11.,  and  with  paintings  by  Tintoretto  and 
Vandyke;  and  the  former  nniveraty  and  pres- 
ent parish  church  of  St.  Martin,  built  by  the 
Jesuits  at  the  end  of  the  ITth  centnry,  noted 
for  its  internal  beanty,  with  a  college  and  £- 
brary.  The  collegiate  church  of  St  Stephen 
is  Prot«stant.  The  town  contains  an  infirma- 
ry founded  by  Bishop  Erthal,  several  medical 
schools,  and  a  botanical  garden ;  a  lyoeum,  once 
a  university  and  afterward  an  academical  gym- 
nasinm,  with  complete  courses  of  theoli^y,  phi- 
losophy, and  medical  science;  a  normal  school, 
and  many  other  schools.  The  royal  library 
contains  nearly  80,000  volnmes,  and  there 
are  many  learned,  artistic^  and  pbilanthrop- 
ical  institutions  and  associations.  The  prin- 
cipal corporation  is  that  of  the  gardener^  with 
OTer  700  members  and  a.  triennial  priie  for 


creased  by  railways  as  well  as  by  the  Ludwig's 
canal,  which,  extending  from  the  Regnitz  to 
the  Altmtlhl,  unites  the  Main,  and  throngh  it 
the  Rhine,  with  the  Danube.  The  view  ttom 
the  ruined  castle  of  Altenberg  is  among  the 
finest  in  Franconia.  The  town  is  supposed  to 
have  derived  its  name  and  origin  in  the  9th 
century  from  this  castie  of  the  counts  of  Baben- 
berg,  where'Philip  of  Swabia,  the  competitor 
of  Otho  IV,  for  the  crown  of  Germany,  was 
murdered  in  1208  by  Otto  of  Wittelsbach. 
Bamberg  was  formerly  on  independent  biah- 
opric ;  the  6lBt  and  last  prince-bisbop,  Bnsecl^ 
who  died  in  1805,  retired  with  a  pension  of 
40,000  florins  after  the  secularization  of  the  sea 
in  1801.  The  bishopric  then  included  an  area 
of  1,400  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  200,000. 
It  is  now  an  archbishopric,  with  jurisdiction 
over  the  bishoprics  of  WQribnrg,  EichstAdt, 
and  Spire.  The  Bamberg  conferences  of  1854 
related  to  the  addition  of  the  middle  German 
states  to  the  Anstro-Prnssian  onion, 

BIMBOCCIO  (little  child,  or  simpleton),  the 
Italian  nickname  of  FiFTES  VAN  LAsBorLiAn, 
a  Dutch  painter,  so  called  either  fVom  hia  Aitmy 


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^)pearaiice  (aocordin^  to  some  acconnts  he  was 

ft  cripple),  or  because  he  choae  his  subjects  from 
loir  life  {bamboceiate),  born  at  Laaren,  near 
Naarden  in  1613,  died  in  Haarlem  in  1673.  He 
spent  16  7ear8  in  Rome,  living  and  working 
with  Ponssin  and  01  nude  Lorraine,  and  acquir- 
ing celebrity  by  his  pictures  of  the  wild  haunts 
of  robbers,  of  mobs  at  pnblio  gatherings  and 
festivals,  and  other  delineatioDS  of  low  life  in 
Rome  and  its  vicinity.  In  anch  subjects  he 
was  the  bast  artist  of  his  day,  but  Wourer- 
man's  superior  finish  was  said  to  have  alfected 
him  to  snch  a  degree  that  he  killed  himself. 
Hany  of  bis  pictures  are  in  Vienna,  Augsburg, 
and  Florence.  He  etched  plates  from  hb  own 
defligns,  and  excelled  as  a  violinist. 

BUBOO  (baTtiivta  arundinaeea),  a  genns 
of  arborescent  grasses  fonnd  in  Asia,  and  in  the 
West  Indies,  hot  more  eitensively  used  in  China 
tfaaJi  any  otiier  coontry.  It  has  a  hard  woody 
texture  where  the  plant  has  attained  any  con- 
siderable growth,  with  hollow  jointed  stems. 
These  are  externally  coated  with  silex,  and  the 
plant  sometimes  secretes  the  same  substance 
between  the  joints  in  lumt«,  when  it  is  called 
taioMhse?:  Tlie  Chinese  reckon  an  endless  va- 
riety of  it,  one  Chinese  botanist  observing  that 
he  coold  not  name  all  the  kinds,  hut  would 
enmnerate  83  of  the  principal  varieties.  The 
bamboo  occupies  an  intermediate  place  be- 
tween grasses  proper  and  trees,  from  its  aze 
frequently  appearing  like  a  tree,  but  displaying 
gramineoQs  affinities  in  it«  internal  stractnre. 
Like  all  grasses,  it  is  nourished  from  the  pith, 
and  starts  from  the  ground  at  nearly  the  same 


tances  between  the  Joints  from  4  to  6  inches  in 
some  varieties,  and  in  others,  highly  prized, 
from  4  to  5  feet  The  leaves  are  small  and 
oval,  without  much  diverdty  of  form,  but  some- 


diameter  it  bears  in  maturity.  It  usually  grows 
to  a  height  of  40  or  KO  feet,  and  beyond  that 
rize  is  r^arded  as  extraordinary.  In  diameter 
it  varies  from  1  to  B  inches,  and  in  the  dis- 


Bunboo  I^aTM,  Floinm.  ind  FruU. 

times  of  a  reddish  and  bluish  hue.  The  color 
of  the  stems  is  generally  yellow,  but  the  Chi- 
nese possess  secret  arts  of  changing  this  to 

chestnut,  black,  &c, ;  the  black  bamboos  are 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  the  rich  like  any 
other  rare  plants,  and  the  emperor  is  said  to 
have  an  officer  connected  with  his  palace  whose 
sole  duty  is  to  attend  to  the  bamboos  in  the 
imperial  gardens.  The  culture  varies  greatly 
according  to  the  soil,  the  exposnre,  and  the 
variety  of  the  plant.  It  generally  requires  a 
sandy  soil,  where  the  roots  will  easily  pene- 
trate, and  it  is  extensively  grown  along  the 
shores  of  rivers,  partly  to  give  support  to  the 
banks,  although  the  plant  dies  if  ita  roots  touch 
the  water.  It  is  always  propagated  by  suckers, 
for  it  requires  SO  years  or  more  to  roach  the 
blossoming  period,  when  the  ]>lant  produces  a 
profuse  quantity  of  seed  and  dies.  Often  all 
the  mature  bamboos  in  a  large  district  flower 
at  once  and  then  die,  only  the  rootstocks  re- 
muning  to  send  up  new  shoots.  The  seeds  are 
edible,  and  in  1612  a  famine  was  avert«d  in 
Orissa  by  the  general  flowering  of  this  grass. 
In  1864  the  bamboo  flowered  in  the  Soona 
jun^es,  and  about  S0,000  people  gathered  tne 
seed,  camping  in  the  jungle  for  several  weeks. 
Planting  generally  takes  place  iu  the  spring 
and  autumn,  and  requires  very  slight  care; 
four  or  five  years  elapse  before  a  plantatton  is 
considered  ready  to  cut,  and  for  this  the  win- 
ter season  is  deemed  the  beat,  as  the  wood  is 
then  the  hardest.— Tlie  bamboo  may  indeed  be 
styled  the  national  plant  of  China,  and  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  put  by  the  natives  are 
almost  innumerable.  The  young  and  t«nder 
shoots  are  boiled  and  eaten,  or  preserved  by 
the  confeotioners,  and  as  sweetmeats  are  deli- 
cious.   The  roots  serve  many  curious  purposes. 


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362  BAMBOOK 

The  tobeg  are  in  constuit  use  in  man;  depatt- 
menta  of  hmnsn  mdostrj;  not  onlj  are  entire 
houses  and  bosta  made  of  tliem  in  Bome  oases, 
bnt  TwiouB  kindg  of  ornamental  screenwork  for 
interior  decoration;  aim  the  yards  of  vessels 
and  the  tacking  polee  by  which  boats  are  im- 
pelled in  calm  and  shallow  waters  Thestraight- 
«st  of  the  tnbes  have  been  nsed  for  astrooomi- 
oal  purposes,  and  cheap  aquedncta  are  in  com- 
mon nse,  formed  b;  fitting  the  enda  together. 
Sheda  are  made  from  the  oamboo  bj  softeninK 
it  in  water  and  flattening  the  aections,  and 
these  when  split  finer  are  made  into  rain  cloaka. 
Floata  t«  tie  on  the  backs  of  little  children  who 
live  in  the  boata  on  rivers,  as  well  as  the  poles 
by  which  strong  coolies  carry  burdens,  come 
anke  from  the  plant.  Water  wheels,  fences, 
rope,  uhairs,  tAblea,  bookcases,  boxes,  hats,  um- 
brellas, pipe  sticks,  fans,  fan  cases,  cnps,  meaa- 
nres  for  grain,  ghielda,  pike  and  spear  handles, 
and  paper,  all  are  formed  from  bamboo.  The 
pith  IB  ased  for  lamp  wicks,  and  exqnisite  carv- 
mgs  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver,  and  far  more 
elegant  than  ivory  work,  are  prodnoed  from  the 
hard  stems.  From  the  lai^  qaantity  of  silei 
in  the  wood,  thin  slices  make  good  knivea.  In 
the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean,  the  bamboo, 
like  the  breadfmit  tree  and  the  cocoanut,  en- 
ters largely  into  the  industrial  arte  of  all  the 
various  races.  The  Battaks  uid  tbe  Redjangs 
of  Sumatra  write  on  amall  polished  joints  of 
bamboo,  abont  one  inch  in  diameter,  begin- 
ning at  the  top  and  deBcending  spirally  to  the 
bottom.  In  Bnrmah  the  bamboo  is  so  exten- 
sively used  in  the  construction  of  houses,  that 
large  cities,  such  as  Rangoon  and  Prome,  are 
composed  ^most  entirely  of  bamboos.  These 
honaesare  lashed  together,  not  nailed,  and  eas- 
ily struck  and  removed  like  tents. — The  family 
iambuta^ea  comprises  £0  genera  and  170  spe- 
cies already  described.  Of  these  only  one  is 
found  in  America  north  of  Mexico,  none  in 
Europe,  and  hut  one  is  native  to  Africa;  and 
only  one  is  common  to  both  hemispheres,  dif- 
fering in  this  respect  from  all  other  graasee. 

BiOBOOE,  a  conntry  in  the  interior  of  Af- 
rica, between  lat.  12°  SO'  and  14°  SO'  S.  and 
Ion.  10°  30'  and  13°  15'  W.  It  is  ahont  140  m. 
in  length,  and  90  in  breadth.  It  is  rugged, 
though  the  greatest  elevation  nowhere  exceeds 
600  ft.,  and  is  watered  by  the  head  streams  of 
the  Senegal.  The  higher  region  is  barren  and 
naked,  but  the  lower  supports  an  exnberant 
vegetation.  The  baobab,  tamarind,  and  palm 
trees  reach  the  greatest  dimenuons.  The  soil 
produces  almost  without  cultnre  maize,  millet, 
cotton,  melons,  and  a  ^reat  variety  of  legumi- 
nons  plants.  Rice  is  yielded  by  the  low  lands, 
which  are  subject  to  overflow.  Large  herds 
of  cattle  roam  over  the  plains.  Lions  and  ele- 
phants are  nnmeroos.  Bambook  has  rich  gold 
mines,  whose  product  is  exchanged  for  salt. 
The  inhabitants  are  Mandingoes  of  a  vei?  low 
type,  and  extremely  numerous.  Bambook  was 
once  invaded  by  the  Fortugnese,  the  rnins  of  ' 
whose  forts  and  houses  are  still  to  be  seen.        | 


BAN 

BAMUH,  BaHyia,  or  BamUi)  a  valley,  paac^ 

and  ancient  town  of  Afghanistan,  about  60  m.  W. 
N,  W.  of  Cabool.  The  valley  lies  between  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  and  the  monnt^ns  of  Herat,  and 
is  important  as  the  only  route  practicable  for 
artillery  across  the  Himalaya  into  Independent 
Tnrkietan.  It  is  about  1  m.  wide,  12  m.  long, 
bounded  on  each  side  by  almost  perpendicnlai 
steeps,  and  crowded  with  remains  of  antiquity. 
The  town  occupies  the  sides  of  the  detached 
Ghoolghoola  hill,  in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  the 
dt«  of  the  old  city  of  Ghoolghoola,  destroyed 
by  the  Mongols  nnder  Genghis  Ehan  in  1221. 
Among  the  relics  are  gigantic  figures  cut  in  the 
rock  on  the  hill,  and  supposed  to  be  idols,  two 
of  which  are  over  180  ft.  high.  There  are  vast 
caverns  excavated  in  the  rocka,  extending  in  a 
series  for  upwards  of  6  m.  The  highest  eleva- 
tion of  the  Bamian  pass  is  about  8,600  ft.,  and 
further  south  are  paases  as  high  as  18,000  ft. 
Abont  8  m.  W.  of  uie  town  are  the  ruins  of  the 
castle  of  Zohak,  believed  to  hare  ori^nf 
from  that  mythical  conqueror,  and  where  o 
and  other  relics  were  lately  found. 

BUPTON  LECItEES,  a  series  of  lectures  or 
sermons  preached  before  the  nnivermtv  of  Ox- 
ford unce  1760,  according  to  the  will  and  en- 
dowment of  the  Rev.  John  Bampton,  reodent 
canoDofthecatbedralof Salisbury.  Theincome 
of  the  endowment  is  £120  per  annum.  The 
Bampton  lectures  consist  of  eight  annual  dis- 
courses, for  ever,  on  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
iog  themes:  I.  Ilie  divine  authority  of  the 
Scriptures.  2.  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  8.  The  articles  of  the  Christian 
fiuth  as  comprehended  in  the  Apostles'  and  the 
Nicene  creeds.  4.  The  authority  of  the  writings 
of  the  primitive  fathers  as  to  the  faith  and 
practice  of  the  primitive  chnrch.  G.  An  essay 
to  confirm  the  Christian  faith,  and  confnte  all 
heretics  and  schismatics.  One  person  is  to  be 
chosen  annually,  who  is  to  deliver  the  annual 
course  between  the  commencement  of  the  last 
month  in  Lent  term  and  the  end  of  the  third 
week  m  Act  term.  Thelectureristobe  chosen 
by  the  heada  of  the  colleges ;  he  must  have 
taken  the  degree  of  M.  A.  either  iVom  Oxford 
or  Cambridge ;  is  never  to  be  choeen  a  second 
time;  and  the  lectures  are  to  he  delivered  in 
SL  Mary's  church.  Within  two  months  after 
the  delivery  of  the  lectures,  80  copies  are  to  be 
printed  for  distribution  to  the  universities,  the 
mayor  of  Oxford,  and  the  Bodleian  library. 
They  are,  however,  generally  published. 

BIN  (Ran.  hdii.  a  corruption  of  the  Slavic 
pan,  lord),  the  title  of  the  governor  of  Croatia 
and  Slavonia;  formerly  also  of  the  governors 
of  various  other  provinces  belon^g  to  tbe 
Hungarian  crown. 

BJN,  a  proclamation;  in  old  English  and 
civil  law,  applied  most  commonly  to  an  excom- 
munication or  cnrse  publicly  pronounced  against 
those  who  had  been  or  should  be  guilty  of  cer- 
tain specified  offences.  In  Germany  sometimes 
persons,  cities,  or  districts  were  placed  nnder 
the  ban  of  the  empire  by  M»ne  public  act  or 


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procUoDfttion,  and  thereby  political  rights  and 
capacities  were  taken  awaj,  and  in  case  of  in- 
dividuals they  were  cut  off  from  aocietj  and 
deprived  of  rank,  title,  privileKes,  and  proper- 
ly.— The  ban  and  uriire  ban  or  France  was  the 
entire  feudal  levj  of  the  realm,  raised  by  pub- 
lic proclamation  (ban)  of  the  king,  denouncing 
penoltieB  against  all  who  should  fail  to  apoear. 
The  ban  comprised  all  the  great  vassals,  dold- 
ing  of  the  king  for  homage ;  the  arridre  baa  in- 
clnded  all  the  vassals  or  tenants  of  the  second 
class.  The  whole  baa  and  arri&re  ban,  there- 
fore, constituted  the  entire  military  force  o( 
the  crown  of  France  daring  the  feudal  ages, 
and  prior  to  the  establishment  of  standing  ar- 
mies. It  could  only  be  called  out  by  the  king 
in  person,  and  nsually  only  when  he  was  him- 
self in  the  Geld,  although  tiie  leading  of  it  ottea 
was  given  to  the  constable,  or  some  other  high 
officer  of  France.  The  calling  out  of  the  ban 
and  arriSreban  QsuaJly  implied  the  invasion  of 
the  soil  of  France;  the  revolt  of  some  great 
feudatories;  or,  in  some  serious  way,  the  su- 
preme peril  of  the  crown  and  state.  It  was 
attended  with  solemn  ceremonies,  and  on  the 
assemblage  of  the  powers  by  the  dintlaying  of 
the  ori/btmrtu,  or  sacred  banner  of  the  monar- 
chy, green,  langued  with  tongues  of  gold,  em- 
blematical of  Uie  fiery  tongues  of  the  Pento- 
co«t,  by  the  count  d'Harcourt,  who  was  the 
hereditary  holder  of  that  office. 

BIN  ANA  (tntwa),  the  most  important  of  tropi- 
cal fruits,  now  common  in  the  tropics  of  both 
hemispberes.  When  the  cutting  or  shoot  is 
planted  (and  it  requires  deep  rich  earth  and 


much  moisture  to  grow  in  perfection),  it  soon 
sends  up  two  leaves,  tightly  rolled  together  un- 
til the  green  roll  has  grown  two  or  three  feet, 
when  the  blades  unfold.  These  leaves  are  fol- 
lowed by  others,  until  the  stems  of  the  leaves 
have  formed  a  smooth  trunk  some  eight  or  ten 
inches  thick,  composed  wholly  of  the  oonoentric 


leaf  stems  or  petioles.  At  the  end  of  nine 
months  a  deep  [lurpte  bud  appears  in  the  centre 
of  the  leaves;  its  constantly  lengthening  stem 
soon  pushes  it  beyond  the  leaves,  and  it  hangs 
down  like  a  huge  heart.  As  the  purple  en- 
velopes of  tbe  bud  fall  off  rows  of  bads  are  dis- 
closed, extending  two  thirds  around  the  stem. 
Each  miniature  fruit  has  a  waxen  yellow  blos- 
som with  a  large  projecting  stigma  at  tbe  end. 
The  female  flowers  come  first  on  the  stem,  and 
nearer  the  end  are  the  smaller  male  flowers; 
both  are  full  of  good  honey.  Three  or  four 
months  are  required  to  ripen  the  fruit,  and 
during  the  process  the  rows  of  male  flowers 


nacas  S  to  14  inches  long,  and  the  huge  hunch, 
contwning  several  hundred  fruits,  hangs  from 
the  now  withering  plant,  which  soon  dries  up 
if  left  to  itself  From  its  base  spring  up  off- 
shoots which  may  be  tranaplantea,  and  if  the 
stem  is  out  down  as  soon  as  the  fhiit  is  gather- 
ed, the  round  bulbous  rootstock  sends  up  new 
leaves,  and  a  second  plant  matures  much  soon- 
er than  do  the  offshoots.  Although  most  ba- 
nana bunches  bong  down  in  matunty,  a  variety 
is  found  on  tbe  Society  Islands  whose  very 
large  bunches  of  deep  orange-colored  fVuit 
stand  up  erect,  forming  ornamental  rather 
than  nsefhl  objects;  for  their  taste  even  when 
cooked  is  acrid  and  disagreeable.  Tbe  Brazil- 
ian banana  is  tall,  rising  to  a  height  of  16  or  even 
20  feet,  and  the  fhiit  is  yellow  and  excellent, 
rather  vinous  in  flavor.  Tbe  Chinese  banana 
seldom  exceeds  five  feet  in  height,  the  leaves 
of  a  ulver  hue,  and  the  fruit  aromatic.  Tbe/it* 
or  Tahitian  banana  is  nmilar  to  the  Brazilian, 
but  not  BO  tall,  and  tbe  fruit  is  angnlar,  yellow, 
turning  black  when  fully  riue,  and  tbe  flesh  is 
salmon-colored  or  buff,  ana  slightly  acid,  A 
variety  with  a  red  skin  is  brought  from  tbe 
West  Indies,  and  a  very  small  bmana  is  found 
in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  The  botanical 
distinction  of  species  is  probably  not  well 
founded,  as  at  present  two,  M.  lapientvm  and 
if.  paradUiaea,  are  supposed  to  comprise  oil 
the  edible  varieties;  and  tlie  popular  names 
banana  and  plant^n  are  often  confounded,  thu 
latter  being  applied  to  the  cooking  varieties. 
ITsually  no  seeds  are  found  in  the  pulp,  but  at 
Akyab  and  along  tbe  coast  of  Arracas  a  kind 
is  common  full  of  seeds.  These  seeds  are  black, 
roogh,  08  large  as  cotton  seeds,  and  like  these 
enveloped  in  a  fibrous  coat.  The  Spaniards, 
fVom  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  trans- 
verse section  to  a  cross,  supposed  the  banana 
to  have  been  tbe  forbidden  fruit,  and  that 
Adam  saw  in  eating  it  the  mystery  of  re- 
demption by  the  cross.  Bananas  are  eaten 
raw,  either  alone  or  cut  in  slices  snd  with 
sugar  and  cream  or  wine  and  orange  juice. 
Cooked  when  green  or  ripe,  they  are  fried  alone 
or  in  butter,  baked  with  the  skins  on,  or  made 
into  puddings  or  pies.  They  may  be  cut  into 
strips  and  dried,  or  pounded  into  a  naste ;  In 
the  latter  form  they  are  the  staple  fooa  of  many 


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264 


BANANA  ISLANDS 


Meiioan  tribes.  The  amount  of  nonriBhiuent 
is  verj  great,  and  Humboldt  atatea  that  tha 
same  land  wbiob  produces  1,000  lbs.  of  pota- 
toee  will  jield  44,000  lbs.  of  bananas ;  a  surface 
bearing  wheat  enough  to  feed  one  man  will, 
when  planted  with  bananas,  feed  26.  The 
TOQDg  shoots  are  cooked  ae  greens,  bat  the  old 
leaves  (from  8  to  10  ft.  long  and  13  to  14  in. 
wide)  and  stem  are  full  of  a  wateiy,  acrid  juice, 
which  stains  white  cloth  an  indelible  black  or 
dark  brown.  The  fibres  of  the  leaves  make  a 
teitile  fabric  of  great  beaoty,  known  as  a  fine 
kind  of  grass  cloth.  The  plants  are  set  closely 
in  cultivation,  and  the  bunches  are  ^thered 
before  they  are  quite  ripe  and  hung  np  m  a  cold 
place,  or  better  still,  bnried  in  the  earth.  A 
plantation  will  yield  all  the  year  ronnd  by  tim- 
ing the  planting,  but  the  crop  is  much  more 
abnndant  at  one  season.  The  bunches  may 
weigh  80  or  even  100  lbs.  when  ripe. 

B1N1*M  ISUITDS,  three  small  islands  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  80  m.  S.  W.  of  Sierra  Leone, 
near  Cape  Shilling,  named  aJtar  the  largest,  4 
m.  long  and  1  m.  broad ;  lat.  8°  8'  N.,  Ion.  13° 
13'  W.  They  are  high,  fertale,  inhabited,  and 
visited  from  Sierra  Leone  on  account  of  the  sa- 
lubrity of  the  climate.  The  Rev.  John  New- 
ton, Uie  friend  of  Cowper,  spent  some  time 
here  in  the  service  of  a  slave-oealer. 

BINIKAL,  an  island  in  the  river  Aragnay, 
province  of  Goj^az,  Brazil,  also  known  as 
Santa  Anna.  It  is  SOO  m.  long  by  Sfi  broad, 
covered  with  a  dense  forest,  and  said  to  have 
in  its  centre  a  navigable  lake,  flO  m.  long  by  80 
wide.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  increase  of  the  banana  plants  intro- 
duced by  its  discoverer  in  1778.  There  are 
several  BraziUan  villages  of  fbo  same  name. 

BINIT  (Hun.  Bdrudg,  a  district  governed  by 
a  ban},  a  part  of  8.  Hungary,  compriwng  the 
counties  of  Toront&l,  Temee,  and  Krass6,  and, 
in  a  widw  sense,  tha  divisions  of  the  Military 
Frontier  ai^ning  these  oonntiea,  thns  bonnded 
W.  by  the  Theisa,  S.  by  the  Danube,  N.  by  the 
Uaros,  and  E.  by  the  momitain  ranges  which 
separate  Uongary  from  Wallachia  and  Tran- 
sylvania; area,  in  the  wider  sense,  sbont 
12,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  abont  1,300,000,  includ- 
ing Ufuiyars,  Germans,  Wallaohs,  Rascians  or 
Serbs,  Jews,  Bulgarians,  and  gypsies^  Abont 
one  third  of  the  Banat  ia  very  hilly,  the  rest 
level,  and  in  parts  swampy.  The  interior  is 
well  watered  by  the  Temes,  Earas,  and  Bega. 
The  Bega  canal,  nearly  90  m.  long,  is  within 
the  district.    Tlie  Banat,  though  not  unfre- 

anently  visited  by  Iwth  droughts  and  inunda- 
ons,  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Eu- 
rope, especially  in  wheat,  maize,  millet,  tobac- 
co, sumach,  and  frnit  Excellent  wine  is  pro- 
duced in  moderate  quantities;  game  and  fish 
ere  plentiAil.  The  minerals  include  iron,  oop-  i 
per,  and  also  some  gold,  silver,  and  zinc ;  ooal,  ^ 
nowever,  is  the  principal  mineral  production,  j 
The  Romans  formed  several  settlements  in  the 
Banat,  on  account  of  the  mild  climate.  Devas-  | 
tated  by  the  Turks,  It  was  wrested  ftom  them  { 


BANOA 

in  1716  by  the  Anstrians,  who  governed  it  for 
some  time  as  a  military  district,  TemesvAr  be- 
ing its  capital.  The  Banat  proper  was  sepa- 
rated from  Hungary  in  1949  to  form  with  the 
connty  of  B&cs  a  new  Austrian  crownland  un- 
der the  name  of  Voivodina  or  Serb  waywode- 
ship  of  Banat  of  Temes ;  but  It  was  raanited 
to  the  kingdom  in  ISflO.  In  the  summer  of 
1S72  the  Banat  was  deeolated  by  inundadons 
of  uncommon  magnitude. 

BINBITKT,  a  market  and  borough  town  in 
Oxfordshire,  England,  on  the  river  Cherwell, 
M  m.  N.'W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  4,10fl. 
It  has  a  considerable  trade.  The  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements  has  become  impor- 
tant, and  the  town  has  much  improved  within 
20  years.  The  large  church  is  an  imitation  of 
St.  Paul's  cathedral.  Banbury  tarta  and  Ban- 
bury cheese  are  famone  all  over  England. 

BANCA,  an  island  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
between  i»L  1°  30'  and  8°  8'  S.,  and  Ion.  106° 
9'  and  10fl°  Gl'  E.,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the 
China  sea,  S.  by  the  Java  sea,  and  on  the  W. 
separated  from  Sumatra  by  the  strait  of  Banca, 
ISA  m.  long,  one  of  the  chief  highways  of 
European  commerce  in  the  eastern  seas ;  area, 
abont  6,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869,  69,000,  in- 
cluding abont  22,000  Chinese  and  IfiO  Euro- 
peans. Banca  is  chiefly  known  by  its  inex- 
haustible tin  mines,  the  annual  product  of 
which  was  estimated  in  1873  at  about  9,000,000 
pounds,  chiefly  exported  frvm  Batavia.  The 
digging,  washing,  and  smelting  of  the  alluvial 
tin  ore  are  entirely  in  the  haais  of  the  Chinese 
population,  who  receive  advancea  from  the 
Dutch  government,  which  exercises  a  monop- 
oly of  me  produce.  Of  the  indigenous  popu- 
lation, about  one  third  are  the  oran^  fwutnp, 
laoaattiiD  men,  savages  whom  the  Dutch  have 
not  been  able  to  civilize  to  any  extent.  They 
are  scattered  abont  in  sq>arBte  familiea,  and 
snbiflst  chiefly  upon  the  spontaneous  products 
of  the  forest  and  the  meat  of  wild  hc^s.  On  the 
coast  are  the  Sikas  tribee,  mmilar  to  the  Bqiana 
or  sea  gypsies  in  habits,  though  differing  from 
them  in  language.  They  dwell  in  boats  and  live 
by  fishing  and  piracy.  The  Chinese  are  sub- 
jected to  severe  restrictions  by  the  gofemment, 
and  none  are  allowed  to  remwn  beyond  a  certwn 
period.  The  Chinese  fleet  arrives  with  the  N. 
W.  monsoon,  with  sometimes  8,000  and  8,000 
coolies.  They  are  directly  governed  by  Uieir 
tapallai,  or  captains,  as  in  other  parl«  of  th« 
archipelago,  who  are  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment ^e  island  is  crossed  by  a  chun  of 
mountains,  the  highest  peak  of  which  ia  abont 
3,800  ft  high.  This  chain  has  the  same  di- 
rection as  that  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  and 
of  the  plntonic  part  of  Sumatra,  mnninff 
from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  and  the  same  geological 
formation.  The  main  component  of  the  moon- 
tains  is  granite,  containing  tin,  gold,  and  iron. 
Next  to  the  granite,  and  in  utnations  of  less 
elevation,  there  oconrs  an  eitentdve  forma- 
tion of  red  ironstone,  the  laterite  of  geologists, 
and  io  the  lowest  lands  an  alluvial  formuion, 


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intermixed  with  soDdstone  and  brecciaa,  among 
which  occor  the  washing  of  tin  and  gold  The 
soil  of  Banoa  is  decidedly  sterile.  Bewdes  tin 
mining,  the  only  indnstry  conasta  in  the  lim- 
ited cu]tivadon  of  rice  and  of  a  few  fi-uits  and 
Tegetablee.  The  whole  ialand  ia  covered  with 
foreata,  the  marahj  parts  being  impenetrable. 
The  most  valuable  prodacta  c^  the  forest  for 
trade  are  eaglewood,  ebony,  and  chiefly  bees- 
wax. Of  animals,  there  are  two  species  of 
wild  hog,  the  same  as  those  of  Java,  which 
are  very  nnmerons,  a  stag,  the  pigmy  deer  or 
kanchil,  and  the  Molayaii  bear.  The  priaci- 
pal  port  is  Minto  or  Mnntok,  formerly  tlie 
seat  of  the  Dutch  governor  (who  now  residea 
at  Bonca  Eota),  and  of  a  small  garrisoD :  it  is 
dtnated  on  the  shore  of  the  safest  roadatead 
on  the  Htraita  of  Banca,  in  lat.  3°  8.,  ton.  105° 
0'  K,  and  cont^ns  aboot  8,000  inliabitants, 
chiefly  Chinese. — Tliis  ialand  attracted  no  at- 
tention till  the  discovery  of  its  tin  in  1709. 
The  sultan  of  Palembang  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish a  monopoly  of  it;  but  the  Dutch  sent  an 
expedition  to  force  a  treaty  upon  him,  securing 
to  themaelvea  the  right  of  preemption  at  a  very 
small  price.  The  island  was  occupied  by  the 
English  daring  the  Napoleonic  reign  in  Ilolr 
land,  but  restored  to  the  Dotoh  after  the  res- 
toration of  the  hoase  of  Orange.  The  Dut«h 
in  1818  restored  the  old  sultan  Badr-Oodin, 
whose  treachery  brought  on  a  bloody  war  of 
two  years,  ending  in  1821  with  the  triamph  of 
the  Dutch,  who  have  since  held  the  island. 

BUtCEOFT,  AarM,  an  American  clergyman, 
bom  in  Reading,  Mass.,  Nov.  10,  1765!  died 
in  Worcester,  Haas.,  Ang.  19,  1839.  lie  was 
educated  in  the  Calvinistio  system,  but  was  sub- 
sequently led  to  a  belief  more  nearly  resem- 
bling that  of  Arraiiuiis,  Grotias,  and  Looke. 
When  the  American  revolution  broke  ont,  he 
<rften  took  a  place  in  a  company  of  "minute 
men,"  and,  thongh  then  a  collegian,  was  a 
volnnteer  at  Lexington  and  Banker  Hill.  He 
gradnated  at  Harvard  college,  studied  theology, 
and  h^an  at  once  to  preach.  Of  the  next  five 
years  of  bis  life,  three  were  passed  in  Nova 
Scotia.  In  1785  he  was  settled  permanently  in 
Worcester.  Beddee  occasional  sermons,  chiefly 
in  defence  of  relifpous  liberty,  he  printed  in 
ISOO  A  enlogy  on  Washington,  and  m  1807  a 
life  of  Washington,  which  was  reprinted  in 
England  in  1608,  and  has  been  very  widely  cir- 
culated in  the  United  States.  In  1823  be  pub- 
lished a  votame  of  doctrinal  sermons,  directed 
chiefly  against  the  dogma  of  unconditional 
election.  His  protest  againut  Calvinism  long 
preceded  the  rise  of  the  Unitarians,  and  thongh 
m  the  latter  part  of  hia  life  he  was  pretu- 
dent  of  the  Americnn  Unitarian  association,  he 
would  never  discard  the  name  or  the  system 
of  Congregationalism.  He  was  a  doctor  of  dl- 
Tinitj  of  Harvard  college. 

BllKSOET,  Edwari,  an  En^ish  naturalist  and 
physidan,  died  in  1821.  He  resided  long  in 
America,  where  he  was  intimately  associated 
with  Franklin  and  Priestley.     Se  wrote  an 


ROFT  265 

"  Essay  on  the  Nataral  History  of  Guiana  "  (Lon- 
don, 1769),  which  contained  mcch  information 
at  that  time  new,  partionlarly  on  account  of  the 
woorali,  or  vegetable  snbataiice  employed  by 
the  Indians  to  poison  their  arrows.  He  also 
publiahed  "Experimental  Besearchea  coDcem- 
mg  Permanent  Colors,  and  the  Best  Means  of 
Procnring  tham"  (3  vols.  8vo,  2d  ed.,  I^ndon, 
181S},  which  was  translated  into  German. 

BJNCBOFT,  Ce»rg«j  an  American  historian 
and  statesman,  son  of  the  Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft, 
boru  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  8,  1800.    He 

Eursued  his  preparatory  stadias  at  Exeter,  N. 
I.,  and  in  1813  entered  Harvard  college,  where 
he  gave  special  attention  ta  metaphyaica  and 
morals,  and  acquired  a  strong  predilection  for 
the  writings  of  Plato.  He  graduated  in  181T, 
and  almost  immediately  sterted  for  the  univer- 
sitiea  of  Germany.  In  QOttingen,  where  he 
remained  for  two  years,  he  studied  under  the 
most  learned  professors  of  tlie  time,  includ- 
ing Eichhom,  Heeren,  and  Blnmenboch,  with 
nearly  all  of  whom  he  had  close  personal  ao- 

SDiuntanee,  He  applied  himeelf  to  German, 
'renoh,  and  Italian  literature,  the  oriental  lan- 
guages and  the  interpretation  of  the  Scripturea, 
ecclesiastical  and  other  ancient  history,  natural 
history,  the  antiquities  and  literature  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  besides  pursuing  a  thorough  coarse 
of  Greek  philosophy.  He  selected  hiatory  as 
hia  special  branch  of  study.  Having  received 
at  G6ttingen  in  1620  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philoBophy,  he  rep^red  to  Berlin,  where  he 
continned  his  studies,  and  became  intimate  with 
Schleiermocher,  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  6avi- 
gny,  Lappenberg,  Vamhagen  von  Enae,  and 
other  distinguisfaed  literary  persons.  He  also 
carefally  ohserved  the  administration  of  the 
Pnis^n  government  in  many  of  its  departments. 
Inthespringof  1831  he  b^an  a  Journey  through 
Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  He  had 
already  in  a  GCttingen  vacation  seen  Dresden, 
and  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Goethe  at 
Jena.  At  Heideiberg  he  spent  some  time  in 
study  with  the  hiatorian  Sohlosser.  In  Paris 
he  became  acquainted  with  Conain,  Alexander 
von  Humboldt,  and  Bei^amin  Constant.  He 
passed  a  month  in  England,  travelled  on  foot 
through  Switzerland,  and  spent  eight  months 
in  Italy,  forming  an  acquaintance  with  Uanzoni 
at  Uilan,  and  a  triendship  with  Chevalier  Bnn- 
sen  at  Rome,  where  he  also  knew  Niebubr. 
In  1822  he  returned  to  America,  and  accepted 
for  one  jeai  the  office  of  tiilAr  of  Greek  in  Har- 
vard university.  During  this  year  he  preached 
several  sermons,  yet  he  seems  not  long  to  have 
entertained  the  thought  of  entering  the  cler- 
ical profession.  In  1628,  in  coi^nnction  with 
Dr.  Joseph  G.  Cogswell,  he  estebiished  the 
Round  Hill  school  at  Northampton.  He  pub- 
lished at  this  time  his  translation  of  Heeren's 
"  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece,"  and  a  small  vot- 
Qme  of  poems,  and  he  was  ^so  busily  meditat- 
ing and  collecting  materials  for  a  hiatory  of 
the  United  Stetes.  In  183fl  he  delivered  at 
Northampt<m  an  oration,  in  which  he  avowed 


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hb  principles  to  be  fbr  universal  saffrage  sad 
naoompromising  democracy.  He  waa  elected 
in  1880,  witliont  big  knowledge,  to  the  legis- 
lature of  Hassacbnsetts,  bnt  reused  to  take  hia 
seat,  and  the  year  after  he  declined  a  nomina- 
tion, though  certain  to  have  been  elected,  for 
the  senate  of  hia  state.  In  1884  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  "History  of  ttie  United 
States."  In  18S5  he  drafted  an  address  to  the 
people  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  request  of  the 
young  men's  democratio  convention,  and  was 
for  a  time  actively  engaged  in  political  speak- 
ing, and  in  drawing  np  resolutions  and  ad- 
dresses. He  removed  in  this  year  to  Spring- 
field, where  be  resided  three  years,  and  com- 
pleted the  second  volume  of  his  history.  In 
1838  be  was  appointed  by  Premdent  Van  Bnren 
collector  of  Boston.  Dnties  were  at  that  time 
paid  by  bonds,  and  unpaid  bonds  had  aocnmn- 
lated  to  a  large  amonnt  as  debts  to  the  ^vcrn- 
nient ;  but  not  a  single  bond  taken  during  the 
term  of  Mr.  Bancroft  was  nnpaid  at  the  time 
when  he  resigned  the  office,  and  his  collectdona 
amounted  to  several  millions.  He  was  at  this 
period  a  frequent  orator  in  political  assemblies, 
was  pursuing  his  studies  zealously,  and  was 
particularly  interested  in  the  philosophical 
movement  subsequentij  known  as  transcenden- 
talism. In  1840  the  third  volume  of  his  history 
was  published.  In  1844  he  was  nominated  by 
the  democratio  party  for  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and,  though  not  elected,  received 
more  votes  than  any  candidate  has  received 
either  before  or  since  on  the  purely  democratio 
ticket.  During  the  canvass  he  was  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  studying  monnacripts  and  docn- 
ments  illustrative  of  our  early  history.  After 
the  accession  of  Mr.  Polk  to  the  presidency  in 
1846,  Mr.  Bancroft  entered  the  cabinet  as  sec- 
retary of  the  navy.  He  signalized  his  adminis- 
tration of  this  office  by  the  establishment  of 
the  naval   academy   at   Annapolis.     The   ira- 

Srovement  of  education  in  the  navy  had  been 
esired  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  but  little 
had  been  done  to  promote  it,  and  Mr.  Bancroft 
was  the  first  to  design  a  school  for  the  naval 
service,  corresponding  to  the  military  school  at 
West  Point  At  his  request  the  secretary  of 
war,  with  the  approval  of  the  preudent,  made 
over  to  the  navy  department  the  military  fort 
and  grounds  at  Annapolis,  and  the  school  was 
at  once  set  at  work  ty  Mr.  Bancroft  who  re- 
ceived tor  the  purpose  all  the  appropriations 
for  which  he  asked.  He  was  also  influential 
in  obtaining  additional  appropriations  for  the 
Washington  observatory,  and  in  introducing 
some  new  professors  of  great  merit  into  the 
corps  of  instractors.  A  reform  in  the  system 
of  promotion  in  the  naval  service  being  re- 
quired by  many,  he  planned  a  method  by  which 
promotion  should  depend  not  on  age  alone, 
but  also  on  experience  and  capacity ;  but  his 
scheme-was  never  fully  developed  or  applied. 
While  secretary  of  the  navy  Mr.  Bancroft  gave 
th»  order  to  take  possession  of  California,  and 
it  was  carried  into  effect  before  he  left  the 


naval  department.  During  his  term  of  offioQ 
he  also  acted  as  secretary  of  war  pro  tern,  for 
a  month,  and  gave  the  order  to  Gen,  Taylor  to 
march  into  Texas,  which  caused  the  first  occn- 
pation  of  Texas  bythe  United  Stales.  In  1843 
Mr.  Bancroft  exchanged  his  position  in  the 
cabinet  for  the  office  of  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Great  Brittdn.  He  successfully  urged 
upon  the  British  ministry  the  adoption  of  more 
liberal  laws  of  navigation.  The  arrest  of  some 
Irish  Americans  gave  him  an  opportunity  also 
to  vindicate  the  rights  of  naturalized  American 
citizens;  and  at  bis  demand  they  were  set 
free.  During  his  residence  in  England  he  made 
many  friends  among  tbe  men  of  letters  of  that 
conntrv.  In  184S  the  university  of  Oxford 
made  him  a  doctor  of  civil  law,  and  he  had 


stitute.  He  used  the  opportunity  of  his  resi- 
dence in  Europe  to  perfect  his  collections  on 
American  history.  He  mode  several  visits  to 
Paris,  to  study  the  archives  and  libraries  of 
that  city,  being  aided  in  his  researches  by  Gni- 
zot,  Mignet,  Lamartine,  and  De  Tooqneville. 
In  England  the  ministry  opened  to  him  the 
records  of  the  state  paper  office,  embracing  a 
vast  array  of  military  and  civil  oorrespondenoe, 
and  also  the  records  of  the  treasury.  In  the 
British  museum,  also,  and  in  private  oollectitms, 
he  found  valuable  manuscripts.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1849,  took  up  his  residence 
in  New  York,  and  began  to  prepare  for  the 
press  the  fourth  and  tatth  volumes  of  hia  his- 
tory, which  were  published  in  1853.  The  Mxth 
volume  was  issued  in  I8S4,  the  seventh  in  18S8, 
and  the  eighth  soon  after.  Up  to  1866  he  de- 
clined any  public  office,  though  aeveral  were 
tendered  him,  and  reiuded  in  New  York,  en- 
gaged in  literary  labor.  In  Febmary  of  that 
year,  attherequestof  Congress,  he  delivered  an 
address  in  memory  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  The 
ninth  volume  of  his  history  also  appeared  dur- 
ing that  year.  On  May  14, 1867,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Prussia,  and  accepted  the 
office;  in  1866  he  was  accredited  to  the  North 
German  confederation,  and  in  18T1  to  the  Ger- 
man empire.  Under  his  auspices,  important 
treaties  concerning  the  naturalization  of  Ger- 
mans in  America  were  conclcded  with  the  va- 
rious states  of  the  confederation  in  February, 
1868.  In  August  of  the  some  year  Mr.  Bancroft 
received  from  the  university  of  Bonn  the  hon- 
orary degree  of  Doctor  Juris,  and  in  September, 
1870,  he  celebrated  the  60th  anniversary  of 
receiving  his  first  degree  at  GOttingen.  On 
this  occasion  he  was  congratulated  by  many 
German  societies  and  faculties,  as  well  as  by 
prominent  men  of  severiU  nations.  He  stiU 
gives  much  of  his  time  to  labor  on  his  unfin- 
ished "History  of  the  United  States,"  and  has 
the  tenth  and  last  volume  nearly  ready  for 
the  press  (1878).  Mr.  Bancroft  is  a  member 
of  many  American  and  foreign  learned  sode- 
ties.  Be^des  the  works  mentioned  above,  he 
has  published  numerous  essays  in  the  "North 


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BiKCBorr 

Ametioan  Review "  and  other  periodicals,  a 
collection  of  which  has  been  made  nnder  the 
title  of  "Miflcellantes"  (New  York,ieSG).  Mr. 
Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United  States"  oe- 
capies  a  vetj  prominent  place  not  onlj  in  the 
hietorioal  literature  of  his  own  country,  bat  in 
that  of  the  world,  ainoe  it  ia  everywhere  a  rec< 
OKnized  authority  conceminK  the  period  which 
it  coven.  It  ia  not  merely  a  narrative,  but  a 
philosophic  treatise,  dealing  with  causes  and 
principles  ub  well  as  events,  and  tracing  with 
remarKable  skill  the  progress  of  enlightenmant 
and  liberal  ideas.  -It  has  been  tran^ated  into 
various  languages,  and  ia  especially  popular  in 
QennaDy. 

BIMCKAFT,  Uckarl,  an  English  prelate,  bom 
at  Famwortn  In  September,  1644,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  2, 1610.  HewflschaplaintoSirChris- 
topber  Hatton,  and  afterward  to  Archbishop 
Whitgift,  through  whose  and  Lord  Burleigh's 
influence  Elizabeth  nominated  him  in  IGST 
bishop  of  London.  The  qneen  employed  him  in 
1600  on  a  diplomatic  miasion  to  Germany,  and 
be  attended  on  her  deathbed.  James  I.  pro- 
moted him  in  1104  to  the  archbishopric  of  CaO' 
terbury.  For  nearly  a  generation  he  preached 
against  popery  ■  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
dupntation  before  James  at  Hampton  Contt 
between  the  ohnroh  of  England  and  the  Pres- 
byterian or  Paritan  party,  the  meoanres  of  the 
govemment  being  afterward  formed  according 
to  his  views;  became  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  regulating  the  aSairs  of  tlie  established 
cbnrch  and  repressing  the  publication  of  ob- 
noxiona  works ;  and  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
coonoil,  and  shortly  before  his  death  chancel- 
lor of  Oxford.  He  published  in  1598  "Ban- 
gerons  Positions  ana  Proceedings,  pnbliahed 
and  practised  within  this  Island  of  BrytAine, 
nnder  Pretence  of  Reformation,  and  for  the 
Prosbjteriall  Discipline,"  and  "A  Borvey  of 
tile  pretended  Holy  Discipline." 

BIHDA  ISLUTDS,  a  duster  of  ten  small  islands 
belonging  to  Holland,  in  the  Molucca  group 
of  the  Eastern  archipelago,  in  the  Banda  sea, 
about  60  m.  8.  of  Ceram,  between  lat  S°  Sff 
and  4°  80'  S.,  and  Ion.  12S°  SO'  and  130°  E. ;  area, 
abont  130  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  fl,0OO,  including 
Papna  negro™,  Chinese,  and  Dntch.  About 
800  of  the  natives  are  Christians.  Lontoar,  or 
Great  Banda,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  about 
12  m.  long  and  2^  m.  wide.  It  is  almost  unin- 
habitable on  account  of  unheal  thin  ess.  Keira, 
or  Banda  Neira,  120  m.  E.  8.  E.  of  Araboyna, 
is  the  seat  of  the  Dutch  authorities,  and  con- 
tains the  forts  IfaseaQ  and  Voorzigtigheid,  and 
the  old  castle  Belgica,  a  good  harbor,  and  ex- 
tensive stores.  The  Gonong  Api  or  Fire  monn- 
tuus,  N.  of  Banda  Neiro,  derive  their  name 
from  the  volcanic  cone  Api  (fire),  abont  2,000 
ft.  high,  which  constantly  emits  smoke  and 
somebmea  cinders  and  ashes.  There  have  been 
many  disastroua  eruptions,  and  in  1662  an 
eart^oake  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, and  obliged  the  inhabitants  to  seek  refiige 
in  Amboyna.    The  chief  valae  of  the  islands  is 


BANBEL 


267 


for  the  production  of  nutmegs.  The  planta- 
tions, which  cannot  be  divid^i  or  Bold,  were 
worked  by  alaves  nntil  the  proclamation  of 
emancipation,  Jan.  1,  1860,  ainoe  which  time 
tliey  have  been  cultivated  partly  by  Java  con- 
victs. The  number  of  persona  employed  ex- 
ceeds 2,600,  and  the  trade  is  virtnally  monop- 
olized by  the  Dutch  East  India  company.  The 
annual  average  production  is  estunated  at 
700,000  lbs.  of  nutmegs  and  180,000  Ibe.  of 
mace.  Sago  and  cocao  are  also  produced.— The 
islands  were  discovered  in  1612  by  Antonio 
Abreu,  a  Portuguese,  whose  countrymen  seiied 
them  in  1584,  but  were  expelled  in  1600  by  the 
Dntch.  Shortly  afterward  the  Dutch  ordered 
the  wholesale  execution  of  the  indigenous  Malay 
settiers  for  the  murder  of  AdmiraJ  Verhoeven 
and  46  naval  officers.  The  English  conquered 
them  March  8, 1796,  restored  them  to  the  Neth- 
erlands after  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1801,  and 
reoccnpied  them  from  1810  to  1814;  hnt  the 
final  restoration  to  the  Dutch  authorities  was 
delayed  till  1817,  owing  to  a  difference  respect- 
ing the  partition  of  the  expenditures  which 
had  accrued  in  the  interval. 

BAVDl  OUEKTiL.    See  UarouAT. 

BUfDAUU,  Gauala  Amm*,  sumamed  the  Por- 
tngneee  Nostradamus,  bom  at  Trancoeo,  prov- 
ince of  Beira,  died  in  Lisbon  in  1666.  He  was 
a  cobbler,  addicted  to  improviaing  religious 
versea  and  prophecies,  and  was  in  1641  perse- 
cuted by  the  inquisition,  but  allowed  to  return 
to  his  trade.  A  clandestine  edition  of  what 
purported  to  he  his  improvisations  (Trotat  re- 
dondilhai)  was  printed  in  1681 ;  this  has  been 
regarded  as  spurious,  end  a  rival  edition  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1608.  A  Portugueee  mieMonary  in 
Brazil,  Antonio  Vieyro,  was  visited  with  severe 
punishment  by  the  inquiution  for  predicting 
the  resurrection  and  triumphant  reign  of  John 
IV.,  in  accordance  with  Bandarra' a  prophecies 
of  a  fifth  empire  of  the  world,  liis  led  to 
new  editions  of  the  predictions,  especially  cue 
issued  in  Nantes,  and  they  have  been  asso- 
ciated with  the  sect  of  the  Sebastianista,  who 
had  many  followers  at  the  time  of  the  French 
invasion,  and  who  f^om  a  mystical  interpreta- 
tion of  these  prophecies  predicted  the  return 
of  King  Sebastian  to  the  throne  for  1808. 
Bandarra  having  been  altogether  illiterate,  tho 
work  ascribed  to  him  must  hare  been  penned 
by  another  hand.  Writers  of  the  17th  century 
called  him  the  holy  cobbler  (o  tapateiro  lantc). 

BANDEL,  Jmtfk  Erut  TM^  a  German  scnlptor, 
bom  at  Anspacb,  May  17,  1800,  died  Sept.  26, 
187S.  He  studied  at  Nuremberg,  Mnnion,  and 
Rome,  and  is  best  known  for  bia  colossal  na- 
tional monument  of  Arminins,  on  the  summit 
of  the  Grotenberg,  near  Detmold.  The  statue 
ia  of  copper,  00  feet  bigh.  The  work  was  be- 
gun in  1888,  and  suspended  for  want  of  funda, 
after  a  Gothic  temple  98  feet  high  liad  been 
erected  for  the  pedestal,  and  the  statue  had 
been  made  in  detached  pieces.  An  association 
was  formed  in  18Q2  to  collect  subscriptions. 
In  1871  the  German  government  appropriated 


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268  BAITDELLO 

10,000  ttialera  for  the  work,  and  on  Aag.  IT, 
18TS,  it  was  anveiled  with  Eplendid  ceremonies. 
In  the  delicaoj  and  eleK&noe  of  his  works  in 
marble,  Bandel  was  haralj  inferior  to  Oanova. 
Among  hia  beat  works  are  stataea  of  Sbake- 
Bpeare  and  Qoldoni  for  the  Uanovor  theatre. 

BIMDELLO,  IiOm,  an  Italian  novelist,  born 
at  Caatelnuovo  Scrivia,  near  Aleasandria,  in 
1480,  died  in  Agen,  France,  about  15S2.  He  was 
a  Domiaioan,  accompanied  hia  imcle,  general 
of  thia  order,  on  his  travels  in  Italj,  and  was 
teacher  in  Milan  of  Lucrezia  Qonzaga,  whom 
he  celebrated  in  his  Canti  delta  lode  della  S. 
Lu^eiia  Gomaga  (Agen,  1645).  In  1626, 
haying  aided  with  the  French,  he  had  to  fl; 
from  Milan,  and  fonnd  an  asjlom  with  Cesare 
Fregoso,  an  Italian  general  in  the  French  ser- 
vice, after  whose  death  be  remained  an  inmate 
of  hia  familj  at  Agen.  Appointed  in  1660  by 
the  king  of  France  biahop  of  Agen,  he  accepted 

Eart  of  the  emolument  of  this  office,  its  datiea 
eing  discharged  bj  the  bishop  of  Grasse,  while 
he  prepared  for  publication  his  Novelle,  ot  talea, 
the  MSS.  of  which  had  lieen  recovered  by  Lis 
friends  from  the  incendiaries  of  hia  Uilanese 
residence.  Thej  were  ased  bj  Shakespeare  in . 
"Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "Twelfth  Night,"  and 
"Much  Ado  about  Nothing;"  by  Hassinger  in 
hts" Picture;"  and  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
in  "The  Maid  of  the  Mill  "and  "The  Triumph 
of  Death."  He  translated  the  Hecuba  of  Eurip- 
ides, and  wrote  poetry  {Rime,  Turin,  1816)- 
but  his  fame  rests  on  his  ^ovelle,  published 
at  Lucca  in  3  vola,,  1554  (4th  vol.,  Lyons,  1573) ; 
more  complete  editions  are  those  of  London  (4 
vola.,  1740 ;  fl  vols.,  1791-'8)  and  Milan  {9  vols., 
1813-'14).  The  most  recent  Italian  edition  ia 
that  of  Turin  (4  vols.,  1863). 

BINDEBA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texaa,  watered 
bv  the  Bio  Medina;  area,  938  sii.  m. ;  pop.  ia 
1870,  648,  of  whom  18  were  colored.  Stock 
rising  is  the  principal  industry.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  earily  raia«l,  and  hogs  thrive  on  the 
mast,  which  is  abundant.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  16,678  bushels  of  Indian 
com,  6,530  Iba.  of  wool,  and  9,096  of  butter. 
There  were  281  horses,  898  milch  cows,  5,108 
other  cattle,  8,208  sheep,  and  866  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Bandera  City. 

BtKDeni!)!,  Terwa,  an  Italian  poetess,  born 
in  Lucca,  Aug.  12,  1TS3,  died  April  S,  1837. 
She  was  at  Hrst  a  ballet  dancer,  but  soon  left 
the  stage  and  acquired  celebrity  as  an  im- 
provisatrice.  In  1T89  she  married  Signor  Pie- 
tro  Landucci,  a  gentleman  of  Lucca.  Great 
honors  were  showered  npou  her  in  Borne  and 
other  cities  hy-tiie  neople  aa  well  as  by  poets 
and  academies;  and  she  was  equ^y  admired 
for  acoomplishmenta  and  virtues.  Her  works 
include  Jtimt  dirertt  (1788) ;  La  Morte  di 
Adtme,  a  poem  in  four  cantos ;  and  Tl  Polidoro. 
She  was  versed  in  several  languages,  and  trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  and  Greek  with  ease. 

BANDICOOT  (peTnmtle*),  a  marsupial  animal 
of  small  size,  inhabiting  the  stony  regions  of 
the  interior  of  S.  E.  Australia.    Its  appearance 


BANDIERA 

is  somewhat  rat-like,  and  in  its  long  aDont 

shrew-like.  The  teeth  are  sharp  and  numer- 
ous, the  incisors  being  6  above  and  3  below, 
the  canines  1,  the  premolars  S,  and  the  molars 

4.  on  each  side  in  each  jaw.  The  head  is 
elongated,  the  back  arched,  and  the  mode  of 
progression,  from  the  union  of  the  2d  and  8d 
toea  of  the  hind  feet,  the  smollness  of  the  hind 
thumb  and  outer  fore  toe,  and  aeparatJon  from 
the  others,  consists  of  a  gait  between  a  jump 
and  a  run ;  the  marsnpiid  pouch  opens  back- 
ward. The  most  common  speoiea,  the  band- 
ed bandicoot  (P.  fatdata),  is  about  18  inch- 
es long,  of  a  blackish  yellow  color,  banded  on 
the  hinder  parts;  it  runs  with  great  speed, 
lives  upon  roots,  seeds,  inaeota,  and  grubs,  and 
its  Seah  is  est«emed  by  the  natives.  The  long- 
nosed  bandicoot  has,  aa  its  name  imports,  a 
longer  and  sharper  snout,  and  a  harah  fur  of  a 
brownish  and  blaokiflh  color  above  and  white 
below ;  the  body  is  IS  inches  long  and  tbe  tail 

5.  It  prefers  vegetable  food,  and  is  sometimes 


Banded  Budkoot  (Penmelea  bkiata), 

deetrnctive  in  the  gardens  of  the  colonists,  its 
long  and  powerful  claws  enabling  it  t«  dig  up 
roots  with  great  facility.  The  haudiooots 
make  a  nest  of  dried  grass  and  leaves,  care- 
Inlly  concealed  at  the  foot  of  a  dense  bosh. — 
The  ehmrcpu*,  an  allied  animal  of  New  Sooth 
Wales,  has  two  toes  of  equal  length  on  the 
fore  feet,  with  sharp  hoof-like  claws  resembling 
those  of  a  pig ;  the  tail  is  long  and  rat-like. 
It  is  a  slender,  graceful  animal,  with  very  Inrge 
ears ;  it  is  of  the  size  of  a  smaJl  rabbit,  and  its 
Air  is  very  soft ;  its  speed  is  considerable,  and 
it  eats  both  vegetable  substances  and  insects. 

BiimiERl,  ittllU  and  EhU*,  Italian  patriots, 
bom  respectively  in  1817  and  1819,  executed 
at  Cosenza,  July  26,  1844.  They  were  lien- 
tenants  in  tbe  Austrian  navy,  and  were  the 
sons  of  on  Austrian  vice  admiral  of  a  noble 
Venetian  family.  Joining  the  conspiracy  far 
ItaUan  freedom,  they  took  refuge  in  Oorfti  in 
March,  1844,  whence  with  20  others  they  ef- 
fected a  landing  in  Calabria  June  1 6 ;  but  being 
betrayed  by  one  of  their  nnmber,  they  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Neapolitan  forces  near  San 
Giovanni  in  Fiora.  The  two  brothers  were 
snmmarily  executed.  Their  patrioti«n  aid  he- 
r<nc  spirit  created  a  strong  sympathy  in  their 
favor  in  England,  where  Sir  James  Graham, 


Digitized  byGoOgIC 


BANDIN3XLI 

then  poetniABter  general,  was  severelj  censared 
for  hia  Bupposed  abare  id  their  tate  bj  opening 
and  discloeing  their  correspondence  with  Maz- 
&ni.  In  Fnmiw,  Desohamps  and  LoaiBe  Collet 
wrote  poetry  in  their  honor,  and  in  Italy,  Mo^ 
rini'a  work  on  their  martyrdom  had  a  wide 
circulation,  as  wel!  as  Ricciardi'a  SUrria  dei 
JraUlli  B.  e  eomorti  (Florence,  1883). 

BAKDOfiUJ,  BiMto,  an  Italian  acolptor,  bom 
in  Florence  in  1487,  died  there  in  1559.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  eminent  goldsmith,  atndiad 
Boulptnre  and  punting,  and  eventually  devoted 
Umaelf  eiclnaively  to  the  former  art.  Among 
hia  best  works  are  a  statne  of  Orpheoa,  copied 
from  the  Apollo  Belvedere ;  a  group  of  Adam 
and  Eve;  a  copy  of  the  famons  group  of  the 
Laocodn,  in  regard  of  which  he  boaateu  of  hav- 
ing surpassed  the  original,  which  gave  rise  to 
llwbel  Angelo's  remark,  Chi  va  dietro  ad  al- 
euno,  non  puo  tnai  pauare  inami,  "He  who 
follows  another,  can  never  pass  b^ore  him; " 
the  "Descent  iK>m  the  Orosa,"  the  "Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Lawrence,"  the  "Massacre of  the  In- 
DocentA,"  and  the  colossal  Hercnlea  and  Caooa, 
beddes  many  fine  bass-relief^  His  works  dis- 
play a  great  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  much 
fertility  of  imagination,  but  are  deSoient  in 
grace  and  elasticity.  He  was  of  an  envions 
nature,  and  was  charged  with  having  destroyed 
one  of  Michel  Angelo'a  celebrated  cartoons.  He 
was  patroniMd  by  the  popes  and  by  Charles  V., 
and  left  a  lai^  fortune. 

BUfDOJf.  I.  A  river  in  the  county  Cork,  Ire- 
land, rises  in  the  Carberry  mountains,  near  Dun- 
manway,  and  after  an  E.,  N.  E.,  and  S.  E.  course 
of  40  m.  enters  the  Atlantis,  forming  Einsale 
harbor.  It  ia  navigable  for  veaeels  of  200  tons 
to  Iniuahannon,  10  m.  inland.  IL  Or  Baa4M- 
taUga,  a  town  of  Ireland,  county  Cork,  utnated 
Ml  both  aides  of  the  Bandon,  15  m.  S.  W.  of 
Cork ;  pop.  in  1871,  8,074.  It  is  well  buUt  of 
stone,  haa  several  schools,  and  was  once  a  pros- 
perons  manufacturing  t«wn. 

BUTDTKS,  or  Ba»dtUe.  I.  JcKT  SaBHl,  a  Fo- 
liah  historian,  bom  in  Lublin,  Soy.  24,  1768, 
died  in  Cracow,  June  11,  1835.  He  was  edur 
cated  in  Germany,  was  a  private  tutor  in  St. 
Petorabnrg,  teacher  and  rector  at  Breslau,  and 
librarian  and  professor  in  the  univeraity  of  Cra- 
cow. He  wrote  a  Pollah-German  dictionary 
and  grammar,  a  history  of  printing  in  Cracow 
and  in  Poland,  and  other  works,  tiie  principal 
of  which  is  his  Dzit^a  naroda poUkUgo  ("His- 
tory of  the  Poliah  Nation,"  8d  ed.,  2  vols., 
Breslao,  18S5).  U.  Jaa  Wbuutj,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  bom  in  Lublin  in  1783,  died  in 
Warsaw  in  1851.  He  was  for  over  20  years 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  nniveraity  of 
War«aw,and  published  editions  of  the /lu  Cul- 
menae  (Warsaw,  1614),  and  the  Jun  Polrmieum 
(Brealan,  1881),  and  a  history  of  Polish  law 
(BUtcrya  prawa  polahUgc,  Waraaw,  1850). 

BAHEB,  Jahaa,  a  Swedish  general,  bora  near 
Stockholm,  June  23,  15B5,  died  in  fialberatadt. 
May  10,  1641.  Hia  father,  one  of  the  cooncU- 
lors  of  Oliarles  IX.,  gave  that  king  some  of- 


BA:ETaALOfiE  269 

fenoe,  and  was  executed  at  LinkCpIng  in  1300. 
Under  Onstavus  Adolphus  the  son  took  an 
active  part  in  the  conflicts  with  Bnasia  and  Po- 
land, and  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  distingaiahed 
himself  at  Ldpsio  (1831),  where  he  defeated 
the  right  wing  of  the  imperialists  under  Pappen- 
heim,  contributed  toward  the  oonqnest  of  Augs- 
burg and  Munich,  became  commander  of  an  im- 
portant section  of  the  Swedish  army,  and  suo- 
oeeded  in  ooqjanotion  with  Horn  in  expelling 
Aldringer  from  liavaria.  After  the  death  of 
GastavuB  Adolphus  he  was  invested  by  Oien- 
stierna  with  the  supreme  command  of  the  army. 
He  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Wittstook,  Sept. 
24,  1888,  and  a  still  more  dedsive  triumph  at 
Chemnitz  in  168B,  otter  which  he  overran  and 
devastated  the  whole  of  Germany,  hia  harah 
and  over'bearing  nature  intenail'ying  the  calami- 
ties of  the  war.  Hisattempt  in  1641  toaelze  the 
emperor  and  diet  at  Katiahon  was  frustrated  by 
the  difficulty  of  crossing  the  Danube.  He  was 
overtaken  by  illnesa  on  his  return  from  the  ei- 
pedition,  and  his  death  was  attributed  by  some 
to  poison  and  by  others  to  hia  licentious  and 
intemperate  habits.  He  hod  few  superiors  in 
reckless  dving  and  gallantry  in  the  field.  The 
king  of  Prance  called  him  nis  cousin,  and  the 
emperor  endeavored  in  vain  to  secure  his  aer- 
vicea  by  offering  him  a  princely  titie  with  Wat 
lenstein'a  estates  aa  a  fief. 

BiNFF,  or  BaaC  a  parliamentary  borough, 
seaport,  and  the  chief  town  of  Banf^ire,  Scot- 
land, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Deveron  (crossed 
by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches),  near  the 
entrance  of  that  river  into  the  Moray  IHth, 
117  m.  K.  of  Edinburgh,  and  88  m.  K.  W.  of 
Aberdeen;  pop.  in  1871,  7,489.  It  is  a  fine 
town,  and  has  been  a  royal  bnrgh  aSnoe  the 
end  of  the  14th  century;  thread,  linen,  hoaery, 
soap,  and  leather  are  mannfaotured.  Herring, 
cod,  and  salmon  fisheries  are  active,  the  salmon 
being  sent  to  London,  packed  in  ice.  Com 
and  cattle  are  likewise  exported.  There  are 
about  100  registered  vessels. 

BlNFFSaUE,  or  Baa^  a  county  in  the  N.  of 
Sootiand,  bordering  on  Moray  frith ;  area,  686 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  83,010.  The  surface, 
more  than  half  of  which  ia  uncultivated,  is 
mountainous  except  near  the  coast;  Ben  Mao 
Dhni  (4,298  ft.  high)  and  Cairngorm  (4,060  ft.) 
lie  partly  within  the  county.  The  rivers  Avon 
and  Spey  form  portions  of  the  western  boun- 
dary, and  the  Deveron  part  of  the  eastern. 
The  lowlands  are  fertile;  cattle-breeding  ia  the 
principal  induatry.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  enga^d  in  fishing,  weaving,  bleaching, 
flax-dreaaing,  tanning,  and  diatiUing.  Oaims 
or  tumuli  are  found  in  the  county. 

BINS,  or  Ba«|,  a  narcotic  made  of  the  leaf 
of  a  kind  of  hemp  (caanabit  Indica),  used  by 
the  orientala  as  a  means  of  intoxication.  It 
ia  generally  chewed.  It  ia  also  sometimes  given 
with  tobacco,  or  in  coffee  or  other  drinks,  and 
is  nsed  to  drug  persons  with. 

BINGIUOE,  a  fortified  city  of  southern  In- 
dia, in  the  state  of  Mysore,  175  m.  W.  of  M»- 


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2T0 


BANGKOK 


Ana;  pop.  in  1S67  estimated  140,000,  mostly 
Hindoos,  It  waa  foonded  by  Hyder  Ali,  nnder 
whom  it  rose  rapidly.  Lord  Corawalli«  took 
it  by  assault  in  1791,  and  after  the  Engliah 
withdrew  Tippoo  Sub  partially  dismantled  the 
fortress  and  drove  away  the  wealthy  merchants 
by  his  heavy  exactions.  On  the  death  of  Tip- 
poo the  territory,  thongh  ruled  by  a  native 
sovere^n,  came  under  British  protection,  and 
revivea  rapidly.  The  town  has  considerable 
trade  with  all  parts  of  S.  India  in  salt,  sagar, 
spices,  metals,  dyestafis,  ulk,  cotton,  and  wool. 
Silk  and  cotton  tissues  are  woven  for  home 
consumption.  The  town  is  on  an  elevated  site, 
and  is  a  plaee  of  resort  for  invalids. 

BiKeKOK,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Siam,  situated  on  the  river  Menam,  about  20 
m.  from  its  month,  in  lat.  13°  58'  N.,  Ion,  100° 
S4'  E, ;  pop,  about  600,000,  more  than  one 
tiiird  of  whom  are  Chinese,  120,000  Siamese, 
and  the  rest  Malays,  Burmana,  Arabs,  and  Hin- 
dooa  The  Menam  is  here  ahont  1,300  ft  wide, 
and  BufBoiently  deep  for  vessels  of  large  size. 
When  the  capital  was  first  established  at  Bang- 
kok the  honses  were  bailt  on  the  banks  of  the 
river;  but  so  frequent  were  the  invasions  of 
the  cholera  that  one  of  the  kings  commanded 
the  people  to  bnild  on  the  river  itself  for  the 
purposes  of  better  ventilation  and  drainage. 
The  privilege  of  building  on  the  banks  now  is 
reserved  to  the  members  of  the  royal  family, 
the  nobility,  and  persons  of  political  influence. 
A  double  and  sometimes  a  triple  row  of  fioat- 
ing  booses  extends  for  miles  on  the  river. 
These  are  wooden  structures  built  on  rafts  of 
bamboo  linked  together  with  chains,  which  are 
made  tiist  to  piles  planted  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream.  The  stores  are  situated  together  with 
the  housw  or  form  parts  of  them,  and  every 
house  has  a  canoe  attached  to  it.  Some  of  the 
prisons  are  grated  and  hung  like  bird  cages 
over  tlie  water,  and  in  those  on  land  the  pris- 
oners are  chained  together  in  gangs.  In  Bai^- 
kok  there  are  20,000  priests  supported  by  the 
Tcriuntary  contributions  of  the  pnbiic.  There 
are  also  American  and  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions here.  On  the  land  the  pagodas  and  the 
£hra-eha-d^ei  or  minarets  that  crown  some  of 
e  temples  are  elaborately  ornamented  with 
mosfdoeof  fine  porcelain  inldd  with  ivory,  gold, 
and  silver,  while  the  doors  and  windows  are 
overlaid  with  sculptures  of  grotesque  figures 
fh>m  the  Buddhist  and  Brohminical  mytholo- 
gies. Near  the  grand  palace  are  three  hi^h 
colomna  of  elegant  design  inlaid  all  over  with 
variegated  stones,  and  very  richly  gilt.  These 
monuments  mark  the  graves  of  several  kings 
of  Siam.  The  royal  pslace  is  a  citadel  sur- 
rounded by  triple  walls  and  fortJfled  with  bas- 
tions. Each  of  the  separate  buildings  is  cruci- 
form, and  the  new  palace  forms  wiUi  the  old 
one  the  arms  of  a  cross.  On  one  ride  of  the 
palace  are  the  temples  and  monasteries  dedi- 
cated to  the  sleeping  idol,  and  on  the  other  the 
palace  and  harem  of  the  second  king.  The 
sleeping  idol  is  a  reclining  figure  IQO  ft,  long 


BANGOR 

and  40  ft.  high,  entirely  overlaid  witii  plate 
gold,  and  the  soles  of  its  feet  covered  with  bass- 
reliefs  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl  and  chased 
with  gold,  each  separate  design  representing 
one  of  the  many  transmigrations  of  Buddha^ 
Near  this  temple  is  the  palace  of  the  white 
elephant,  and  ftirther  on  the  temple  of  the 
emerald  idol.  The  latter  is  a  remarkable  and 
beautiful  stmcture,  with  Gothic  doors  and  win- 
dows richly  ornamented  with  gold,  and  the  roof 
supported  by  lofty  octagonal  columns,  the  ceil- 
ing covered  wilii  mythological  symbols  and 
figures;  the  altar  is  a  pyramid  100  ft.  high, 
terminating  in  a  fine  spire  of  gold.  The  eme- 
rald idol  is  about  12  inches  hieo  and  6  in  width. 
The  gold  of  which  its  hair  and  collar  are  com- 
posed is  mixed  with  crystals,  topazes,  sapphires, 
diamonds,  and  other  preoions  stones.  Three 
miles  below  the  capital  are  the  royal  dockyards, 
under  the  supervision  of  English  shipwrights. 
The  heat  in  the  summer  months  is  intense. 
Trade  is  mostly  carried  on  by  water.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  commerce  are  lac,  ivory,  rice, 
cotton,  opinm,  silk  and  silk  stufta,  sago,  sugar, 
guavo,  birds'  nests,  mungo,  danries,  coffee,  co- 
coanuts,  black  pepper,  hides,  horses,  tobacco, 
gums,  teak,  tin,  sandal,  rosewood,  and  eagle- 
wood.  There  are  numerous  factories  of  tin, 
iron,  and  leather.  The  foreign  trade  is  nearly 
monopolized  by  llie  government.  The  valae  of 
the  exports  in  1860  was  (6,906,860,  of  which 
$2,278,880  was  carried  in  Siamese  and  the  rest 
in  foreign  vessela  The  invoice  value  of  cargoes 
imported  was  $3,76S,S50,  of  which  $2,722,716 
was  carried  in  Siamese  vessels.  The  coontry 
surrounding  Bangkok  contains  rich  iron  mines 
and  extensive  forests  of  t«ak, 

BANGOK,  a  city,  seat  of  justice  of  Penobscot 
county,  Maine,  and  a  port  of  entry,  on  the  W, 
bank  of  the  Penobscot  river,  at  its  Junction 
with  the  Kendoskeag,  abont  66  m.  A-om  the 
ocean  and  60  m.  N.  E.  of  Augusta;  pop.  in 
1800,  16,407;  in  1870,  18,289.  It  has  a  safe 
and  capacioas  harbor,  accesrible  at  the  highest 
tides,  which  rise  17  teet,  to  the  largest  Tessela. 
The  city  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Kenduskeag,  and  several  convenient  bridges 
across  that  river  connect  the  two  divisions. 
There  is  also  a  bridge  1,S20  ft,  lon^;  across  the 
Penobscot,  connecting  Bangor  with  Brewer. 
Many  of  the  streets  are  broad  and  well  shaded 
with  elm  trees.  The  chief  public  building  is 
the  cuBt«m  house,  a  handsome  granite  structure, 
which  cost  $100,000,  Bangor  is,  next  to  Chi- 
cago,  the  greatest  depot  of  lumber  on  the  conti- 
nent, 200,000,000  feet  being  frequently  received 
in  a  year.  The  head  waters  of  the  Penob- 
scot traverse  immense  forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
and  hemlock.  The  cutting  and  hauling  of 
this  timber  to  the  river  in  the  winter,  driving, 
booming,  sawing,  and  rafting  it,  and  loading 
it  on  veasels  in  the  harbor,  give  employment 
to  a  large  number  of  men.  About  2,000  ves- 
sels are  annually  engaged  in  this  trade,  dnring 
the  eight  or  nine  months  in  which  the  river  is 
free  from  ice.    The  city  is  also  the  oentre  of  a 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BANGOR 

fine  asrioQltDral  district.  The  Bangor  theo- 
logical semiuarj  n^rinitariBii  Congregational), 
originsllj'  establiglied  id  ISIB  at  Hampden,  6 
m.  below  the  city,  occupies  an  elavKted  posi- 
tion,  overlooking  tho  citj  and  the  Peuobscot 
river.  In  1870  it  had  4  professorB,  24  stodecta, 
a  library  of  13,000  volumes,  and  an  endowment 
of  1120,000.  There  are  14  chnrches  (3  Con- 
gregations), S  B^ttiat,  S  Methodist,  1  Free-will 
Baptist,  1  UniTeraolist,  1  Toitarian,  1  Episco- 
pal, S  Catholic,  and  1  Second  Advent),  58  piib- 
Uc  aohools,  6  national  banks,  8  state  banks,  2 
savings  banks,  and  1  dailj  and  1  weekly  newR- 
paper.  The  Bangor  library  association,  foand- 
ed  in  1848,  has  11,000  volumes.  The  value  of 
real  and  personal  estate  in  ISSO  was  18,016,80], 
and  in  1870,  |9,861,S61.  The  city  is  connected 
with  Portland,  Boston,  and  other  points  on  the 
coast  by  two  lines  of  steamers.  By  means 
of  the  Maine  Central  r^lroad  it  has  railroad 
connection  with  Waterville,  Belfast,  Angasta, 
Bath,  Portland,  &c  The  European  and  North 
American  rulway  affords  the  only  all-rail  ronte 
between  Bangor  (where  it  connects  with  the 
Maine  Central  railroad)  and  St.  John,  New 
Brunswick,  a  distance  of  206  m.  The  imports 
far  tho  year  ending  June  30,  1871,  amoauted 
to  $51,094,  and  the  exports  to  $163,886.  The 
clear&Does  for  foreign  ports  were  2Q  American 
veaselH,  of  5,777  tons,  and  66  foreign,  of  6,2S2 
tons;  entrances,  4  American  vessels,  of  1,039 
tons,  and  47  toreign,  of  4,414  tons.  In  the 
coast  trade  284  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  190,237  and  S,3ia  men,  entered,  and 
S2  vessels  ot  3,618  tons  cleared.  The  number 
of  vessels  re^stered,  enrolled,  and  licensed  was 
192,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  26,669;  and 
there  were  9  vessels,  of  626  tons,  engaged  in 
the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery. — Bangor  was  in- 
corporated as  a  town  in  1791,  and  as  a  city  in 
1BS4.  It  was  named  by  the  Rev.  Beth  Nohle 
Awn  the  tnne  "  Bangor." 

Vill60R>  I.  A  cttj  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ODgh  of  GamarvoDshire,  Viues,  situated  at  the 
head  of  Beanmaris  bay  on  the  Meniu  strait, 
ii  m.  from  the  Britannia  bridge,  and  0  m.  N. 
E  of  Carnarvon;  pop.  of  the  city  in  1871, 
9,788.  It  exports  slate^  and  is  mnch  resorted 
to  for  sea  bathing.  A  cathedral  of  the  15th 
and  16th  oentnriea,  oocnpying  the  ate  of  a 
church  supposed  to  have  been  built  in  the  6th 
centary,  a  tree  school  foonded  in  the  time  of 
Ejiubeth,  and  an  episcopal  palace,  are  its  most 
interesting  bnildings.  IL  A  seaport  town  of 
Ireland,  connty  Down,  on  Belfast  Lough,  12 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Belfast;  pop.  in  1871,  2,626. 
It  has  fisheries,  and  is  a  place  of  resort  for  bath- 
ing; It  was  the  seat  of  a  fixnons  monastery 
mpposed  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  lAe  6th  centory. 

UNGS,  Xatkaa,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, bom  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  May  2,  1778, 
died  May  8,  1862.  He  entered  the  itinerant 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  chnrch  in 
ISOl.  Ait«r  seven  years  of  labor  in  the  Cana- 
dian provinces,  and  a  t«rm  of  ministerial  ser- 

70  VOL.    IL— 18 


BANIAN 


271 


vice  in  the  Albany  district,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  cityof  New  York  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
in  1820  s^nt  of  the  Methodist  book  concern, 
and  editor  of  the  books  published  hy  this  hoase. 
After  an  official  term  of  eight  years,  he  was 
chosen  editor  of  the  "  Christian  Advocate  and 
Journal."  In  1839  he  was  elected  bishop  of 
tlie  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  Canada,  but 
declined  the  appointment.  From  1832  to  1836 
he  was  editor  of  the  "Methodist  Magazine"  and 
"Quarterly  Review,"  having  also  been  con- 
tinoed  in  the  editorial  supervision  of  the  books 
pablished  by  the  book  concern  since  1820. 
From  183S  to  1841  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Methodist  mianonary  society,  and  then  became 
president  of  the  Wesleyan  tinivendty,  at  Mid- 
dletown,  Conn.  Resigning  this  office,  he  re- 
turned to  the  regular  pastoral  work,  and  re- 
mained a  member  of  the  New  York  conference 
to  the  time  of  his  death.  Dr.  Bangs  was  the 
author  of  nnmeroas  controversial  works,  amonc 
which  are  "  The  Errors  of  Hopkinwanism," 
"Predestination  Examined,"  "Reformer  Re- 
formed," "Life  of  Arminios,"  &e.  He  also 
wrote  me  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  Freeborn  Garrett- 
son,"  "  History  of  Missions,"  "  Ori^nal  Church 
of  Christ,"  "Letters  on  Banetiflcation,"  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  " 
(4  vols.  12mo),  a  standard  work. 

BiNUUKl,  a  fortified  town  of  Turkey  in 
Enrope,  in  the  province  of  Bosnia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Verbas,  90  m.  N,W,  of  Bosna-Seru; 
pop.  aboDt  16,000.  It  contuns  40  moeqnes,  sev- 
eral ooUeges,  pablio  baths,  a  cathedral,  uid  a 
powder  mill. 

BlflllN,  or  Bnyn  (fiau  religioia  or  Indxaa), 
a  fig  tree  of  the  East  Indies,  remarkable  for  its 
manner  of  growth  and  longevity.  The  fruit  is 
red  and  not  much  larger  than  a  pea,  and  the 
seeds  are  minute,  but  covered  with  a  hard 
testa  which  protects  them  from  the  digestive 
organs  of  the  birds  who  seek  the  fig  as  food. 
The  birds  plant  the  seeds  in  crevices  of  stones 
or  boUdings,  or  on  t^eel^  and  with  the  neces- 
sary moisture  they  germinate  in  these  places, 
sending  their  roots  into  and  widening  the 
chinks,  or  down  the  moist  bark  of  the  tree  ott 
which  the  seed  hsa  been  dropped,  and  the  plant 
grows  rapidly  into  a  broad,  spreadins,  although 
not  very  lolty  tree,  whose  horizontal  branchea 
send  down  roots  as  slender  fibres  until  they 
reaoh  the  earth,  when  the  growth  is  reversed 
and  the  depending  rootiet  becomes  an  ascend- 
ing tmnk  equalling  or  even  snrpas^ng  the 
parent  stem.  A  famous  banian  stood  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nerbudda  which  could  shelter 
7,000  men,  and  others  cover  more  than  IS 
acres.  They  are  &eqnentiy  foand  near  temples 
and  on  the  mounds  where  the  Hindoo  widows 
have  performed  suttee,  as  the  birds  are  at- 
tracted to  these  places.  The  figs,  although 
small,  are  abundant,  insipid  in  taste,  and  of 
mild  medicinal  properties.  The  leaves  are  of  a 
bright  green  and  form  a  dense  shade,  efifect- 
nally  preventing  the  growth  of  uDderbmsh. 
They  are  abont  five  inches  in  length  and  four 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


in  width,  and  Eire  downy  on  both  rid«a  wben 
jouDg,  becotnine  smooth  and  brilliant  as  the; 
gw>w.  The  Brahmins  nse  the  leaves  as  plates 
and  dishes.  The  bark  is  sappoeed  by  the  Hin- 
doos tA  be  a  powerfiil  tonic ;  and  thej  use  the 
white  gum  of  the  tree  as  a  cure  for  the  tooth- 
ache, or  apply  it  as  a  healing  plaster  to  the 
feet  when  cnafed  or  bruised.  Bird-lime  is  also 
made  from  this  gam.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
is  porons  and  almost  nseless, 

BlNUl  L  JefcB,  an  Irish  novelist  bom  in 
EUkennj,  April  8,  1T98,  died  near  Kilkenny, 
Ang.  1  1842,  In  his  youth  he  went  to  Dnb-  ■ 
lin  and  afterward  to  London  to  seek  literary 
employment,  was  beftiended  by  Bhiel,  and  in 
bis  S4th  year  won  a  brilliant  Baccees  by  bis 
tragedy  of  "Damon  and  Pythias,"  pf^ed  by 
Macready  and  Kembia  at  Covent  Garden. 
Soon  afterward  he  h^an  with  his  brother 
Michael  a  series  of  novels  illostrative  of  Irish 
life,  which  appeared  in  1826  under  the 
title  of  "Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family,"  and 
were  followed  in  1828  by  a  second  series. 
"TheBito' Writin',"  " Boyne  Water,"  "The 
Denounced,"  "The  Nowlana,"  "The  Smug- 
gler," and  other  stories  appeared  at  short  in- 
tervals, and  nearly  all  became  very  popular. 
Banim  died  in  poverty,  and  in  his  latter  years 
was  supported  chiefly  by  a  pension  from  the 
government.  U.  IDcfcael,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  in  Angnst,  1796.  He  assisted  his 
brother  in  the  "  Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family," 
and  ia  the  author  of  "The  Croppy,"  "Father' 
Oonnell,"  "Crohooreof  Bill-boo^"  "TheGhost- 
hnnter,"  "  The  Mayor  of  Wind  Gap,"  &o. 

BiKISTEE,  or  Hallhi  Cairt  Hmk,  a  post  vil- 
lage of  HaUfox  CO.,  Virginia,  on  the  Banister 
mer,  10  m.  above  its  conllaeDce  with  the  Dan, 
and  120  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Bicfamond ;  pop.  in 


1870,  8,731.  The  Richmond  and  Danville  rail- 
road paaaes  through  it,  and  the  river  is  navi- 
gable for  bateaux  from  its  mouth  to  Meadville, 
10  m.  above  Banister.  Bis  milea  from  the  vil- 
lage there  is  a  plmnbogo  mine. 

UNJEKMi88Ilf,  or  Ba^iiiaiHli.  I.  A  large 
state  of  S.  E.  Borneo,  governed  by  a  sultan 
subordinate  to  the  Dutch  government;  pop. 
vaguely  estimated  at  about  S00,0O0,  nearly  all 
Mohammedans.  It  borders  on  the  atrut  of 
Macassar,  and  u  bounded  W,  by  the  Banjer 
river.  Arangeof  mountains,  some  of  them  over 
S,000  ft.  high,  mns  throegh  the  district  Iron, 
diamonds,  and  excellent  coal  are  foond,  *nd 
the  natives  are  noted  for  their  skill  in  making 
all  kinds  of  arms.  Pepper  is  the  most  im- 
portant product  of  the  soil.  The  trade  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Chinese.  The  Dutch  settled 
here  in  1747,  and  in  1787  mode  a  treaty  with 
the  sultan  by  which  their  supremaoy  was 
recognized  ia  couMderation  of  their  aid  in  re- 
pelling an  invasion  from  Celebes.  The  British 
Seat  India  company  seized  Ba^jermaBsin  in 
1811,  but  restored  it  in  1817.  IL  The  chief 
town  of  the  preceding  state,  and  capital  of  the 
Dutch  residency  of  the  B.  and  £.  coasts,  mta- 
at«d  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Banjer,  about 
16  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Java  sea ;  lat  3° 
23'  S.,  Ion.  1 14°  87'  E. ;  pop.  about  16,000.  The 
bouses  ore  r^ed  on  piles,  the  ate  being  fre- 
quently inundated,  and  most  of  the  traffic  is 
carried  on  in  boats.  There  is  a  fort,  which 
encloses  the  Dutch  resident's  house,  barracks, 
&o.  Pepper,  benzoin,  bezoar,  rattana,  iron,  and 
birds'  nests  are  eiported.  The  imporla  include 
rice,  salt,  sugar,  opium,  gunpowder,  ulk,  &c. 

BANJO  (corrupted  from  banAm,  a  species  of 
guitar),  a  muMcal  stringed  instrument  roach 
esteemed    by  the    negroea   of  the    soothera 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Tnited  SUtea.  Its  cspaoit?'  !a  limited  to  the 
performance  of  simple  tanas,  find  it  is  purely  an 
inBbnmeiit  of  acoompaiiiment  Its  head  and 
neek  are  shaped  like  uie  gnitar,  while  the  body 
la  a  circular  Jrome  like  the  head  of  a  drnm, 
orer  which  parofament  is  stretched  in  place  of 
a  sounding'  board.  Five  strings,  of  which  the 
fifth  is  shorter  than  the  others,  pass  over  this 
parchment,  and  are  played  with  the  flngen. 

KUKf  in  trade  and  bnmnets,  a  place  of 
d^KMlt  f(H-  money.  In  nearly  all  languages 
tiie  words  for  bank  and  banker  are  derived 
from  those  meaning  table,  bench,  or  conn- 
ter :  rpairt^i-nif  among  the  Greeks,  metuariui 
among  the  Romans,  and  boTuihUro  among  the 
Ittiliana  of  the  middle  ogee.  The  banker  was 
originally  a  changer,  and  he  stood  in  the 
market  place  and  t^raisbed  snob  different  kinds 
of  iDoney  as  were  demanded.  By  d^rees  he 
took  ftmds  on  depodt,  made  advances  npon 
aeonritiee,  merchandise,  pledges,  titles  to  prop- 
erty, &imlT  papers,  &o.,  and  became  finally 
what  we  now  know  as  a  banker.  The  lending 
of  money  with  the  taking  of  interest  for  its 
use  is  a  oastont  which  dates  from  the  earliest 
antiquity  of  which  there  are  records.  Oon- 
Btant  reference  is  made  to  it  in  both  the  Old 
aod  tha  New  Testament.  In  ancient  Greece 
the  bosiness  of  receiving  money  on  deporit  and 
lending  it  out  was  an  important  one,  and  the 
money  changer  stood  high  in  credit  and  in  the 
oonfidence  of  both  the  government  and  the 
pemJe  of  Athens.  The  state  bonk  of  ^fewIUnm, 
of  the  precise  nature  of  which  we  are  not  in- 
formed, in  the  second  century  before  Christ, 
borrowed  money  for  the  state,  and  paid  for  its 
nae  10  per  cent — Banks  are  designed  to  afford 
safe  places  of  deposit  for  the  money  of  indi- 
vidnala,  corporations,  or  governments;  for  fa- 
eilitstiiig  the  exchange  of  money  from  the 
hsnda  of  parties  who  have  payments  to  make 
to  thoM  OT  SQch  persons  as  are  to  receive  them, 
thiiB  becoming  clearing  booses  for  the  oom- 
mnnitiea  in  the  midat  of  which  they  are  aitn- 
atad ;  and  for  extending  aid  to  bosineBS  by 
granting  loans  or  discounts  on  notes,  bonds, 
stocks,  or  other  secnrities.  These  institnUons 
are  of  tliree  kinds,  and  may  be  classed  as  fbl- 
towB ;  Banks  of  depodt  receive  on  depont  the 
money  of  individnalH,  oorporatJona,  or  govern- 
ments, and  hold  it  eulgect  to  the  draft  of  its 
owner  or  owners,  or  under  such  other  agree- 
msnt  as  may  be  entered  into.  Banks  of  dis- 
count fiunish  loans  npon  drafts,  promissory 
notes,  bonds,  or  other  seourildeB.  Banks  of 
mrculalian  pay  out  their  own  notes,  which  may 
or  may  not,  according  to  oironmstADces,  be 
payable  in  coin  on  demand.  Banks  which 
exercise  the  last  of  these  fimotions  generally 
unite  the  first  and  second. — The  bank  of 
Venice,  the  first  establidiment  t£  the  kind 
in  Enrope,  was  founded  in  1171,  and  owed 
its  existence  to  wars  and  the  neeesuty  for 
tba  goremmeot  obtaining  the  means  for  con- 
doe^ig  fheoL  Having  exhausted  every  other 
reaonree,  the  state  was  obliged  to  resort  to  a 


SK  373 

forced  loan  from  its  most  opnlent  oitdzens. 
Then  was  organized  tba  chamber  of  loans, 
which  by  degrees  assnmed  the  form  under 

which,  aa  the  bank  of  Venice,  "  it  was  for 
many  ages  the  admiration  of  Europe,  the  chief 
instrument  of  Venetian  finance,  and  the  chief 
facility  of  a  commerce  not  surpassed  by  that 
of  any  European  nation."    Fnnds  once  de- 

Eorited  in  the  bank  conid  not  be  withdrawn, 
□t  were  tranflfarable  at  the  pleasure  of  their 
owners  npon  its  books.  8o  thoroaghly  did  the 
bank  credits  become  the  means  tlirongh  and 
by  which  the  financial  operations  of  the  people 
were  oondncted,  that  during  its  entire  exist- 
ence, with  but  slight  exceptions,  these  credits 
were  at  a  premium  over  coins,  which  latter 
were  clipped  and  worn,  as  well  aa  of  various 
countries  and  uncertwn  values.  That  the 
people  were  well  satisfied  with  this  institution 
and  its  workings  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  "  no  book,  speech,  nor  pamphlet  have 
we  found,"  says  an  eminent  economical  writer, 
"  in  which  any  merchant  or  dweller  in  Venice 
ever  put  forth  any  condemnation  of  its  theory 
or  its  practice."  Tbe  bank  of  Venice  con- 
tdnned  in  oxistenoe  without  interraption  until 
the  overthrow  of  the  republic  in  17B7,  by  the 
revolutionary  army  of  France. — The  bank  of 
Genoa  was  projected  in  the  year  1S45,  bnt  did 
not  go  into  full  operation  till  1407.  It  waafor 
centuries  one  of  tnepriocipal  institutions  of  its 
olase  in  Surope.  Within  a  space  of  leas  than 
ao  years— first  in  1746,  and  again  in  1800— it 
was  twioe  pillaged  by  a  foreign  foe,  in  the 
latter  instanoe  by  the  French  army  under  Uas- 
sina.  From  the  effects  of  this  disaster  it  baa 
never  recovered,  and  it  has  ceased  to  perform 
Uie  fmctiona  of  a  bank. — The  bank  of  Bar- 
celona was  established  in  the  year  1401,  that 
dty  having  been  during  the  middle  ages  one 
of  the  most  enterprising  and  flourishing  of  the 
trading  citiea  of  Kurope.  Here  it  was  that  the 
system  of  negotiation  of  bills  of  exchange  was 
first  instituted. — The  bank  of  Amsterdam  was 
founded  in  the  year  1609,  Holland  being  then 
possessed  of  an  important  foreign  trade.  It  was 
a  bank  of  deposit  only,  and  tiie  money  in  its 
possession  was  transferred  on  the  books  of  the 
mstitution  at  the  pleasure  of  its  owner  or 
owners.  The  primary  object  of  tbe  establish- 
ment of  the  bank  was  to  give  a  standard  or 
certain  value  to  bills  which  might  be  drawn 
upon  Amsterdam — rendered  necessary  by  the 
depreciation  of  the  coins,  owing  to  their  having 
been  worn  or  clipped.  Here  these  coins  were 
received  on  deposit,  and  had  their  value  eetab- 
liahed  by  weight  and  fineneae.  It  was  not  the 
desdgn  on  founding  the  institution  that  the 
funda  should  at  any  time  be  lent  out,  but  should 
remdn  in  its  vaults.  However,  the  directora 
having  lent  to  the  govemmenta  of  Holland 
and  Friesland  and  to  the  Eaat  India  company 
10,600,000  fiorins,  the  fact  became  known  on 
the  hivanon  of  the  French  army  in  17S4,  and 
prodnoed  the  min  of  the  institution.  The 
amount  t^treaanre  in  the  vaults  of  the  bank  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


274  Bi 

177S  was  MtJmaW  bj  Ur.  Hope  at  33,000,000 
Borina.— The  bank  of  Hamburg  was  eBtabliahed 
in  the  fear  1619.  This  institatioa  is  a  back 
of  deposit  and  oircniation,  which  circuJatioit  is 
based  upon  fine  silver  in  bars.  The  stock  of 
the  bank  arisea  out  of  the  deposits,  which  are 
confined  solelj  to  silver.  The  bank  of  Ham- 
burg differs  essentially  iTom  anj  other  banking 
institution  in  the  world.  The  difference  at 
which  it  receives  and  pajs  out  the  silver  de- 
podts,  about  one  half  of  1  par  cent.,  conatitntea 
the  chaive  of  the  bank  for  custody  of  the  funds 
intrusted  to  it.  Although  in  some  respects  it 
has  nndergone  changes  in  its  management  since 
it  was  instituted,  still  the  plan  is  easentiallj  the 
same  as  it  was  in  1710.  It  has  been  felt,  aa 
well  hj  the  mercantile  oommnnitf  of  Hamburg 
as  bj  those  directly  int«rested  in  the  bank, 
that  changes  are  necessary  to  conform  to  the 
present  state  of  basiness.  It  is  deemed  de- 
sirable that  the  bank  should  be  enabled  to 
make  better  ase  of  its  surplus  capital,  which 
owing  to  restrictions  is  almost  v^aelesg.  Its 
deponts,  Oct  10, 1872,  were  30,76S,666  thalers. 
The  bank  of  Rotterdam  was  established  in 
168C;  the  bank  of  Stockholm  in  1668.— ArtwA 
Barikt.  The  bonk  of  England  was  established 
in  1694,  'William  and  Mary  then  beine  on  the 
throne.  To  the  war  with  France,  and  the  ex- 
treme  difficulty  experienced  by  the  government 
in  raising  funds  tor  conducting  that  war,  is 
the  institution  of  this  monopoly  dne.  The 
idea  originated  with  William  Paterson,  a  mer- 
chant of  London,  who  readily  saw  that  the 
government,  which  had  been  paying  interest 
at  the  rate  of  fivm  20  to  40  per  cent,  per  an- 
num, would  without  much  hesitation  grant  ez- 
olnsive  and  almost  unlimited  privileges  to  such 
parties  as  would  in  turn  furnish  it  with  a  fixed 
and  permanent  loan,  at  a  reasonable  rate  of  in- 
terest. The  plan,  being  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  king,  was  submitted  to  the  privy 
council,  when  the  details  were  completed,  and 
it  was  laid  before  parliament.  'There,  how- 
ever, it  met  with  the  violent  oppontion  of  a 
formidable  party.  Kevertheless,  the  bill  was 
carried  by  the  government,  and  on  April  26, 
1694,  became  a  law.  It  was  provided  tiiat  the 
capital,  £1,200,000,  should  be  permanently  lent 
to  the  government  at  8  per  cent,  per  annmn, 
and  that  in  addition  to  the  interest  an  allow- 
ance of  £4,000  per  annum  should  be  made  by 
the  government  fur  the  management  of  the 
debt.  Bo  popular  was  the  scheme,  and  so  great 
was  the  desire  of  the  public  to  become  proprie- 
tors of  the  bonk,  that  within  ten  days  alter  the 
books  were  opened  the  entire  capiul  was  snb- 
Bcribed.  The  eoiporate  title  under  which 
this  instdtation  commenced  operations,  and 
haacontinned  to  the  present  day,  is  "The Gov- 
ernor and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  England." 
.  The  bank  was  opened  for  business  on  Jan.  1, 
166S,  the  stockholders  having  previously  elect- 
ed a  governor,  a  deputy  governor,  and  a  board 
of  24  directors.  Those  several  parties  were 
required  by  law  to  hold  stock  aa  follows:  gov- 


eleven  years,  and  the  officers  were  required  t< 
be  elected  annnally  between  March  25  end 
April  85,  after  the  year  1686.  The  bank  im- 
mediately issned  notes,  none  of  which  wer^ 
however,  of  a  smaller  denomination  than  £30 
sterling,  and  commenced  discounting  bills  of 
eichan^  at  rates  varying  from  8  to  6  per  cent, 
distinction  being  made  in  tavor  of  persons  who 
used  the  bonk  as  a  place  of  deposit  "Within 
two  years  the  institution  experienced  conmder- 
able  trouble,  nnder  the  influence  of  which  ita 
notes  fell  as  low  as  20  per  cent  below  par. 
Althongh  notes  to  the  amoant  of  £480,000 
were  redeemed,  it  was  found  necessary  in  1697 
to  increase  the  capital  £1,000,000  sterling. 
This  increase  had  the  effect  within  a  few 
months  of  causing  the  stock  not  onlj  to  re- 
cover a  discount  of  from  40  to  BO  per  cent, 
but  to  sell  at  a  premium  of  1 2  per  cent.  Since 
first  this  institution  was  founded,  lla  capital 
and  the  loon  to  die  government  have  been 
nearly  identical  in  amount  la  18S8,  how- 
ever, the  debt  to  the  bank  was  reduced  about 
£S,000,000.  The  following  Uble  gives  the 
capital  of  the  bank  at  various  perioda,  and  also 
the  dates  of  the  several  renewals  of  the  charter, 
with  the  amount  of  government  debt  at  e 


im 

The  management  of  the  entire  pnblio  debt  of 
Great  Britdn  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  bank 
of  England,  for  which  service  it  has  received 
compensation,  which  has  from  time  to  time 
varied  in  amount  according  to  ciroumstanoea. 
During  the  year  1846  this  compensati<Mi  waa 
£98,111  IS*.  lOd.  In  addition  t«  the  peTTDO- 
nent  debt  of  the  government  to  the  bmk,  the 
latter  contracted  with  the  former  on  March  40, 
1823,  to  pay  at  stated  intervals  between  18S8 
and  18SS  cert^  pensions  and  annuities  arieiing 
out  of  the  then  recent  wars,  amoonting  to  £13,- 
089,419.  This  is  termed  the  "  dead  weight^' 
In  consideration  of  this  the  bank  waa  to  re- 
ceive from  the  government  an  annuity  of 
£68S,740  for  44  years.  On  Feb.  2S,  1797,  an 
order  was  issued  by  the  privy  council  to  the 
bank  restraining  it  from  the  further  payment  of 
specie.  On  thefollowingdaytheomoeraof  the 
bank  issned  a  notice,  in  which  they  stated  that 
in  consequence  of  the  foregoing  order  they 
"think  it  is  their  duty  to  inform  the  proprie- 
tors of  the  bank  atock  as  well  as  the  public  at 
large,  that  the  general  concerns  of  the  bade 
are  in  the  most  affluent  and  flourishing  atoa- 
tion,  and  such  as  to  preclude  every  donbt  aa  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


tb«  aeanritr  C7f  its  notea."  At  the  same  time 
thaj  umoonoed  their  determination  to  con- 
tinne  their  nanal  dLsaoimta.  The  fact  was,  the 
order  in  council  simpl;  prohibited  the  banlc 
from  doing  that  wtiioh  it  was  eotirel;  ODt  of 
the  qaeation  for  it  to  do.  On  Feb.  2T,  the 
same  day  on  which  the  bank  sospended  specie 
paymenta,  parliament  approved  the  order  in 
conndL  Notes  of  the  denomination  of  £1 
iCerling  were  immediatelj  prepnred  and  issaed, 
and  all  fhiotioiial  parts  of  a  pound  were  refused 
payment  bj  the  bank.  This  snspeauon,  while 
It  was  absolotely  neoesssrj  to  prevent  the  min 
of  the  bank,  waa  of  equal  importance  to  every 
bosness  interest  thronghont  tJie  kingdom.  The 
government,  while  it  interposed  for  these  im- 
portant ends,  was  eqoally  interested  in  the  wel- 
lara  of  the  iustitation  with  which  it  was  so  inti- 
mately connected  in  all  its  finandal  concerns. 
It  was  than  stmggling  through  its  tremendons 
effiNta  agdnst  tl^  power  of  France  and  Napo- 
leon, ana  the  bank  was  to  it  what  the  heart  is  to 
the  animal  organism,  its  circulating  notes  what 
the  blood  is  to  that  organism — the  very  aonrce 
of  vitality  and  power.  Althongh  every  assur- 
anoe  was  givan  that  this  meaanre  was  intendad 
to  be  merdy  temporary,  it  was  continned  irom 
time  to  tinfe  until  May  1,  1838,  when  the  re- 
anmption  of  specie  payments  took  place,  for 
which  preparation  had  gradnally  been  made 
within  the  previous  fonr  years.  This  was  not, 
however,  accomplished  without  widespread  dis- 
uter,  the  detdls  of  which  are  punfhl  to  read 
eren  at  this  distant  day.  This  was  the  case, 
too,  with  gold  at  the  following  rates  of  pre- 
miom  in  the  nnder^mentioned  years:  1916,  2^ 
per  orat ;  1816,  October  to  December,  under 
1  per  cent. ;  1817,  S};  1818,  5;  181S,  0^;  1820 
and  1831,  par.  On  the  renewal  of  the  charter 
in  1844,  Sir  Robert  Feel,  then  prime  minister, 
having  become  satisBed  of  the  dangerons  in- 
■  floMice  exerted  in  its  ever  varying  and  never 
■table  BjBUta,  first  of  expansion  and  then  of 
oontracdon,  in  its  loans,  thought  to  provide  a 
remedy.  The  principal  feature  of  this  measare 
waa  to  limit  the  oircnlalJon  so  that  it  would  be 
regulated  by  the  amount  of  coin  and  bullion  in 
the  vaults  of  the  institaljon.  Accordingly,  he 
brought  in  a  bill  which  became  a  law  on  July 
10, 1844,  entitled  "  An  act  to  regulate  the  issae 
of  bank  notes,  and  for  giving  to  the  governor 
and  company  of  the  bank  of  England  certain 
privileges  for  a  limited  period."  The  follow- 
ing abetreot  of  parts  of  that  law  will  give  an 
idea  of  snch  provisions  as  refer  to  the  bank  of 
England :  §  1.  Provides  for  "  the  issue  depart- 
ment of  the  bank  of  England, "  which  shall  pro- 
vide the  notes  payable  on  demand,  and  shall, 
from  Aug.  31,  1844,  be  kept  wholly  separate 
and  distinct.  S  3.  That  on  Aug.  81,  1844,  the 
bank  shall  transfer  to  the  issue  department 
securities  to  the  value  of  14  millions,  the  debt 
due  by  the  public  to  be  deemed  part ;  that  the 
banUng  department  shall  transfer  to  the  issue 
department  all  the  gold  coin  and  gold  and  silver 
bnUioB  not  required;  that  the  issue  department 


ill  275 

shall  deliver  ta  the  banking  department  snch 
an  amount  of  notes  as  with  those  in  oircolation 
sbail  equal  thesecnrities,  coin,  and  bullion  trans- 
ferred to  the  issue  department;  that  the  bank 
may  not  increase,  butmay  diminish  the  amount, 
and  again  increase  it  to  any  snm  not  exceeding 
14  millions,  g  3.  That  the  bank  shall  not 
retain  in  its  issue  department  at  one  time 
silver  to  any  amount  greater  than  one  fourth 
the  gold  held  at  the  some  time.  §  4.  That 
notes  may  be  demanded  for  gold  bullion  at  the 
rate  of  £3  1T(.  9d.  per  02.  of  standard  gold. 
§  6.  Provides  for  a  weekly  statement  of  the 
affairs  of  the  hank.  §  7.  That  the  bank  shall 
he  exempt  from  stamp  duty  on  its  notes.  §  8. 
That  tbe  bank  allow  £180,000  per  annum  out 
of  the  amounts  payable  by  government  for  the 
exclusive  privileges  of  banking.  §  0.  That  the 
public  shall  receive  such  profit  as  may  be  ob- 
tained by  an  inorease  of  circulation  beyond  the 
amonnt  provided  by  section  3.  f  10.  That  no 
other  banks  of  issue  lie  allowed  bnt  snch  aa 
were  in  existence  May  6,  1844.  {  11.  Thatno 
banker  in  England  or  Wales  shall  issue  any  bill 
of  exchange  or  promissory  note  payable  on  de- 
mand, exceptmg  such  bankers  as  were  in  ex- 
istence May  6,  1844.  That  no  company  now 
consLHting  of  six  or  less  than  ^  partners  shall, 
if  they  exceed  that  number,  be  allowed  to 
issue  notes.  The  important  provisions  of  this 
act  were  that  the  bank  might  issue  £11,000  - 
000,  for  which  the  public  debt  due  the  bank 
ahould  be  seourity,  and  £3,000,000  on  eiche- 
qnor  bills  and  such  other  government  seooritiea 
as  it  might  hold,  but  that  for  every  pound  ster- 
ling issued  beyond  the  £14,000,000  the  bank 
should  hold  on  equal  amount  in  gold  and  diver. 
An  examination  of  the  operations  of  tbe  bank 
will,  we  think,  demonstrate  the  iact  that  SAt 
Robert  Peel  entjrely  misapprehended  the  oaoses 
at  work  in  producing  the  fluctuations  oom- 
pluned  of;  and  that  he  applied  tlie  restrictions 
to  that  particular  branch  which  varied  bnt  litQe 
in  a  series  of  years.  The  real  cause  of  trouble 
was  to  be  found  in  the  loans,  which  have  been 
irregular  in  the  extreme  and  at  times  produc- 
tive of  great  ipjuir.  This  injury  has  not  alone 
been  confined  to  Great  Britain,  bat  has  extend- 
ed in  a  greater  or  leas  degree  to  every  conntir 
with  which  intimate  business  relations  existed. 
That  this  act  has  had  no  effect  in  mitigating 
this  crying  evil,  will  be  clearly  seen  in  the  fact 
that  theae  fluctuations  have  never  been  more 
violent  than  unce  its  passage.  The  British 
public  had  long  shown  entire  confidence  in 
the  circulating  medium,  and  no  legislatimi  to 
effect  this  object  was  necessary.  Within  the 
28  years  which  have  elapsed  since  its  passage, 
the  operation  of  this  law  has  three  times  been 
suspended,  as  doubtiess  it  will  be  again  when- 
ever it  is  rendered  necessary  so  to  do.  The 
first  of  these  was  on  Oct.  25,  1847,  the  second 
on  Nov.  12,  1867,  and  the  third  on  May  11, 
1866,  on  which  latter  day  the  bank  raised  the 
rate  of  dieoonnt  to  10  per  cent,  it  having  been  6 
per  cent,  nine  d^a  before.    In  its  eflfbrts  to  save 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


itself  and  oomplf  vith  the  abanrd  provisions  ]  of  the  panic  thus  oreated.  WhilB  tbo  notes  of 
of  the  bank  act,  it  spread  niim  and  desolation  the  bank  are  legal  tender  elsewhere,  they  are 
around  it,  and  years  have  been  neoessBrr  to  not  »ach  in  pajmentB  b;  the  bank  itself.  Its 
enable  the  oountrj  to  recover  from  the  effects  |  condition  on  Oct.  IS,  1872,  was  as  follows : 


£HU8,TS0 

FnprletDn' ovlUl £IU<I3,0D0 

B«t 8,1«,1T8 

Ptiblte  depodtL  InohuUng  dxcbAqaar,  MTlngB 
iMiikt,  oomnUMlaiMn  sf  naUoul  drtit,  ud 

dMdaiid  ■omanti GJilD.lM 

OUiar  depoalti 1»,«6,TIS 

BniDHti;  ud  tilbw  bUk. M8^ 

£UJ8I,I«B 

•~Frior  to  the  establishment  of  the  bank  of  Eng- 
land, banking  in  London  was  coudncted  first  by 
theJewB,  who  were  Bocoeeded  by  the  Lombards, 

who  ware  in  turn  Hopplsnted  by  the  goldsmitba. 
Thelatterlent  money  at  rates  much  below  those 
charged  by  their  predecesaors,  and  they  issued 
promissory  notes  payable  on  demand,  or  at  a 
certain  period  aAer  date.  These  bankers  de- 
podted  their  funds  at  the  royal  mint  in  the 
tower  of  London.  This  practice  was  disoon- 
tinned  when  Charles  L,  bemg  in  want  of  money, 
seized  the  amount  thus  deposited,  £200,000,  by 
which  means  the  bankers  were  ntterly  ruined. 
Daring  the  civil  war  the  business  of  the  gold- 
smiths largely  increased,  and  daring  the  com- 
monwealth, as  well  as  suliBequenUy,  various 
plans  were  devised  by  different  individnals  for 
the  establishment  of  pubha  banks.  No  action 
was,  however,  taken  to  mature  and  carry  out 
these  plans  ontil  the  establishment  of  the  bank 
of  England.  After  the  seiznre  of  the  fUnds  by 
Charles  I.,  it  was  the  practice  of  the  goldsmiths 
to  deiKMit  their  anrplas  means  in  the  exohoquer, 
whioh  fiinds  were  drawn  onoe  a  week,  to  meet 
each  demands  as  might  be  made  upon  their 
owners.  Charles  H.  in  1679,  being  in  want  of 
money,  closed  the  esoheoner,  and  seised  the 
fimds  belonging  to  the  goldsmiths,  amonntingto 
£1,82S,G62,  on  which  there  accrued  2C  years' 
Interest,  making  thereby  asnm  total  of  £8,831,- 
81S.  No  consideration  was  given  for  any  part 
rf  this  large  sum,  eioept  £664,368,  for  which 
government  loan  was  issued,  furmmg  the  basis 
of  the  present  national  debt  of  Great  Britain. 
As  may  readily  be  imagined,  the  goldsmiths 
were  mined  irretrievably  by  this  infamous  pro- 
ceeding.— The  earliest  country  bank  eatabliahed 
in  England,  of  which  there  eiista  any  record, 
waa  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  in  ITGS.  This  waa 
a  bank  of  isane.  From  that  period  the  number 
of  theee  institutions  increased,  On  the  renewal 
of  the  charter  of  the  bank  of  England  in  1708, 
the  bank  obtained  the  privilege  of  banking  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  copartnerships  of  more  than 
six  persons.  In  consequence  of  this  law,  the 
various  Joint-stock  banks  in  existence  at  the 
time  were  oompelled  to  wind  np  their  afEura. 
In  I8SS,  however,  as  act  waa  passed  allowing 


..  ._ _._. «i,MBai» 

OaafmaiOm iMklt* 

" Kn. 1>,Ka,T80 

£S4,nS,TS0 

OoniRuiiflit  mcdtMsi. £18,SS<,MB 

OUier  HcaitaH ilMOSn 

Notet T,S»,1S6 


oopartnershipt  of  more  than  six  peraons  to  carry 
on  bosiness  in  En^and  as  bankers  6S  miles 
from  LondoD,  with  the  provision  that  each 
stockholder  ahoald  be  liable  for  the  entire  debts 
of  the  bank.  Notwitbatanding  the  proviHons 
of  this  law,  which  would  seem  to  prevent  any 
joint-etock  bank  being  estabJehed  within  65 
miles  of  London,  in  1884  the  London  and  West- 
minster bank  was  foonded,  and  has  l>een  in 
operation  ever  dnce,  although  not  without  bar- 
ing tronbles  to  encounter.  Litigation  with  the 
bank  of  England,  and  other  difflonlties,  at  first 
beset  it,  but  through  all  of  these  it  passed,  and 
haa  met  with  high  succeas.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  this  institution,  various  others  of  the  kind 
have  been  founded  in  and  about  London.  By  the 
issue  act  of  1844,  no  bank  in  any  part  of  Um 
United  Kingdom  which  did  not  on  May  6, 1844, 
issae  notes,  was  allowed  thereafter  to  exercise 
that  privilege.  By  an  act  passed  daring  tho 
same  year,  with  reference  to  Joint-stock  banks 
in  England,  so  many  restrictive  clauses  were 
introduced  as  practically  to  prevent  any  new 
institutions  of  the  kind  from  being  established- 
Within  a  recent  period,  however,  the  passage 
of  a  new  act  more  liberal  in  its  provisions  has 
recognized  limited  llabiUty,  and  under  it  80  insti- 
tntions  are  in  operation  throughout  the  United 
Eingdom  at  the  present  time  (December,  1872), 
Perhaps  nowhere  in  the  world  does  the  his- 
tory of  banking  abow  greater  instability  than 
in  England,  where  during  this  century  Joint- 
stock  banks  have  ffuled  by  acorea  Their  prof- 
its have  in  many  inatancee  been  very  large,  bat 
thmr  risks  being  correapondingly  great,  their 
f^ures  have  been  most  disastrous.~-Greater 
freedom  haa  always  existed  in  Scotch  bank- 
ing than  in  that  of  England,  and  consequently 
there  has  been  greater  security — those  inatitn- 
tions,  unlike  the  great  monopoly,  trading  upon 
their  own  capital.  The  earliest  bank  estab- 
lished was  the  bank  of  Scotland,  founded  in 
leSC  ;  followed  in  1727  by  the  royal  bank  of 
Scotland,  in  1749  by  the  firitnsh  Linen  com- 
pany, in  1810  by  the  Commercial  hank,  and  in 
182fi  by  the  National  bank.  In  addition  to 
these,  Joint-stock  banks  with  limited  liability 
have  been  allowed  fredy  to  be  established. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


These  banks  h&ve  passed  readil;  through  com- 
mercial oriaes  which  have  destroyed  large  nnin- 
bws  of  Hnch  institiitione  in  EnKlaad. — Varions 
Attempts  to  establish  a  pablic  bank  in  Ireland 
were  Irom  lime  to  time  naade,  and,  meeting 
with  opposition  in  the  Irish  parliament,  were 
defeaUd.  It  was  not  till  1782  that  a  bill  was 
passed  incorporating  the  "  Governor  end  Com- 
pany of  the  Bank  of  Irdand,"  which  iostitntjon 
commenced  business  in  Dublin,  June  I,  ITSS, 
and  is  still  in  eoccessnd  operation.  This  was 
succeeded  by  the  Belfast  bank  in  ISOS,  the  Hi- 
bernian bank  of  Ireland  in  1B25,  the  Provincial 
bank  of  Irdand  in  18S4,  the  National  bank,  end 
others,  all  of  which  are  joint-stock  banka — 
The  notes  in  circnlation  in  the  United  King- 
dom, other  than  those  of  the  bank  of  England, 
In  September,  18T2,  were  as  follows ;  England, 
£C,(»t7,B10;  Scotland,  j£6,S]B,fi60;  Ireland, 
£7,243,081;  total,£17,BlS,S51.— 2%«£ani(j/' 
Ihmet.  In  1716  a  bank  was  founded  in  Paris 
under  this  name,  which  was  two  years  snbse- 
QDCDtly  obao^  to  the  Boyal  bank.  Under 
■  uds  oi^aoiution  it  remuned  till  ltJ08,  when, 
having  been  onsacceaafal,  it  was  placed  upon 
its  present  OKaniiation  as  the  baoE  of  France, 
with  a  capital  of  4fi,000,000  fr.,  which  was  in 
1806  increased  to  90,000,000  h:  At  present 
the  capital  is  182,&00,0O0  fr.,  and  the  charter 
of  tbe  bank  extends  to  Deo.  SI,  18B7.  It  is  a 
bank  of  depoeit,  diaooont,  and  oircolation,  issn- 
ing  its  own  notes,  and  haring  an  eidosiTe 
monopoly  of  this  pririiege  for  the  entire  conn- 
try.  It  IS  a  public  institution,  the  government 
appt^ting  a  governor  and  two  deputy  gover- 
nors, ^  of  whom  most  be  stockholders  m  the 
bank.  The  affairs  of  the  insdtnlion  are  man- 
aged by  a  cooncil  general  of  20  members,  who 
are  elected  by  200  of  the  principal  stockholders. 
Ko  bills  are  disooonled  having  more  than  three 
months  to  mn  before  maturity,  and  as  a  general 
thing  mnst  be  guaranteed  by  three  approved 
•ignatnres,  thongh  in  some  instances  two  are 
aooepted.  The  governor  annually  makes  a  re- 
port of  the  condition  of  the  affairs  of  the  bank, 
with  statements  in  detail  of  its  iBsaes,  assets, 
loans,  and  other  partacnlan).  The  annual  divi- 
dends are  limited  to  6  per  cent. ;  all  profits 
over  tbat  amoont  being  invested  in  5  per  cent. 
oonsoUdated  stock,  to  be  divided  among  the 
Bto^holders  at  the  expiration  cf  the  charter. 
In  1818  banks  existed  at  Konen,  Lyons,  Havre, 
Lille,  Tonlouse,  Orleans,  Marseilles,  Nante^ 
and  Bordeanz ;  bnt  by  the  provisional  govern- 
ment these  were  united  to  uie  bank  of  France. 
The  bank  has  now  62  branches  in  various  parte 
of  France.  In  August,  18T0,  specie  payments 
were  aiuipendod,  and  have  so  continued  to  the 
present  time  (Deeember,  1872) ;  but  the  pre- 
mium on  gold  has  never  been  over  I  per  cent. 
InOotober,  1872,  thebenkhadof  notes  in  circn- 
lation 3,624,140,010  &'.,held  cash  in  band  786,- 
634,812  fr.,  treasury  bonds  and  rentes  immcbi- 
li»im  1,460,867,900  b.—Bolgvm  BanU  The 
oldest  of  these  is  the  lociiti  gintralt,  founded 
Aug,  26,  1822,  oapitai  60,000,000  florins.    It 


re  277 

was  a  bank  cf  discount,  and  managed  the  flnsn- 
ces  of  the  government  till  after  the  separation 
of  Belgium  from  Holland,  when  it  resigned  that 
fonetign  to  the  bank  of  Belgium.  Tnia  latter 
institution,  organized  originally  with  a  capital 
of  20,000,000  francs,  was  in  1838  compelled  to 
suspend  payment,  a  difficulty  out  of  which  it 
was  extricated  by  the  government.  However, 
in  lasu  it  suspended  again.  In  1841  its  capital 
was  increased  by  10,000,000  fr.,  the  subecnbera 
to  the  new  stock  receiving  5  per  cent.,  while 
the  old  stockholders  were  to  have  but  4.  In 
addition  to  this  tate  of  interest,  the  bank  has 

Eaid  a  semi-annual  dividend.  Up  to  1850  it 
ad  charge  of  Uie  affurs  of  the  government, 
when  it  resigned  them  to  the  National  bank  ot 
Bel^um,  founded  Hay  6,  1860.  This  institu- 
tion, which  is  ajoint-atock  bank,  has  a  capital 
of  26,000,000  fr.  It  is  a  bank  of  deposit  and 
exchange,  and  is  allowed  to  issue  notes  to  three 
times  the  amount  of  the  coin  in  its  ooffers,  and 
issues  them  of  the  denominations  of  20,  60,  100, 
600,  and  I,OO0  fr.  In  this  bank  the  loeiiti 
giairaU  took  10,000,000  of  the  capital,  and  the 
bank  of  Belgium  16,000,000,  both  agreeing  to 
cease  their  issnes  of  notes  and  abandon  tuebr 
discount  business,  although  retaining  their  cr- 
ganization  and  receiving  deposits.  Oct  9, 
18T2,  the  National  bonk  of  Belgium  held  of 
specie  123,026,000  fr.,  had  made  discounts  and 
advsnoes  284,400,000  fr.,  and  had  a  droulation 
of  263,660,000  fr.  It  pays  large  dividends  to  its 
stoekhotders. — Ntthfrland*.  The  bank  of  the 
Netherlands  waa  first  chartered  in  1814,  with 
a  capital  of  6,000,000  florins,  which  was  in- 
creased to  10,000,000  m  1819  and  16,000,000  in 
1888.  Subsequent  cbangee  have  been  made, 
the  last  in  1868,  when  it  was  rechartered.  On 
Oct.  14,  1872,  the  condition  of  the  bank  was 
asfoUows:  coin  and  bullion,  117,768,000  &; 
discounts  and  advances,  106,066,000  fl. ;  notes 
in  circulation,  168,882,000  fl. ;  deposits,  86,- 
466,000  t.~A\atrvt.  The  National  bank  of 
Austria  was  fonnded  in  Vienna  in  181^ 
for  the  pnrpose  of  restoring  the  llnances  and 
credit  of  the  government,  which  were  greatly 
impaired.  It  has  the  exclnsive  privilege  m 
issning  circulating  notes.  Its  capital  is  110,- 
260,000  florins,  and  its  condition,  Oct.  0,  1879, 
was  BS  follows  -.  coin  and  bullion,  138,760,000 
fl.;  discounts  and  advances,  186,480,000  fi.; 
oircnlatloQ,  81B  190,000  11.  Its  charter  extends 
to  1876,  and  it  loans  to  the  state,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  privileges  granted  it,  80,000,000  fl. 
without  interest.  The  rate  of  discount  varies 
between  4  and  6  per  cent,  per  aunum ;  it  issues 
bills  of  6,  10, 100,  and  1,000  fl. ;  and  it  has  22 
branches  in  diflterent  parts  of  the  empire. — 
German  Empirt.  The  Royal  bank  of  Frusna 
was  established  at  Berlin,  June  17,  1766,  as  an 
exchange  and  loan  bank,  with  a  capital  of 
400,000  thalers.  Dec.  81,  1871,  its  capital  was : 
bank  shares,  20,000,000  tfaolerHj  state  active 
cuiital,  1,906,800 ;  and  it  had  a  reserve  fund  of 
6,000,000  thalers,  giving  an  actual  working 
CSfltal  of  37,906,800.    It  held  depoats  of  20.- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


378  BA 

0?T,036  dialera ;  notea  either  in  drcalatlon  or 
ID  the  hands  of  the  bank  or  its  branches,  360,- 
728,318;  biUBof ezchangu,  114,86S,G12;  Lom- 
bard loans,  28,G1T,SG5;  gold  and  silver  coin 
and  bnllioD,  g7T,G28,846.  Its  total  transac- 
tions, receipts,  and  disbursements  for  16TI 
amounted  to  S,866,8S9,S00  thalers.  At  the 
close  of  1671,  the  Prosaian  branch  comprised 
the  chief  bank  at  Berlin  and  168  branches  in 
the  sereral  provincee  of  the  state,  including 
Alsace  and  Lorraine.  For  the  jear  tbe  average 
rate  of  disooont  was  416  per  cent.,  Lombard 
rate  6*16  per  cent.  Although  this  institution 
is  a  government  one,  it  does  not  possess  mono- 
p<Hj  privileges,  bat  other  banks  are  permitted 
thronghoat  the  kingdom.  Indeed,  mnch  free- 
dom in  banliing,  under  certain  restraints,  has 
been  fur  jeara  past  permitted  in  northern 
Germany.  The  popular  or  cooperative  banks 
establislied  under  the  initiative  of  Schultse- 
Delitzcb  have  proved  a  highly  important  and 
most  benefloent  class  of  institotions  in  enabling 
workmen  to  combine  their  means  for  motuai 
financial  assistance  in  business  in  a  small  waj. 
Their  study  is  a  snbject  wortbj  of  the  attention 
of  the  workmen  of  this  cocmtry.  Thej  are  es- 
tablished withont  the  assistance  of  capitalists, 
and  make  advances  only  to  their  members. — 
The  Royal  bank  of  Nuremberg,  Bavaria,  is  an 
old  inatitntdon,  which  does  a  business  of  ez- 
ohange,  discount,  loan,  and  deposit  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  state,  and  its  atfairs  are  man- 
aged by  finance  ministers.  It  has  several 
branches.  No  pnblioation  of  its  affairs  ia  made. 
The  L<Mn  and  Exchange  bank  of  Bavaria  began 
operations  in  183S,  and  was  chartered  for  B9 
years  from  1834.  It  lends  on  goods,  and  dis- 
counts bills  of  exchange.  Bavarian  seooritiea, 
and  specie,  and  effects  fire  and  life  insurance. 
Its  issue  is  limited  to  8,000,000  florins,  S,000,- 
OOO  being  based  on  specie.— The  bank  of  Leip- 
sio,  Boxony,  was  founded  in  1839,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  1,600,000  tbalers,  which  has  since  been 
increased,  provijdon  also  being  mode  for  a,  large 
reserve.  The  Saxon  bank  in  Dresden  was 
founded  in  1865,  and  on  Dec.  31, 18T1,  held  of 
coin  and  bullion  9,216,000  thalers,  treasury  and 
other  notes  1,400,000  thalera,  hills  of  exchange 
11,678,000  thalers,  Lombards  4,282,000  thalers, 
and  had  notes  in  circulation  20,988,000  thalers. 
— There  are  four  banks  at  Btnttgart,  Wtlrtem- 
berg.  There  are  also  banks  at  Efinigsberg, 
Fr^kfort,  Cologne,  Darmstadt,  Weimar,  Bruns- 
wick, Bremen,  Dessau,  and  other  points  in  the 
Oerman  empire,  issning  oirculatmg  notes. — 
Switaerlajid.  Basel  and  Geneva  nave  long 
been  famous  for  the  character  and  wealth  i^ 
their  banks,  but  the  earliest  Swiss  bank  of  issne, 
that  of  Sl  Qall,  only  dates  from  1836.  At  the 
end  of  1869  there  were  19  such  hanks  in  that 
country — those  of  St  Gall,  Zurich,  Vaud,  Basel, 
Geneva  (bank  of  Commerce  and  bank  of  Gene- 
va), Thurgau,  Glams,  Neufohitel,  Pribonrg, 
Aargau,  Yalais,  Lnceme,  Soleure,  Bern,  Tioino, 
Grisons,  and  Schaffhausen.  They  make  divi- 
dends of  from  41  to  71-  per  cent.    Their  condi- 


tion, Dec.  81, 1869,  was  as  follows:  circulation, 

18,488,122  ft.;  deposits,  49,160,405;  ^lecie, 
10,380,923;  capital,  7S,8S7,784;  loans  (eiclu- 
sive  of  those  of  the  bank  of  SL  Gall,  capital 
6,858,618  fr.),  71,667,706.— itaiy.  The  oldest 
existing  bank  in  Italy  is  that  of  the  Monte  di 
Paschi  of  Siena,  founded  in  1622.  The  Na- 
tional bank  of  Italy,  created  by  royal  decree 
Nov.  14,  1349,  was  the  result  of  a  onion  be- 
tween the  two  banks  at  Genoa  and  Turin,  the 
former  founded  in  1844,  the  latter  in  1847. 
Its  charter  lasts  till  Dec.  81,  1889,  and 
its  capital,  originally  40,000,000  lire,  is  now 
100,000,000.  By  act  of  SepL  8,  1868,  the 
circulation  of  bank  notes  was  limited  to 
700,000,000  lire.  They  are  a  legal  tender  by 
act  of  May,  18S6.  The  hank  has  gradually 
extended  its  actitm  over  Italy,  and  beddes 
seats  in  Genoa,  Turin,  Milan,  Naples,  Pa- 
lermo. Florence,  and  Venice,  had  in  1870  55 
branches  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  a 
bank  of  discount,  depodt,  and  circulation.  Its 
condition  in  1870  was  as  follows :  Disconnts, 
828,666,172  lire ;  average drcnlation,  776,879,- ' 
713.  On  Oct  81,  1868,  it  had  specie  and 
bnllion  178,000,000  lire.  The  state  is  a  large 
debtor  to  this  institntion,  and  its  financial  oper- 
ations are  mainly  conducted  by  the  ud  of  it 
There  are  also  tbe  foUowiUK :  Bank  of  Naples, 
bank  of  Palermo,  National  bank  of  Tnscany, 
Credit  bank  of  Tuscany,  Mercantile  Establiab- 
ment  of  Yenetia,  Anglo-Italian  bank  (founded 
in  London  in  1864),  Farmers'  Credit  bank  of 
Pisa,  National  Discount  bank  ofTasoany,  Gen- 
eral bank  of  Genoa,  Italian  Credit  bank  of 
Turin,  Discount  and  Silk  bank  of  Turin,  &a.  In 
August,  1871,  there  were  in  Italy  SB  credit  in- 
stitutions  and  banks  (the  National  bank  and 
branches  counting  as  1),  and  67  people's  banka 
Of  the  former  31  publish  reports  showing  a 
pud-up  capital  of  86,141,268  lire;  and  of  the 
latter  51  give  reports  showing  a  paid-up  capi- 
tal of  17,501,866  tire.— ^at»,  Porlvgat,  Dtn- 
mark,  Suseden  and  Nomay,  Riiuia,  and  Oretee, 
ail  have  their  banking  systems,  more  or  less  in- 
timately connected  with  the  flacal  operations 
of  their  respective  governments. — Bankjko 
iif  TBS.  DsiTtn  Btatks.  The  Bank  of  North 
Anuriea.  During  the  war  of  the  revolution, 
^e  oonutry  being  extremely  poor,  with  few 
industries  but  agriculture,  and  qnite  doinded 
of  the  precious  metaJs,  from  a  heavy  and  long 
oontjnned  adverse  foreign  trade,  tiie  congress 
of  the  United  States  experienced  great  dilB- 
onlty  in  providing  the  requisite  means  for  car- 
rying on  hostilities.  On  May  10,  1771^  sorai 
after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  congress  made  pre- 
paration to  issue  continental  paper,  $2  000,000 
of  which  were  put  in  oircnlation  on  June  S3 
following.  From  month tomonththewissoes, 
which  in  the  a^egate  reached  $300,000,000, 
depreciated,  until  eventually  they  became  en- 
tirely valueless,  notwithstanding  the  passage 
of  laws  making  them  a  legal  tender  for  the 
payment  of  debts.  On  May  17,  1781,  a  plan 
of  a  national  bank  was  submitted  to  congreaa 


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ij  Robert  Uorria  of  PeniuylTania,  the  priii' 
CTpai  proviaiona  of  which  were  as  follows; 
The  coital  to  be  $400,000,  in  Bharea  of  $400 
eaoh ;  that  each  ghare  be  entitled  to  a  vote  for 
directors;  that  there  be  12  directors  cbosen 
from  those  entitled  to  vote,  who  at  their 
flrat  meeting  shall  chooee  one  as  president ; 
that  the  directors  meet  qnarterl;;  that  the 
board  he  empowered  from  time  to  time  to  open 
new  snbecriptions  for  the  porpose  of  increawng 
the  capital  of  the  bank  ;  statements  to  be  made 
to  the  anperintendent  of  the  SnauoeB  of  Ame- 
rica ;  that  the  bank  notes  pajahle  on  demand 
■hall  by  low  be  made  receivable  for  duties  and 
taxes  in  every  state,  and  from  the  respeotive 
stataa  by  the  treasiiry  of  the  United  States ; 
that  the  superintendent  of  the  finances  of 
America  shall  have  a  right  at  all  times  to  ex- 
amine into  the  affurs  of  the  bank.  On  Uay 
S6  oongreaa  passed  the  following:  "  Resolved, 
that  congress  do  approve  of  the  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  a  national  bank  in  these 
United  States,  submitted  for  their  consider- 
ation by  Mr.  K.  Morris,  May  IT,  1781,  and 
that  they  will  promote  and  support  the  same 
by  sach  ways  and  means,  from  time  to  time, 
as  may  appear  neoessary  for  the  institntJon  and 
oonmtent  with  the  pnblio  good ;  that  the  snh- 
Boriben  to  the  said  bank  shall  be  iuoorp(»nt«d 
agreeably  to  the  principles  and  terms  of  the 
plan,  itnder  the  name  of  '  The  President,  Di- 
rectors, and  Ckimpany  of  the  Bank  of  Nortii 
America,'  so  soon  aa  the  subscription  shall  be 
filled,  the  directors  and  prettdent  chosen,  and 
ipplication  for  that  pnipoee  made  to  congress 
by  the  president  and  direotora  elected."  On 
Deo.  81  following  oongress  passed  "  an  ordi- 
nanoe  to  incorporate  the  subscribers  to  the 
bank  of  North  Amerioa."  The  first  president 
was  Thomas  Willing,  and  the  bank  beovne  at 
once  a  most  important  aniiliary  in  aid  of  the 
finances  of  the  government,  and  so  oontinued 
to  the  conolnrion  of  the  war.  This  institution 
was  also  incorporated  by  the  state  of  Pennayl- 
vania,  on  April  18,  1T82.  The  bank  com- 
menced bnsinees  in  January,  1783,  with  a  cap- 
ital of  $400,000,  of  which  $364,000  had  been 
snbscrilied  cy  the  government  In  the  year 
178G,  when  an  ill  feeling  had  arisen  between 
the  government  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania 
and  the  bank,  the  former  repealed  the  charter 
which  it  had  granted  in  1783.  The  bank,  how- 
ever, continued  its  operations  under  the  charter 
granted  by  the  general  government  till  1787, 
when  it  was  rechartered  by  the  state  of  Penn- 
sylvania. It  has  from  lime  to  time  been  re- 
chartered,  and  now  exists  under  the  national 
system  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  and  a 
mrplns  of  $1,000,000.-7^  IHrtt  Btmi  oftht 
United  Statet.  On  the  organization  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  under  the  con- 
stitntion,  Alexander  Hamilton,  in  his  masteriy 
report  on  the  finances  in  ITSO,  arged  upon 
congreaa  the  importance  of  establishing  a  bank 
of  Ue  United  States  This  measure,  although 
it  met  with  vigorous  oppodtion  in  the  boose 


NK  279 

of  representatives,  passed  that  body  Feb.  8, 
1T61,  having  on  Jan.  20  passed  the  senate 
with  hut  dight  redstonce.  The  following 
abetract  of  the  12  clauses  of  the  charter 
will  give  an  idea  of  the  act:  1.  Tbe  capital 
shall  be  $10,000,000,  to  be  divided  into  26,000 
shares  of  $400  each.  2.  Any  person,  copart- 
norrfiip,  or  body  politic  may  subscribe  for  such' 
naqiber  of  shares  as  be,  she,  or  they  may  think' 
proper,  not  exceeding  1,000,  except  as  regards 
the  subscription  of  the  United  States.  The  enb- 
scriptions,  except  those  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  payable  one  fonrtb  in  gold  and  silver, 
and  the remainihg  three  fonrthsin certain  6  per 
cent,  stocks  of  the  United  States.  S.  The  sub- 
scribers are  incorporated  under  the  name  and 
style  of  "  The  President,  Directors,  and  Com- 
pany of  tbe  Bank  of  the  United  States,"  and 
to  oontinue  till  March  4,  1811.  The  bank  is 
anthorized  to  hold  property  of  all  kinds,  in- 
clusive of  its  capital,  to  the  amount  of  $15,- 
000,000.  4.  Twenty-flve  directors  are  to  be 
elected  by  a  plorality  of  the  votes  cast,  on  the 
first  Monday  in  January  of  each  and  every 
year,  for  one  year  only,  and  the  directors  are 
empowered  to  choose  one  of  their  number  for 
president.  B.  As  soon  as  the  sum  of  $400,000 
IS  received  on  account  of  tbe  subscriptions,  in 
gold  and  silver,  on  proper  notice  being  given, 
the  hank  may  be  oivanized.  fl.  The  directors 
are  authorized  to  choose  such  other  officers, 
clerks,  and  servants  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  bank,  and  shall  otherwise  manage  tho 
affiurs  of  the  bank.  7.  This  claase  prescribes 
the  "  ruleSj  restrictions,  limitations,  and  pro- 
visions which  shall  form  and  be  fundamental 
articles  of  the  constttation  of  said  corporation." 
8.  If  the  corporation,  or  any  person  or  persona 
for  or  to  the  use  of  the  same,  shall  buy  or  sell 
any  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  whatsoever, 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  such  per- 
son or  persons  shall  forfeit  and  lose  treble  the 
value  of  said  goods,  wares,  and  merchandiae, 
one  half  to  the  United  States,  and  the  re- 
mainder to  the  informer.  9.  If  the  corporation 
shall  lend  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States  any  sum  of  money  to  an  amount  ex- 
ceeding $100,000,  or  to  any  state  to  an  amount 
exoaeding  $60,000,  or  to  any  foreign  prince  or 
state  (unless  previonsly  anthorized  by  law),  all 
and  every  person  concerned  in  any  way  in 
causing  the  same  to  be  lent  shall  for  each 
and  every  offence,  on  conviction,  forfeit  and 
pay  a  sum  treble  ihe  valae  of  said  loan  or  loans 
— one  fifth  to  the  informer,  and  fonr  fifths  to 
the  United  States.  10.  Bills  or  notes  of  the 
bank  payable  inooin  shall  be  takenin  payments 
to  the  United  States.  11.  The  president  of 
the  United  States  may  within  18  months  ftom 
April  1,  17S1,  cause  a  subscription  to  be  made 
to  the  stock  on  behalf  of  the  United  States  for 
an  amount  not  exceeding  $3,000,000,  to  be  paid 
out  of  the  moneys  whicn  shall  be  borrowed  by 
virtue  of  either  of  two  certain  acts  providmg  ' 
for  the  payment  of  the  debt  of  the  United 
States,    "borrowing  flxun  the  batik  on  eqnal 


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Bam  to  be  applied  to  the  pnrposeB  for  which 

the  Hsid  monejg  shall  have  been  procured ; 
'  reimbursable  is  10  jean  id  eqaal  annnal  in- 
BtalmenU,  or  at  aaj  time  sooner,  or  in  any 
greater  proportions  that  the  government  may 
thinL  fit.  la.  That  no  other  bank  Bhall  be 
establisbed  by  any  Mure  law  orthe  United 
States  dming  the  continnanoe  of  tlie  corpora- 
tion hereby  created,  for  which  the  faith  of  the 
United  States  is  hereby  pledged."  The  bank 
was  established  in  Philadelphia,  with  branches 
at  different  points.  Jhe  dividends  of  the  bank 
averaged  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  per  annom, 
being  mncb  below  those  of  the  bans  of  North 
America  in  previous  years  i  which,  in  the 
worda  of  ft  distingQished  writer,  now  "  grad- 
ually declined  as  other  banks  sprang  into  ex- 
istence." In  1808,  three  years  prior  to  the  ei- 
piration  of  the  charter,  applicatioa  was  made 
to  congress  for  a  renewal  of  the  charter,  and  Mr. 
Gallatin,  the  then  able  head  of  the  treasury  de- 
partment, fn  obedience  to  a  resolution  of  the 
senate,  reported  to  congress  upon  the  memorial. 
Mr.  Gallatin  proposed  some  changes  in  the  new 
act  of  incorporation,  and  highly  recommended 
the  reincorporation  of  the  bank,  for  which  he 
gave  his  reasons  in  a  clear  and  conclusive  man- 
ned'. Nothing,  however,  was  done.  From  time 
to  time  the  matter  was  bronght  to  the  att«n- 
tion  of  congress,  until  Feb.  6, 1611,  when  a  bill 
was  bronght  forward,  but  was  on  Feb.  SO  de- 
feated by  the  casting  vote  of  Vice  President 
Clinton.  The  bank  was  now  obliged  to  wind 
npitsafiairs,  which  was  done  without  at  all  con- 
TDlsing  the  Gonntry.  Within  about  18  months 
the  stockholders  had  received  88  per  cent,  on 
their  stock.  On  finally  olodng  its  onsiness,  the 
assets  yielded  to  the  stockholders  a  premium 
over  ihe  par  value  of  SJ  per  cent.  An  appli- 
cation had  previoosly  been  unsncoeesflilly  made 
to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  re- 
oharter  of  this  institation,  with  a  capital  of 
%6,im,000.—SeamdSanliqfth«  United  Stata. 
During  the  war  of  ]8I2-'16  the  government, 
which  was  embarrassed  for  tbe  want  of  means, 
had  received  important  aid  from  the  bonks. 
By  this  means  the  banks,  with  the  exception 
of  those  in  New  England,  were,  in  August  and 
September,  1814,  driven  to  a  suspension  of  spe- 
cie payments.  The  finances  of  the  government 
were  now  in  a  terrible  condition,  when,  on  Oct. 
6,  Alexander  J.  Dallas  was  called  to  the  head 
of  the  treasury  department  Never  before  had 
there  been  greater  need  of  a  master  mind  in 
that  important  ofiioe.  Within  leas  than  a  fort- 
lught  the  new  secretary  communicated  to  oon- 

Sess  a  report  of  extraordinary  ability,  in  which 
>  strongly  recommended  the  estabhshment  of 
a  natioDcJ  bank,  as  the  remedy  required  again 
to  bring  the  flnanoes  into  order.  Various  plans 
for  a  bank  were  brought  forward  in  congress, 
which  resulted  in  nothing,  until,  on  Jan,  20, 
1816,  a  bill  was  passed.  This  bill  was  vetoed 
by  President  Madison,  on  the  ground  that  it 
wonld  not  accomplish  the  objects  rendered 
y  by  the  state  of  the  revenue  and  the 


condition  of  the  oonntry.  On  April  8,  1816, 
however,  a  bill  forabank  of  the  United  States, 
which  had  previously  passed  the  honse  of  rep- 
resentatives, was  adopted  by  the  senate,  and, 
receivingthe  ugnature  of  the  president,  become 
a  law.  The  corporate  title  of  this  institntion 
was  "The  President,  Directors,  and  Company 
of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States."  Its  capital 
was  to  be  (86,000,000,  eompoeed  of  860,000 
shares  of  tlOO  each ;  $7,000,000  of  the  stock 
was  to  be  subscribed  by  the  United  States, 
and  the  remaining  $28,000,000  by  individoalt, 
oompaniea,  or  corporations.  The  charter  waa 
to  extend  to  March,  8,  18SS,  and  the  bank  was 
authorized  to  organize  and  commence  bosi- 
ness  so  soon  as  18,400,000,  exclusive  of  the 
subscription  of  the  United  States,  was  paid  in. 
It  was  prohibited  from  lending  on  aocoimt  of 
the  United  States  more  than  $500,000,  or  to 
any  state  more  than  $£0,000,  or  to  any  foreign 
prince  or  power  any  sum  whatever,  without 
the  BonctJon  of  law  previously  being  obtained. 
The  bank  went  into  operation  Jan.  T,  1817,  and 
through  its  agency  the  other  banks  tbron^ont 
the  country  were  enabled  and  induced  to  re- 
sume specie  payments.  An  unsuccessful  effort 
was  made  in  1818  to  repeal  the  charter,  on  the 
ground  of  alleged  mismanagement  Preeident 
Jackson  in  his  message  of  December,  1829,  in- 
timated that "  oonstitutjonal  <UiBcnlties  "  n^ht 
interfere  to  prevent  its  recharter,  and  ezpreMted 
the  desire  that  congreee  might  take  the  matter 
into  early  consideration.  Committees  of  both 
houses  reported  favorably  to  a  recbarter,  but 
no  application  was  made  by  the  bank  unljl  the 
session  of  18Sl-'3.  On  Jnly  4,  1882,  a  bill  re- 
chartering  the  bank  was  sent  to  the  preadent 
who  on  t£e  lOth  of  the  same  month  retnmea 
it  with  a  message  stating  his  ot^Jections  to  it. 
An  effort  now  being  made  to  pass  the  bill  over 
the  veto  of  the  president,  but  without  suoceM, 
the  bank  on  March  S,  1886,  ceased  to  act  under 
the  charter  granted  by  the  United  States,  bnt 
was  in  the  same  year  rechartered  by  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  wiUi  the  same  oapltal.  On 
Oct.  e,  1880,  the  United  States  bank  euapeiided 
specie  pajmeots  for  a  second  time,  having  pre~ 
vionsly  suspended  in  1887,  a  measure  which 
was  adopted  immediately  by  all  the  banks 
throughout  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  and  even- 
tnally,  with  comparatively  limited  exceptions, 
throughout  the  country.  On  Jan.  15,  1840,  in 
compUance  with  an  act  of  the  legislature,  it 


;ie  paymento — to  suspend  finally  oi 
Feb.  i.  On  wmding  up  its  affairs,  after  pay- 
ment of  its  debts,  there  remained  nothing  to  its 
stockholders,  the  entire  capital  having  been 
sunk. — StaU  Banti.  Prior  to  the  passoKe  of 
the  act  "  to  provide  a  national  carreucy,^  ^., 
by  congress,  m  18Q4,  the  charter  of  all  banka 
of  issue  and  deposit  was  by  the  several  ttatea. 
No  fewer  than  1,400  of  these  state  instdtutiona 
existed  in  18G3-'T.  In  the  New  England  states 
at  that  date  there  were  G07  bonks  and  branchee, 
with  a  capital  of  $114,611,752.  An  important 
feature  in  New  England  banking  at  that  tim« 


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wuthe  "Suffolk  bonk  BfBtem,"  through  which 
the  DoUs  of  al)  New  England  bankB  were  col- 
lected and  redeemed  at  the  Saffolk  bank  in 
Boston,  each  bank  makioft  a  stipulated  deposit 
for  that  purpose,  amountiDg  in  the  aggregate 
to  $SO(X,000.— National  Banh.  The  exigen- 
cieaof  the  civil  war,  IS61-'5,  reqniring  that  the 
gOTomment  of  the  Dnited  States  should  have 
other  then  the  ordinary  demand  among  the 
people  for  the  abaorption  of  the  bonds  which 
it  was  from  time  to  time  issaing,  led  to  the  law 
of  18S4  entitled  "  An  act  to  provide  a  national 
cniTenc7,  secured  b;  a  pledge  of  United  States 
bonds,  and  to  provido  for  the  dronlation  and 
redemption  thereof."  This  act  was  approved 
Jone  8, 1BS4,  and  provides  among  other  things 
for  a  separate  burean  in  the  treaanry  depart- 
ment, the  chief  officer  of  which  shall  be  de- 
nominated the  comptroller  of  the  currencj, 
>nd  It  sliall  be  under  the  general  direction  of 
the  secretary  of  the  treasnry ;  that  aaaooiationa 
for  oarryiiig  on  the  buainess  of  banking  maj  be 
formed,  consisting  of  not  less  than  Ave  persons; 
that  no  association  shall  be  organized  under 
this  act  with  a  less  capital  than  {100,000,  nor 
in  a  citj  whose  population  exceeds  60,000  with 
a  less  capital  than  (200,000,  bnt  that  banks 
with  »  capital  of  not  less  than  $60,000  may, 
wiUi  the  approTol  of  the  secretary  of  the 
treasuTj,  be  estAblished  in  any  place  the  popn- 
lation  of  which  does  not  exceed  6,000;  tnat 
each  aaeociations  shall  have  existence  for  20 
Tears,  and  may  exercise  the  general  powers  of 
banking  companies;  the  capital  shall  bedivided 
into  shares  of  $100  each ;  that  stockholders 
shall  be  equally  and  ratably  liable  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  stock  for  the  debts  and  contracts 
of  the  bank;  that  every  association,  prelimi- 
na^  to  tiie  commencement  of  banking  business, 
shall  traosfer  United  States  bonds  to  an  amount 
not  leee  than  $80,000,  and  not  lees  than  one 
third  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in ;  that  upon 
the  proper  examination  being  made  into  the  af- 
ftirs  of  the  proposed  institution,  it  shall  be  en- 
tilled  to  receive  from  the  oomptroller  of  the 
currency  circulating  notes  equal  in  amount  to 
90  per  cent,  of  the  current  market  value  of  the 
bonds  transferred,  but  not  exceeding  90  per 
oent.  of  the  par  value  of  said  bonds ;  that  notes 
to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $800,000,000  may 
be  issned  under  this  act ;  t£at  these  notes  shall 
be  received  at  par  in  all  parts  of  the  TJoited 
States  in  payment  of  taxes,  excises,  public  lands, 
and  all  other  does  to  the  United  States,  except 
to  dntiea  on  imports,  and  also  for  all  sala- 
riee  and  other  debts  and  demands  owing  by  the 
United  States  to  individnala,  corporations,  and 
awooiations  within  the  United  States,  except 
interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  in  redemption 
of  the  national  currency ;  that  the  rate  of  in- 
terest to  be  charged  shall  be  that  allowed  by 
tiie  laws  of  the  state  or  territory  where  the 
bank  is  located,  or  in  the  absence  of  any  such 
r«t^  not  exceeding  7  per  cent. ;  that  each  of 
the  banks  in  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  Ohicago,  De- 
troit, Milwaukee,  Sew    Orleans,  Cincinnati, 


Francisco,  and  Washington  city  shall  at  all 
times  have  on  hand  in  lawful  money  of  the 
United  Statfis  an  amount  equal  to  at  least  26 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  its  notes  in  circula- 
tion and  its  deposits,  and  that  all  others  shaU 
keep  a  reserve  of  not  less  than  16  per  oent ; 
that  every  association  shall  pay  to  the  treasurer 
of  the  United  States  in  the  months  of  January 
and  July  i  per  cent  each  half  year  on  the 
average  amount  of  its  notes  in  circulation,  and 
a  duty  of  i  per  cent,  each  half  year  upon  the 
average  amount  of  its  deposila,  and  a  dnty  of  i 
per  cent,  each  half  year  on  the  average  amount 
of  its  capital  stock  beyond  the  amount  invested 
in  United  States  boads;  that  any  state  bank 
may  become  a  national  bank  under  this  act 
By  on  act  amending  the  foregoing  act,  approv- 
ed March  S,  1S66,  it  was  provided  that  notes 
shall  be  issued  to  aBSooiations  according  to  c^t- 
ital  as  follows :  to  each  not  exceeding  $600,- 
000  BO  per  oenL ;  to  each  whoee  capital  ex- 
ceeds $600,000,  but  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000, 
60  per  cent;  to  each  whose  capital  exceeds 
$1,000,000,  but  does  not  exceed  $8,000,000,  7S 
per  cent. ;  to  each  whose  capital  exceeds  $8,- 
000,000,  60  per  oent ;  and  that  $160,000,000 
of  the  entire  amount  of  circulating  notes  au- 


Columbia,  and  in  the  territories,  according  to 
representative  population,  and  the  remainder 
shall  be  apportioned  by  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  among  associations  formed  in  the  sev- 
eral atatea.  in  the  IHstrict  of  Columbia,  and  in 
the  territories,  having  due  regard  to  the  exist- 
ing banking  capital,  resources,  and  business  of 
such  state,  district,  or  territory.  By  on  act  to 
provide  ways  and  means  for  the  payment  of 
compound-interest  notes,  approved  March  2, 
1867,  it  was  provided  that  temporary  loan  oer- 
tifioatea,  bearing  S  per  cent  per  annum  inter- 
est, may  be  issued  to  an  amount  not  exoeedine 
$60,000,000,  and  used  for  this  purpose;  and 
further,  that  said  oertifloBtes  may  constitute 
for  any  national  bank  a  part  of  the  reserve 
provided  for  by  law,  provided  that  not  leas  than 
three  fifths  of  the  reserve  of  such  bank  shall 
consist  of  tawibl  money  of  the  United  States. 
By  a  farther  act  approved  July  25,  1868,  pro- 
vidon  was  made  for  the  issue  of  on  additional 
amount  of  $26,000,000  of  temporary  loan  cer- 
tificates. Br  an  act  approved  July  12,  1870,  it 
was  provided  that  $64,000,000  additional  cir- 
culation may  be  issued  to  national  banks ;  that 
the  (^eolation  of  no  bank  thereafter  organized 
shall  exceed  $600,000 ;  that  at  the  end  of  each 
month  an  amount  of  certificates  of  indebtedness 
equal  to  the  amount  of  notes  issued  during  that 
month  shall  be  called  in,  pud,  and  cancelled. 
This  act  also  provides  for  the  issue  of  circula- 
ting notes  redeemable  in  coin  to  such  banks  as 
may  be  instituted,  the  circulation  of  no  snch 
bank  under  said  act  to  exceed  $1,000,000, 
these  notes  to  be  secured  by  pledge  of  United 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


states  bonds.  Tbii  act  farther  provided  for 
the  mliBtributJon  of  $25,000,000  of  bank  cir- 
culation to  banks  in  states  not  having  their 
proper  proportion,  to  be  taken  from  banks  in 
states  having  circulation  in  excess.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  to  be  done  until  the  full  amount 
of  $54,000,000  of  new  circulation  provided  for 
in  this  act  had  been  applied  for  and  issaed. 
Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  four  gold  bankn 
have  been  authorized :  one  in  Massachusetts, 
with  a  capital  of  $200,000— circulation  issued, 
$130,000;  and  three  in  California,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $2,800,000 — circulation 
iraued,  $1,461,100.  B;  means  of  a  provision  in 
"  An  act  t«  amend  an  act  entitled  '  An  act 
to  provide  internal  revenue,'"  &c.,  approved 
March  8,  1S6G,  congress  effectnallv  drove  from 
(urculation  the  notes  of  all  banks  chartered 
imder  state  laws  by  taxing  all  such  circulation 
paid  out  by  them  10  per  cent,  per  annum.  On 
Oct.  8,  1873,  there  were  in  operation  in  the 
United  States  1,010  national  banks,  and  their 
condition  was  as  fallows : 


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The  distribntion  of  national  banking  capital 
tbroogfaont  the  country  is  verj  unequal,  Aid 
based  upon  no  sound  or  equitable  principles. 
This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Boston,  with  a 
population  of  260,000  and  a  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  $111,000,000  per  annum,  has  48  banks 
■with  a  capital  of  $48,600,000  and  circulation 
of  $86,069,498;  while  PhiUdelphi^  with  a 
population  of  674,000  and  a  mann&cturing 
industTT  of  $826,000,000  per  annum,  has  but 
29  hanks  with  a  eapital  of  $16,285,000  and  a 


circulation  of  $11,888,620. — Id  several  of  the 
states  banks  exist  under  state  chartera,  but 
without  circulation.  In  the  state  of  New  York 
there  are  70  state  banks,  baring  on  Sept.  SI, 
1873,  a  combined  capital  of  $34,846,040;  cir- 
culation (not  yet  sent  in  fur  redemption), 
$126,927;  deposits,  $78,800,491;  loans,  $66,- 
076,361  ;  and  specie,  $1,261,772.  In  Pennsjl- 
TBni&,  and  especially  in  Philadelphia,  the  effort 
has  been  m&de,  and  to  some  extent  with  suc- 
cess, to  supply  the  great  deficiency  of  natjonal 
banks  with  state  banks — the  former  trains:  quit« 
inadequate  to  the  present  large  and  rapidlv  ex- 
tending manufacturing  buaineas  and  trade  of 
that  city. — Batilu  of  Canada.  The  condition 
of  the  Canada  banks.  Sept  80,  1672,  was  as 
follows;  paid-up  capital,  $44,167,690;  cir- 
culation, $24,439,461;  deposits,  $67,661,646; 
specie,  $6,901,380 ;  loans  to  government, 
$607,386 — to  corporations  and  Individ aaK 
$109,621,798.— f7^n'n^  Hoiue.  The  clear- 
ing house  is  an  institution  founded,  not  mere- 
ly upon  the  idea  of  saving  time  and  trouble 
in  the  uM  of  the  precious  metals,  but  also  of 
circulating  notea.  All  tlie  banks  and  bankers 
associated  as  memben  of  a  clearing  honee  are 
for  this  purpose,  as  It  were,^hnt  one  individual 
The  clearing  house  of  London,  the  first  of  its 
kind,  originated  among  the  bankers  of  that 
city,  whose  transactions  in  the  checks,  billa, 
and  drafts  drawn  upon  each  other  became  so 
large  as  to  call  for  the  daily  and  even  bouriy 
use  of  vast  sums  In  hank  not«B  by  all  of  them. 
Appreciating  how  readily  the  debits  and  credits 
respectively  due  or  held  by  them  might  be  set 
off  the  one  against  the  other,  they  formed  the 
clearing  house,  where  up  to  4  o'clock  each 
day  all  drafts,  bills,  Ac,  drawn  upon  each  in- 
dividual member  were  token.  The  system  of 
the  London  clearing  bouse  has  recently  been 
much  extended  and  improved,  and  all  t>alaiicea 
are  settled  by  checks  drawn  upon  the  bank  of 
England — no  bank  notes  being  required  at  alL 
Clearing  houses  exist  in  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, BoBton,  and  other  cities  of  ^e  United 
States.  The  system  in  that  of  Philadelphia  it 
equal  and  in  some  respects  superior  to  that  of 
an;  other  in  the  Unit«d  States.  The  clearings 
are  made  each  morning  at  B.80,  Just  befoM 
which  hour  a  messenger  and  a  clerk  from  each 
bank  are  at  the  clearing  house.  The  clerks 
take  their  seats  inude  a  series  of  desks  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  hollow  ovoL  Each  mesaenger 
brings  witb  himfKim  his  bank  asealed  package 
for  each  other  bank,  containing  all  the  checks 
or  drafts  on  such  bank.  The  name  of  the  bank 
sending  and  that  of  the  bank  to  which  it  is  sent 
are  printed  on  each  package,  and  the  amount 
sent  is  written  thereon.  The  mewengers  take 
their  places  near  the  desks  of  their  respective 
banks,  and  they  have  with  them  tabular  state- 
ments of  the  amount  sent  to  each  bank  and  the 
a^regates.  These  are  exhibited  to  the  retn>er- 
tive  clerks  and  noted  by  them  oa  the  blank 
forma.  At  8.80  precisely  the  manager  calla  to 
order  and  gives  the  word,  when  all  the  mes- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


■ddrwaed  to  their  respective  banks,  and  taking 
receipts  for  them  on  their  Btatoments.  When 
the  circuit  is  oompjeted  aU  the  packages  have 
been  delivered  and  received,  and  the  amoanta 
and  tb«  aggregates,  both  debtor  and  creditor, 
noted  by  the  olerbB.  When  the  dei'kfi  find  all 
correct  the  messengers  take  the  packages  re- 
oeived,  and  retam  to  bonk.  Hie  several  clerka 
then  pass  round  a  memoraDdnm  of  tbe  debits, 
eradita,  and  balance,  each  of  his  respective 
bank.  When  these  memoranda  have  made 
the  cirooit,  each  clerk  has  on  his  statement  the 
debits,  credite,  and  balance,  whether  debtor  or 
creditor,  of  each  bank.  If  these  debits  and 
credits  and  debtor  and  creditor  balances  are 
found  to  balance,  the  clerks  now  leave  the 
clearing  house.  If  not,  the}'  remain  until  the 
error  or  errors  are  discovered.  The  balances 
dne  by  tbe  several  banks  are  paid  in  to  tbe 
clearing  honse  that  day  by  11. SO  A.M.,  and  are 
receivable  by  the  creditor  banks  by  12.80  P.  U. 
A  second  clearing  of  drafts,  &&,  received  by 
the  morning's  mail,  is  made  at  the  clearing 
bonae  by  the  messengers  at  11.80  A.  H.  Each 
bank  is  obliged  daily  to  fnmieh  to  the  clear- 
ing honse  a  Btat«ment  of  its  condition  at  the 
end  of  bnsiness  honrs  on  that  day;  and  tables 
are  daily  ftimiahed  to  the  several  banks  of 
the  condition  of  all  the  banks  in  the  clearing 
boose.  Complete  records  of  all  tbe  transac- 
tions, of  the  state  of  the  banks,  &c,  are  pre- 
•erreid  in  the  hooks  of  tbe  clearing  house, 
predsely  as  are  the  bninnesa  transactions  of  any 
081^  or  other  corporation  or  mercantile  firm. 
Prran  October,  1S71,  to  October,  1872,  the 
oponttions  of  the  New  York  clearing  honse 
were  as  follows:  eichangea,  |88,S44,Sea,668 ; 
ca«h  balances,  $1,426,S82,T07;  average  daily 
exchanges,  $105,964,277;  average  daily  balan- 
ces, $3,989,266,  or  lesa  than  Sf  per  cent. ;  so 
that  by  the  intervention  of  this  institution 
$3  15  are  made  to  do  the  work  which  wonid 
require  $100  withont  it,  and  which  in  iaot 
doee  require  $100  in  tiie  coontry,  where  men 
are  iaolated.     (See  also  8a vinos  Bank.) 

BIHK  BUT,  or  Bu  Buk,  a  HnogArisn  mili- 
tary governor,  ezecnted  with  his  whole  fam- 
ily by  order  of  King  Andrew  II.  (1205-'86). 
Bank's  wife  having  been  sednoed  by  the  queen's 
Invther  Eckart,  with  the  qneen's  oonmvanoe, 
he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  mob  who 
stormed  the  palace  in  the  king's  absence  and 
cnt  the  qneen  to  pieces,  Eckart  barely  escaping 
with  his  life  to  Styria  (1214).  Katona's  Bank- 
bdn,  a  celebrated  Hungarian  drama  (Klansen- 
bo^  I8S7),  has  been  translated  into  German 
(Le^o,  1858).  Orillparzer  also  dramatized 
tbe  subject  in  Ein  treuer  Dinner  Kwiat  Htrm 
(Vienna,  1880). 

BINKKDPT  (low  Lat.  laiuna,  a  bench,  and 
rupfuc,  broken),  an  insolvent  debtor.  In  its 
more  ordinary  acceptation,  bankruptcy  express- 
es inabili^  to  pay  one's  debts,  being  in  that  sense 
tho  same  as  insolvency.    The  theory  of  bonk- 


BANKECPT  283 

mptcy  in  England  nntil  recently  has  been,  that 
it  was  a  criminal  offence,  and  the  proceeding 
was  in  form  hostile  to  the  party  charged  with 
being  bankrapt.  The  first  bankrnpt  law  was 
enacted  in  tlie  reign  of  Henry  VIll.,  in  which 
act  the  persona  amenable  to  its  provisions  are  de- 
scribed as  "  those  who  obtain  other  men's  goods 
on  credit,  and  then  snddenly  See  to  parts  un- 
known, or  keep  honse,  and  there  consume  their 
sabstance  witbont  paying  their  debts."  In 
subsequent  statut«8  the  character  of  the  bank- 
rnpt was  defined  with  more  precision,  and  by 
the  term  was  generally  nnderstood  a  trader 
who  should  do  certain  acts  ^ecifled  in  the 
statutes  which  were  declared  to  constitnte 
bankruptcy.  The  En^ish  bankrnpt  taws  were 
wholly  remodelled  by  act  82  and  37  Victoria, 
c.  71,  on  more  hnmane  principles.  Under  that 
act  all  persons  may  be  adjudged  bankrnpt, 
whether  they  be  traders  or  not.  A  person 
becomes  a  bankrnpt  when  adjudged  so  t)y  the 
court,  upon  the  petition  of  a  creditor  having  a 
liquidated  and  unsecured  debt  of  not  less  tJian 
£50,  or  of  several  creditors  having  like  debts 
to  that  amount  But  before  such  petition  can 
be  presented,  the  debtor  must  have  committed 
some  one  of  the  acts  of  bankruptcy  specified  in 
the  statute,  which  are:  1,  making  a  general 
assignment  of  his  property  for  the  benefit  of 
creditors;  8,  making  a  fraudulent  conveyance, 
gift,  delivery,  or  transfer  of  property ;  8,  doing, 
witn  intent  to  defeat  or  delay  bis  creditors,  any 
of  the  following  acts:  departing  from  or  re- 
maining out  of  England,  or  (being  a  trader) 
departing  fkim  his  dwelling  house  or  otherwise 
absenting  himself^  or  beginning  to  keep  house, 
or  suffering  himself  to  be  outlawed ;  4,  filing 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  rules  of  court 
a  declaration  that  he  is  unable  topay  his  debts ; 
G,  havingezeoutlonfor  adebtof  £50or  upward 
levied  upon  his  goods ;  6,  having  neglected  to 
pay  or  secure  or  compound  the  prisoner's  debt 
after  having  had  a  debtor's  summons  served 
upon  him,  bang  a  trader,  within  seven  days, 
and  being  a  non-trader,  three  weeks  after  ser- 
vice. An  adjudication  founded  upon  any  of 
these  acta  of  bankruptcy  will  not,  however,  be 


The  act  upon  which  the  petition  is  founded,  or 
the  earliest  act  of  bankruptcy  proved  to  have 
been  committed  within  the  twelve  months  next 
preceding  the  presentation  of  the  petition,  con- 
stitatee  the  commencement  of  (he  bankruptcy. 
No  creditor  is  allowed  to  commence  or  prose- 
cute any  proceedmg  against  the  bankrupt  after 
tbe -adjudication  unless  by  leave  of  tbe  court, 
and  all  the  ordinary  remedies  ore  taken  away 
except  those  of  the  secured  creditors  in  respect 
to  their  securities.  Creditora  must  prove  theii 
demands  under  tbe  bankruptcy,  and  for  tbi 
purposes  of  a  distribution  of  the  property  thej 
are  allowed  to  appoint  a  trustee,  and  also  from 
their  own  number  a  committee  of  inspection 
for  the  purpoee  of  guiding,  and  in  some  meaanre 
controlhng,  the  trustee  m  the  discharge  of  his 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


daties.  The  title  of  the  trnetee  relates  back  to 
the  commenoement  of  the  buikrnptor.  The 
creditors  at  taij  meetiag  have  the  right  togive 
directions  to  the  trustee  as  to  the  maoner  in 
Thiok  the  property  shall  be  administered  hj 
him.  Property  held  by  the  bankrupt  in  trost, 
the  to<^  of  his  trade  if  any,  and  the  necessary 
wearing  apparel  and  bedding  of  himself  and 
his  family — sach  tools,  apparel,  and  bedding 
not  exceeding  in  value  £60 — will  not  pass  to 
the  assignee;  bnt  property  acquired  by  or  de- 
volving upon  the  bankrnpb  pending  the  pro- 
oeedinga  will  pass,  and  also  the  oapacit;  to  ex- 
ercise or  take  proceedings  to  exercise  all  powers 
over  property  for  his  own  benefit.  If  he  is  a 
trader,  goods  and  chattels  in  his  bonds  as  repu- 
ted owner,  with  the  permisMon  of  the  true 
owner,  will  also  pass  to  the  trustee.  Until  the 
appointment  of  a  trnatee,  and  during  any  va- 
cancy which  may  occur,  the  registrar  of  the 
court  is  the  trnstee.  When  the  property  has 
been  realized  the  court  declares  the  bankniptoy 
closed,  and  the  bankrupt  may  apply  for  his 
discharge.  This  ia  only  granted  where  the  as- 
sets pay  lOf.  in  the  pound,  or  where  the  credi- 
tors shall  have  passed  a  resolution  by  a  m^ority 
in  number  representing  three  fourths  in  value 
of  the  debts  to  the  effect  that  a  discharge 
should  be  granted.  A  discbarge  releases  the 
bankrupt  f¥om  all  debts  provable  under  the 
bankruptcy,  except  those  which  he  incurred  by 
meana  of  any  fraud  or  breach  of  trost,  and 
those  of  which  he  obtuned  forbearance  by 
meansof  fraud,  and  also  those  due  to  the  crown 
or  relating  to  tlie  revenue ;  but  of  these  last  he 
may  be  duohorged  if  the  couunissioners  of  the 
treasury  consent  thereto.  If  the  bankrupt 
fails  to  obtain  his  discharge,  a  period  of  three 

J  ears  is  given  him  during  which,  if  he  pays  to 
is  creditors  such  sum  as,  together  with  the 
dividends  already  received  by  them,  make  up 
10*.  in  the  pound,  he  is  to  obtain  his  discharge. 
In  the  tneon  time  debts  provable  in  bankrupt«7 
are  not  to  be  enforced  agunst  his  property-, 
but  if  at  the  expiration  of  that  time  he  baa  not 
thus  obtained  his  discharge,  debts  provable 
under  the  bankruptcy  stand  as  judgment  debts 
(gainst  him,  bnt  without  interest. — In  the 
United  States,  power  is  conferred  upon  con- 
gress by  the  constitution  to  establish  a  uniform 
Bystem  of  bankruptcy.  When  this  power  is 
exerdsed,  it  sapersedas  the  state  insolvent 
laws,  which  are  in  their  nature  aimilar  to  the 
bankrupt  acts.  It  was  first  exercised  bj  act 
of  April  i,  1800,  repealed  Bee.  IS,  1S08;  again 
by  act  of  Aug.  19,  1841,  repealed  in  1843; 
aMin  by  act  of  Uorch  3,  ISBT,  now  in  fofoe. 
This  act  embraces  in  its  provi^ons  any  person 
residing  within  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  United 
Statesowingdebtstotheamount  of  more  than 
$800  provable  under  it.  It  contains  what  are 
'  called  voluntary  provisions,  under  which  an 
insolvent  debtor  may  himself  be  the  petitioner 
for  his  discharge,  and  involuntary  provisions, 
nnder  which  the  creditors  become  petitioners 
when  they  beEeve  an  act  of  bankruptcy  has 


been  committed.  Ko  debt  created  by  the 
fraud  or  embeulement  of  the  bankrupt  w  by 
his  defalcation  as  a  public  officer,  or  whde  act- 
ing  in  any  fiduciary  capacity.  Is  barred  by  a 
certificate  of  discharga  issued  under  the  oot. 
Ori^nal  Jurisdiction  of  the  proceedings  Se  poe- 
seesed  by  the  United  States  district  oourta,  bnt 
registers  in  bankruptcy  are  appointed,  hy  whom 
the  m^jor  part  of  the  bnsiness  is  transacted. 
Contested  issnee  are  adjourned  by  the  r^iatera 
for  hearing  in  court,  and  the  debtor  who  dis- 
putes the  allegations  of  the  creditors  agajiut 
him  may  demand  trial  by  jury.  The  acts  of 
bankruptcy  enumerated  are  as  follows;  1,  de- 
parting from  the  state,  territory,  or  dietriot  of 
which  the  person  is  an  inhabitant,  with  intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors ;  2,  remtdning  absent 
with  the  like  intent;  8,  concealing  himself  to 
avoid  the  service  of  legal  process  for  the  recov- 
ery of  any  debt  provable  under  the  act;  i,  oon- 
oealiug  or  removing  property  to  avoid  legal 
process;  S,  making  an  assignment,  gift,  s^e, 
conveyance,  or  transfer  of  his  estate,  property, 
righta,  or  credits,  with  intent  to  delay,  l^der, 
or  defrand  creditoM ;  6,  being  under  arreat  for 
a  period  of  seven  days  on  an  execution  upon  a 
deot  provable  under  the  act,  for  more  than 
$100;  7,  being  actually  imprisoned  for  more 
than  seven  days  in  a  civil  suit  founded  on  eon- 
tract,  for  $100  or  upward ;  8,  making  any  pay- 
men^  gift,  grant,  sate,  conveyance,  or  transfer 
of  money  or  other  property,  estate,  rights,  or 
credits,  or  giving  any  warrant  to  eonfess  judg- 
ment, or  procuring  or  suffering  his  property  to 
be  tsken  on  legal  process  while  bankrupt  or 
insolvent,  or  in  contemplation  of  bankruptcy  or 
insolvency,  with  intent  to  ^ve  a  preference  to 
one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  or  to  persons 
liable  for  him  as  sureties  or  otherwise,  or  wiSi 
intent  by  such  disposition  of  his  property  to 
defeat  or  delay  the  operation  of  the  act ;  9,  a 
banker,  broker,  merchant,  trader,  mannbc 
turer,  or  miner,  frandnlently  stopping  payment, 
or  having  stopped  or  suspended,  and  not  re- 
sumed payment  of  his  commercial  paper  within 
14  days.    In  the  distribation  of  the  bankrupt's 


owing  to  the  United  States;  S,  all  demands 
owing  to  the  state  in  which  the  prooeedinga 
are  had;  4,  wages  dne  to  any  operative,  clerk, 
or  house  servant,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
$50  for  labor  performed  within  dz  months 
next  preceding  the  first  publication  of  the  no- 
tice c^  procoeaings  in  bankruptcy ;  5,  all  other 
debts  which  by  the  laws  of  the  United  Stale* 
are  or  may  he  entitied  to  priority,  in  like  man- 
ner as  if  the  act  bad  not  oeen  passed.  Other 
demands  are  paid  ratably,  except  that  speoifio 
liens  are  not  disturbed  or  devested,  nnlesf 
where  created  In  contemplation  of  bankruptcy 
or  In  fraud  of  the  law.  There  are  saved  to  the 
bankrupt  his  necessary  household  furniture  and 
other  articles  designated  by  the  assignee,  not 
exceeding  in  value  $600;  the  wearing  apparel 
of  himaelf  and  family ;  the  uniform,  arms,  and 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


tmiipmenta  of  apf  one  who  Is  or  hu  been  a 
■oidier  in  the  militia  or  armj ;  and  any  other 
property  that  U  or  may  bo  exempt  Froni  levy 
and  sale  by  the  Ielwb  of  the  Unitea  States  or  by 
those  of  the  state  in  force  in  1897.  With  the 
exception  of  the  exempt  property,  the  assign- 
nient  nnder  the  act  carries  to  the  Basignee  all 
the  estate  of  the  bankrapt,  and  dissolTes  all 
Utaohmanta  of  aav  of  the  property  made  on 
mesne  prooeoa  within  tbnr  months  previons  to 
the  oonunencement  of  the  proceedings.  A  dia- 
obarge  is  granted  to  the  bankrupt  as  a  matter 
of  conrse  nnlees  he  has  been  guilty  of  some  act 
forbidden  by  the  statate,  or  of  some  fraud  apon 
creditors,  orlostproperty  by  gaming,  onrafiered 
Tolnntsry  loss  or  destraotion  to  his  estate ;  hut 
in  cases  commenced  a  yesi  after  the  act  went 
into  operation,  no  discharge  ia  granted  unless 
the  assets  pay  GO  per  cent,  of  toe  debts,  or  a 
mqority  in  nnmber  and  value  of  the  creditors 
aaaent ;  and  in  cases  of  second  bankmptcy  no 
discharge  is  granted  anless  the  assets  pay  70 
per  euit^  or  unless  tiiree  fonrtbs  in  valae  of  the 
orediton  assent,  or  nnless  the  debts  owing  at 
the  time  of  the  previoos  bsnkraptoy  have  naen 
Mid  or  released.  For  the  following  acts  the 
Mnkmpt  is  pnnisbable  oriminallf ;  Secreting  or 
oiHtcealing  prt^rty  belonging  to  his  estate; 
ooncealing,  destroying,  altering,  &o.,  books, 
p^>era,  £0.,  with  fruidnlent  intent;  making 
gifla,  payments,  &o.,  with  the  like  intent; 
mending  any  part  of  his  estate  in  gaming; 
mtodulent  omisdon  of  property  fWim  the  sche- 
dule; failing  to  disclose  knowledge  of  frandu- 
lent  claims  against  the  estate ;  attempting  tc 
aoooont  for  any  of  his  property  by  nctitiow 
tosMS  or  expenses ;  obtaining  l^andnlent  credit 
witliin  three  mionths  before  eommencement 
<J  the  proceedings,  and  with  intent  to  de- 
ftand  creditors;  making  dispoddon  of  property 
bonght  on  credit  and  not  paid  for,  otherwise 
than  by  Bmm  Jidt  tnoisactions  in  the  ordinary 
way  of  his  trade,  within  three  months  before 
the  oommencement  of  proceedings.  The  maxi- 
mnna  punishmoit  that  may  be  inflicted  la  three 
■oodtb*'  Imprisonment  with  or  witbont  hard 
labor. — In  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  bankmptcy 
laws  are  in  their  effect  sabstantially  the  same 
as  in  England.  In  France,  the  tribonal  of 
oonunerce  proceeds  sommarily  to  seqaester  the 
estate  of  a  bankmpt  merchant,  and  apply  the 
same  in  payment  of  his  debts.  From  the  day 
of  &ilure  the  bankrupt  is  divested  of  ell  title  to 
or  control  over  his  property;  his  connting- 
honse  is  closed,  and  his  effects  pat  under  seal; 
a  member  of  the  court  ia  appointed  a  oommis- 
rioner  to  take  charge  of  the  effects,  with  the 
aid  of  certain  agents,  who  have  Borveillance  of 
the  same  until  the  creditors  are  convened  for 
the  nomination  of  syndics  ftrastees) ;  and 
debtor  himself  in  themeautune  may  be  impris- 
oned or  compelled  to  give  security  to  undergo 
ezammation  in  respect  to  his  property.  The 
&mily  of  the  bankrupt  are  entitled  to  retain 
their  apparel  and  honsehold  ftimltnre;  the 
wife  also  retina  sny  interest  belonging  to  her 


285 

by  a  marriage  stipnlatifni,  or  which  she  has 
herself  aeqaired  by  the  use  of  her  own  separate 
estate.  The  proceeds  of  the  bankrupt's  estate 
are  distributed  by  the  syndics  to  the  creditors; 
the  bankrapt  is  sobject  to  imprisonment,  or 
to  be  condemned  to  forced  labor,  in  case  of 
fraudulent  Ijankroploy  or  of  insolvency  clearly 
traceable  to  imprudence  or  extravsganoe. — 
There  are  similar  proceedings  in  all  tiie  com- 
mercial countries  of  Europe,  some  more  and 
some  less  severe,  but  all  of  them  being  founded 
upon  the  presumption  of  flrand  having  been 
committed  by  the  bankrapt,  from  which  he  is 
to  purge  himself  upon  a  strict  investigation  of 
his  affairs.  In  Holland  he  is  discharged  fhmi 
all  forther  liability  for  his  debts  upon  getting 
a  certificate  from  one  half  of  his  creditors,  to 
whom  is  due  five  eighths  of  his  debts. 

UHESi  a  K.  £.  county  of  Georgia,  watered 
by  Broad  river  and  its  rifluents;  area,  250  wj. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,978,  of  whom  921  were 
colored.  The  chief  productions  in  ISTO  were 
11,814  bushels  of  wheat,  114,167  of  Indian 
com,  11,069  of  osta,  12,268  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  898  bales  of  cotton.    Capital,  Homer. 

SUKS,  Jski,  an  English  dramatist  of  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries;  the  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  are  unknown.  He  was  a  London  at- 
torney, and  left  his  profession  to  write  for  the 
stage.  He  pubhshea  seren  trsgedies  between 
1677  snd  1660.  Of  these,  "The  Unhappy  Fa- 
vorite," founded  on  the  fate  of  the  earl  of 
Essex  (beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth), 
was  a  stock  play  for  a  long  time,  and  was 
freely  used  by  later  playwrights.  His  dramas 
were  popular,  but  their  literary  merit  is  small. 
■IRKS,  8ir  Jsstph,  sn  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  in  London,  Jen,  4,  1743,  died 
Jane  19,  1820.  At  Eton  school  he  first  showed 
a  taste  for  botany,  which  he  cultivated  after- 
ward with  cnthuEiaam  at  Oxford.  In  1764,  at 
the  age  of  21,  be  came  into  bis  paternal  prop- 
erty, which  was  t^onaiderable.  Two  years 
1at«r  he  became  fellow  of  the  royal  society, 
after  which  he  made  a  voyage  to  Newfound- 
land snd  Labrador,  with  Lieut  Fhin^s  of  the 
royal  navy,  to  collect  plants.  On  his  return 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Br.  Bolander,  a 
Swede,  the  pupil  of  Linnseus.  The  four  years 
following  Mr.  Banks  devoted  to  the  study  of 
botany  and  natural  history,  and  through  the 
interest  of  the  earl  of  Sandwich,  who  was  then 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  was  appointed  with 
Dr.  Solander  naturalist  to  the  expedition  under 
the  command  of  Capt.  Cook,  which  sailed  from 
England  In  August,  JT68,  to  visit  Tahiti  for 
the  purpose  of  observing  the  transit  of  Venua. 
In  this  voyage,  which  lasted  three  years,  he 
visited  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Tahiti,  New  Zealand, 
and  New  South  Wales.  In  1772  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Iceland  with  Dr.  Bolander,  visiting 
the  Hebrides  on  his  return,  and  discovering 
the  columnar  formation  of  the  rocks  surround- 
ing the  cavea  of  Staffa.  On  the  retirement  of 
Sir  John  Pringte  from  the  presidency  of  the 
roytd  society  in  1777,  Ur.  Banks  was  chosen 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


28d  BANXB 

to  that  office,  which  he  held  for  43  years.  In 
1731  he  was  created  a  b&ronet.  Soon  after,  on 
the  ludden  death  of  Dr.  Solander,  he  abandoned 
his  purpose  of  pnbliehing  the  results  of  his  ob- 
servations and  discoveries  in  botan;.  In  1T9S 
be  received  the  order  of  the  Batb,  in  1797  was 
made  a  [irivj  councillor,  and  in  1802  vta 
choeen  a  member  of  the  natjonal  institute  of 
France.  With  die  exception  of  brief  memoirs 
or  oocsMonal  communications  to  the  trans- 
actions of  societies,  he  published  no  aoconnt 
of  his  large  collections  on  natural  history,  or 
of  the  reaolts  of  his  studies  snd  observations. 
A  small  work  on  "Blight,  Uildew,  or  Rost  in 
Oom,"  and  another  on  "Merino  Sheep,"  are 
his  oalj  pablished  books.  He  dispensed  bis 
large  fortune  with  liberality,  aiding  m  most  of 
the  Bcientifio  enterprises  of  his  time,  and  re- 
lieving the  necessities  of  scholars  snd  travet- 
lera.  The  AfVican  association  and  the  Botany 
Bay  colony  owed  their  origin  to  him.  His  im- 
mense library  and  scientific  collections  were 
bequeathed  to  the  British  mnsenm. 

■INKS,  Nathuld  PreBllH,  an  American  sUtes- 
manand  general,  bom  in  Walthom,  Mass.,  Jan. 
80,  1816.  While  a  boy  he  worked  in  a  cot- 
ton factory  in  his  native  village,  of  which  his 
father  was  overseer,  and  afterward  learned 
the  machinist's  tnule.  He  devoted  his  leisnre 
hoars  to  study,  and  at  an  early  age  lectured 
before  political  meetings,  lyceoms,  and  tem- 
perance societies;  he  afterward  l>ecame  editor 
of  the  village  paper  of  Waltham,  and  received 
an  office  under  tne  Polk  administration  in  the 
Boston  cnstom  honse.  About  this  time  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1849  wsa  e1eot«d 
to  the  hoose  of  representatives  of  Massacha- 
setts.  In  1861  he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
honse  OS  one  of  the  prominent  advocates  of  the 
"coalition"  between  the  democrats  and  the 
freesoilers,  by  which  the  ancient  role  of  the 
whigs  was  overthrown  in  Massaohnsetts,  He 
was  agUD  elected  the  following  year  by  the 
same  combination,  also  representative  to  the 
ensuing  congress.  In  the  summer  of  ISfiS  he 
was  president  of  the  convention  called  to  re- 
vise Uie  constitution  of  the  state.  During  his 
firat  term  in  congress  he  withdrew  from  the 
democratic  party,  and  in  18B4  was  reelected 
with  the  support  of  both  the  "know-nothing" 
or  American  and  repnbiican  parties,  and  in 
December,  18S6,  was  adopted  as  the  candidate 
of  the  latter  for  speaker.  After  a  contest  of 
more  than  two  months,  he  was  elected  on  the 
13Sd  ballot  by  a  small  plurality.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  next  congress,  and  was  nomi- 
nated in  separate  conventions  of  the  American 
and  republican  parties  for  the  o£Bce  of  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  to  which  he  was  elect- 
ed in  Novembar,  18G7,  and  rejected  in  1858 
and  1859.  In  1860  he  succeeded  Capt.  O.  B. 
McOlellan  as  president  of  the  Dlinois  Central 
railroad;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
WOT,  in  1861,  be  received  a  n^jor  general's 
commission,  and  was  asdgned  to  the  6th  corps 
of  the  army  of  the  Potonuio,  with  his  command 


BANESIA 

at  first  on  the  npper  Potomac,  and  afterward 
in  the  valley  of  toe  Shenandoah.  A  porticm  of 
his  troops  fought  with  success  at  Winchester, 
March  23,  1882.  On  May  24  he  was  attacked 
by  the  confederate  Gen.  T.  J.  Jackson  at  Stras- 
bnrg,  and  forced  to  retreat  r^idly  to  the  Po- 
tomac As  commander  of  a  corps  under  Gen. 
Pope  he  fought  the  battle  of  Cetlor  Uoontun, 
Aug.  B ;  and  alter  participating  in  Gen.  Sigel's 
movements  in  the  valley  of  Vir^nia,  in  Sep- 
tember he  was  put  in  command  of  the  city  of 
Washington.  In  December  he  succeeded  Gen. 
Butier  as  commander  of  the  department  of  the 

rf,  with  his  headquarters  at  New  Orleans. 
April.  1868,  he  captured  Opelousas,  and  in 
July  took  Port  Hudson,  completing  the  opening 
of  the  Misdssippi  river.  In  the  spring  ot  1864 
he  made  an  unsuccessful  expedition  np  the  Red 
river,  and  in  May  of  that  year  was  reUeved  of 
his  command.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in 
his  old  district  in  November,  18S4,  and  was 
reelected  in  1868,  1988,  and  1870,  serving  as 
ch^rman  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations. 
In  the  canvass  of  1872  he  took  an  active  part 
in  favor  of  the  election  of  Horace  Greeley  as 
president  of  the  United  States. 

BINKS,  TbiHBS,  an  English  sculptor,  bom  at 
Lambeth,  Dec  22, 1786,  died  b  London,  Feb.  2, 
1806.  His  &ther  gave  him  a  good  education, 
and  then  placed  him  under  the  instruction 
of  Kent,  the  architect  In  1770  he  won  the 
gold  medal  of  the  royal  academy.  His  group 
of  "Mercury,  Argos,  and  lo"  i^rly  established 
his  reputation.  In  1772  he  went  to  Rome  as 
the  academy's  foreign  stndent,  and  spent  three 
years  there  studying  the  antique  models  and 
eieroi^ng  his  own  talents.  He  produced  sev- 
eral gronps,  among  them  "Oaractacns  plead- 
ing before  Claudius,"  and  "  Psyche  and  the 
Butterfiy."  The  iatCer  was  purchased  by  the 
em^^es  Catharine  IL,  who  invited  him  to  visit 
St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was  cordially  recwved 
and  commisdoned  to  execute  a  group  called 
"Armed  Neutrality."  His  masterpiece,  the 
"Mourning  Achilles,"  was  placed  in  the  Brit- 
ish institution.  Elected  a  memljer  of  the  acad- 
emy, lie  presented  to  that  institution  a  fine  fig- 
ure of  a  fallen  Titan.  His  most  popular  work 
wosamonumeut  representing  the  infant  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Brooke  Bootbby. 

B1HK8U,  a  name  given  to  several  distinct 
genera  of  plants  in  honor  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
The  one  to  which  the  name  properly  appliw 
boiongs  to  the  family  of  proteae»a,  and  was 
named  by  Linnffius  in  honor  of  its  discoverer, 
who  accompanied  Capt.  Cook  in  his  second 
voyage  The  genus  comprises  several  species, 
nearly  all  natives  of  Anstralia  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands,  where  their  beautitiil  forms  and 
Foliage  ore  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  landscape. 
The  oolonistB  consider  their  presence  a  mark 
of  bad  land.  The  leaves  ore  hard,  often  broad, 
and  closely  cover  the  branches ;  the  fiower  and 
fmit  are  in  compact  blunt  cones,  usually 
downy  or  wooUy,  and  the  fiowers  prqject  so  as 
to  form  a  qtike.    As  ornamental  shrubs  the 


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BANNOOKBUEN 


287 


banknas  have  been  much  caltivated,  and  they 
wilt  bear  the  climate  of  the  southern  stat«a 
or  of  Englaod  with  slight  protectioD.  AU  are 
easily  propagat«d  fli>m  seeds.    The  banksia  of 


Foreter  is  t«  be  referred  to  the  gennepinitlta  ; 
"'  -  -  "-^a  to  eattvM,  a  geniu  "  ' 
I  tnat  of  Brace  to  Bt 
The  last,  ti&der  the 
was  foand  \>j  the  distingnished  AfHcan  trav- 
eller in  the  high  country  of  AbysBinia,  where  a 
decoction  of  its  leaves  waa  osed  commonly  as 
an  antheiniiiitic. 

BlXJfACKS,  BMudu,  or  Fmna^pM,  a  tribe  of 
Indians  of  the  Shoshonee  family  scattered  over 
several  of  the  territories  and  statesofthe  Union. 
They  were  first  foond  in  the  olroost  desert  lands 
between  the  Saptia  river  and  Salt  lake,  and  be- 
tween the  Bine  and  Rocky  monntains.  At  an 
early  period  they  obtained  horses  and  resorted 
to  the  bison  plains  and  more  fertile  spots,  and 
thos  became  a  more  closely  connected  tribe  than 
Indians  on  foot  They  are  proud,  brave,  fine- 
looking  men,  though  their  women  are  repre- 
sented as  n^y.  Those  with  the  eastern  Sho- 
shonee*, long  under  a  friendly  chief,  TaWee, 
have  always  been  friendly  to  the  whites.  With 
the  others  there  were  for  a  time  hostilities  in 
IS6S.  They  freqnent  the  Yellowstone  conntry 
to  hunt,  and  range  through  northern  Utah,  Wy- 
oming, aonthem  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Idaho. 
The  two  chief  bands  number  a[iparent!y  about 
600  each,  though  in  tlie  ordinary  returns  some 
appear  to  be  enumerated  over  again  in  different 
agencies.  Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  the 
Shoshonee,  bat  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  the  Shoshonees  proper.  They  have  recently 
been  placed  on  reaervations  where  there  is  bat 
little  fish  or  game,  and  where  they  have  been 
exposed  to  attacks  from  the  Dakotaa. 

BDVNEIUX,  Bc^JaalB,  a  negro  matliemntician 
and  astronomer,  bom  at  EUicotl's  Mills,  Md., 
Kov.  9,  1781.  died  in  October.  1806.     His  ma- 
ternal grandmother  was  a  white  woman,  who 
71  VOL.  II.— 19 


liberated  and  married  one  of  her  slaves,  and 
from  her  he  learned  to  read  and  write.  After 
his  60th  year  he  commenced  the  stndy  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  from  1T9S  till 
his  death  published  almanacs  prepared  frum 
his  own  calculations.  Thomas  Jefferson  trans- 
mitted tbe  first  one  in  manuscript  to  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Paris  academy  of  sciences,  and  sent 
a  complimentary  lett«r  to  the  author.  Ban- 
neker  assisted  in  ranuing  the  boundary  lines 
of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  laying  out 
the  city  of  Washington,  A  book  of  his  city 
calculations  is  preserved  in  the  Maryland  hia- 
torical  society  at  Baltimore,  which  association 
has  published  two  sketches  of  his  life. 

BANNERET,  a  feudal  title  of  military  dignity, 
now  extinct,  ranking  between  the  baron  and 
the  knight  The  bauneret  was  tbe  lowest  of 
the  feudal  dignitaries.  He  displayed  a  sqnare 
banner  on  his  lance,  instead  of  the  swallow- 
tailed  pennon  of  the  simple  knight,  and  com- 
manded a  body  of  his  own  vassals,  who  should 
nnmber  at  least  GO.  The  IJtle  was  usually  con- 
ferred on  the  field  by  the  king  in  person,  as  a 
reward  for  gallantry,  and  the  ceremony  con- 
sisted in  cutting  off  the  tails  of  tbe  candidate's 
pennon.  The  titie  of  knight  banneret,  a  degree 
higher  than  the  bachelor,  appears  in  the  time 
of  Fhilip  Augustus,  and  lasted  until  the  crea- 
tion of  companies  of  ordnance  by  Charles  VII. 
The  first  banneret  in  F.nglnnd,  according  to 
Froissart,  was  created  by  Eriward  1.  After 
the  institution  of  baronets  by  James  I.  the  or- 
der dwindled  away,  and  tbe  last  creation  in 
England  is  generally  accounts  to  have  been 
by  Charles  I.,  who  made  Capt.  John  Smith  a 
banneret  for  rescuing  the  royal  banner  at' 
Edgehill;  though  George  III,  attempted  to  re- 
vive tbe  dignity  in  1797,  when  he  conferred  it 
upon  Capt.  Sir  Henry  Trollope,  in  whose  ship 
he  reviewed  the  fleet  at  the  Nore. 

BINHOCKBERK,  a  vUl^e  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  about  8  m.  S.  £.  of  Stirling  castle ; 
pop,  about  2,700.  The  targe  brook  (bum)  which 
fiows  throDgh  the  town  and  gives  it  its  name 
falls  into  the  frith  of  Forth,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  named  from  the  oaten  cakes  (bannocks) 
so  common  in  that  region.  The  town  is  the 
seat  of  woollen  raani^actures,  and  has  long 
supplied  the  tartans  worn  by  ijie  Highland  re- 
^ments  of  the  British  army.  A  battle  was 
fought  here,  June  34,  1SI4,  between  the  Bcote 
nnder  Robert  Bruce  and  the  English  under  Ed- 
ward 11.  Edward,  with  nearly  100,000  men, 
including  the  fiower  of  the  English  nobility, 
was  met  at  Bannock  burn  by  Bruce  with  about 
S0,000  men,  and  after  a  fierce  contest  was 
routed  with  a  loss  of  80,000.  By  this  battle 
the  independence  of  Scotland  was  secured,  and 
Bruce  was  firmly  seated  upon  the  throne.  Near 
the  same  place,  at  Saachiebam,  James  111.  was 
defeated  by  hia  robellioua  subjects  in  1488,  and 
was  assassinated  in  a  mill  near  by,  where  he 
had  taken  refuge.     The  "bore  stone"  is  still 

Eointed  out  as  tbe  spot  on  which  Bruce  fixed 
is  standard  on  the  day  of  tbe  battle. 


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288        BAilNS  OF  MATRIMONY 

■U1V9  OF  HITBDIOHT,  a.  public  proclama- 
tion of  the  intention  of  the  perttes  named  to 
enter  into  the  Btate  of  matrimonr,  being  a 
notice  to  any  one  to  make  objection  if  he  knows 
of  any  reaaon  nhj  the  marriage  should  not 
take  place.  The  term  aeema  to  be  derived  from 
the  Teutonic  ban,  on  interdict,  whence  to  put 
under  ban  in  the  German  empire  was  to  ex- 
commnnicote  or  declare  outlawry.  The  custom 
ia  traced  to  the  early  Christians,  who  inter- 
wove it  into  their  eoclemaatical  polity.  Ita 
introduction  into  France  dates  from  the  6th 
oentnry,  and  in  other  parte  of  Earope  it  was 
probably  adopted  abont  the  same  time,  or  waa 
coeval  with  the  eatabliahment  of  Christianity, 
as  the  laws  regulating  it  are  everywhere  very 
Biniilar.  In  the  French  and  !EngUsh  churches 
they  were  identical,  and  requir^  the  procla- 
mation to  be  made  on  three  succesaive  Bnndaya 
in  chnreh,  daring  the  celebration  of  public 
worship.  The  o^ect  of  publication  waa  to 
prevent  clandestine  marriages,  or  those  which 
for  various  reaaong  are  nntawftil,  as  alao  the 
effect  of  precipitancy.  In  England  the  banns 
of  a  marria^  to  be  celebrated  according  to  the 
forms  of  the  established  church  are  required 
to  be  published  three  weeks  previous  to  the 
marriage,  a  modification  of  the  old  custom  of 
oral  proclamation;  but  the  parties  may  dis- 
pense with  this  by  procuring  a  license  from  a 
person  authorized  to  grant  it  In  Scotland 
three  weeks'  publication  is  necessary  to  a 
regular,  oa  distinguished  from  a  clandestine 
marriage;  and  alao  in  France,  by  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Code  Napoleon.  In  the  United 
States  the  tendenoy  of  l^slation  has  been  to- 
ward the  repeal  of  all  statutes  requiring  pub- 
lication. In  the  Roman  Catliolic  churches  of 
this  conntry,  however,  it  is  the  rule  to  publish 
the  banns  on  two  Sundays  previous  to  the 
wedding,  when  both  the  parties  to  the  mar- 
riage are  Catholics. 

BimillO,  a  Scottish  thane  and  warrior  of  the 
11th  century,  celebrated  as  the  progenitor  of 
^e  royal  house  of  Stuari;,  through  his  grandson 
Walter,  firat  lord  high  steward  of  Scotland. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Macbeth  in  10G6,  after 
having  joined  him  in  hia  conspiracy  against 
Ein^  Duncan:  bnt  Shakespeare,  instead  of 
makmg  him  Hacbeth'a  accomplice,  represents 
him  simply  as  his  victim. 

BINSHEE,  or  Beubee,  in  popular  snperstition, 
an  invisible  being,  supposed  to  announce  by 
mournfnl  presence  and  voice  the  approaching 
deathofsonie  members  of  certain  ancient  houses 
in  Ireland  and  Scotland.  It  waa  aaid  that, 
on  the  decease  of  a  hero,  the  harps  of  his  bards 
voluntarily  emitted  monmfnl  sounds.  In  later 
times  it  was  popularly  supposed  that  each  fam- 
ily Lad  its  banshee,  which  gave  warning  of  mis- 
fortune or  haunted  the  scenes  of  past  CToubles. 
.  BjINTAH.  I.  A  Dutch  province  forming  the 
western  end  of  the  island  of  Java,  separated 
from  Sumatra  by  the  strut  of  Sonda;  area, 
8,081  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1857,  677,107.  The  coasts 
are  level,  but  tiie  interior  districts  monotainous, 


BANTING 

and  there  are  two  active  volcanoes,  caie  of 

which,  Karang,  is  e,069  feet  high.  The  chief 
prodnctioDS  are  coffee,  rice,  sugar,  indigo,  tea, 
cinnamon,  and  bay  salt.  All  ^  these,  except 
rice  and  ^t,  are  exotics.  Pepper,  which  first 
attracted  European  adventurers,  and  made  this 
country  one  of  the  most  noted  commercial 
points  during  the  17th  century,  ia  no  longer 
cnltivated.  The  wild  animals  include  tigers, 
rhinoceroses,  apes,  and  pigs.  Cattle,  buffaloes, 
and  gOBta  are  extensively  reared,  and  there  are 
considerable  fisheries  on  the  coasts.  Themass 
of  the  population  of  Bantam  are  of  the  Snnda 
nation,  and  speak  its  peculiar  language ;  but  on 
the  coast  they  are  mixed  with  Muaya,  Java- 
nese, and  others  who  speak  Uolay.  Bantam 
was  an  independent  state  nnder  a  sultan  prior 
to  the  Dutch  dominion.  It  was  first  visited  by 
the  Portugnese,  under  Henriqne  Lem&in  ISll. 
The  Dutch,  under  the  two  brothers  Boutmau, 
came  in  1G9G;  and  one  of  the  brothers  was 
captured  and  held  prisoner  for  some  time  by 
the  sultan.  The  English  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance here  in  1602,  and  were  e^aged  in 
almost  constant  hostilities  with  their  European 
rivals,  but  the  English  and  Portugnese  were 
finally  driven  out  by  the  Dutch.  For  a  long 
time  the  district  was  held  as  a  sort  of  depen- 
dency by  the  Dutch  East  India  company  until 
1843,  when  the  last  of  its  rtgahs  was  banished 
to  Surabaya,  at  the  fbrther  end  of  Java,  and 
the  country  made  a  province.  There  are  41 
small  islands  and  ialeU,  chiefly  in  the  strait  of 
Sundo,  which  belong  to  the  government  of  this 
province.  II.  A  town,  formerly  capital  of  the 
above  described  province,  situated  at  the  head 
of  a  bay  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  16  m. 
from  the  strait  of  Sunda  and  61  m.  W.  of  Ba- 
tavia;  lat  6°  S'  S.,  Ion.  109°  9'  E.  Before  Uie 
arrival  of  Europeans  it  was  a  proBperaus  cilr 
with  a  rich  trade  in  pepper.  "Oie  Portuguese, 
English,  and  Dntch  each  hod  a  factory  here. 
The  capital,  however,  was  in  1816  removed  to 
Sirang,  some  miles  inland.  The  trade  haa  gone 
to  Batavia,  the  harbor  has  been  obstructed  by 
the  increase  of  coral  reefs  and  deposita  front 
the  rivers,  and  since  tlie  destruction  of  most 
of  the  houaes  by  fire  in  1817  the  town  has  not 
been  rebuilt. 

BANTIHG,  WIDUh,  a  London  merchant,  bom 
in  1797,  died  in  1871.  Owing  to  the  wide  cir- 
culation of  hia  "Letter  on  Corpulence,"  pub- 
lished at  first  in  18SS  in  the  newspapers,  and 
subsequently  in  a  pamphlet  {6th  ed.,  London, 
1868  ;  German  translation,  10th  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1667),  his  name  has  been  popularly  associ- 
ated with  a  dietetic  method  of  curing  corpu- 
lence. His  prescriptions,  however,  are  almost 
identical  with  those  of  Brillat-Savarin  in  his 
Phyaiologie  dv,  go&t  (1826).  By  the  applica- 
tion of  the  method  which  he  describes,  under 
the  gnidance  of  William  Harvey,  a  London 
su:^on,  his  weight  was  reduced  from  £02 
pounds  on  Aug.  26, 1862,  to  166  on  Sept.  12, 
1863,  and  to  ISO  in  April,  1864,  which  latter 
weight  he  regarded  ds  appropriate  to  his  sge 


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BAimtY  BAY 

■nd  statnre,  6  feet  S  inches.  He  considara  the 
diet  as  the  principal  point  in  the  treatment  of 
corpnlence,  though  the  qaantity  of  food  ma; 
be  Bafelf  left  to  the  natural  appetite.  The 
Banting  method  consists  in  the  use  of  a  i&rj^e 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  food,  and  in  the 
r^ectJoD  of  nil  subitancee  which  liave  an 
excess  of  carhon.     Uia  main  principle  coose- 

Snentl;  ia  ahstlnenca  from  &11  farinaceous,  sac- 
barine,  or  oily  matter,  which  is  converted  into 
tdt  in  the  human  system.  He  especial);  pro- 
Hcribes  the  nse  of  bread,  paatrj,  potatoes,  bnt- 
ter,  millc,  beer,  port  wine,  champagne,  pork, 
herrings,  eels,  salmon,  and  the  like;  and  rec- 
ommends lean  meal,  poultrj,  game,  fruit,  dry 
toast,  good  claret,  dry  slior- 
ry,  Diadeira,  and  green  vege- 
tables, permitting  the  raoder- 
ato  nse  of  soft-hoiled  eggs  and 
of  cheese.  In  his  dietary  be 
first  allowed  the  use  of  all 
Tegotables  excepting  the  po- 
tato, hut  afterward  rejected 
paranipa,  beeta,  turnips,  and 
eiuTota.  He  had  for  many 
years  tried  bodily  exercise,  sea 
sir,  and  bathing,  and  various 
other  expedients  and  reme- 
dies; but  only  afler  the  adop- 
tion of  bis  dietetic  system  was 
ho  relieved  from  all  symp- 
toms of  acidity,  indiaestion, 
and  heartburn,  and  oifEcol- 
ties  of  locomoUon,  and  ena- 
bled to  dispense  with  knee 
bandages,  which  he  had  worn 
during  20  years.  He  rested 
well,  with  from  six  to  eight 
hours'  sound  sleep.  He  spent 
much  money  for  the  diffusion 
of  his  views,  and  is  said  to 
have  left  a  legacy  for  the  en- 
dowment of  an  institution  for 
the  cure  of  corpulence. 

■1NTB1  BAV,  an  inlet  of 
the    Atlantic  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  Ireland,  county  Cork, 
abont  24  m.  long  from  B.  W. 
to  N.  E.  and  from  3  to  G  m. 
wide.      Near   the    entrance, 
on  the  N.  W.  shore,  is  s  har- 
bor deep  enough  for  the  larg- 
est  ships,   called    Bear    Ha- 
ven, sheltered  by  Bear  island.    Near  the  head 
of   the   bay,  on  the  opposite  shore,  is  the 
town   of  Bantry,   44  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Cork, 
with  a  roadstead  protected  by  Whiddy  island, 
which  has  three  circular  redoubts;  pop.  aboat 
8,000.     The  town  has  an  export  trade  in  agri- 
cultnral  produce.     In  Bantry  bay,  in  IS89,  the 
French  fleet  which  brought  James  11.  to  Ire- 
land was  victorious  in  an  engagement  with  an 
English  fleet  olider  Admiral  Herbert.     It  was 
also  the  place  determined  on  as  a  rendezrons 
for  the  naval  forces  with  which  the  French  de- 
signed to  invade  England  in  1706.    The  scenery 


BAOBAB  289 

aronnd  the  bay  Is  very  picturesque.  Kear  the 
N.  shore,  about  6  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Bear  Haven, 
is  the  cataract  of  Hnngry  Hill,  which  ponra 
down  in  a  series  of  cascades  the  waters  of  three 
small  lakes  from  an  elevation  respectively  of 
1,011.  1,I2G,  and  1,S60  feet. 

UtIIj  ]>robably  the  finest  and  richest  abbey 
of  the  Benedictines  known  in  history,  situated 
in  the  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  Bavaria,  8  m, 
from  Lichtenfel?,  on  the  Main.  It  was  toonded 
about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century,  and  the 
monks  became  celebrated  for  their  scientific 
att^nments,  their  collections  in  natural  history, 
and  their  library.  It  was  destroyed  during  the 
peasants'  war  in  the  16th  centnry,  but  was  soon 


Bubab  Tns. 

after  rebuilt.  During  the  80  years'  war  it  was 
again  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  and  its  library  and 
museums  became  more  extensive  and  valuable 
than  ever.  The  monastery  was  broken  op  in 
1602,  and  the  library  and  cabinets  were  dis- 

fersed  among  several  institutions  of  Germany. 
he  building  was  sold  to  the  elector  (afterward 
king)  of  Bavaria,  and  is  now  a  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  royal  family. 

BAOBAB  (Adantonia  digitata),  a  tree  of  enor- 
mons  size,  of  the  natural  order  borahacea,  found 
In  Africa,  and  espeoially  in  Senegal,  though  it 
has  been  met  with  on  the  bonks  of  the  White 


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290  BAPAUUE 

Kile  in  the  vlcinlljof  the  Bonthem  tropic.    It 

was  first' discoTsred  in  1T4S  b;  Adanson,  in  bis 
TOjage  to  Sen^al,  and  it  has  b«en  raised  !□ 
England  from  seeds.  It  was  carried  to  India 
msJij  centurieB  ago,  and  one  of  greet  mze  is  at 
Alipore  near  Calcutta.  The  trunk  is  from  IS 
to  60  ft.  high  and  from  70  to  76  ft.  in  ciroum- 
ference.  Its  lower  branches  grow  horizontallj, 
t^equentlj  to  the  length  of  tiO  fL,  and  hang  to 
the  ground,  concealing  the  trunk.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  abnndmit,  of  a  dark  green  color, 
and  divided  into  five  radiating  lanceolate  leaf- 
lets; the;  are  used  bj  the  natives  as  an  anti- 
ndorifio.  The  flower  is  large,  white,  with 
■tamena  gathered  in  a  tube  below,  but  spread- 
ing like  an  uiubreila  above,  rarmounted  by  a 
long,  slender,  and  recurved  stjle,  terminated 
bf  a  rayed  stigma;  petals  reflezed  and  calTZ 
dociduona.  The  ftTiit  is  a  soft,  pnlpy,  but  dry 
substance,  abont  the  size  of  a  quart  bottle,  en- 
closed in  a  long  doll  green  woodj  pod ;  the  pnlp 
between  the  seeds  tastes  like  cream  of  tartar, 
is  nsed  by  the  natives  to  give  a  flavor  to  por- 
ridge, and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  antifebrile. 
The  baobab  is  also  called  monkey  bread,  sour 
gourd,  and  lalo  plant  The  natives  make  a 
strong  cord  from  the  fibres  obtdned  from  its 
pounded  bark.  To  this  end  they  often  wholly 
■trip  the  trunk  of  its  bark,  which  is  replaced 
by  a  new  one,  No  external  iqjnry,  not  even 
fire,  can  destroy  it  frooi  without,  nor  oan  it  be 
injured  from  within,  as  it  is  quite  common  to 
find  it  hollow.  Even  cntting  down  does  not 
exterminate  it,  for  it  continues  to  grow  in 
length  while  lying  on  the  ground,  and  its  roots, 
which  reach  40  or  60  yards  from  the  trunk, 
retain  their  vitality.  Livingstone  judged  that 
one  of  the  baobab  trees  which  he  examined 
was  at  least  1,400  years  old.  It  is  subject  to 
a  very  remarkable  disease,  a  softening  of  its 
woody  structure,  nntil  it  ialls  by  its  own 
weight  a  mass  of  ruins.  The  natives  oae  the 
tmnk  hollowed  ont  as  a  place  of  depout  for 
executed  criminals  whom  the  law  denies  the 
righte  of  burial.  In  this  position  the  bodies 
soon  wither  and  dry  up,  having  mnch  the  ap- 
pearance of  mammies. 

■APAUM^  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Pas-de- Calais,  situated  in  a  wide  plain, 
13  m.  S.  8,  E.  of  Arras;  pop.  in  1866,  8,174, 
It  has  several  oil  and  soap  manufactories.  On 
Jan.  8,  1871,  after  some  fighting  on  the  pre- 
ceding day  in  the  vicinity,  a  battle  took  place 
•t  Bapanme  1>etweeo  the  French  arm;  of  the 
north  nnder  Faidherbe,  advancing  for  the 
reUef  of  Paris,  and  a  portion  of  the  first 
Prussian  army  nnder  Von  Goeben.  The 
French  were  repnlsed,  and  on  the  next  day 
fell  back  on  Arras  and  Douai.  The  particu- 
lars of  the  battle  became  the  subject  of  an 
animated  controversy  between  Ffudherbe  and 
Von  Goeben. 

BAPHOMET,  or  BifsHrt,  a  mysterions  symbol 
nsed  among  .the  knights  templar.  The  word 
was  believed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Hahome^ 
to  whose  futh  the  templars  were  accused  of 


was  connected  with  the  GntMtic  baptism,  c 
baptism  of  fire.  Some  of  these  curious  sym- 
bols were  found  in  181S  in  the  imperial  mu- 
seum of  Vienna,  and  described  by  Von  Ham- 
mer. They  are  of  stone,  and  represent  a  fe- 
male figure  with  two  male  faces,  inscribed  with 
a  serpent,  a  truncated  cross,  or  Egyptian  key 
of  life  and  death,  the  sun  and  moon,  a  chess- 
board, a  candlestick  with  seven  branches,  and 
QOmeroos  Arabic  inscriptions, 

BIPUSH  (Gr.  ^imtaita,  from  ^avr^tiv,  fre- 
quentative of  ^iicTcai,  to  dip),  the  application 
of  water  as  tiie  sign  cf  reception  of  a  per- 
son into  the  viwble  Christian  church.  As  to 
the  mode,  it  is  admitted  by  all  orders  of  Ohris- 
tiaus  that  immersion  is  a  valid  form,  while  the 
Baptist  denomination,  with  its  various  branch- 
es, mtuntain  that  this  is  the  only  valid  form. 
The  Latin  church  favors  afHision  three  times 
applied,  in  the  names  of  the  three  persons  of 
the  Trinity;  it  however  admits  of  either  immer- 
sion or  sprinkling.  The  original  rubric  of  the 
Greek  church  requires  a  trine  immermon,  but 
in  the  Russian  branch  sprinkling  is  held  equal- 
ly valid.  The  rubric  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land requires  that  on  infant  be  dipped  three 
times  in  water,  unless  the  health  of  the  child 
renders  it  nnadviaable.  Protestant  denomina- 
tions, other  than  Baptists,  recognize  either 
mode;  among  them  immersion  is  rare,  afi^on 
not  uncommon,  but  sprinkling  more  usoal.  In 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  the  rite  is  admin- 
istered at  a  very  early  age,  practically  as  soon 


be  from  a  week  to  a  month  after  birth ;  but 
when  there  is  supposed  to  be  danger  of  death, 
it  may  be  admmistered  at  once.  By  many 
Protestant  denominations  who  recognize  the 
b^tism  of  children,  only  those  are  to  be  bap- 
tized one  or  both  of  whose  parents  are  mem- 
bers of  the  chnrch.  Baptists  maintain  that 
the  rite  can  only  b«  administered  upon  pro- 
fession of  &ith  by  the  recipient,  and  therefore 
only  to  those  who  have  reached  a  sniBoient 
age  to  make  such  profession  intelligently.  In 
the  case  of  infanta,  the  Greek,  Roman,  and 
AngUcan  churches  require  sponsors,  who  prom- 
ise in  the  name  of  the  child  obedience  to  the 
divine  law.  In  the  Latin  church  sponsorship 
is  held  to  constitute  a  kind  of  affimty,  so  that 
sponsors  are  not  allowed  to  intermarry.  In  the 
Lutheran  chnrch  the  parents  may  be  sponsors. 
In  the  dissenting  bodies  in  England,  and  in 
most  of  the  non-episcopal  churches  in  the 
United  States,  sponsors  are  usually  dispensed 
with.  The  Latin  chnrch  recognizes  as  valid 
baptism  performed  by  any  person,  even  by  a 
midwife,  upon  a  new-born  child ;  but  except  in 
peril  of  death,  the  minister  should  bo  a  clergy- 
man. Baptism  is  only  to  be  administered  once. 
Baptists  immerse  all  new  postulants.  The  Ro- 
man chnrch  recognizee  all  baptisms  as  valid, 
but  administers  to  converts  what  b  sometjmes 


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BAPTISM 

staled  "conditioDal  bapUsm,"  in  cases  where 
there  is  any  doobt  as  to  the  fiu^t  of  the  person 
having  been  before  baptized. — ThoLatin  charch 
holds  baptism  to  be  a  sacranient  bj  which  all 
proviooe  offences,  including  the  taint  of  original 
^n,  are  washed  out,  ao  that  the  person  bap- 
tized stands  fteo  from  all  sin,  whether  actual 
or  original,  up  to  the  time  of  baptism.  Many 
Protestant  denomioation^  maintain  that  it  is 
merely  a  ceremony  of  ioitiation  into  charch 
memoerHhip.  Between  these  two  eitremes  lies 
every  possible  shade  of  sentiment.  The  gen< 
eral  iilea  of  ditferent  charclies  respecting  the 
ordinance  of  baptism  may  be  best  expressed  in 
the  words  of  their  own  fonnalaries.  The  idea 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  charclies  ii  clear :  bap- 
tism is  a  washing  out  of  all  previoas  sin ;  the 
fiersou  baptized  commeoces  thenceforth  a  new 
lie.  Article  xzvii.  of  the  Anglican  and  of  the 
American  Episoopat  church  reads:  "Baptism 
is  not  only  a  Mgn  of  profession  and  mark  of  dif- 
ference whereby  Christian  men  are  diaoemed 
from  others,  bat  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regenera- 
tion, or  new  birth,  whereby,  as  an  instrnment, 
they  that  receive  baptism  rightly  ore  grafted 
into  the  church :  the  promises  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  sin,  and  of  onr  adoption  to  be  the  sons 
of  God  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed 
and  seal^;  faith  is  confirmed,  and  grace  in- 
creased by  virtne  of  prayer  unto  God.  The 
baptism  of  yonng  children  is  in  any  wise  to  be 
retained  in  the  church  as  most  agreeable  with 
the  inatitnCion  of  Ohriat"  The  Augsburg  Con- 
fesuon  says  that  baptism  is  "  a  necessary  ordi- 
nance, a  means  of  grace,  and  ought  to  1>e  ad- 
ministered also  to  children,  who  are  thereby 
dedicated  to  God  and  received  into  his  favor." 
The  Westminster  Confession  affirms  that  it  is 
"  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Testament,  ordained 
by  Jesus  Christ,  not  only  for  the  solemn  admis- 
sion of  the  party  baptized  into  the  visible 
charch,  but  also  to  be  onto  him  a  sign  and  seal 
of  the  covenant  of  grace,  of  his  ingrafting  into 
Christ,  of  regeneration,  of  remission  of  sins, 
and  of  his  giving  np  nnto  God,  through  Jesna 
Christ,  to  walk  in  newness  of  life;  which  sac- 
rament is,  by  Christ's  own  appointment,  to  be 
oontinned  in  his  charch  antil  the  end  of  the 
world.  Not  only  those  that  do  aetnally  pro- 
fess faith  in  and  obedience  to  Christ,  but  also 
the  infants  of  one  or  both  believing  parents, 
are  to  be  baptized.  Ahhoagh  it  be  a  great  sin 
to  contemn  or  neglect  this  ordinance,  yet  grace 
and  salvation  are  not  so  inseparably  annexed 
nnto  it  as  that  no  person  can  be  regenerated 
or  saved  without  it,  or  that  all  that  are  bap- 
tized are  undoobtedly  reiienerated."  In  article 
xvii.  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  it  b 
declared  that  "baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of 
profession,  and  mark  of  dilferehce  whereby 
Christians  are  distinguished  from  others  that 
are  not  baptized,  bat  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regen- 
eration or  the  new  birth.  The  baptism  of 
young  children  is  also  to  be  retained  in  the 
charch."  The  Baptist  chnrches  in  America, 
being  congregational  in  form,  have  no  abso- 


BAPTI8TERT 


291 


lately  fiied  formula.  Two  not  very  dissimilar 
ones  are  generally  accepted,  the  "New  Hamp- 
shire Confession  of  Faith"  in  the  north,  and 
the  "Philadelphia  Confession"  in  the  south. 
Tlie  article  on  baptism  in  these  two  confessions 
is  essentially  the  same,  varying  only  in  phrase- 
ology. In  the  Philadelphia  Confession  article 
ixii.  reads:  "Baptism  is  an  ordinance  of  the 
New  Testament,  ordained  by  Jesus  Christ  to 
be  nnto  the  party  baptized  a  sign  of  his  fellow- 
ship with  him  in  his  death  and  resurrection; 
of  his  bemg  ingrafted  unto  him;  of  remission 
of  sins ;  and  of  bis  giving  np  nnto  God,  through 
Jesus  Christ,  to  live  and  walk  in  newness  of 
life.  Those  who  do  actually  profess  repent- 
ance toward  God,  and  obedience  to  our  Lord 
Jeaua  Christ,  are  the  only  proper  snbjecta  of 
this  ortUnance.  The  ontward  element  to  be 
used  in  this  ordinance  is  water,  wherein  the 
party  is  to  be  immersed  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther, and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

BlPnSI^SY  (Gr.  (SairrwnSpuw),  originally,  a 
bathing  place  or  swimming  l^th ;  later,  and  in 
ecclesiastical  usage,  a  place  set  apart  for  per- 


forming the  rite  of  baptism.  At  first  the  bap- 
tistery was  an  exedra  or  structure  outside  of  the 
proper  church ;  later  the  porch,  and  still  later 
a  part  of  the  consecrated  edifice,  was  so  em- 
ployed. As  separate  edifices,  several  baptis'* 
teries,  notably  those  at  Rome,  Florence,  and 
Ksa,  are  fine  structures.  The  baptistery  at  No- 
vara  is  one  oSthe  most  curious  buildings  of  this 
class,  being  largely  composed  of  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  Roman  temple,  with  an  antique  nm 
for  a  baptismal  font.  The  introduction  of  the 
baptistery  as  a  part  of  a  church  edifice  dates 
from  the  eth  century.  Ancient  baptisteries 
were  sometimes  styled  Acmffr^pia^  either  be- 
cause baptism  was  considered  as  a  ^urio/idr  or 
illuminatton,  or  because  they  were  places  where 
the  catechumens  were  enlightened  in  the  first 


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prhkdples  of  the  Christian  fUth.  Occaalonallr 
also  we  liDd  noXviipifipa,  bath,  and  piieina, 
fish  pond,  used  as  B^rnonTmeH  for  b^tisterj. 
Baptisterf  is  now  commonly  need  to  designate 
the  baptismal  font  in  Csthohc  and  Episcopal 
chnrchcs,  and  the  tank  in  which  the  rite  of 
immersion  is  perfurmed  in  Baptist  chnrches, 
where  convenient  access  cannot  be  had  to  a 
natural  body  of  n-at«^r.  A  baptistery  in  the 
latter  sense  may  be  either  witfiin  or  without 
the  cbarch  edifice  to  whicli  it  pertains. 

BiPmnS)  a  denomination  of  evangelical 
Obristiens,  who  differ  from  otliers  in  respect 
to  the  proper  age  and  mode  of  administering 
baptism.  Id  the  view  of  the  Baptists  age  is 
nothing,  but  epiritaal  qualifloal^on  is  every- 
thing ;  hence  they  baptize  all  who  repent  and 
believe  the  gospel,  whetlier  in  childhood,  yon th, 
or  manhood,  and  very  frequently  whole  house- 
holds st  once,  as  did  the  apostles.  The  Bap- 
tista  r^ect  the  substitution  of  sprinkling  for 
the  entire  immersion  of  the  body,  which  they 
maintain  was  originally  practised  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  and  (eicept  in  the 
case  of  the  sick)  universally  observed  through- 
out Christondom  for  1,800  years.  For  the  uni- 
versal oblig&tion  of  immersion  as  identical  with 
baptism  itself,  and  essential  to  its  specific  spir- 


adhering  tA  the  ordinary  meaning  of  words 
the  interpretation  of  laws,  the  places  where 
the  rito  wBH  originally  performed,  the  phrase- 
'  olo^  employed  in  describing  it,  the  example 
of  Christ  himselt  and  the  metaphorical  allu- 
sions of  the  saored  writers  when  explaining  the 
spiritual  import  of  the  rite.  They  matntun 
tnat,  so  far  as  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  con- 
cerned, they  have  the  cononrrenoe  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  reformers  of  the  16th  century,  who 
were  withheld  from  restoring  immersion  among 
Protestants  generally,  not  by  critical  reasons, 
but  by  their  views  of  church  authority  and  ex- 
pediency. The  Mennonites,  or  Dutch  Baptists, 
restored  immeruon ;  but  a  port  of  them,  tfaoagh 
■till  reacting  infant  baptism,  have  since  adopt- 
ed pouring;  those  who  retain  inunersion  are 
now  called  Tnnkers,  i.  #.,  dippers.  All  the 
Qreek  and  oriental  churches,  though  adopting 
the  baptism  of  children,  retdn  immersion  as 
eoeential  to  the  validity  of  the  rite,  and  deny 
that  there  is  any  efficacy  in  the  western  form  of 
baptism. — On  the  subject  of  church  communion 
strict  Baptists  agree  generally  with  other  de- 
nominations that  it  is  not  proper  before  bap- 
tism. Open  communion,  BO  eloquenUy  advo- 
cated by  Robert  Hall  in  England,  the  Baptists 
of  the  Dnitod  States  regard  as  an  anomaly. 
The  baptists  believe  in  the  spiritual  nnity  of 
the  whole  believing  church  under  Ohrist,  its 
head,  and  in  the  duty  of  making  this  nnity  vis- 
ible by  subjection  to  him  in  all  things.  Local 
churches,  like  those  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch, 
composed  of  converted  members,  duly  baptized, 
embodied  under  the  law  of  Christ  by  free  mu- 
tual agreement,  and  maintaining  the  troth  in 


lore,  they  hold  to  be,  according  to  the  New 
Testament,  the  appointed  means,  in  the  first 
place,  for  manifesting  this  unity.  The  govern- 
ment of  these  churches  is  congregational.  Each 
body,  bfiag  immediately  dependent  on  Christ, 
is  therefore  independent  of  all  others,  and  is 
complete  in  itself  for  the  management  of  its 
internal  altairs,  such  ss  the  choice  of  officers, 
declaration  of  faith,  and  reception,  dismisnon, 
or  discipline  of  members.  Each  church  ia  a 
tribunal,  where  Christ  himself  presides,  ratify- 
ing in  heaven  whatever  is  done  according  to 
his  will  on  earth.  This  principle  of  indepen- 
dence is,  however,  balanced  by  the  intercom- 
ronnion  of  ohnrches.  This  intercommunion  is 
the  highest  form  of  visible  unity,  ond  is  never 
to  be  intermpted  without  necessity.  On  this 
principle  their  churches  associate,  invite  coun- 
cils for  advice,  and  organize  societies  tor  mutual 
cooperation  in  any  benevolent,  educational,  or 
missionary  enterprise.  But  all  such  associa- 
tions among  Baptists  discltum  the  slightest 
jurisdiction  over  the  churches. — Baptists  make 
no  distinction  but  that  of  office  between  cler^- 
men  and  laymen.  The  voice  of  the  majority 
governs.  They  recognize  no  higher  chnrcb  ofH- 
oers  than  pastors  and  deacons.  Elders,  as  evan- 
gelists apa  misaonaries,  are  also  ordained  after 
dne  trial,  and  sent  out  to  preach  the  goqteL 
Councils  are  usually  called  by  the  chnrcnes,  to 
advise  and  assist  In  the  ordination  of  ministers, 
the  formation  of  churches,  and  the  settlement 
of  serious  difficulties.  Such  councils  in  soma 
localities  are  composed  exclusively  of  ministers, 
and  are  oolled  presbyteries;  but  they  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  bodies  that  bear  that 
name  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  as  they  have 
neither  judicial  nor  appellate  powers.  What- 
ever be  their  diSerences  in  other  things.  Bap- 
tists all  agree  in  maintaining  the  congregationtl 
form  of  chnrch  government.  With  Congreoa- 
tionalists,  so  called,  they  differ  only  in  regardto 
baptism  and  in  being  more  strictly  congrega- 
tional.— In  Great  Britain  the  Baptists,  next  to 
the  CongregationaUsta,  form  the  most  numerous 
body  of  Protestant  dissenters.  In  England  the 
body  is  divided  by  their  views  of  the  design  of 
Christ's  redemption  into  General  and  Particular 
Baptists,  the  former  taking  Arminian  and  the 
latter  Galvinistio  ground.  The  New  Conneo- 
tion  of  General  Baptists  seceded  fhun  the  old,  to 
eiclnde  Unitariamsm,  which  was  creeping  iiu 
They  were  originally  strict  commnnionist&  but 
are  now  divided  on  thst  qnestiou.  They  have 
a  theological  school  at  Leicester,  a  successfiil 
mission  at  Orissa  in  India,  and,  though  a  small, 
are  a  zealous  and  flourishing  body.  The  Par- 
ticular Baptists  are  altogether  the  most  numer- 
ous and  influential.  They  have  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  2,6S7  ehnrches  and  248,895 
members.  They  have  six  theological  coUuree — 
at  London,  Bristol,  Horton,  Haverford  West, 
Pontypool,  and  Edinbu^h.  Their  periodica] 
organs  are  the  "  Freeman,"  a  large  weekly 
sheet,  and  three  monthly  periodicals,  the  "B^>- 
tist  Magazine,"  "Baptist  Reporter,"  and  the 


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"Eclectic  Review,"  Tliis  bod^rKolds  different 
views  on  the  question  of  communion ;  the  pre- 
vailing ones  are  thoee  of  Robert  Hall,  In  all 
other  respects  they  ue  united.  Witliin  half  a 
centmy  thej  have  advaDced  rapidjj  in  num- 
bers and  influence.  The;  support  the  impor- 
tant niisaion  to  India  besan  b;  Carey  in  1793, 
a  Baptist  home  mission,  and  missions  in  Ire- 
land, France,  Africa,  Honduras,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  Jamaica  misaiou  is  now  self-sup- 
porting, bot  the  home  eocietj  has  established 
and  sustains  at  Calabar,  in  Jamaica,  a  theolo- 
gical inatitntion  for  native  candidates  for  the 
miniatry,  which  is  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
and  prqnusea  mach  for  Africa  also.  Baptist 
principles  are  spreading  rapidly  in  all  the 
widely  extended  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  par- 
ticnlarly  Australia.  Kew  Zealand,  St  Helena, 
New  Bmnswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  Cana- 
daa.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  within  8S 
years,  nearly  30,000  converts  have  been  bap- 
tized, and  100  churches  planted  in  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  France,  Sufitzerland,  Germany, 
and  Denmark,  besides  220  churches  in  Sweden, 
with  8,807  membeiB.  Many  of  these  converts 
have  suffered  severe  fines  and  imprisonments; 
some  have  been  denied  the  liberty  of  marriage ; 
others  have  had  their  children  forcibly  bap- 
tized in  the  state  chnrob;  others,  still,  have 
been  condemned  to  perpetual  banishment.  But 
in  the  face  of  all  this  intolerance  they  have 
advanced.  Hnndreds,  driven  from  their  homes, 
emigrate  to  America.  Recent  information  from 
France  and  Switzerland  announces  the  gradoal 
abandonment  of  infant  baptism  bj  the  f^ee 
evangelical  cbnrches,  and  uso  by  some  in  the 
ProtMtant  national  chnrch, — In  the  United 
States  the  Baptist,  with  one  exception,  is  now 
the  lafgMt  denomination  of  evangelical  Cbris- 
tians.  They  are  spread  through  every  state 
and  territory.  Owing  to  a  difference  on  the 
sutgeot  of  slavery,  in  lS4d  the  sonthera  Bap- 
tista,  by  mutual  consent,  formed  separate  or- 
ganizations for  their  benevolent  enterprises. 
As  early  aa  1TS4,  when  numbering  in  all  Amer- 
ica only  60  ohnrohe*  and  abont  5,000  members, 
the  Baptists  founded  their  tirat  college  in  Bhode 
Island.  lAmg  iiefore,  they  had  fostered  Har- 
vard, and  helped  Franklin  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  the  univenuty  of  Pennsylvania.  They 
now  have  28  colleges  of  their  own,  over  100 
academies  and  female  seminaries  of  a  high 
grade,  and  6  theological  schools.  They  have 
publication  societies  at  Philadelphia,  Charles- 
ton, and  Naahville,  be^des  many  flonridiing 
private  publishing  houaea  in  our  large  cities. 
They  maintain  4fi  periodical  organs,  including 
a  quarterly  review.  The  Baptists  of  the  United 
States  also  support  the  American  and  foreign 
Bible  society,  the  American  Baptist  misdonary 
nnion,  the  southern  Baptist  board  of  forei^ 
and  domestic  miasionB,  the  Baptist  home  mis- 
sion socie^,  and  in  pui  the  "American  Bible 
Union."  Their  missions  are  planted  in  Can- 
ada, Or^pD,  California,  New  Mexico^  Hayti ; 
ill  France,  Spain,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden, 


Norway;  in  western  and  central  Africa;  in 
southern  India,  Asaam,  Burmah,  Biam,  and 
China.  The  number  of  conversions  from  their 
colportages  and  missions  in  18T1  exceeded 
5,000.  Total  number  in  the  mission  churches, 
over  60,000.  The  income  of  all  the  above  so- 
cieties in  1871  was  {800,000.  In  doctrine  the 
Baptists  of  this  country  are  Calvinistic,  but 
with  much  freedom  and  moderation.  The  New 
Hampshire  declaration  of  faith  in  1833  is  the 
moet  popular.— Besidei  thegenerol  body  of  Bap- 
tists, there  are  in  the  Uniteu  States  nine  smailer 
bodies,  distinguished  by  peculiarities  indicated 
by  their  respective  names.  The  Seventh-Day 
Baptists  differ  only  in  the  observance  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath;  the  Free-will  and  the  Anti- 
mis^on  Baptists  are  seceders  from  the  general 
fellowship  on  soconnt  of  Arminian  and  Anti- 
nomian  tendencies,  though  the  latter  are  grad- 
ually adopting  different  views  and  retnming 
to  tlie  general  body.  The  General  (or  Six- 
Principle)  Baptista,  the  Tunkers,  and  the  Men- 
nonites  are  of  foreign  origin,  and  cling  to  their 
ancient  nsagea.  The  Christian  connection,  the 
Campbellites  (or  Disciples),  and  Uie  Wine- 
brennarians  (or  Chnrch  of  God)  are  new  organ- 
izations, drawn  from  various  sources^  though 
agreeing  with  the  Baptists  generally  aa  to  the* 
sutgects  and  mode  of  baptism.  For  the  pecu- 
liarities of  each  see  the  respective  articles. — It 
is  asserted  by  some  Baptists  that  tbey  can  trace 
their  history  in  a  succesmon  of  pure  chnrches 
(eathari)  eesentially  Baptist,  though  under  va- 
rious naihee,  from  the  8d  oentary  down  to  the 
reformation.  These  churches,  f>om  the  Gth 
century  onward,  were  the  subjects  of  system- 
atic persecution  from  the  state  chnrches,  both 
in  the  East  and  in  the  Wert.  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria and  Innocent  I.  of  Rome,  according  to 
the  historian  Socrates,  began  this  persecution 
by  depriving  them  of  their  houses  of  worship, 
and  driving  them  into  secret  places,  under  the 
laws  of  Honorins  and  Theodosins  II.,  which 
forbid  rebaptism  (so  called)  onder  penalty  of 
death.  Yet  their  principles  reappear  among 
the  Ouldaes  of  the  West  and  the  Fanliaoa  of 
the  East,  the  Vallesii  and  the  Paterinet,  the 
Albigenaes  and  Waldenses,  and  emerge  on  all 
sides  at  the  first  dawn  of  the  reformation.  Mr. 
Bancroft  says  of  the  German  Baptists  of  that 
era:  "With  greater  consistency  than  Luther 
they  applied  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation 
to  the  social  poKtions  of  life,  and  threatened 
an  end  to  priestcraft  and  kingcraft,  spiritaal 
domination,  titles,  and  vassalage.  They  were 
trodden  under  foot  with  foul  reproaches  and 
most  arrogant  scorn,  and  their  history  is  writ- 
ten in  the  blood  of  thousands  of  the  German 
peasantry ;  but  their  principles,  seenre  in 'their 
immortality,  escaped  with  Roger  Williams  to 
Providence,  and  his  colony  is  witness  that  nat- 
urally the  paths  of  the  Baptists  are  paths  of 
freedom,  pleasantness,  and  peace."  (See  Ana- 
BAPTiBTS.) — In  England,  from  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  to  William  III.,  a  full  century  and  a  half, 
Uie  Baptists  strug^ed  to  gain  their  footing, 


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291 


BAPTISTS 


and  to  Becnre  liberty  of  oonscienoe  for  all. 
From  1611  thej  isened  apfMal  after  appeal,  ad- 
dressed to  the  king,  the  parliameat,  and  the 
people,  in  behalf  of  this  "soul  liberty,"  writ- 
ten with  a  breadth  of  view  and  force  of  argu- 
ment hardly  since  eiceeded.  Yet,  nnlil  the 
Qualcera  arose  in  1660,  the  Baptists  stood  alone 
in  its  defence,  amid  universal  opposition.  In 
the  time  of  Cromwell  tliey  first  gained  a  fair 
hearing,  and,  under  the  lead  of  Hilton  and 
Vane,  would  have  changed  the  whole  system 
of  the  chnrcb  and  the  state  bnt  for  the  treason 
of  Monk.  In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  the  pris- 
ons were  filled  with  their  confessors  and  mar- 
^rs,  yet  their  principles  gradually  gained 
grooiia  in  the  public  mind  and  hastened  the 
revolation  of  1088.  "The  share  which  the 
Baptists  took,"  says  Br.  Williams,  "  in  ahoriog 
op  the  &llen  liberties  of  England,  and  in  infus- 
ing new  vigor  and  liberality  into  the  oonstita- 
tion  of  that  country,  is  not  generally  known. 
Yet  to  this  body  English  liberty  owes  a  debt  it 
can  never  aoknowledge.  Among  the  Baptists 
Christian  freedom  foand  its  earlieet,  its  itaoch- 
est,  its  most  consistent,  and  its  most  disinterest- 
od  champions." .  Sot  less  powerful  has  been 
the  infiuenoe  of  the  Baptiste  in  the  United 
States.  Introduoed  inta  Rhode  Island  with 
Roger  Williams  and  John  Olark  in  1888,  their 
hiabory  for  more  than  a  oentnry,  in  moet  of  the 
coloaiea,  is  that  of  proscribed  and  banished 
men.     Yet)  persecuted  themselves,  they  never 

Erseonted  others.  "  In  the  code  of  laws  estah- 
bed  by  them  in  Khode  Island,"  says  Judge 
Story,  "  we  read,  for  the  first  time  Hnoe  Chris- 
tJanity  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Oassars,  the 
declaration  that  conscience  should  be  free,  and 
men  should  not  be  punished  for  worshipping 
God  in  the  way  they  were  persuaded  he  re- 
quires." The  ajticle  on  religious  liberty  in  the 
amendments  to  the  American  constitution  was 
introduced  by  the  united  efibrts  of  the  Baptists 
in  1T80.  The  new  impulse  given  to  the  spirit 
of  liberty  by  the  revolutionary  war  was  follow- 
ed by  the  rapid  spread  of  Baptist  principles. 
Their  great  prosperity  dates  from  that  era.  In 
1TS3  there  were  G6  Baptist  ohurcbefl  in  Amer- 
ica; in  1793  there  were  1,000 ;  in  1813,2,488; 
in  18S2,  e,832 ;  in  18G3  they  exceeded  9,500. 
At  the  present  time,  according  to  the  "  Baptist 
Year  Book  "for  18T2,  without  including  any 
of  the  Baptist  minor  bodies,  there  ore  18,397 
chDrches,13,018ministerB,aad  1,489,181  church 
members,  of  whom  85,321  were  added  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Including  those  of  the  British 
provinces,  the  total  number  of  memliera  was 
1,657,449.  If  those  sects  be  included  which 
agree  with  the  Baptists  in  their  organic  prin- 
ciples, tliough  differing  in  other  points,  the 
nnmber  would  rise  to  more  than  1,700,000. 
The  total  population  attached  to  Baptist  views 
is  estimated  at  nearly  8,000,000.  From  these 
statistics  it  appears  that  the  increase  of  the 
Baptists  far  outruns  that  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States.  The  rates  of  increase  have 
been  p'eatest  in  MassacIiaBetts  and  Vir^nia, 


BARACOA 

where  they  were  moat  persecuted,  and  in  the 
new  states  where  their  zealous  ministers  were 
among  the  earliest  pioneers.  (See  Cnrtis'a 
"Progress  of  Baptist  Principles  for  the  last 
One  Hundred  Years,"  Boston,  1866.) 

BIB.  Bee  Bab-le-Dbo,  Bas-suk-Aubb,  and 
B.ix-aDB-SKurB. 

BAB,  &  town  of  8.  W.  Russia,  govemment 
of  Podoha,  on  the  Rot,  G3  m.  N.  £.  of  Kame- 
netz ;  pop.  in  1B67,  8,077.  It  is  famons  as  tiie 
place  where  a  confederation  of  Polish  patiiota 
was  formed,  chiedy  nnder  the  lead  of  the  Pa- 
laskis,  with  a  view  to  combating  Russian  infln- 
ence  and  the  adherents  of  Russia  in  Pidand, 
Feb.  29,  1768.  The  Russians  took  Bar  by 
stmm  on  the  following  Uay  38,  ti^ether  with 
1,400  men  and  20  pieces  of  cannon. 

BIB-  I.  An  enclosure  made  by  a  railing  or 
partition  for  the  use  of  counsel  in  courts,  and  to 

grevent  their  being  incommoded  by  spectators ; 
:om  whence  is  sometimes  supposed  to  have 
come  the  term  barrister,  appliea  to  those  colled 
within  the  bar.  At  this  bar  prisoners  were 
placed  for  trial.  The  term  is  used  collectively 
to  designate  thoee  who  as  counsel  are  entitied 
to  address  the  conrt  IL  A  low  partition  which 
in  the  houses  of  parliament  and  legislatiTe  halla 
generally  eeparUes  from  the  body  of  the  honaa 
a  space  near  the  door,  beyond  which  none  bnt 
members,  clerks,  and  messengers  are  admitted 
except  on  leave.  Persons  charged  with  con- 
tempt are  bronght  to  the  bar  of  the  honae; 
and  at  the  opening  and  dose  of  a  session  of 

Earliament  the  commons  go  to  the  bar  of  the 
onse  of  lords  to  hear  the  queen's  speech. 
BUUBl,  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  800  m.  fWun  E. 
to  W.  and  460  from  N.  to  S.,  comprising  the 
8.  E.  part  of  the  province  of  Tobolsk,  and  the 
S.W.  portions  of  Tomsk.  The  Altai  moun- 
t^ns  enclose  it  on  the  south,  and  the  Irtidi 
and  Obi  rivers  on  the  west  and  easL  Certain 
districts  ore  fertile,  and  there  ore  extensive  for- 
ests; but  the  whole  region  abounds  in  swamps 
and  salt  lakes,  the  waters  of  which  becoma 
poisonous  during  the  summer.  The  inhabit- 
ants consist  of  Rusaan  colonists  living  in  vil- 
lages, and  of  Barabintzi,  a  small  tribe  of  Tartar 
ori^n,  who  ore  chiefly  nomadic  shepherds  or 
fishermen. 

BlUCOl,  a  seaport  town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
Eastern  Department,  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
some  name,  on  the  N.  S.  coast,  100  m.  E.  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba ;  pop.  about  6,600.  It  is  on 
the  E.  side  of  a  small  but  deep  harbor,  on  a 
rocky  bluff  of  coral  formation ;  and  bock  of  the 
town  are  high,  craggy  mount^jis  of  curious 
shaoe,  the  highest  of  which  is  called  the  Anvil 
of  Baracoa.  The  houses  are  well  built  of  adobe 
and  surrounded  with  fine  gardens.  An  nnnsn- 
ally  large  quantity  of  rain  falls  at  Baracoa,  and 
tlie  forests  and  large  orchards  of  cocoanut  palms 
in  the  vicinity  are  very  luxuriant.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  fruit  trade  with  the  United 
States;  limea,  oranges,  lemons,  pineapples,  and 
ooooanuts  are  brought  In  from  tne  surronndbg 
country  on  mnles  and  donkeys.    The  b^e  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABADA 

eocoannta  ia  said  to  Average  60,000  a  iaj.  Ot- 
gin  onl;  are  mauafactared.  Colunibus  landed 
here,  and  the  first  iettlement  on  the  island  was 
mode  here  in  1512  br  Diego  Vdazqnez. 

BISADA,  a  river  of  Syria,  probably  the  Bib- 
lical Absna,  called  by  the  Ureelcs  the  Chrysor- 
rhoas  or  BardiDes.  It  rises  in  the  Auti-Liba- 
nus,  flows  S.  E.,  and  falls  into  the  Bahret-el- 
Kibliyeb,  a  lake  or  swamp,  G.  of  Bamascas. 
IssDing  from  a  cleft  in  the  motmtdna  as  a 
clear  rapid  stream,  it  divides  into  three  small- 
er courses.  The  central  or  main  stream  nma 
stnught  to  the  city  of  Domascns,  sopplying  the 
bathe  and  foQntains  of  that  city.  Tbe  other 
branohes  diverge  to  the  right  and  left,  and,  af- 
ter irrigating  the  plain,  reunite  with  tlie  m^n 
stream.  The  water  of  the  Barada,  like  that  of 
the  Jordan,  is  of  a  white  sulphorona  hne,  and 
has  an  nnpleaaant  taate. 

BiUCl,  Fmkitek,  D.  D.,  a  Boman  Cstholio 
hishMi  and  missionarv  among  the  North  Amer- 
ican  bidians,  bom  at  TretFen,  Oaniiohi,  Jnne  39, 
1T9T,  died  at  Sanlt  Ste.  Marie,  Jan.  19,  1808. 
Ee  was  of  a  noble  family,  was  educated  at  the 
oniversilj  of  Vienna,  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
September,  1823,  came  to  America  in  Decem- 
ber, 1630,  and  from  that  time  till  his  death 
was  connected  with  the  Chippewa  and  Ottawa 
misriona  in  Uichigan.  Ho  was  consecrated 
hishop  of  Marquette  and  Sault  &te.  Marie  in 
1853.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Chippewa 
gtanunar  and  dictionary  (Detroit,  1849  and 
IBSa),  of  several  religions  works  in  Chippewa, 
and  of  a  small  work  in  German  on  the  "  His- 
tory, Character,  and  Habits  of  the  North 
American  Indians  "  (1837). 

BIUCHEI  D'HILUEIB.  L  Utls,  a  French 
general,  bom  in  Paris,  Aog.  13,  ITM,  died  in 
Berlin  In  Deoember,  1812.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  French  revolution  he  was  lieutenant  in 
the  regiment  of  Alsace,  was  appointed  brigadier 

Emcr^  in  1T98,  and  chosen  by  Cnatine  as  the 
ead  of  his  staff.  His  fidelity  to  that  unfortu- 
nate chief  led  to  his  imprisonment,  hot  he  was 
liberated  after  the  0th  Thennidor.  He  served 
under  Napoleon  during  his  first  two  campaigns 
in  Italy,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
divinoD  general.  He  distingmshed  himself  at 
Btnttgart  and  Elchingen  and  on  the  frontiers 
of  Bohemia,  was  governor  of  Friull  in  1806, 
of  Venice  in  1808,  and  participated  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Raab  won  by  Engine  Beanhamais  over 
the  Anatrians  in  June,  1809.  During  the  fol- 
lowing two  years  he  served  in  Spain.  In  181S 
he  was  put  in  command  of  a  division  of  the 
grand  army  against  Bussia,  and  was  captured 
with  nearly  nil  his  forces  by  the  enemy.  A 
court  ai  inquiry  was  ordered  by  Napoleon,  at 
which  he  was  so  aggrieved  that  he  fell  sick 
and  died  before  he  reai',hed  France.  II>  Ithlllr, 
marshal  of  France^  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
Sept.  6,  1795,  died  June  6,  18TS.  He  served 
as  second  lieutenant  during  tbe  Russian  cam- 
paign, became  in  1813  aide-de-camp  to  Marshal 
Marmont,  and  at  the  battlo  of  Leipsic  had  bis 
left  hand  shot  oS.    He  was  a  oaptoin  on  tlio 


BABANTE  295 

&11  of  the  empire,  though  not  yet  20  years  old. 
Adhering  to  the  restored  Bourbons,  he  entered 
the  royal  guards,  served  in  Spain  and  Algeria, 
became  second  in  command  at  the  military 
school  of  St.  Oyr  in  1882,  and  afterward  prin- 
cipal, a  position  which  be  held  till  1810.  For 
some  years  thereafter  he  served  with  some  dis- 
tinction in  Algeria  and  became  a  general.  Re- 
turning to  France  in  1847,  he  was  appointed 
inspector  general  of  infantry.  After  the  out- 
break of  tbe  revolntiou  of  1848,  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  second  division  of  the 
array  near  tbe  Alps.  He  was  elected  to  the 
constituent  osBembly  from  the  department  of 
Doubs,  and  joined  the  party  of  reaction.  In 
1649  he  went  to  Rome  aa  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  sent  to  sosCain  the  authority  of 
the  pope,  and  in  1861  was  put  in  command  of 
the  army  of  Paris  in  place  of  Gen.  Changar- 
nier,  whom  Napoleon  distrusted.  He  favored 
the  amp  iTitat,  and  was  made  a  member  of 
the  consultative  commission.  In  the  Crimean 
war  he  commanded  the  expedition  to  the  Bal- 
tic, and  on  his  return  was  made  a  marshal  and 
became  one  of  the  vice  presidents  of  the  sen- 
ate. He  commanded  ^he  first  army  corps  ia 
the  Italian  campaign  of  1S€9,  and  took  a  promi- 
nent pert  in  the  battle  of  Solferino.  In  186S 
be  was  in  command  of  the  camp  at  ChiLlons, 
and  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of 
1870  was  for  a  few  days  military  governor 
of  Paris. 

BlUNOFF,  Nlkelal,  a  deaf-mute  Russian 
puntor,  bom  in  Estlionia  in  1810.  He  studied 
in  Berlin  at  the  expense  of  tbe  czar,  and  has 
produced  genre  and  historical  piotures. 

BIBIHOFF,  ilexMrfer  AadrvycvIM,  governor  of 
the  Russian  possessions  in  North  America,  bom 
in  174fl,  died  at  sea,  near  the  island  of  Java, 
April  28,  181Q.  Early  in  life  he  was  engaged 
in  commerce  in  western  Siberia,  bnt  in  1790 
established  himself  at  Kadiak,  and  opened  a 
trade  with  the  natives.  In  1796  be  founded  a 
commercial  colony  on  Behring  strait,  and  in 
1799  took  possession  of  the  largest  of  the  Sit- 
ka gronp  of  islands,  now  known  by  his  name. 
He  bnilt  a  large  factory  at  Sitka,  and  opened 
commercial  relations  with  Canton,  Manila, 
Boston,  New  York,  California,  and  ^e  Sand- 
wich Islands,  fonnded  a  colony  near  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  was  ennobled  by  the  czar  Alexander 
and  mode  first  governor  of  Russian  America. 
He  died  while  returning  to  Russia. 

BUUiTE,  AmaMt  GaUaiae  Prt^er,  baron  de 
Brugidre,  a  French  statesman  and  liistorion, 
bom  at  Riom  in  Anvergne,  June  10,  1783,  died 
in  Anvergne  in  1866.  lie  was  educated  at 
the  polytechnic  scliool  in  Paris,  and  occnpied 
during  the  empire  several  offices  at  home  and 
misriona  abroad.  He  was  prefect  of  Loira-Io- 
f^rienre  on  the  fall  of  Nspoleon,  kept  his  posti 
nnder  the  restoration,  and  after  the  hundred 
days  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state 
and  genera]  secretary  of  the  borne  department. 
In  1619  be  was  made  a  peer  of  France,  and 
after  that  most  of  his  lime  was  given  to  lit- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


396 


BABANYA 


erarj  pnranits.  As  earl7  as  IBOB  he  had  publish' 
ed  anonjmoualj  his  TaAleau  de  la  littiratuTe 
franjaiie  au  IS"  »iicU,  and  ha  was  the  real  au- 
thor of  a  great  part  of  Mme.  de  la  Rochqaque- 
lin'a  Memoireg  on  the  war  in  La  VendEo.  lie 
published  a  French  verHion  of  Schiller's  dra- 
mas (1821),  contributed  to  the  CoUeelion  da 
thidtret  itrangers,  and  furnisbed  the  "Ham- 
let "  of  Gaiiot's  translation  of  ShakeBpeare, 
His  Bittoire  dt*  due*  de  Bourgogne  de  la  mai- 
Mon  de  Valou  (3  vols.  8vo,  1824-'fl),  a  sliilful 
arrangement  of  the  memoirs  of  old  chroniclers, 
has  been  con»dered  a  model  of  pnrel}'  narra- 
tive hiatorv,  and  secured  his  election  to  the 
French  academy.  Afterthe  revolution  of  1S30 
be  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Turin,  and  in 
1886  he  went  as  minister  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Afterthe  revolution  of  1848  he  devoted  him- 
self wholly  to  literary  pursnits.  Among  his 
remaining  works  are:  Milanga  hUtorigvei  et 
Htterairet  (3  vols.,  18S6) ;  Quettioju  eoiuUtu- 
tionnelUt {1850) ;  HUtoire dtla convention  na- 
ttonak(S  vols.,  lS51-'8);  SUtoiredudireetoire 
(3  vols.,  1865);  Stvdet  hUtoriqvet  et  iiogra- 
phigwi  (2  vols.,  185T) ;  La  vu  politique  de 
if.  Roger-Collard  (2  vols.,  IS61);  and  Z>«  2a 
dieentTalitation  en  1829  et  en  1888  (18S5).  As 
a  historian  Barante  was  impartial  and  accurate 
in  bis  statements. 

BlUNYl,  a  coonty  of  S.  W.  Hungary,  bound- 
ed by  the  Daanbe,  wbicb  there  forms  Marsitta 
island,  and  the  Drave,  which  separates  it  from 
Slavonia;  area,  abont  l,Q65sq.m.;  pop. in  1870, 
38S,C06,  of  whom  more  than  half  are  Magyars, 
and  tiie  rest  chiefly  Oermana,  Croats,  and 
Serbs.  The  sorface  is  partly  hilly  and  partly 
level,  and  the  soil  almost  everywhere  very  fer- 
tile, prodnoing  wheat,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  ex- 
cellent wines.  The  ooonty  is  also  rich  in  cat- 
tle, sbeep,  and  swine.  There  are  several  min- 
eral springs.  The  moat  important  towns  are 
Fonfkircben  or  P6cs,  the  capita!,  and  Moh^cs, 
near  which  in  162fl  Hungary  lost  her  anny,  her 
king,  and  her  independence. 

BARAim,  Jtkau  PMIInt,  a  precocions  Ger- 
man scholar,  bom  at  Sohwabooh,  near  Nurem- 
berg, Jan.  19,  1T21,  died  in  Halle  Oct.  S,  1T40. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  pastor,  who 
bad  fled  from  France  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Before  his  Gth  year  he  bad 
learned  to  read  and  writ«  French,  German, 
and  Latin,  and  he  afterward  mastered,  almost 
unaided,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Ethiopia.  In  his  Qth  year  he  made  a  dictionary 
of  difflcuU  Hebrew  and  Cboldoic  words,  and  in 
his  18th  year  published  a  translation  from  the 
Hebrew  of  the  itinerary  of  Benjamin  of  Tndela, 
to  whiob  he  added  notes  and  historical  disser- 
tations. He  also  published  several  learned 
theological  pamphlets,  and  made  difficult  math- 
ematical and  astronomicul  calculations.  In  bis 
14th  year  he  received  from  the  university  of 
Halle  the  degree  of  ma-stcr  of  arts,  on  which 
ooeasion  he  defended  14  theses  in  the  presence 
of  raore  than  2,000  spectators.  The  royal  so- 
oiety  of  sciences  at  Berlin  mode  him  amember, 


and  the  king  of  Prussia  made  bim  an  annual 
allowance  of  $50,  presented  him  with  books 
and  mathematical  instruments,  and  gave  to  bb 
father  a  living  at  Halle.  He  began  a  history 
of  the  church,  a  history  of  the  SO  years'  war, 
and  various  other  works. 

BAKITTHSU,  Tevgnl  ibriMTtteb,  a  Russian 
poet,  died  in  Italy  in  September,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Petersburg,  served  ciebt  years 
as  a  soldier  in  Finland,  and  afterward  lived  in 
Moscow.  "  Edo,"  the  first  offspring  of  his 
muse,  is  a  spirited  poem,  with  strong  local  col- 
oring and  Finnish  characteristics.  His  most 
agreeable  production  is  the  "Gyjisy,"  a  grace- 
ful picture  of  the  best  features  of  Busaian 
high  life. 

SiRB,  a  fine  breed  of  horses  cultivated  by 
the  Moors  of  Barbary,  and  flrst  introduced  by 
them  into  Spain.  They  are  believed  to  have 
been  of  a  kindred  origin  with  the  Arabian 
horse,  but  are  leas  remarkable  for  beauty  and 
symmetn'  than  for  speed,  endurance,  and  do- 
cility. They  are  generally  larger  than  the 
Arabian,  and  the  blaok  barbs  of  DongoU  ore 
said  to  be  rarely  less  than  10  hands  hiKU.  The 
wild  horses  of  America  are  believed  to  have 
descended  fi-om  Spanish  barbs,  brought  over 
by  the  early  explorers. 

BAKBlDOi:^  or  Bartata,  a  Briti^  island  of 
the  Vest  Indies,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Ca- 
ribbean gronp,  in  lat  18°  10'  N.,  Ion,  69°  83' 
W.  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  23  m.  lung  and  14 
broad;  area,  188  sq,  m. ;  pop,  in  1881, 162,727, 
being  930  to  the  square  mile.  The  population 
of  Barbadoes  is  denser  than  that  of  any  other 
country  in  the  world  except  Malta,  In  18S1 
there  were  16,604  white,  30,118  of  mixed 
race,  and  100,006  black.  The  island  is  di- 
vided by  a  deep  valley  into  two  parts.  Near 
the  centre  of  the  northern  and  larger  port 
is  Mount  Hillaby,  1,147  ft.  high.  From  the 
W.  coast  the  ground  rises  In  succes^ve  ter- 
races, broken  by  ravines  to  the  central  ridge, 
from  which  bills  of  a  conical  form  radiate  in  S 
N.  E.  direction  to  the  seashore.  The  N.  W. 
and  8.  parts  of  the  island  consist  of  rocks  of 
coralline  limestone  with  beds  of  calcareons 
marl ;  the  E.  part  is  composed  of  strata  of 
silicious  sandstone,  intermixed  with  ferrugi- 
nous matter,  clay,  marl,  minute  fragments  of 
pumice,  strata  of  volcanic  ashes,  seams  of  bitu- 
men, and  springs  of  petroleum.  There  are 
several  chalybeate  springs,  containing  chiefly 
iron,  carbonic  acid,  and  fixed  alkali,  in  diifer- 
ent  proportions.  The  island  is  encircled  by 
coral  reefs,  which  in  some  parts  extend  sea- 
ward for  three  miles,  and  are  dangerous  to 
navigation.  Carlisle  bay,  the  port  and  harbor 
of  Barbadoes,  is  a  spacious  open  roadstead, 
capable  of  containing  600  vessels:  but  it  is 
exposed  to  8.  and  6,  W.  winds.  The  climate, 
though  warm,  is  salubrious.  The  island  is 
^atly  exposed  to  hurricanes.  One  of  these, 
in  October,  1780,  destroyed  almost  every 
building,  and  8,000  or  4,000  lives.  During 
another  in  Aognst,  18S1,  the  loss  of  life  is 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARBABOfiSA 


■Uted  to  bave  been  from  2,000  to  6,000,  and 
the  destruction  of  property  £1,802,800.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  sugar,  cotton, 
aloea,  and  arrowroot;  the  imports  ore  chiefly 
tish,  beef,  flonr,  cotlerj,  and  cloths.  Id  1850 
the  imports  were  £TS4,S66,  eiporta  £881,584; 
in  ISEO,  imports  £976,800,  exports  £1,845,- 
400;  in  1870,  imports  £1,028,221,  exports 
£935,423.  There  are  only  four  towns,  of  which 
Bridgetown,  the  capital,  has  about  25,000  in- 
habitants. The  government  consists  uf  a  gor- 
enior,  conncil,  and  house  of  assembly.  The 
^remor,  appointed  by  the  crown,  is  also  gov- 
ernor general  (since  1871)  of  the  neighboring 
idanda  of  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago,  and 
^L  Lacio.  The  conncil  consists  of  12  mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  crown,  who  hold  office 
during  the  royal  pleasure.  The  assembly  coo- 
»ijis  of  24  delegates,  elected  annually  by  the 
people, — Barbadoes  was  probably  discovered 
cirly  in  the  IBth  centnry  by  the  Portuguese. 
yrben  it  was  6rst  visited  by  tlie  English  in 
IBOS,  it  was  aninhabit«d  and  covered  with 
dense  forests^  The  first  English  colony,  con- 
sisting of  40  whites  and  7  negroes,  was  founded 
la  1625.  In  1666  the  Dutch  made  a  fruitless 
attempt  to  seize  the  island.  In  1676,  1692, 
1816,  and  1825,  plots  were  formed  among  the 
negroes  to  take  possession.  In  1788  the  pop- 
Dlation  was  16,127  whitea,  2,229  free  colored, 
and  64,405  negroes.  There  appears  to  have 
been  no  increase  in  the  white  popnlation  for 
T.)  years,  while  the  colored  or  mixed  portion 
ii.is  multiplied  15  fold.  The  abolition  of  sla- 
very in  1834  was  effected  withont  disorder. 

BiBiiU,  Halal,  a  virgin  and  martyr,  hon- 
ored in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  church- 
es, and  snppoeed  to  have  suffered  at  Ueliopolis 
in  806,  or  at  Nicomedia  io  Bitbjnia  in  285. 


According  to  the  Avrea  Ltgenda,  she  was 
bom  at  Heliopolis  in  Egypt,  of  paRsn  parents; 
and  ber  father,  fearing  she  should  be  taken 
from  him  on  account  of  her  freat  beanty,  con- 
fined her  in  a  tower.  In  her  secludon  ahe 
heard  of  the  preaching  of  Origen,  and  wrote 
to  him  begging  for  inatraction,  wherenpon  he 
sent  one  of  his  disciples,  who  taught  and  bap- 
tized her.  On  learning  ihia  her  &ther  put  her 
to  death,  and  is  said  to  have  been  immediately 
struck  hy  lightning ;  for  which  reason  the  saint 
bos  been  regarded  as  the  patron  of  sailors  in  a 
storm,  and  of  artillerymen.  In  art  she  is  gen- 
erally represented  with  a  tower.  Her  festival 
day  is  Dec.  4. 

BIBBIEELU,  Gtorgla.    See  Gioboiohe. 

BAMUOSSA,  the  name  given  to  two  rene- 
gade Greek  corsairs,  and  supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  Saba-rau,  father  captain.  I.  in4|, 
HhiA,  or  Hwak,  bom  at  Mitylene  (Lesbos) 
about  1474,  executed  in  1518.  He  acquired 
fame  in  the  service  of  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  Tu- 
nis, and  with  his  brother  became  the  terror  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Invited  by  the  emir  of 
the  Metidja,  Selim  Eutemi,  in  1516,  to  aid  him 
against  the  Spaniards,  he  made  himself  master 
of  Algiers,  Tenez,  and  Tlemcen,  and  murdered 
the  emir,  but  was  defeated  by  the  troops  of 
Charles  V.,  besieged  in  Tlemcen,  captured  on 
his  flight  from  that  city,  and  pnt  to  death.  II. 
Slulr-ed-Dla,  brother  and  successor  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  about  1476,  died  in  Constantino- 
ple in  1546.  After  his  brother's  death  he 
obtained  the  assistance  of  the  sultan  Selim  1. 
in  recovering  1 
in  command  o: 

and  conquered  Tunis  and  other 
the  Turks.    After  Cliarles  V.  retook  Tunis  in 
168G,  Barbaroaaa  preyed  upon  the  coast  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Ital7,  defeated  Doria  in  tbe  fralf  of  Ambra- 
cia,  captared  Castel  Nuovo  (1530),  defeated  a 
Climtian  eqaadron  off  Candia,  tlireateoed  Do- 
ria at  Genua,  joined  Francis  I.  against  Charles 
v.,  aided  tlie  French  in  tailing  Nice  (1543), 
and  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  Constanti- 
nople with  many  thousand  piisoDers. 

B1UAK06&1,  Fndfflck.  See  Fbbdibice  T., 
emperor  of  Germaay. 

lARBiaont,  ChariH  Jeu  Hvle,  a  French 
revolutionist,  bom  in  Marseilles,  March  6, 
1767,  goUlotined  at  Uordeaox,  Jane  2S,  1794. 
He  was  a  prominent  young  lawyer  when  in 
1791  he  was  sent  by  his  native  city  as  revo- 
latioDary  agent  to  the  legislative  assembly  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Jacobin  club.  When  it 
was  feared  that  the  court  would  sncceed  in 
arresting  the  revolutionary  movement  in  the 
north  of  France,  Barbarous  was  vehement  in 
Bupporljng  the  plan  of  a  separate  republic  in 
ttie  south.  He  took,  with  his  600  countrymen, 
who  were  especially  called  let  Marteillau,  an 
important  part  in  the  insarrection  of  August 
10,  1793,  which  led  to  the  downfall  of  the 
monarchy.  Elected  a  deputy  to  tbe  conven- 
tion, he  joined  the  deputies  of  the  Gironde, 
became  by  liis  zeal,  eloquence,  and  rare  per- 
sonal beauty  a  conspicuous  member  of  tneir 
party,  opposed  the  merciless  policy  of  Marat 
and  Robespierre,  and  demanded  an  act  of  ac- 
cusation against  the  promoters  of  the  massacre 
of  September.  He  manifested  remarkable  abil- 
ity in  tlie  discus^on  of  questions  of  finance, 
commerce,  and  the  internal  odminiBtration  of 
tbe  country;  ho  strongly  opposed  several  of 
the  rash  and  unjust  financial  measures  of  the 
day,  and  suggested  several  plans  for  a  more  pru- 
dent management.  At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. 
he  voted  for  the  king's  death,  but  favored  an 
appeal  to  the  nation.  After  the  popular  rising 
of  May  81,  1T93,  which  sealed  the  trafpc  fate 
of  the  Girondists,  Barbaroux  left  Pans  with 
some  of  his  cullcagues,  and  tried  to  raise  an 
insarrectioQ  in  the  provinces  against  the  con- 
vention; but  this  movement  was  soon  sup- 
pressed, and  Barbaroux,  hunted  from  place  to 
Slace,  sought  a  refuge  in  the  vicinity  of  Bor- 
eaux.  Buing  discovered,  he  shot  himself 
twice ;  but  though  in  a  dying  condition,  he 
retained  life  enough  to  bo  sent  to  the  scaffold 
by  the  revolutionary  committee  of  Bonleaai. 

BABBARV  STATES,  a  general  term  designat- 
ing tliat  portion  of  nortliem  Africa  stretching 
from  the  W.  frontier  of  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  tlie  Mediterranean  to  the  desert  of 
Sahara,  between  lat.  25°  and  37°  N.,  Ion.  10° 
W.  and  26°  E.,  and  including  Tripoli,  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  Morocco.  Tho  name  is  derived 
from  the  Berbers,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
tbe  region,  who  still  constitute  a  considerable 
portioD  of  the  po|mlDtion. 

BABBISIKO,  a  town  of  Arngon,  Spnin.  on 
tbe  Cinca,  in  the  province  and  26  m.  S.  E.  of 
Uuesca;  pop.  about  G,50O.  It  is  an  old  town, 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral  tvith  good  medinval 
paintings,  and  an  Important  school. 


BARBEL 

BiBBMfLD,  iHa  LctHla,  an  English  writ«t; 

bom  at  Kibworth-Harcourt,  Leicestershire, 
June  SO,  1743,  died  at  Stoke-New ington,  near 
London,  March  9,  1825.  She  displayed  un- 
usual talent  as  a  child,  and  her  early  educa- 
tion was  directed  with  care  by  her  father,  the 
Rev.  John  Aikin,  a  Unitarian  minister.  At 
the  age  of  16  she  removed  with  him  to  War- 
rington in  Lancashire,  where  he  took  charge 
of  the  academy,  out  of  which  grew  the  centnil 
Unitarian  college,  afterword  transferred  to 
York,  and  finally  estai)lished  in  Manchester. 
In  1778,  at  the  age  of  80,  she  published  a  vol- 
ume of  her  poems,  which  the  same  year  ran 
through  fonr  editions.    This  was  followed  by 


married  the  Rev.'  Rochemoat  Barbanld,  with 
whom  she  kept  a  school  for  the  next  11  years 
in  tho  village  of  Pelgrave,  Snffolk.  During  this 
period  she  published  "  Devotional  Pieces,  com- 
piled from  the  Psalms  of  David,"  "  Early  Les- 
sons for  Children,"  and  "  Hymns  in  Prose  for 
Children."  After  a  short  visit  to  the  conti- 
nent in  1786-'6,  Mrs.  Barbauld  went  to  live  at 
Hampsteod,  near  London,  where  her  husband 
became  pastor  of  &  small  congregation,  and  she 
took  charge  of  a  few  pupils.  Here  she  wrote 
several  pamphlets  and  poems  on  popular  sub- 
jecta,  such  as  the  removal  of  the  civil  disabili- 
ties of  tbe  dissenters  and  the  abolition  of  tho 
slave  trade,  and  varions  contribntions  to  her 
brother's  ''Evenings  at  Home."  In  1802  she 
removed  with  her  hnshond  to  Stoke-Newing- 
ton,  ond  there  passed  the  rest  of  her  life.  Here 
she  prepared  "  Selections  from  the  Spectator, 
Guardian,  Tatler,  and  Freeholder,"  with  a  pre- 
liminary essay.  She  wrote  the  life  of  Richard- 
son, the  novelist,  to  accompany  his  correspon- 
dence, edited  Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  the 
Imagination  "  and  Collins's  "  Odes,"  and  a  col- 
lection of  the  "  British  Novelists,"  with  me- 
moirs and  criticisms,  and  published  "The  Fe- 
male Spectator,"  a  miBcellany  of  prose  and 
verse.  Her  last  separate  publication,  "  Eigh- 
teen Hundred  and  Eleven"  (1812),  is  her  long- 
est and  most  highly  finished  poem.  Her  works, 
in  two  volumes,  were  edited,  with  a  memoir, 
by  her  niece,  Miss  Lacy  Aikin.  Her  writings 
are  distinguished  for  their  pure  moral  tone, 
simplicity,  and  earnestness,  and  'her  books  for 
children  are  among  the  best  of  tbcir  class. 


BARBEL  (hariut,  Cuv.),  a  large,  coarse  fteeh- 
rater  fish,  of  the  family  eyprinida,  found  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARB£-UARBOIS 

numf  of  the  Iftrge  £nropeaii  riverf.  It  has 
MvertJ  barbs  or  beard-like  feelers  pendent 
from  its  leathery  month,  which  are  uid  to  be 
the  origin  of  its  name.  It  freqaents  deep,  atill 
poola  with  eddies,  in  Bwift-flowing  streaniB; 
roota  in  the  gravel  bottoms  like  a  hag ;  and 
feeda  on  worms  and  oUter  bottom  bait.  It 
grows  to  the  length  of  8  feet  and  to  the  weight 
of  18  or  20  pounds,  is  a  determined  biter,  and, 
wheBhooked,a  desperate  poller.  It  is  of  little 
valne  as  food. 

BAUE-aiUMHS,  FrHftta  dt,  connt  and  mar- 
qnia,  a  French  Btatesman,  bom  at  Meti,  Jan. 
81,  174S,  died  Jan.  14,  ISST.  After  fiUing 
diplomatic  offices  at  aeveral  German  oonrts, 
ha  waa  sent  to  the  new  govemmeat  of  the 
United  States  of  America  as  oonsol  general  of 
France.  He  organized  all  the  French  consid- 
atea  in  this  country,  and  during  hia  residenoe 
here  married  the  daaght«r  of  William  Hoore, 
gOTemor  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1786  ha  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XVI.  intendant  of  Bt.  Do- 
mingo, and  introdnoed  many  reforms  in  the 
administration  of  justice  and  of  finance.  He 
retomed  to  France  in  1780,  and,  having  vindi- 
cated himself  from  varions  aocuaationa,  was 
again  employed  in  German  diplomacy.  InlTBG 
he  was  elected  a  member  <k  tiie  oooncil  of 
elders,  bnt  was  soon  chaiged  with  a  variety 
of  offences,  and,  though  he  defended  himself 
with  spirit,  was  in  17B7  exiled  to  Goiana  as  a 
friend  of  royalty.  He  waa  recalled  in  1801  and 
loade  director  of  the  treaanry,  a  title  which  he 
soon  exchanged  for  that  of  minister  of  finance. 
In  1603  he  was  authorized  to  cede  Lonisiana 
to  the  United  States  for  50,000,000  fr.,  bnt  had 
the  akill  to  obtain  7^,000,000  &.,  a  piece  of 
diplomacy  for  which  he  was  liberally  rewarded 
by  Napoleon.  He  was  soon  after  made  connt 
of  the  empire  and  chief  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor.  In  1806  a  sadden  decline  in  the  flmds 
cansed  by  a  blonder  in  his  administration 
bronght  about  his  disgrace,  which  was  however 
qwedily  ended  by  Napoleon,  who  recognised 
and  needed  his  ability.  In  1818  he  entered 
the  senate,  and  the  next  year  voted  for  the 
deposition  of  the  emperor  and  the  retetablish- 
ment  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  He  was  well 
received  by  Lonis  XVIII.,  appointed  a  peer  of 
France  and  honorary  counsellor  of  the  nniver- 
Bity,  and  confirmed  in  the  office  of  flnt  presi- 
d^t  of  the  conrt  of  accounts,  which  he  had 
formerly  held.  Napoleon  after  his  retam  from 
Elba  ordered  him  to  leave  Paris.  He  reaomed 
his  offices  on  the  retam  of  the  Bonrbons.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  July  he  took  the  oath  of 
fidelity  to  Louis  Philippe.  He  wrote  Rejlmiont 
WV.T  la  eobmiede  Saint- Dorningu»IVi96);  C»m- 

£lot  cC Arnold  et  de  Sir  BenTy  Clinton  eontrt 
I  &tat*-UnU  (CAmirigut  et  contra  U  Gini- 
ral  Wathington  (Paris,  1816);  De  la  Ouyant 
(18SS);  Lettra  d»  Madame  la  Marquii*  de 
Pvmpadour,  with  a  memoir  (1811);  Btitoire 
de  la  Lotiitiane  etdela  eettion  dt  eelU  colonie 
par  la  Franet  anet  &tat*-U'niM  (1828);  and 
vanona  other  works. 


BARBERINI  399 

UUER,  Fraad*,  the  negro  servant  and 
friend  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  born  in  Jamaica, 
probably  aboQt  1741,  died  Feb.  18,  1801.  He 
was  taken  to  England  in  1T60,  and  sent  to  a 
boarding  school  in  Yorkshire.  In  1753  he  en- 
tered Dr.  Johnson's  service,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued till  Johnson's  death,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  intervals :  in  one  of  which,  upon 
some  diflerence  with  his  master,  he  served  an 
apothecary  in  Cheapride;  and  in  another  he 
took  a  fancy  to  go  te  sea.  This  last  escapade 
occurred  in  1769,  and  through  Dr.  Smollett's 
interference  with  John  Wilkes,  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  admiralty,  procured  his  discharge  ' 
(in  June,  17G0),  withont  any  wish  on  the  part 
of  Barber.  On  retoming^  he  resumed  liis  situ- 
ation with  Dr.  Johnson,  who  sent  him  to  school 
for  a  time.  It  was  owing  to  Barber's  care 
that  the  manuscript  of  Johnson's  diary  of  his 
tour  in  Wales  in  1774  was  preserved.  Dr. 
Johnaon  gave  Barber  in  his  will  an  annuity  of 
.£70,  and  after  the  payment  of  a  few  legacies 
made  him  rosldnsry  legatee.  Barber's  whole 
income  from  this  bequest  amounted  to  abont 
£140,  on  which,  at  Johnson's  recommendation, 
he  retired  to  Lichfield,  and  passed  the  rest  of 
his  daya  in  comfort. 

BlUll,  FTHds,  am  officer  in  the  American 
revolution,  bom  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  17G1, 
died  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  in  April,  17B8.  He 
gradnated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in 
1767,  and  in  1769  became  rector  of  the  aoatle- 
my  at  Elizabeth  town,  N.  J.  He  gained  a  very 
high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  ana  had  among 
his  pupils  Alexander  F      "'  '  '   '' 

mencement  61  the  w  ~  ~ 
brothera. 

commission  aa  m^or  of  the  Sd  battal- 
ion of  the  New  Jersey  troops,  in  November 
of  the  same  year  was  appointed  lieutenant 
colonel  of  the  Sd  Jersey  regiment,  and  in  1777 
was  named  assistant  inspecter  general  under 
BaroD  Steuben.  He  served  wi^  his  regiment 
nnder  Gen.  Schuyler  in  the  oorthem  army, 
and  participated  in  the  battles  of  Trenton, 
Princeton,  Brandy  wine,  German  town,  and 
Uonmonth.  In  the  last-mentioned  action  he 
was  severely  wotinded,  and  compelled  to  retire 
to  his  home  at  Elizabethtown.  Therehemade 
himself  nseful  in  obtaining  intelligence  of  the 
enemy's  movements.  In  177B  he  served  as 
a4}utant  general  in  Gen.  Sullivan's  campaign 
against  the  Indians,  and  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  at  Newtown.  He  was  engaged  in  tlie 
battle  of  Springfield,  and  in  1761,  when  the 
mutiny  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey 
troops  broke  out,  he  was  selected  by  Washing- 
ten  te  Bupprefs  the  revolt.  He  waa  present  at 
the  battle  of  Yorktewn,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
war  was  with  the  army  at  Newburgh.  On  the 
day  that  ha  was  invited  by  Washington  to  be 
present  at  a  dinner  to  hear  the  news  of  the 
peaoe  he  was  killed  by  a  falling  tree. 

BlUiXINI,  an  ItaUan  famUy  of  Tuscany, 
who  settied  in  Florence  in  the  11th  centnry, 
and  acquired  wealth  by  trade  in  the  16th,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


800  BAHI 

biBtorico]  importance  earl;  in  the  17th  century 
by  tbe  elevation  of  Martko  Babbeeini  to  the 
papacy  under  the  name  of  Urban  VIII.  His 
brother  Antonio  became  cardioal,  and  hia 
brotlier  Carlo  general  of  the  papal  troops ; 
and  the  three  sons  of  the  latter  exercised  a 
Ta*t  influence,  especially  Taddfo,  who  suc- 
ceeded bis  father  as  general  of  the  papal  troops, 
and  married  Anna  Colonna.  He  acquired 
PaleBtrina  and  other  fietk,  and  became  prefect 
of  Gome  in  16S1  after  the  death  of  the  duke  of 
tlrbino  and  the  addition  of  the  dukedom  to  the 
papal possessiunB.  Other leadingltalianhonsea, 
especially  the  Famese,  took  umbrage  at  the  in- 
oreasing  power  of  the  Barberini,  which  led  to 
the  Caetro  war  {lMl-'4)  for  the  poasesBion 
of  Caatro  and  Ronciglione,  Odoardo  Farnese, 
dake  of  Pormo,  declaring  tliat  he  was  waging 
war  against  tJie  Bart>erini,  and  not  against  the 
pope.  Urban  VIII.  died  in  1644,  and  though 
the  election  of  his  successor  Innocent  X.  was 
doc  to  the  Barberini  influence,  one  of  the  first 
measures  of  tiie  now  popo  was  to  institnte  pro- 
coediDgs  against  them,  and  especially  against 
Taddeo  for  fmancial  inisnianagenieDt.  Taddeo 
fled  to  Paris,  where  ho  died  in  164T. — Fhak- 
OEBOO,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1597, 
died  in  1079.  He  became  cardinal  and  vice 
chancellor,  obtuned  great  influence  in  the  ad- 
ministration, and  founded  with  the  aid  of  Leo 
Allazzi,  a  Greek  scholar,  the  Barberini  library. 
He,  too,  had  to  leave  Rome  after  the  accession 
of  Innocent  X.,  but  was  permitted  to  return, 
and  became  dean  of  the  sacred  college. — An- 
tonio, brother  of  the  preceding,  canBual  and 
hi);h  chamlterlain  under  Urban  VIII.,  born  in 
1G08,  died  in  1671.  He  held  high  ecclesiastical 
offices  in  France  tlirough  the  favor  of  Mau- 
rin,  but  returned  to  Italy  after  his  reconciliation 
with  the  new  pope. — Over  100,000,000  scudi 
passed  into  tbe  bands  of  the  Barberini  family 
daring  their  tenure  of  power.  The  Barberini 
palace,  one  of  the  largest  in  Home,  still  attests 
their  sumptuous  and  artistic  tastes,  and  the  libra- 
ry continues  to  be  renowned  for  its  valuable 
MS8. — The  present  head  of  the  Barberini-Co- 
lonna  family  is  Enbioo,  prince  of  Palestrina, 
bom  Uarch  26,  1B2S,  who  married  in  1868  the 
princess  Teresa  Orsini. 

BlRBiaBT  (herberu),  a  genns  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  berberidaetai,  whose  char- 
acteristics are;  6  roundish  sepals,  with  bract- 
lets  outside;  6  obovate  petals,  with  2  glandu- 
lar spots  inside;  6  stamens;  alternate,  ovate, 
serrated,  and  pointed  leoves;  a  shrubby. habit, 
with  yellow  wood  and  inner  l>ark;  yellow 
flowers  in  drooping  racemes;  and  sour  berries 
and  leaves.  The  stamens  have  a  remarkable 
irritability,  so  that  when  the  filament  is  touched 
on  the  inside  with  the  point  of  a  needle,  they 
throw  themselves  quickly  forward  upon  the 
stigma;  the  petals  also  follow  them  in  this 
movement.  This  phenomenon  is  best  observed 
in  mild  and  dry  weather,  and  can  rarely  be 
seen  after  the  stamens  have  been  dashed  against 
oocb  other  by  a  violent  wind  or  rain.    The 


genaa  comprises  abotrt  60  <pecies,  which  an 

found  in  various  regions  from  China  to  Mexico; 
several  of  them  are  evergreens,  and  most  of 
them  are  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.  S. 
vulgaru,  or  common  barberry,  has  thorns  upon 
the  brandies,  obovate-obiong,  bristly  tootlied 
leaves  in  rosettes  or  fascicles,  drooping  niany- 
fluwered  racemes,  and  scarlet  oblong  berries. 
It  U  n  native  of  the  northern  porta  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  bat  has  become  naturalized  and 
thoroughly  wild  in  the  thickets  and  waste 
gronnds  of  eastern  New  England.  In  the 
north  of  Europe  it  prefers  the  valleys,  but  in 
the  south  it  grows  on  mountains,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  hardy  of  Alpine  shrnbs.  In  Italy  it 
attains  a  height  of  ft-om  4  to  6  ft.,  and  lives  for 
centuries.  £.  Canadeniu,  or  American  bar- 
berry, is  a  shrub  from  1  to  8  ft.  high,  with 
leaves  less  sharjily  pointed  and  racemes  with 
fewer  flowers  than  the  preceding,  and  is  found 
on  the  Alleghanies  of  Virginia  and  southward. 
£,  agvifoHum,  a  native  of  western  Korth 
Amenca,  has  shining  evergreen  pinnated  leaves, 


BiriKiT?  (Bnberii  nlenli). 
and  deep  violet  or  red  berries,  and  is  ol^«ii  cul- 
tivated for  it«  beauty.  Tliere  ore  several  other 
Asiatic  and  American  species  which  are  among 
the  Tnoet  hardy  ornaments  of  gardens.^Near- 
ly  all  ttie  parts  of  this  plant  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose. The  inner  bark  and  the  root,  with  the 
aid  of  aium,  famish  an  excellent  yellow  dyo 
for  coloring  linen  and  leather.  Its  leaves  are 
cropped  by  cows  and  sheep.  It  is  probably  by 
reason  of  its  yellow  color  that  it  has  been  ea- 
teemed  good  for  the  jaundice,  the  same  having 
been  fancied  also  of  the  dock  and  carrot ;  bnt 
the  bitterness  and  astringency  of  the  b&rk  have 
made  it  valued  as  a  medicine.  Tbe  lierries  ore 
so  acid  that  birds  reAise  to  eat  them ;  bnt  when 
prepared  with  sugar,  they  make  delicious  and 
nealthful  preserves,  sirups,  and  comtits.  It 
has  been  a  very  general  opinion  that  barberr> 
bushes  cause  blight  to  wheat  sown  in  their  vi. 


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BARBOU 


301 


craitT';  but  if  thia  be  tme,  it  has  not  been  so- 
coanted  for. 

BiRSft^i  kTMMat,  a  Frenob  revolutionist,  bom 
at  Pointe-il-PltrB,  Gnadeloupe,  Sept.  18,  1809, 
died  at  the  Hague,  Jane  26,  13T0.  Ha  went 
to  southern  Fraace  as  an  infant,  and  was  edn- 
ceted  for  the  bar.  On  the  death  of  bis  father, 
who  left  him  a  large  fortune,  he  went  to  Paris 
(1S30),  where  he  »oon  became  conspicuoDB  aa 
a  member  of  secret  political  Kicietiea.  He 
was  imprisoned  for  several  months  in  1884  on 
charges  which  were  not  substantiated.  In  1685 
he  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  complioit; 


secretly  making  gunpowder.  In  1839  he 
sentenced  to  death  as  ringleader  of  an  insur 
tioo  which  resulted  in  the  murder  of  Lient. 
Dronineau ;  bnt  his  life  was  spared,  and  daring 
his  imprisonment  lie  wrote  JAmx  jour*  de  e<m- 
damnalhn  d  mart  (Paris,  1848;  2d  ed.,  with  a 
letter  of  Louis  Blani^).  Herecovered  his  liberty 
after  the  revolntdon  of  1818,  and  was  elected  to 
the  constitnent  assembly.  For  a  new  attempt 
at  insnrrection  in  May  of  that  year,  with  Hu- 
bert, Barosil,  and  Blanqui,  he  was  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment  at  Belle-Isle-eu-Mer. 
He  refosed  to  accept  a  pardon  from  the  empe- 
ror Napoleon  in  1S54,  and  being  turned  out  of 
prison  be  went  to  Paris  and  asked  permisgion 
to  return  to  Jul;  bnt  this  being  declined,  ho 
went  to  Spain,  and  afterward  to  Holland. 

BIRIEVRIC,  Jeu,  a  French  jurist,  bom  at 
BSzien,  Uaroh  16,  1ST4,  died  March  8,  IT44. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinist  minister,  and  on 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  waa  token 
to  Switzerland  and  educated  there.  He  taught 
at  Berlin  and  Lausanne,  and  finally  settled  at 
Groningen  as  a  professor  of  international  law. 
He  is  beat  known  for  his  translations  from  the 
Latin  writings  on  public  law  of  Grotiua,  Pn- 
fendorf,  and  others,  with  commentaries.  He 
alao  pnblished  a  sapplement  to  the  Qrajid  eo7p» 
diplomatique,  with  notes  (S  vols,  fol.,  Amster- 
dwn,  1739),  and  a  Traite  da  jeu  (3d  ed.,  1787). 

BIBBIB  DD  BOCAGE,  JeiB  Dnh,  a  French 
geographer,  bom  in  Paris,  April  28,  1780, 
died  Deo.  2S,  ISSS.  He  was  a  popil  of  D'An- 
rille.  He  classified  the  documents  brought  by 
Choiseol-Gooffler  from  Greece,  and  attended 
from  1768  to  1824  to  the  publication  of  the 
Voyage  pittoraque  de  la  Qrice,  which  he  illus- 
trated with  many  valuable  maps.  Meanwhile 
he  drew  np  the  maps  attached  to  Barthilemy's 
"Travels  of  Anacharsis,"  published  in  1788. 
In  1807  he  completed  an  excellent  map  of  the 
Morea,  and  wrote  a  cnrions  Kotiee  rur  un 
manuaerit  de  la  b&lii>thique  dv  prince  de  Tal- 
Uyrand,  wherein  he  attempted  to  demonstrate 
tlukt  tlie  eastern  coast  of  Australia  had  been 
visited  bj  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  15SG. 

BiKBIBS.  I.  iiMM  Ikuuiln,  a  French  bib- 
liographer, bom  at  Ooolommiero,  Jan.  11, 1765, 
died  in  Paris  in  December,  1826.  He  studied 
at  the  college  of  Meanx  and  took  orders,  bnt 
afterward  renounced  the  priesthood  and  mar- 


ried. He  removed  to  Paris  in  1794,  and  was 
commissioned  to  collect  the  books  tuid  works 
of  art  belonging  to  the  abolished  convents,  in 
order  to  place  them  in  the  newiy  created  pnb- 
lic  establishments.  In  1798  he  became  librarian 
to  the  directory.  Napoleon  in  1807  made  him 
his  private  librarian.  In  this  capacity  it  was 
his  duty  to  moke  reports  on  the  most  impor- 
tant works  that  were  pablished.  The  libraries 
of  the  Lonvre,  Oompifigue,  and  Fontainebiesu 
were  mode  up  by  him.  After  the  return  of  the 
Bourbons  he  was  superintendent  of  the  private 
rojal  libraries  till  1823,  when  he  was  suddenly 
discharged.  His  Nimtelle  bibliothiqtie  (Tun 
homme  de  ffo&t  gives  excellent  directions  for 
collecting  a  good  library,  and  his  Dietionnaire 
del  omragea  anonymeM  at  pieudonytttei  is  full 
of  research,  able  cnticism,  and  curious  teaming. 
He  wrote  many  tracts  and  pamphlets  on  hiblio- 
graphical  sutyects.  IL  EteM4  Jcu  Fnafsls,  a 
French  jurist,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  16,  1S89, 
died  Jan.  S9, 1771.  His  principal  claim  to  at- 
tention is  founded  on  his  interesting  Journal 
hutorigue  et  aneedotique  du  riffne  de  Loui* 
XV.  (Paris,  1856),  embracing  a  period  of  44 
years,  from  1718  to  1762.  It  narrates  many 
facts  not  found  in  the  newspapers  of  the  time. 
ill.  Btnrl  AagHts,  a  French  satirical  poet,  bom 
in  Paris,  April  28,  180G.  Ho  was  a  lawyer,  and 
his  first  poem,  a  satire  called  La  eurie,  published 
just  after  the  revolution  of  July,  1630,  created  a 
remarkable  sensation  by  its  Ixildness,  original- 
ity, and  ronghnesa  of  language.  Several  oth- 
er poems  of  the  same  kind  appeared  in  quick 
succession,  La  popvlaHU  and  L'ldoU  among 
the  number.  They  were  collected,  ander  tlie 
title  lambei,  in  a  volume  which  was  eagerly 
sought  for.  His  popoiarity  afterward  declined. 
II  Pianlo  and  Latan  obtained  but  moderate 
praise.  His  later  works  have  been  neglected ; 
and  it  has  even  been  questioned  whether  he 
wrote  the  brilliant  satires  ottributed  to  him  in 
his  youth.  He  translated  Shakespeare's  "  Julina 
OfB9ar"inl848.  His  latest  works  are  Silvea 
(1864)  and  TVsu  eowtofu  (1867).  He  was  cho- 
sen to  the  French  academy  in  1960.  IV.  Pail 
Jatcfl,  a  French  dramatist,  bom  in  Paris  In 
1822.  His  first  drama  was  Le  Poite,  produced 
with  success  at  the  Th6&tre  Fran^ais  in  1847. 
He  afterward  wrot«  Amour  et  iergerie  (1848), 
Andre  CAinier  (1849),  Let  d-emiert  adieux 
(1S51),  La  Uterie  dv  mariage  (186S),  Jeanne 
d'Are  (1869) ,  and  many  other  dramas,  come- 
dies, vandevilles.  &c. ;  uid  in  184Q  he  l>ecame 
associated  with  M.  Oairi  in  famishing  Gounod 
with  the  texts  for  Fautt,  Bomio  et  Juliette,  Le 
Mideein  malgri  lui,  and  La  reine  de  Saba; 
Ambroise  Thomas  with  Ramlet.  Migwm,  and 
Piyehi;  Victor  MasaS  with  OaJatkie  and  Lea 
nocee  de  Jeannette ;  and  Meyerbeer  with  Lt 
pardon  de  PloirmtL 

BIKBIDU,  GliTiail  FraMMM>   See  Gueboiko. 

BiKBOG,  the  name  of  a  family  of  French 
printers,  distinguished  for  the  correctness  and 
elegance  of  their  work.  The  first  was  Jbah, 
who  Id  1580  printed  at  Lyons  a  very  correct 


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302  BAKBOQK 

edition  of  the  worlcB  of  Clement  Marot.  IIib 
son  HcQUES  established  himself  at  Limoges, 
and  in  1580  printed  a  line  edition  of  Cioero's 
epistles  to  Atticus.  Tlie  first  in  Paris  vas 
Jbah  Josspr,  nho  whs  licensed  as  a  booluelier 
in  1704,  and  died  in  1762.  His  brother  Jobefe 
was  licensed  as  a  bookseller  in  1717  and  aa  a 
printer  in  172S,  and  died  in  17S7.  His  widow 
carried  on  the  printing  office  till  1760,  when 
she  was  sncoeeded  b;  bis  nephew  Jobiph 
OfiRARD,  bom  in  ITIS,  who  had  b«oome  a 
bookseller  in  1748.  His  name  was  attached  to 
B,  celebrated  collection  of  Latin  classics  in 
13ino,  commenced  on  the  en^eation  of  Len- 
gict-Dufreanoj  in  1748  to  replace  the  EUevir 
editions,  then  becoming  rare,  and  the  pnbUoo- 
tion  of  which  was  assnined  by  Borboo  in 
1756,  when  18  voinmea  had  appeared.  To 
these  he  added  4S  volomea  of  classics,  and 
many  of  other  works  in  the  same  style.  He 
transferred  bia  interest  to  his  nephew  Huqwes 
in  1789,  and  died  in  1818.  Hu^uea  died  in 
180S,  when  the  basiness  passed  into  other 
hands,  who  continned  the  colleotioD. 

BllBOSB,  the  name  of  conntjes  in  three  of 
the  United  States.  L  A  N.  E.  oonntj  of  West 
Vir^nia;  area,  880  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,S12,  of  whom  380  were  colored.  Its  eur- 
feco  is  hillj,  and  its  soil  very  fertile,  and  well 
adapted  for  grazinfi.  It  is  drained  by  the 
oonstitoents  of  the  east  fork  of  the  Mononga- 
hela  river.  Bitaminous  ooal  and  iron  ore  are 
fband,  and  salt  mines  have  been  opened.  In 
1870  the  chief  prodnctions  were  42,806  bnsheU 
of  wheat,  178,196  of  Indian  com,  43,8f>T  of 
oata,  10,803  tons  of  hay,  and  81,»7S  lbs.  of 
wool.  Capital,  rhilippi.  II.  A  B.  E,  ooouty  of 
Alabama,  bounded  £.  by  the  Chattahoochee 
river,  which  separates  it  from  Georgia;  area, 
about  BOO  sq.  m. ;  pop,  in  1870,  30,809,  of  whom 
17,166  were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  snr- 
fcce,  partly  covered  with  forests  of  pine.  The 
Boil  in  the  valleys  of  the  streams  is  fertile,  and 
mitable  for  Indian  com  and  cotton.     The  chief 

E reductions  in  1870  were  894,804  bushels  of 
idian  com,  42,784  of  sweet  potatoes,  17,011 
bales  of  cotton,  and  26,736  gallons  of  molaseee. 
Capital,  Clayton,  III.  A  8,  coanty  of  Kansas, 
not  yet  settled,  bordering  on  Indian  territory ; 
area,  T80  sq,  m.  The  Nescatmiga  river,  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Arkansas,  intersects  the  B,  W,  cor- 
ner, and  a  branch  of  the  former  also  drains  the 
K,  and  E.  portions  of  the  county, 

BUUOCK,  Jbmcs,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Orange  county,  Va.,  June  10, 1776,  died 
June  8,  1843,  While  Tery  young  lie  served  aa 
a  deputy  sheriff,  and  at  the  age  of  19  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
legislature  of  Virginia  from  1T96  to  1812,  when 
he  became  governor  of  the  state.  After  serv- 
ing two  terms  in  this  office  he  was  elected  to 
'  the  United  States  senate  (1816),  where  for  sev- 
eral sessions  he  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  relaljons.  He  remained  in  the  sen- 
ate till  1830,  when  President  John  Quincy 
Adama  appointed  him  secretary  of  war.    In 


BABCA 

1828  he  became  minister  to  England,  but  was 
recalled  the  neit  year  by  President  Jackson, 
of  whose  adnunistration  and  that  of  Mr,  Van 
Buren  he  was  a  vigorous  opponent.  In  1839 
he  presided  at  the  Uarrisbnrg  convention,  which 
nominated  Qen.  Harrison  for  president. 

BISBOOB,  Jtba,  a  Scottish  poet  and  histo- 
rian, bom  in  Aberdeen  about  1820,  died  about 
1396.  little  ia  known  of  his  early  life.  He 
was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  by 
David  il.  in  1866.  He  made  two  vints  to  Ox- 
ford by  royal  permisuon  for  the  purpose  of 
studying,  end  in  18B8  obtained  a  passport  to 
France  for  a  umilar  object.  At  one  .time  be 
was  one  of  the  anditors  of  the  excheqaer  for 
King  Robert  II.  The  work  which  has  made 
his  name  famous  is  bis  poem  of  "The  Bmoe," 
a  histoij  of  the  life  and  deeds  of  Kobert  Bmce. 
He  is  known  to  have  also  written  a  metrical 
romance,  now  lost,  called  "The  Bmte,"  on 
the  mythical  Brntus  the  Trcyan,  Barbonr  re- 
ceived two  pennons,  one  charged  on  the  cns- 
toms  of  Alterdeen  for  life,  and  another  in  per- 
petuity from  the  borough  rents,  recorded  as  a 
reward  for  the  production  of  "The  Bmte," 
At  his  death  he  assigned  the  latter  to  the  chap- 
ter of  the  cathedral  charch  of  Aberdeen,  to  pay 
for  an  annual  mass  for  his  soul.  The  first  known 
printed  edition  of  "  The  Bruce  "  is  that  of  1610 
(Edinburgh),  but  there  is  believed  to  have  been 
an  earlier  one.  The  best  of  the  later  editions 
Is  that  of  Dr.  Jamieson  (4to,  Edinburgh,  1820). 

BIBBT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Pmssian 
province  of  Saxony,  on  the  loft  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  16  m,  8.  E.  of  iUagdebnrg ;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,212.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  mannf^ture  of  woollens  and  linens.  The 
Moravians  in  1749  esubllshed  at  Barhy  a 
Pddagogium  (edocatioual  inatitntion),  which 
in  1809  was  transferred  to  Niraky  in  Lnsatia. 
The  town  has  a  normal  school  end  a  hoffl>ital 
for  the  blind.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  ot  the 
counts  of  Barby,  who  became  extinct  in  1869, 

BiBU,  a  country  of  Africa,  hounded  N.  by 
the  Mediterranean,  E.  by  Egypt,  W,  by  the 
gulf  of  Sidra  or  Great  Syrtis,  S.  by  the  Libyan 
desert  It  lies  between  lat.  29"  and  88°  N^ 
Ion,  20°  and  26°  £.,  and  corresponds  nearly  to 
the  anient  Cyrenaica,  although  the  bonnda- 
ries  are  not  clearly  defined.  The  population  is 
estimated  at  about  400,000,  mostly  nomadic 
Arabs  and  Berbers.  The  northwestern  portion 
is  elevated,  has  a  healthy  climate,  and  many 
fertile  traela  producing  rice,  grain,  dates,  olives, 
sugar,  tobacco,  saffron,  and  senna;  It  ia  well 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  grapes.  The  east«m 
and  southern  portions  are  sandy,  gradually 
merging  in  the  desert.  The  horses  of  the  coun- 
try are  of  a  famous  breed ;  there  are  sheep 
of  the  fat-tailed  species,  cornels,  and  buffaloes. 
Harca  is  governed  by  its  beys,  who  are  trib- 
utary to  the  bey  of  Tripoli,  It  was  an  early 
colony  of  the  Greeks;  it  afterward  became 
subject  to  Egypt,  and  still  later  a  province  of 
the  Byzantine  empire.  It  waa  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  in  641.    The  most  important  town* 


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BAROA 

are  BenghAd  (mo.  Sereniee),  and  Deme  (ano. 
Damit).    {8«e  Otebnaioa.) 

BJECl,  or  Bim,  an  ancient  inlaDd  cit^  of 
Cyreniwca,  founded  bj  reTolted  Oyrenaana 
and  Libjans  aboat  OSl  B.  C.  Arcesilaus  II., 
ting  of  Cyrene,  was  rignaliy  defeated  in  an  at- 
tempt U>  ponish  this  seceasion,  and  the  power 
of  Barca  was  booh  extended  to  the  seacoast 
and  W.  toward  Carthage.  About  614  B.  C. 
Arcesilans  III.  of  Cyrene,  having  taken  refuge 
with  his  father-in-law  Alazir,  ktng  of  Burco, 
wtA  slain  by  the  citizens.  His  mother  Phere- 
tima  indnced  the  Perwsn  satrap  of  Egypt  to 
benege  Barca,  and  after  it  was  captured  caused 
DDmbers  of  the  citizens  to  be  oracifled  around 
the  walla,  on  which  she  fixed  aa  bosses  the 
breasts  of  their  wives.  Uany  others  v 
made  slaves  end  removed  to  Bactria,  Under 
the  Ptolemies  most  of  the  remaining  inhabi- 
tants were  removed  to  the  new  city  of  Ptole- 


BABCELONA 


303 


maie  (now  Tulmeta)  on  the  coast  The  old 
town  was  still  in  existence  in  the  2d  century 
of  oar  era,  and  its  ruins  are  now  traced  near 
the  village  of  Meijeh. 

BlBCi,  or  Bams,  an  epithet  applied  to  Ha- 
milcar  and  other  Carthaginian  generals,  and 
sappoaed  to  signify  "lightning,"  like  the  He- 
brew Barak. 

BUCEUtNt.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  In 
Catalonia,  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean ; 
area,  2,883  b^.  m.;  pop.  in  1867.  749,148.  It 
is  less  moan taiuona  and  better  cultivatod,  more 
densely  peopled,  and  in  general  more  doorish- 
ing  than  any  other  CataJontan  province.  The 
Llobregat,  it^  principal  river,  intersects  it  N.  and 
8.  It  is  traversed  by  several  railways,  and  has 
good  roads.  Its  chief  products  are  grain,  oil, 
wine,  frait,  hemp,  silk,  iron,  copper,  and  coat ; 
there  are  sevend  salt  mines  and  numerons 
mineral  springs.    n>  A  city  and  seaport,  cap- 


ital of  the  above  demribed  province,  ntnated 
in  laL  41"  31'  N^  Ion.  3°  10'  E.,  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, S15  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Madrid,  in  a 
beantifiil  plain  between  the  rivers  Besos  and 
IJobr^atj  at  tho  foot  of  Mount  Monjaich  (the 
Mod*  Jons  of  the  Romans,  the  Mons  Jndaions 
of  the  middle  ages,  bo  named  because  it  was 
then  iuha.bited  by  the  Jews);  pop.  in  18S4, 
190,000;  in  1868,  including  the  large  snbm-b 
of  BarccloDeto,  167,09S.  The  diminntion  is  as- 
cribed to  t^e  mortality  caused  by  the  cholera 
of  1865,  and  the  removal  of  much  of  the  mann- 
factorinff  indostry  beyond  the  municipal  bonn- 
dary.  It  ia  the  most  flonriahlng,  and  after 
U«drid  the  most  popnlons  city  in  Spain,  the 
great  manafactaring  and  commercial  emporium, 
and  one  of  the  fineBt  cities  of  the  peninsnla. 
The  harbor  ia  formed  by  a  huge  mote,  mnning 
72  TOL.  iL— 20 


southward  for  a  oonsiderable  distance  f^om  the 
shore;  the  depth  of  water  within  the  mole  is 
20  (t  The  fort  of  Monjnich,  south  of  the 
town,  stands  npon  the  isolated  hill  of  that 
name,  762  ft  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
eommoDda  the  city,  the  citadel,  and  the  port, 
and  is  considered  by  the  Spaniards  to  be  im- 
pregnable. The  citadel,  N.  E.  of  the  town,  is 
a  regular  fortress  bnilt  on  the  system  of  Van- 
ban.  There  are  also  walls,  ditches,  and  bat- 
teries. Barcelona  ia  the  see  of  a  biahop  and 
the  seat  of  on  audiencia.  It  has  a  univernty 
established  in  1460,  several  commercial  acade- 
mies, and  many  civil,  military,  art,  and  benevo- 
lent institutions,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
pmta  de  coiatrtio,  or  board  of  trade,  which 
supports  professorships  of  navigation,  architec- 
ture, chemistry,  experimental  pniloBophy,  egri- 


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301 


BARCELONA 


ealture,  commerce,  mechanics,  and  foreign 
liingiugea.  The  citj  is  generallj  well  boilt; 
the  hoDseil  in  the  newer  part  are  mostl/  of 
briok  four  or  five  stories  tiigti,  with  ornamented 
balconies.  The  principal  streets  are  long,  wide, 
well  paved,  and  lighted.  In  the  older  portion 
the  streets  are  narrower,  and  crooked,  but 
pictnresqne.  Foremost  among  its  numerous 
proraenades  is  the  Rsmhla  (so  called  from  the 
Arabic  rami,  sand,  applied  to  a  drj  river  bed, 
nsod  aa  a  road).  There  is  also  a  fine  prom- 
enade around  the  ramparts,  with  pleasant 
views  toward  the  sea.  Among  the  churches 
are  the  cathedral,  a  fine  stmcture,  which  the 
Moore  converted  into  a  tnoaqne;  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  del  Har,  erected  on  the  dte 
of  8  chapel  of  the  Goths,  the  rebuilding  of 
which  was  began  in  1328,  and  completed  in 
1488 ;  and  the  church  of  San  Cucufat,  erected 
on  the  spot  where  its  patron  sunt  iras  mar- 
tyred. Other  pnblio  buildings  are  the  eiaa 
eontJMtorial  ana  eata  d«  la  depataeion,  the 
e/ua  lonja  or  excLvige,  and  the  palace  of  the 
captain  general.  There  are  man;  Boman  an- 
tiqaities,  but  mostly  in  fragments. — The  com- 
merce and  manufactures  of  Barcelona  have 
received  a  great  impulse  since  18S0.  Many 
large  manufacturing  establishments,  especiatly 
of  sillc  and  cotton,  have  sprung  up.  In  1865 
there  were  T  banliing  companies,  10  marine 
insurance  companies,  0  railway  companies,. 4 
steam    navigation    companies,   8  canal   com- 

Buiies,  and  S  gas  companies.  The  banh  of 
orcelona,  founded  in  1S44,  has  a  capital  of 
80,000,000  reals  ($10,000,000),  of  which  20,- 
000,000 has  been  paid  op.  Railways  are  being 
gradually  extended  &om  Barcelona  into  the 
interior.  The  princioal  exports  are  silks  and 
cotton  goods,  paper,  hats,  laces,  ribbons,  soap, 
steel,  and  firearms.  The  principal  imports  are 
raw  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other 
colonial  producte,  mainly  from  Ouba  and  Por- 
to Bico ;  salted  fish,  hides,  and  horns.  Iron 
and  coal,  maohinery  and  hardware,  have  lately 
been  largely  imported  from  Engiand.  Most 
kinds  of  manufactured  goods  are  prohibited, 
but  they  are  smuggled  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. The  coastwise  trade  is  -also  very  con' 
eiderable.  In  18S3  the  imports  at  Barcelona 
were  $50,734,079;  the  exports,  $19,804,490; 
ralne  of  unports,  $41,B49,940 ;  of  exports,  $72,- 
420,770. — Barcelona,  according  to  tradition, 
was  founded  by  Hercules  400  years  before  the 
building  of  Rome.  It  was  reestablisbed  or,  ac- 
cording to  more  trustworthy  accounts,  founded 
by  HamilcarBarca,  the  father  of  Hannibal,  who 
called  it  Barcino,  whence  comes  its  present 
name.  Afler  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians, it  fell  into  the  bands  of  the  Romans,  who 
made  it  a  colony,  Icnown  also  under  the  name 
of  Faventia.  In  the  6th  century  it  was  taken 
by  the  Goths;  in  the  Tth  century  by  the 
Arabe,  from  whom  it  was  reconquered  about 
600  by  the  Christians,  aided  by  Charlemagne. 
It  was  then  governed  until  the  12tb  century  by 
counts,  who  were  really  independent,  though 


nominally  sabject  to  the  Carlovin^an  kings.  It 
subsequently  became  attached  to  tlie  kingdom 
of  Aragon,  preserving  however  its  most  impor- 
tant municipal  privileges.  During  this  period 
the  Barcelonians  competed  with  the  Italians 
for  the  commerce  ol  the  Levant,  and  were 
among  the  first  to  establish  consuls  and  facto- 
ries in  distant  parts  for  the  protection  of  their 
trade.  The  famous  code  of  maritime  law 
known  as  the  Contolato  del  Mar  is  said  to  have 
been  compiled  and  promulgated  at  Barcelona. 
Marine  insurance  and  the  negotiation  of  bills 
of  exchange  were  practised  here  at  an  early 
date.  In  1640  Barcelona  rose  against  the  tyr- 
anny of  Philip  IV.,  and  threw  herself  into  Uie 
arms  of  France.  It  was  retaken  in  1653.  In 
1097  it  was  captured  by  the  French,  but  re- 
stored to  Spain  in  the  same  year.  During  the 
war  of  the  succession,  it  esponsed  the  caoae  of 
Austria.  In  1706  it  was  ot^tured  by  the  Span- 
iards and  English  under  the  earl  of  Peter- 
borough. In  1714  it  was  bombarded  and  taken 
by  the  French,  under  the  command  of  the  duke 
of  Berwick.  In  1808  it  was  taken  by  Napoleon, 
who  held  it  till  1614.  In  1842  it  revolted 
agunst  the  queen  of  Spain,  and  was  bombard- 
ed and  taken  by  Espartero  in  December.  An- 
other insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  Jnne, 
1843,  was  suppressed,  after  a  bombardment,  in 
November,  and  another,  in  July,  13fi6,  after 
a  few  days,  but  with  considerable  bloodshed. 
Several  minor  popular  movements  took  place 
both  before  and  after  the  fall  of  Queen  I^ 
bella. 

BAKCELONl.  LAN.  state  of  Veneznela, 
bonnded  N.  by  the  Caribbean  sea  and  S.  by 
the  river  Orinoco;  area,  13,800  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  78,600.  Except  a  belt  of  hills  that  border 
the  coast,  where  there  are  excellent  arable 
lands,  and  the  best  plantations  in  the  state,  the 
fitce  of  the  country  is  composed  of  low  pluns 
and  extensive  plateaus,  offering  fine  pasturage 
for  cattle,  horses,  and  mules.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Neveri,  Pao,  and  TJnare.  Cacao,  cof- 
fee, sugar  cane,  cotton,  maite,  cocoanuts,  and 
tropical  fruits  are  largely  produced.  The  state 
is  divided  into  9  cantons.  II.  A  city,  formerly 
called  New  Barcelona,  Capital  of  the  state, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Neveri,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  a  wooden  bridge,  about 
3  m.  from  the  sea,  and  160  ro.  E.  of  Oar&^- 
as;  pop.  about  6,000  (in  1800,  16,000)  half 
colored.  It  was  founded  in  1637  by  Juan  tTr- 
pin  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  Santo,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  its  present  site  in  1G7I  by 
Sancbo  Fernando  de  Agnla.  The  city  has  been 
nearly  mined  by  war  and  revolution.  There 
is  a  church  and  several  schools.  The  hoasea 
are  mostly  of  mud,  ili  constructed  and  poorly 
furnished ;  and  the  streets  are  unpaved  and  in 
rainy  weather  extremely  filthy,  while  in  dry 
weather  the  dust  is  intolerable.  The  harbor 
and  shipping  are  protected  by  a  fortress,  on  a 
hill  400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
climate,  owing  to  the  excessive  heat  and  moist- 
ure of  the  ur,  is  exceedingly  inaalnbrioDs,  and 


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BAE0KHAU8EN 

the  city  is  said  by  Hnmboldt  to  be  one  of  the 
inCMt  nnheottby  places  on  the  globe.  The  anr- 
roandlng  country  la  very  fertile.  Barcelona 
exports  homed  cattle,  jerked  beef^  hides,  in- 
digo, tuinotto,  cotton,  and  cacao. 

BIRCKHADSEM,  or  BarcbuM,  Jtkau  Kiwad, 
a  German  physician  and  chemist,  bom  at  Horn, 
in  Westphalia,  March  16,  1666  died  Oct.  1, 
172S.  He  stndied  medicine  and  pharmacy  at 
Berlin,  Mentz,  and  Vienna,  and  uterward  ao- 
oompanied  the  Venetian  troops  into  the  Ko- 
rea. In  1708  he  was  made  profeaaor  of  chem- 
istry at  Utrecht.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  chemistry,  embodying  the  reaalt  of  impor- 
tant researches,  a  history  of  medical  sects, 
ColUcta  MedieiTUB  Practice  gentralU  (Am- 
aterdam,  171G),  &c. 

BAKCLAT,  lkxai4er,  an  English  poet,  bom  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  whether 
in  England  or  Scotland  is  unoertdn,  died  at 
Croydon  in  June,  15S2.  He  waa  edncated  at 
Oxford,  travelled  through  Europe,  aoquiring  a 
knowledge  of  aeverai  langnagea,  became  a  Ben- 
edictine and  afterward  a  Franciscan,  and  was 
a  monk  at  Ely  when  that  monastery  waa  sop- 
pressed  in  1689.  He  became  vicar  of  Great 
Badow  in  Essex  and  of  Wokey  in  Somerset- 
shire, and  Anally  rector  of  All  Sidsta  in  Lom- 
bard street,  London,  complying  probably  with 
the  new  ecclewastical  order.  Hia  most  noted 
work  is  "The  Ship  of  Fools,"  based  on  Brant's 
Narrenich^ff'.  It  was  printed  by  Pynson  in 
1609.  His  "Egli^ea"  are  noted  ea  tlie  earli- 
est specimens  of  English  pastoral  poetry.  lie 
also  wrote  "  The  Csatle  of  Labour,"  printed  by 
Wyntyn  de  Worde  in  1606,  and  "  The  Myrrour 
of  Good  Manners,"  besides  some  lives  of  saints, 
a  work  on  French  pronmiciation,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Sallust's  "Jugnrthine  War."  He  i 
possessed  a  cnltnre  and  refinement  nnnsnal  in  ' 
nia  (Uy,  and  did  much  to  revive  a  taste  for  i 
.   literature,  which  waa  then  at  a  low  ebb. 

BABOiAT,  Jafan,  a  Scottish  anatomist,  bora  in 
Perthshire  in  ITflO,  died  in  Edinburgh  in  1826. 
He  studied  divinity  at  the  united  college  of 
St.  Andrews,  waa  ucensed  as  a  preacber,  vis- 
ited  Edinbnrgh  aa  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir 
James  Campbell,  whore  he  commenced  the 
study  of  anatomy,  acted  as  assiatont  to  Mr. 
John  Boll,  and  graduated  in  1TS6,  when  lie 
went  to  London  and  studied  under  Dr.  Mar- 
shall. On  his  return  to  Edinburgh  in  1T9T,  he 
gave  lectures  on  anatomy.  He  publiahed  sev- 
eral works  on  anatomy,  and  made  some  efforts 
toward  reforming  the  system  of  anatomical 
nomenclature.  He  beqaeathed  his  valuable 
anatomical  collection  to  the  royal  college  of 
BurgeoQB  of  Edinhnrgh,  where  it  is  known  as 
the  Barclayan  maseura. 

BARCLtT,  J»ka,  an  English  Latin  author,  son 
of  William  Barclay,  bom  at  Pont-A-Monsson, 
France,  Jan.  28, 1682,  died  in  Home,  Aug.  12, 
16S1.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits'  college 
of  Font-A-Mousson,  and  the  Jeanita  endeavored 
to  induce  bim  to  join  their  order;  but  his 
father  reftised  to  give  hia  consent  and  took 


BARCLAY  305 

him  to  England  in  1603.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  following  year  lie  presented  James  1.  with 
a  Latin  poem  entitled  JCalmida  Janv/iria,  and 
afterward  dedicated  to  him  the  first  part  of 
EuphmtnionU  Luiinii  Satyricon.  He  was  not 
suocessf^il  in  obtwning  proferment  in  England 
on  account  of  being  a  Catholic,  and  retumed 
more  than  once  to  France,  and  married  there. 
He  redded  in  England  from  1606  to  161S.  In 
1609  he  published  his  other's  work  iJn  Potet- 
taU  Pa^as.  This  was  attacked  by  Cardinal 
Bellarmin,  and  John  Barclay  publiahed  a  large 
volume  in  Latin  in  answer  to  the  cardinal,  to 
which  a  reply  was  made  by  the  Jesuit  Eudee- 
mon.  The  lonrtb  part  of  the  SalyriMn  waa 
published  in  1614.  It  is  a  satirical  romance 
directed  against  the  Jesuita.  His  resources  in 
England  being  acanty.  he  went  to  Paris  in 
161fi  and  remained  tliere  until  the  following 
year,  when  he  removed  to  Rome  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Pope  Raul  V.  He  publiahed  at  Rome  on 
Apologia  pro  te  (often  printed  with  the  Saty- 
ncon),  in  which  he  defended  hunself  against 
the  cnarges  of  heresy  brought  against  him  by 
the  Jesuits,  and  hia  ParxnaU  ad  Sectariot. 
He  was  treated  with  great  kindness  at  Romei 
but  not  obtaining  any  appointment  devoted 
himself  to  literarypDrauits  and  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  flowers.  He  shared  in  the  naaaion  for 
the  tulip  which  then  began  to  spread  through- 
ont  Europe,  Here  he  oompoaed  the  ArjenU 
(London,  ISZl),  bis  most  celebrated  work,  a 
prose  romance  in  Latin,  in  which  political  ques- 
tions are  discussed  with  great  spirit  and  origi- 
nality in  feigned  dial<wue.  This  book  was  a 
favorite  with  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Leibnitz, 
was  more  read  than  any  other  work  of  its  day, 
and  has  been  translated  into  almost  every  lan- 
guage of  Europe.  Its  Latin  style  is  highly 
praised  by  Grotius. 

BIRCUT,  or  BartlaT-ADardita,  Bakert,  com- 
monly known  as  Captain  Barclay,  a  British 
Eedeatrion  and  a  captain  in  the  British  army, 
OTO  Aug.  SB,  1779,  died  May  8,  1864.  Hia 
father,  a  skilful  farmer,  descended  from  the 
famous  Quaker,  Barclay  of  Ury,  was  himself  a 
noted  pedestrian,  having  walked  610  miles  in 
10  days.  His  son  at  the  age  of  15  won  his  first 
match,  walking  6  milea  within  an  hour.  In 
December,  17U8,  he  walked  IGO  milea  in  two 
days;  in  Jime,  1800,  800  miles  in  five  days; 
in  1801,  llOmilesin  IS  hours  27  minutes;  and 
in  1806,  100  miles  in  19  hours,  on  a  hilly  pub- 
lic road.  One  of  his  most  surprising  perform- 
ances was  walking  1,000  miles  in  1,000  suc- 
cessive honrs;  £100,000  were  staked  on  the 
result.  After  the  feat  was  accomphehed,  Bar- 
clay slept  IT  hours,  and  awoke  in  his  usual 
health  and  vigor.  He  afterward  trained  Tom 
Cribb,  champion  of  England,  for  his  fight  with 
Molyneui,  which  took  place  Sept  29,  1811. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Captain  Barclay 
devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  hia  pater- 
nal estate,  and  to  breeding  sheep  and  cattle. 
In  right  of  his  mother,  Sarrm  Ann  Allardice,  he 
received  a  charter  of  the  barony  of  Allardice 


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306  BARCLAY 

inl800;  and  in  1889  he  ludcUim  to  the  barony 

of  Airth,  as  heir  through  her  of  William  Gra- 
ham, last  earl  of  Airth  and  Mooteith  (died  1691). 

BABOJT,  Ratert  (called  Barclay  of  Ur/),  a 
distingnished  member  of  the  80ciet/  of  Frieads, 
bora  at  Gordonstown,  Scgtland,  Bee.  33,  1648, 
died  at  Ury,  Oct.  13,  1690,  lU  was  ient  for 
his  edacatioD  to  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris,  of 
which  one  of  his  uncles  was  rector ;  but  efforts 
bavins  been  made  to  convert  him  to  Catholi- 
cism, Tie  retnrned  home  aboDt  1664.  In  1667 
he  embraced  the  principles  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  and  in  16T0  vindicated  tbem  from 
charges  which  had  been  brought  against  tiiem 
in  a  pubiication  entitled  "  Truth  cleared  of 
Calumnies."  He  published  in  16T6  in  Latin, 
and  in  1678  in  English,  "An  Apology  for  the 
True  Christian  Divinity,  as  the  same  is  held 
forth  and  preached  by  the  People  callod  in 
BoomQnakers."  Its  dedication  to  King  Charles 
II.  is  a  model  of  frankness  and  independence. 
It  was  the  ablest  defence  that  had  been  made 
at  that  time  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Friends, 
and  is  perhaps  the  ablest  that  has  ever  been 
made.  It  materially  affected  public  sentiment 
in  regard  to  the  Friends.  His  "TreatJae  on 
Universal  Love"  (1677)  was  the  first  of  the 
remonstrances  which  have  been  made  by  the 
Friends  against  the  criminality  of  war.  He 
made  various  jonmcys  in  England,  Holland,  and 
Germany,  generally  in  company  with  William 
Penn,  for  the  propa^tion  of  his  doctrines,  and 
was  several  tmies  miprisoned  on  account  of 
^em ;  bnt  ^e  English  government  upon  the 
whole  was  indnlgent  toward  him.  Charles  II. 
was  his  friend,  and  in  1679  made  his  estate  of 
Ury  a  free  barony  with  the  privilege  of  orim- 
mal  jurisdiction.  He  was  appointed  in  1682 
by  the  proprietors  of  East  Jersey  in  America 
governor  of  that  province,  but  he  only  exer- 
cised the  office  by  deputy. 

BISCLIT,  WIUtiH,  a  Scottish  jurist,  bom  in 
Aberdeenshire  in  1641  or  1G4S,  died  at  Angers, 
France,  in  1605,  He  studied  law  at  Bourges, 
nnder  Ciqas,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  civil  law  in  the  university  of  Pont- 
il-Monsson,  then  recentiy  founded  by  the  duke 
of  Lorraine.  He  was  also  made  counsellor  of 
state  and  master  of  requests.  Having  quar- 
relled with  the  Jesuits  on  accoont  of  bis  refosal 
to  let  his  son  enter  the  society,  he  lost  favor, 
went  to  England,  and  was  offered  a  professor- 
ship of  law  upon  conditjon  that  he  would  re- 
nonnce  the  Roman  CathoUo  faith.  This  he 
refused,  and  retnrned  to  France,  where  he  was 
made  professor  of  law  at  Angers.  During  the 
troubles  of  the  league  he  supported  the  royal' 
oaoae  and  was  nnifomily  an  opponent  of  the 
ultramontane  doctrines.  His  principal  works 
are:  Se  Regno  et  Regali  FoUttaU  (Paris, 
1600);  a  commentary  on  the  title  of  the  Pan- 
dects D»  Eebru  Creditu  et  de  Jure  Jurando; 
and  a  treatise  J}e  PoUttaU  Papm  (London, 
1609),  in  which  the  independent  rights  of  sov- 
ereign princes  egunst  the  pope  are  vindicated. 


BiBtUT  DE  TOUT,  BtkHl,  prince,  a  RmiriAn 

general,  bom  in  Livonia  in  1Y69,  died  at  luster- 
burg  in  East  Prussia,  May  2G,  1818.  He  was 
a  descendant  of  the  Scottish  Barclays.  Being 
adopted  by  Gen.  Van  Vermoulen,  he  entered 
a  Russian  regiment  of  cuirassiers  as  a  sergeant, 
and  served  with  credit  in  the  Turkish  war  of 
1788~'9,  in  the  Swedish  campugn  of  1790,  and 
in  the  oampai^is  against  Poland  in  1792  and 
IT94.  In  the  Polish  campaign  of  1806  he  was 
a  mi^or  general,  and  distinguished  liimself  at 
Pnltusk  as  the  commander  of  Benitingsen's  ad- 
vance guard.  He  defended  Eylau  with  great 
bravery  in  1807,  end  there  lost  an  arm  and  won 
the  title  of  lieutenant  general.  In  1S09  he 
marched  with  12,000  men  for  two  days  on  the 
ice  across  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  compelled 
the  Swedes  to  surrender  at  Umeo.  He  was 
soon  aft«r  made  governor  of  Finland,  and  in 
1610  became  minister  of  war,  in  which  oiBce 
he  remained  three  years.  In  IS13  he  took 
command  of  the  first  army  of  the  west^  the 
second  being  under  Prince  Bagration,  and  con- 
ducted the  retreat  to  Smolensk  for  the  purpose 
of  drawing  the  enemy  into  the  interior  of  the 
country.  This  retreat  and  the  loss  of  the  bat- 
tle at  Smolensk  gave  the  Russian  national  party, 
who  hated  him  as  a  foreigner,  an  opportunity 
against  him,  and  he  was  superseded  in  the 
command  by  Gen.  Kntuzoff.  He  led  the  right 
wing  on  the  Moskva,  did  brilliant  service  in 
1813  at  Bautzen,  and  was  again  placed  in 
chief  command  of  the  army.  He  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  Dresden,  Calm,  and  Leipsio, 
and  in  1814  was  made  a  prince  and  field  mar- 
shaL  Aftat  visiting  Lonaon  with  the  emperor 
Alexander,  he  returned  to  the  army  at  War- 
saw, and  remained  in  command  nntil  the  war 

BU-C«EHEBi,  or  Bu-CMheln,  die  leader 
of  a  Jewish  insurrection  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  killed  A.  D.  136  or  186.  Bis  real 
name  is  Iwlieved  by  some  critics  to  have  been 
Simeon,  bnt  his  followers  called  him  Bar- 
Cokheba  (son  of  a  star),  and  apjiJIed  to  his 
appearance  the  prophecy  of  Balaam,  "  There 
mall  oome  a  star  ont  of  Jacob,"  &o.  The 
harshness  of  the  Roman  rule  in  Judca  made 
the  people  eager  for  an  insurrection,  and  Bar- 
Cokheba  was  readily  supported  by  the  great 
rabbi  Akiba  and  his  numerous  discipleB.  In 
131  he  gathered  a  large  army,  took  Jerusalem 
and  other  important  places,  proclaimed  him- 
self the  Messiah  and  ruler  of  the  Jews,  and  had 
coins  struck  in  his  own  name.  Hadrian  or- 
dered Julius  SeveruB  from  Britain  to  the  Bc«ne 
of  the  insurrection.  Jerosalem  was  retaken 
and  the  whole  province  desolated,  bnt  Bar- 
Cokheha  long  maintained  himself  at  Bethar, 
fighting  obstinately,  and  falling  when  that  for- 
tress was  finally  atormed.  All  his  prominent 
followers  were  executed.  The  insurrection 
cost  hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives,  and  waa 
followed  by  greater  oppression  than  ever. 

BIRD  (Cymric,  haroA  ;  Graelio,  bard),  a  pro- 
fessional poet,  who  made  his  livelihood   by 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ringing  the  araonra  and  battles  of  godi,  the 
deeds  of  heroes,  the  glorj  and  genealc^j  of 
chiefs,  aod  the  victories  of  tribes  over  theAr 
enemieB.  Bards  were  called  ioiMi  or  rhapeo- 
dists  bf  the  Greeks,  tatet  hj  the  Latins,  lealda 
b7  the  SoandinaTians,  teopei  bj  the  Anglo- 
Saiona,  ollamht  bj  the  Irish,  and  iaydart 
and  rpiewati  bj  the  SUti.  In  ancient  Gaul 
the;  were  a  sQbdiTinon  ot  the  dmids,  or  the 
priestij  and  learned  order.  Cteaar  sajs  that 
tbej  ipcnt  30  years  in  their  edncfttion,  acquir- 
ing tlie  knowledge  hj  rote  of  an  Immense 
number  of  verses,  which  they  did  not  record 
in  writing,  bat  handed  down  by  word  of  month 
from  feneration  to  generation.  After  the  enb- 
jngHtion  of  Gaol  this  profession  was  pnt  onder 
reetriotjons,  and  eventnally  annihilat«d  hy  the 
Roman  civil  power  both  in  Gaol  and  in  that 
port  of  Britain  which  fell  within  the  pale  of 
Roman  civilization.  Wales,  CorAwall,  Cnmber- 
land,  and  Btrathclyd,  only  remotely  affected 
by  the  Roman  conqnest,  kept  alive  the  flame 
of  minstrelsy.  In  the  parish  of  Llanidan,  In 
the  isle  of  Anglesey,  are  the  remtuns  of  an  arch- 
dmid's  palace,  snrrounded  by  the  several  col- 
leges into  which  dmidinn  was  divided.  One 
of  these  cotl^ea,  or  independent  buildings,  is 
called  by  the  peasantry  at  this  day  trer  ieird, 
or  tuHolet  of  the  bards.  Each  chief  of  a  clan 
in  Britain  had  a  bard,  whose  office  was  hered- 
itary in  the  family.  At  the  feasts  of  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  snd  Wbitanntjde  the  iardd  tetila, 
or  coDrt  bard,  sat  next  to  the  master  of  the 
oeremonies,  and  received  the  steward's  robe  as 
his  fee.  The  bard  who  had  won  in  the  mumcal 
contest  of  the  day  was  to  sing,  first  to  the 
0ory  of  God,  secondly  to  the  glory  of  the 
prince  ;  and  then  the  Uuluier,  orregalarconrt 
bard,  -was  to  sing  on  the  topics  of  the  day. 
On  investment,  tiie  conrt  singer  received  a 
harp  from  the  prince  and  a  ring  of  gold  from 
the  queen.  The  pagan  tendencies  of  these 
aingers  finally  led  to  their  discouragement,  and 
in  1078  Gry^Th  Oonan,  prince  of  Wales, 
iHsoed  edicts  placing  them  onder  rigid  restric- 
tions. Many  of  the  Welsh  bards  abandoned 
their  profession  at  this  change,  and  their  places 
were  enpplied  by  ollamhs  frtmi  Erin,  who  in- 
trodncea  mto  Wales  all  the  instrumental  music 
for  many  centnries  in  use  there,  In  the  edicts 
of  Oonan  the  bards  were  classified  in  several 
ways:  ],  the  bards  of  the  princes  and  noblea, 
or pruddud;  S,  bards  of  the  middle  ranks,  or 
ulmar;  8,  bards  for  the  lower  classes,  or  cfewr. 
There  were  three  special  sob-classes,  lii.,  cem- 
poeers,  in^tmctors  of  the  rising  generation,  and 
.neralds.  Some  professed  the  fscnlty  of  second 
(sight,  as  diviners,  sorcerers,  interpreters  of 
(dreams,  &c.  For  mntnal  enconrsgement  and 
instmction,  public  sessions  of  the  Welsh  bards 
{titted^oda)  were  held  for  many  centnries  at 
the  town  of  Oaerwys,  the  residence  of  the 
prince  of  Wales;  at  Aberfraw,  in  Anglesey, 
for  the  bards  of  that  island  and  the  ac^oining 
comity ;  and  at  Mathraval,  for  those  of  the  land 
of  Fowis,    Only  minstrels  of  skill  performed. 


M>  807 

and  degrees  were  conferred  according  to  the 
branch  in  which  the  victors  had  perfected 
themselves.  After  the  conquest  of  Wales  by 
Edward  I.  of  England  (1282),  royal  commis- 
sioners were  appointed  who  presided  over  the 
eisteddfods,  and  acted  the  part  of  censors  end 
inquisitors.  No  bardic  poem  was  allowed  to 
be  circulated  which  appealed  to  the  patriotic  , 
sentiments  of  the  conquered  race.  The  story  , 
of  the  massacre  of  the  Welsh  bards  and  the  j 
destruction  of  their  records  is  a  fiction,  origi-' 
nating  in  Edward's  stringent  measnres  against  i 
the  right  of  free  song.  The  last  eisteddfod' 
held  under  royal  commission  was  in  the  reign  > 
of  Elizabeth,  at  Caerwys,  in  1560.  On  this  j 
occasion,  tlie  victor  of  the  wlver  harp  was  Si- 
mon ap  Williams  ap  Sion.  Various  persons  i 
received  degrees,  some  as  chief  bards  of  vocal ; 
song,  others  as  primary,  secondary,  or  proba-i 
tionary  students;  and  many  more  as  bards,! 
students,  and  teachers  of  instmmentsl  songl 
upon  the  harp.  The  degrees  were  four  In  tha 
poetical  and  five  in  the  musical  faculty.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  last  century  some  patriotic 
Welsh  gentlemen  determined  to  revive  the 
eisteddfod.  In  1770  the  Gwyneddigion  society 
was  formed,  in  181S  the  Cambrian  society,  and 
some  years  later  the  Cymmoridion,  or  metro- 

folitftn  Cambrian  institution,  of  which  George 
Y.  of  England  declared  himself  the  patron. 
Annual  meetings  have  since  been  held  for  the 
recitation  and  reword  of  prize  poems,  and  per- 
formances upon  the  harp.  The  above-named 
societies  have  been  instrumental  m  preserving 
relics  of  the  poems  of  Myrddyn  ap  Morfryn, 
Myrddyn  Emrys,  Tallieain,  and  other  less 
celebrated  composers  of  triada  The  bards  of 
Ireland  formed  a  hereditary  guild,  and  were 
divided  into  three  classeSj  the  Jiledha^  who 
sang  in  the  service  of  religion  and  in  war,  and 
were  counsellors  and  heralds  to  the  princes; 
the  breitktamhaim,  who  chanted  the  laws; 
and  the  manackaidht,  who  were  chroniclers 
for  princes  and  nobles.  They  were  anciently' 
held  in  high  esteem,  bnt  their  tendency  to 
foster  a  rebellious  spirit  led  to  their  suppres- 
sion. Turlogh  O'Carolan,  who  died  in  1787,  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  lost  Irish  bard,  lie 
bards  of  Scotland  are  believed  to  have  been  on 
a  similar  footing  with  those  of  Ireland,  bnt 
nothing  is  known  of  their  actual  history,  and 
no  remains  of  their  songs  have  been  preserved. ' 
BiED.  I.  Jfki,  an  American  physician,  bom 
near  Philadelphia,  Feb.  1,  1716,  died  March 
80,  I7B9.  He  removed  to  New  York  in  1746, 
where  he  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  physi- 
cians. In  17G9,  on  the  arrival  of  a  ship  on 
board  of  which  a  malignant  fever  was  raging. 
Dr.  Bard  was  appointed  to  take  measures  to 
prevent  the  disease  from  spreading.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  the  pestilence  within  the 
limits  of  a  temporary  hospital,  but  to  guard 
against  similar  dangers  in  f\iture,  at  his  sng- 
gestion  Bedloe's  island  was  purchased,  and 
hospital  buildings  were  erected  thereon,  which 
were  placed  nnder  his  charge.    'Ui>on  the  eetab- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


308  BARDAS 

lishmeDt  of  the  New  York  medical  sooietj  in 

1TS8,  he  was  el«ct«d  iU  first  premdent  He 
left  an  essaj  on  malign&nt  pleurisy,  and  seve- 
ral papers  on  the  yellow  fever.  U.  Staul, 
an  American  phjaioian,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  April  1,  1742,  died  May 
24, 1821.  lie  Btudied  atEing's  (now  Colambia) 
college.  New  York,  aad  at  Die  medical  school 
of  Edinbnrgh.  On  his  vaj  to  Edinburgh  lie 
was  captured  bj  a  French  Tessel,  and  was  re- 
leased bj  the  inflaence  of  Dr.  Franklin,  who 
wae  then  residing  in  Loudon.  After  taking 
his  degree  he  travelled  tlirough  Scotland  and 
paria  of  England,  studying  minerals,  plants, 
animals,  arts,  and  manufactures.  Returning 
to  America  in  1767,  he  entered  at  once  upon 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  New  York,  in 
partnership  with  his  father.  He  effected  the 
organization  of  a  medical  school,  which  was 
nnited  to  King's  coUege,  and  in  which  ha  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  practice  of  physic, 
and  subsequently  became  dean  of  the  faculty. 
After  the  revolutionary  war  be  was  for  a  time 
Washington's  family  physiciaiL  the  general 
govemmentbeingthenmNow York,  Through 
his  influence  a  public  hospital  was  opened  in 
New  York  in  17QI,  and  be  was  appointed  its 
visiting  physioian.  He  retired  in  1798  to  his 
country  seat  in  New  Jersey,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  agricultural  porsnits.  In  I81S  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  college  of  iihysicians 
and  Burgeons  in  New  York.  He  left  several 
tracts  on  medical  subjects. 

BUUIIS,  a  patrician  of  Constantinople,  bro- 
ther of  Theodora,  the  wife  of  the  emperor  The- 
ophiluH,  and  uncle  to  the  emperor  Hichael  III,, 
killed  April  21,  866.  On  the  death  of  Theophi- 
luB  (942)  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young 
prince  Michael,  in  comnnction  with  Theootis- 
tus  and  Hannel.  He  aid  much  to  revive  sci- 
ence, but  caused  Theoctistua  to  be  slain  and 
Manuel  to  be  banished,  threw  his  uster  the  em- 
press into  prison,  exiled  the  patriarch  Ignatius, 
and  assumed  the  Utle  of  Otesar  (S66).  His  cruel-  ' 
ty  and  arrogance  raised  a  bitter  opposition,  and  ■ 
Michael  at  last  consented  to  his  assassination  by  I 
Boffll  the  Macedonian,  afterward  emperor.  i 

BiKDESlN^  or  BRr-Ddia%  a  Gnostic,  who  : 
flourished  at  bdessa,  Syria,  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  2d  century,  and  founded  a  sect  de»-  ! 
ignated  as  Bardeaanists.  The  common  opin-  ■ 
ion  is  that  Bordcsones  was  a  disciple  of  val-  , 
entine,  bat  Neandor  thinks  that  both  Mnrcion  | 
and  UardeBBnes  drew  from  the  same  fountain  , 
as  Valentine,  the  Syrian  Gnosticism.  From 
the  fact  that  Bnrdesanes  wrote  afterward 
agunst  the  Gnostics,  and  then,  stilt  later,  | 
showed  himself  a  Gnostic  again,  he  has  been  | 
accused  of  being  fickle ;  and  Eusebius  says  of 
him  that,  although  ho  refuted  at  one  time  most 
of  the  opinions  of  Valentine,  "  he  did  not  en- 
tirely wipe  away  the  filth  of  his  old  heresy." 
Neauder  tbbks  there  is  no  evidence  that  Bar- 
desanes  was  other  than  a  Gnostic  in  the  whole 
of  bia  career  as  a  theologian.  He  believed  the 
devil  to  be  self-existent  sod  independent;  that 


BAREFOOTED  FEIAR8 

Christ  was  bom  of  a  woman,  bnt  bron^t  bia 
body  from  heaven ;  and  he  denied  the  reeor- 
rection  of  the  homan  body. 

BiBDIU,  ChriiUph  CIMftM,  a  German  meta- 
physical writer,  born  at  Blaubeuren,  in  Wtirtem' 
berg,  May  28,  1761,  died  in  Stuttgart  in  1808. 
He  is  principally  Icnown  by  his  work  on  the 
elements  of  logic,  publisheid  in  1800,  and  di- 
rected against  Uie  philosophy  of  Kant.  He  was 
a  very  abstruse  and  obscure  writer,  bnt  his 
system  contains  the  germ  of  the  later  philos- 
ophy of  absolute  identity, 

BAKDIV,  Jmi,  a  French  historical  painter, 
bora  at  Montbnrd,  Oct.  81,  17S2,  died  at  Or- 
leans, Oct.  S,  1809.  He  studied  panting  in 
Gome,  and  under  Lagrenfie  and  Rerre  in  Paris. 
In  1764  he  gained  the  prize  for  his  picture  of 
"TuUift  driving  over  the  Body  of  her  Father." 
He  afterward  became  a  member  of  the  insti- 
tute and  director  of  the  school  of  fine  arts  at 
Orleans.  His  eh^-tTceuwe,  "Christ  disputing 
with  the  Doctors,"  procured  him  admission  to 
the  academy  in  1796.  Among  his  pupils  were 
David  and  R^n>aalt. 

BUD1N68,  horse  armor  of  the  middle  agea. 
See  Abvob,  vol.  i.,  p.  TS4. 

BUDffroWir,  or  BaMsUwa,  a  post  town  and 
the  capital  of  Nelson  county,  Ey.,  situated  on 
an  elevated  plain  near  the  Beech  fork  uf  Salt 
river,  40  m.  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Louisville,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  rail- 
road ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,836,  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  Roman  Oatholio  theological  seminary,  and 
preparatory  seminary.  It  contains  several 
churchea,  and  has  liiotories  of  cotton,  wool- 
len, and  other  fabrics. 

BIBOONE,  Praba  (M,  an  English  fanatic  in 
the  time  of  Cromwell  He  was  a  leather  dealer 
in  London,  and  a  conspicuons  member  of  the 
short  parliament  called  together  by  Cromwell 
in  16S8,  which  was  on  that  account  nicknamed 
Barebone's  parliament  When  Gen.  Monk  came 
to  London,  Bare  bono  marched  at  the  bead  of  a 
large  procession  of  the  people  and  presented  to 
parliament  a  remonstrance  agunst  the  restora- 
tion of  the  kins.  In  166]  he  was  arrested  and 
thrown  into  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  being 
concerned  in  a  plot  against  the  government. 
He  was  afterward  released,  but  his  farther 
history  is  unknown.  It  is  said  that  two  of  his 
brothers  assumed  the  names  respectirely  of 
"  Christ  came  into  the  World  to  save  Bare- 
bone,"  and  "  If  Christ  hod  not  Died  Thon 
hadst  been  Damned  Barebone." 

BiKEFOOTVD  FRIAIfi  IND  HVNB,  religions 
orders  in  the  Roman  Oatholio  church,  which 
discard  the  use  of  coverings  for  the  feet,  either 
at  all  times  or  at  special  seasons.  Thus  the 
nuns  of  our  Dear  Lady  of  Calvary  go  unshod 
IVom  May  1  to  Sept.  14.  Some  wear  sandola 
of  wood,  leather,  or  platted  rope,  fastened  to 
the  feet  by  thongs.  About  26  diflTorent  orders 
of  barefooted  friars  and  nnns  are  enumerated, 
the  most  prominent  of  which  are:  The  bare- 
footed monks  of  St  Augustine,  who  spread 
over  France  and  the  Indies;    the  barefooted 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


nuns  of  St.  AngoBtine ;  the  barefooted  Car- 
melites of  Avila,  male  and  female,  in  Spain, 
Portngal,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  India ; 
the  barefooted  Trinitarians,  in  Spun,  Italy, 
France,  Germanj,  Poland,  Hnngary,  and  Bo- 
hemia; nana  of  St  Francis  of  the  stricter  ob- 
servance, established  in  France  in  1603,  and 
afterward  endowed  with  the  convent  of  Picpns 
in  Paris,  whence  they  are  often  caUed  la  Pie- 
pwi,  and  the  Paswooists. 

RUtfCES,  a  French  watering  place  in  the 
department  of  Hantes-Pyr^n^e^  2S  m.  S.  of 
Tarbes,  situate  in  the  Bastan  valley,  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  between  two  chains  of  mono- 
tains.  The  village  consists  of  one  long  street 
on  the  Gave  de  Bastan,  and  forms  part  of  a 
commnne  with  only  abont  600  permanent  in- 
habitants, who  escape  from  the  snow  and  ava- 
lanchea  during  the  winter  to  the  town  of 
Laz,  The  fine  silk  cr6pe  tissae  first  took  ita 
name  from  BarSges,  though  chiefly  manufac- 
tured at  Bagn^res  de  Bigorre.  Daring  snmmer 
and  autnmn  Bar6ges  can  accommodate  about 
800  invalids  and  visitors.  The  springfi  rise 
near  the  jnnotion  of  the  slat*  rock  with  the 
granite,  and  are  celebrated  for  cnring  ulcers, 
rheomatism,  scrofula,  tumors,  and  gunshot  and 
other  wonnds.  Their  principal  ingredients 
are  snlphnret  of  sodium,  carbonate,  muriate, 
and  sniphate  of  soda,  azotic  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gases,  and  ammal  matter.  Their 
temperature  varies  from  73°  to  120°  F.  They 
Jiave  been  known  since  the  16th  century,  bnt 
became  fashionable  only  at  the  endof  thelTth, 
after  they  had  been  successfully  employed  by 
Madame  de  Maintenon  for  the  cure  of  the 
crippled  duke  de  Udne,  Lonis  XIV.'s  natural 
son.  A  now  bath  house  was  erected  by  the 
French  government  in  1664,  and  the  springs 
are  described  in  Dr.  Uacpherson's  "Baths  and 
Wella  of  Enrope"  (1B69).  Bareges  is  the  seat 
of  a  fomouB  mUitar  J  hospital. 

HtBEliJ.F^  Jean  Fruf^  abbfl,  a  French  the- 
ologian, bom  at  Valentine,  Haute' Garonne,  in 
1813.  He  received  a  superior  edncation  and 
became  honorary  canon,  of  the  dioceses  of 
TouloDse  and  Lyons,  and  afterward  director 
of  a  school  at  Sor^ze.  He  has  published  Ifui- 
loire  de  Saint  Thomai  ^Aguin  (184fl  \  4th  ed., 
1862),  and  ZoM«(ftic«ur  (1856;  3d  eU..  1888); 
and  he  has  translated  several  works  of  Balmes, 
the  (Euvre*  computet  de  Louis  de  Grenade  (21 
vols.,  1661-'8),  and  the  (Eatret  complita  de 
Saint  Jean  ChrytoiVtme  (10  vols.,  18S4-'T,  and 
4  vols.,  without  the  original  test,  J866-'T). 
The  French  academy  m  1866  conferred  one  of 
the  Monthyon  prizes  npon  his  translation  of 
the  Homiliee  in  the  Sd  volume  of  the  last-men- 
tioned edition. 

BiBEILT,  a  city  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
of  Hindoston,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  region  of  Rohilcnnd,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Ganges,  lu  lat  28°  23'  N.  and  Ion.  79° 
26'  E.,  123  m.  £.  by  8.  of  Delhi ;  pop.  92,000, 
two  thirds  of  whom  are  Hindoos,  tt  was 
ceded  to  tbe  British  in  1801,    The  officials  live 


BAKfiRE  DE  VIEUZAO         309 

in  a  citadel  outside  the  town.  The  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  swords, 
daggers,  carpets,  saddles,  housings,  embroidery, 
jewelry,  brass  wares,  and  cabinet  work.  In 
the  last  two  of  these  branches  of  manufacture 
they  particularly  eice!.  The  sepoy  garrison 
mutinied  May  SI,  1667,  and  killed  every  Euro- 
pean that  fell  in  their  way.  The  place  was 
recovered  by  Sir  CoUn  Campbell  in  tee  follow- 
ing year. 

BUENTZ,  WOkm,  a  Dutch  navigator,  died 
June  20,  1597.  He  was  appointed  chief  pilot 
of  the  vessel  fitted  out  by  the  city  of  Am- 
sterdam in  the  expedition  which  sailed  from 
Holland  June  0,  1GS4,  in  search  of  a  passage 
to  China  and  India  northward  of  Asia.  The 
ship  in  which  Barentz  sailed  explored  Nova 
Zembla,  sailed  to  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the 
island,  reaching  lat.  77°,  and  then  turned  back 
(Aug.  1).  The  next  year  the  government  of 
Holland  equipped  a  second  expedition  of  seven 
vessels,  spending  half  the  summer  in  loading 
them  with  rich  merchandise  for  the  East 
Barentz  was  api)ointed  head  pilot  of  the  whole 
expedition,  but  it  started  so  late  in  the  season 
that  nothing  of  importance  was  accomplished. 
The  oity  of  Amsterdam  despatched  a  third 
expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships,  under  Ja- 
cobus van  Heemskerk  and  Jan  Comelisz  Ryp, 
May  18,  IGSG.  Barentz  was  the  pilot  on  one 
of  them.  The  two  vessels  visited  Spitzbergen 
together,  and  afterward  parted  company.  Ba- 
rentz's  vessel  sailed  in  the  direction  of  Nova 
Zembla,  and  succeeded  in  doubling  its  N.  £. 
extremity,  but  then  encountered  ice,  and  be- 
ing unable  to  continue  its  voyage  eastward, 
turned  southward  Aug.  26.  On  Sept.  1  it  was 
frozen  up  in  Ice  Haven,  and  the  crew  were 
forced  to  spend  the  winter  ther    "  " 


the  exception  of  two  who  had  died,  aultted  Ice 
Haven  Jime  14,  1697,  in  two  open  boats,  and 
Barentz  died  a  few  days  afterward.  The  sur- 
vivors after  two  and  a  half  months  reached 
the  N.  E.  shore  of  Lapland,  and  were  there 
rescued  by  Comelizs. 

BUUBE  BE  T1EIIUC,  Bertnad,  a  French 
revolutionist,  bom  at  Tarbes,  Sept.  10,  17G6, 
died  in  January,  1841.  He  was  educated  for 
the  law.  In  1789  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to 
the  states  general,  and  publislied  a  journal,  Le 
point  dujouT,  in  which  he  gave  an  accoont  of 
tlie  proceedings  of  that  body.  lie  took  port 
in  nearly  every  debate,  always  being  foremost 
in  the  popular  movements  of  the  time.  On 
the  death  of  Mirabean  be  was  chosen  to  de- 
liver the  panesyrio.  On  the  a^onmment  of 
Uie  assembly  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  tr3iv,nal  de  conation.  In  1792 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  tlie  conventjon, 
where  he  voted  for  the  immediate  death  oC 
the  king.  He  was  clect«d  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety  in  1798,  and  at  first 
avoided  committing  himself  to  either  party ; 
but  when  the  ascendancy  of  the  Jacobins  was 


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310 


BARETTl 


tecored,  he  proposod  the  prosecution  of  the 
UiroailiEta  and  Uia  death  of  Harie  Antoinette, 
the  oonfiscation  of  all  property  belongii^g  to 
outlawed  citizens,  the  formation  of  a  revola- 
tionarj  army,  the  declaration  that  "  terror 
was  the  order  of  the  day,"  and  the  transporta> 
tioD  of  all  who  had  not  given  evidence  of  their 

Satriotism  (eivisme)  previonaly  to  a  certain 
a;.  The  florid  and  bombastic  stjle  in  which 
he  set  forth  the  atrocioua  meoBureB  of  the 
terroriatB  won  for  him  the  title  of  the  Ana- 
creon  of  the  Guillotine.  He  wag  diatrusted, 
however,  bj  his  associates,  and  was  only  saved 
from  proBcription  by  Robespierre,  whose  name 
nevertheless  he  wea  afterword  one  of  the  most 
zealoas  in  defaming.  Despite  the  violence  of 
his  ingratitnde,  a  commission  was  appointed 
after  Kobespierre's  fall  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
duct of  Bartre,  Collot-d'Herbois,  and  Billaud- 
Yarennes,  and  in  March,  1T95,  they  were  len- 
t«nced  to  transportation.  Bac^re  was  nearly 
torn  to  pieces  by  the  mob  on  his  way  to  jail. 
He  escaped  from  prison,  and  was  i^osen  1« 
the  corps  l^^slatif  in  179? ;  but  the  election 
was  declared  null,  and  his  arrest  was  ordered 
again-  He  remained  in  hiding  until  after  the 
I8th  Bnunaire,  when  he  was  included  in  the 
amnesty.  He  was  employed  by  FoachS  to 
write  pamphlets  in  the  interest  of  Bonaparte, 
and  the  first  conatd  made  him  the  editor  of 
the  MiToorial  anti-iritan'Mque.  The  paper 
failed,  bnt  BarSre  had  in  the  mean  time  become 
one  of  the  writers  for  the  MoniUur.  Daring 
the  hundred  days  he  was  called  to  the  hoose  of 
deputies,  and  published  the  Thiorie  de  la  eon- 
ttitutvm  cU  la  &rand«  BretagT^ty  which  pro- 
duced a  great  impressioa  On  the  second 
return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  banished  as  a 
repcide,  and  took  refoge  in  Belgium.  After 
the  revolution  of  1680  be  returned  to  France, 
and  was  in  1682  elected  deputy,  bat  on  account 
of  some  informality  his  election  was  declared 
void.  He  became  a  member  of  the  general 
council  of  his  department,  and  resigned  in 
1840.  He  pabliahed  a  great  number  of  his- 
torioal,  political,  and  miscellaneous  works,  and 
two  volumes  of  Mimoira  (Paris,  16S4),  a  new 
edition^of  which  appeared  in  1848. 

BlRETn,  GlHcppe,  an  Italian  writer,  born  in 
Tnrin,  March  23, 1716,  died  in  London,  May  6, 
1789.  He  was  intended  by  his  father  for  the 
twr,  bat,  diflliking  the  study,  took  to  literature. 
After  travelling  in  southern  Gorope  be  went  in 
1751  to  London  as  a  teacher  of  Italian,  became 
intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  and  published  the 
"  Italian  Library,"  in  which  he  gave  an  account 
of  the  principal  authors  of  his  native  country. 
He  afterward  spent  nine  year.s  on  the  coati- 
aent,   wrote   an   eicelleat   book  of   "  Travels 


ria  ("  Literary  Scourge  "),  which  he  mode  eo 
personal  that  be  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city. 
Returning  to  London  in  1769,  he  stabbed  a 
man  in  a  street  brawl  and  was  tried  for  mur- 
der, bat  acquitted,  Johnson,  Borke,  and  Gar- 


BARHAM 

rick  testifying  to  his  inofi'ensive  character.  He 
was  for  several  years  foreign  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  royal  academy.  He  pablished  an 
English-Italian  and  Italian-English  dictionary, 
which  is  still  in  high  esteem ;  on  Italian  and 
English  grammar;  a  Spanish  and  Knglish  dic- 
tionary; "Introduction  to  the  most  useful 
European  I.angaages ;  "  "  Account  of  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  Italy,"  &c. 

BlReilll  llID  BALE,  a  contract  in  relation  to 
real  estate,  which  has  introduced  a  form  of 
conveyance  now  generally  used  in  England  and 
this  country.  By  the  ancient  English  law, 
there  could  be  no  transfer  of  lands  without 
livery  of  seisin,  which  was  an  actual  or  con- 
structive dehvery  of  possession  by  a  prescribed 
formality.  A  sale  of  lands  in  any  other  mode 
did  not  change  the  title,  but  it  was  held  that 
if  a  pecuniary  condderation  had  been  paid,  a 
contract  of  sale  wonld  r^se  a  nse  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  vendee,  or  in  other  words,  that  the 
efiect  wonld  be  that  the  vendor  wonld  bold 
the  lands  for  the  nse  of  the  vendee,  and  could 
be  compelled  to  account  for  the  protits.  The 
statute  27  Henry  VIII.,  caUed  the  statote  trf 
nses,  annexed  the  possession  to  the  use,  or  ex- 
ecuted the  use,  as  the  lawyers  expressed  it, 
thereby  making  the  party  for  whose  nse  the 
lands  were  held,  technic^Iy  called  the  eettuy 
qw  vte,  the  complete  owner  of  the  lands.  By 
the  same  statute  it  was  required  that  a  deed 
of  bargain  and  sale  should  be  enrolled  in  one 
of  the  conrts  of  Westminster,  or  in  the  county 
where  the  lands  lay,  which  furnished  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  practice  now  universal  in  ttus 
cDontry  of  recording  deeds.  The  efiect  was  that 
in  cases  of  freehold— the  Btatnt«  of  uses  bdng 
held  not  to  apply  to  leaser  estates — the  deed  of 
bargain  and  sale  transferred  a  complete  title 
without  livery  of  seisin ;  and  that  form  of  con- 
ve^anoe  in  consequence  was  brought  into  com- 
mon use.    (See  TtirBTa,  and  Uses.) 

BIRGE,  an  old  town  of  Fiedm<«it,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Monbraooo,  about  80  m,  S.  W.  of  TuriA: 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  has  a  college,  a  good 
trade,  manofactories  of  firearms,  and  slate  quar- 
ries. It  sufi'ered  severely  from  an  earthquake 
in  1608. 

BARHIV,  Uelurd  Hinta,  an  English  humor- 
ist, bom  at  Canterbury,  Dec.  6,  1788,  died  in 
London,  June  17,  1846.  He  was  educated  at 
London  and  Oxford,  studied  law,  but  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  theology,  took  ordera,  and 
obtained  a  living  in  EenL  While  confined 
with  a  broken  leg,  he  wrote  a  novel  called 
"  Baldwin,"  which  attracted  little  notice.  In 
1821  he  was  elected  minor  canon  of  St.  Panl's 
cathedral,  and  removed  to  Loadoo.  His  lei- 
sure was  there  devoted  to  writing  for  Gorton's 
"  Biographical  Dictionary,"  and  ocoanon&l 
pieces  for  periodicalB,  and  contributing  to 
"Blackwood/s  Magazine  "  a  serial  story  of  col- 
lege life  entitled  "  My  Cousin  Nicholas."  In 
18S4  he  was  appointed  priest  of  the  chapel 
royal,  and  presented  to  the  united  metropolis 
tan  livings  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  and  SL 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABI 

Gregory  by  St  Fanl,  In  1887,  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  "Bentley's  Miacellany,"  Mr.  Bar- 
iaaa  contribntod,  nuder  the  pBeuilonjine  of 
Tbomea  Ingoldnby,  the  "logoldsby  L^ends," 
a  series  of  hiimoroOH  itoriea,  chiefly  in  verae, 
vbicb  became  very  popular.  Three  Tolnmes 
of  these  leKenda  were  nnally  oollectM],  to  the 
lost  of  which  was  prefixed  a  life  of  the  au- 
thor. In  1840  Ur.  Barham  succeeded  for  a 
JUT  to  the  preddeooy  of  Sion  college.  In 
1842  he  was  jiromoled  to  the  divinity  reeder- 
ship  of  St.  Paul's,  and  allowed  to  exchange 
hie  living  for  that  of  St  Faith. 

■lU  (ano.  Barium),  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  a 
small  peninsula  of  the  Adriatic,  oapitat  of  the 
province  of  Terra  d:  Ban,  140  m.  E,  of  Naples ; 
pop.  in  18T2,  C0,624.  It  is  sarroanded  by 
strong  walls  and  farther  defended  by  an  old 
Norman  castle  nearly  a  mile  in  oircait  It  hae 
B  good  harbor,  corriea  on  an  active  trade  with 
Trieste  and  the  Dalmatian  coast  in  oora,  oil, 
wine,  &0,,  and  ia  environed  by  extenrive  olive 
and  almond  plantationa.  The  priory  of  San 
Nicol6  in  Ban  is  a  magnificent  old  stmctare  in 
the  Lombard  style,  fonnded  in  1087  for  the 
purpose  of  reodving  the  remsiDs  of  8t  Nicho- 
las, which  were  bronght  from  Myra  in  Lyoia 
and  deposited  in  a  splendid  crypt  Koger  U. 
was  here  crowned  kina  of  8Icilj ;  and  Bona 
Sfbrza,  qaeen  of  Ptdand,  was  boned  in  a  vanit 
(rf  the  church  in  1667.  The  catliedral  of  San 
Sabino  was  once  a  fine  Qothic  stractare,  hnt 
has  been  spoiled  by  modern  rep^rs.  In  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  Bari  woa  the  principal 
stronghold  of  the  Boracena  on  the  Adriatic. 
About  670  it  was  taken  by  the  emperor  Lonts 
IL  alter  a  siege  of  foor  years.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tnry  It  was  held  by  the  Greek  emperors,  who 
made  it  the  seat  of  the  governor  of  all  the 
Greek  possessions  in  Italy.  In  the  11th  cen- 
tnry  it  was  taken  by  the  Normans  under  Rob- 
ert Gniscard. 

BiU,  or  laifa,  a  negro  tribe  of  Oondokoro 
ud  other  places  on  tite  White  Nile,  savage 
in  character  and  eicesnvely  bmtal  in  appear- 
ance. Sir  Samoel  Baker  says  in  his  "  ^bert 
ITyanza"  (I8B6)r  "The  women  are  not  pre- 
poesesring,  hot  the  negro  type  of  thick  lips  and 
flat  nose  is  wanting;  tlieir  features  are  good, 
and  tlie  woolly  hair  alone  denotes  the  trace  of 
negro  blood."  The  only  hur  upon  the  heads 
of  the  men  is  a  small  tuft,  in  which  they  stick 
feathers.  Their  Tillages  are  circular.  They 
inhabit  a  region  capable  of  the  highest  cnltiva- 
tion.  Goats,  sheep,  and  cattle  are  very  small, 
but  extremely  prolific.  The  poorer  clusea  are 
employed  in  fisliing  and  in  manual  labor.  Tfaey 
live  onder  chieftuns  in  a  patriarchal  fashion, 
practise  pidygamy,  and  are  under  the  influence 
of  weather  prophets  and  doctors.  The  hut  of 
eaeh  family  is  surrounded  by  an  impenetrable 
hedge  of  euphorbia,  the  interior  generally  oon- 
eiating  of  a  ^ard  plastered  with  a  cement  of 
ashes,  cow  dung,  and  sand.  When  not  at  war 
wi&  the  slave  and  ivory  traders,  they  are  gen- 
erally at  war  among  themselves. 


RARTMA 


811 


BUI,  Ttm  A,  a  province  of  S.  Italy,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  other 
sides  by  the  provinces  of  Oapitanata,  Basili- 
cata,  and  Terra  d'Otranto ;  area,  9,2eS  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  ia  1871,  604,518.  The  southern  part  is 
crossed  by  a  ridge  from  the  Apennines,  which 
affords  little  else  but  pasturage ;  but  the  lower 
lands  are  fertile,  and  wheat  is  produced  in 
great  quantities ;  the  other  croje  are  olives, 
tobacco,  cotton,  flai,  and  fruits.  Wine  and  oil 
are  largely  manufactured,  and  along  the  coast 
there  are  extensive  fisheries  and  salt  works. 
Sbip-building  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
Terra  di  Bari  formed  the  portion  of  ancient 
Apulia  known  a»  Apulia  Peucetia,  and  was  tra- 
versed by  the  Appian  Way.    Capitol,  Bari. 

UinXi  (Span,  larrilla),  or  B*4a  iit,  a 
crude  carbonate  of  soda,  procured  by  the  incin- 
eration of  the  taUola  toda,  talieomia,  and  other 
plants  which  are  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in 
Spain,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  the  Canary  Islands, 
In  Alicante  the  plants  are  raised  from  seed, 
which  is  sown  at  the  close  of  the  year  in  salt 
manhes  near  the  coast,  and  they  are  usually 
fit  to  be  gathered  in  September  following.  In 
October  the  plants  are  dried  like  hay,  and 
then  burned  in  holes  in  the  ground  capable  of 
containing  a  ton  or  a  ton  and  a  half  of  soda. 
Iron  bars  are  laid  across  these  cavities,  and 
the  dried  plants,  stratified  with  dry  seeds,  a 


state  and  collects  in  the  bottom  of  the  pit 
As  fast  OS  one  portion  is  consumed  fresh  ma- 
terial is  added,  until  the  cavity  is  filled  with 
the  alkali.  The  holes  are  then  covered  with 
earth,  and  the  soda  is  allowed  to  cod  gradu- 
ally. The  spongy  mass,  when  snfBcientiy  cold, 
is  broken  up  and  packed  for  shipment  without 
Airther  preparation.  It  rarely  contains  more 
than  SO  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  soda;  the 
impurities  are  chiefly  common  salt  and  sul- 
phates of  soda,  lime,  and  alumina,  with  some 
free  stdphur.  Boda  ash  is  now  manufactured 
artificially  from  common  salt  according  to  the 
method  of  Le  Blanc.  Eelp,  made  from  the 
drift  sea  plants  of  the  north  of  Bcotlsad  and 
Ireland,  and  varec  on  the  northern  coast  of 
France,  of  similar  origin,  are  still  more  im- 
pure than  barilla.  The  principal  usee  of  baril- 
la are  to  fnmish  the  alkali  required  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass  and  soap. 

BUUfl,  a  river  of  South  America,  rising  in 
the  Iniataca  mountains  of  Venezuela,  fiowing 
E.  into  British  Guiana,  and  then  N.  W.  to  the 
estuary  of  the  Orinoco,  which  it  enten  Just 
W.  of  the  headland  of  Barima,  in  lat.  8°  46' 
N.,  Ion.  60°  W.  Sixty  miles  above  its  mouth 
a  natural  canal  8  m.  long  oooneets  it  with  the 
Goaini,  a  stream  navigable  for  70  m.,  having  a 
depth  of  from  4  to  U  fathoms.  The  country 
bordering  both  streams  abounds  in  the  valua- 
ble block  mora  timber,  ond  a  great  variety  of 
other  usefiil  wood,  as  the  bullet  tree,  red  cedar, 
loDcewood,  silverballs, &C.  Theolimateof this 
region  is  extremely  unhealthy. 


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312  BARINAS 

BIKINIS,  or  Tulnu.  I.  An  Laland  state  of 
Venezuela,  bounded  N.  W.  by  a  chaiu  of  the 
Andes,  which  separates  it  horn  Merida  and 
Tri^illo ;  area,  £4,000  aq.  m. ;  pop.  aboat  120,- 
000.  The  larger  portion  of  tbe  state  is  com- 
posed of  delightful  uivannaB,  nith  Insoriant 
poatnre  for  innnmerable  herds  of  cattle,  flocks 
of  sheep,  and  droves  of  oases  and  mnlea.  The 
hill  coantry  in  the  V.  part  presents  gentle 
declivities,  which  are  veiy  fertile;  the  monn- 
tain  slopes  and  surrounding  tracts  are  covered 
with  virgin  forests;  while  above  the  temperat* 
line  ore  cold  regionii  terminating  in  arid  para- 
mos, extending  into  the  states  of  Merida  and 
Tn^illo.  The  beantifal  valleys  of  Barinaa  are 
watered  by  the  Portngaesa,  Bocond,  Quanare, 
Uribante,  Oaparro,  Surepi,  Santo  Domingo, 
Masparro,  PagQey,  and  Ganagna  rivers,  ail  trib- 
utaries of  the  Apure,  which  flows  on  the  8, 
border.  The  principal  products  are  coffee,  ca- 
cao, cotton,  indigo,  excellent  tobacco,  and  an 
endless  variety  of  tropical  fraits.  IL  A  city, 
capital  of  the  state,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Santo  Domingo,  262  m.  S.W.  of  Car&cas; 
po|).  about  13,000  (in  1839,  4,000).  This  city, 
which  has  twice  changed  its  site,  was  foanded 
in  ICTO  by  Jnan  Andres  Varela,  and  first 
named  Altamira  do  Oiioeres,  in  honor  of  the 
governor  of  that  name.  It  was  once  in  a  pros- 
perooB  condition ;  but  during  the  wars  of  mde- 
]iendence  it  was  besieged,  sacked,  and  laid  in 
ruins  by  the  royalists.  It  has  made  rapid 
progress,  however,  of  late  years.  Barinoe  has 
a  churoh,  a  hospital,  and  some  schools;  the 
houses  are  remarkably  neat;  the  streets  are 
regular  and  clean;  and  its  name  is  famed  in 
European  markets  for  the  superior  quality  of 
its  tobacco,  the  chief  article  of  export.  Its 
shipping  point  is  Tomno,  a  small  town  14  m. 
distant,  at  the  head  of  river  navigation. 

BAKING,  the  name  of  a  mercantile  family  of 
London.  Johs  Babinq  came  from  Bremen, 
and  settled  in  Exeter  in  the  first  part  of  the 
18th  century.  He  had  four  sons,  two  of  whom, 
John  and  Fruicis,  established  the  honso  of 
Baring  Brothers  and  company  in  London  in 
1770.  L  Sir  Fnuds,  bom  April  18,  1T40,  died 
Sept.  12,  1610.  Having  been  elected  director 
of  the  East  India  oompany,  he  became  a  zeal- 
ous supporter  of  Hr.  Pitt's  policy,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  baronetcy  in  Hay,  1T0S. 
His  "  Observations  on  the  Establishment  of  the 
Bank  of  England  "  (1T9T)  had  great  weight  in 
the  question  of  renewing  the  charter  of  that 
institntion.  Three  of  his  sons,  Thomas,  Alex- 
ander (see  Ashbttbtom),  and  Henry,  had  al- 
ready been  associated  in  tbe  business;  bat 
Henry  (died  April  13,  1S4S)  quittod  it  and 
accompanied  Lord  Uacartney  in  his  embassy 
to  China,  and  afterward  took  the  snperint«n- 
dence  of  the  East  India  company's  factories  at 
Canton.  II>  Sir  'Hmui,  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Francis,  born  June  13,  I7T2,  died  April  8, 
1S4S.  He  sat  from  1830  to  1832  in  the  boose 
of  commons,  and  was  known  to  the  public  as 
a  patron  of  art  and  by  his  fine  collection  of 


BARIUM 

pictures.     IIL  Fmds  'nanUB,  a  lawyer  and 

statesman,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas,  bom 
AprU  20, 17S6,  died  Sept.  e,  1866.  He  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Portsmouth  in  1 926 ; 
was  a  lord  of  the  treasury  from  1830  to  Jane, 
1834 ;  a  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  June  to 
November,  1834,  and  from  April,  1835,  to 
1839 ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  1839 
to  1841 ;  and  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from 
January,  1849,  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Rus- 
sell ministry  in  Uarch,  1852.  In  January, 
1886,  he  was  created  Baron  Northbroofc.  He 
never  t«ok  an  active  part  in  the  bnsinen  of 
the  firm.  IT<  Tkeaas  Gmii«,  second  Lord 
Northbrook,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  bora 
in  1826.  He  ie  a  gradaate  of  Oxford,  and  was 
a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  18E7-'8.  under-secre- 
tary  of  State  for  India  in  1659-'61,  and  under- 
secretary for  war  in  186I-'6  and  18flS-'72.  . 
He  was  a  member  of  parliament  for  Penrvu 
and  Falmonth  from  1857  to  1S66,  when  on  the 
death  of  his  father  he  succeeded  to  tbe  peer- 
age. In  February,  1672,  after  the  assassination 
of  Earl  Hayo,  he  was  appointed  viceroy  and 
governor  general  of  India.  T>  Allies,  another 
son  of  Sir  Thomas,  entered  the  church,  became 
bishop  of  Qloucestor  and  Bristol  in  1866,  and 
was  tranalat«d  to  the  see  of  Durham  in  1S61. 

BiBn&COIILD,  BaUM,  an  English  clergyman 
and  aathor,  bom  at  Exeter  in  1834.  He  is  K 
descendant  of  Charles  Baring,  brother  of  the 
first  Lord  Aahburton.  He  was  educated  St 
Glare  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  hia 
degree  in  18d6.  In  1862  he  ^sit«d  Iceland  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  the  Norse  tongue,  and 
in  1863  published  "Iceland;  its  Scenes  vid 
Sagas,"  In  1895  he  took  ordera,  and  for  a 
while  was  cnrato  at  Horbnry  near  Wakefield. 
His  present  parish  is  Dalton,  near  Thirsk 
(1872).  His  reraaimng  works  are :  "  Post- 
Hedinva]  Preachers"  and  "Tbe  Book  of 
Were-Wolvea"{1865);  "  Carious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages  "  (1869) ;  "  In  Exita  Israel,"  a 
historical  novel  (1870) ;  "The  Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Religions  Belief,"  in  two  parts, 
the  first  treating  of  "Heathenism  and  Mo- 
B^ni,"  and  the  second  of  "  Christianitj " 
(1670);  the  "Golden  Gate"  (1869-'70);  and 
"Legends  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets" 
(1871). 

BAKirH,  one  of  the  metallio  elemoita.     The 


logna,  Vincenzio  Casoariolo,  who  discovered 
that  when  this  mineral  was  fiised  with  resin 
and  oharooal  it  became  phosphorescent.  Tbe 
Bologna  pboepborescing  stone,  or  lapU  tolarit, 
soon  neoame  tamoua  all  over  Europe,  and  mar- 
vellous cures  were  sconetdmes  attributed  to  it. 
The  true  oompo^tion  of  the  heavy  spar  was 
not  known  till  1760,  when  Marggraf  showed 
that  it  contained  snlpbar.  That  the  mineral 
contained  an  earth  was  first  made  known  by 
Scheele  and  Gahn  in  1774.  Benelins,  and 
almost  dmultaneoQsJy  Pontin  and  Davy,  ob- 
t^ed  in  1808  an  amalgam  <^  barium,  whio^ 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABIUU 

Davy  sabeeqaeDtlr  decompoeed  hj  diBtUlatioD 

and  thus  iBoUted  the  metal.  Uore  recently 
BnnBen  and  Matthiessen  have  prepared  bariom 
frpm  the  fused  ctiloride  by  meami  of  electro- 
lysia.  Bergman  introduced  the  word  heavy 
spar,  terra  pondtrota,  and  Gufton  de  Mor- 
vean  aabstitated  the  Greek  jiapit,  heavy,  from 
which  he  derived  the  word  baroCe,  which  was 
afterward  changed  to  baryta,  while  the  metal 
waa  called  barium. — For  the  preparation  of 
bariDm,  anhydrous  chloride  of  barium  ia  mix- 
ed with  sal  amiDoniao  and  fuaed  la  a  Hesdan 
cnicible.  A  small  porcelain  cmoible  is  then 
filled  with  the  fused  maw,  and  so  attached 
to  the  poles  of  a  battery  of  six  Bunsen'a  cups 
as  to  be  readily  decompoeed  when  brought 
t«  a  Bt&te  of  foBion.  The  barium  is  Dbtainad 
ta  a  fine  hrass-yeUow  powder,  which  must 
be  stored  under  naphtha,  as  it  oxidizes  rap- 
idly in  the  ur  and  decomposes  water  at  all 
temperatores.  Alloys  of  barimn  with  bis- 
matj),  tin,  and  aluminam  have  been  pre- 
pared; they  are  crystalline,  and  decompose 
water  at  all  temperatures,  hat  have  no  appli- 
cation in  the  arts.  The  compounds  of  barium 
are  numeroua,  and  have  extensive  nse  in  medi- 
cine, chemistry,  and  technology.  The  oxide  has 
been  employed  as  a  subatitate  for  lime  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  also  to  prevent  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  molasses  of  sngar  cane.  The 
binoxide  has  been  proposed  as  an  agent  for  the 
manufacture  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere. 
If  the  protoxide  be  heated  in  a  tabs  and  a 
current  of  air  be  pawed  over  it,  it  absorbs 
oxygen,  which  it  again  gives  up  on  raising  the 
temperature.  It  was  at  one  time  thonght  that 
the  process  conld  be  made  continnons,  but  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  the  baryta  melts  and 
refosea  to  take  up  more  oiygeo.  This  can  in 
a  measure  be  prevented  by  previonsly  mixing 
it  with  manganese  dioxide  and  soda.  By  adding 
concentrated  snlphnrio  acid  to  the  binoxide  of 
boriiun  and  gently  warming,  oxygen  gas  in  the 
form  of  ozone  is  liberated. — As  the  native  sul- 
phate of  baryta  is  generally  too  impure  to  be 
used  directly  in  the  arts,  it  is  fbsed  with  char- 
coal and  resin  or  oil,  and  the  pnre  white  sul- 
phate obtained  from  the  dissolved  residne  by 
the  addition  of  sulphnrio  acid.  Thns  prepared, 
galphate  of  baryta  is  nsed  as  a  jlermaneni 
white,  nnder  the  name  of  blanc  fixe,  in  the 
tnannfactnre  of  paper,  as  a  white  pigment, 
and  to  adulterate  white  lead.  As  the  specific 
^avity  of  heavy  spar  ranges  from  4'8  to  4'T, 
It  is  frequently  mistaken  for  tbe  ore  of  copper 
or  lead.  Blanc  fixe  hardens  when  mixed  with 
soluble  gloss,  and  is  therefore  capable  of  use  in 
fresco  painting.  It  is  also  used  in  making  bril- 
liant white  satin  paper. — Chloride  of  barium 
can  be  readily  mEide  by  dissolring  the  native 
carbonate  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  a  valu- 
able reagent  in  the  laboratory  for  the  detection 
of  sulphnrio  acid,  and  in  medicine  as  a  remedy 
in  scrofiilona  complainta.  Several  cases  of 
pcdsoning  by  means  of  this  agent  are  on  rec- 
ord.   The  chloride  and  the  oxalate  are  monu- 


BARK 


313 


fkctured  into  anti-incrustation  powders.  A 
very  good  blasting  powder  is  made  of  the  ni- 
trate of  baryta,  which,  being  much  cheaper 
than  the  ordinary  nitre  powder,  has  long  been 
employed  in  mines  ana  on  public  works  in 
Europe.  It  is  not  considered  so  dangerous  as 
common  powder,  and,  although  slow  in  action, 
ia  found  to  be  effective  enough  for  al!  practicaJ 
purposes. — Baryta  salts  are  used  in  Belgium  in 
the  preparation  of  citric  acid,  tartaric  acid^ 
and  hydrocyanic  acid.  In  the  manufacture  of 
alum  it  has  been  found  that  the  aluminate  of 
baryta  can  be  very  readily  prepared  by  funon, 
from  which  alumina  salts  can  be  easily  sepa- 
rated. This  method  ia  employed  in  France,  in 
making  alum  from  bauxite.  Prussian  bine, 
mode  from  potasli  salts,  can  be  prepared  in  a 
ready  and  cheap  way  through  the  intervention 
of  cyanide  of  harinm,  Ohromio  acid  is  more 
cheaply  prepared  by  the  ud  of  baryta  than  in 
any  other  way.  Stearic  acid,  flwni  which  ada- 
mantine candles  ore  made,  can  be  combined 
with  and  afterward  eadly  separated  from  this 
substance.  Baryta  ia  also  lued  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  starch  sirup,  so  frequently  sold  as 
liquid  honey ;  spirits  of  hartshorn  or  ammonia ; 
a  beautiful  yellow  paint,  often  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  chrome  yellow,  on  account  of  its 
delicacy  of  tone  and  cheapness ;  soap,  and  an 
infinite  number  of  other  substances.  Some  of 
the  best  English  plate  gloss  has  been  made  by 
substituting  carbonate  of  baryta  for  carbonate 
of  soda.  It  is  a  dear  crystal  sheet,  and  not 
liable  to  atmospheric  changes.  This  glass  has 
also  been  found  to  be  admirably  adapted  for 
optical  instmments.  The  solnhle  salts  of  ba- 
ryta are  poisons,  the  readiest  antidote  being 
sulphate  of  soda  or  magnesia. 

liEI.,  the  outer  covering  of  trees  and 
plants.  It  ia  found  in  its  complete  form  only  in 
the  exogenous  and  gymnospermoua  classes,  in 
which  it  consists  of  tliree  portions,  otten  onite 
distinct,  bnt  generally  closely  blended ;  the  liber 
or  inner  bark  {endophlieum),  the  cellular  tissue 
or  green  layer  (m«opAteui»),  and  die  corky 
envelope  (epipKUefim).  The  liber,  or  fibrone 
bark,  consists  of  bast  cells,  long,  with  thick 
walls,  formed  of  cellulose ;  liber  cells,  thin- 
walled,  of  ordinary  parenchyma,  marked  with 
reticulated  spots,  and  seldom  if  ever  absent 
from  the  liber;,  and  laticiferous  tubes,  contain- 
ing various  secretiona.  The  cellular  envelope, 
which  usually  disappears  after  the  second  year, 
is  formed  of  looseparenchyma,  giving  the  bark 
its  green  color.  The  sul>er,  or  corky  envelope, 
consists  of  cork,  formed  of  parenchymoua  cells 
with  thin  walls  and  rectangular  section,  soon 
dead  and  empty ;  and  peridenne,  of  flat,  thick- 
walled  cells  united  in  layers.  The  epidermis 
or  outer  skin  is  not  permanent,  but  breaks  away 
as  the  layers  beneath  it  expand.  The  bark 
serves  as  a  channel  through  which  the  sap  elab- 
orated by  the  leaves  descends  to  feed  the  eam- 
binm  layer,  with  which  the  bark  is  continuous, 
and  by  which  it  grows  in  annual  rings,  as  does 
the  wood  itself.    The  medullary  rays  also  con- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


314 

nect  the  bark  and  wood  and  aflbrd  channels 
for  the  deposit  of  the  solid  contents  of  the 
wood  cells.  From  this  it  follows  that  while 
the  youngest  part  of  the  wood  is  on  the  outside, 
the  youngest  part  of  the  bark  is  oo  the  inside; 
and  when  the  newly  formed  oells  are  gorged 
wldi  sap  in  the  spring  the  bark  may  be  readily 
separated  from  the  wood;  the  newly  formed 
cells  are  also  the  first  to  decay  in  the  dead 
wood.  The  course  of  the  sap  is  seen  by  cutting 
horizontally  through  the  bark,  when  the  npper 
edge  of  the  cnt  will  be  moistened  with  the 
oozing  sap,  while  the  lower  is  nearly  dry. 
Ontting  off  entirely  the  cironlation  of  sap,  as 
in  girdling,  destroys  the  tree.  Bark  nify  be 
rednoed  t«  extreme  thinness,  as  in  the  grape 
vine,  which  sheds  its  liber  annually,  or  be  very 
thick,  as  in  the  tequoia  giyantea,  where  it  at- 
tains a  thickness  of  two  feet.  The  fibres,  nsn- 
ally  called  bast  (see  Bast),  are  sometimes 
wanting,  and  are  sometimes  found  in  the  woody 
portion  of  the  stem.  When  present  they  are 
frequently  linuted  to  the  young  plant.  They 
are  of  use  when  tenacious  fur  cordage,  many 
barks  well  supplying  the  place  of  ropes  even  in 
the  construction  of  urtdges.  The  leatherwood 
(direa  pahutrit),  and  the  inner  bark  of  the 
white  cedar,  are  used  in  this  country  in  place 
of  hemp«n  corda^,  and  the  fibres  may  be 


Indies  a  remarkably  lough  bark  called  miha- 
ffva  is  in  general  use  for  a  great  variety  of  pur- 
poses, and  the  bibiscns  fibres  are  well  known 
throughout  the  tropics.  The  corky  envelope 
occurs  on  many  trees,  but  attains  a  remarkable 
thickness  on  certain  species  of  the  oak.  ^See 
OoBE.)  Bark  contuns  many  of  the  secretions 
of  the  sap,  and  thus  has  many  ooonomio  n»ea 
Bsareserroirofv^etable  products.  The  Peru- 
vian bark  (see  Oiitoboita)  Is  the  source  of  qni- 
nine;  the  Angostura  bark  (galipea  oMeirutlu), 
canella  bark  (from  C.  alba),  oascarilla  (eroton 
easearilla),  and  other  species,  are  well  known 
drugs.  Cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  einnamomam 
Cej/UmicuTit,  a  lauraceons  tree,  native  of  Oey- 
lon.  Quercitron  bark  is  the  yellow  dyestuff  bf 
qvereui  tinct«ria.  From  the  tannin  which 
barks  contain,  MpeciaUy  oak  and  hemlock 
barks,  arisea  tiielr  importance  in  the  making 
of  leather. 

BASKER,  FVriiM,  U.  D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, bom  in  Wilton,  Maine,  May  2,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1837, 
studied  medicine  at  Harvard  nniversity,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Paris,  taking  his  degree  at  Paris  in 
1844.  In  184G  he  commenced  practice  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  and  became  professor  of  midwife- 
ry in  Bowdoin  college.  In  1850  he  became 
professor  of  midwifery  in  the  New  York  medi- 
cal college,  and  in  1866  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  state  medical  society, 
and  in  1860  waa  chosen  professor  of  clinical 
midwifery  and  diseases  of  women  in  Bellevue 
ho^)ital  medical  oollese.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  work  on  puerperal  diseases  (1872). 


SASKISQ 

BUKER,  Jank,  an  American  financier,  bom 

at  Swan  Island,  Kennebec  county,  Mdne,  Dec. 
7,  1779,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Deo.  36,  1871. 
He  was  of  a  Quaker  family  of  Nantucket,  and 
c<Hmected  on  the  mother's  side  with  Franklin. 
At  the  age  of  10  he  went  to  New  York,  where 
be  got  employment  with  Isaac  Hicka,  a  com- 
mission merchant,  began  to  trade  on  his  own 
account  in  a  small  way,  and  before  his  mtyority 
was  in  possession  of  four  ships  and  a  brw,  ai^ 
had  his  notes  regularly  discounted  at  the  United 
States  bank.  In  1801  he  lost  nearly  all  his 
fortune  by  a  series  of  mishaps  in  bumnese.  Not 
long  afterward,  however,  he  entered  into  a  con- 
tract with  the  government  for  the  supply  of 
oil,  and  again  accumulated  considerable  wMlth. 
He  received  the  consignment  of  the  first  steon: 
engine  used  on  the  Hndson  river.  The  war  of 
1813  coming  on,  he  took  the  democratic  mde  in 
politics,  engaged  to  raise  a  loan  of  $5,000,000 
for  the  government,  was  one  of  the  building 
committee  of  Tammany  hall,  and  took  part  in 
thefirst  meeting  held  in  it  He  became  senator 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  when  ntting  in 
tbe  conrt  of  errors  he  delivered  on  opinion  in 
opposition  t«  that  of  Chancellor  Kent,  in  an 
insurance  case,  in  which  he  waa  sustained  by 
the  court  He  soon  afterward  establiahed  the 
"Union"  newspaper  to  advocate  the  election 
of  Gov.  Clinton.  In  181S  he  founded  Uie 
Exchange  bank  in  Wall  street,  and  began  to 
apeonlate  in  stocks.  The  bank  broke  in  1819, 
but  he  made  use  of  other  institutions  chartered 
in  different  states,  and  for  many  years,  by  the 
extent  of  his  operations,  was  thought  to  hare 
the  control  of  great  capitaL  In  the  eztenaiTe 
transactions  in  which  be  now  engaged,  he  came 
into  frequent  and  violent  collirion  with  other 
capitalirta,  and  called  forth  much  oppoaitioa. 
On  the  failure  of  the  life  and  9re  insurance 
company,  he  was  indicted,  with  others,  for 
conspiracy  to  defraud,  and  defended  himself  la 
person  with  great  ability.  At  the  first  trial  the 
jury  disagreed ;  on  the  second  he  waa  con- 
victed, but  a  new  trial  waa  granted.  After  the 
third  the  indictment  was  qttashed.  In  1894  he 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  after  being 
unsuccessful  on  his  first  examination.  Here  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  politics  and  business, 
and  had  agdn  accumulated  a  fortune  when 
tbe  civil  war  liegan.  By  this  fae  was  so  im- 
poverished that  in  1867  he  was  in  haak- 
raptcy,  and  he  ended  his  career  In  compara- 
tive poverty. 

BABKEirG,  a  market  town  and  parish  of  Es- 
sex, England,  6  m.  E.  of  London;  pop.  of  the 
town  in  1871,  6,ST4.  It  is  on  a  navigatde 
oreek  near  the  Thames,  and  is  inhabited  cUefiy 
by  fishermen,  bsrgemen,  and  market  oarriera. 
Barking  abbey,  one  of  the  oldest  and  richest 
nunneries  in  England,  was  founded  about  677. 
In  870  it  was. burnt  to  the  ground  and  the  nuns 
were  killed  or  dispersed  by  the  Danes.  In  the 
10th  century  it  was  restored  by  King  Edgar. 
Several  queens  of  England  and  other  nMtle 


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BAEL^OS 

ladles  were  among  its  abbesses.  The  abbess  of 
Barking  waa  one  of  the  fbar  persona  who  were 
baronesses  ex  officio.  Under  Henry  VIII,  it 
was  Btippreased  and  the  abbess  and  nnsa  were 
pensioned,  and  Charles  I.  sold  the  estat«. 
Hardly  a  vesUge  of  the  building  remains. 

B1BL£CS,  Gawar.    See  B,i.ebu. 

BIR-LE-DEC,  or  Bu^«KM>nalH,  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  Meuse,  France,  and  in 
the  middle  ages  of  the  dnohj  of  Bar,  on  the 


was  bemeged  by  the  French  in  1G03,  a  combat 
was  foagbt  by  challenge  between  13  French 
and  13  Italian  cavaliers,  respectively  under 
Bayard  and  Frospero  Uoloiina.  At  the  first 
collision  aeren  of  the  Frendi  knights  were 
anhorsed,  bnt  Bayard  and  his  remaining  com- 
rades fought  with  such  skill  that  tiie  tour- 
nament ended  as  a  drawn  battle. 

BAILETTl,  CabrieDt, 
an  Italian  preacher, 
bom  at  Barletta,  liv' 
ed  in  the  second  half 
of  the  15th  century. 
He  was  a  Benedictine 
monk,  and  rendered 
himself  very  fumoua 
both  by  his  eloquence 


and  i 


■icity.     Ho 


had  a  habit  of  inserting 
between  the  clauses  of 
the  liturgy  nractical 
commenU    ana    sharp 

?ersonal  illustrations, 
hough  his  style  of 
preaoTiing  was  not  in 
good  taste,  it  was  very 
effective,  and  the  es- 
teem in  which  he  was 
held  was  expressed  by 
the  pro  verb,  jVe«  '' 


Omain,  126  m.  E.  of  Paris,  on  th«  railway 
friMn  Paris  to  Btrasburg,  and  the  canal  from 
the  Harne  to  the  Rhine;  pop.  in  1886,  16,834. 
The  old  town  was  anciently  fortified,  with  a 
strong  castle  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  the 
rains  of  which  are  yet  to  be  seen,  and  had 
some  historical  importance,  being  the  capital 
of  the  dachy  of  Bar,  and  the  birthplace  of 
Francis,  dnte  of  Uaise,  sornamed  le  Bakifri, 
Qi  Marshal  Oadinot,  and  Oen.  Excelmans.  It 
contains  some  old  public  bmldings;  in  one  of 
the  churches  is  the  celebrated  monament  of 
Ren£  de  ChAlona,  prince  of  Orange,  by  Bicbier, 
papil  of  Michel  Angelo.  The  new  town,  which 
stuide  lower  on  the  river  bank,  bos  establish- 
menta  for  manufactoring  cotton  eto^  hand- 
kerchiefs, hosiery,  bats,  and  jewelry,  with  tan- 
neries. Its  preserved  fruits,  and  especially  its 
confiture*  de  grotHlU*,  are  highly  esteemed,  as 
well  OS  its  sparkling  wine.  The  Omain  being 
navigable  from  the  town,  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  forwarding  timber,  wine,  and  other 


Italy,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Bari, 
Adriatic,  83  m.  N.  W.  of  Bari ;  pop.  in  1972, 
2S,10S.  It  has  wide  streets,  a  colossal  bronze 
statne  sapposed  to  be  of  the  emperor  Heraclins, 
and  a  Gothic  cathedral  in  which  Ferdinand  I. 
of  Aragon  was  crowned.  There  is  a  good  har- 
bor, portly  artificial,  and  considerable  com- 
merce is  oarried  on  with  Greece  and  the  Ionian 


triboted  and  generally  used  than  any  other, 
and  ft*om  the  most  remote  tJmes  an  important 
article  of  the  food  of  man.  Pliny  speaks  of 
it  as  the  first  grtun  cultivated  for  nonrislunent. 
It  is  adapted  to  hot  and  cold  climatee,  in  the  for- 


mer being  obtained  m  two  saoceasive  crops  in 
a  season.  Where  it  originated  is  not  known, 
but  the  plant  grows  wild  in  Sicily  and  the  in- 


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316 


BARLEY 


terior  of  Asia,   and   the  cominoii  species  is 
stated  by  Pursh  to  occar  apparently  wild  in 
some  parte  of  the  United  States.    ITie  barley 
cultivated  in  this  coantryis  of  two  species,  H. 
vulgare  and  S.  dUtiehum,  the  grains  of  the 
former  being  arranged  in  four  rows,  and  of  the 
latter  in  two.    A  third  species  is  cultivated  in 
Europe,  ff.  hexastichuTo,  also  called  the  an- 
tunm  and  winter  barley.    This  haa  Giz  rowa 
of  grains,  each  row 
term  inatitig  in  a  long 
beard.    This  is  al- 
ways sown  in  tlie 
fall,  and  ripens  the 
6rst  in  the  summer. 
Its  grains  are  small, 
bat  the  yield  is  Urge 
— sometimes  20  for 
].    The  Scotch  bere 
or  bigg  is  of  this  spe- 
cies.    H.  dUtiehum, 

or  English    barley,  I 

orifrinaUy  from  Tar-  | 

tary,  has  no  grain  M 

beard,  is  more  pro-  a 

dnctive     tlian    the  B 

otherlfinds.  andsac-  / 

ceeds  in  almost  ^1 
soils.  The  grain  is 
excellent    feed    for 

cattle  and  barnyard  Eordenm  dlsadiniiL 

stock.    The  crop  in 

Great  Britain  is  from  28  to  40  bushels  to  the 
acre,  the  weight  of  the  bushel  being  from  50 
to  64  lbs.,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  grain. 
The  total  production  of  barley  in  the  United 
States  in  1670  was  16,825,898  bnshels.  In  Cal- 
ifornia it  is  next  to  wheat  the  most  important 
grain  crop,  sometimes  yielding  largely  for  five 
successive  years  withoat  renewed  sowing;  its 
prodoction  in  1870  was  4,416,426  bushels.  The 
next  largest  crop  waa  in  New  York,  4,188,868 
bnshels;  then  follow  Ohio,  1,683,868;  Illinois, 
1,086,838;  Maine,  802,108;  ■Wisconsin,  707,807; 
and  Fennsylvania,  630,714.  In  most  of  the 
other  states,  especially  of  the  south,  the  pro- 
duction is  small. — Barley  hulled  and  ground 
makes  a  coarse,  heavy  kind  of  bread,  and  is 
very  eztenuvely  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer,  and  to  some  extent  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. Barley  corns  are  of  an  oval,  elongated 
shape,  pointed  at  one  end  and  obtuse  at  the 
other,  and  marked  with  a  longitudinal  furrow. 
Their  color  externally  is  yellowish,  but  within 
they  are  white.  Stripped  of  their  outer  cover- 
ing or  husk,  and  rounded  and  polished  in  a 
mill,  the  grains  are  pearly  white,  and  are  then 
known  as  pearl  barley.  This  is  the  form  in 
which  they  are  always  kept  by  druggists.  Bar- 
ley floor  analyzed  by  Einhoff  was  found  to  con- 
tain, in  1,000  parts,  starch,  720  parts;  sugar, 
56 ;  mucilage,  60 ;  gluten,  S8'6  ;  vege^ble  al- 
bumen, 12'3;  water,  100;  phosphate  of  lime, 
2'5 ;  and  fibrous  or  woody  matter,  68.  The 
quality  of  the  grain  is  judged  of  by  the  quantity 
of  water  it  absorbs  when  steeped  in  it;  100  lbs. 


water. — From  the  times  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galen,  barley  drinks  have  been  in  high  repute 
in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints.  They 
possess  mild,  soothing  qualities,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  impart  nourishiuent. 

BAKLOW,  JmI,  an  American  poet  and  politi- 
cian, bom  at  Reading,  Conn.,  in  1766,  died 
near  Cracow,  Poland,  Dec.  22,  1812.  He  was 
educated  at  Dartmouth  and  Yale  colleges,  and 
during  his  latter  vacations  took  part  in  the 
opening  scenes  of  the  revolution,  fighting  val- 
iantly, it  is  said,  in  the  battle  at  White  Plains. 
At  his  graduation  in  1778  he  read  a  poem  upon 
the  prospect  of  peace,  which,  wiui  anouer 
poem  delivered  on  occasion  of  taking  his  mas- 
ter's degree,  was  published  in  the  Litchfield 
collection  of  American  poems.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  upon  leaving  oolle^  but  the  army 
being  at  that  time  deficient  m  chaplains,  he 
was  persuaded  to  study  theology,  and  after  six 
weeks'  preparation  was  licensed  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  and  joined  the  army,  where  he 
inspired  the  troops  not  only  by  his  preaching  but 
by  patriotic  songs  and  speeches.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  resumed  the  study  of  law,  and 
settled  in  Hartford,  where  he  established  a 
weekly  newspaper,  and  prosecuted  his  poetical 
designs,  adapting  Watts's  versions  of  the  Psalms 
of  David  to  the  use  of  the  general  association 
of  Connecticut,  and  adding  to  the  collection 
several  original  hymns.  Hie  "  Vision  of  Colum- 
bus" was  published  by  subscription  in  1787, 
received  with  fovor,  and  reprinted  in  London 
and  in  Paris.  In  1788  he  went  to  Englsnd 
as  agent  of  a  land  company,  but  learning  that 
he  had  become  associated  with  a  party  of 
swindlers,  he  resigned  his  office,  reoaired  to 
Paris,  and  involved  himself  in  revolutionary 
schemes.  In  1791  he  published  In  London 
the  first  part  of  his  "Advice  to  the  Privileged 
Orders,"  a  vehement  production,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  a  poem  upon  the  "Conspiracy 
of  Kings,"  Tlie  poem  was  suggested  by  the 
first  continent&l  aDiance  against  France,  and 
was  introduced  by  a  prose  preface  violently  de- 
nouncing Mr.  Burke  OS  the  author  of  the  calam 


olotions  of  Empires,"  and  in  1792  sent  a  lettef 
to  the  national  convention  of  France,  in  which 
he  recommended  an  extremely  popnlar  govern- 
ment. He  became  associated  with  the  constitu- 
tional reformers  of  England,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  one  of  a  commission  sent  by  France 
to  organize  the  newly  acquired  territory  of 
Savoy.  At  Chamb^ry  he  wrote  an  enthusiastic 
exhortation  to  the  people  of  Piedmont  to  adopt 
the  revoluljonary  principles  of  France,  and 
there  he  wrote  his  humorous  and  most  papular 
poem  upon  "  Hasty  Pudding."  He  made  a  for- 
tune in  France  by  commercial  speculations, 
and  after  addressing  two  extravagant  political 
letters  to  the  people  of  the  United  S^tes,  he 
returned  in  1805  and  established  himself  in 
Washington.  In  1606  he  propounded  a  scheme 


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BABNABAS 


317 


for  B  natdonsl  acndemj  under  the  pstrooage  of 

EDvemment,  and  the  next  year  ois  "  Colam- 
iad,"  the  fmit  of  the  labor  of  half  hii  life,  ap- 
peared in  a  atjle  which  made  it  the  most  ooetl? 
publication  that  had  yet  been  attempted  in 
America,  being-  illastrated  hy  engraTinga  eze- 
CHted  by  the  iieat  artists  of  London.  A  more 
elaborate  and  declamatory  poem  than  his  "  Vis- 
ion of  Columbns,''  it  yet  never  attained  to  the 
popnlaritv  of  the  latter.  In  its  design  it  was 
nmplj  a  historical  view  of  events  from  the  time 
of  OotomboB  to  the  scenes  of  the  revolution, 
the  great  discoverer  being  represented  ns  seeing 
them  from  his  prison  in  Spain.  In  his  latter 
years  he  was  collecting  materials  for  a  history 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  1811  was  appointed 
Itiy  President  Madison  minister  to  France.  His 
diplomatic  skitl  was  there  in  request,  and  Na- 
poleon, perplexed  by  negotiations  at  the  time 
of  his  Rnsuan  campaign,  sent  for  him  to  meet 
him  at  Wilna.  Barlow  set  off  immediately, 
bnt  died  at  a  cottage  in  Poland  before  accom- 
plishing his  misdon.  His  last  poem,  dictated 
from  his  deathbed,  was  a  powerful  expreeuon 
of  resentment  against  Napoleon  for  the  hopes 
which  he  had  d^ppointed. 

UBLOW,  or  Butoirc,  WMfaUN,  an  English 
theologian,  died  Deo.  10,  1S69.  Before  the 
reformation  he  belonged  to  Hie  order  of  St. 
AagOHtine,  was  elected  prior  of  the  house  at 
Bisham  in  Berks,  and  in  1G36  was'sent  by  Hen- 
ry VUI.  on  an  embassy  to  Scotland,  Securing 
^e  &vor  of  the  king,  he  was  socceesively  ap- 

Eiinted  to  the  bialioprics  of  St.  Asaph,  of  St. 
ftvids,  and  of  Bath  and  Wells.  He  formally 
left  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  married, 
and  daring  the  rei^  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
diatinguiahed  for  his  Protestant  zeal.  Under 
Usry  he  lost  his  bishopric,  and  for  a  time  his 
liberty,  and  retired  t«  Oermany  till  the  accee- 
■ion  of  Elizabeth.  In  1C60  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Chioheste^  and  continued  in  this  see  till 
his  death.  He  left  a  work  entitled  "Cosmo- 
graphy," and  several  slight  controversial  trea- 
tises. He  had  a  nnmerons  family,  and  his  five 
danghters  all  became  the  wives  of  bishops, 

B1EMEC1DE8  (descendants,  of  Barmek),  a 
powerfiil  &mily  of  Ehornsan,  attached  to  the 
Abbaaeide  caliphs.  One  of  them,  Ehaled  ben 
Barmek,  was  tator  of  Haronn  ol-Roshid.  His 
BOD  Yahya  became  the  vizier  of  Haronn  about 
786,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  renown  of 
his  master's  reign.  Of  his  eons,  Fadhl  was 
dittingnished  as  a  soldier  and  as  minister  of 

inatice,  and  Jaffar  flgares  in  the  "Arabian 
[ights"  as  the  friend  and  confidant  of  Haronn. 
At  the  same  time  some  26  members  of  tiie 
family  held  important  civil  and  military  dig- 
nitiee.  The  downfall  of  tlie  Barmecides  took 
place  about  608.  Haronn,  becoming  jealous  of 
the  popularity  and  power  of  the  family,  and 
incensed,  it  is  said,  on  occonnt  of  the  birth  of 
a  son  of  his  raster  Abassa,  whom  he  had  mar- 
ried to  Jaffar  on  condition  that  the  nnion 
should  be  merely  platonic,  caused  JaSar  to  be 
beheaded  at  Anbar,  on  the  Euphrates ;  Yahya 


and  Fadhl  were  thrown  into  prison  at  Bacco. 
where  they  died  in  chains,  while  nearly  all 
their  relatives  were  arrested  and  deprived  of 
their    property.     Ibn  Khaldun  disputes  the 

truth  of  this  story,  which  in  modem  times  has 
afforded  a  theme  to  poeta  and  dramatists.  To 
one  of  the  Barmecides  is  atCriboted  the  &- 
mens  feast  in  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  where  the 
guest  was  served  with  only  imaginary  viands ; 
whence  the  phrase  "  Barmecide  feast." 

lA&HEH,  an  Indastrial  town  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  closely  o^oining  Elberfeld,  and  24  m. 
N,  N.  E.  of  Cologne.  It  is  situated  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Wupper,  and  stretches  along  the 
Bergisch-Hilrkische  railway  over  a  distance  of 
about  e  m,  to  the  frontier  of  Westphalia.  It  is 
divided  into  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Barmen, 
each  of  which  conaists  of  a  number  of  small 
towns  or  villages  which  were  formerly  in- 
dependent, and  which  even  now,  though  all 
absorbed  into  the  town  of  Barmen,  retain  their 
old  names.  In  170S  the  p>pulation  of  the 
vaUey  was  only  3.G00;  in  ISfll  it  was  49,740; 
and  in  1871  it  had  risen  to  74,496.  The  ribbon 
manufacture  is  the  most  important  in  Europe; 


gymnasium-,  also  a  seminary  of  foreign  mis- 
sions belonging  to  the  Rhenish  Westphalian 
missionary  society. 

BiSNABl&  Eptatis  »t,  a  work  purporting  to 
be  written  by  St.  Barnabas.  It  was  known 
early  in  the  Christian  church,  for  it  is  cited 
several  times  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Origen,  and  mentioned  byEusehius  and  Jerome. 
For  several  centories  it  was  lost  sight  of,  until 
Sirmond  in  the  17th  century  discovered  it  at 
the  end  of  a  manuscript  of  one  of  the  epistles 
of  Polycarp.  About  the  same  time  Hu^  Me- 
narduB  disoorered  a  Latin  version  of  it  m  the 
abbey  of  Corvey,  This  was  printed  at  Paris  in 
164B,  The  year  before  Archbishop  Usher  had 
received  a  copy  of  the  MB.,  which  he  annexed 
to  the  Ignati&Q  epistles ;  but  a  f  re  at  Oxford 
destroyed  all  but  a  few  pages.  The  work, 
both  In  Greek  and  in  the  Latin  veruon,  has 
been  several  times  reprinted;  among  others, 
by  Voasiua  in  his  "Ignatian  Epistles"  (1648); 
Russell,  "Apostolio  Fathers"  (1746);  Hefele, 
PalTvm  Apo4tolieoram  Opera  n84S).  It  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Wake,  and  sev- 
eral times  into  German.  All  these  editions 
are  fl^>m  Sirmond's  Greek  text,  in  which  ware 
wanting  the  first  four  chapters  and  a  part  of 
the  fifth,  and  from  the  Corvey  Latin  version, 
where  the  last  five  diapters  were  lacking.  Bnt 
in  1959  Tischendorf  brought  from  Mt,  Sinw  a 
Greek  MS.  of  the  entire  epistie,  divided  into 
21  chapters,  which  was  published  in  his  f^o- 
vum  TeitammiUim  Siiiaitieun  (2d  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1668).  The  best  separate  edition  of  the  epistle 
is  that  of  Hilgeufeld,  with  the  ancient  Latin 
version,  notes,  and  a  commentary  (T^ipsic, 
1886).  An  English  version,  from  the  Corfez 
SiTuiitievt,  appeared  in  the  "  Journal  of  Sacred 
Literature,"  October,  1B68;  reprinted  in  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


81S 


BAENABA8 


"  American  Presbjterian  Review,"  Jann&t? 
and  Jul7,  1864.  A  oommentarj  on  the  epistle, 
bj  1.  G,  Mtlller,  has  been  pablished  as  an  ap- 
pend to  De  Wette'a  Extgetitohet  Bdndfntth 
turn  Neuen  Tettament  (Leipaio,  186S).^Manf 
emioent  critics,  aa  Vosa,  Pearson,  Wake,  Lard- 
ner,  Gieeeler,  Black,  and  others,  hold  that  thia 
epistle  was  written  \>j  Barnabaa,  the  compan- 
ion ffiT  Paul ;  bat  the  cnrrest  of  reoent  opinion 
is  against  its  anthentioitj.  Among  the  ob- 
jections orged  agMAst  it  are ;  1.  It  speaks  of 
the  deatrnction  of  Jernealem,  and  moat  there- 
fore have  been  written  after  A.  D,  70 ;  whorc- 
ae  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  Barnabas  was 
not  living  in  64,  the  earlisst  date  asmgnable  for 
the  martjrdom  of  Paul,  S.  The  work  bears 
internal  evidence  of  having  been  written  hj  a 
gentile,  with  no  sympathy  for  the  Hebrews. 
8.  Barnabas  wasaLevite,  and  jHvanmably  well 
ao<jaainted  with  the  Hebrew  ntnal,  whioh  the 
writer  of  the  epistle  in  many  places  mia- 
repreaents.  4.  His  mode  of  interpretation  is 
piierile.Aod absord.  5.  Heshowshimself  wholly 
nnacqounted  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptnrea,  and 
commits  the  blmider  of  representing  Abraham 
as  familiar  with  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  did 
not  exist  until  oentaries  atler  his  death.  The 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  it  existed  in  the 
Alexandrian  chnrch  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  was  written  by  sorae  one  who  had  stodied 
Philo  and  adopted  his  allegorical  mode  of  inter- 
pratjng  the  Old  Testament.  Sorae  critics  pat 
the  probable  time  of  its  composition  Just  after 
the  deetmctioD  of  Jerusalem;  none  judge  it  to 
be  later  than  A.  D.  120. 

BAUUIS,  Sdat,  a  Chriatiaa  teaeber,  noted 
for  his  early  oonnectioD  witJi  the  apostle  Fanl. 
His  original  name  was  Joses  or  Joseph.  The 
surname  Barnabas  (Gr.  Bapvi^,  from  Ohald. 
Bar'ntbuoA),  signifies  "son  of  prophecy,"  or 
"son  of  exhortation"  (yibt  frapanX^eut,  Acta 
iv.  88).  He  was  born  in  Cyprus  of  Jewish 
parents,  and  possessed  of  property,  which  he 
sold,  giving  the  proceeds  to  the  common 
Christian  innd.  As  this  occorred  soon  after 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  he  must  have  been  one 
of  the  earliest  converts.  When  the  tidings 
reached  Jemsalam  of  the  conversion  of  Sanl, 
Barnabas  waa  sent  to  Antioch,  where  a  gcmtile 
chnrch  had  been  organized,  to  inTestigat«  the 
matter.  He  labored  there  with  Paul  for  a 
year,  and  when  a  contribntion  waa  r^sed  for 
the  poor  brethren  of  Jerusalem,  it  was  sent  up 
by  Barnabas  and  PaoL    They  were  soon  de- 

Jatched  on  a  misdon  to  Cypms  and  Ama  Minor, 
controversy  having  arisen  at  Antioch  r^ 
specting  the  obligation  of  gentiles  to  receive 
tne  rite  of  eircoracision,  thoy  were  deputed  to 
lay  the  matter  before  the  elders  of  Jemsalem. 
Their  representations  indnced  the  elders  to  de- 
cide, notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Petsr, 
that  the  rite  was  not  eseentiu.  Barnabas  and 
Paol  then  proposed  another  missionary  jour- 
ney. Barnabas  wished  to  take  with  them  his 
nephew  Uark.  Paul  objected  to  this,  for  some 
reason  not  assigned ;  bat  as  Mark  is  afterward 


BARNABITEa 

spoken  of  as  the  special  companion  of  Peter,  it 
may  be  that  he  had  sided  with  him  in  the  con- 
troversy aboat  circnmcision.  Tlie  dironte  be- 
came so  sharp  that  a  separation  tooE  place, 
Barnabas  and  Mark  going  to  Cyprus,  while 
Paul,  taking  with  him  Silas,  went  dirongh  Syria 
and  CHicia.  Beyond  this,  witli  the  exceptiixi 
of  three  incidental  allo^ona  in  the  epistles  of 
Penl,  nothina  is  certainly  known  reepecting 
Barnabas.  From  these  it  appears  that  be  waa 
□□married,  and  supported  himself  like  Pan], 
by  some  manual  occupation ;  and  that  he  eo 
far  went  over  to  the  Jadaizing  party  as  for  a 
time  to  keep  aloof  ttom  oommonion  with  the 
gentile  converts.  From  the  &ct  that  the 
heathen  of  Lystra  called  him  Jnpiter,  while 
they  styled  Paul  Mercory  on  aocoiint_of  his 
eloqaeace,  it  has  been  inferred'  that  Biuitabas 
was  a  man  of  imposing  aspect  and  demeanor. 
There  tre  nnmerons  l^^nds  respecting  him, 
none  of  which  can  be  traced  beyond  me  6th 
oentnry.  According  to  one,  be  attempted  to 
preach  in  the  synagogue  at  Salamis,  was  drag- 
ged out  and  stoned  to  death,  and  an  ineS'ectnal 
attempt  was  made  to  bum  his  body.  Mark 
rescued  the  body  and  buried  it  in  a  cave;  bat 
a  persecution  arising,  the  Christians  were  dis- 


heretical  attempt  was  made  to  set  aside  the 
orthodox  bi^op  of  Salamis.  Barnabas  three 
times  appeared  to  the  bishop  in  a  vision,  and 
told  him  where  his  body  might  be  found,  with 
a  oopy  of  Matthew's  Goipel  lying  upon  it. 
Search  was  made,  and  the  body  and  book  were 
found.  A  tradition  wholly  nnsnpported  makes 
Barnabas  the  first  bishop  of  Milan ;  but  Am- 
brose does  not  mention  him  among  the  bishops 
who  had  preceded  him  in  that  see.  The  Roman 
Catholic  church  celebrates  the  festival  of  St. 
Barnabas  on  June  11.  The  church  at  Ton- 
louse  claims  to  posaeas  his  body,  and  there  are 
eight  or  nine  other  chnrchea  which  claim  to 
possess  his  head.  A  spurious  gospel  attributed 
to  Barnabas  exists  in  Arabic,  wluch  has  been 
translated  into  English,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 
It  t4)pears  to  be  a  foi^ry  by  some  heretical 
sect,  with  interpolations  by  Mohammedans.  It 
was  placed  among  the  apocryphal  bo<^  by 
Cotelerins  in  his  edition  of  the  "Apostolic 
Canon,"  and  was  formally  condemned  by  Pq>e 
GelaainsII.  in  1118. 

BIKKABITES,  or  Keffriar  CkAi  tt  St.  Paal,  a 
religions  order,  so  called  from  the  church  of 
St.  Barnabas  in  Milan,  whioh  was  granted  them 
in  1646.  The  order  conwsts  of  two  hraachea, 
formerly  distinct,  bat  united  into  one  during 
the  time  of  St.  Oharles  Borromeo.  Tlie  origin 
of  the  older  branch,  who  were  properly  eaUed 
Ambroaians,  is  uncertun,  bnt  is  sopposed  t^ 
date  from  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XI.  (1870- 
'7S).  The  younger  branch  was  fonnded  in  1GS8 
by  three  priests,  Zaooaria  of  Cremona,  and 
Ferrari  and  Morigia  of  Milan,  for  the  purpose 
of  preaching  and  administering  the  saoramoita 
among  the  populace  of  Milan,  who  had  become 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARNACLE 

mnch  cornpted  hy  the  continual  presence  of  a 
multitude  of  Gorman  soldiers  in  the  cit;,  and 
who  were  also  much  afflicted  by  pestilence. 
In  1B7B  their  constitutions  and  rales  wore  fully 
revised  and  establUhed,  under  tiie  dlreclion 
of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  The  mother  honse 
is  at  present  in  Kome,  and  the  order  hun 
alxiat  30  colleges  in  Italy,  Austria,  and  France. 
UBNlfXE,  a  name  commonly  given  both  to 
the  peduQCQlftted  and  sessile  cirripeds.  By  the 
older  natoraliata  they  were  classed  with  the 
testaceoas  mollnsca,  the  pedancalated  forming 
the  genus  Up<u,  and  the  sessilB  the  genua  baia- 
Ru»  ;  they  are  now  recognized  as  belonging  to 
the  aHieulata.  Those  provided  with  the  Heshy 
peduncle  or  footstalk,  as  well  as  those  without 
It,  are  found  firmly  fixed  below  the  level  of  the 
wat«r  to  the  surface  of  rocks,  shells,  and  float- 
ing anbetances.  AdheriDg  to  the  bottoms  of 
vessela,  they  are  carried  to  almost  all  parts  of 
the  world  and  are  found  in  all  seas,  even  the 


BARNARD 


319 


Goo*e  Borudet  on  s  battle. 

Arctic  ocean.  In  warm  climates  particularly 
tbe  baraaolea  attach  themselves  in  such  num- 
bers to  the  bottom  of  vessels,  eapeoisJly  of 
tboee  not  protected  by  copper,  as  often  to 
retard  their  progress.  Their  bodies  are  enclosed 
in  diella,  white  or  of  a  purplish  blue  color; 
the  pednncle  is  a  fleshy  worm-like  stem,  the 
extremity  of  which  is  fixed  to  the  ol^ect  upon 
which  the  animal  is  stationed.  The  food  of  the 
barnacles  consists  of  small  Crustacea  and  mol- 
lasks;  these  are  entangled  by  the  many-join t«d 
cirri  which  are  perpetually  thrown  out  and 
folded  again,  so  as  to  serve  the  purpose  of 
casting  «  net,  which  drags  the  prey  to  the 
month.  The  young  are  produced  from  eggs, 
which  ore  discharged  by  the  female  in  great 
numbers.  On  emerging  from  the  egg  tbey  are 
quite  free,  possessing  locomotive  organs,  and 
being  furnished  also  with  large  lateral  eyes. 
In  due  time  a  metamorpboeia  tAkes  place,  and, 
asamning  the  shapes  and  habits  of  their  pa- 
7g  VOL.  II. -21 


rents,  they  affix  themselves  to  their  future  per- 
manent place  of  residence.  It  would  appear 
that  the  growth  of  these  animals  is  very  rapid, 
for  a  ship  perfectly  free  of  them  will  re^ru 
alter  a  short  voyage  covered  with  them  below 
the  water  line.  The  fleeh  of  some  of  the  varie- 
ties of  the  barnacle  was  esteemed  by  the  pn- 
cients,  and  at  the  present  day  the  Chinese  cat  it. 
Except  as  to  the  obstmction  of  vessels,  they 
seem  to  be  perfectly  harmless. — ^The  bamocle 
was  in  ancient  times  supposed  to  produce  the 
bird  known  as  the  barnacle  goose.  (See 
Goose.)  It  is  from  this  fabnlons  connection 
with  the  goose  that  the  generic  name  anat\fa 
of  Lamarck  (LaL  aaat,  dock)  is  still  retained 
for  the  true  barnacles,  those  furnished  with 
the  footstalk;  and  bo  of  the  name  anierifera 
or  goose  barnacle  of  Linnfcns  applied  to  one  of 
the  species  of  this  genus,  which  is  colled  Upa». 
(See  CiBBii>SDEa,) 

BiKiriSD,  Frederitk  ligistu  Parter,  LL.  D., 
an  American  scholar  and  edncator,  bom  at 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  in  180S.  Ha  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1826,  became  tntor  there  in 
1829,  in  lesi  teacher  in  the  asylum  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb  at  Hartford,  and  in  188S  in  that 
of  New  York.  From  1887  to  1848  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  Alabama,  and  afterward 
of  chemistry  till  1854.  The  same  year  he  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  church.  He  then  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  and  astrono- 
my in  the  university  of  Mississippi,  of  which 
institution  be  was  etect«d  president  in  1B6S. 
In  1861  Dr.  Barnard  kit  Mississippi,  and  in 
18S4  he  became  president  of  Columbia  college, 
New  York,  which  office  he  still  holds  (I8T8). 
He  was  United  States  commissioner  to  the  uni- 
versal exposition  at  Paris  in  1667,  .and  pub- 
lished an  elaborate  "  Report  on  Machinery  and 
Industrial  Arts"  (New  York,  1869).  His  other 
principal  works  are:  "Treatise  on  Arithme- 
tic" (1880);  "Analytic  Grammar  with  Sym- 
bolic Illustration"  (1836),  originating  a  system 
still  used  in  the  principal  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb;  varioua  reports,  essays,  Ac, 
on  collegiate  and  university  education,  includ- 
ing a  volume  of  "  I.etters  on  Collegiate  Govem- 
ment"(1856);  "History  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey"  (1867);  "Recent  Progress  of 
Science"  (1869);  and  "The  Metric  System" 
(1871).  In  I860he  was  a  member  of  the  astro- 
nomical expedition  to  observe  the  total  eclipse 
of  the  sun  in  Labrador ;  in  186S  was  engaged 
in  continuing  the  reduction  of  Gilliss's  obser- 
vations of  the  stars  in  the  southern  hemisphere; 
and  in  1863  had  charge  of  the  publication  of 
charta  and  maps  of  the  United  States  coast 
survey.  In  1860  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  American  association  for  the  advancement 
of  science:  in  1866  of  the  board  of  experts  of 
the  American  bureau  of  mines;  and  m  187S 
of  the  American  institute.  In  1866  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  ftora  JetFerson  college, 
Miss.,  and  in  18S9  from  Yale  college;  in  18SI 
that  of  D.  D.  from  the  university  of  Misns- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


320 


BARNAED 


rippi;  and  in  1872  that  of  doctor  of  literature 
from  tbe  regents  of  the  nsiversitj  of  the  state 
of  New  York,  lie  ig  a  member  of  varioua 
learned  Bocieties  in  America  and  Europe,  and 
liaa  been  a  contributor  to  the  "American  Jour- 
Qfi]  of  EduoatioQ "  from  its  commencement, 
nod  to  Sillimon'a  "  American  Joanial  of  Sci- 
ance  and  Arts  "  unce  1837. 

BJRNiKD,  Bcu7,  LL.  D.,  an  American  schol- 
ar and  educator,  bom  in  Hartford,  CoDO.,  Jan. 
24,  1811.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in 
1830,  Ktadied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  J885.  From  1887  to  1S40  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legialatare  of  Gonnecticot,  and 
labored  to  secure  the  independence  of  the  ju- 
dioiarj,  the  improvement  of  county  prisons, 
(he  care  of  the  insane  poor,  and  tlie  reorgani- 
zation of  common  Bchooh.  From  1838  to 
1842,  and  again  from  ISQO  to  1854,  he  nae  bq- 
perintendeut  of  schools,  and  revolutionized  the 
construction  of  school  bouses,  estabUshed  pub- 
lic high  schools,  teaobera'  institates,  and  a  nor- 
mal school,  and  improved  the  fljHtem  of  school 
inslmotion.  From  1848  to  1848  he  was  school 
commissioner  of  Rhode  Island,  and  b;  repeat- 
ed visits  to  and  public  addresses  in  different 
states  he  aided  to  set  on  foot  similar  reforms 
elsewhere.  From  1837  to  18Se  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  state  university  of  Wisconan,  and 
in  lBfl5''6  of  SL  John's  college  at  Annapolis, 
Md.  He  labored  to  improve  these  institntions 
by  consolidating  them  with  other  colleges,  thus 
inoreanng  their  resources,  by  establishing  puti- 
llo  high  schools,  and  by  abridging  the  enforced 
conrse  of  study  to  two  years,  and  extending 
the  range  of  optional  studies  to  the  modem 
languages  and  sciences.  From  186T  to  186B 
he  was  United  Stotes  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion, and  brought  about  the  national  recogni- 
tion of  the  educational  interests  of  the  whole 
country,  for  which  be  had  labored  rince  1840. 
He  has  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Har- 
vard, Yale,  and  Union  colleges.  Among  his 
works,  several  of  which  have  passed  through 
many  editions,  are:  "School  Architecture'' 
(1B89) ;  "  National  Education  "  (4  vols.,  1840) ; 
"Normal  Schools  and  Teachers'  Institutes" 
(1880);  "Edacationol  Biography"  (8  vois., 
1867);  "Papers  for  Teachers"  (8  vols.);  "Mil- 
itary Schools,"  and  "  Technical  and  Scientific 
Education."  He  has  olso conducted  tbefollow- 
ing  educational  periodicals :  "  Common  School 
Joomal"  {1838-'43);  "Rhode  Island  School 
Journal"  (1845-'4B);  "American  Journal  of 
Education"  (Hartford,  18S6  et  itq.). 

liUIUD,  JshB  Grsas,  an  American  military 
engineer,  brother  of  President  F,  A.  P.  Barnard, 
bom  in  Berkshire  county,  Mass.,  May  19,  ISlfi. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  engineer  corps,  in  which  he  hss 
since  served,  having  been  promoted  as  follows : 
lieutenant,  1833 ;  captain,  18S8;  brevet  mi^ or, 
1848;  maior,  1868;  brisadier  general  of  volun- 
teers, 1861;  brevet  coFonel,  1862;  lieutenant 
colonel,  18G3;  brevet  m^or  general  of  volnn- 
t^ers,  1864 ;  brevet  brigadier  general  and  bre- 


BABSAUL 

vet  m^or  general  of  the  regular  army,  March 

18,  1865;  colonel  of  the  conis  of  engineers, 
Dec.  28,  186B.  Up  to  1848  lie  was  employed 
as  constructing  engineer  on  the  southern  coasts 
and  at  New  York  and  New  Orleans.  During 
the  war  with  Mexico  he  fortified  Tampico, 
and  made  surveys  of  the  bsttiefields  around 
the  capital.  In  ISiiO-'Cl  he  was  chief  enfi^eer 
for  the  survey  of  the  projected  Tehuantepeo 
railroad,  and  afterwaru  acted  as  enfpneer  of 
various  public  works.    In  1856-'6  he  was  su- 

Eirintendent  of  tiie  military  academy  at  West 
oint,  and  for  the  next  four  years  he  had 
charge  of  the  defences  around  New  York.  At 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  was  intmsted 
with  the  fortificBtions  around  Washington, 
served  as  engineer  for  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
and  finally,  on  the  sUff  of  Gen.  Grant,  as  chief 
engineer  to  the  armies  in  the  field.  He  was 
mnstared  out  of  the  volunteer  aenice  in  1886; 
and,  with  the  actual  rank  of  colonel  of  the 
corps  of  engineers,  he  is  a  member  of  boards 
having  in  charge  the  fortifications  and  harbor 
and  river  obstructions  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  He  has  published  "The  Gyro- 
scope" (1867),  and  "Problems  in  Rotary  Mo- 
tion "  (1872),  two  very  profound  mathematical 
investigations;  "Dangers  and  Defences  of  New 
York  "  (1869) ;  "  Notes  on  Seacoast  Defence  " 
(1861);  "TheC.  8.  A.  and  the  Battle  of  Ball 
Run"  (1862);  and  "Artillery  Operations  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac"  (1868).  In  1864 
the  degree  of  LL,  D.  was  conferred  upon  him 
by  Yale  college.. 

BiKNlBD,  Sir  Jaha,  an  English  merchant, 
born  at  Reading,  Berkshire,  in  1686,  died  at 
Clapham,  Aug.  29,  1764.  His  parents  were 
Quakers,  but  at  the  age  of  19  he  left  the  sect, 
and  was  baptized  into  the  church  of  England. 
He  entered  the  counting-house  of  his  father, 
a  prosperous  wine  merchant,  soon  took  tiie 
chief  management  of  the  business,  became  one 
of  the  most  eminent  traders  of  the  metropolis, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  parliament  for 
the  city  of  London,  which  he  continued  to  rep- 
resent during  nearly  40  years.  He  generally 
opposed  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 

Eile.  In  1728  he  was  chosen  an  alderman  of 
ondoD ;  in  1783  was  knighted,  on  presenting 
to  the  king  a  congratctatory  address  on  his  re- 
turn from  Germany;  in  1786  discharged  the 
duties  of  sheriff;  and  in  1737  became  lord 
mayor.  He  formed  a  plan  for  redudng  the 
national  debt  of  England,  which,  deemed  chl- 
1  merical  at  first,  was  afterward  adopted;  and 
,  during  the  rebellion  in  Scotland  in  1745  be  as- 
{  eisted  in  maintaining  public  credit  by  agreeing 
i  with  the  leading  merchants  of  London  to  re- 
1  ceive  the  notes  of  the  bank  of  England  in  pay- 
ment of  all  debts.  He  retired  from  public  life 
in  1T68.  A  statue  has  been  erected  to  him  in 
the  royal  exchange. 

BIRNICL,  the  chief  town  in  the  mining  dis- 
trict of  the  Altai  mountains  in  Siberia,  lat.  63° 
20'  N.,  Ion.  84°  E.,  on  the  river  Bamaulka,  a 
small  branch  of  the  Obi,  230  m.  S.  by  W.  tf 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABNAVE 

Tomsk ;  pop,  ftbont  12,000.  All  the  gold  ob- 
tained in  Siberia  mast  bu  sent  to  Barnaul  to  be 
smelted,  with  the  exception  of  that  j'ielded  b; 
the  Tablonnoi  monntains.  The  gold-washing 
begins  in  Ma^  and  lasts  till  September,  the 
metal  being  sent  to  Barnaol  once  or  twice  dar- 
ing the  year.  It  then  passes  into  the  control 
of  the  government,  which  in  time  accounts  to 
the  miners  for  its  valae.  The  silver  is  not  sep- 
arated from  the  gold  in  Siberia,  bnt  the  metal 
is  sent  for  that  purpose  to  St.  Petersburg.  The 
smelting  works  at  Bamanl  are  on  a  large  scale, 
and  are  conducted  in  the  most  approred  scien- 
tific manner.  The  governor  of  Tomsk,  who  is 
always  chosen  from  the  mining  engineers,  is 
reanired  to  visit  everjmine  and  smelting  works 
at  least  once  in  two  fears.  Exploring  eipedi- 
tions  are  sent  ont  every  spring,  to  prospect  in 
the  mining  re^ons.  At  Bornant  .there  is  a 
magnetic  observatory,  whence  observations  are 
regnlarly  forwarded  to  St.  Petersburg.  There 
is  also  a  mnsenm,  contdnlng  a  good  coUeotion 
oif  Siberian  minerals,  animals,  and  birds.  The 
market  is  well  supplied.  The  workmen  live  in 
small  wooden  cottages,  and  nearly  all  the  peas- 
ants own  cows  and  horses. 

UKHIVB,  latdM  nsm  Jwcph  Karh,  a  French 
pevolntionist,  born  at  Grenoble,  Oct.  22  1781, 
gnillotined  at  Paris,  Nov.  29,  1793.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  and  at  the  age  of  S3  he 
was  chosen  by  the  bar  of  Grenoble  to  pro- 
novntie  a  diecoarse  at  the  closing  of  the  parlia- 
ment; his  subject  was  tlie  "Division  of  Po- 
litical Powers."  He  distinguished  himself  in 
1788  by  a  pamphlet  against  cert^n  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  king;  and  a  few  months  after 
he  was  elected  a  deputy  of  the  third  estate  in 
the  states  general  which  met  at  Versailles,  May 
4,  1788.  He  supported  the  movement  for  a 
national  assembly,  the  formation  of  the  nation- 
al gnard,  the  abolition  of  all  feodal  privileges, 
the  decloratioQ  of  the  rights  of  man,  the  secn- 
larization  of  the  chnroh  estates,  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  Jews,  the  abolition  of  religions 
orders,  and  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery;  and 
opposed  the  absolute  veto  of  the  ting,  the 
elegibility  to  office  of  members  of  the  national 
assembly,  and  the  conferring  on  the  king  the 
right  of  making  peace  and  war.  On  the  last 
two  questions  he  separated  from  Mirabeau.  In 
October,  1760,  he  was  made  president  of  the 
Bsserably.  On  May  II,  1791,  he  proposed  that 
no  change  should  be  made  in  regard  to  slavery 
without  the  consent  of  the  planters;  he  was 
opposed  by  Robespierre,  Siey^  and  Grfegoire, 
and  defeated.  On  the  flight  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily and  their  arrest  at  Varennes,  he  was  sent 
with  Latonr-Hanbourg  and  Potion  to  bring 
back  the  captives  to  Paris.  From  the  date  of 
this  event  he  was  totally  changed.  He  became 
the  aidvocate  of  the  king  and  queen,  and  miun- 
tained  constant  relations  with  the  latter,  en- 
deayonDg  to  bring  them  into  nnison  with  the 
constitutional  party  in  the  assembly.  He  de- 
ftnded  tbe  inviolability  of  the  royal  person, 
oppoeod  the  proportion  to  give  soldiers  tlie 


BABNES 


321 


right  of  denouncing  their  officers,  spoke  in  be- 
half of  priests  who  denied  the  authority  of  tbe 
assembly,  and  moved  the  order  of  the  day  on 
the  question  of  the  right  of  the  assembly  to  dis- 
miss the  ministers.  He  retired  to  Grenoble  in 
January,  1792,  and  devoted  himself  to  political 
philosophy  and  literature  until  Aug.  29,  when 
ne  was  arrested  on  account  of  a  pamphlet 
found  in  the  king's  cabinet.  He  was  kept  10 
months  in  prison  at  Grenoble ;  was  tran^rred 
to  Paris,  Nov.  3,  1793,  and  was  tried  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal  Nov.  2S,  and  guil- 
lotined the  next  day.  His  last  words  to  the 
people  about  the  scaffold  were:  "Behold  the 
reward  for  all  that  I  have  done  for  liberty." 
A  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the  senate 
house  under  the  consulate,  bnt  on  the  restora- 
tion of  tbe  Bourbons  it  was  removed.  His 
works  have  been  collected  In  four  volumes  by 
it.  B^reoger  (de  la  Drdme). 

BAKNKIT.  L  Apost  village  of  Union  town- 
ship, intheS.  part  of  Ocean  county,  N.J.  It  lies 
oil  Double  creek,  near  the  inlet  of  tbat  name, 
1  m.  from  Bamegat  b^.  It  has  excellent  sea 
bathing,  and  an  abundance  of  wild  fowl.  II. 
A  hay  on  tbe  E.  border  of  Ocean  county,  N.  J., 
extends  N.  from  below  Bamegat  inlet  to  the 
mouth  of  Metetecunk  river.  It  is  about  2S  m. 
long,  and  from  1  to  4  m.  wide.  Metetecunk, 
Toms,  and  Forked  rivers,  and  Kettle  and  Oedar 
creeks,  discharge  into  it.  Bquan  beach  and 
Island  beach,  strips  of  sandy  land  from  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  separate  it  from 
the  ocean.    Its  entrance  is  about  a  mile  wide. 

BIKKES,  llbert,  sn  American  theologian,  born 
at  Rome,  N.  T.,  Dec.  1,  1798,  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, Dec.  24, 1870.  He  graduated  at  Hamil- 
ton college  in  1820,  intending  to  becrane  a 
lawyer ;  bnt  considering  it  his  duty  to  enter 
the  ministry,  be  studied  at  tlie  Princeton  the- 
oli^cal  seminary,  and  in  1833  was  licensed  to 
preach.  lie  officiated  in  various  chnrches  till 
1830,  when,  being  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  of  Morristown,  N.  J.,  he  was  called  to 
the  first  Presbyterian  church  of  Philadelphia, 
in  which  charge  he  remained  till  18fl7,  when 
he  resigned  it  in  consequence  of  failing  health 
and  the  almost  total  loss  of  his  eyesight.  Mr. 
Barnes  was  distinguished  as  an  eloquent  preach- 
er and  faithful  pastor,  and  was  the  author  of 
many  books.  lie  is  best  known  by  his  "  Notes  " 
on  various  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  ori^nally 
prepared  as  lectures  to  bis  own  congregation. 
The  book  of  Psalms  was  always  a  favorite 
study,  and  his  notes  upon  this  are  highly  esteem- 
ed (new  ed.,  8  vols.  ISmo,  New  York,  1868-'9). 
He  also  pnblishcd  notes  on  Job,  Isaiah,  and 
Daniel.  But  his  reputation  as  a  commentator 
rests  mainly  upon  bis  notes  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment^ comprisit^  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  all 
the  Episties.  They  are  especially  adapted  for 
the  use  of  Sunday  schools  and  Bible  classes, 
and  have  been  widdy  adopted  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Great  Britain.  No  other  works 
of  this  class  have  ever  bad  so  wide  a  circulation. 
Several  editions  have  been    published,  with 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


822  BAKNES 

slight  emeadatioiia ;  and  at  his  death  he  had 
completed  a  new  revision,  with  additions,  em- 
bodying the  results  of  the  latest  reBearGhes, 
The  pnblicatioD  of  tliis  edition  was  completed 
in  1872  (6  vols.  12rao,  New  York).  During 
the  diaousBiona  which  led  to  the  temporary 
disruption  of  the  Preabyterisn  ohnrch,  Mr, 
Barnes  was  arrai^ed  on  a  charge  of  heresy, 
based  mainlj  upon  some  passages  in  hia  "  Notes 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans."    He  was  oo- 

Snitted,  but  was  recommended  to  change  a 
iw  espreasions  which  were  thought  liable  to 
muconstruction ;  this  was  done,  but  the  alter- 
ation involved  no  substantial  variations  of  opin- 
ion from  his  earlier  form  of  expression,  when 
the  Presbyterian  church  was  divided,  be  re- 
mained with  the  New  School  branch.  The  de- 
gree of  D.  D.  was  repeatedly  conferred  upon 
faiin,  but  was  deetined.  Be^des  his  work  as 
paetor  and  commentator,  Mr.  Barnes  took  a 
firm  though  moderate  part  in  the  movement 
against  slavery  in  America.  He  also  wrote 
largely  for  periodicals,  and  published,  besides 
the  worka  mentioned,  an  excoUent  introduc- 
tory essay  to  "Butler's  Analogy,"  "Scriptural 
Views  of  Slavery,"  "  The  Way  of  Salvation," 
"The  Atonement,"  "Claims  of  Episcopacy," 
"Church  Manual,"  "  Lectures  on  tne  Eviden- 
ces of  Christianity  in  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
"Prayers  for  Family  Worship,"  his  "Defence" 
when  on  trial  npon  charge  of  heresy,  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  a  series  of  Sunday 
school  qaestion  books. 

BARNES,  TbtBas,  an  English  Joumaliat,  bom 
about  1T86  died  May  7, 1841.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ's  hospital,  London  (where  lelgb  Hunt 
was  his  contemporary),  and  at  Pembroke  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  after  having  pnblished 
some  powerful  political  letters  in  the  "  Times  " 
newspsper,  he  succeeded  Dr.  (afterward  Sir 
Jolin)  Stoddart  in  the  e^torship,  which  posi- 
tion he  continued  to  occupy  for  nearly  2G  years, 
fiuallyhecomingone  of  the  proprietors.  Among 
the  best  leaders  from  bis  pen  was  that  on  the 
character  of  George  IV.,  which  accompanied 
the  obituary  notice  of  that  monarch,  and  a  se- 
vere analyns  of  the  character  of  I^ord  Broug- 
ham, snggested  by  the  premature  announcement 
of  his  death  in  1889. 

BlUIES,  WIlUiB,  an  English  poet  and  phi- 
lologist, bom  in  Dorsetshire  in  1810.  His&m- 
lly  were  farmers,  his  means  of  edecation  were 
limited,  and  his  philological  learning  was  the 
result  of  study  late  in  life.  He  was  for  a 
while  a  teacher  in  Dorsetshire,  became  carate 
of  Whitcombe  in  1847,  and  rector  of  Winter- 
bourn  Came  in  1862.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Poems  in  the  Dorset  Dialect"  (1864)  and 
"Poema  of  Rural  Life"  (1868).  Among  his 
philolo^cal  and  scientifio  works  are :  a  "  Gram- 
mar of  the  Dorset  Dialect ;"  a  "  Philological 
Grammar,"  groonded  npon  English  and  formed 
from  a  comparison  of  more  than  60  language*; 
"Hev,  or  a  View  of  the  Roots  and  Stems  of 
the  English  as  a  Teutonic  Tongoe ;"  "  An  Au- 
glo-SaxoD  Dilectus;"   "Views  of  Labor  and 


BARNEY 

Gold;"  and  a  treatise  on  linear  perspective  and 
the  projection  of  shadows. 

BARNEVELDT,  Jam  Vaa  OHh,  grand  pennon- 
ary  of  Holland,  bom  at  Amersfoort,  SepL  14, 
1647,  beheaded  at  the  Hague,  May  IS,  1616. 
After  studying  law  and  divinity  five  years  he 
began  to  practise  law  at  the  Hague  in  1669, 
and  soon  became  known  as  on  able  lawyer. 
He  served  in  the  army  against  the  Spanitu^ 
and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Haarlem 
in  1573.  In  158,1,  after  the  death  of  Williain 
of  Orange,  he  beaded  a  depntation  which  offer- 
ed the  sovereignty  of  the  Dutch  provinces  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  queen  refused  the  ofi'er, 
hut  sent  a  force  under  the  earl  of  Leicester  to 
their  assistance.  Barneveldt  was  soon  after- 
ward appointed  advocate  general  or  grand  pen- 
sionary of  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  and 
became  leader  of  the  repoblicsn  party  which 
favored  subordinating  the  stadtholder  to  the 
legislature.  He  opposed  the  influence  which 
the  earl  of  I^icester  was  guning,  and  in  order 
to  limit  his  military  power  had  tho  dignity 
of  stadtholder  conferred  on  the  young  Prince 
Maurice,  son  of  William  of  Orange.  In  1603 
he  was  one  of  an  embassy  to  James  L,  and 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  secret  aid  of  Eng- 
land and  France  against  Spain.  In  the  reli^ous 
strife  between  the  GomarisU  and  Arminians, 
which  began  in  1604  and  soon  included  all 
the  clergy  and  laity  of  Holland,  Bameveldt, 
who  with  most  of  the  eminent  scholars  and 
statesmen  of  the  country  favored  the  more 
litteral  views  of  the  Arminians,  endeavored  to 
reconcile  the  two  fitctions,  now  npon  the  point 
of  war,  by  a  conference  of  ecclesiastics,  which 
resulted  in  a  declaration  of  general  toleration 
on  the  dispnted  points  In  this  the  states  con- 
curred, and  in  1614  an  edict  was  issued  eigoin- 
ing  peace.  But  Hanrice,  now  Bameveldt's 
great  rival,  being  at  the  head  of  the  niilitaf7 
party  wbico  had  favored  a  prosecution  of  the 
war  with  Spain,  while  Barneveldt  had  in  1609 
concluded  a  truce  of  12  years,  procured  the 
summoning  of  the  council  of  Dort,  Nov.  18, 
1618,  which  condemned  entirely  the  Anninian 
doctrines.  Barneveldt  and  his  friend  Grotins 
had  already  been  arrested  at  the  instigatimi 
of  Maurice  in  the  beginning  of  that  year.  His 
trial  soon  followed  Qie  decision  of  the  synod, 
and  was  a  mere  farce,  it  having  been  already 
determined  that  he  should  die.    He  was  found 


headed.  As  grand  pen»onary,  which  office  he 
held  until  the  year  before  his  death,  be  con- 
ducted through  peace  and  war  the  afiairs  of 
the  commonwealth  with  great  ability;  and  in 
the  conflicts  of  reli^ous  factions  he  advocated 
the  most  enlightened  measures  of  toleration  and 
fteedom.  Histwo  sons  formed  a  plot  to  avenge 
bis  death  by  assassiusting  Maurice.  The  con- 
spiracy being  detected,  one  of  them  escaped, 
while  the  other  was  seized  and  executed, 

BiENET,  iMku,  an  American  naval  officer, 
bom  in  Baltimore,  July  8,  1769,  died  in  Pitts- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABHI 

burgb,  Penn.,  Dec  1,  1818.  When  tbe  war 
of  the  reTOlndoD  began  he  was  appointed  mas- 
ter's mate  in  the  doop  of  war  Hornet,  and  in 
1776,  when  Bcaroe  17  j'eara  of  age,  was  made 
UentenaD  t  for  his  goilao  t  condnct  in  the  sobooner 
Wasp,  which  oaptnred  the  British  brig  Tender  in 
Delaware  bay.  Boon  after  this  he  embarked 
in  the  Sachem,  and  was  placed  on  board  a  oap- 
tnred vessel  as  prize  master,  bnt  was  captured  b; 
the  Perseus  ofSD^DS,  and  exobanged.  In  1777 
he  joined  the  Virginia  frigate,  which  was  taken 
by  ttie  British,  having  run  aground  in  getting 
to  sea.  He  was  again  exchanged,  and  joined  a 
privateer  which  sailed  in  November,  1778,  for 
France,  and  on  her  return  took  a  valuable 
prize,  srrivlng  at  Philadelphia  in  1779.  He 
snbseqnenUy  sailed  in  the  Saratoga,  of  10  gnns, 
Oapt.  Toung,  which  fell  in  with  the  ship 
Charming  Mollj  and  two  brigs,  and  took  them. 
Barney  headed  the  boarders  thrown  aboard 
the  Molly,  and  was  placed  in  one  of  the  prizes, 
bnt  on  the  following  day  all  three  were  retaken 
by  the  Intrepid,  74,  Barney  remained  a  pris- 
oner in  England  for  some  time,  hat  at  length 
escaped,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia  in  March, 
1783.  He  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
tbe  Hyder  Ali,  a  small  vessel  of  16  guns,  and 
enoonntering  off  the  capes  of  the  Delaware  the 
Gen.  Monk,  of  20  gnns,  took  her  after  a  hot 
fight  of  less  tlian  half  an  hour.  For  this 
the  legislatnre  of  Pennsjlvania  presented  him 
a  Bwo^,  and  he  was  app<rfnted  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Gen.  Monk,  and  sailed  for  France 
in  November,  1783.  He  returned  to  Philadel- 
phia with  a  large  snm  of  money  lent  by  the 
French  government,  and  the  information  that 
preliminaries  of  peace  had  been  signed.  In 
1795  he  was  commisuoned  as  captain  in  the 
French  service,  but  gave  np  his  command  in 
ISOO,  and  returned  home.  On  the  declaration 
of  war  agwnst  Great  Britain  in  IS12,  he  was 
appointed  hy  congress  to  the  command  of  the 
flotilla  which  defended  Chesapeake  bay.  He 
also  look  part  in  the  battle  of  Bladensbnrg,  and 
was  severely  wonnded.  A  eword  was  voted 
to  lum  by  the  corporation  of  Washington,  and 
thanks  by  the  lef^slature  of  Georgia.  In  1818 
he  determined  to  emigrate  to  Eientnoky,  bnt 
on  his  way  was  taken  ill  and  died. 

BUHl,  Jilta  iMiila,  a  French  author,  bom 
in  lille,  June  1,  1818.  He  was  for  some  time 
secretary  of  Victor  Cousin,  and  since  1861  he 
has  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  acad- 
emy of  Geneva.  He  translated  the  principal 
works  of  Kant  into  French,  with  critical  com- 
ments and  explanations  (]B86-'fi5);  published 
several  acddemic  disoonrses  under  the  title  of 
Lt*  martyre*  cU  la  libre  pentae  (IBSS);  and 
wrote  Bittoire  de*  idee*  morale*  et  politique* 
en  FranM  aaXVIII-  liieU  (3  vols.,  1866). 

BAUSIXT,  a  market  town  and  municipal 
borongh  of  Torkshire,  England,  13  m.  N.  of 
Sheffield,  and  1 7  m.  S.  by  £.  of  Leeds ;  pop.  in 
1871,  23,021.  It  has  a  spacious  market  place, 
extensive  manufactures  of  linen,  yarn,  and 
drills,  a  glass  factory,  iron  founder/,  needle  and 


BABNUU  323 

vrlre  works,  dyeing  and  coal  works.    Bamsley 

communicates  with  Wakefield  and  Leeds  by 
the  Bamsley  canal,  which  connects  the  Cal- 
der  and  Don.  Near  it  are  the  remains  of 
Monk  Briton  priory. 

BARNFTTiBLE.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Massa- 
chusetts, con«sting  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape 
Ood  and  several  small  islands,  joining  Plymouth 
county  on  the  N.W.,  bounded  E.  and  8.  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  8.  W.  by  Buzzard's  bay, 
and  including  Cape  Cod  bay ;  area,  390  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  82,774.  The  surface  is  generally 
low  and  level,  and  there  are  numerous  clear 
sandy-bottomed  ponds  without  outlet  The 
soil  is  light,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  cape 
sandy,  and  in  great  part  covered  with  beach 
grass.  Cranberries  are  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  swamp  lands.  The  forests  are  chiefly 
of  pine.  Seafaring  is  the  principal  occapatjon 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  county  communicates 
with  Boston  and  other  cities  by  the  Capie  Cod 
railway  and  its  branches.  It  has  4  or  S  banks, 
0  weekly  newspapers,  184  public  schools,  3 
woollen  mills,  2  glass  works,  B  tanneries,  1  saw 
mill,  &c.  In  1866  there  were  28  vessels  en- 
gaged in  the  whale  fishery,  814  in  the  mack- 
erel and  cod  fishery,  and  813  in  the  coastwise 
or  carrying  trade.  In  1870  the  county  pro- 
duced 3,648  bushels  of  rye,  13,069  of  com, 
4,019  of  oats,  3,065  of  barley,  11,346  of  pota- 
toes, and  3,873  tons  of  hay.  IL  A  town,  port 
of  enttr,  and  capital  of  tjie  preceding  county, 
ntnated  on  the  8.  side  of  Bomstable  bay,  on 
the  Cape  Ood  railroad,  65  m.  S,  E.  of  Boston ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,708.  It  has  a  hank,  a  savings 
institution,  an  insurance  company,  a  weekly 
newBp^>er,  and  several  ohnrches  and  good 
schools.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  empl6yed 
in  flaheries  or  in  coasting. 

B1BN8T1PLE,  a  parliamentary  and  mnnieipal 
borough,  seaport,  market  town,  and  parish  of 
Devonshire,  England,  on  the  Taw,  fi  m.  from 
its  mouth  in  Barnstaple  or  Bideford  harbor,  on 
the  N,  W.  coast,  and  84  m.  N.  W.  of  Exeter; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1871, 11.260.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  fonnded  by  King  Athelstan.  It 
is  well  bnilt,  has  an  ancient  church,  a  grammar 
school,  where  Bishop  Jewell  and  the  poet  Gay 
were  taught,  a  mechanics'  institute,  t^neries, 
potteries,  iron  founderies,  paper  mills,  and  man- 
ufactories of  woollen  cloths,  cotton  lace,  and 
nets.  The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted 
with  gas.  Tbe  weekly  market  held  here  ia 
the  principal  one  of  North  Devon,  and  there  is 
also  a  celebrated  cattle  fair  in  September. 

BiBim,  niMW  Tarler,  an  American  specu- 
lator, bom  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  July  S,  1810.  His 
father  was  an  innkeeper  and  country  merchant, 
and  from  the  age  of  IS  to  18  the  son  was  in 
business  in  various  parts  of  Connecticut,  and 
also  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Having  accumulated 
a  small  sum  of  money,  he  returned  to  Bethel 
and  opened  a  small  store.  Here  he  was  very 
successful,  especially  after  adding  several  lot- 
tery schemes  to  bis  other  sources  of  income. 
After  his  marriage  in  18S9  be  became  editor  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


S24 


BARNWELL 


the  "Herald  of  Freedom,"  palilished  in  D&n- 
bury,  CoDQ.  In  1834  be  removed  to  New 
York,  his  propertj  having  become  much  re- 
duced. Here  he  tried  manj  ways  to  obtain  a 
livelihood,  but  without  aucceas  till  1885,  when, 
hearing  of  Joyce  lletii,  a  colored  woman  then 
on  exhibitioD  in  Pliiludelphia  as  the  reputed 
Durse  of  George  Washington,  be  bought  her  for 
$1,000,  and  created  some  excitement  by  wide 
advertiaiag,  bo  that  the  receipts  soon  amounted 
to  $1,600  a  weeic  Ue  now  collected  a  small 
compony  and  travelled  throngh  the  country, 
realizing  lorg^  Burns.  In  1S36  Joyce  Heth  died, 
nod  a  post-mortem  aiamination  proved  her  to 
have  iMen  but  75  or  80  years  old,  instead  of 
161,  which  was  her  reputed  age.  From  1830 
til  16S9  Mr.  Bamum  continued  in  the  sliow 
business,  but  then  returned  to  New  York,  again 
reduced  to  poverty.  In  1B41,  although  with- 
out a  dollar  of  his  own,  he  purchased  t£e  estab' 
lishment  known  as  Scudder^s  American  Muse- 
tun,  and  in  December  took  possession.  At  the 
end  of  a  year  he  was  able  to  pay  for  it,  and  in 
1848  he  had  added  to  it  two  other  extensive 
collections  beiiidea  several  minor  ones.  In  1 842 
Mr.  Barnum  first  heard  of  Charles  S.  Stratton 
of  Bridgeport,  then  f  ve  years  old,  less  than  two 
feet  high,  and  weighings  only  IS  pounds,  who 
soon  become  known  to  the  world  under  Mr. 
Bamum'e  direction  as  Gen,  Tom  Thumb,  and 
was  exhibited  in  the  United  States  and  Earope 
with  great  snccess.  In  1846  Mr,  Uamura,  after 
much  negotiation,  engaged  Jenny  Lind  to  sing 
in  America  for  ISO  nighta,  at  $1,000  a  night. 
A  concert  company  waa  formed  to  accompany 
lier,  and  the  gross  receipts  of  the  tour  in  1850- 
'51  were  over  $700,000,  upon  which  Mr.  Bar- 
nnm  made  a  large  profit.  In  1855,  after  hav- 
ing been  connected  with  many  enterprises  be- 
udes  those  named,  he  built  a  villa  at  Bridge- 
port, retired  from  business,  and  published  "The 
Life  of  P.  T.  Bamnm,  written  by  Himself."  A 
fiill  autobiography  under  the  title  of  "  Btrng- 
giee  and  Triumphs"  (8vo,  Hartford),  appeared 
m  ISSO.  IJiifortuiiat«  investments  having  made 
him  a  bankrupt  in  tlie  latter  part  of  1857,  he 
once  more  took  charge  of  his  old  museum, 
and  conducted  it  till  1865,  when  it  was  burned. 
Another  which  lie  opened  was  also  burned. 
Since  this  event  he  has  t>een  interested  in  other 
enterprises  in  New  York  and  in  a  travelling 
exhibition  of  animals  and  curiosities,  and  has 
retrieved  bis  losses.  He  w.as  an  unsuccessful 
republican  candidate  for  congress  in  Connec- 
ticut in  ISItS.  Mr.  Bamnm  has  frequently  ap- 
peared as  a  public  lecturer  on  temperance  and 
on  the  practical  affairs  of  life,  and  has  publish- 
ed, in  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  works, 
"The  Humbugs  of  the  World"  (12mo,  New 
York.  18S5). 

BIBXWELL,  a  8.  W.  county  of  South  Caro- 
lina, bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Edisto  river, 
and  separated  from  Georgia  on  tlie  S.  W.  by 
the  Savannah;  area,  1,650  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
85,724,  of  whom  22,148  were  colored.  Its  S. 
portion  is  watered   by  the    Big  nud   Little 


BABODA 

Salkehatehie  rivera.  The  surface  is  billy, 
and  the  soil  productive  near  the  rivera.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5S,879  huekels 
of  wheat,  781,064  of  Indian  com,  70,106  of 
oats,  181,871  of  peas  and  beans,  227,666  of 
sweet  potatoes,  360,240  gallons  of  moiaases, 
24,910  bales  of  cotton,  and  1,544,784  lbs.  of 
rice.    Capital,  Barnwell  Court  House. 

BlKOCeiO,  or  Barwd,  FlaH  Federlgw,  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  bom  at  Urbino  in  1628,  died  there, 
Sept.  81,  1612.  In  his  youth  he  studied  the 
works  of  Titian,  and  in  1649  went  to  Home  to 
see  those  of  Raphael.  In  1660  he  was  intrast' 
ed  by  Pius  IV.  with  the  decoration  of  the  Bel- 
vedere palace,  and  some  of  the  Roman  paints 
ers,  envious  of  his  genius,  invit«d  him  to  a 
banquet,  where  they  gave  him  poison.  For  four 
years  be  was  not  able  to  toucu  his  pencil,  and 
afterward  could  only  work  two  hount  a  day. 
His  later  pictures  are  in  the  style  of  Correg^o. 
His  ''  Last  Supper,"  "  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
"St.  Francis  stigmatized,"  "Christ  and  Ma^- 
daien,"  and  "Annunciation"  are  among  his 
best  productions. 

BAKOiCH,    See  Bboa.oh. 

BUOCHE,  Plcnc  Jika,  a  French  statesman, 
bom  in  Paris,  Nov,  18,  1802.  He  became  a 
lawyer,  and  bad  acquired  great  celebrity  as  an 
advocate — particQlBrly  as  the  defender  of  Co- 


the  duke  d'Aumale,  and  Joseph 
Henry,  indicted  for  an  attempt  opon  the  life  of 
Lonis  Philippe — when  in  1847  he  was  elected 
by  the  town  of  Rochefort  to  the  cliamber  of 
deputies.  He  attached  himself  to  the  oppo- 
sition, and  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the 
act  of  impeachment  presented  by  Odilon  Bar- 
rot  against  the  Gnizot  cabinet,  for  prohibiting 
the  reform  banquet  in  the  12th  arrondiseement 
of  Paris.  Being  elected  a  member  of  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  he  was  most  emphatic  in  his 
declarations  of  fealty  to  the  republic,  bnt  noon 
leaned  towoi'd  the  Bonapartists.  Reflected  to 
the  legislative  assembly  in  May,  1849,  he  was 
made  by  Louis  Napoleon  home  secretary  March 
16, 1850,  and  a  few  days  later  changed  this  post 
for  that  of  secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  He  fa- 
vored the  covp  iTitat  of  Dec.  2,  1861,  and  on 
the  establishment  of  the  empire  was  appointed 
vice  president  of  the  council  of  state.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  privy  council  nominated  by  im- 
perial decree  of  Feb.  1,  1868,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  council  of  regency  in  the  contin- 
gency of  the  emperor's  death.  In  1860  he  was 
for  a  short  time  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
in  1863  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice 
and  public  worship,  retaining  that  office  till 
July,  1860.  Among  his  most  important  acts 
in  this  capacity  were  the  publication  of  a  de- 
cree forbidding  the  bishops  to  promulgate  the 
papal  syllabus  in  1866,  and  a  circular  recom- 
mending the  public  prosecutors  to  observe 
great  moderation  in  enforcing  the  new  press 
law.    He  was  created  a  senator  in  1864. 

BlBODli    ■•  A  district  in  the  province  of 
Guzerat,  British  India,  forming  the  territory 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAEOMETER 


325 


of  ft  native  prince  called  the  Gaicowu-,  and 
Iring  between  laL  21°  and  28°  N.  and  Ion. 


the  district,  see  Gceebat.  Baroda 
nnder  the  nile  of  the  famil?  of  the  Gnicowara 
since  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century,  before 
which  period  ita  history  is  not  reconjcd.  In 
17S0  the  East  India  company  made  a  treaty  of 
amitj  with  the  prince  then  reignine,  Futteh 
Sing  Guicowar,  but  kept  up  a  merely  formal 
interconrse  with  him  and  his  Buccessore  till 
1802,  when,  a  rebellion  taking  place  in  the  dis- 
trict, the  ruling  Guicowar  ai)plied  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Bombay  fur  aid.  From  this  time  till 
1820  a  series  of  similar  appeals  and  of  treaties 
brought  Baroda  gradoally  under  the  protection 
of  the  British,  who  al.40  became  answerable  for 
tertain  debta  of  the  Guicowar.     In  1B28,  on 


his  failure  to  discharge  these,  the  East  India 
company  Mqnestrated  a  portion  of  his  territory ; 
bnt  after  some  years  the  matter  waa  arranged, 
and  the  district  nominally  restored  to  the  native 
rule.  A  strong  British  force  is  however  kept 
in  t)ie  Guicowar's  dominiona,  and  Baroda  is  in 
fact,  like  tlieotlier  native  dependenciesia  India, 
a  tribatary  state.  U*  The  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding district,  in  lat  22°  16'  N.,  Ion.  T8°  15' 
E.,  on  the  Biswamintri  river,  which  is  crossed 
near  the  city  by  the  only  bridge  in  the  province, 
231  m.  N.  of  Bombay;  pop.  140,000.  The  for- 
tifications of  Ilie  town,  thoQgh  ancient,  are  un- 
important in  a  military  point  of  view.  The 
houses  are  generally  of  wood,  and  Lave  several 
stories.  The  two  principal  streets  run  at  right 
angles  to  one  another,  crossing  at  the  market 
place  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The  palace  of 
the  Guicowar,  the  boose  of  the  British  resident, 


and  the  market  hoase  are  the  principal  buildings. 
Baroda  was  formerly  a  very  important  seat  of 
bade,  and  of  various  industries;  but  since  1830 
its  prosperity  baa  declined,  and  although  it  still 
carries  oo  a  considerable  commerce  with  tbe 
comitrT'  immediateir  about  it,  it  baa  no  note- 
worthy mwufactures. 

BUOHTTEB  (Or.  pipe;,  weight,  and  /ifrpov, 
a  measure),  an  instrument  nsed  for  determin- 
ing tbe  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  doc- 
trine of  a  plenum  in  natural  philosophy,  and 
tbe  abhorrence  of  nature  for  a  vacuum,  hod 
long  been  too  fully  established  in  the  old  sys- 
tema  to  admit  the  possibility  of  a  vacuum, 
when  Galileo,  toward  tbe  close  of  his  life,  was 
requested  to  explain  why  water  could  nut  be 
rsued  in  a  suction  pomp  more  than  abont 
82  feet.  He  was  led  to  admit  that  nature's 
abhotrence  of  a  racuuin  diil  not  exceed  the 


Eressure  of  a  column  of  water  82  feet  high ; 
ut  subsequently,  as  mentioned  in  the  last 
of  his  dialogues,  he  devised  an  experiment  to 
ascertain  the  power  of  a  vacuum.  This  con- 
sisted in  applying  weights  to  a  piston  closely 
fitting  in  a  smooth  tube,  placed  in  an  inverted 
position,  to  see  what  weight  would  draw  it 
down;  and  previous  to  his  death  be  recom- 
mended  to  his  pupil  Torricelli  to  continue  these 
investigations.  The  deciuve  experiment,  made 
by  Torricelli,  and  called  after  him  the  Torri- 
cellian experiment,  was  in  ascertaining  tbe 
length  of  a  column  of  mercury  sustained  by 
the  same  cause,  whatever  it  might  be,  which 
supported  the  column  of  wat«r.  The  weight 
of  tbe  mercury  being  about  14  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  water,  the  height  of  tJie  two 
columns,  he  reasoned,  should  be  proportional 
to  thdr  weights,    filling  a  gloss  tube  three 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAROUETER 


feet  or  more  in  len^h  vith  meroary,  end  clos-  [ 
isK  tiie  open  end  with  his  finger,  he  introdnced  ' 
thu  bj  isverting  the  tnbe  under  tha  stirf&ce  of 
meronry  in  a  bann.  On  removing  the  finger, 
the  mercmT'  in  the  tabe  sank  down,  and  aAer 
osoUUting  stood  at  abont  28  inches  above  the 
BDT&ce  of  that  in  the  ve»el,  leaving  in  the  upper 
end  a  vacant  apace.  (Seefig.  I.)  Tor- 
rioelli  continued  bis  eiperimenla,  Jiy-J. 
and  discovered  the  flnctnatioDB  in 
the  height  of  the  colmnn  of  mer- 
onrj  canaed  hy  the  ohangeB  of  the 
weather,  and  in  1646  an  account  of 
bis obsarvationswaa published;  bnt 
he  soon  after  died,  before  bis  great 
discover;  was  fall;  completed.  The 
Bolnect  was  token  up  with  great 
zeal  bj  Pascal  at  Rouen  in  France. 
It  occurred  to  him  that  if  it  were 
the  atmoepheric  preasore  which  sap- 
ported  the  column  of  mercarj  or 
water,  the  height  of  the  oolnmn 
should  be  lessened  as  the  pressure 
is  reduced  b;  ascending  to  greater 
elevations  above  the  surface.  He 
commonioated  bis  views  to  bis 
brother-in-law  P^rier,  who  lived  at 
Olermont  in  Auvergne,  near  the 
high  conical  mountain  of  Pu;-de-DOme,  with 
the  request  that  be  should  test  the  theory 
upon  this  elevation.  This  was  not  accomplish- 
ed, however,  tiU  Sept.  16,  1M8.  Purler  at  this 
time,  provided  witn  mercury  and  tubes,  ob- 
served in  the  garden  of  a  mooasterj  in  the 
lowest  part  of  Clermont  the  height  at  which 
the  mercury  stood  in  two  tubes,  which  was  26 
French  inches  and  8f  lines.  Leaving  one  of 
the  barometers  to  be  noticed  in  his  absence, 
be  took  the  other  up  the  mountain,  and  at  the 
summit  found  the  height  of  the  column  was 
only  28  inches  and  2  lines.  At  lower  points, 
as  he  descended,  the  mercnry  rose  in  the  tube, 
and  at  the  base  it  occupied  the  same  space  in 
the  tube  as  at  first  This  was  the  first  observa- 
tion ever  made  upon  the  difierent  pressures  of 
the  atmosphere  at  different  elevations.  P6rier 
repeated  the  experiment  upon  the  highest 
tower  of  Clermont;  and  Pascal,  on  learning 
the  result,  made  similar  observations  upon  the 
top  of  a  high  house  and  tbe  beliry  of  a  charch 
in  Paris.  Satisfied  with  the  results,  he  soon 
proposed  this  process  for  determining  dif' 
ferences  of  elevation.  Attention  began  now 
to  be  directed  to  the  variations  in  tbe  height 
of  the  mercurial  column  caused  by  the  atmo- 
spheric changes.  Otto  Guericke,  an  ingenious 
and  wealthy  burgomaster  of  HE^ebnrg,  con- 
trived a  gigantic  barometer  for  indicating  tlie 
state  of  tlie  weather.  It  was  a  glass  tnbe  near- 
ly Hlled  with  water,  SO  feet  in  length,  placed 
within  the  wall  of  his  house  and  rising  above 
the  roof,  the  lower  end  terminating  in  a  cistern 
of  water.  In  the  upper  part,  which  was  of 
larger  dimensions  than  the  rest,  was  placed 
the  figure  of  a  man,  large  enough  to  be  visible 
from  the  street.    In  fine  weather  this  figure, 


floating  upon  tbe  sarbce  of  the  water,  appeared 
in  full  size  above  the  roof;  but  as  the  fluid  sub- 
sided with  tbe  change  of  weather,  the  manikin 
withdrew  into  the  building. — ^From  the  ori^- 
nal  invention  of  the  barometer  to  the  present 
time,  the  ingenuity  of  tbe  most  distinguished 
men  of  science  has  been  exercised  in  improving 
its  construction.  Numerous  modifications  of 
its  form  have  been  contrived,  and  yet  those 
now  most  approved  are  but  slightly  varied 
from  tlie  straight  inverted  tube  of  Torrlcelli, 
and  tbe  siphon  tube  also  proposed  by  him. 
The  liquid  selected  by  him  is  still  preferred  to 
all  others  by  reason  of  the  required  weight  of 
it  occupying  so  little  space.  It  is  also  not 
liable  to  be  volatilized  by  slight  elevations  <^ 
temperatnre,  and  thus  fill  with  its  vapor  tbe 
vacant  space  in  the  top  of  the  ^^ 

tube.  The  simplest  form  of  tbe  ^F 

instrument  is  that  called  tiie  M^ 

cistern  barometer.  The  straight  llHt 

tube  of  Torricelli  terminates  at  1|^| 

its  foot  in  a  cistern  of  mer-  ^H 

cury.    By  the  ri^ig  and  fall-  ^H 

ing  of  the  liqnid  in  the  tnbe,  ^H 

the  level  of  that  in  the  cistern  ^S 

must    change.      The  absolute  ■^'^■BL 
height  of  the  mercury,  there-  ^Ht 

fore,  is  found  by  rendering  the  ^Mf 

scale  movable,  and  brinong  its  mU 

zero  point  always  to  l£o  sur-  ^^ 

face  of  the  mercury  in  tbe  ds- 
tem;  or  by  making  the  scale 
fixed,  and  bringing  the  mercury 
to  iti  ECTO  point  by  means  of  a 
screw,  which  is  mode  to  press 
against  a  flexible  bag  that  forms 
tbe  lower  part  of  the  cylinder, 
as  represented  in  fig.  2,  where 
the  details  of  the  upper,  middle, 
and  lower  part  of  tiie  barome- 
ter are  shown  separately.  The 
latter  method  is  the  most  gen- 
erally adopted  in  the  best  in- 
struments. By  means  of  a  slid- 
ing vernier,  tbe  scale  may  be  read  to  the  tAt 
of  an  inch.  Though  various  contrivances  have 
been  suggested  for  taking  the  place  of  these 
minute  divinona  and  vernier  readings,  no  sub- 
stitnte  has  yet  been  foond  to  give  sach  good 
results.  By  a  skilAil  observer  they  can  be  read 
with  great  minuteness,  and  mnch  within  the 
limits  of  accuracy  of  the  instrument  in  other  re- 
spects.— The  barometer  adopted  by  the  Smith- 
sonian institution  is  that  of  Mr.  James  Greene 
of  New  York.  A  full  description  of  this,  with 
the  drawings  that  are  required  to  render  it  in- 
telligible, is  published  in  tbe  10th  annual  re- 
port of  the  institution.  In  the  same  artictu 
are  also  directions  for  the  nse  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  for  making  barometrical  observs- 
tions.  The  instrument  is  dedgned  for  service 
as  a  mountain  barometer  as  well  aa  for  sta- 
tionary uses.  In  fig.  S  is  represented  tbe  tri- 
pod serving  for  its  support  daring  observattoni 
when  osed  as  a  monntain  or  travelling  barom- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAROMETER 


327 


«ter.  This  stand  folds  op  as  seen  in  fig.  4,  and 
serves  tLen  as  an  enveiope  to  protect  the  in- 
stmmeQt.  Mr.  Greene  constructed  also,  at  the 
■nKgestioii  of  Prof.  Henry,  a 
sulphnric  acid  barometer  for 
the  Smith  noni  an  institntion. 
As  this  liquid  iamnch  heavier 
than  water,  the  tuhe  was  only 
about  IB  ft  long;  butesperi- 
ence  proved  it  to  he  behind 
the  mercarial  barometer  in  its 
indications,  and  its  use  was 
abandtmed. — The  Mphon  ba- 
rometer of  Gay-Lnssao,  im- 
proved by  Btmten  of  Paris,  is 
a  very  portable  and  conve- 
nient form  for  the  nse  of  the 
scientific  traveller.  It  is  rep- 
resented in  tip.  5.  The  name 
siphon  is  applied  to  barome- 
ters of  which  the  lower  end 
of  the  tuba  is  tnmed  np  to 
form  a  short  arm,  which  con- 
stitutes the  cistern,  and  may 
be  left  open  for  the  air  to  press  directly  upon 
the  mercnry.  A  capillary  opening  in  this  short 
arm,  which  is  otherwise  tight,  answers  the 


IZi^.t. 


."**, 


■^"^-^ 


same  parpose  as  if  the  whole  were  open.  The 
sufaoe  of  the  mercnry  in  the  lower  arm  cor- 
responds to  the  zero  point  in  the  cistern  ba- 
rometer; and  as  this  flnctnates  as 
fiaS.  ^^U  *^  ^'■^  ^^  ^^^  longer  limb,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  vernier  at  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  colamn,  and  take  two 
readings  in  order  to  determine  the 
height  of  the  colmnn.  As  the  two 
limbs  are  made  of  precisely  the  same 
diameter,  the  reading  of  one  and  doub- 
ling this  gives  a  correct  result.  In  Gay- 
Lossac's  barometer,  the  tube  at  each 
extremity  is  of  the  naual  diameter,  bnt 
in  the  elbow,  and  along  the  lower  part 
of  the  long  limb,  it  is  drawn  down  to 
a  very  small  bore.  The  inatrument  is 
tbna  made  to  oocnpy  very  little  space, 
M  BO  that  the  glasa  is  enclosed  in  a  nraas 
■a  cylinder  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
IB  cane.  An  open  silt  at  each  end  of  the 
II  brass  tnbe  affords  an  opportunity  of 
II  reading  the  verniers,  the  indeies  of 
jg  which  traverse  np  and  down  these 
openings  by  means  of  toothed  wheels 
which  rnn  in  a  rack  made  upon  tlie  edge  of 
the  brass-  The  improvement  introdnced  by 
Bnnten  is  in  dividing  the  long  limb  into  two 
parts,  the  npper  one  of  which  is  drawn  down 
at  its  lower  end  to  a  small  opening  and  in- 
serted into  the  lower  portion,  to  which  it  is 
attached,  makini  again  one  tnbe.  (See  fig.  6.) 
The  ot^ject  of  tLiis  conical  projection  of  the 
upper  into  the  lower  part  is  to  form  a  chamber 
or  trap  to  catch  any  air  which  may  be  acci- 


dentally Introduced  throngh  the  short  branch, 
and  thus  intercept  its  passage  to  the  vacunm, 
where  by  its  elasticity  it  would  counterbal- 
ance to  some  extent  the  prepare 

of  the  external  air.     When  the  ba- 
rometer is  inverted,  the  air  lodged 
in  the  air  trap  escapes  through  the 
short  branch  by  which  it  entered, — 
A  barometer  in  common  use  is  pro- 
vided with  an  index  which  turns 
around  upon  a  dial,  ond  points  to 
figures  which  indicate  the  height  of 
the  mercnry,  as  also  to  words  de-    | 
script! ve  of  the  stateof  the  weather, 
as  "  Clondy,"  "  Fair,"  "  Rainy,"  Ac, 
The  index  is  made  to  move  by  meana 
of  a  string,  which  passes  around  its   I 
axle,  and  has  at  each  end  a  weight 
attached,  the  larger  one  restingnpon 
the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  tlie 
shorter  limb  of  a  siphon  barometer. 
(See  fig.  T.)    This  is  open  to  tlie  objectinn  that 
the  reading  of  one  limb  gives  but  hi^f  the  ac- 
tual effect;  bnt  as  the  length  of  the  index  ia 
several  times  greater  than 
the  radius  of  the  pulley  up- 
on its  axis,  this  objection  is 
really  more  than  counter- 
balanced.   Still,  little  con- 
fidence ia  placed  in  its  ac- 
cnracy  in  marking  the  true 
variations  of  the  colamn, 
there  being  so  much  frio- 


J5b7. 


tslii 


IS  do 


not  affect  it  at  all.    The 
words  "Fair,"  "Variable," 
"  Hdn,"    "  Storm,"    &c., 
found    on   the    barometer 
scales,  convey  an  erroneous 
impression  about  this  io- 
strument  to  the  oninstruct- 
ed;  for  the  barometer  does 
not  designate  by  the  abso- 
lute height  of  the  mercury,  bnt   by  its  rising 
or  falling,  the  kind  of  weather  we  mny  expect, 
and  this  change  is  not  indicated  by  the  index. 
— In  filling  a  tube  with  mercury,  particular 
care    is   required   that    the   mercury  be  free 
from  mixtures  of  other  metals.    It  is  intro- 
dnced into  the  tube  in   small  quantities  at  a 
time,  and  boiled  as  each  portion  is  added, 
the  heat  being  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
tube  containing  the  mercnry  la;t  introdaced. 
By  boiling  the  mercury  in  the  tube  in  vaeuo, 
the  air  and  moistnre  are  moat  eSectually  ex- 
pelled.    On  inverting  the  tul)e  wlien  prop- 
erly filled,  its  lower  end  being  kept  in  a  basm 
of  mercury,  the  column  sinks  to  the  proper 
level  lo  counterbalance  the  otmospheric  pres- 
sure.    When    the    operation    has    been   suo- 
ceufully   completed,  the   column  of  mercury 
presents  a  bnght  undimmed  appearance,  nnd 
emits  fiashes  of  electrical  light  in  the  vacuum 
above,  on  the  column  being  made  to  oscillate 
np  and  down  in  the  dark ;  and  a  perfect  vacuum 
is  indicated  by  the  olicking  sound  of  the  mer- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BABOMETEB 


cary  when  it  is  allowed  to  strike  the  top  of  the 
glass  tnbe.  Still  the  electrical  light  U  supposed 
to  be  dependent  on  a  small  quantity  of  rapor 
left  behind  !□  tlie  vacant  space  of  the  tnbe ;  bat 
in  several  instances  it  has  been  observed  that 
the  mercury  remains  suspended  in  the  tube 
when  this  is  inverted,  even  if  tJie  lower  end  be 
not  placed  in  a  cistern  of  the  metal.  It  is  de- 
tached by  a  sadden  Jar.  The  adherence  of  the 
mercary  to  the  glass  tends  to  introduce  errors 
in  estimating  the  true  height  of  the  column. 
Instead  of  forming  at  the  top  of  the  column  a 
concave  surface  by  tlie  particles  adhering  to 
the  glass  and  climbing  np  its  surface,  as  water 
and  other  flaids  do  by  the  property  called  ca- 
pillarity, tlie  mercury  takes  a  convex  form, 
and  the  colnmn  is  lower  than  it  should  be. 
The  smaller  tbe  bore  of  the  tnbe,  the  greater 
ie  this  depression  and  the  error  involved;  bat 
in  the  siphon  harometer  (tig.  6)  the  error  of 
one  convex  surface  of  the  mercury  in  one  limb 
is  counteracted  by  tbe  same  effect  from  that 
of  tbe  other. — Ilowever  well  constructed  and 
filled,  all  barometers  are  liable  to  vary,  after 
years  of  nse,  by  a  partial  oxidation  of  the  mer- 
cury, producing  a  thin  film,  wbiob  attaches  it- 
self to  and  obscures  the  iimer  surtkce  of  the 
tnbe.  This  film  can  be  removed  only  by  clean- 
ing and  refilling  with  fresh  mercury.  Air  is 
liable  to  creep  in  between  the  mercury  and 
the  gloss,  and  gradually  enter  into  tbe  vacaom, 
producing  in  the  best  instruments  effects  that 
are  only  perceived  after  a  series  of  years;  in- 
struments nsed  for  a  long  period  show  a  less 
height  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former  part  of 
the  period, — Prof.  Daniell  constraoted  the  most 
perfect  water  barometer  ever  made,  which  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  already  noticed  of 
Guericke  at  Magdeburg.  It  is  fixed  in  the  hall 
of  the  royal  society  at  Somerset  bouse.  The 
tube  is  of  gloss,  40  ft.  long  and  an  inch  in 
diameter,  nie  water  in  it  stands  at  on  average 
height  of  400  inches  above  tbe  fluid  in  tbe 
cistern.  A  layer  of  a  solution  of  caoutchouc 
in  naphtha  opon  the  water  in  the  cistern  pre- 
vents access  of  any  air  to  the  tube.  The 
column  is  sensitive  to  continual  changes  of 
pressure  in  the  abnoepbere,  which  do  not  affect 
other  barometers.  In  windy  weather  it  is  in 
pet^>etual  motion,  vibrating  np  and  down  al- 
most with  the  regularity  of  respiration.  It  in- 
dicates the  horary  oscillations  of  tbe  pressure 
sooner  than  does  the  mercurial  barometer  of 
half  an  inch  bore. — In  the  use  of  barometers, 
it  Is  often  desirable  to  have  their  variations 
recorded  without  the  necessity  of  frequently 
observing  them.  Several  methods  have  been 
devised  of  rendering  them  self-registering. 
One  method  is  that  of  Mr.  Bryson  of  Edin- 
burgh. Upon  the  mercury  in  tlie  lower  limb 
of  a  siphon  barometer  is  placed  an  ivory  doat, 
which  carries  outside  to  the  tube  a  knife  edge. 
This,  by  proper  machinery,  is  mode  to  touch 
once  every  hour  tbe  surface  of  a  vertical  cyl- 
inder, which  revolves  with  uniform  motion 
DDce  in  24  hours,  and  upon  tbe  face  of  which 


are  marked  spaces  corresponding  to  the  honrs 
of  the  day  and  night.  A  new  cylinder  is  osed 
each  day.  The  marks  are  made  upon  a  coat- 
ing of  fine  chalk  and  water  laid  on  with  a 
camers-hwr  brush.  Such  arrongoraents  are, 
however,  far  inferior  to  the  photographic 
method  now  adopted  in  all  meteorological  ob- 
servatories. This  consists  simply  In  a  slip  of 
sensitive  photographic  paper,  moving  by  clock- 
work behind  tiie  upper  part  of  the  mercurial 
column,  which  throws  its  shadow  on  it,  and 
thus  prevents  the  impression  of  the  light  on 
the  lower  shaded  portion.  The  light  nsed 
is  a  kerosene  lamp,  and  the  slips  of  paper, 
after  having  been  en>osed,  are  darkened  upon 
their  upper  halt  while  the  undulating  line  be- 
tween the  darkened  and  light  portion  shows 
the  variations  of  the  barometer  during  tbe  time 
of  exposure.  Account  should  be  taken  of  the 
temperature  at  the  same  time  that  tbe  obser- 
vations of  tbe  barometer  are  noted;  for  the 
height  of  the  column,  as  in  the  thermometer, 
must  vary  with  change  of  temperature,  as  well 
as  by  change  of  atmospheric  pressure.  It  Is 
particularly  important  to  make  allowance  for 
this  cause  of  variation  in  observations  for  de- 
termining elevations,  and  a  thermometer  is  al- 
ways attached  to  the  barometer  for  this  nse. 
Between  the  points  of  boiling  and  freezing  it 
is  found  that  the  space  occupied  by  mercury 
amounts  to  ^  of  its  bulk.  For  each  degree  of 
heat  by  tbe  centedmal  scale  its  volume  in- 
creases jj'i  j  ;  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer, 
yT^.  Though  little  reliance  con  be  placed 
upon  the  barometer  as  indicating  by  any  single 
observation  the  condition  of  the  weather,  its 
fiuctoations  caused  by  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure  may,  when  care- 
fully noticed,  often  serve  to 
foretell  the  effects  that  must 
still  ensne.  Thus,  a  sudden 
and  long-continued  fall  is  a 
sure  sign  of  an  impending 
storm.  Msny  instances  are 
recorded  of  vessels  being 
saved  by  the  precautions 
taken,  in  consequence  of  the 
warning  of  the  barometer 
at  the  immediate  approach 
of  hurricanes,  of  which  no 
other  notice  was  given. — 
Barometers  have  been  con- 
structed with  particular  ref- 
erence to  nse  at  sea.  (See  ' 
fig.  8.)  Their  tube  has  a  ' 
bore  scarcely  exceeding  -^ 
of  an  inch.  Its  upper  end 
terminates  in  a  cylinder  4  or  5  inches  high  and 
neariy  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  sus- 
pended by  a  spring  and  gimbals  near  the  top. 
The  olyeot  of  the  larger  bore  above  tbe  capfl- 
lary  tui>e  is  to  prevent  a  rapid  flow  of  the 
mercury,  which  might  be  caused  by  the  motion 
of  tbe  ship,  and  break  the  tube  by  its  striking 
against  the  top.  The  form  is  liable  to  tbe  ob- 
jection that  the  rise  and  fall  of  tbe  fluid  is 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABOUETEB 


necessarily  rery  slow,  flud  several  minntes  may 
elapse  before  a  sodden  change  of  etinospherio 
pressare  is  indicated. — The  cause  of  the  sbijt- 
ing  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  to  be  looked 
for  m  the  operations  of  tbe  winds  which  maj 
be  btoniag  in  distant  localities.  By  drawing 
the  air  away  from  any  point,  the  pressure  is 
here  to  some  cstant  taken  off,  producing  a 
partial  vaunum  whloli  must  soon  be  filled  by  a 
rash  of  air  from  other  sources.  Where  the 
winds  are  cijuahle,  like  the  trade  winds  of  the 
tropics,  tbe  moveraents  of  tbe  barometer  par- 
lake  of  the  same  regnlarity,  Horaboldt,  in  his 
researches  in  the  equatorial  regions  of  South 
Americ*,  waa  greatly  struck  by  the  nniformity 
of  the  motion  of  the  barometer  in  the  different 
periods  of  the  day.  From  4  o'clock  in  the 
morning  till  10  the  mercury  generally  rises,  and 
then  falls  until  4  in  the  afternoon.  It  then 
riaes  ag^n  till  10  at  night,  after  which  it  falls 
till  i  in  the  morning.  In  temperate  northern 
Utitodes  the  barometer  generally  stands  higher 
at  9  A.  M.  and  9  P.  M.  and  lower  at  3  A.  M. 
and  3  F.  H.  than  at  other  hours.  Prof.  Daniell 
reeommends  tiiese  hours  as  the  best  times  for 
consulting  the  barometer  as  a  weather  glass. 
Its  rise  between  9  A.  M.  and  8  P.  M,  indicates 
fine  weather.  A  fall  from  this  time  to  9  P.  M. 
is  likely  to  be  followed  by  raJa.  Prof.  Bays-Ual- 
loC  of  Utrecht  occupied  himself  for  many  years 
in  making  with  others  umultoneons  observa- 
tions in  different  localities  of  the  changes  in  the 
barometer  and  in  wind  and  weather.  Ho  de- 
termined positive  numerical  relations  between 
tbe  force  of  the  wind  and  the  heiglit  of  the  ba- 
rometer preceding  it.  He  succeeded  at  last  in 
finding  the  laws  governing  the  forward  motion 
of  the  centre  of  barometric  depression,  followed 
by  storms,  and  induced  the  government  of  Hol- 
land to  establish  a  weather  bureau  with  public 
storm  signals  in  1800,  which  whs  followed  by 
England  in  18C1,  by  France  in  18B3,  and  by  the 
United  States  in  1870.  These  laws,  as  might 
be  expected,  differ  in  different  localities.  From 
this  relation  rules  have  been  deduced  by  which 
the  maximum  force  of  tlie  wind  during  the  day 
may  be  predicted  every  morning,  thus  enabling 
ontward-bonnd  vessels  to  determine  the  safety 
of  putting  to  sea. — The  Boilisq  Point  Barom- 
^FEB  is  an  instrument  whose  action  depends 
upon  the  variable  teniperature  at  which  water 
boils  at  different  elevations,  or,  what  is  the 
same  thing,  under  different  atmosjilierio  pres- 
sures. It  is  constmcted  with  a  small  cistern  for 
the  water,  arranged  in  a  cylindrical  tin  tube, 
which  contains  in  the  lower  part  an  alcohol 
lamp  for  heating  the  fluid.  The  temperature 
is  best  noticed  by  suspending  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer  in  the  partially  confined  steam 
which  rises  from  the  boiling  water.  Tbe  dif- 
ference in  the  temperature  observed  at  two 
different  points,  expressed  in  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer,  being  multiplied  by  630, 
will  give  the  approximate  difference  of  eleva- 
tion between  tbesa  two  points.  For  greater 
accuracy  correction  should  be  made  for  tbe 


difference  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the 

two  places.  Although  tbe  instrument  is  in  a 
very  portable  and  convenient  form,  it  has  not 
proved  a  favorite  with  scientific  observers,  from 
a  want  of  confidence  in  its  results. — The  Ask- 
Bom  BasoitBTEB  (Gr.  a,  viip6c,  and  cHoc,  a  form 


withont  fiuid)  is  a  modification  of  Qie  vaounm 

case  barometer,  the  earliest  form  of  which  was 
invented  by  M.  GontS,  professor  in  the  aeros- 
tatical school  at  Mendon,  near  Paris,  and  de- 
scribed by  him  in  the  Bulletin  de>  icieacet,  Flo- 
rfeal,  year  8  (1798),  p.  lOfl.  M,  Cont6  In  his 
balloon  ascents  foimd  the  reading  of  tlie  mer- 
curial barometer  subject  to  the  same  difficul- 
ties so  much  complained  of  on  shipboard,  aris- 
ing tVom  the  violent  oscillations  of  the  instru- 
ment. He  therefore  invented  a  watcb-lito, 
metallic,  air-tight  vacuum  cose,  theiid  of  which, 
sustained  by  internal  springs,  rose  and  fell 
under  the  variable  pressure  of  tho  atmosphere, 
an  index  showing  the  molion.  M.  Vidi  sub- 
sennently  devised  a  case  of  different  form,  with 
a  flat  corrugated  top  and  bottom,  flanged  over 
and  soldered  to  a  rim,  first  pressed  together  at 
tho  centre  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  enclosed 
air,  and  then  separated  a  certain  distance  by 
the  introduction  of  a  compensating  spring. 
The  instrument  thus  improved  and  constructed 
has  come  into  extensive  use.  It  is  represented 
externally  by  fig.  0 ;  fig.  10  shows  tbe  interior 

rif-to. 


arrangement,  while  fig.  11  shows  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  tbe  flexible  air-tight  box,  which  col- 
lapses when  the  air  is  withdrawn.  (See  fig. 
12.)    By  means  of  a  spring  it  is  brought  back. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


880  BAROMETER 

to  its  orif^al  poBitiDn,  the  spring  palling  it 
ont  again,  and  tlius  connterbalancing  the  at- 
moepherio  pressure,  which  tends  to  make  the 
box  collapse.  A 
change  in  this 
pressnre  will  of 
course  resist  the 
spring  more  or 
les^  and  this 
slight  motion, 
multiplied  by  a 
proper  mechani- 
cal arrangement, 
turns  the  band 
seen  at  the  top 
of  fig.  10,  and  else,  with  the  scale,  in  fig.  9. 
As,  however,  a  rise  in  temperature  expands 
the  spring  and  diminishes  its  resistance,  it  will 
hare  the  same  result  as  an  increased  atmos- 
pheric pressore,  nuoet?,  tend  to  let  the  box 
collapse.  Becker,  a  well-known  balance  maker 
of  New  York,  correots  this  by  introdocing  into 
the  vacuum  m  the  box  a  measured  but  verj 
small  qaantit;  of  perfectly  drj  air,  the  expan- 
sion of  which  by  heat  counterbalances  the  loss 
of  tension  of  the  spring  by  the  same  cause. 
Experience  proves,  however,  that  this  kind  of 
compensation  becomes  inert  after  a  lapse  of  a 
few  years;  hence  a  correction  for  temperature 
is  required,  the  instrument  having  a  thermom- 
eter attached,  as  shown  in  flg.  9.  Uufortnnate- 
ly,  this  correction  mnst  be  found  by  experiment 
for  every  instrument,  and  changes  even  for  the 
same  instrament  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
coast  survey  and  the  Smithsonian  institution 
have  therefore  pronounced  agunst  these  ba- 
rometers. Their  objections,  however,  it  is 
tbonght,  do  not  apply  to  their  use  in  the  hands 
of  practical  surveyors,  topographers,  civil  en- 
gineers, artists,  travellers,  and  sailors,  who  all 
pronounce  emphatioally  in  their  favor.  The 
observer  must  however  leom  to  know  his  in- 
strument well,  or  he  can  do  nothing  with  it 
on  an  eitended  survey.  Of  oonrse  the  aneroid 
can  be  of  no  service  in  the  high  geodesy  of  a 
coast  or  ordoaaoe  survey.  In  civil  enpneer- 
ing,  on  the  contrary,  np  to  the  final  location 
line,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  it  will 
almost  replace  the  spirit  level.  In  geological 
examinations  it  is  invaluable.  The  geologist 
in  tracing  outcrops  through  the  woods  and 
where  the  rocks  are  entirely  concealed,  across 
ravines,  and  over  the  shoulders  of  hills,  in  a 
broken  country,  has  only  to  discover  and  take 
the  direction  of  th«  line  of  strike,  io  know  by 
the  infallible  rise  or  fall  of  the  index  hand  to 
the  level  of  the  point  of  his  departure  pre- 
cisely when  he  is  passing  np  or  down  over  the 
outcrop  of  his  bed.  In  countries  where  the 
rocks  are  nearly  or  quite  horizontal,  in  fact 
over  half  the  United  States,  the  aneroid  ia  to 
the  geologist  a  whole  corps  of  assistants,  and 
the  work  of  a  week  can  with  its  help  often 
be  done  in  a  day.  There  is  on  external  index 
to  assist  the  memory  of  the  house  observer 
from  one  observation  to  another. 


BABOMETEICAL  MEASUREMENT 

BilOMEniClL  ■EASnOatEirT.     By  the  per 

fectioD  now  attained  in  the  construction  of 
barometers,  and  the  skill  applied  to  their  use 
by  the  best  observers,  differences  of  elevation 
may  be  ascertained  by  them  with  greater  accu- 
racy than  by  the  most  careftilly  conducted  tri- 
angttlation — at  least,  in  places  where  the  eleva- 
.tions  are  great  and  difficult  of  access.  High 
summits,  covered  with  shitting  clouds,  involve 
uncertain  errors,  arising  from  constantly  vary- 
ing refraction ;  and  inaccessible  mountains  can 
only  be  observed  under  very  small  angles  from 
the  termini  of  a  carefully  constructed  base  line, 
in  some  smooth  district,  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  them.  A  comparison  of  results  ob- 
tained by  both  methods  is  generally  in  favor 
of  the  barometer.  Humboldt  noticed  tbis,  par- 
ticularly in  the  numerous  measurements  that 
had  been  made  of  the  peak  of  TeneritTe,  and,  in 
determining  this  elevation  by  the  mean  results 
of  the  various  observations,  he  rejected  eight 
ont  of  nine  geometrical  measurements,  and  only 
one  out  of  fbnr  barometrical  measuremests. 
Both  modes,  however,  are  capable  in  many  lo- 
calities of  a  great  degree  of  accnracy,  as  is 
shown  in  tlie  two  meaaurcments  of  Mt.  Wash- 
ington, the  first  by  Prof  Guyot  with  the  ba- 
rometer, and  the  second  by  the  officers  of  the 
coast  survey,  in  which  the  difference  was  only 
8  ft.  in  the  height  of  6,2S6  ft.  determined  by 
Prof.  Guyot.  To  insure  the  greatest  degree  <rf 
accuracy,  it  is  essential  to  use  two  .good  ba- 
rometers, one  at  the  lower  and  tlte  other  at  the 
upper  poiuL  If  only  one  be  employed,  there 
is  a  liability  of  error  from  a  change  of  atmo- 
spheric pressure  taking  place  during  the  time 
roent  in  passing  iVom  one  station  to  the  other. 
These  barometers  should  have  been  oareftiUy 
compared  by  many  observations,  and  the  mean 
of  their  variation  noted,  to  be  always  allowed 
in  the  calcolatLon,  They  should  also  have 
been  compared  with  other  barometers  of  known 
character,  and  their  differences  with  these 
noted,  and  this  comparison  sliould  be  repeated 
after  their  use,  in  the  same  way  ae  chronome- 
ters are  compared,  and  their  rates  noted,  be- 
fore and  after  a  voyage.  Repeated  observa- 
tions should  also  be  made  at  both  stations  at 
the  same  times,  and  the  mean  of  all  be  taken, 
unless  some  show  good  reasons  for  their  r^ec- 
tion.  It  is  also  important  that  the  two  stations 
be  not  very  far  apart.  In  a  distance  of  40  or 
50  m.  there  may  well  be  lai'ying  conditions  of 
the  atmosphei'e  that  cau!<e  a  ditference  of  pres- 
sure not  due  altogether  to  the  difTerence  of  ele- 
vation. This  cause  of  error  may  be  avoided  by 
using  intermediate  stations,  and  advancing  step 
by  step.— -One  point  determined  serves  as  the 
established  base  for  determining  the  next  be- 
yond. In  measuring  the  heights  of  the  princi- 
pal summits  of  the  Black  mountains  of  North 
Carolina,  Prof.  Guyot  used  as  his  starting  point 
the  level  determined  by  a  railroad  survey,  7 
m.  distant  from  the  neare.st  hill.  The  next  sta- 
tion was  taken  half  way  to  the  summit,  and  by 
repeated  observations  at  both,  continued  dnr- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAEOMETEIOAL  MEASUREMENT 

lag  two  days,  tbe  liabilitj  to  error  resulting 
from  too  great  distance  was  avoided ;  bo  also 
waa  that  from  a  faulty  correction  for  tempera- 
ture. This  correction,  as  applied  by  tbe  tables, 
amonnts  sometimes  to  800  ft.  Bat  it  sapposes 
the  actual  temperature  of  tbe  stratam  of  air 
between  Hie  two  points  to  be  represented  hy 
the  mean  of  the  temperatnre  at  tbe  two  places, 
■nd  a  moderate  Tariation  from  this  mar  well 
involve  on  error  of  A  °''  iV  '^^  ^^  whole  cor- 
rection. Soch  a  variation  is  not  at  alt  improb- 
able where  tbe  difference  of  elevation  is  very 
great,  as  in  the  higher  regions  the  decrease  of 
temperatare  takes  place  more  and  more  rapidly. 
The  next  station  was  the  summit  of  the  first 
hiU,  the  height  of  which  waa  ascertained  by 
comparative  observations  mode  upon  it  and  at 
Itie  same  time  at  tbe  second  station.  Tbe  dif- 
ferent peaks  were  then  compared  one  with  an- 
other by  observations  made  upon  them  in  pairs. 
Bo  esactiy  were  these  measurements  condncted 
by  Prof.  Gujot,  that,  as  he  states,  his  nngle 
observations  difiered  only  two  or  three  metres 
from  the  means,  and  the  mean  of  one  day 
Dcaroely  difiered  one  metre  (30  inches)  from 
the  mean  of  another.  Bat  for  these  precan- 
tions  an  error  might  have  reanlted  in  the  de- 
termination of  the  first  sammlt  of  SO  ft.  or  more, 
anch  as  Prof  Guyot  fonnd  he  was  liable  to  in 
tlie  coarse  of  his  observations  at  the  Whit« 
monntains  when  the  two  stations  were  from 
10  to  20  m.  apart.  As  the  distance  between 
atations  increases,  the  number  of  observations 
abonld  also  be  mnltiplied,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
correct  mean.  Tbe  barometers  are  to  he  oare- 
fiiUy  snspended,  so  that  the  colnmn  shall  be 
perfecUy  vertical,  and  they  should  he  placed  in 
a  aitnation  not  subject  to  sudden  change  of 
temperatnre.  The  reading  of  the  height  of  the 
meronrial  colnmn  is  to  be  taken  at  the  same 
time  as  that  of  the  thermometer  attached  to 
the  barometer,  ahd  also  of  tbe  detached  ther- 
mometer. If  the  instnunont  has  been  saspend- 
ed  for  some  moments,  the  two  temperatnree 
may  not  dilfer.  When  theee  observations  ore 
compared  with  those  made  at  the  same  time  at 
the  other  station,  the  calculations  for  the  dif- 
ference of  elevation  are  nsually  made  by  the 
wd  of  the  tables  prepared  by  M.  Oltmanns. 
This  is  a  mach  more  smiple  proces  than  calon- 
latiuff  the  difference  by  tbe  theorem  of  Laplace, 
whicli  gives  the  some  result.  If  the  instra- 
ments  are  graduated  in  inches,  these  most  be 
tam»d  into  metres,  and  the  temperatures  must 
also  be  expressed  in  degrees  of  the  centigrade 
thermometer.  With  the  tables  for  these  con- 
versions and  calculations  are  given  very  simple 
directions  for  their  nse,  and  ^plying  the  neces- 
sary corrections. — Some  singular  barometric 
anomalies  ore  reported  by  Lient.  Ilemdon  to 
have  been  ol>served  by  him  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Andes.  At  the  eastern  base  he  found  the 
preasore,  as  measured  by  tbe  boiling  point  of 
water,  to  be  nearly  as  great  as  at  tbe  level  of 
the  sea.  Having  descended  nearly  1,000  m.  on 
tbe  Amaton,  the  boiling  point  indicated  on  as- 


BAKON 


331 


I  cent  of  nearly  1,600  ft.  Maury  explains  this 
by  referring  it  to-  the  effect  of  the  trade  winds, 
which  strike  upon  the  Hanks  of  the  mountains 
and  are  banked  up  against  them,  as  a  current  of 
water  interruptea  by  impediraeuts  in  the  chan- 
nel is  piled  against  these.  By  the  banking  of 
the  current  of  air  an  increased  pressnre  is  sup- 
posed to  be  exerted  apon  the  surface  at  their 
hose. — In  the  earlier  measurements  made  with 
the  barometer  the  air  was  considered  as  a  uni- 
form fluid,  no  regard  lieing  paid  to  the  gradual 
diminution  of  dennty  in  ascending  into  the 
higher  regions;  but  when  this  gradation  was 
taken  into  the  calculations,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  relation  between  the 
density  of  tbe  air  and  its  elastic  force.  Mari- 
otte,  who  published  his  "Discourse  on  the  Na- 
ture of  Air  "  in  16TS,  and  who  was  the  first 
to  demonstrate  the  law  which  beat's  his  name, 
that  the  volume  of  a  gas  is  in  the  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  pressure  upon  it,  opened  the 
culture  of  a  new  field  from  which  rich  harvests 
were  subsequently  reaped.  From  the  sugges- 
tions afforded  by  this  simple  law  he  proposed 
to  compute  heights  from  barometrical  observa- 
tions by  the  rule  usually  employed  in  con- 
structing tables  of  logarithms,  seeming  to  have 
obtcuned  some  idea  of  the  remarkable  fact  Uiat 
the  density  of  the  atmosphere  decreases  in  a 
geometrical  progression  correeponding  to  the 
elevations  taken  after  an  arithmetioal  one. 
But  for  some  reason  he  seemed  not  to  be  aware 
of  the  importance  of  the  great  principle,  and 
abandoned  the  method  for  anotlier  in  which 
he  repeated  the  bisection  of  a  column  of  air 
between  two  atations  into  suceesMve  horizontal 
strata,  calculating  the  densities  according  to  a 
harmonic  division. 

BlROIf  (Gallic  ber,  Gothic,  vair,  medinval 
Latin  6ara,  early  Spanish  varoa,  a  man),  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  possessor  of  an  estate,  who 
might  have  feudal  tenants  under  him.  In 
France  the  noblee  in  general  were  at  first  called 
barons,  bnt  snbsequentiy  the  immediate  vassals 
of  the  king  received  the  appellation  of  havU 
barm*,  or  high  barons.  In  Germany  the  early 
barons  were  the  highest  nobility,  who  after- 
ward assnmed  the  titles  of  oonnta  and  princes. 
In  more  modem  times,  in  both  France  and  Qee- 
many,  a  baron  (in  the  latter  country  now  gen- 
erally called  Freiherr\  is  a  nobleman  next  in 
rank  to  a  count.  In  England  the  original  bar- 
ons of  the  realm  were  those  who  held  lands  by 
tenure  of  suit  and  service  to  the  king.  They 
were  bound  to  attend  the  king  in  war,  to  snpply 
money  on  particular  occasions,  to  furnish  amil- 
itary  contingent  proportioned  to  the  extent  of 
their  fiets,  and  to  attend  the  king's  courts.  Va- 
rious circnmstonces  having  Increased  the  num- 
bers of  the  barons  holding  direct  from  the  sove- 
reign, a  practice  became  established  about  the 
time  of  Edward  I.  of  summoning  individuals 
by  writ  to  the  great  conncils.  The  barony  by 
tenure  and  by  writ  being  heritable,  the  inher- 
itance of  the  titles  became  complicated  by  the 
devolution  (^  the  estates  to  female  desceniWts, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


832  BARON  AND  FEME 

wlio,  though  incapable  of  holding  titles,  were 
neverthelesa  capable  of  traiuimitting  them. 
From  thia  a  practice  arose  of  creating  barons 
bf  patent,  limiting  the  aaccession  to  heirs  male. 
All  noblemen  were  originally  the  king's  barons, 
and  infer  para  the  question  of  precedence 
was  one  not  always  easy  of  settlement.  The 
creation  of  dignities  superior  to  those  of  bar- 
ons-^dukes,  marquises,  earls,  and  Tisconnts— - 
to  which  Home  of  the  greater  barons  were 
fused,  settled  the  ^nestJon  in  part,  and  the 
antiquitf  of  the  particnlar  title  determined  the 
precedenc«amongtlioseof  equal  dignity.  Some 
other  persoOH  in  England,  as  for  Instance  the 
citizens  of  York  and  London,  were  styled  bar- 
ons, whose  titles  were  drawn  perhaps  from  the 
relation  of  snit  and  service  in  which  they  stood 
to  the  crown.  The  jodges  of  the  coort  of  ex- 
chequer, a  court  instituted  immediat«lj  after 
the  conquest,  are  stiil  styled  barons. 

BiKON  AND  FEME,  the  Norman-French  term 
nsed  to  wgnify  man  and  wife  in  the  early  Eng- 
lish law  writers.     (See  Husband  ahd  Wife.) 

BlIONCT,  an  English  title  of  honor.  The 
baronet  is  the  next  degree  in  point  of  prece- 
dence below  a  baron.  The  baron  is  a  peer  of 
the  realm,  a  hereditary  legislator ;  the  baronet 
is  a  commoner.  The  dignity  dates  from  James 
I.,  and  according  to  Blackstone  was  instituted 
by  that  monarch  in  order  to  raise  a  competent 
sum  for  the  reduction  of  the  province  of  Ulster 
in  Ireland,  for  which  reason  all  baronets  have 
the  onus  of  Ulster  superadded  to  their  family 
coat.  The  candidates  for  the  honor  were  re- 
quired to  be  of  gentle  blood,  and  of  adeqnate 
means  to  support  the  dignity;  and  it  was  prom- 
ised that  tlie  nnraber  sbonld  not  exceed  200. 
and  that  lapses  by  death  should  not  be  filled 
np.  This  promise,  however,  was  soon  aban- 
doned. For  similar  reasons  an  order  of  baro- 
nets of  Nova  Scotia  was  created  by  Charles  I. 
(See  A  LEX  AH  DEB,  Willi  All.) 

11I0N1II8,  or  BiTMls,  Cteut,  an  Italian  liis- 
torian,  bom  at  Sora  in  ISSB,  died  in  Rome  in 
1607.  lie  went  to  Rome  in  1G57,  and  became 
one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Philip  of  Neri, 
founder  of  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  superior  in  1B93. 
Pope  Clement  ¥111.  soon  after  made  him  his 
confessor,  in  1696  created  him  cardinal,  and 
finally  appointed  him  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can. He  was  twice  a  candidate  for  the  papal 
clidr,  but  was  defeated  by  tlie  Spanish  party, 
to  which  he  had  given  olfence  in  his  treatise 
De  Monarehia  Sidlitt,  by  opposing  the  claim 
of  Spain  to  Sicily.  His  principal  wort,  a  his- 
tory of  the  chnrch,  entitled  Annala  Eecleaiat- 
tici  a  CkrUto  nato  ad  annum  11B8  (12  vols., 
Rome,  1588-lfiOT),  written  to  oppose  tlie 
"Magdeburg  Centuries,"  occupied  him  for  30 
years.  It  abounds  in  errors  of  various  kinds, 
and  shows  a  lack  of  critical  spirit ;  but  it 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  repoiito- 
ries  of  chnrch  history,  and  a  work  of  great 
learning  and  researcn.  It  was  continued  by 
Binaldi  and  Laderohi,  and  annotated  by  Pagi ; 


BARQUISmETO 

and  the  whole  work,  with  the  continnations, 
Ac,  waa  republished  at  I.ucca  in  88  toIs,  fol., 
1787-'fi7.  A  more  recent  continoation,  em- 
bracing the  years  157Z-'80,  was  composed  by 
Thciner  (Rome,  ]85&-'67).  Baroniusalso  pnb- 
lished  an  edition  of  the  Martyrolcgium  Soma- 
num  with  notes  (fol,,  Rome,  1S86),  but  after- 
ward endeavored  to  suppress  it  on  account  of 
errors  discovered  in  it. 

BIKOHT,  in  England,  the  manorial  right  or 
lordship  of  a  baron,  for  which  the  courts  baron 
were  formerly  held.  In  Ireland  the  term  des- 
ignates a  particular  territorial  division  existing 
from  rery  ancient  times,  snd  corresponding 
nearly  to  the  English  hnndred. 

I1I0T8E,  a  valley  in  the  interior  of  S.  Africa, 
inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  the  same  name,  lying 
between  lat.  1G°20'  and  16°  80' S.  and  Ion. 
28°  and  24°  E.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Zam- 
beii  river  below  its  confluence  with  the  Leba, 
and  is  subject  to  annual  inundations  by  that 
river,  like  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  to  which  jt 
bears  a  close  resemblance.  The  villages  are 
built  on  mounds,  some  of  which  are  said  to  be 
artificial,  and  dnringthe  inundation  the  country 
assumes  the  appearance  of  a  large  lake,  with 
the  villages  on  the  mounds  like  islands,  as  in 
Egypt.  Barotse  is  supposed  to  have  once  been 
a  lake,  and  there  is  a  slight  tradition  of  the 
waters  having  buret  through  the  low  bills  on  the 
south.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the  natives 
are  able  to  raise  two  crops  a  year ;  but  there 
are  comparatively  few  trees.  Dr.  Livingstone 
thought  that  the  Barotse  valley  was  too  rich 
to  raise  wheat,  and  would  make  the  corn  run 
to  straw ;  one  species  of  grass  was  observed 
19  feet  high  with  a  stem  as  thick  as  «  man's 
thumb.  The  land  is  little  cultivated,  and  moatiy 
covered  with  coarse  succulent  grssses  which 
affbrd  ample  pasturage  for  large  herds  of  cattle. 
On  the  waters  retiring  subsequent  to  the  inun- 
dation the  gases  arismg  from  the  masses  of 
decaying  vegetation  are  the  cause  of  fevers  frcan 
which  the  natives  sofi'er  severely.  Other  dis- 
eases are  almost  unknown  except  smaUpoi, 
which  sometimes  rages  there.  The  natiTCS, 
however,  appear  to  be  acquainted  with  inocu- 
lation. The  river  abounds  with  voradons  alli- 
gators. The  Barotse  pray  to  these  animals,  and 
eat  them  too.  They  reverence  the  sun,  and 
believe  in  a  future  spiritual  existence.  The 
capital  of  the  country  is  Narile,  with  1,000  in- 
habitants. 

BIBOZZIO  Dl  neirOLi.    See  YioMOU. 

BlBQnHHETO.  I.  A  N.W.  sUte  of  Vene- 
zuela, touching  the  Caribbean  sea  on  the  N.  E. ; 
area,  9,850  sq.  m.;  poj).  about  814,000.  The 
surface  consists  of  fertile  valleys,  densely  cov- 
ered desert  mountains,  arid  hills  and  barren 
plains,  all  of  which  afi'ord,  however,  good  pas- 
turage for  gosts,  which  are  reared  in  num- 
bers, also  for  horses,  mules,  and  asses.  CatUe 
raising  and  agriculture  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions. The  largest  rivers  are  the  Portoguesa, 
Tocnyo,  and  Yaracuy.  The  state  is  the  most 
prosperous  of  Venezuela,  and  is  divided  into 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARR 

bIi  cuitons.    n.  A  cit;,  capital  of  the  state,  i 

on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  70  m.  from  the  ' 
sea,  and  106  m,  W.  9.W,  of  Oarioos;  pop.  about 
11,000.  It  woa  founiled  in  1552  bj  Jaan  da 
Villegaa,  who  first  called  it  Nueva  Seirovia.  It 
is  sitaatl^d  1,719  f&et  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
A  terrible  earthqaako  io  1812  scarcelj  left  a- 
hoase  standing]  but  the  citj  has  tdnce  been 
handsomely  rebnilt.  It  ia  conveniently  situated 
for  commerce,  as  several  intportant  roads  from 
the  west  converge  here.  Tiiere  are  a  college, 
seminarv,  and  nameroua  other  schools.  Excel- 
lent cotfee  and  fine  cacao  are  produced  ia  abun- 
dance. The  cit7  was  frequently  .oocapied  by 
the  belligerents  dnring  the  war  of  iodepeodence, 
and  the  scene  of  mnch  bloodshed. 

BUE,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Alaace,  at  the 
fo\)t  of  the  Vosgcs  monntains,  and  at  the  en- 
trance into  the  pictaresqne  Ulric  valley,  16  m. 
S.  W.  of  Strasbarg;  pop.  in  18T1,  5,tt61.  It 
has  manafactories  or 
soap  and  of  woollen, 
cotton,  china,  pottery, 
and  orystal  ware;  it 
alsohas  a  brisk  trade  in 
wine,  iron,  wood,  and 
cattle.  The  place  is 
mentioned  in  the  8th 
oentnry.  In  1GB2  it 
was  totally  destroyed 
by  the  troops  of  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine. 
AboTe  the  town  rises 
Mount  Odilia  (2.031 
ft),  on  which  St.  Odil- 
ia, the  daughter  of 
Duke  Attic  of  Alsace, 
established  a  celebrB' 
ted  monastery,  which 
was  sold  daring  the 
French  revolutioD. 

BARK,  or  Barra,  a 
small  kingdom  of  W. 
Africa,  near  the  month 

of  the  Onmhio,  extending  alon^  the  N.  bank 
of  the  river  about  00  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at 
200,000.  Thiskingdom  was  founded  by  a  Man- 
dingo  warrior  from  the  interior,  who  overran 
the  country,  and  afterward  kept  his  bold  of  it 
by  means  of  arms  procured  from  Enropeans  in 
exchange  for  slaves.  The  free  Mandingoes  con- 
stitute only  a  quarter  of  the  population,  and 
are  described  as  a  well  made,  industrious,  and 
shrewd  race,  all  zealona  Mohammedans.  The 
remainder  of  the  population  are  in  slavery. 

BARBl  (or  BUUT)  ISUNM,  a  gronp  of  about 
SO  islands,  forming  a  parish  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Scotland,  lielonging  to  the 
chain  known  as  the  Onter  Hebrides.  The  prin- 
cipal island,  ti'om  which  the  rest  are  named,  is 
aoont  S  m.  long,  and  from  2  to  4  m.  wide ; 
pop.  about  1,600,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics.  It 
contains  the  mins  of  several  very  old  religions 
houses.  At  B  place  called  Kilbar  are  the  re- 
mains of  two  churches  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  monks  of  loolmkill,  and  at  various 


BARRACKPOOB  333 

points  thronghont  the  island  stand  ancient 
watch  towers.  Druidical  circles  ore  found  in 
many  places,  and  a  dun  or  fort,  supposed  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Scandinavians,  is  on 
every  lalic.  In  the  middle  of  a  beautiful  bay, 
on  a  small  rock  entirely  covered  by  the  tide 
at  high  water,  stands  the  ancient  castle  of  the 
Mao  Neils.  On  Barra  is  the  highest  lighthouse 
in  Britoin,  680  ft.  above  the  sea. 

BIBBACKPOOK,  a  town  and  military  canton- 


vorite  retreat  for  the  Europeans  of  Calcutta, 
and  contains  the  ooantry  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor general.  The  town  itself  is  irregnlarly 
built,  most  of  the  hoases  being  bungalows,  em- 
boeomed  among  lofty  trees,  and  the  country 
around  is  profusely  wooded.  It  posaeases  a 
park  of  260  acrea  with  a  fine  collection  of 
Indian  xoClogy,  and  a  stnd  of  elephants,  main- 


Banukpoor. 

taincd  mainly  for  the  recreation  of  the  guests 
of  the  governor  general.  Bsrrflckpoor  is 
noted  OS  the  place  in  which  the  first  blood 
was  shed  in  the  sepoy  mutiny.  The  town  was 
a  convenient  station  for  military  operations  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Bengal,  and  for  any  sudden 
emergency  at  Calcutta.  Four  native  regi- 
ments, with  Earopean  offioera,  were  stationed 
there.  Discontent  had  arisen  among  the  men, 
who  supposed  that  the  new  cartridges  issued 
to  them  were  greased  with  animal  fat,  and 
one  regiment  was  disbanded  in  February,  1867. 
On  March  29  en  armed  sepoy  marched  about, 
declaring  that  he  would  shoot  the  first  Euro' 
pean  he  met.  He  wounded  a  Earopean  lien- 
tenant,  and  a  native  officer  refused  to  arrest 
him.  Both  were  afterward  arrested,  tried  by 
conrt-martial,  and  executed  April  6;  and  a 
few  days  later  the  regiment  to  which  they  be- 
longed was  disbanded.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  extensive  barracks  were  erected 
here  for  British  troops. 


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334  BARBAL 

BlUUL,  Jm>  AafUttn,  a  French  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Metz  in  1819.  After  receiv- 
ing his  edacation  at  the  polfteclmia  school,  he 
became  an  officer  of  the  regie  or  ^vemment 
tobacco  monopolf.  He  was  the  firi^t  to  extract 
nicotine  from  the  leaf  of  that  plant,  and  to 
demonstrate  ^ty  experiment  its  poisoooua  qnsl- 
ities.  In  ISfA  he  was  made  a  tutor  of  chemis- 
try at  the  polytechnic  ecliool,  and  in  I8G1  a 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy 
at  the  college  of  Sainte-Barbe.  In  1850  be 
mode  two  ascents  in  a  balloon,  which  were 
attended  with  great  danger,  for  the  purpose  of 
tatting  ohservatjons  on  tlie  temperature,  hu- 
midity, and  other  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
tX.  various  heights.  He  edited  fur  a  while  the 
Journal  d'ajricullure  pratique,  and  has  writ- 
ten many  treatises  on  the  application  of  chem- 
istry to  agriculture,  metallurgy,  and  the  arts. 

lURlS,  Pial  Fraifita  Jeu  KIcsIm,  connt  de, 
a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Foz-Amphoux, 
Provence,  Jnne  80, 1765,  died  at  Chaillot,  near 
Paris,  Jan.  29,  182D.  He  served  in  the  East 
Indies,  in  the  army,  returned  to  France  with 
the  rank  of  captain,  wasted  his  fortune,  and, 
though  he  had  no  political  opinions,  threw 
himself  among  the  revolutionists,  probably  in 
the  hope  of  retrieving  his  affairs.     He  took 

fiart  in  the  attacks  on  the  Bastile  and  the  Tni- 
eries,  and  was  elected  by  the  department  of 
Var  a  member  of  the  convention,  where  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  with  neither  de- 
lay nor  appeal  to  the  people.  In  October,  1798, 
being  sent  to  the  south  of  France  with  Fr^ron, 
he  succeeded  in  forcing  the  anti-revolntionists 
to  submission.  He  went  alone  to  arrest  Gen. 
Branet,  who  was  charged  with  having  traitor- 
OQsly  delivered  Toolon  into  the  hands  of  the 
English.  Returning  to  tliat  city,  he  hurried 
the  siege ;  and  when  Toulon  was  taken,  he 
visited  the  traitors  with  the  most  severe  pun- 
ishment. He  was  one  of  the  most  active  in 
the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermidor,  and  head- 
ed the  troops  who  took  Bohespiorre  in  the 
h6tel  de  ville.  Next  day,  having  resigned  his 
command,  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
convention,  and  in  November  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  general  safety,  when  he  proved 
himself  at  once  an  ardent  persecutor  of  the 
montognarda  and  the  emigrants.  At  the  same 
time  he  proposed  the  celebration  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  death  of  Lonls  XVI.  On  Feb. 
i,  1795,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  con- 
vention. On  the  13th  Germinal,  when  the 
mob  presented  themselves  In  arms,  demand- 
ing "bread  and  the  constitutjon  of  '93," 
he  cansed  martial  taw  to  be  proclaimed,  and 
conducted  himself  with  energy.  On  the  1st 
Pretrial  he  again  beat  down  the  attack  of 
the  eubnrban  people.  On  the  ISth  Yoid^ 
miaire  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of 
the  troops  to  protect  the  assembly,  and  select- 
ed as  his  assistant  Gen.  Bonaparte,  whose  vig- 
orous measnres  very  promptly  qnelled  the  roy- 
alist ineorrection.  Elected  one  of  the  five 
members  of  the  directory,  be  used  his  ofBoe  as 


tiie  means  of  g^nhig  immense  wealth  and  in- 
dulginshis  taste  for  debauchery.  On  the  I8th 
Fmctiuor,  1798,  he  executed  tiie  coup  d'etat, 
which  changed  the  complexion  of  the  two 
councils,  and  banished  the  minority  of  the  di- 
rectory. In  the  internal  revolution  which  oc- 
curred in  the  directory  on  the  80th  Prairial, 
1799,  he  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  position, 
and  thenceforth  reigned  nearly  paramount.  A 
series  of  intrignes  and  plots  then  commenced, 
which  ended  only  when  the  directory  was 
overthrown  by  Bonaparte  on  the  18th  Bm- 
maire.  (See  Dibeciobv.)  Suspected  of  cor- 
reeponding  with  the  royalists  and  strictly 
watched,  he  was  compelled  at  last  to  fly  to 
Brussels,  where  he  lived  in  great  luxury.  Af- 
ter the  establishment  of  the  empire  he  was 
permitted  to  return  to  Marseilles.  Convicted 
of  participation  in  Mallet's  conspiracy,  he  was 
exiled  to  Rome.  He  declined  serving  Mnrat 
in  1B14,  and  started  for  France,  but  was  ar- 
rested at  Turin,  and  led  to  Montpellier,  where 
he  conspired  openly  in  the  interest  of  the 
Bourbons.  After  the  restoration  be  lived  near 
Paris  in  almost  princely  style.  His  memmrs 
were  published  in  1878. 

BAUUni  nt  barraUria,  fraud),  in  mari- 
time law,  fraudulent  conduct  by  the  master  of 
a  reesel,  or  by  the  mariners,  to  the  ii^ury  of 
the  owner  of  the  ship  or  cargo,  and  withont 
his  consent.  Gross  negligence,  or  unauthorized 
acts  of  the  master  to  the  injury  of  the  owner, 
are  also  held  to  constitute  barratry.  Under 
the  first  are  inclnded  wilful  acta,  such  as  de- 
stroying or  carrying  off  ship  or  cargo,  or  em- 
bezzling any  part  of  the  cargo ;  under  the  sec- 
ond, deviation  from  the  usual  course  of  the 
voyage  by  the  master  for  his  own  private  pni^ 
poses,  trading  with  an  enemy,  evading  port 
duties,  disregard  of  a  blockade,  and  other  acts 
exposing  the  vessel  or  cargo  to  seizure  and 
confiscation.  Barratry  is  one  of  the  riaks  com- 
monly insured  against,  and  the  underwriter  u 
liable  for  loss  by  any  of  the  acts  above  q>eoi- 
fied,  with  the  limitations:  1,  that  the  owner 
in  order  to  recover  must  not  have  consented  to 
the  act  of  the  master  or  crew,  but  the  consent 
of  the  owner  of  the  ship  will  not  aSeot  the 
right  of  the  owner  of  the  cargo ;  so  also  it  the 
vessel  has  been  chartered,  the  charterer  is  era 
hoe  vine  the  owner,  and  will  not  be  affected  by 
the  connivance  of  the  real  owner.  2.  The  un- 
derwriter is  liable  for  the  acts  of  mariners  onl^ 
BO  far  as  they  could  not  be  prevented  by  ordi- 
nary care  on  the  part  of  the  master.  Barratry 
by  the  wilful  burning,  easting  away,  or  other- 
wise destroying  a  vessel  on  the  high  eeoa,  is  a 
hi^ly  peneJ  offence  in  Great  Britain,  and  in 
this  conntry  if  done  by  a  person  heloiqnng  to 
the  vessel  not  being  an  owner,  as  also  if  dona 
by  an  owner  with  intent  to  defisud  an  under- 
writer, shipper,  or  other  part  ownor.  (Sea 
Babbbtbt.) 

BlUE,  IbMm  JeeqA  It  Km  4e  li,  s  Fr«nch 
naval  ofiieer,  died  May  4,  1S88.  He  was  ^>- 
pomted  governor  of  Guiana  in  16A3,  and  retook 


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Oftyenne  from  the  Dnteh.  In  1607  he  was 
or«at«d  lienteDont  ^neral,  &nd  defeated  the 
KngUah  in  the  ^DtUles,  forcing  them  to  riuse 
the  blockade  of  8t.  Christopher.  In  16B2  he 
wea  appointed  goremor  of  Canada,  taking  the 

Elace  of  the  oonnt  de  Frontenac.  He  was, 
owever,  recalled  about  1684,  for  haTing  b;  bU 
irresolntion  caused  the  failare  of  the  expedition 
to  treat  with  tlie  savages.  He  pabusbed  a 
work  on  Guiaua,  entitled  JJeteru^tion  de  la 
Franee  iquiaoxiaU  (166d),  and  Journal  iTtm 

BUU,  liaat,  a  Britiah  soldier  and  Btatesman, 
bom  in  Dublin  in  1726,  died  July  1, 1802.  He 
received  his  educatjon  at  Dublin  universit;  and 
afterward  studied  law  in  London,  bnt  entered 
the  arm?,  was  ordered  to  Canada,  and  became 
an  intimate  Mend  of  Qen,  Wolfe,  who  obtained 
his  promotion  at  rariooa  times,  until  he  reached 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  He  was  several; 
wonnded  at  the  oaptnre  of  Qoebeo,  and  was 
witb  Wolfe  when  that  ^ueral  died.  He  occa- 
pies  a  prominent  poeition  in  Beqiamin  West's 
painUng  of  "  The  Death  of  Wolfe.''  After  tiie 
anrrender  of  Uontreal,  Sept.  8,  17S0,  be  was 
appointed  bearer  of  despatches  from  Gen.  Am- 
herst to  Lord  Chatham.  In  1761,  bj  the  in- 
fluence of  the  earl  of  Shelbnme,  Col.  BarrS 
was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  the  bor- 
ough of  Chipping  W7corabe.  Almost  his  first 
pimtical  act  was  to  make  a  personal  attack  npon 
the  earl  of  Chatham.  Ho  nas  been  aocnsed  of 
peraonal  motives  in  this  action,  as  he  bad  con- 
udered  Chatham  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his 
promotion  while  in  the  army.  This  attack 
was  as  bold  as  it  was  unexpected,  and  at  once 
n^aed  Barr£  to  a  prominent  position  among 
the  sapporters  of  tbe  ministry,  Chatham  lead- 
ing the  opposition.  In  1763,  after  the  disband- 
ing of  Barry's  regiment,  be  received  the  ap- 


pomtment  of  ai^ntont  general  to  the  British 
forces  and  governor  of  Stirling  castle,  his  pat- 
ron, Lord  Sbelborne,  beoondng  president  of  the 


board  of  trade ;  but  in  December  of  the 
year  be  was  removed  from  his  appointmenta, 
having  joined  the  oppoution  and  voted  against 
the  government  on  several  occasions.  In  1766 
he  opposed  the  stamp  act,  and  made  a  foroible 
tt[q»ed  to  the  house  in  favor  of  the  colonies. 
In  1766,  under  the  second  administration  of 
Lord  Chatham,  Go).  BarrS  was  appointed  one 
of  the  vice  treasorera  to  Ireland  and  was  sworn 
of  the  privy  conncil.  In  the  discussion  upon 
the  question  of  reporting  the  parliamentary 
debates  Col.  Barr6  opposed  the  ministry,  and 
after  a  fhll  espoanre  oi  the  eomiption  then  ex- 
isting, and  Ibe  strongest  denunciation  of  the 
oormipt  members,  he  left  the  house,  calling 
npon  every  honestmantofoUow  him.  Through- 
out the  administration  of  Lord  North  Col. 
Barr6  continned  tiie  warm  friend  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  distingnished  himself  greatly 
by  the  boldness  with  which  he  advanced  his 
sentiments.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  North 
ministry.  Lord  Bhelbume  became  secretary  of 
stale  for  foreign  afitura,  and  Col.  BarrS  treas- 
74  Toi.  n.— 23 


335 

nrer  of  tliB  navy.  Afterward,  nfion  Shelburna 
becoming  premier,  BarrS  received  the  post  of 
paymaster  of  the  forces,  which  he  held  bnt  a 
short  time,  as  he  retired  with  his  patron  In 
ITSS,  receiving  for  bis  services  a  pension  of 
£8,S0O  per  annum,  which  was  afterward  ex- 
changed for  the  sinecure  of  clerk  of  the  pells, 
with  £3,000  per  annum.  CoL  Barr6  conCinned 
in  parliament  till  1790,  when  be  retired,  owing 
to  the  loss  of  his  sight  consequent  on  a  wound 
recdved  at  Quebec.  He  has  been  supposed  by 
many  to  be  the  author  of  the  Junius  lettors. 

BlUfisES.    BeeBA£i»)B8. 

BlUQi  a  hollow  vessel  made  of  staves, 
set  on  end,  arranged  around  a  drcle,  and  bound 
together  with  hoops.  By  each  stave  being 
made  wider  in  the  middle  and  tapering  a  littie 
toward  the  ends,  the  barrel  is  of  larger  diam- 
eter, or  bulges,  in  the  middle.  The  bevelled 
edges  of  the  staves  cause  them  to  St  closely  to- 
gether, making  a  tight  Joint  along  their  length. 
The  ends  are  closed  by  circular  beads,  the  e^es 
of  which  are  made  thin  to  fit  into  a  groove  out 
to  receive  them  near  the  ends  of  the  staves,  in 
which  they  are  held  fiiat  by  driving  the  hoops 
upon  the  swell  of  the  barrel.  The  construction 
of  the  barrel  is  most  ingeniousW-  adi^ted  for 
oombining  great  strength  with  lightxeaa.  It 
resists  pressure  from  withont  by  the  arched 
arrangement  of  the  staves ;  and  the  hoops  se- 
cure it  from  the  expansive  force  of  gases  often 
generated  in  its  contents.  Its  form  b  the  most 
convenient  for  transportation,  admitting  of  the 
vessel  being  rolled  or  rapidly  swung  by  books 

f  laced  under  the  chine  or  ends  of  the  staves, 
t  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  many  millions 
of  them  shouM  be  annually  made  for  the  nu- 
merous uses  the;  serve.  In  the  form  of  kegs, 
flrkiuB,  liquor  ca^s,  butts,  hogsbeads,  &c,,  they 
are  met  with  everywhere.  Yet  the  Chinese, 
with  all  their  ingenuity,  it  is  said,  have  never 
made  a  barrel. — Until  recently  barrels  liave 
been  constructed  entirely  by  band,  the  cooper 
shaving  tha  staves  with  the  draw  knife,  and 
shaping  them  by  clamps.  But  machines  are  now 
applied  to  this  purpose,  by  which  the  work  is 
done  much  more  expeditiously.  The  staves  are 
planed,  steamed,  and  then  passed  between  a  se- 
ries of  rollers,  which  compress  and  bend  tbem 
into  proper  shape.  A  stave  is  next  set  up 
on  end  in  a  frame,  which  holds  il  securely  ana 
foroea  it  to  its  right  bend,  and  swinging  around 
to  a  plane  working  vertically  on  one  side,  one 
edge  IS  Jointed  to  its  right  bevel,  and  swinging 
to  the  other  side,  the  opposite  edge  is  served 
in  the  same  way,  the  grooving  at  each  end  or 
crozing,  the  chamfering  of  the  ends,  and  saw- 
ing o^  all  being  done  by  different  cutters  at 
tbe  same  time.  Other  machines  saw  tbe  staves, 
and  some  cut  tbem  with  great  rapidity  directly 
from  tbe  block ;  but  these  are  for  making  what 
are  called  slack  barrels,  which  do  not  need  to 
be  so  perfectly  tight  and  strong  as  those  used 
to  contain  most  liquids. — As  a  measnre  of 
capacity  the  barrel  is  of  very  variable  dimen- 
sions, difiering  in  size  in  the  different  statee, 


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838 


BABRELIER 


and  with  the  material  it  ia  designed  to  hold. 
The  meaenre  of  capacity  called  barrel  bnlk  is  fi 
cnbic  feet  The  old  English  measures  were 
81^  gallons  for  a  barrel  of  whie,  8S  for  ale,  and 
86  for  beer ;  bat  by  a  statute  of  1  TFilliam  and 
Marj  the  beer  and  ale  barrel  was  equalized  to 
34  gallons.  This,  however,  onlj  created  con- 
fiirion.  The  dimensions  of  the  barrel  in  Eng- 
land are  as  follows: 

Wtoetaml Sli  T^« 

Ak  bum  (Loodon) Si  ».Oilt 

Ale  ud  b«r  tami  (Engteud) U  VfiiS 

Beer  buiel  (LoDdoDI 86  lU.iei 

In  the  United  Btat«8  the  barrel  fbr  wine,  beer, 
and  cider  is  81}  )^<his.  The  lamp-oil  barrel  of 
OinoiiinBti  contains  48  gallons.  The  whiskey 
barrel  Dsnallj  contains  from  40  to  46  gallons. 
In  Maryland,  a  barrel  of  com  is  equal  to  6 
bushels ;  a  barrel  of  fish,  220  lbs. ;  &  barrel  of 
fiour,  19S  lbs.;  and  of  lime,  820  lbs. 

BiSUUEK,  JMfMi,  a  French  botanist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1606,  died  Sept  17,  16T8.  He  re- 
nounced the  medical  profession  to  enter  the 
Dominican  order.  In  1646  he  was  selected  as 
assistant  of  the  general  of  the  order  on  one 
of  his  tours  of  inspection,  travelled  tbrongh 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  collected  numerous 
specimens  of  plants,  and  also  fonnded  and 
superintended  a  splendid  garden  hi  a  convent 
of  his  order  at  Rome,  where  he  remained  many 
years.  He  afterward  retnmed  to  Paris  and 
entered  the  convent  in  the  rue  St.  Honor*. 
Be  left  unfinished  a  general  history  of  plants, 
to  be  entitled  Bbrtvt  ifwndi.  The  copper- 
plates of  his  intended  work,  and  snch  of  his 
papers  as  conld  be  fonnd,  were  collectod  and 
made  the  ba«s  of  a  book  by  Antoine  de  Jns- 
eien,  Planta  per  Oalliam,  Hi^Mttiam  et  Ita- 
liam  oiurDala,  &o.  (folio,  Paris,  1714). 

BABBHI,  a  S.  county  of  Kentucky;  area, 
BOO  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  17,780,  of  whom 
8,62S  were  colored.  Its  name  comes  from  the 
immense  thinly  timbered  tracts  it  contains, 
which  are  technically  termed  "barrens."  It 
is  a  moderately  fertile  region,  watered  by  Bar- 
ren river  and  two  creeks.  The  superficial  soil 
rests  upon  cavernous  limestone,  and  snlphurons 
and  saline  springs  ore  abundant  The  Lonis- 
viUo  and  Nashville  railroad,  and  its  Glasgow 
branch,  traverse  the  county.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  111,848  bushels  of  wheat, 
608,641  of  Indian  com,  170,609  of  oats,  247,771 
lbs.  of  butter,  40,493  of  wool,  2,473,989  of  to- 
bacco, and  72  bales  of  cotton.   Capital,  Glasgow. 

BilBETO,  FrudiM  it,  a  Portuguese  gov- 
ernor of  the  Indies,  died  on  the  banks  of  the 
Zambesi  river  in  1574.  Distinguishing  himself 
in  the  army  at  home,  he  was  sent  to  command 
the  fortress  of  Bassain  in  India,  and  was  ap- 
pointed governor  in  IGGd.  He  sent  the  poet 
Oamoens  into  exile  at  Macao.  By  order  of  the 
Portoguese  government  he  undertook  the  con- 
i^nest  of  that  ill-defined  and  little  known  por- 
tion of  AfHca  called  Mooomotapa.  He  set 
out  on  this  expedition  in  April,  1689,  and 


BARRETT 

atnick  the  continent  where  the  Qdlimane  river 
runs  info  the  Moianibique  channel.  His  am- 
bition was  to  penetrato  to  the  mines  of  Hos- 
sapo,  whence  tne  queen  of  Sheba  was  said  to 
have  drawn  her  treasures,  and  from  which  a 
nugget  valued  at  12,000  croxodoes  had  lately 
eicitod  onpidity  in  Portugal.  In  his  explora- 
tions he  fell  a  victim  to  the  climate. 

BlUtenT  (sometimes  called  barratry),  In 
criminal  law,  the  offence  of  stirring  up  muta 
and  quarrels.  The  person  gnilty  of  tne  offence 
may  be  indictod  as  a  common  barretor.  To 
Bustwn  the  indictment  it  is  necessaiy  that 
there  be  proof  of  not  fewer  than  three  distjnet 
acts,  and  that  the  suits  or  quarrels  be  be- 
tween other  persons.  A  man  may  bring  any 
number  of  suits  in  his  own  name  without  be- 
ing chargeable  witb  this  offence.  A  similar 
wrong  is  the  bringing  of  suits  by  an  attorney 
in  the  name  of  a  fictitious  plaintiff,  which  may 
be  treated  as  a  contempt  of  court 

BAUBIT,  BnJsMhi  Hik,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  bom  at  Dresden,  Maine,  Jane 
24,  1SD8.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  o«dle^ 
in  1882,  and  at  the  divinity  school  in  Cam- 
bridge in  18S8.  While  there  he  became  a  con- 
vert to  the  doctrines  taught  by  Swedenborg, 
He  was  pastor  of  the  first  New  Chnrch  sodety 
in  New  York  from  1840  to  1848,  and  of  that 
in  Cincinnati  from  1848  to  I8B0,  In  1860  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  pulpit  on  acconnt  of 
his  health,  and  went  to  Chicago,  where  fae  en- 
gaged in  a  mechanical  bumness  by  which  in 
four  years  he  restored  his  health,  and  aocn- 
mnlated  a  fortune.     For  several  years  snbse- 

Jaently  he  was  settled  over  the  first  New 
horoh  society  In  Philadelphia.  His  princi- 
pal works  are:  "A  Life  of  Swedenborg," 
"Lectnres  on  the  New  Dispensation,"  "Let- 
ters on  the  Divine  Trinity,"  "The  Golden 
Reed,"  "Catholicity  of  the  New  Chorch," 
"The  Visible  Church,"  "Beauty  for  A^ea," 
and  "A  New  View  of  Hell,"  He  has  also 
published  various  theological  pamphlete  and 
articles  in  religions  maga^es. 

UUBIT,  e«w|e  Btrtn,  an  American  actor, 
bom  at  Exeter,  En^and,  Jnne  9,  1794,  died  in 
New  York,  Sept.  5,  1860.  He  arrived  at  Bos- 
ton with  bis  mother,  an  actress  of  some  ce- 
lebrity. In  October,  ]7Sfi,  and  mode  his  flrat 
appearance  the  same  year  in  the  part  of  Cora's 
child  in  "Pizarro,"  at  the  age  of  two  years. 
He  commenced  playing  in  New  York  in  1806, 
at  the  Park  theatre,  in  the  part  of  Young  Ner- 
val. In  1B36  he  became  manager  of  the  Bowery 
theatre.  New  York,  in  company  with  E.  Gil- 
fert.  He  afterward  vinted  England,  and  in 
1887  performed  at  Drury  Lane.  He  waa  also 
manager  of  the  Tremunt  theatre,  Boston,  and 
in  1847  opened  the  Broadway  theatre,  New 
York,  then  newly  erected.  In  18C6  he  retired 
from  the  stage.  His  favorite  characters  were 
in  genteel  comedy,  but  he  also  acted  in  farce 
and  low  comedy  with  great  success.  From  his 
elegance  and  statehness,  he  was  known  by  the 
sobriquet  of  "Gentleman  George." 


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BABRHEAO 

■AMtaFIlt,  a  mannfactmiog  village  of  Rao- 

frewBhire,  Scotland,  on  the  river  Severn,  7  m. 
S.  W.  of  Glsagow,  with  which  it  is  ooDueoted 
bjnulway;  pon.  aboat  6,000.  It  eontaina  cot- 
ton mills,  bleaching  and  print  worka,  an  iron 
founder;,  and  a  machine  shop,  emplojing  in 
all  about  5,000  oporutivea, 

BilRlEK  REEFS,  reefs  of  coral  which  rite 
from  great  depths  among  the  Soath  sea  isltwds, 
at  a  distance  of  several  miies  from  the  coast, 
and  extend  along  in  front  of  it  as  a  barrier 
against  the  heavy  roll  of  the  eea.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  Great  Barrier  reef 
off  the  N.  £.  coast  of  Australia.  (See  Austsa- 
UA,  Tol.  ii.,  p.  128.)  Other  reefs  of  this  nature 
are  Taet  with  along  the  onpodte  coasts  of  the 
islands  of  Lonisiade  and  New  Caledonia,  and 
between  are  nnmcrons  coral  islands. 

USRUGTOir.  L  Jalm  Skat(>-Bwrti«tM,  vis- 
count, an  English  lawyer  and  aathor,  bom  in 
1678,  died  Deo.  14,  1734.  In  early  life  he  re- 
ceived bj  will  the  estate  of  John  Wildman  of 
Berkshire,  not  related  to  liim  and  bnt  slightJy 
acquainted.  He  added  the  name  of  Barrington 
to  Shute  on  acquiring  an  estate  in  Essei  by 
the  will  of  Francis  Barrington,  distantly  re- 
lated to  hiiD  by  marriage,  and  was  created 
Viscoont  Barrington  in  the  Irish  peerage  in 
1720.  He  was  expelled  from  parliament  in 
1722  for  promoting  a  fraudulent  lottery  soheme, 
and  devoted  his  latter  years  to  theologioal 
studies;  He  published  MUcBlUmea  Sacra  (2 
Tola.  8to,  172G),  and  other  works  of  repute, 
U.  WUUui  WiWaaa,  2d  viscoant,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1717,  died  Feb.  1,  17Q8.  He. 
was  secretary  at  war,  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
cheqoer,  andtreasurerof  thenavy.  IIL  IMbh^ 
a  jorist  and  naturalist,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, bom  in  1727,  died  March  11,  ISOO.  In 
I7fi7  be  was  appointed  a  Welsh  judge,  and  after- 
ward second  justice  of  Cheater.  He  published 
in  176S  "Observations  on  the  Statutes,  chiefly 
the  more  Ancient,  from  Magna  Charta  to  the 
SlJamesI.,  c.  27,"  a  work  of  merit  aid  author- 
ity; and  in  1778  an  edition  of  Orosins,  with 
Alfred's  SaxoQ  version  and  an  English  trans' 
lation.  Most  of  his  other  writings,  among 
whioh  are  dissertttions  on  the  ^ging  and  lan- 
guage of  birds,  on  the  Linncean  system,  and  on 
the  probability  of  reaching  the  north  pole, 
may  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the  royal 
and  antiquarian  societies,  of  both  of  whioh  he 
waa  a  member,  and  in  his  "  Uisoellaniee  on 
Various  Sahjecta"  (17S1).  IV.  Saand,  a  naval 
ofBcer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  died  Aug.  16, 
1800.  He  woH  rear  admiral  of  tJie  white,  took 
St-  Lucia  in  the  face  of  a  superior  force,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  relief  of  Gibraltar 
under  Lord  Howe.  V.  Uite,  a  prelate,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1784,  died  March  27, 
1826.  He  was  chaplain  to  Geoi^  III.,  canon 
of  Christ  church,  of  St.  Paul's,  and  of  Wind- 
sor, and  bishop  sucoetfeively  of  Llaodaff,  Salis- 
bury, and  Dnriiam.  Earing  gained  the  sam  of 
j;eO,000  by  a  lawsuit,  he  devoted  the  whole  of 
it  to  the  foundation  of  charity  schools  and  the  , 


BAEKON 


337 


relief  of  poor  clergymen.  Ee  edited  the  Mi*- 
otllattta  Saera  of  his  father,  prepared  for  the 
preaa  the  "  Poiitica]  Life  "  of  his  brother  Lord 
Barrington,  and  famished  valuable  notes  for 
a  new  edition  of  Bowjar's  "  Critical  Coiyeo- 
tares"  on  the  test  of  the  Greek  Testament. 

BlRRISfiTOir,  Su-  Jwah,  on  Irish  lan-yer  and 
author,  born  in  Queen's  county  in  1767,  died 
at  Versailles,  April  6,  18S4.  He  was  c^ed  to 
the  Irish  bar  in  1788,  and  entered  the  Irish 
parliament  in  1790,  as  member  for  Tuom.  His 
maiden  speech  as  a  leg^ator  waa  directed 
agunst  Gratton  and  Currsn.  A  sinecore  in 
theBublin  custom  house,  worth  £1,000  a  year, 
was  g^ven  to  him  in  17S3,  and  he  was  mad« 
king's  counsel.  When  the  question  of  the 
union  came  up,  however,  he  changed  sides, 
voting  against  it,  and  displaying  such  zeal  for 
the  liberals,  that  in  1808  he  was  very  nearly 
returned  to  parliament  for  the  city  of  Dublin 
in  the  popular  interest,  the  first  four  votes  in 
his  favw  being  those  of  Gratton,  Cnrron,  Pon- 
Bonby,  and  PlunkeL    The  Irish  government 


not  having  obtained    higher  preferment,  he 

Siblished  the  first  volame  of  his  "  Historic 
emoirs  of  Ireland,"  comprising  secret  reowds 
of  the  national  convention,  the  rebellion,  and 
the  union,  with  delineations  of  the  principal 
characters  engaged  in  these  transoctioos,  bring- 
ing the  narrative  down  to  the  asserticoi  of  in- 
dependence by  the  Irish  parliament  The  gov- 
ernment dreaded  the  pnblioatdon  of  the  con- 
cluding volume,  which  ne  threatened,  and,  it  is 
sud,  induced  him  to  abandon  it  on  condition 
of  receiving  the  fhll  salary  of  his  office  while 
redding  in  France,  where  he  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  from  his  creditors,  his  dntiee  being 
performed  by  a  deputy  chosen  and  p^d  by  the 
government  In  1827  he  published  two  vol- 
umes of  "  Personal  Sketches  of  his  own  Times," 
and  a  third  volnme  appeared  in  1882.  This 
has  been  twice  republished  in  the  United 
SUtes  with  great  success.  In  18S0  he  waa 
choi^d  in  parliament  with  a^ipropriating  to 
his  own  nse  fimde  belonf^ng  to  suitors  in  hie 
court  He  went  to  London  to  plead  his  cause, 
but  was  removed  from  office.  He  now  pre- 
pared the  second  volume  of  his  "  Historic  Me- 
moirs." This  work  was  subseqnently  repro- 
duced in  a  cheap  form  as  the  "  Bise  and  Fall 
of  the  Irish  Nation."  His  sketches  ore  un- 
trustworthy in  their  details,  hut  Kive  a  good 
idea  of  political,  literary,  and  social  Irish  life 
during  the  last  40  years  of  the  last  century. 

BiKlON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin,  wa- 
tered by  Hay  and  Vermilion  rivers;  pop.  in 
1870,  588.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,666  bnahels  of  wheat,  ]0,180  of  oats,  1,8601 
of  potatoes,  and  401  tons  of  hay. 

BlRBOir,  JiBM,  an  American  naval  ofliaer, 
bom  in  Virginia  in  1768,  died  April  21,  1861. 
He  served  under  his  father,  James  Babron 
(died  1787),  who  held  the  rank  of  commodore 


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in  the  Yirgmia  nary  dnring  the  revolnticm. 
The  BOD  was  oommUsioaed  lieutenant  on  the 
organization  of  the  United  Stat«s  nar;  in  1T66, 
and  the  next  year  promoted  to  be  captain,  and 
nnder  the  command  of  his  elder  brother,  Com- 
modore Samnel  Barron,  waa  ordered  to  the 
Mediterranean,  where  he  became  known  for 
Ilia  akill  in  seamanship  oa  welt  as  hia  Mnentifio 
attainments.  On  Jnne  22,  1807,  the  fri^te 
'Chesapeake,  S8  gons,  Oapt  Gordon,  bearing 
the  broad  pennant  of  Com.  Barron,  got  nn- 
der wa;  fl-om  Hampton  Roads,  bound  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  almost  immediately 
boarded  by  a  boat  fVom  the  British  ship  Leo- 
pard, of  60  guns,  Capt,  Humphreys,  conveying 
a  despatch,  agned  by  Vice  Admiral  Berkeley, 
ordering  all  captains  ander  bis  command, 
ehoald  they  bll  in  with  the  Chesapeake  any- 
where on  Uie  high  seas,  to  search  her  for  cer- 
tain deserters  from  the  British  navy,  conoem- 
ing  whom  correspondence  had  taken  place  in 
VrashingtOQ  between  the  British  minister  and 


can  citizens  who  had  been  impressed  into  the 
British  navy.  Com,  Barron  refnsed  to  snbmit 
to  this  extraordinary  demand,  and  in  a  very 
few  moments  afterward  the  Leopard  fired  a 
broadside  into  the  Chesapeake.  The  American 
ship  was  in  no  condition  to  return  it;  besides 
her  inferior  force,  she  was  in  utter  contusion 
on  first  coming  oat  of  port,  and  although  the 
guns  had  been  loaded,  rammers,  wads,  matches, 
gun  locks,  and  powder  boms  were  all  wanting. 
The  Leopard  continued  to  fire  ontil  Barron, 
finding  tnat  no  resistance  could  be  made,  or- 
dered the  colors  Btmck.  A  single  gun  was 
fired  by  the  Chesapeake  just  as  her  colors  were 
hanleddown-  There  being  no  matches  at  hand, 
it  was  discharged  by  means  of  a  coal  brought 
from  the  galley.  The  ship  received  21  shot  in 
her  hnll,  and  S  were  killed  and  18  wonnded; 


were  taken  out  of  her,  and  she  returned  to 
Hampton  Roads  the  same  evening.  Intense 
excitement  was  created  throughout  tbe  country 
by  this  outrage.  Barron  waa  coort-martialled 
under  fonr  charges,  which  embraced  22  speci- 
fications. He  was  entirely  acquitted  of  three 
of  the  charges,  bnt  was  found  gnilty  of  two 
epecili cations  of  a  charge  "for  neglecting,  on 
the  probability  of  an  engagement,  to  clear  his 
ship  for  action,"  and  sentenced  to  be  suspend- 
ed for  five  years,  without  pay  or  emoluments. 
The  court  closed  its  finding  on  the  sobject  of 
the  personal  conduct  of  the  accused  in  the  fol- 
lowing language:  "No  transposition  of  the 
specifications,  or  any  other  modification  of  the 
charges  tliemselves,  would  alter  the  opinion  of 
the  court  as  to  the  firmness  and  courage  of  the 
accused ;  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  clear 
and  satisfactory,"  Admiral  Berkeley's  conduct 
was  disavowed  by  the  British  government,  and 
he  was  recalled  from  his  command.  Capt, 
Humphreys  was  placed  on  half  pay.    Two  of 


the  alleged  deserters  were  afterward  returned ; 
one  had  been  executed,  and  the  fourth  died. 
Barron  entered  the  merchant  service  during 
his  suspension,  and  remained  abroad  till  1818, 
when  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  him  to 
duty.  This  waa  resisted  by  many  officers,  in- 
cluding Decalnr,  who  had  been  a  member  of 
the  court  martial,  and  after  a  long  and  bitter 
Barron  sent  Decatur  a  cbal- 
The  duel  was  fought  at  Blodensbnrg; 
Mu^cb  22,  1820.  Both  fell  at  the  first  Are. 
Decatur  died  the  same  night,  and  Barron  re- 
covered after  months  of  great  suffering.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  held  several 
important  commands  on  shore.  The  command 
of  the  squadron  in  the  Pacific  was  tendered  to 
him,  but  declined. 

BABROir,  Baaad,  an  American  naval  officer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Hainpton,  Va., 
about  1768,  died  Oct  89,  1810.  In  17B8  he 
commanded  the  brig  Augusts,  which  was  pre- 
pared by  the  citizens  of  Norfolk  to  resist  the 
aggresaions  of  the  French.  During  the  war 
with  Tripoli  be  took  a  conspicuous  position, 
and  in  180B  commanded  a  squadron  of  10  -ves- 
sels, his  flag  ship  being  the  President,  44.  The 
bashaw  of  Tripoli  was  Ynsuf  Caromnlli,  a 
nsarper,  who  had  deposed  his  brotlier  Ilamet. 
Mr.  Eaton,  the  consul  at  Tunis,  was  apprised 
that  it  might  be  of  great  service  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  Homet  in  the  war  aeainst 
his  brother.  Commodore  Barron  receired  per- 
mission to  follow  this  policy,  and  accordingly 
sent  three  vessels  of  the  sqaadron,  the  Hornet, 
Argus,  and  Nsutilns,  with  Mr.  Eaton  and 
Hanet,  which  captured  the  town  of  Deme  on 
the  Tripolitan  coast,  April  27,  1806.  Eaton 
now  pressed  Com,  Barron  for  further  supplies 
and  reCnforcemente  against  Trijioli,  but  they 
were  denied  on  the  ground  that  Hamet  Oara- 
malli  ought  to  be  able  to  effect  his  object  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  cooperation  of  the  sqnad- 
ron.  Com.  Barron  was  perhaps  influenced  in 
this  decision  by  other  considerations.  Capt. 
Bainbridge,  with  his  officers  and  men,  wer6  at 
this  time  held  in  rigorous  captivity  in  Tripoli, 
and  it  was  well  kno^n  that  the  reigning 
bashaw  had  threatened  a  Ifloody  retaliation. 
Com.  Barron  soon  afterward  relinquished  his 
commuid  to  Capt.  John  Rodgers  in  conse- 

Sience  of  extreme  ill  health,  and  retumed  to 
e  United  States.  He  was  considered  an  ex- 
cellent officer,  and  died  much  respected  jnst  as 
he  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
navy  yard  at  Gosport,  Ta. 

BUROfl,  Saaati,  an  American  naval  officer. 
bom  in  Virginia.  He  entered  the  U.  8.  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1812.  He  was  attached  to 
the  Brandywine  when  she  conveyed  Gen.  Ij^ 
fayette  to  France  in  1 835 ;  was  promoted  to  bo 
lieutenant  in  1827,  commander  in  1847,  and 
captain  in  I8GS.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  wnr  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  hnrean 
of  detail  in  the  navy  department  He  had  al- 
ready accepted  a  commission  in  the  confederate 
navy,  and  soon  went  south,  and  was  placed  in 


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BARB08 

cbarKe  of  the  naval  defeaces  of  North  Carolina 
and  VirKinia,  witli  the  ran^  of  flag  officer.  He 
WM  at  Uatt«ras  inlet  at  the  Cima  of  the  attack 
upon  Forts  Clark  and  Hattoras  by  Flag  Officer 
Btrinffh&m,  Aug.  £8,  1861,  and  by  reqaest  of 
the  officers  comiDauding  the  forta  asanmed  the 
general  direction  of  the  defence.  Aiter  the 
■nrrender  be  was  sent  to  New  York,  and  re- 
mained a  prisoner  of  war  nntil  exchanged  in 
1869.  Dnring  the  remainder  of  the  war  he 
was  in  England,  engaged  in  fitting  oat  block- 
ade-riuinera  and  privateers.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  be  rotumed  to  Tirginia  and  en- 
gaged in  farmisig. 

I1BK08,  J*8»  it,  A  Portagoese  historian, 
bom  in  Uee,  died  in  ISTO.  He  was  of  noble 
&mi]y  and  e^rlf  employed  abont  the  conrt. 
In  1G28  he  was  governor  of  a  Portngnese  set- 
tlement on  the  coaat  of  Guinea,  and  afterward 
treasurer  of  the  Indies.  He  was  reoommeDded 
by  the  king  himself  to  onllivat*  bislory,  soma 
fX  his  compositions  having  been  read  with  ap- 
proval by  his  majesty.  He  wrot«  the  history 
of  Portngnese  conquest  in  India,  down  to  1628, 
under  the  titJe  of  A»ia,  in  four  decades  (pab- 
Hsbed  1662-1615).  It  was  continaed  by  Diego 
de  Conto,  the  historiographer  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  1777-'8, 
m>ni  the  royal  press  of  Lisbon.  He  also  wrote 
a  chivalrio  romance,  Oraniea  do  Imperador 
Clarimundo,  and  many  other  works.  His  style 
ia  dignified  and  bis  diction  elegant  and  pore. 
He  has  been  styled  the  Portngnese  Livy. 

BUBOT.  I.  GaidHeHyMlilksOdUn,  popular- 
ly known  as  Odiioit  B^bbot,  a  French  advocate 
and  statesman,  bom  at  Villefort,  department  of 
Loifire,  in  July,  1761.  His  father  was  a  revo- 
Intionist,  but  Odilon  became  after  bis  admis- 
sion  to  the  bar  in  1814  friendly  to  Louis  XVIII. ; 
bnt  subsequently  he  was  prominent  in  the  op- 
position, and  acqnired  ffreat  celebrity  as  an 
advocate,  especially  in  political  trials.  He  con- 
tributed as  president  of  one  of  the  principal 
political  associatiuDB,  and  by  his  activity,  to 
bring  on  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Paris  monicipal  committee  which  in 
Jnly  officiated  for  a  few  days  as  a  provimonal 
govemmenL  He  opposed  the  establishment 
of  a  republic  as  well  as  the  restoration  of  the 
elder  Bourbons,  end  contributed  much  to  make 
LiOuis  Philippe  king,  but  showed  personal  def- 
erence to  the  deposed  monarch,  escorting  him 
and  his  family  to  Cherbourg.  Louis  Philippe 
apjKtinted  him  prefect  of  the  department  of  the 
8«ine,  but  was  not  able  to  sustain  him  agunst 
the  subsequent  attacks  of  Guizot  and  his  party, 
yvho  especially  censured  his  attitude  during  the 
trial  of  Polignac.  The  disorders  following  the 
Aineral  celebration  by  legitimists  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  aMBssination  of  the  duke  de 
Berri,  on  which  occauon  be  was  accused  of 
Iieg1ig«nf«,  furnished  a  pretext  for  his  removsl, 
and  on  Feb.  13,  1881,  he  resigned  the  prefec- 
ture. He  now  became  a  leader  of  the  mod- 
&ate  left  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  opposing 
a  hereditary  peerage,  promoting  the  revition 


BAREOW  339 

of  the  penal  coda  and  public  instruction,  and 
obtaining  the  repeated  adoption  of  a  divorce 
bill  in  the  chamber,  not  withstanding  its  rejec- 
tion by  the  peers.  He  bore  an  important  part 
in  all  the  political  events  which  preceded  the 
revolution  of  1848,  as  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  and  inSuential  statesmen  of  his  day, 
and  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  famous  re- 
form banquets.  He  submitted  to  the  c^hamber 
the  act  of  accusation  against  the  Guizot  min- 
istry, signed  by  63  of  his  colieagnea,  and  was 
appointed  by  Louis  Phflippe  prime  minister 
on  Feb.  34.  In  this  capacity  it  was  his  duty 
to  announce  the  king's  alidioation  and  the  ac- 
ceesion  of  the  duchess  of  Orleans  as  regent. 
He  had  flattered  himself  that  bis  influence 
would  allay  the  revolutionary  storm ;  hot  he 
was  disappointed,  and  the  republic  was  pro- 
claimed. Be  became  a  member  of  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  and  labored  in  vain  for  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution  after  the  English 
moaeL  Under  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice,  with 
the  privilege  of  presiding  over  the  cabinet  in 
the  absence  of  the  prince,  Deo.  20,  1848.  On 
April  IS.  1840,  he  assumed  the  responsibility 
for  the  siege  of  Borne,  but  retired  at  the  end 
of  October  on  account  of  ill  health.  Snbse- 
qnently  failing  to  effect  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  executive  and  the  legislature,  he 
was  among  the  first  to  protest  against  the  coup 
d'itat  of  Dec.  2,  1861,  and  to  join  in  the  un- 
avtuling  proclamation  deposing  Louis  Napoleon. 
In  1888  ne  endeavored  in  va!n  to  be  elected  to 
the  chamber,  and  at  the  dose  of  18S9  he  de- 
clined to  accept  the  ministry  of  justice,  which 
was  tendered  to  him  by  Napoleon  IH.  In  18T2 
M.  Thiers  appointed  him  vice  prerident  of  the 
council  of  stato.  IL  netnlm  Ferdlaaid,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan,  10,  1808. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties and  solicitor  of  the  treasury,  and  in  1848 
he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  assembly  for 
Algeria,  and  in  the  following  year  to  the  legis- 
lative assembly.  Having  been  one  of  the  coun- 
se!  for  Louis  Napoleon  in  his  trial  for  the  at- 
tempt of  Boulogne,  be  became  on  the  accesuon ' 
of  the  latter  to  the  presidency  secretary  general 
of  his  cabinet,  and  for  a  few  months  minister 
of  the  interior,  after  which  he  went  in  1860 
as  minister  to  Turin,  and  was  reelected  to  the 
legislative  assembly.  In  January,  1862,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  consultative  committee, 
and  Bnbsequently  of  the  council  of  state  in  con- 
nection with  public  works,  commerce,  and  agri- 
culture. In  1668  he  was  made  senator,  and  in 
1865  secretary  of  the  senate. 

BiBROW,  the  name  given  to  ancient  arti- 
ficial mounds,  constructed  for  purposes  which 
it  is  sometimes  impoadble  to  discover,  but 
which  generally  appear  to  have  been  cflmmem- 
orative  of  famous  persons  or  events  in  the 
history  of  ancient  peoples.  They  are  formeil 
either  of  earth  or  of  stones,  are  mentioned  in 
Joshua  and  Homer,  and  are  found  among  the 
relics  of  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Scy- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


origin.  BarrowB  no  also  found  iu  large  nam- 
bera  in  America,  the  memorials  of  an  mi- 
knowD  faistory. 

BlUOW,  a  river  <tf  Ireland,  next  in  raze  and 
faiportanoe  to  the  Shannon,  rises  in  the  N.  pvt 
of  Qneen's  county,  flows  E.  to  the  border  of 
Kildare  connty,  then  turns  t«  the  south,  form- 
ing the  boandarj  between  the  conntiea  of 
Qneen'B,  Eilkenoj,  and  Waterfurd  on  the  W., 
and  Kildare,  Oarlow,  and  Wexford  on  the  E., 
pasNDg  the  towns  of  Athj,  Carlow,  and  New 
Koss,  and  after  a  course  of  about  100  m.,  with 
a  desoent  of  S2T  feet,  falls  into  the  eotuary 
which  fonna  Waterford  harbor.  Near  its 
mouth,  6  m.  E.  of  Waterford,  it  is  joined  bj 
the  Soir,  and  near  New  Rosa  by  the  Nore. 
These  three  rivers  are  called  the  three  sisters, 
from  their  rising  in  the  same  mountain  ridge, 
utd,  after  flowing  through  different  counties, 
muting  near  the  sea.  The  Barrow  is  navigable 
tix  ressels  of  300  tons  as  far  as  New  Ross,  2B 
m.,  and  for  barges  to  Athj,  40  m.  Airther, 
■  wheuoe  by  means  of  the  Grand  oanal  it  com- 
municates with  Dublin. 

BUIOW,  luM,  an  English  divine  and  math- 
ematician, bom  iu  London  in  October,  1630, 
died  there.  May  4,  1677.  lie  was  the  nephew 
of  Isaac  Barrow,  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Han, 
and  the  son  of  Thoinaa  Barrow,  who,  though 
of  an  ancient  Norfollc  family,  was  linendraper 
to  Charles  I.,  whom  he  followed  to  Oxford, 
subsequently  attending  Charles  II.  till  the  res- 
toratJoD.  Young  Isoao  was  admitted  in  1643 
as  a  pensioner  in  Peterhonse,  Cambridge,  and 
in  1645  entered  Trinity  college,  obtaining  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  in  1 G52  both  in  Cambridge  and 
Oxford.  In  1656  he  set  out  for  the  continent 
and  the  East,  and  during  his  journey  had  a 
successful  contest  with  an  Algerine  corsair,  of 
which  he  wrote  a  poeUcal  narrative;  and  in 
Constantinople  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  Chrysostom.     After  his  return  he  became 


prvfeseor  of  Gre«k  at  Cambridge  (1660),  and 
of  geometry  at  Gresham  college  (16SS),  and 
fellow  of  the  newly  estahliahed  royal  society 
(1668).  In  conformity  with  the  will  of  Lucas, 
he  was  the  flrst  Lncaaian  professor  of  math- 
emalica  at  Cambridge  trora  1663  to  1669. 
when  he  resigned  this  poet  to  his  fnipil  and 
friend  Isaac  Newton,  and  devoted  himself  to 
theology,  his  uncle  giving  him  a  small  sinecure 
in  Wales,  and  the  bishop  ot  Bolisbury  making 
lum  a  prebendary.  In  1670  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D. ;  in  1672  he  l>ecame  master  of 
Trinity  college,  the  king,  whose  chaplain  he 
was,  regarding  him  as  tbe  best  scholar  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  in  1676  he  was  made  vice  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Cambridge.  In 
mathematics,  and  eapeoially  geometry,  he  had 
no  superior  except  Newton,  whom  be  was  the 
first  to  enoonra^.  la  geometry  he  originated 
the  idea  of  the  meremental  triangle,  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  flnxional  and  differential  cal- 
culus of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  His  postbumoua 
Leetionei  Mathmaatiem  (1783)  are  regarded  as 
a  model  of  sound  principles.  His  principal 
mathematical  works  have  been  translated  int« 
English  by  Eirby  and  Stone,  and  by  others, 
and  were  edited  by  the  late  William  Whewell 
for  the  use  of  Trini^  college,  Cambridge  (1361). 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  devot«d  him- 
self exclusively  to  the  church,  and  bis  polpit 
disconrses  acqnired  peat  celelaity.  His  ser- 
mons were  excessiveTv  long,  but  effeotive  and 
logical,  and  he  was  honored  as  a  prodigy  of 
learning,  wit,  virtue,  and  piety.  In  bis  mo- 
ments of  leisure  he  composed  Greek  and  LatiD 
Terses.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey, 
where  a  monument  perpetuates  his  memOTy. 
The  Srst  edition  of  his  theological  and  ethical 
writings,  by  Dr.  Tillotson  and  Abraham  Hall, 
appeared  in  1685.  An  edition  by  the  Rev. 
Jamee  Hamilton  was  published  in  Edinlmrgb 
in  1942,  and  in  New  York  in  1845  (8  vols.  8vo). 
BABBOW.  I.  Sir  Joha,  an  English  trav- 
eller and  author,  twm  at  Draleybeek,  near 
Ulverstone,  Lancashire,  June  19,  1764,  died  in 
London,  Nov.  23,  1648.  He  early  wrote  on 
land  surveying,  spent  some  time  in  a  Liver- 
pool iron  fonndery,  viuted  Greenland,  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Greenwich,  and,  on 
Sir  George  Staunton's  recommendation,  accom- 
panied Lord  Macartney  as  secretary  to  China, 
making  himself  conversant  with  the  Chinese 
language,  and  subsequently  was  with  him  at 
Oape  Town,  as  secretory  and  auditor  of  public 
accounts.  The  services  which  he  rendered  in 
the  settlemeut  of  the  newly  acquired  Cape  Col- 
ony led  to  his  being  appointed  in  1804  second 
secretary  to  the  admiralty,  which  office  he  held 
till  1845,  except  for  a  short  time  in  180G.  He 
was  created  a  barouet  in  1635.  He  promoted 
arctic  expeditions  and  geograpbicnl  science, 
and  originated  the  plan  of  the  ge<^Bphical 
society,  of  which  he  was  vire  president.  He 
wrote  nearly  200  essays,  chiefly  geographical, 
for  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  contributed  to 
the  "  Encyclopedia  Britonnica,"  and  published 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABROW-m-FUHNE88 

"  Travela  in  Sonthem  AfHoa  "  (3  vols.,  London, 
1801-'8);  "Travels  in  China"  (18(H);  "A 
Voyage  to  Cochin- China "  (1806);  Uvea  of 
Macartney  (1807),  Lord  Howe  (1888),  Lord 
AnKui  (1889),  and  Sir  Fronoia  Drake;  "  A 
Olironological  History  of  Voyages  into  the  Arc- 
tic Regions"  (1818);  "Voyages  in  the  Arctic 
Regioasance  1818"  (1846);  and  other  works, 
inoluding  his  "  Aatobiogr^>bicBl  Memoir " 
(1847),  and  "Sketches  of  the  Royal  Society  " 
(1849).  IL  Jaka,  second  aon  of  the  prec«ding, 
born  Jnne  28,  1808,  has  written  "  Viut  to  Ice- 
laud"  (London,  188fi),  "finmmer  Tours  in 
Central  Europe  "  (18A7),  and  other  books  of 
travel,  and  niisaelUmeoDB  works ;  and  prepared 
a  new  edition  of  Cook's  "Voyages  of  Dieoov- 
ery"  (Edhibnrgh,  1860). 

BUUU>W-IH-FDKNEB8,  a  monicipal  borongh, 
maan&ctoring  town,  and  seaport  of  Lanoa- 
dkire,  En^and,  cm  the  8.  W.  shore  of  the  pen- 
insola  of  Lower  Fnrnew,  i^powte  Watney 
island,  t^e  terminus  of  the  Fnmess  rulway, 
4  m.  8.W.  of  Dalton,  and  60  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Liverpocd;  pop.  in  1371,  17,002  (in  1847,  only 
SOO^  The  rapid  progreee  of  the  town  is  dne 
to  Its  iron  and  steel  works.  The  annnal  ex- 
port of  iron  ore  is  estimated  at  600,000  tons, 
and  of  copper  ore  at  8,000  tons.  The  Steel 
works  convert  about  1,000  tons  of  pig  iron 
weekly  into  Bessemer  steal,  the  Barrow  hema- 
tite iron  and  steel  company  being  one  of  the 
largest  eetabltHhtnenta  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
Qreat  qoantitiea  of  coal  are  imported  ttata 
Walee,  and  of  timlwr  Itani  Canada  and  the 
Baltic.  The  town  recdved  a  charter  of  in- 
corporation in  1S07,  and  the  dnke  of  Devon- 
shire,  the  chief  owner  of  the  land,  inaagorated 
the  new  docks  in  the  same  year.  They  are 
unrivalled  in  Lancashire  in  extent  and  position, 
except  by  tliose  of  Birkenhead.  The  town 
oontaina  a  fine  town  hall  snd  other  public 
buildings.  BatliingestabliBhment8,andamonii- 
ment  of  Mr.  Noble,  the  chief  promoter  of  rail- 
way and  manufacturing  enterprise,  were  inau- 
gurated in  1873. 

UIBOW  nUIT,  a  channel  in  Arctic  Amer- 
ica, named  after  Sir  John  Barrow,  lending  W. 
from  Lancaster  sound  to  Melville  sound,  in  lat. 
74°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  84°  and  96°  W.  It 
averages  40  m.  in  width,  and  has  a  depth  of  7fi 
to  SOO  fathoms.  Its  coasts  are  monntainous. 
Capt  Parry  first  navigated  it  in  1819-'S0. 

nUUIIRDU,  Jm6  FraHlaei,  a  Central  Amer- 
ican stateeman,  bom  in  Goatemala  about  1780, 
died  in  New  York,  Aug.  4,  18G4.  Many 
members  of  his  family  had  acqnired  eminence 
in  the  service  of  Spun,  but  he  early  opposed 
the  mother  country,  and  in  1813  was  sentenced 
to  deatli  for  treason.  He  and  his  fellow  con- 
spirators hid  themselves  in  the  mountains  for 
aix  rears,  when  Baimndia  placed  himself  at 
the  nead  of  the  revolntionary  party  of  Qnate- 
mala.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
■trnggle  for  independence,  and  was  a  member 
of  t£e  Srst  republican  oonstitnent  assembly. 
On  April  10,  1834,  he  introduced  and  carried 


BAERT 


341 


a  decree  for  the  Immediate  abtJition  of  slavery 
throughout  tlie  republic,  and  he  subsequently 
procured  the  adoption  of  a  code  modelled  after 
that  of  IJvingston  for  the  state  of  LoaiiiaDa^ 
which  he  had  translated  into  Spanish.  In 
1825  be  declined  the  office  of  vice  president, 
but  in  182!)  accepted  that  of  president,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  educational  and  other  reforms. 
When  in  18B2  three  of  the  five  states  which 
had  composed  the  old  republic  again  united, 
he  was  unanimously  chosen  president ;  but  two 
of  the  states  withdrawing  their  adhesion,  he 
also  withdrew,  and  employed  himself  in  pre- 
paring a  narrative  of  Central  American  events. 
In  the  hope  of  reguning  his  ascendancy  in 
Guatemala  through  American  influence,  he  set 
out  in  1864  for  Washington  as  minister  of 
Honduras,  with  tlie  alleged  design  of  nego- 
tiating for  its  annexation  to  the  United  Slates; 
but  apoplexy  ended  his  life  «xat  after  landing 
in  New  York. 

BlUT.  L  A  8.W.  coonty  of  Missouri,  bor- 
dering on  Arkansas,  and  druned  by  King's 
river,  Flat  creek,  and  White  river  of  Arkansas; 
area,  708  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 10,87S,  of  whom 
S2  were  colored.   It  nasa  hillysurface,  ineorae 

e laces  covered  with  forests,  in  others  occupied 
J  rich  prairies.  The  principal  rook  b  lune- 
stone.  Lead  exists  in  varions  parts  of  the 
wmnty.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad 
skirts  the  N.  border.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  71,66S  bushels  of  wheat,  8S3,808  of 
Indian  oom,  56,848  of  oats,  and  5e,G86  lbs.  of 
tobacco.  Capital,  Cassville.  U>  A  S.W.  county 
of  Michigan,  intersected  by  Thomapple  river; 
area,  676  s^.  m.;  pop.  in  18T0,  22,190.  Ithas 
an  undulating  surface,  occupied  by  altemato 
tracts  of  fertile  prune  ana  woodland,  and 
dotted  with  numerous  small  lakes.  The  Grand 
River  Valley  rulroad  passes  through  the  county. 
The  chief  productioos  in  1870  were  GT6,149 
bushels  of  wheats  873,420  of  Indian  com, 
312,867  of  oats,  18,568  of  barley,  244,579  of' 
potatoes,  28,890  tons  of  hay,  280,554  lbs.  of 
wool,  638,171  of  butter,  and  138,698  of  maple 
sngar.     Capital,  Hastings. 

BiUT.  I.  Sir  CfeatiN,  an  English  architect,  . 
bom  in  London  in  May,  1706,  died  there.  May 
12,  1860.  He  studied  in  England  and  In  Italy, 
travelled  extensively,  and  after  his  return  be- 
came the  first  architect  in  London,  aconiring 
renown  especially  by  his  oonstmcCion  of  toe  Re- 
form and  Travellors'  club  houses.  His  master- 
work  is  the  new  parliament  houses.  The  comer 
stone  was  lud  in  ISIO ;  the  lords  assembled  in 
the  new  house  in  1847,  and  the  commons  on  Nov. 
4,  1852.  The  queen  knighted  the  architect  on 
the  opening  of  the  new  buildings.  He  was  a 
royal  academician,  a  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety, and  a  member  of  many  distinguished 
bodies  at  home  and  abroad.  IL  Edward  HM- 
delaa,  son  of  the  preceding,  bora  in  1880.     He 

terfectod  his  knowledge  of  architecture  under 
is  &ther,  whom  he  succeeded  as  architect  of 
the  new  houses  of  parliament,  and  be  also  com- 
pleted these  and  otner  buildings  which  were  left 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


842  BA] 

onflnished  bj  him.  Among  his  works  are  th« 
new  Oovent  Garden  theatre,  the  CbarinK  Cross, 
the  Star  and  Garter  at  Richmond,  and  other 
Jtot«1s,  the  opera  honse  at  Malta,  the  grammar 
Mhool  at  Leeds,  and  other  famooa  stractores. 
In  1S67  he  b«came  architect  of  the  new  na- 
tional gallery.  In  1670  he  was  made  a  royal 
academician. 

BiKET,  fierril.  or  GinMu  CwbtCMk  (Gerald 
of  Wales),  a  Bntisb  ecclesiastlo  and  historian, 
bom  about  1148,  died  about  1280.  His  father 
was  a  Norman  boron,  his  mother  a  descendant 
of  prinoes  of  South  Wales,  and  bis  uncle, 
David  Fitz-Gerald,  was  bishop  of  St.  David's. 
Ho  completed  his  education  m  the  uniTersity 
of  Paris,  and  returned  to  that  citj  in  1176, 
after  the  king's  reaction  of  his  appointment  as 
bis  nncie's  suoceesor  in  the  see  of  St.  David's. 
He  declined  in  1179  a  professorship  of  canon 
law  in  the  nniversit;  of  Paris  and  went  back 
to  England,  where  for  four  jeare  he  was  ad- 
ministrator of  the  see  of  St.  David's  during  a 
vaoonby  of  the  bishopric,  and  afterward  chap- 
lun  of  the  king,  and  secretary  and  privy  conn- 
oillor  of  Prince  (afterward  King)  John  during 
the  latter's  visit  to  Ireland.  With  Archbishop 
Baldwin  he  preached  in  1188  in  Wales  in  be- 
half of  the  crusaders.  He  was  again  elected 
to  the  see  of  8L  David's  in  1199,  and  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  finally  obtuned  pos- 
seswon  and  resigned  in  1203 ;  but  according  to 
the  commonly  received  acconnt  his  nomination 
was  not  confirmed.  He  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life  in  literary  parsnits,  and  wrote  To- 
pographia  Hibemia,  in  three  books ;  Es^ug- 
natio  SHarriia,  an  acconnt  of  the  Norman 
oonqneet  of  Ireland ;  ItineraHum  Cambrim,  or 
account  of  the  itinerary  of  Archbishop  Bold- 
win  throngb  Wales,  on  English  translation  of 
which  has  been  published  or  Sir  Bichard  Colt 
Hoare,  with  aoaotations  and  a  life  of  Giraldus 
("  The  Itinerary  of  Archbishop  Baldwin 
through  Wales,"  9  vols.  4to,  London,  180B) ; 
Se  J'rineipi*  Inttruetione;  and  many  other 
works,  of  which  the  Speeulum  EeeletUutieum 
and  De  Oettii  Oiraldilabarioait  are  the  most 
remarkable.  Most  of  his  works  have  been 
printed,  either  separately  or  in  collections. 

UEEt,  lasH«,  an  Irish  painter,  born  in 
Cork,  Oct  II,  1741,  died  in  London,  Feb.  23, 
laoe.  He  stadied  in  Dublin,  and  in  Italy  under 
the  patronage  of  Burke.  Alter  his  return  to 
EBglaod  in  1770  he  painted  for  the  society  of 
arts  in  London  a  series  of  allegorical  pictures 


agunst  the  administration  of  the  royal  acad* 
emy  led  in  179T  to  bis  expnlsion  from  that 

ui  paiiiuiiif^,  ttuivii  be  had 
after  which  he  received  a  public  subscrip- 
tion of  £1,000,  and  a  year  before  his  death, 
throngb  Sir  Robert  Peel,  the  father  of  the 
premier,  a  government  annuity  of  the  same 
amount.  He  was  irritable  and  qnarrolBome, 
iind  lived  most  of  his  life  in  penury;  bnt  he 


had  noble  conceptions  of  art,  though  his  execn- 
tioo  and  coloring  were  generally  defective.  He 
wrote  in  1775  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Heal  and 
Ima^nor;  Obstructions  to  Art  in  England,"  in 
which  he  roiiited  Winckelmsnn's  theory  in  re- 
spect to  the  untesthetio  influence  of  the  Eng- 
lish climate.  Hie  various  worlis  were  pub- 
lished in  1609  in  %  vols.,  nith  his  biMraphy. 

BA^I,  Jefei,  an  American  naval  olGser,  born 
at  Taoumsbone,  conntj  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
l74fi,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  IS,  leOS.  He 
settled  in  Philadelphia  about  1760,  end  acquired 
wealth  as  master  of  a  sailing  vessel.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  revolution  he  offered  hia 
services  to  congress,  and  in  February,  17Tfl, 
was  appointed  to  tlie  command  of  the  Lexing- 
ton, 14  guns,  and  aft«r  a  sharp  acdon  took  the 
tender  Edward,  the  first  war  vessel  captured 
by  a  commissioned  ofBcer  of  the  American 
navy.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Effingham 
fiigate,  and  in  1777,  in  the  Delaware,  at  the 
head  of  four  boats,  captured  an  English  schoo- 
ner. Finding  naval  operations  interrupted  by 
the  ice,  he  served  for  a  short  time  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  Gen.  Codwalader  at  Trenton.  In 
1781,  while  returning  from  France  in  the  Al- 
liance, he  captured  ue  Atalonta  and  the  Tre- 
passy,  and  was  severely  wounded.  After  the 
eetabUshment  of  the  present  navy  in  1794,  he 
was  named  as  the  senior  officer  with  the  rank 
of  commodore. 

BAUT,  Malta  Jcane  C«Mi4  it  TtaWnltr, 
countess  dn,  mistress  of  Loaia  XV,,  bom  at  Van- 
eoulenra,  in  Champagne,  Aug.  IS,  1746,  guillo- 
tined in  Paris,  Deo.  6,  I79S.  She  was  the 
daoghtfr  of  a  seamstress,  and  was  employed  in 
a  milliner's  shop  in  Paris,  where  she  led  a  dia- 
solute  life.  One  of  har  lovers.  Count  Jean  dn 
Barry,  brought  her  through  bis  valet  to  the 
notice  of  Louis  XV.,  who  made  her  marry  the 
oonnt's  brother,  after  which  she  was  intro- 
duced at  court.  By  her  beauty  and  wit  she 
ret^ned  the  king's  affection  until  his  death. 
She  cost  France  over  35,000,000  fVancs,  ont 
of  which  she  provided  for  her  relatives  and 
friends,  and  also  to  some  extent  for  charitable 
works.  She  persnaded  the  king  to  banish  hia 
prime  mvaister,  the  duke  de  Cholseul,  her  nn- 
relentii^  enemy,  and  to  dismiss  and  exile  the 
parhament  of  1771.  On  the  king's  death  Louis 
aVI.  banished  her  from  court,  but  alter  ■ 
year  she  was  permitted  to  return  to  the  wing 
of  the  royal  palace  which  had  been  built  for 
her  use  at  Lncienne,  near  Versailles,  and  lived 
there  with  her  lover,  the  dake  de  Brissac,  in 
shameful  luxury.  After  a  Journey  to  England 
she  was  arrested  in  July,  1763,  upon  a  charge 
of  having  squandered  public  ftinds,  conspired 
agMnst  the  republic,  and  worn  monming  in 
London  for  tlie  royal  family.  Sentenced  to 
death  Dec.  6,  she  bore  herself  with  fortitude 
during  the  trial,  but  her  courage  deserted  her 
on  the  way  to  the  scaffold,  and  to  the  last  mo- 
ment she  continued  her  piteous  appeals  for 
mercy.  She  was  an  illiterate  woman,  though 
ehe  patronized  some  small  poets. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASST 


I,  an  English  phTdoI<^lB^  born 

npahire,  m  Mareh,  1803,  med  at 


at  StrattoD,  Hampshire, 
Becdea,  Snfiblk,  April  27,  18Q5.  He  received 
faifl  doctor's  diploma  in  Edinbnr^  in  1883,  and 
was  honse  sui^^n  of  tiie  rojal  matemitj 
hospital  in  that  cit;.  He  waa  the  flrtit  to  de- 
monstrate, in  hia  oontribatlons  to  the  "Fhilo- 
Bopbic^  Transactions  "  of  the  tajai  aociety  of 
Lwdon  (1810-'4S],  that  spermatoioa  aotoallf 
penetrate  within  tbe  ovam.  He  also  estab- 
lished the  fact  of  the  a^mentatioa  of  th«  yolk 
in  the  mammals,  and  made  other  disooverice 
in  embrjologj. 

sua  (Oer.  Baneh),  a  eonotf  of  N.  W.  Hnn- 
garj,  trarersed  iff  the  Qran;  area,  1,0S1  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  187,191,  more  than  half  of 
whom  are  Slovaks,  and  the  rest  Magjara,  Oer- 
mana,  and  Jews.  It  is  moantdnuus  in  the 
north,  where  the  rocky  soil  is  nnfavorable  to 
agrionltnre,  thongh  fitted  for  cattle  breedini;. 
^e  soDth  is  verj  fertile.  The  county  is  chiefly 
oelebrated  fur  its  mineral  wealth,  whioh  em- 
braces gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  an- 
timony; but  the  prodnotion  of  the  precious 
metals  is  declining.  The  richest  mines  are 
those  of  Erenmitz,  the  Anstro-Hangarian  gold 

gtremiutz)  duoats  being  coined  in  that  town, 
airital,  AJranyo8-Har6u. 

IAB81C,  a  Tillage  ot  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  tlioGironde,  31  m.  by  railway  8.  E.  of 
Bcffdeanz;  pop.  in  1866,  8,076.  It  prodnces 
famous  wMte  wines  which  belong  to  the  vintage 
of  Qravee.  The  ordinary  Baraac  is  leas  delicate 
bnt  stronger  than  Preignao,  but  the  wines  of 
upper  Barsao  are  remarkable  alike  for  strength 
and  aroma.  When  old,  the  color  becomes  that 
of  ambergris. 

BiBSriu,  or  lanuK.  I.  A  Nestorian  bish- 
op of  the  Gtb  centory,  died  sboat  489.  Having 
been  expelled  from  the  school  of  Edessa,  he 
took  remge  in  Persia,  accompanied  by  many 
of  hb  followers,  and  in  4SB  was  created  bishop 
of  NiMbis.  He  acquired  great  influence  with 
the  Persian  king  Ferozes,  whom  he  induced 
to  expel  all  Christiana  who  adhered  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Qreek  fathers,  and  not  only  to 
admit  Nestorians  in  their  place,  bnt  to  allow 
them  to  establish  themselves  in  tne  chief  cities, 
Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  He  established  the.  fa- 
moos  school  at  Nisibis,  from  whioh  went  forth 
missionaries  who  in  the  next  centory  carried 
the  Nestorian  doctrines  into  Syria,  Egypt,  Ara- 
bia,  India,  Tartory,  and  China.  The  Nostorians 
of  Persia  and  the  neighboring  countries  still 
venerate  him  as  the  parent  and  founder  of  their 
faith.  He  upheld  the  right  of  the  cletvy  to 
marry,  and  himself  eapons^  a  nun  named  Mam- 
msa.  He  was  the  author  of  discourses,  homi- 
lies, hymns,  and  a  Syriac  liturgy,  none  of  which 
are  extant.  II.  A  Syrian  archimandrite,  who 
beaded  the  Entychian  party  at  the  so-called 
"robber  coonoil"  of  Ephesus  in  440.  By  the 
Jacobites  he  is  held  to  have  been  a  saint  and 
worker  of  miracles. 

BAB-SDK-illBE,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Anbe,  on  the  river  Anbe,  39  m.  E.  S. 


BABTFELD  343 

E.  of  Trojea;  pop.  in  1666,  4,809.  It  is  very 
ancient,  and  has  some  tAd  churches,  a  hospital 
founded  in  the  1 1th  century,  and  a  college.  In 
January  and  February,  1814,  it  was  the  scene 
of  two  battles,  in  consequence  of  which  it  was 
nearly  destroyed.  It  has  a  trade  of  some  im- 
portance in  breadstufls,  wine,  wood,  hemp,  and 
wool,  and  has  extensive  nnrseries  of  thiit  and 
ornamental  trees. 

UIpSH-SBIHE,  a  town  of  France,  deport- 
ment of  Aube,  on  the  Seine,  16  m.  S.  S.  £.  of 
Troyea;  pop.  in  1866,  2,770.  It  was  a  large 
place  in  the  middle  ages,  bnt  it  was  several 
times  mined  during  the  Burgundian  wars.  Cn 
March  1,  1S14,  a  battle  was  fought  under  its 
walls  between  the  French  under  Macdonald 
and  the  Austrians  nnder  the  prince  of  Wftr- 
t«mberg.  It  trades  in  breadstuffs,  wines,  bran- 
dies, wool,  and  hemp. 

BAKT,  or  Boert,  Jmm,  a  French  naval  officer, 
bom  at  Dunkirk,  Oct  20,  1651,  died  tbere, 
April  27,  1702.  He  was  the  bod  of  a  fisherman, 
and  early  t«ok  to  the  sea.  The  royal  navy 
being  at  this  period  inaccessible  to  persons  of 
his  class,  he  distinguished  himself  in  command 
ofsprivateer.  Louis  XIV.  ctHumissioned  him 
to  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  16&7, 
in  consequence  of  his  bravery,  appointed  him 
captain  of  the  squadron  during  the  French 
war  with  ttie  Netherlands.  Bart  became  by 
his  unexampled  feats  of  daring  the  terror  of 
the  enemy.  On  one  occasion,  a  famine  exist- 
ing in  Franoe,  he  recaptured  from  the  Dutch 
100  vessels  loaded  with  grain.  At  another 
time,  when  Dunkirk  was  blockaded,  taking 
advantage  of  a  fog,  he  sailed  through  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  neets,  and  destroyed  86  mer- 
chantmen ;  then  making  a  descent  near  New- 
oastle,  he  destroyed  200  houses,  and  returned 
safely  with  property  valued  at  500,000  crowns. 
He  was  married  twice,  and  had  18  children. 
His  elder  son,  FBAUcota  fbom  in  1677,  died  in 
17GS),  became  vice  admiral.  Jean's  brother 
Qaspabd  was  likewise  a  brave  sailur,  as  were 
also  other  members  of  the  family,  the  last  of 
whom  died  in  the  French  West  Indies  in  1848, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  M.  Vanderest'a 
Hittain  dt  Jean  Bart  was  adopted  in  1841  as 
a  text  book  la  the  maritime  schools  of  France. 
A  statue  of  Jean  Bart  was  erected  at  Dunkirk 
inl8«. 

UKTIS,  GaUlanM  de  SaHute  da,  a  French 
poet,  bom  in  Gascon;  in  1544,  died  in  1690  of 
wounds  received  at  the  battle  of  Ivry.     His 


six  years,  it  wan  translated  into  English  by 
John  Sylvester.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
this  now  obsolete  work  is  that  of  1611  (2  vols., 
Paris). 

BIETFELD  (Han.  JMrl/a),  a  town  of  North 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Saros,  on  the  river 
Topla,  near  the  Galician  frontier,  105  m.  N. 
E.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  18T0,  6,803.  It  is  an  old 
royal  free  town,  has  a  gymnasium,  and  car- 
ries on  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  earthenware, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


844  BA 

and  Unen.  It  was  fonnerlj  an  important  em- 
porimn  uf  tbe  trade  with  Galicia,  but  ita  oom- 
merclal  activitj  has  declined.  It  contains  a 
Gotliic  church  with  fine  works  of  art,  and  a 
town  liali  witJi  many  valnable  historical  recordi, 
Tbe  town  wag  founded  early  in  the  14th  oen- 
turj,  and  tbe  first  general  ajnod  of  Hunga- 
rian Protestants  waa  held  here.  Abont  2  m. 
N.  uf  tbe  town  are  mineral  springs  salntarj  in 
nervons  and  other  diseases.  The  wat«r  is  ex- 
oessivoly  strong  and  cold  even  in  summer,  but 
never  freezes,  and  it  is  eztensivelj  exported. 
It  is  drank  cold  and  need  in  hot  baths. 

BiHV,  a  town  of  German  j,  in  the  Pmsuan 
province  of  Fomerania,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Barth,  which  forms  its  port,  14  m.  W.  of 
Stralsnnd;  pop.  in  1871,  6,774.  In  the  16th 
oentnr;  it  was  a  commercial  town  of  o<Hisider' 
able  importance  and  the  residence  of  seve- 
ral dnkes  of  Pumerania.  It  still  has  a  large 
coasting  trade.  From  1680tolBl&it  belonged 
t-o  Sweden. 

BIKTH,  GkiUlai  (Mttok,  a  German  divine 
and  pbilantltropist,  horn  in  Stuttgart,  Jnl;  SI, 
1TQ9,  died  in  TQbingen,  Nor.  12,  1S62.  He 
was  edacated  at  Stuttgart  and  Ttlbingen,  and 
in  1824  was  appointed  pastAr  at  MOttJingen  in 
Wartemberg.  In  conjunction  with  tbe  mia- 
eionar;  institute  of  Basel  be  instituted  a  mis- 
sionary society  in  WOrtemberg,  and  published 
a  periodical,  t}ie  Calwer  Mi»*ioTt»6latt,  devoted 
to  the  enterprise.  He  travcUed  in  Switserland, 
France,  ana  En^and,  in  the  interests  of  the 
missionary  cause,  and  founded  at  Calw  an  in- 
stitute for  training  poor  children.  Hie  books 
have  had  an  almost  unexampled  circulation. 
Of  the  "Bible  Histofj"  and  "Bible  Stories" 
a  million  copies  have  been  published  in  more 
than  ten  languages.  He  was  a  finent  versifier, 
writing  hynms  and  short  poems  for  children, 
many  of  which  have  been  introduced  into  pop- 
ular German  oollections.  His  principal  works 
are ;  Biblueha  OueMchU/Ur  Schnlen  und  Fa- 
tnilieii,  often  republished ;  Kirehtngttchieh- 
U  fUr  Sehvf^n  vnd  Familien  (Oalw,  1886); 
Chrittliehe  OedicMe  {Stnttgort,  1836);  and 
Kinderbiatter  (Calw,  1836). 

BiBlfi,  BelarM,  a  Gorman  explorer  and 
traveller,  bom  in  Ilambai^,  Feb.  18, 1821,  died 
in  Beriin,  Kov.  26,  1896.  He  was  educated  at 
Eamhnrg  and  Berlin,  travelled  tliroagh  Italy 
and  Sicily,  and  in  184S  began  explorations  in 
AfHoo.  Starting  from  Tangier  in  Morocco,  be 
proceeded  along  the  coast  of  Algeria,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli,  making  excurnons  into  the  int«- 
rior,  reached  Benghazi,  and  thence  went  across 
the  desert  to  Egypt  During  this  journey  he 
was  attacked  by  wandering  Arabs,  severely 
wounded,  and  rohbed  of  his  papers.  He  trav- 
ersed Egypt,  t!io  peninsula  of  SiuM,  Palestine, 
Asia  Minor,  the  idands  of  the  Mgaan  sea,  and 
Greece.  In  this  journey  he  expended  $14,000 
from  his  own  fortune.  Part  of  the  resolta  of 
his  enterprise  appeared  in  1B49  in  his  ICiin- 
derungen  durck  die  KOiUnldnder  de*  Mittel- 
raferm,  of  which  only  the  first  volume  was 


ever  written;  for  while  engaged  in  preparing 

the  second  be  received  a  proposition  from  the 
British  government  to  undertake  an  expedition 
into  central  Africa,  as  scientific  associate  of 
James  Richardson.  In  the  winter  uf  ia49-'eO 
Richardson,  Overweg,  and  Barth  met  at  Trip- 
oli, having  procured  a  boat  for  the  navigation 
of  Lake  Tchad.  Barth  made  a  preliminary 
trip  throagh  Tripoli,  and  on  April  3,  1860,  the 
three  explorers  set  out  for  the  interior  (rf  Africa, 
joining  the  great  semi-annual  caravan  for  Bor- 
noo.  On  May  6  tfaey  reached  Moorzook,  the 
capital  of  Fezzan,  which  tliey  left  June  1 8,  pro- 
ceeding in  a  8.  W.  direction  through  the  terri- 
tory of  Air  or  Asben,  which  had  never  bfflTore 
been  visited  by  Europeans.  Barth  left  bis  com- 
panions to  visit  a  remarkable  monnt^n  which 
appeared  to  be  only  a  few  boors  distant,  but 
proved  to  be  much  ttarther.  He  lost  his  way, 
and  for  28  hours  remwned  without  water,  pre- 
serving his  life  by  aucking  the  blood  from  hie 
own  arm.  He  was  at  length  fbnnd,  and  the 
natives  looked  upon  him  as  a  demigod,  for  they 
had  never  known  any  one  to  live  more  than  13 
hours  without  water  in  the  hot  desert.  Before 
reaching  Agadei  the  travellers  were  attacked 
by  fonaticM  Moslems,  and  narrowly  escaped 
death.  At  Tintellost  they  were  detained  from 
September  to  December,  1660,  by  a  native 
chief.  Effecting  their  release  by  an  appeal  to 
the  saltan  of  Ennoor,  they  went  on  to  Agades, 
where  they  eenarated.  intending  to  reunite  at 
Kuka  in  April  Ricnardson  died  March  4, 
when  six  days'  jonmey  from  the  rendesvona, 
but  Barth  was  able  to  secure  his  papers,  which 
he  forwarded  to  England.  At  Kuka  Bartfa 
was  kindly  received  by  the  sultan  of  Bomoo, 
whose  vizier  lent  him  (100,  his  fteds  being 
exhausted,  and  no  remittances  having  arrived. 
Overweg  bad  in  tbe  mean  time  made  an  inde- 
pendent excursion  towsrd  Gackatoo,  and  re- 
joined Barth  at  Kuka  May  7.  Dunng  these 
Journeys  both  travellers  found  articles  ^Ame- 
rican manu&otnre  among  tbe  wildest  tribes, 
which  they  supposed  had  been  received  in  ex- 
change for  slaves.  The  travellers  again  sepa- 
rated, Barth  setting  ont  for  Adamawa,  with 
an  escort  from  the  sultan  of  Bomoo,  May  29. 
For  four  weeks  he  travelled  southward  through 
forests  abounding  with  lions  and  elephants.  On 
June  19  he  came  upon  the  great  river  Benoowe, 
at  its  junction  with  its  afflnent  the  Faro,  and 
at  once  correctly  coidectared  that  it  must  be 
the  same  widi  tiie  Tchadda,  or  esstem  branrh 
of  the  Niger,  described  by  the  Landers  and 
others.  Arriving  at  Tola,  the  capital  of  Ada- 
mawa, some  def^t  in  etiqnette  was  fonnd  in 
the  letters  with  which  he  nad  been  furnished 
by  the  sultan  of  Bomoo,  and  be  was  ordered  t^j 
leave  the  country  within  three  days.  He  turned 
bock,  and  reached  Kuka  July  23.  Overweg  hod 
reached  Lake  Tchad  with  the  lx>at  which  bad 
been  brought  overluid  from  Tripoli,  and  had 
spent  five  weeks  in  exploring  it,  being  tlie  first 
European  who  had  ever  sailed  upon  its  waters. 
The  traveBers  remained  at  Kuka  till  November, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARTH 

1851,  when  they  pIsniMd  (utother  Joornej  to 
Kanem  and  Borgoo,  a  Ta«t  oneiplored  region 
lyinsN.E.  of  the  l^e,  and  stretchiuK  halfway 
to  Nubia;  bnt  they  were  assailed  dj  Arabe, 
Bd  forced  to  return  to  Knka.  Thej  fonnd  the 
ndtMi  aboat  to  send  an  army  20,000  strong  to 
Mibjngate  Haadara,  a  coimtry  B.  E.  of  Bomoo. 
They  joined  this  expedition,  which  after  march- 
ing 200  milesretnmed  in  triumph,  with  a  booty 
of6,000BlHTea  and  10,000  cattle.  After  resting 
neariy  two  months,  Barth,  near  the  oloM  oi 
HarMt,  1SS2,  set  out  tor  Baghirmi,  a  kingdom 
£.  of  Bomoo,  which  no  European  had  erer 
Tinted.  Here  he  was  again  foroed  to  return, 
rmohi^  Euka  Aug.  20.  Dnriur  hia  absence 
Orerw^  tried  to  penetrate  the  Fellatah  Ung- 
dnm  of  Yakoba,  N.  W.  of  the  Benoowe,  bnt  his 
health  was  absttered,  and  he  retnmed  to  Enka, 
near  which  place  he  died.  Sept  87,  ISSa.  Barth 
waa  now  aione ;  bnt  ft«ah  ftuda  reaching  him 
from  the  English  government,  be  resolved  to 
pnrsne  his  eiplorationa,  sending  his  papers  to 
En^and,  with  a  request  that  another  aasodate 
ihcmld  be  provided  for  him,  and  fixing  npon 
the  kingdom  of  Timbnctoo  as  his  deiF&iBOon. 
He  had  aoand  health,  goods  for  presents  worth 
$200,  fonr  eamek,  as  many  honws,  and  five 
trnaty  lerrants,  all  well  sapplied  with  arms  and 
ammnnitjon.  The  party  left  Knka  Nov.  36, 
1S5S,  reached  Bsekatoo  in  April,  and  Timbnc- 
too Sept  7,  186S.  For  many  montlis  nothing 
was  heanl  of  Barth  except  a  ramor  that  he  was 
dead.  Meanwhile  Edward  Yoget,  a  German 
employed  as  an  assistant  to  die  British  royal 
aatrcaunner,  volanteered  to  go  in  search  of  bun. 
He  waa  attended  by  a  company  of  sappers  and 
mtnera.  At  Tripoli  he  was  joined  by  Mr.  War- 
rington, son  of  tneBrit)Bhc<aisnl.  They  reached 
E^u  in  December,  1S08.  Here  Warrington 
died ;  bnt  Vog«J  learned  that  Barth  waa  alive, 
and  had  left  Timbnctoo,  where  he  had  been 
detained  nearly  a  year.  The  virior  of  Bomoo 
had  forwarded  the  report  Utat  be  had  died, 
hcqiing  that  this  wonld  soon  be  the  case,  so 
that  ^e  supplies  of  the  expedition  might  fiill 
into  fais  own  hands.  Bnt  civil  tronbles  arlring, 
the  vitler  was  deposed,  and  Barth  wasproteoted 
by  the  sheik  of  Timbnctoo,  who  ibmished  him 
with  an  escort  as  far  back  as  Sackatoo.  He  sno- 
oeeded  in  exploring  the  middle  oonrse  of  the 
Qnorra  or  Niger,  which  had  not  been  before 
done  by  any  European  except  Mnngo  Park, 
whose  jonmal  perished  with  nim;  he  also  dis- 
covered two  considerable  kingdoms,  Gando  and 
Hamd-Allahi,  the  existence  of  which  had  before 
been  unknown.  On  Oct  17  he  reached  Eano, 
the  largest  town  in  central  Africa,  where,  bis 
fbnds  being  exhansted,  he  sncoeeded  in  procnr- 
ing  a  loan  by  paying  too  per  cent  interest  On 
Dec.  1,  1854,  he  was  met  by  Vogei,  the  first 
Enropean  he  bad  seen  since  the  death  of  Over- 
weg,  more  than  two  years  before.  Having  win- 
tered at  Knka,  Barth  started  for  home  in  Hay, 
18&S,  and  reached  Marseilles  Sept.  8,  having 
been  absent  nearly  six  years.  After  visiting 
his  friends  in  Qennany,  he  went  to  London  to 


BARTHELEMT 


345 


prepare  an  acoonnt  of  his  explorations.  The 
"  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North  and  Central 
Africa"  appeared  simnltaneonsly  in  English 
and  German  (Ovols.,  London  and  Gotha,  185S-- 
'8),  with  nmnerons  iUnstrations,  many  of  them 
colored,  and  elaborate  maps  of  his  varioas 
routes.  This  is  Berth's  great  work,  and,  thongh 
heavy  and  difibse  in  style,  it  is  atill  the  most 
valuable  book  of  African  travel  which  has  ajj- 
peared.  Barth  made  it  a  pidnt,  wherever  he 
was,  to  itndr  the  langnage  and  history  of  the 
country,  and  he  brought  to  light  mnch  that 
would  otherwise  have  been  whoiiy  lost  to  the 
stndent  Having  comnlel^d  the  acconnt  of  his 
AiHoan  travels,  he  made  several  other  jonmeys, 
of  which  he  published   accounts;   Seut  eon 


da»  Innert  dtr  europAuchen  Tijtriwi  (Berlin, 
1864) ;  and  in  IBSO  be  made  a  tonr  in  Albania 
and  Mcmten^(ro.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  profeamr  extraordinary  of  geography  in 
the  OBivetBty  of  Berlin.  His  poathumons  work, 
Sammlung  Ctntraiq/HiatUielUr  Voeaiularien, 
appeared  jn  1806, 

BAHVELBrr.  ligMle  MnHOe,  a  French 
poet,  bom  in  HarswUea  in  17B6,  died  there, 
Aug.  38,  1807.  He  excelled  as  a  satirist,  and 
his  Eotat  4  Pari*  (18S6)  passed  through  many 
editions.  About  1626  be  formed  a  literary  part- 
□ersbip  with  H^,  another  satirical  poet,  and 
together  they  published  La  Yilliliade,  an  at- 
tack on  the  ministrr  of  Vitttie,  and  in  1828 
yapaUon  «n  igypte,  copies  of  which  were  sent 
to  every  member  of  the  Bon^arte  family.  In 
18S9  he  published  LtJlU  de  Vhomme,  an  bo- 
oount  of  a  vidt  to  the  duke  of  Reichstadt, 
for  which  he  was  fined  and  imprisoned.  Be 
was  alternately  a  satirist  of  the  government 
and  of  the  opposition,  his  course  being  det«-- 
mined  by  pensions,  fines,  and  imprisonmenta. 
Among  ttie  latest  of  his  many  prodnctions  was 
L«  deux  dJMinirtf  (1862),  a  vindication  of  Louis 
Napoleon^s  emip  ^itat. 

BABTnUHT,  nintsls,  marqnis  de,  a  French 
dlplomatJat^  bom  at  Anbagne,  Oct  20,  1747, 
died  in  Paris,  April  8,  1880.  He  was  educated 
by  his  uncle,  Jean  Jaoques  Uarth^temy,  and  be- 
came prominent  in  the  diplomatic  service,  espe- 
cially at  Basel,  where  in  179S  he  negotiated  the 
first  treaties  of  peace  of  the  republic  with 
Spain,  Pruaaia,  and  Hesse-Oassel.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  directory,  and  after  the  18th 
Fructldor  was  tranqiorted  with  Pichegru  to 
Guiana,  whence  ho  escaped  to  the  United 
States  and  to  England.  He  was  among  the 
first  recalled  by  the  first  consul,  who  made  him 
a  senator,  and  afterward  a  count  He  voted  to 
make  Bon^arte  consul  for  life,  and  presided 
in  1814  over  the  senate  which  deposed  the 
emperor,  for  which  Lonis  XVIII.  crested  him 
a  peer.  After  the  hnndred  days  he  was  made 
a  minister  of  state  and  marqnis.  His  motion  in 
1819  for  reducing  the  electOTal  vote  became  one 
of  the  principal  sonrcei  of  political  agitation 
during  the  rwtor&tion. 


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S46 


babth£lemy 


BAnvfiUEVY,  Jcu  Jmvmi,  a  French  artHm- 
dogist  &Dd  author,  bom  at  Cnsris,  Jan.  20, 
1716,  died  in  Paria,  April  80,  1766.  He  was 
ednoated  for  the  charch,  and  retained  the  title 
and  ooHtoine  of  an  abbe,  bat  devoted  himself 
ehieflf  to  arohraological  stadiea.  In  176S  he 
became  director  of  the  cabinet  of  medals  and 
coina,  which  he  made  the  moat  renowned  and 
esteosive  collection  in  the  world.  While  viait- 
ing  Italf  in  17S4-'7  for  the  aoqoiution  of  an- 
cient medaU,  he  formed  the  acqnsintance  of 
U.  de  Stainville,  afterward  duke  de  Ohoiaenl 


n  of  handaome 
th^lem;  made  a  modeet  a»e  of  his  good  fortone, 
it  yet  expoaed  him  t^i  the  animoait]r  of  D'Alem- 
bert  and  others.  Aa  earlj  as  1748  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and  bellea- 
lettres,  andin  1789  he  wa«elect«d  to  the  French 
oottdemf .  He  was  arrested  in  1768,  bnt  released 
throagh  the  intervention  of  the  miniBt«r  of  the 
interior.  He  wrote  many  learned  disquisitions 
on  nnmiamatioe  and  arohmologr,  publiahed  a 
romance  and  some  poetrj,  and  left  the  MS.  of 
hia  Voj/agt  en  Italie  (edited  hj  S^rieys,  Paris, 
1603);  bnt  bis  fame  rests  on  his  Voyage  du 
jeunt  Anaehartit  en  Griee  (4  vols,,  1788),  on 
which  he  labored  30  years,  and  which  has 

fiaased  throngh  many  editions,  serving  for  a 
ong  time  as  a  text  book  on  andent  Greece. 
It  hu  been  translated  into  EngUsh  and  moat 
other  £Brppean  langoagoa. 

UKinf Lian-SUlfT-HIUltE,  !*■,  a  French 
savant,  bom  in  Paria,  Aog.  16, 1S06.  He  was 
employed  in  the  ministry  of  finance  and  as  aa- 
^tant  professor  of  French  literature  in  the 
polytechnic  school  till  188S,  when  the  first  por- 
tion of  his  translation  of  Ariatotle  gained  for 
him  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  pniloaophy 
in  the  college  de  France,  followed  the  next  year 
by  a  seat  in  the  academy  of  moral  and  political 
sciences.  In  1840  he  served  for  some  time  un- 
der Conrin  in  the  mimstry  of  pnblio  inatroction. 
He  i>ecame  connected  with  the  Globe  and  other 
newBpaperg,  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  Charles 
X.  and  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  after  the  revela- 
tion of  1846,  as  member  of  the  conititnent 
and  legialative  ossembliea,  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  conservative  republioana.  He  made 
an  nnsnoceeHfiil  attempt  to  have  Gen.  Cavai- 
gnao  oensured  for  the  ineffeotivenesa  of  the 
measures  taken  to  suppress  the  insurrection  of 
Jnne  in  ita  beginnings.  He  denoanced  the  nsnr- 
pation  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  December,  1861, 
and  for  a  short  time  was  a  prisoner  at  Mazoa. 
He  rengned  his  connection  with  the  college  de 
France,  which  had  been  placed  under  hia  di- 
rection, and  did  not  resume  his  professorship 
till  1802.  In  the  mean  time  he  baa  cooperated 
with  M.  de  Lesseps  in  the  Suez  canal  project 
(ISOK-'S),  and  nsited  Egypt  as  one  of  the 
repreeentativea  of  that  enterprise.  In  1860 
he  waa  elected  to  the  national  assembly ;  in 
18T1  he  became  secretary  general  of  the  cabi- 
net of  his  old  and  intimate  friend  M.  Thiers  i 
ind  in  18T6  ba  was  elected  aenstor  lor  life. 


BASTHOLDT 

Hia  translation  of  the  works  of  Ariatotle  (IT 
vols.  8vo,  1887-'e6)  is  the  first  complete 
French  version,  and  is  very  fall;  annotated. 
He  also  published  a  memoir  De  la  Logique 
d'Arietote  (3  vols.  Svo,  1888),  Among  nia 
other  works  are  several  on  Buddhism,  MaAe- 
met  et  It  G>Tan  (1805),  and  PhiloeophU  du 
deux  Ampire  (1866). 
BAKTHEZ.  or  BaitML    I.  Pud  Jawpb,  a  French 

Shysician,  bom  at  Montpeltier,  Dec  11,  1784, 
ied  Oct  15, 1806.  He  early  acqnired  renown 
as  an  army  phyrician,  and  about  1 760  became  a 
professor  in  the  medical  school  of  Uontpellier, 
and  in  177S  coadjutor  and  prospective  snoceasor 
of  the  chancellor  of  the  facelty.  He  waa  alao 
received  doctor  of  law  in  1780,  and  appdnt«d 
conncilloT  in  the  court  of  aida.  His  haughty 
character  led  him  into  disagreements  with  bis 
colleagues,  wherefore  he  removed  to  Paris  in 


many  learned  societies.  He  lost  his  places  at 
the  revolution,  but  was  afterward  honorary 
profeseor  at  Hontpellier,  and  received  many 
tokens  of  regard  from  Napoleon.  He  ezplaiBed 
the  animal  economy  by  the  theory  of  a  vital 
principle,  and  has  been  called  the  Hegel  of 
medical  sdenoe.  His  method  is  stated  in  hia 
J^(Kie«atfx  ilimente  de  la  etienee  de  rhomme 
(Uontpellier,  1778 ;  enlai^ed  ed.,  S  vols.,  Paria, 
1806),  which  has  been  translated  into  most 
European  languages.  His  NmnelU  mieanigue 
del  momementi  de  Fhomme  et  da  animaiu 
(Carcassonne,  17B8),  and  his  Traitement  det 
maladiet  govtteuiea  {2  vols.,  Paris,  1602 ;  new 
ed.,  181Q),  have  been  translated  into  Qerman. 
Among  his  other  numerous  writings  are  two 

{osthumons  works,  TVaiti  du  beau  (edited  by 
is  brother,  1607),  and  CotitMllationt  de  mede- 
ctfM  (2  vols.,  1810).  U.AaMMCkarlesEiM«t4e, 
a  French  phyfdcian,  grand-nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  at  Narbonne  abont  1800.  He  re- 
ceived his  doctor's  diploma  in  Paris  in  188S, 
became  physician  to  several  hoepitals,  and  pre- 
pared with  U.  Rilliet  his  Tratti  ctiniqve  et 
pratique  det  maladiet  det  ei\fantt  (new  ed.,  8 
vols.,  Paris,  1858-'4),  which  won  priiea  from 
the  medical  academy  and  academy  of  sciences. 
BAETBOLD,  RMriA  WUMii,  a  German  his- 
torian, bom  in  Berlin,  Sept.  4,  17S9,  died  Jan. 
14,  16G6.  He  studied  history  under  Banmer, 
and  was  teacher  at  ibe  Frederick's  college  of 
K0Big8berg(I826-'81),  and  professor  of  history 
BttheniuversityofGreifsw8Jd(1881-'e8).  His 
principal  works  are ;  Der  Edmermg  KSnif 
Heinirieh't  «wi  LatteUmrq  (3  vols.,  E5nigsberg, 
1880-'81);  QeeehitkU  da  grotten  (fcutoeAen 
Kruget  eon  Outtat  Adolf »  fade  ab  (Stuttgort, 
1841->8) ;  Oeiehiehte  ier  deutechen  StOdte  vnd 
det  deatsehen  BUrgertkums  (4  vols.,  Leineic, 
1800-'G2) ;  and  Oeiehiehte  der  deutteken  Han- 
la  (Leipsic,  1854). 

BABTHOLOT,  Jakek  SahaM,  a  German  diplo- 
matiat  and  patron  of  art,  bom  in  Berlin,  Hay 
18, 1776,  died  in  Bome,  July  27,  1826.  He  waa 
of  a  rich  Jewish  family,  studied  at  Ednigsberg, 


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BAETHOLiy 

m>«it  several  jeara  in  Paris,  viMt«d  Ttal^  and 
Greece,  and  in  1800  became  a  convert  to  Prot- 
estantism. He  fought  in  the  Aostrian  annj 
against  tlie  Frenph,  and  roused  the  national 
spirit  by  his  AWw  ''«■  tiroUr  LandleuU,  1809 
(Berlin,  1814).  la  1B18  he  held  a  place  in  the 
Pmssion  cliancerf  nnder  Hardenberg,  attended 
the  congresses  of  Vienna  and  Aix-la-Ohapelle, 
and  was  conmil  general  in  Ital;  from  181G  to 
1918,  and  afterward  cliarg^  d'affaires  in  Flor- 
ence. He  published  in  1815  an  anonTinons 
bii^^raphy  of  his  friend  Cardinal  Gonsalvi,  em- 
ployed Cornelius,  Overheck,  and  other  GertDan 
artists  in  Rome  in  fresco  painting,  and  left  a 
large  art  collection,  the  greater  part  of  wliich, 
ohiefiv  bronres,  vases,  and  terra  ootta,  has  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  mnsenm  of  Berlin. 

IlKTHWJir.  I.  Kaspar,  a  Danish  physician  and 
savaot,  bom  at  Ualmft,  Sweden,  Feb.  12, 1C86, 
died  in  Copenhagen,  Jnly  13, 1629.  He  tanght 
medicine  in  Basel,  practised  at  Wittenberg,  and 
was  snooesavcly  professor  of  rhetoric,  medioine, 
and  theology  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen. 
His  principal  wort,  Inttitutionu  Anatomioa 
(Wittanbere,  IBU),  has  passed  throogh  several 
editions  ana  been  translated  into  foreign  lan- 
guagea,  U>  ThiWHi,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom 
in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  20,  1616  died  at  Hage- 
sted,  Deo.  4, 1680.  He  was  a  physician,' profes- 
sor of  mathematics,  and  for  11  years  of  anato- 
my, in  Copenhagen,  and  finally  became  physician 
to  tjie  king,  director  of  the  nniversity  bbrary, 
and  st^onctjndgeof  the  supreme  court.  He  is 
eepeciallr  distinguished  as  the  reputed  discov- 
erer of  toe  lympnatio  syBl«m  of  vessels,  though 
the  priority  in  this  matter  was  contested  by 
Olaus  Rndbeck  of  Sweden.  Hia  works  were 
verj  nnmenraa,  the  most  important  being  D» 
Laeteit  Thvraeit  in  Homiae  Srutiig-ae  (Co- 
penhagen, 1003),  and  Va*a  Lymphattea  ttuper 
Sqfhia  in  Aaimalibiu  iaveata  et  in  Somiiu, 
et  HepatU  Etequia  (1608). 

BAITHM.OKEW,  a  southeastern  county  of  In- 
diana, drained  by  Flat  Rock  creek  and  Drift- 
wood fork  of  White  river;  area,  ST6  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  31,183.  The  eastern  part  is  gen- 
erally level,  but  in  the  west  are  hills  of  some 
elevation.  The  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and  In- 
dianapolis railroad  and  ita  SJielbyville  division 
pass  through  the  county.  In  18T0  the  chief 
prodaetionB  were  491,424  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,639,676  of  Indian  com,  111,839  of  oats,  67,- 
862  of  potatoes,  9,370  tons  of  hay,  321,086  lbs. 
of  butter,  and  47,S90  of  wool.  There  were 
6,189  horses,  4,872  milch  cows,  7,816  other 
cattle,  10,838  sheep,  and  88,046  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Oolnmbn^ 

BiKTWHAHEW  UTOF,  a  lu^  stream  of  the 
8.  W.  United  States,  rises  N.  W.  of  Pine  BInff, 
Jefferson  conuty,  ArkonsRS.  snd  Sows  very  tor- 
tuouriy  8.  E.,  H.,  and  9.  W.  into  the  WashiU 
river  at  Washita  City,  Morehouse  parish,  Louis- 
iana.  It  is  navigable  by  steBni1>oat8  for  200  m. 

UITBOLOMGW.  I.  Takatlae,  an  English 
painter,  bom  Jan.  18,  1799.  He  acquired  re- 
nown as  a  flower  painter,  and  haa  been  for 


BARTHOLOMEW 


347 


over  80  years  a  meniber  of  the  society  of  wa- 
ter-color paintera.  II.  Aaas  GhaiMle,  a  minia- 
tfire  and  flower  painter  and  poetesa,  second 
wife  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Loddon,  Nor- 
folk, early  in  this  century,  died  Aug.  18,  1863. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Amall  Fayer- 
mann  and  a  niece  of  Dr.  John  Thomas,  bishop 
of  Rochester.  In  1827  she  married  Mr.  Wal- 
ter Tnmbull,  a  composer  of  popular  songs, 
who  died  in  1886;  and  in  1840  she  became 
the  wife  of  Mr.  Valentine  Bartholomew.  Bhe 
was  a  member  of  the  society  of  female  artists, 
and  published  "TheSongsofAzrael,"  a  volume 
of  poems ;  "  The  Ring,  or  the  Farmer's  Daugh- 
ter," a  play  (1829) ;  and  "  It's  Only  my  Aunt," 
a  &nK>  (1849), 

BlSIWtLOMEW,  8alit,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  a  native  of  Galilee,  and  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Nathanael,  who  ia 
mentioned  by  St  John  among  the  flret  disci- 
ples of  Christ  According  to  Eusebios  and 
other  ancient  authors,  he  preached  the  gospel 
in  the  Indies,  under  which  name  they  generally 
include  not  only  India  proper,  but  also  Arabia 
and  Perria.  It  is  related  tbat  in  the  third  cen- 
tury traces  of  Christianity  were  found  in  those 
countries,  and  that  a  copy  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel  in  Hebrew  was  preserved  by  the  na- 
tivee,  who  had  a  tradition  that  Bt  Barthdo- 
mew  left  it  there  when  he  oame  among  them 
to  preach  the  ^th.  He  afterward  journeyed 
into  Phrygla,  met  8t,  Philip  at  Hierapolis,  and 
thence  passed  into  Lyoaonia.  Beyond  this  we 
are  told  litUe  of  his  life  and  travels,  and  even 
the  meagre  aoconnts  which  we  have  received 
are  of  donbtfid  authenticity.  The  place  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  equally  nnoertain. 
Modem  Greek  writers  assert  that  he  was  cru- 
cified at  Albanopolis ;  others  that  he  was  flayed 
alive.  As  we  know  that  it  was  not  unnsual 
in  some  parta  of  the  East  to  unite  these  two 
barbarous  punishments,  it  is  posable  that  both 
accounts  may  be  true.  The  relics  of  this  apos- 
tle have  undergone  many  vicissitudes.  We  hear 
of  them  at  Dura  in  Mesopotamia,  in  the  idand 
of  Lipsri,  and  at  Benevento.  It  is  believed  hy 
Roman  Cathobcs  that  they  rest  beneath  the 
high  altar  in  the  chinch  of  St  Bartholomew 
at  Rome.  A  gospel  anciently  attributed  to 
St  Bartholomew  was  declared  apocryphal  by 
Pope  Qelasins  I.  A  collection  of  writings  also 
ascribed  to  him,  bnt  doubtless  without  reason, 
is  known  to  have  existed  daring  the  flrst  four 
centnries  of  the  Christian  era,  although  no 
part  of  it  now  remains.  His  festival  day  in 
the  Roman  church  is  Aug.  !!4,  and  in  the 
Greek  June  11. 

BUnvWAMEW,  SibI,  iMnNn  af;  the  slaugh- 
ter of  Huguenots  in  France  on  St.  Bartholomew'ii 
day  {Ang.  24),  1672,  It  is  maintained  on  tho 
one  hand  that  it  was  the  result  of  s  plot  laid 
long  beforehand  to  annihilate  the  Huguenots, 
in  which  religion  had  the  prominent  part;  on 
the  other,  that  it  was  a  sudden  outbreak,  aris- 
ing wholly  from  political  motives.  A  desperate 
struggle  had  for  many  years  been  waged  in 


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BARTHOLOMEW 


Franoo  between  the  Ofttholica  and  the  Hn- 
gaenots,  in  which  botii  parties  oonunined  na- 
rneroua  outrsf^.  It  tmilc  flnallj  the  form  of  a 
confliot  between  the  houses  of  Guise  and  Cond6. 
The  feeble  Charles  IX.  was  now  king,  his  moth- 
er Catharine  de' Medici  being  the  reai  sovereign. 
It  being  oertain  that  neither  Charles  nor  his 
brother  Eenr^  wonld  have  children,  Henry  of 
Navarre,  afterword  Henry  IV.,  was  the  nert 
beir  to  the  throne.  He  was  bj  birth  and 
education  a  Protestant,  and  had  distiugDiBhed 
himself  in  war.    In  1670  a  peace  had  been 

Ktcbed  up  between  the  parties,  which  was  to 
rendered  more  aeenre  bj  the  marriage  of 
Henry  with  Manfaret  of  Valois,  the  sister  of 
the  king.  Angnat  18,  16T2,  was  fixed  upon 
for  the  wedding,  and  many  of  the  principal 
Haguenota  were  gathered  in  Paris.  On  the 
22d  Admiral  Coligni,  one  of  the  foremoet  Hq- 

Kenota,  was  fired  upon  by  an  assassin  named 
>  Manrevel,  known  to  have  been  a  ore»- 
tare  of  Cathortne,  who  was  jealous  of  the  in- 
flaence  which  the  admiral  hod  aoaulred  over 
the  king.  It  haa  been  muatainea  by  many 
that  the  marriage  between  Henry  and  Unr- 
garet  waa  a  scheme  intended  only  to  collect 
the  Huguenot  leaders  in  Paris  in  order  that 
they  might  all  be  pnt  to  death  at  once,  and 
that  the  assasmnation  of  the  admiral  was  to  be 
the  signal  for  a  genera)  massacre.  Coligni  waa 
not  killed,  bnt  severely  womided.  The  king 
vimted  him,  and  swore  that  the  aaaasain  shontd 
be  pnnislieil.  The  Hngnenots  were  alarmed, 
and  uttered  violent  threata.  Catharine  per- 
suaded her  son  that  they  were  on  the  point  of 
maasacring  the  Catholics,  and  that  the  only 
thing  to  be  done  was  to  antioipate  them.  At 
her  argenoy,  Charles  in  the  mght  of  the  S8d 
gave  an  order  for  a  general  masaacre  of  the 
Huguenots,  the  signal  to  be  the  tolling  of  the 
matin  bell  of  St.  Germain  rAuierroia.  The 
execution  of  this  measure  was  intmst«d  to  the 
dote  of  Guise  and  the  Italian  gasrda  of  the 

Salaoe,  supported  by  the  companies  of  the 
□rghers.  Orders  were  also  sent  to  all  the 
principal  provincial  cities,  directing  a  nmol- 
laneouB  massacre  throughont  Franca  It  is 
said  that  the  king  was  relnotant  to  give  these 
orders,  and  that  at  the  last  moment  he  oonnter- 
manded  them ;  but  the  doke  of  Guise,  to  whom 
the  counter-order  was  given,  replied  that  it 
was  too  late,  and  mounting  his  horse  rode  off 
toward  the  hot«l  of  ColtgnL,  for  the  oompletdon 
of  the  murder  of  the  admiral  was  the  first 
Step  to  be  taken.  A  band  of  assassins  burst 
into  his  apartment,  ran  him  through  tlie  body, 
and  fiung  tlie  corpse  from  the  window  into  the 
street,  where  the  doke  of  Guise  was  waiting 
on  horseback.  He  dismounted  and  wiped  the 
blood  from  the  face  of  the  victim  in  order  to 
be  sure  that  there  bad  been  no  mistake  as  to 
the  person.  At  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  the 
signal  was  given,  and  the  general  massacre 
commenced.  It  is  said  that  Charles,  with  his 
brother  Henry  of  A^joo  and  their  mother, 
waa  at  the  time  in  the  tennis  court;  that  he 


was  at  first  overcome  with  horror,  hot  iocn 
b«f;an  himself  to  fire  from  the  windows  of  the 
Louvre.  But  this  statement  rests  upon  in- 
sufBoient  authority,  and  is  inconsistent  with 
his  conduct  before  and  after,  lie  died  21 
months  after  the  massacre,  not  without  suspi- 
cions of  having  been  poiI^oned  by  his  tnot^OT 
and  brother,  although  the  Huguenots  ascribed 
his  death  to  the  direct  visitation  of  God.  His 
agony  of  mind  and  body  was  extreme.  He 
"sweat  blood,"  say  credible  historians,  "from 
every  pore,"  and  died  exclaiming,  "Oh,  faow 
much  bloodi  how  many  assaarinatioDsI  Oh, 
what  evil  counsels  have  I  followed  I  O  Lord 
God,  pardon  me,  and  have  mercy  upon  mel  " 
The  slaughter  in  Paris  lasted  for  several  days. 
Cond£  and  Henry  of  Navarre  escaped  by  at- 
tending msSH,  and  pretending  to  become  Cath- 
olics; but  most  of  the  Huguenots  gathered  in 
Paris  were  killed.  But  the  slaughter  was  not 
confined  to  tiiem.  Uany  who  had  grudges  to 
avenge,  or  something  to  gain  by  the  death  of 
others,  took  occasion  to  gratjf;  their  malice 
or  onpidity.  The  orders  for  the  massacre  were 
executed  in  nearly  all  the  cities  and  towns  of 
France  where  Hngoenots  were  to  be  found  as 
speedily  as  they  ooutd  be  received  from  Paria. 
It  occurred  at  Meaux  on  Aug.  it;  at  La 
Charite  'aa  the  36th ;  at  Oriesns  on  the  STth  ; 
at  Baumur  and  Angers  on  the  S9th ;  at  Lyons 
on  tiie  80th ;  at  Troyes  on  8ept.  2 ;  at  BourgM 
on  the  11th;  at  Rouen  on  the  17th;  at  Tou- 
lonse  on  the  28d ;  at  Romans  on  the  30tL ;  at 
Bordeaux  on  OcL  8.  Many  districts  and  lowna, 
however,  were  spared,  generally  throngh  the 
oppofdtion  of  their  governors  or  local  author- 
ities. The  unmber  of  persons  put  to  death  in 
all  France  is  variously  stated  at  100,000  to 
1,S00.  The  former  number  is  doubtless  much 
too  great;  the  latter  much  too  small.  The 
eetimate  of  I)e  Thou,  30,000,  is  {irobably  near 
the  truth. — The  subsequent  conduct  of  the 
French  govunment  throws  conwderable  light 
upon  the  origin  of  the  massacre.  Lingard 
states  it  as  follows :  "  The  bloody  tragedy  had 
been  planned  and  executed  at  Paris  with  so 
much  expedition  that  its  authors  had  not  deter- 
mined on  what  gronud  to  justil]]'  or  palliate 
their  conduct.  In  the  letters  written  the  some 
evening  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces  and 
to  the  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts  it  was 
attributed  to  the  ancient  quarrel  and  insatiate 
hatred  which  existed  betwe«i  the  princea  of 
Lorraine  and  the  bouse  of  Coligni.  Bnt  as  th« 
duke  of  Guise  refused  to  take  the  infamy  on 
himself,  the  king  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
in  parliament  that  he  had  signed  the  <n^«r  tot 
the  death  of  the  admiral,  and  sent  in  conse- 
quence to  his  ambassadors  new  and  more  de- 
tailed instructions.  La  Motte  FCuelon,  tlie 
ambassador  to  England,  aasured  Elizabeth  that 
Charles  had  conceived  no  idea  of  such  an 
event  before  the  preceding  evening,  when  ho 
learned  with  surprise  and  astoniuiment  that 
the  ocnfldential  advisers  of  the  admiral  had 
formed  a  plan  to  avenge  the  attempt  mode  on 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARTHOLOMEW 

hia  life  b^  garpriging  the  Louvre,  makiag  prison- 
ers of  the  rof  ai  familj,  and  patting  to  death 
the  doke  of  Gaise  and  the  leaders  of  the  Oath- 
olios  ;  tliat  the  plot  was  reveaitid  hj  one  of  the 
ooanctl  whose  coDsoienoo  revolted  irom  rach 
a  crime ;  that  his  deposition  was  confirmed  in 
the  miad  of  the  king  b;  the  Tiolent  and  un- 
dntifiil  expressions  uttered  hj  Goligni  in  the 
royal  preeenoe ;  that  having  bat  the  interval 
of  a  few  hours  to  deliberate,  he  had  hastily 
given  permission  to  the  duke  of  Onise  and  bis 
friends  to  eiecnte  Justice  on  his  and  their 
friends;  and  that  i^  from  the  exdted  passions 
of  the  popnlace,  some  inoooent  perstHU  bad 
perishea  with  the  guilty,  it  has  been  done  con- 
trary to  his  intention,  and  has  given  bim  the 
most  heartfelt  Borrow."  The  balance  of  evi- 
dence evinces  that  the  original  plan,  formed  by 
Oatharine  de'  Medicu  and  the  duke  of  (raise, 
was  simply  to  disorganize  the  Hugnenot  party 
by  the  mnrder  of  Cotigni,  their  reoognized 
leader;  that  the  partial  failnre  of  tliis  threw 
the  court  into  alarm,  and  the  weak  king,  per- 
suaded that  his  person  was  in  danger,  CMiBented 
to  issue  the  order  for  the  massacre,  which,  as 
expressed  by  Lingard,  "  was  not  originally 
contemplated,  but  grew  ont  of  the  nneipected 
failure  of  the  attempt  already  made  npon  the 
life  of  the  admiral."— A  grave  tfueetion  has 
arisen  aa  to  the  sopposed  comphoity  of  the 
papal  court  in  the  massacre.  The  despatehes 
of  the  papal  nnncio  at  Paris  seem  to  set  this 
qneetion  at  rest.  On  the  very  day  of  the  mas- 
sacre he  wrote  to  the  cardinal  secretary  at 
Rome  an  aeconnt  of  the  matter.  A  month 
later  (Sept.  22),  in  reply  to  inqniries  for  more 
detailed  information,  he  wrote:  "The  qaeen 
regent,  having  become  jealous  of  the  admiral, 
came  to  the  resolution  a  few  days  before,  and 
cansed  the  aniaebase  to  be  discharged  at  him 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  king,  bat  with 
tiie  participation  of  the  doke  of  Anjon,  and  of 
the  dncheaa  of  Nemours,  and  of  her  son  the 
dnke  of  Guise.  Had  he  died  immediately,  no 
one  else  would  have  peridied.  But  he  did  not 
die,  and  they  began  to  expect  some  great  evil ; 
wherefore,  closeting  themselves  in  consultation 
with  the  king,  they  determined  to  throw  shame 
aude,  and  to  cause  him  to  be  assasanated  with 
the  others;  a  determination  which  was  carried 
into  aiecntion  that  very  night."  This  acoomit 
was  contained  in  a  cipher  despatch  from  the 
nnnoio  at  Paris  to  the  government  at  Bome, 
which  wonld  hardly  have  asked  informaticm 
ahont  a  conspiracy  in  which  they  had  t)orne  a 
port;  and  the  nancio,  in  a  secret  despatch, 
would  hardly  have  spoken  in  terms  of  snoh 
condemnation  of  a  plot  in  which  his  superiors 
were  implicated.  These  secret  despatches  were 
first  published  almost  two  centuries  after.  A 
solemn  Te  Deum  over  the  event  was  sung  at 
Rome  by  the  order  of  Pope  Gregory  XlIL ; 
bat  it  most  be  bome  in  mhid  that,  acoording 
to  the  accoonts  then  at  hand,  the  afihir  grew 
out  of  an  nnsQcoessful  ooni^raoy  against  the 
French  government  and  the  Gatholio  chnroh ; 


and  the  TePeiaa  belonged  to  the  some  cat«gory 
with  the  one  sung  shortly  before  for  the  vic- 
tory gained  at  I«panto  over  the  Turks.— Nnth- 
do[f,  a  German  student  who  professed  to  have 


woftt 


left  a 


ratjve  of  it  in  Latin,  which  has  been  recently 
discovered  in  France,  and  is  said  to  be  in 
course  of  publication  (1872). 

BlITL^TT,  BMU,  an  American  physician 
and  author,  bom  in  Sraithfield,  R.  I.,  in  1806, 
died  there,  July  18,  1366.  He  graduated  from 
the  medical  department  of  Brown  university 
in  1830,  spent  a  year  in  Europe,  and  commenced 
practice  m  Lowell,  Mass.  He  delivered  the 
coarse  of  lectures  on  pathological  anatomy  at 
the  Berkshire  medical  institute  in  Fittafield, 
Mass.,  in  1683,  and  in  1839  lectured  at  Dart- 
mouth college.  Subseqnently  he  held  pro- 
fessorships in  Transylvania  college,  Lexin^n, 
Kv.  (1841),  the  university  of  Maryland  (1844), 
Lexington  again  (1846),  Looisville  (1949),  and 
the  university  of  Now  York  (1850) ;  and  from 
1861  till  his  death  he  held  the  cliair  of  materia 
medica  and  medical  jurisprudence  in  the  col- 
kge  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  New  York. 
while  occupied  in  these  different  sitaations 
daring  the  autumn  and  winter,  he  also  delivered 
friHn  1843  to  18B3  the  lectures  at  the  Vermont 
medioal  college,  Woodstock,  in  the  spring  and 
summer.  He  wrote  "  Essay  on  Philosophy  of 
Medical  Science  "  (1844)  ;  "  Inquiry  into  the 
Degree  of  Certainty  in  Medicine"  (1848); 
"The  Fevers  of  the  United  Sutes"  (1850); 
"Discourse  on  the  Times,  Character,  and 
Works  of  Hippocratee"  (]8fi2);  and  a  volume 
of  verses  entitled  "Simple  Settings  in  Terse 
for  Portraits  and  Pictures  from  Mr.  Dickens's 
Gallery"  (1855);  and  edited  "The  Monthly- 
Journal  of  Medical  Literature  "  at  Lowell. 

BiBnZTT,  Idatod,  an  Amenoan  lawyer, 
bom  in  Sahshnry,  N.  11.,  in  1T88,  died  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  OcL  Ifl,  1853.  lie  was 
educated  at  Dartmouth  colle^re,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  law  in  Durham,  but  soon  re- 
moved to  Portsmouth,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life.  He  is  celebrated  ss  sn  opponent 
of  Webster  and  Mason.  He  was  seven  years  in 
the  stat«  legislature,  a  representative  in  con- 
gress (ia23-'9),  and  a  member  of  the  state 
constitutional  convention  of  1860. 


was  early  placed  in  a  banking  house,  and  was 
for  six  years  cashier  of  the  Globe  bank  at 
Providence.  While  there  he  was  one  of  the 
original  projectors  of  tlie  Providence  athenanm 
and  an  active  memtier  of  the  Franklin  society, 
before  which  he  occasionally  lectured.  In 
18ST  he  engaged  in  business  in 
house  in  New  York,  in  which  I 


chielly  for  the  importation  of  foreign  works. 
He  became  at  this  time  one  of  the  active 
managers  of  the  New  York  historical  society, 
end  was  a  prqjector  of  the  American  ethno- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


850 


BARTLETT 


logical  society.  Id  1850  he  was  appointed  hj 
Preadent  Taylor  commissioner  to  fix  the  boun- 
'daiy  Une  between  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico under  the  treatj  of  Gundalupe  HidBlgo. 
He  remained  ia  ttiis  aerrice  till  Jan.  7,  1853, 
making  extenBive  enrvefs  and  explorations, 
with  elaborate  scientific  obaervatdonB ;  bat,  for 
want  of  the  necessaiy  sppropriationB,  the 
boundary  line  was  not  oompleted  bj  him.  In 
1864  he  published  a  "Personal  Narrative  of 
Explorations  and  Incidents  in  Texas,  New 
Uexico,  Oalifornia,  Bonora,  and  Cbihnahna." 
He  had  previoasly  published  a  small  work  on 
"The  Progress  of  Ethnology"  (1847),  and  a 
"Dictionary  of  Americaniams "  (1860),  rince 
revised  and  enlarged  (1859).  He  heosme  sec- 
retary of  state  of  Kb»de  Idand,  May  1,  1856, 
and  liBB  held  that  office  ever  wnce.  He  bos 
edited  and  published  the  "Records  of  tlie  Ool- 
ony  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Planta- 
tions" (10  vols.,  186fl-'65),  and  written  "Bib- 
liography of  Rhode  Island"  (1884),  "Index  to 
the  Acts  and  Resolves  of  the  GeDeral  Assembly 
of  Rhode  Island  from  1768  to  1862"  (1868), 
"literature  of  the  Rebellion"  (1866),  "Me- 
moirs of  Rhode  Island  Officers  in  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion  "  (18B7),  "  Primeval  Man  "  (1888). 
BAKIlErr,  JtNph,  an  American  wit,  poet, 
and  adventurer,  bom  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  abont 
1768,  died  in  Boston,  Oct  37,  1827.  He 
gradaated  at  Harvard  college  in  1783,  and 
bogao  the  study  of  law  at  Salem,  but  soon  gave 
it  up  for  a  voyage  to  England.  In  London, 
being  at  the  representation  of  one  of  Gen, 
Burgoyne^B  plays  m  ridicule  of  his  countrymen, 
he  stood  up  in  the  pit  and  oried  out,  "  Hurrah  I 
Great  Britain  beaten  by  barbers,  tailors,  and 
tinkers  I  "  with  prodi^ous  effect.  It  was  taken 
in  good  part,  and  got  him  the  acquaintance  of 
many  of  the  "  bloods  "  of  the  day.  He  gam- 
bled, got  into  prison,  wrote  a  play  for  his  re- 
lease, and  went  upon  the  stage  himself.  From 
an  actor  he  became  a  merchant,  and,  having 
sailed  for  America  w  Ith  a  large  supply  of  goods 
on  credit,  was  shipwrecked  on  Cape  God.  For 
a  while  he  figured  as  captain  of  volunteers  in 
Shays's  war,  then  opened  an  office  in  Wobnm, 
painting  it  black,  and  calling  it  the  "  Coffin," 
to  attract  notoriety.  He  next  removed  to  0am- 
bridge,  and  in  179S  delivered  a  poem  on  phys- 
io^omy  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society, 
satirical  and  clever,  and  aaid  to  touch  upon  the 
traits  of  individuals  at  the  time.  To  the  edi- 
tion of  this  poem  published  in  1628  were  ap- 
pended a  number  of  "  Aphorisms  on  Men, 
Principles,  and  Things,"  the  results  of  his 
various  experience.  The  same  year  he  deliver- 
ed a  Fourtli  of  July  oration  at  Boston,  and 
afterward  recited  a  poem  entitled  "The  New 
Vicar  of  Bray,"  which  obtained  considerable 
celebrity.  He  attempted  the  practice  of  law 
and  of  politics  in  Maine,  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature,  and  nearly  secured  an  election 
to  congress.  He  then  practised  law  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  and  closed  bis  improvident  life, 
a  burden  to  bis  friends,  at  Boston. 


BABTOL 


kk)  U.  D.,  an  American  pa- 
triot and  statesman,  bom  at  Amesbury,  Mass., 
in  November,  1729,  died  May  19,  1T95.  He 
commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  in  1760  at 
Kingston,  and  established  a  reputation  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  anaina  matiffna  in  1764 
by  treatment  with  Peruvian  bark,  in  opposition 
to  the  usage  of  other  phyncians.  He  received 
several  appointments  &om  the  royal  governor, 
John  Wentworth,  but  was  deprived  of  them 
in  17T5  for  being  a  zealous  whig.  In  1774  he 
was  appoint«d  to  the  command  of  a  regiment 
of  mifatia.  Being  chosen  delegate  to  the  con- 
tinental congress,  be  was  the  first  who  voted 
for,  and  the  first  after  the  president  who  signed 
the  Beclaration  of  Independence.    He  accom- 

Knied  Stark  in  17T7  to  Bennington.  In  17T9 
was  appointed  chief  jnstice  of  tlie  common 
pleas,  in  1784  Justice  of  the  supreme  court,  and 
m  1788  chief  justice.  He  was  sn  active  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  called  to  adopt  the  federal 
constitution  in  1788.  In  1790  he  was  president 
of  New  Hampsbira  and  in  179S  was  chosen  the 
fiist  governor  nnd^"  the  new  state  constitution. 

BIETLETT,  WilUaH,  one  of  the  founders  of 
llie  tbeolo^cal  eemmary  at  Andover,  Mass., 
bom  at  Nawbnrvport,  Jan.  SI,  1748,  died  there, 
Feb.  8,  1841.  He  made  a  large  fortune  in 
trade,  and  besides  liberal  contributions  in  aid 
of  the  temperance  reform,  foreign  missions,  and 
tlie  edncaticm  of  young  men  for  the  ministry, 
he  gave  tSO,000  toward  the  foundation  of  the 
Andover  theological  seminary,  endowed  a  pro- 
fessorship, and  boilt  a  house  for  the  incumbent. 

BIBILEIT,  WUUsM  Heary,  an  English  artist 
and  author,  bom  in  London,  March  26, 1809, 
died  at  sea  in  September,  1864.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  John  Britton  the  antiquary,  and  em- 
ployed by  biro  as  adrau^temen.  He  travelled 
extendvely  at  home  and  abroad,  repeatedly  vis- 
iting the  East  and  the  American  continent,  end 
engraved  nearly  1,000  plates  from  bis  drawings, 
with  descriptions  written  by  himself^  by  hia 
fellow  traveller  Willism  Beattie,  and  by  other 
hands.     The  text  of  bis  "Beauties  of  the  Boa- 

f horns  "  (London,  1840)  was  fiimislied  by  Miss 
ardoe,  and  that  of  "American  Scenery"  (3 
vols.,  1840)  and  of  "Scenery  and  Antiquities  of 
Ireland  "  (2  vols.,  1842)  by  N.  P.  Willis.  His 
works  on  Switzerland,  Egypt,  and  the  Holy 
Land  were  the  most  popular,  a  4tb  vol.  of  his 
"Footsteps  of  our  Lord  and  his  Apostles"  ap- 
pearing in  1866.  A  brief  memoir  of  his  life, 
by  Beattie,  was  published  in  London  in  1865. 

MSTOL,  Cpu  lagatfu,  an  American  author 
and  Congregational  clergyman,  bom  at  Free- 
part,  Me.,  April  BO,  1818.  He  gradaated  at 
Bowdoin  college  in  18S2,  completed  bis  theo- 
logical education  at  the  Cambridge  divinity 
school  in  1886,  and  was  settled  as  cotleegne 
pastor  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Lowell,  D.  D., 
of  the  West  church  in  Boston,  March  1,  1887. 
His  principal  writings  are:  "IHscourses  on  the 
Ohnstian  Spirit  and  IJfe  "  (1850);  "Disconrses 
on  the  Christian  Body  and  Form"  (1854); 
"  lectures  of  Europe  "  (1865),  a  work  combining 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BARTOLI 


frapUo  aketohes  c^  trivel  with  pkDoBophioal 
reflectioDB;  &  history  of  the  "West  Ohorch  ind 
its  Miaistsrei"  "Obnrch  and  Oongregation : 
a  Plea  for  thaip  Unity  "  (1868) ;  "  Word  of  the 
Spirit  to  the  Chowh; ''  and  "Radical  Prob- 
wn  "  (187S).  He  has  alao  published  a  variety 
otf  occasional  and  nusoeUaneous  diBoonreee  and 
Bways,  besidea  nomeroiu  oontribalioDB  to  the 
leading  periodieala  of  the  day,  and  serenil  poet- 
ical compositions.  HIa  writings  are  character- 
ized t^  a  remarkable  indiyidaality  of  tbongbt 
and  illnetrstjon,  and  a  oertain  antique  quaint- 
neaa  of  atyle.  Altbongh  of  a  deeply  religions 
tone,  they  giye  more  prominenoe  to  the  ethtoal 
and  Kwial  element  than  to  tbeologioal  doctrine. 

■inOU,  PaaMe,  an  Italian  author,  bom  in 
Ferrara,  Feb.  13,  1S08,  died  in  liome,  Jan.  13, 
1685.  He  entered  the  sooiel?  of  Jeans  at  die 
age  of  15,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  in  IflSO  to 
writ«  tho  biatory  of  tbe  order,  md  in  1671  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  Roman  collie.  Hia 
htoria  d«Ua  evmpagwia  di  0««i  (S  Ttde.  lol., 
Rome,  ]6&8-'ftS;  1%  vols.,  Torin,  1836)  ia  in 
&ve  parta,  three  relating  to  llie  East,  inchidiDK 
China.,  Japan,  and  Mongolia,  one  to  Italy,  and 
one  to  England,  chiefly  in  the  times  of  Eliza- 
bath  and  James  I.  He  wrote  also  Vita  »  It- 
tiCut*  di  S.  Ignatio  (1680),  which  has  been 
widely  oirenlated  in  En^ish  ;  and  VUomo  di 
leU«rt,  also  translated  into  Snglisb. 

BlITOU,  Pletra  Baatl,  known  also  as  Ps- 
BTftio,  an  Italian  engraver,  bwii  aboat  leSO, 
died  in  Rome  in  1700.  He  was  a  pnpil  of 
Nioolaa  Pouasin,  and  imitated  his  master's 
works  with  wonderital  fidelity.  He  eicelted 
chiefly  as  an  engraver,  his  prints  of  Greek  and 
Roman  works  being  mnch  valued  by  Wlnck- 
elmann.  Hia  moat  Delebrat«d  deeigna  are  af- 
ter the  ScriptiHlJ  fVesooea  of  Raphael  in  the 
Vatican.  Hia  St  John,  after  Mola,  is  in  the 
LoQvre,  and  bia  "  Japiter  cmshing  the  Qianta," 
after  Qlulio  Romano,  is  at  Ifantoa.     He  com- 

K'  )ted  over  1,000  plates,  chiefly  etchings,  which 
ve  beoMne  very  scaroe. 
UKTMHa,  Lmcmm,  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Barignano,  near  Prato,  Tuscany,  in 
1777,  died  in  Florence,  Jan.  20,  1850.  He 
took  lessons  fW)m  a  French  artist  in  Florence, 
and  went  to  Paris  in  1797,  where  his  bass  relief 
of  "  Cleobis  and  Btton  "  won  a  prise  tfont  the 
academy.  He  became  a  great  AiTorite  of  Na- 
poleon, who  charged  him  in  1808  with  the 
establiahment  of  an  academy  at  Carrara,  from 
which  city  he  was  expelleu  after  the  over- 
throw of  the  emperor,  whom  be  accompanied 
to  Elba.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  be  re- 
turned to  Florence,  where  he  directed  the  de- 
partment of  scnlpMire,  and  was  professor  in  the 
Bcaflemy  of  fine  arts.  He  was  regarded  in 
Italy  Bs  next  to  Oanova  in  eminence.  He  ex- 
celled especially  by  hia  graceful  drapery,  and 
by  his  eiqnMte  modeling  of  the  fieeb.  In  the 
Pitti  palac«  at  Florence  is  his  masterwoA,  a 
marble  groDp  reiHvsenting  Oharity.  Among  his 
namerons  other  works  in  that  dty  are  etatnes 
of  tiie  Vmna  de'  Uedioi  and  of  MaohiaTelli, 


fiARTOLOUMEO 


851 


76 


At  Milan  is  his  statue  of  "  Fdth  in  Ood, "  erect> 
ad  by  the  marchioness  Trivnlrio  in  cwnmerao- 
ration  of  faw  husband ;  in  the  cathedral  of  Lan- 
sanne  is  his  monument  of  Lady  Harriet  Strat- 
ford Canning;  and  his  Bacchante  ia  in  the 
duke  of  Devonshire's  collection  in  England. 
In  Paris  he  made  busta  of  Madame  de  Sta^L 
Lord  Byron,  the  oonateas  Gniccloli,  Thiers,  ana 
many  other  prominent  persons,  besidea  the 
monument  of  Prince  Nicholas  Demidoff  and 
the  marble  statnee  of  Arnina,  nymph  of  tha 
Amo  (1841),  and  of  "The  Nymph  vrith  the 
Scorpion  "  (1846). 

BARTOLO,  or  B«trih  I.  TtMM  «,  aa  Ital- 
ian painter  of  the  Sienese  school,  flonrished 
from  1390  to  1414.  He  was  the  son  and 
grandson  of  paintera.  Some  of  his  pictures  are 
at  Pisa,  Volterra,  and  Padna,  and  one  of  his 
celebrated  madonnas  ia  in  the  gallery  of  the 
late  king  Lonia  1.  of  Bavaria.  His  most  re- 
markable fi-eeco  painting,  in  the  festibule  of 
the  chapel  of  the  Pataxzo  Pubblico  at  Siena, 
representing  celebrated  men  of  antiquity,  was 
imitated  by  Pernglo  in  the  exchange  at  Fem- 
gia.  IL  DaMMlea  M,  nephew  and  pnpil  of  the 
}H«ceding,  was  a  painter  of  iVescoes  (1440), 
IKhd  which  Raphael  while  at  Siena  derived  a 
knowledge  of  national  costumes.  His  "Ascen- 
sion o!  the  Virgin  "  is  in  the  musemn  of  Berlin. 

BABTHAMMEtk  f^  an  Italian  painter,  whose 
peal  name  was  Baooio  dblla  Pob^'a,  called 
also  U  Frate  and  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  San 
Maroo,  born  at  Savignano  in  I40Q,  died  in 
Florence,  Oct.  8,  1617.  He  studied  under 
Corimo  Roaselli,  and  acquired  his  knowledge 
of  ohiaroecnro  from  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  His 
first  works  were  of  small  tiie,  snch  as  his  two 
cabinet  pictures  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  rep- 
reseoSng  the  "Nativity"  and  the  "Circumcis- 
ion," In  hia  (reeco  of  the  "  I«st  Judgment,"  in 
the  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Nuora,  he  adopted  a 
grander  style.  He  was  an  admirer  and  friend 
of  Savonarola,  whose  execution  preyed  so 
mnch  npon  his  mind  that  in  July,  1000,  he 
entered  the  convent  of  Prato,  and  SDhflequently 
that  of  Son  Marco.  Bnt  be  resumed  his  pro- 
fession in  1004,  and  became  intimate  with 
Raphael,  whom  he  instructed  in  coloring  and  the 
folaing  of  draperies,  while  Raphael  taught  him 
the  rules  of  perspective.  Sabsaquently  he  went 
to  Rome,  to  study  the  works  of  that  master 
and  of  Michael  Angela  In  the  convent  of 
San  Marco  are  some  of  Fra  Bartolommeo's 
moat  finished  fresoDes.  One  of  his  finest  pro- 
ductions, "The  Virgin  upon  a  Throne,"  is  in 
the  public  gallery  of  Florence.    In  the  Pittl 

Salaoe  is  his  single  figure  of  St.  Mark,  wMch  ia 
escribed  by  Wincbelmonn  as  a  Grecian  statne 
transformed  into  apicture.  In  thcQiiirinal  of 
Rome  are  two  of  his  pictures,  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  The  latter  was  most  admired  by  Ra- 
phael, who  completed  it  Other  famous  works 
of  his  are  to  be  found  in  Rome,  Naples,  Mu- 
nich, Berlin,  and  St  Petersburg;  and  those 
removed  by  Napoleon  I.  to  the  Louvre  have 
been  restored  to  Florence.    Hia  rarest  per- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


853 


BAETOLOZZI 


fbrmanoea  are  in  the  posseision  of  the  former 
sruid  daoal  familj  of  Toso&ay,  including  Ms 
fast  sad  one  of  his  best  worts,  a  large  picture 
in  ohisrosonro  rapresentiug  the  patron  saints 
of  the  oity  surrounding  the  Virgin.  His  de- 
signs oame  into  poaaession  of  Sir  Beqjamin 
West,  and  afterward  into  that  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence,  at  whose  death  they  were  sold  and 
scattered.  He  waa  the  inventor  of  a  new 
meihod  of  easting  draperies,  and  of  the  nse  of 
the  wooden  figare  with  movable  joints.  The 
distribution  of  light  and  shadow  ooustitates 
the  great  merit  of  his  art. 

BIBTOLOZZI,  fnuMCM«i  an  Italian  engraver, 
bom  in  f  lorenoe  in  1729  or  1730,  died  in  Lis- 
bon aboat  1816.  He  was  the  son  of  a  gold- 
smith, perfsoted  himself  in  his  art  in  Venice, 
Florenoe,  and  iUilon,  and  in  1T64  accompanied 
Biohard  Dalton,  librarian  of  George  ilL,  to 
England,  where  he  was  employed  in  the  rojal 
academy,  and  acquired  great  celebrity,  especial' 
1;  by  bis  "Death  of  Chatham"  after  Ooptey, 
and  by  bis  "  Virgin  and  Ohild  "  after  Sasaofer- 
rato.  In  1805  he  was  called  to  Lisbon  by  the 
prince  regent  of  Portugal,  who  pensioned  htm 
and  made  him  president  of  the  academy  of  dne 
arta.  He  ezoelied  in  every  spetues  of  engraving, 
and  left  a  prodigioas  nnmber  of  plates  and  etch- 
ings ;  that  of  Clythia  after  Annibale  Oarraoci 
is  one  of  big  master-works,  and  other  designs 
after  tbe  Corraod,  the  "Death  of  Dido"  after 
Oipriani.  and  the  "  Massacre  of  tbe  Innocents  " 
after  Guido,  are  among  his  more  renowned  pro- 
liactions.  With  Braoci  he  wrote  MemorU  degli 
antiehi  ineUori  (2  vols.,  Florence,  lT84-'8). 

BiRTOH.  L  A  S.  W.  county  of  Uissouri,  on 
the  Kansas  border,  watered  by  affiuents  of  the 
Orand  or  Neosho  and  of  the  Osage  river ;  area, 
600  Bq.  m, ;  pop.  in  18T0,  6,08T,  of  whom  19 
were  colored.  The  chief  productions  in  IBTO 
were  21,486  boshels  of  wheat,  246,490  of  In- 
dian corn,  88,847  of  oata,  and  T,4fi9  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,083  horses,  ],T65  milch  cows, 
8,237  other  eattle,  8,SST  sheep,  and  Q,704 
swine.  Capital,  Lamar.  II.  A  W.  central 
ooonty  of  Kansas ;  area,  OOD  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2.  The  Arlcansas  river  intersects  the  8. 
portion,  and  its  branches,  the  chief  of  which 
IS  Walnut  creek,  water  the  greater  part  of  the 
coanty.  Fort  Zarah  Is  in  this  county,  at  the 
Junction  of  Wolnat  creek  with  the  Arkansas. 

BAK1VN,  SeaJaMla  BsLtk,  an  American  nata- 
ralist,  born  at  Lancaster,  Penn.,  Feb,  10,  1706, 
died  in  PhUadelphia,  Deo.  19, 1816.  He  was  a 
son  of  tbe  Rev.  Thomas  Barton  .and  a  nephew 
of  Ur.  David  Rittenhasse.  After  his  parents' 
death,  and  after  a  oom'se  of  general  studies  at 
York,  Penn.,  nnder  Dr.  Andrews,  he  studied 
medicine  and  the  natural  sciences  in  Philadel- 
phia (1783-'fl),  and  in  Edinburgh  and  London 
(1783--'8),  and  took  his  medical  degree  in  GiCt- 
tingen  in  178S  or  1780.  Subsequently  he  prac- 
tise his  profession  in  Philadelphia,  and  be- 
came professor  of  botany  and  natural  history, 
retaining  this  podtiou  after  the  inoorporation 
of  the  college  with  Uie  university  in  1701.    He 


BAKTON 

received  the  ch«r  of  materia  medica  in  1796, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Rush  in  that  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine.  He  was  pre^dent 
of  the  Philadelphia  medical  society,  vice  preri- 
dent  of  the  American  philosophical  society,  a 
member  of  many  other  American  and  European 
societies,  and  a  correspondent  of  Humboldt  and 
other  savants.  Among  bis  works  are :  "  Ele- 
ments of  Botany"  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  181S-'14); 
"OoUectiona  for  an  Essay  toward  a  Materia 
Medica  of  the  United  States"  (Sd  ed.,  1810); 
Flora  Virginica  (1812) ;  and  numeroos  other 
writings,  chiefly  relating  to  natural  history,  and 
on  medical,  philological,  and  arcfafeological  rab- 
iecta.— His  nephew,  Wiluaic  P.  0.  Babtoh, 
M.  D.,  succeeded  him  in  tbe  chair  of  botany, 
and  died  in  1866.  He  wrote  "Memoirs"  of 
his  uncle,  "  Flora  of  America"  (3  vols.,  1821- 
'S),  "  Vegetable  Materia  Medica  of  th«  Unit«d 
States,  or  Medica!  Botany  "  (illustrated,  1817- 
'26),  and  other  works. 

BUtTOlf.  Benard,  an  English  poet,  bom  in 
London,  Jan.  81,  1784,  died  at  Woodbridge, 
Feb.  10,  1810.  He  was  a  member  of  the  soci- 
ety of  Friends,  and  a  hank  clerk  at  Wood- 
bridge  from  1810  to  1847.  His  work  entitled 
"Metrical  EStaaions"  (1812)  was  fallowed  by 
others,  which,  though  defldent  in  poeticd 
power,  were  animated  with  tender  and  de- 
votional feeling,  and  gained  for  him  the  re- 
gard of  Southey,  Lamb,  end  Byron,  and  a 
donation  of  £1,200  from  a  reading  clab  which 
he  had  established  at  Woodbridge,  besides  a 
penwon  of  £100  accorded  to  him  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  through  Sir  Robert  Peel.  The 
"  Household  Verses  "  are  among  his  latest  and 
best  productions.  His  Nster  Maria  Hack  wrote 
many  juvenile  works,  and  his  daughter  Lucj 
published  in  1840  "Selections  from  the  Poems 
and  Letters  of  Bernard  Barton." 

BUTSN,  data.    See  aopplement. 

BiBTOV,  raiAclh,  called  the  Holy  Mtdd  or 
the  Nun  of  Kent,  an  English  reli^ous  impos- 
tor, executed  April  21,  1GS4.  She  was  a  eer- 
vant,  who  when  seiied  with  nervous  fits  broke 
ont  in  ravings,  of  which  her  pariah  priest,  Maa- 
ters,  took  advantage  in  1626  to  represent  her 
as  an  inspired  prophetess.  In  1631  she  waa 
induced  by  Father  Booking  to  take  the  veil  at 
Canterbury  for  the  sake  of  additional  effect, 
he  prompting  her  to  denounce  the  reformation, 
and  especially  Henry  VIII.  on  account  i^  his 
proposed  divorce  from  Queen  Catharine.  Even 
Sir  Thomas  More  aod  Bishop  Fisher  of  Roches- 
ter countenanced  tbe  imposture  for  a  time,  and 
the  excitement  among  the  populace  became  so 
obnoiioas  to  the  authorities  that  she  was  arrest- 
ed in  1633.  She  made  a  confessioD  of  the  con- 
spiracy at  St.  Paul's  cross  in  December.  A  bill 
of  attainder  against  her  and  her  accomplices,  in- 
cluding Masters,  Booking,  Deering  (who  wrote 
a  work  on  her  revelations  and  prophecies),  and 
two  other  persons,  was  passed  on  March  6 ; 
and  she  was  beheaded  with  them  at  Tybnm. 

BiBTOK,  WlUtiM,  an  American  soldier,  bora 
in  Providence,  R,  I.,  about  J747,  died  there. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BAETOW 

Oct.  22,  1831.    He  was  a  lient«Duit  colonel 

in  the  sttita  militia  when,  on  the  night  of  JqIj 
20,  1777,  he  crossed  NarragaiiHtt  ha,j  with 
a  small  bod;  of  meo,  passed  muuticed  three 
British  frigates,  landed  between  Newport  and 
Bristol  feny,  reached  the  honse  where  the 
English  general  Frescott  w&a  sleeping,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  &  nej^ro,  who  hroke  in 
a  panel  of  the  door  with  hig  head,  made  his 
wa;  into  the  room  and  took  him  prisoner. 
For  this  exploit  he  received  from  congreH  the 
gift  of  a  sword,  a  commisiioD  as  colonel,  and 
a  tract  of  land  io  Vermont  He  retired  from 
aotire  service  in  Angnst,  1776,  after  having 
been  woanded  at  Bristol  ferrj,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  adopted  the 
coustitotion.  B7  some  illegality  in  the  trans- 
fer of  a  portion  of  his  Vermont  land  Barton 
was  involved  in  difflcnltjes,  and  for  several 
jearg  imprisoned  for  debt  in  Vermont  till 
1820,  when  Lafayette  paid  the  claim  agsinit 
him.  Mrs,  O.  H.  Williams  included  a  life  of 
Barton  in  her  "  Biography  of  Bevolationary 
UenMs"  (Providence,  1889). 

BIBTOW,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  former- 
ly called  Cass;  area,  TU  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,S6e,  of  whom  4,719  were  colored.  Gold, 
copper,  lead,  iron,  plambago,  marble,  and  Itme- 
stoDe  are  found  in  several  places.  The  surface 
is  mneii  diversified,  and  occupied  in  part  hy 
forests  of  hickory,  pine,  elm,  and  otlier  trees. 
The  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad  traverses 
the  coanty,  and  it  is  drained  by  Etowah  river 
and  its  branches.  The  chief  produotiotis  in 
1670  were  1S6,S47  bnshels  of  wheat,  28B,197 
of  Indian  com,  8S,284  of  oats,  and  2,688  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,04S  horses,  1,882 
milch  cowa,  2,G62  other  cattJe,  4,100  sheep, 
and  11,704  swine.    Coital,  Oartersville. 

SiKnjUL  t>  Jttm,  an  American  botanist, 
bom  st  Harple,  Delaware  connty,  Penn.,  in 
ITOl,  died  In  September,  1777.  Eis  arand- 
&ther  was  one  of  the  companions  of  William 
Penn.  He  himself  supportwi  a  large  family  by 
his  industry  as  a  farmer;  but  by  anremitted 
application  be  mastered  the  rudiments  of  the 
learned  languages,  and  made  snch  proficiency 
in  botany  that  he  was  pronounced  by  Linnteos 
the  greatest  natural  bolanist  in  the  world.  He 
made  excursions  through  many  regions  of  North 
America  at  a  time  when  they  were  covered 
with  forests,  and  he  was  the  first  to  describe 


176fi  explored  the  region  of  the  river  fit. 
John's  in  Florida ;  and  in  both  of  these  eicur- 
sions  ho  collected  many  besutifol  plants  and 
trees,  which  he  sent  to  enrich  the  gardens 
of  Europe.  He  was  supplied  by  Linncens,  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  and  otheni,  with  books  and  ap- 
paratus, and  he  in  return  sent  them  specimens 
of  new  and  curious  American  plants.  He 
fonnded  on  the  bank  of  the  Schuylkill,  a  few 
miles  below  Philadelphia,  the  first  botanic  gar- 
den in  America,  where  he  cultivated  heantifn! 
and  rare  American  and  exotic  planto.    At  the 


BARUOH 


353 


tim«  of  his  death  he  was  a  fellow  of  several 
foreign  learned  societies,  and  bore  the  title  of 
American  botanist  t«  George  HI.  of  England. 
He  published  an  aoconut  of  his  ottterrations 
during  his  travala,  and  contributed  to  the  Brit- 
ish ''Philosophical  TransaotioDs"  several  pa- 
pers on  scientific  aobjects.  See  "MemoriaJs 
of  John  Bartram  and  Humphrey  Mar^all,"  hy 
Dr.  William  Darlington  (Philadelphia,  1849). 
IL  HUBm,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at 
Eingsessing,  Penn.,  in  178S,  died  July  S2, 16S8. 
He  commenced  life  as  a  merchant,  but  accom' 
panied  his  father  to  East  Florida  and  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  St.  John's.  In  1771 
he  retomed  to  Kingeessiug,  bat  in  1778,  at  the 
request  of  Dr.  Fothergill  of  London,  he  made  a 
second  scientific  ioumey  to  Florida,  and  also  to 
theCarolinasandOeorgia.  The  narrative  of  bis 
expedition,  under  the  title  of  "  Travels  through 
North  and  Bontb  Carolina,  East  and  West 
Florida,  the  Cherokee  Counby,  ice."  was  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia  in  1761,  and  in  London 
in  1792,  and  again  in  1704  with  illustratioos 
(French  translation  by  P.  V.  Benoist,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1801).  One  of  his  essays,  written  in  1786, 
was  published  in  I6GS,  in  voL  iii.  of  the  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Ethnolt^cal  fiociety," 
under  the  title  of  "  Observations  on  the  Creek 
and  Cheri&ee  Indians."  In  1788  he  declined 
the  chair  of  botany  in  the  university  of  Penn' 
sylvania,  on  account  of  his  impaired  light  He 
made  known  and  i]lustrat«d  many  of  the  most 
curious  and  beantifol  plants  of  North  America, 
and  published  the  fullest  list  of  American  birds 
previous  to  Wilson,  whom  he  greatly  assisted 
at  the  outset  of  his  labors. 

SUTBCH,  Jehau  Utm  Betohird  tm,  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  bom  in  Vienna,  Aug.  17,  1767, 
died  there,  Aug.  21,  1821.  He  rose  to  the 
highest  eminence  in  his  art,  and  became  a 
member  of  tiie  academy  of  fine  arts  and  direc- 
tor of  the  imperial  collection  of  engraving*. 
He  wrote  Le  ptintn-grattur  (21  vols.,  Vienna, 
160S-'21),  one  of  the  best  accounta  of  prints 
ever  published,  and  Calahgvti  raitonnit  of 
the  works  of  Rembrandt  (2  vols.,  1797)  and 
other  great  artists.  The  catalogue  of  his  own 
productions,  comprising  over  600  prints,  was 
published  in  1816  by  his  son  Faian&icn  Joseph 
Adak  von  Bahtoch,  bom  July  12,  1798,  who 
succeeded  him  as  director. 

BAKIKH,  Sail  FiMrith,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, bom  at  Rprottan,  Feb.  26, 1682.  lie  grad- 
uated at  Halle  in  1863,  was  director  of  the 
library  of  the  German  museum  at  Nuremberg 
ie5B-'7,  and  professor  at  Eostock  1868-'71, 
when  he  succeeded  Holtzmann  in  Heidelberg. 
He  has  written  much  on  ancient  German  and 
French  literature,  and  translated  Hums  into 
German  (1886).  Among  his  princiual  works 
are  his  critical  edition  of  the  Nibtlungenlied 
(I.eipsic,  1870)  and  his  ffrufufriMtur  (?McAiVA(« 
der  PTotenxaliKhen  Littraiur  (1873).  He  has 
edited  the  Ofrmaitia  since  1689. 

RiKDCH  (Heb.,  blessed),  the  son  of  Neriah, 
a  friend  and  amannenna  «f  the  prophet  Jerc- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


354 


BAET 


miah,  whose  optivit;  he  appears  to  hare 
shared,  and  whom  be  accompanied  to  EgTpt. 
Hia  sabseqaent  fate  is  unknown.  Ue  wrote 
horn  dictation  the  prophecies  of  Je.remiah,  and 
read  them  to  tlie  people  from  a  window  of  the 
temple  (about  606  H.  C.) ;  but  King  Jehoiakim^ 
being  displeased  with  the  content*,  dwtrored 
the  roll,  cutting  it  with  a  penknit^  and  after- 
ward bnming  it.  Concealing  tbemselTes  from 
the  persecutions  of  tlie  king,  Barucfa  and  Jere- 
miah rewrote  the  whole  of  the  propheuea.  The 
enemies  of  Jeremiah  ascribed  to  the  latter  an 
important  influence  upon  the  propheL  fiunsen 
regards  Baruch  as  uie  author  of  the  second 
part  of  Isaiah. — One  of  the  apocryphal  hooka  of 
the  Old  Testament  bears  the  name  of  Baruoh. 
It  follows  in  the  Septnagint  immediatdf  after 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiem.  Theprologneof  the 
l)ook  states  that  it  was  read  bj  Bamch  to 
Jeremiah  and  the  people  in  Babylon  by  the 
river  Sad  (Enphrates) ;  that  the  people  were 
bronght  by  it  to  repentance,  and  sent  the  book 
with  a  letter  and  presents  to  Jemaalem.  Then 
follows  an  exhortation  to  wisdom  and  a  doe 
observance  of  the  law,  Jerusalem  is  introduced 
as  a  widow  comforting  her  chUdren  with  the 
hope  of  a  retnm.  The  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logians generally  defend  t^e  authenticity  of  the 
book,  while  most  of  the  Protestants  regard  ita 
Epuriousness  as  ftally  proved.  The  first  portion 
of  the  book,  embracing  oh»^).  L  to  iit.  8,  Is,  ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  opinion  of  all  wri- 
ters, a  translation  from  a  Hebrew  original ;  ac- 
cording to  Ewald  and  Uitzig,  the  translation  was 
made  bj  the  Alexandrine  translator  of  Jere- 
miah. The  remainder  is  believed  to  have  been 
written  by  a  Greek  author.  Ewsld  thinks  it 
was  composed  between  S60  and  850  B.  0. 

BtKT,  HNiMk,  a  Dutch  engraver  of  the  17th 
century.  His  productions  are  remarkable 
for  neatness  of  execution,  though  inferior  to 
those  of  Oomelias  Vischer.  Among  them  are 
excellent  engravings  of  the  portrait  of  Qroljus, 
of  several  Duteh  admirals,  and  of  an  allegorical 
pictare  by  Vandyke,  representing  "  Snmmer 
and  Antnmn." 

BUTE,  iBtotae  Lnta,  aFranch  sculptor,  bom 
In  Paris,  Sept.  24,  179S,  died  June  25,  ISTG. 
He  studied  nnder  Bosio  and  Qros,  and  acquired 
repntation  in  1881  by  his  group  representing 
a  tiger  and  a  crocodile,  bought  by  U.  Thiers. 
In  ]S48-'G1  he  held  an  office  in  the  Louvre 
muieuin,  where  he  also  had  hie  studio.  In 
1850  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  art  of  de- 
signing Bubjeota  in  natural  history  at  VersuUee, 
and  afterward  taught  in  theLonvre  IVom  1S54, 
and  in  the  musenio  of  the  botanical  garden 
from  lB5fl.  He  executed  allegorical  statues 
for  the  pavilion  of  the  new  Louvre;  produced 
many  works  relating  to  mythological  and  his- 
torical subjects ;  statuettes  of  Oaston  de  Foix, 
Napoleon,  and  Charles  VL  (the  last  exeonted 
after  his  model  by  the  late  princess  Uarie 
d'OrWans);  the  "Three  Graces,"  the  "Amar 
zon,"  "Angelica,"  two  of  his  daughters  (nnce 
dead),  and  other   fine    female  figureSL     Hia 


BASABJIE 

works  most  admired  for  their  anatomlod  and 
physiological  qnalities  end  monumental  graOr 
denr  are  his  broDze  groups  of  animals,  as  his 
lion  crushing  a  boar,  and  his  other  lions  in  the 
gaiden  of  the  Tuileries ;  bis  panther  and  gazelle 
in  the  collection  of  the  duke  de  Lnynesj  Ms 
little  bears  playing ;  his  tiger  devouring  a  goat 
in  the  Lyons  museum ;  and  bis  jagnai'  feasting 
ufwu  a  hare,  purchased  as  a  plaster  model  b; 
the  French  government  in  1860,  and  exhibited 
in  bronze  at  the  Paris  expoMtions  of  1869  and 
1865.  In  1833  be  beoante  chevalier  and  in 
1866  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor;  received 
the  gold  medal  of  honor  at  the  exhibition  of 
1856 ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Lcmdon 
exhibition  of  ISHS;  uidin  1866  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  fine  arts.  Gonon's  re- 
vival of  the  renaissance  method  of  modelling 
bronze  statues  at  the  first  casting  from  waste 
wax  (eire perdue)  is  sucoesrfiilly  apj^ied  to  many 
of  Barye's  works. 

BAETFl,  or  Barrtn.    See  Bibiuh. 

BiB,  or  Bab,  a  ranalt  island  of  France,  in  the 
English  channel,  a  part  of  the  department  <£ 
Finifltdre,  15  m.  N.  W.  of  Horleli,  about  Si  in- 
long  and  nearly  2  m.  wide;  pop.  about  6,000. 
It  cont^ns  three  villages,  foar  batteries,  two 
forts,  a  revolvii^  lighthouse,  and  a  safe  harbor 


BiSALT,  the  hardest,  most  compact,  and 
heaviest  of  the  tr^>  rooks,  frequency  columnar 
in  structure,  the  columns  or  prisms  having 
tiiree,  five,  or  more  ndes,  regular  and  iointe£ 
Borne  of  toe  columns  of  the  isle  of  Ssye  are 
400  feet  long,  while  in  other  localities  they  do 
not  exceed  an  inch  in  length.  The  diameters 
of  the. prisms  ruige  from  nine  feet  to  bb  inch 
across. the  face.  Theccdnninar  stmctoreismost 
noticeable  when  the  rock  is  viewedat  a  distance, 
as  at  the  Palisades  on  the  Hodson.  Remark- 
able examples  of  batalt  have  bew  found  on  the 
N.  W.  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  at  the  Giant's 
Oonseway,  Ireland,  and  Fingol's  cave.  Soot- 
land,  and  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena.  Basalt 
belongs  to  the  aagitio  series  of  the  igneous 
rocks  resembling  di^erite,  and  cmmsls  of  labro- 
dorite,  angite,  and  chrysolite  in  groins  looking 
like  green  glass.  Its  specific  gravity  varies 
from  as  to  32.  Owing  to  its  bardnesa,  basalt 
has  been  much  used  for  pavements  tuid  for 
macadamizing  roads.  Wh  en  melted  and  cooled 
rapidly  it  is  converted  into  a  kind  of  obsidian 
(volcanic  gloss),  and  can  be  cast  into  ornamen- 
tal blocks  and  mouldings.  Artificial  building 
stone  was  at  one  time  made  of  it  in  England. 

BISABJIK  (Turkish,  market  town),  the  name 
of  several  places  in  European  Turkey,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  two  foUowing. 
■>  Also  called  Hadji -Og1o-Basari,  in  eastern 
Bulgaria,  36  m.  N.  of  Varna;  pop.  about  6,000, 
mostly  Mobunmedans.  The  town  contains  10 
mosques,  and  has  an  important  yearly  fair 
in  April.  It  was  captured  by  the  Rusaiana, 
June  2,  1774,  and  agam  June  8,  1810,  alter  a- 


strugg! 
Mlled  ' 


Ut  Also  oalled  Tatar-Bosoiiik,  on  the  upper 


Digitized  by.GoOgIc 


Ifaritso,  in  the  sralet  of  Adrianopl«,  20  m.  W: 
N.  W.  of  Philippopolis.  It  ooataiiM  4,000  or 
C,000  honaes,  abont  three  fourths  of  vbMi  are 
oocopied  by  Mohammedans  and  one  fbarth 
hj  Bnlgftrian  Christians.  The  town  ha»  IS 
inosqnefl,  6  oharchee,  and  a  jeorly  fair  lasting 
flrom  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  middle  of 
AoguBt.  Rice  oaltnre  and  the  trade  in  that 
artiole  are  important  branehes  of  indostry. 
There  are  tlao  warm  springs  and  baths. 

US(»I,  Mritee,  an  Italian  f  ronotacan,  foim- 
der  of  the  O^tnohleg,  died  in  Venice  in  1SG2. 
He  iTM  a  HintHTtte  ftiar  of  the  con  vent  of  Uod- 
tefaloone,  when  be  declared  that  St.  Francis 
bad  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  and  com- 
manded him  to  iotrodnce  into  the  order  tite 
same  ooetnme  which  the  saint  had  worn  in  life, 
namely,  a  robe  of  flannel,  of  a  cheetnat  color, 
tied  with  a  cord  for  a  girdle,  a  abort  flannel 
cloak,  and  a  large  hood.  Pope  Olement  Vll. 
aooepted  the  rerelstjon,  and  gave  Baschi  and 
tho«e  who  wished  to  unitato  him  permisaioii  to 
form  a  separate  congregation,  which  eoon  took 
the  name  of  Oapnchins  {«^>ot4,  a  hood).  Baaohi 
met  with  mncti  opposition  from  his  brethren, 
and  was  for  a  short  time  imprisoned ;  bat  he 
finally  became  the  first  general  of  the  Oapnohin 
branch  <^  the  Frandaoans. 

BISOOH,  Bear}  tUkmtm,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an 
American  olergrman,  bisiiop  of  the  Uethodist 
^iscopal  church  Sonth,  bom  Mar  ST,  1798,  in 
HancO^  Delaware  CO.,  K.  Y.,  died  in  Loaisville, 
Bept  8, 1B60.  Before  the  age  of  16  bo  receiv- 
ed license  to  preach,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Ohio  conference.  Aft«r  eeverd  years  of  hard 
work  on  frontier  circuits,  he  was  traoafarred 
to  the  TemMssee  conference  in  1910,  returned 
to  the  Ohio  conference  in  1892,  and  in  1638, 
through  the  influence  of  Henry  Clay,  was 
elected  chaplain  of  the  house  of  representatives 
at  Washington.  In  1824  he  was  stationed  at 
Ktteburgh,  in  1689  was  made  conference  mis- 
sionary, and  from  183T  to  1828  was  president 
of  UadiBOQ  college,  TTniontowu,  Penn.  From 
)8Sft  to  ISSl  he  served  as  agent  of  the  coloni- 
zation society,  and  then  was  appointed  to  the 
oh^  ot  moral  science  and  hellee-lettres  in 
AngBsta  collie,  Kentucky,  where  he  remained 
till  1841.  He  declined  the  presidency  of  Lon- 
inana  ooHege  and  of  the  Uiasourl  nniversity  to 
accept  that  of  Transylvania  college,  Kentucky 
(184S).  He  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
protest  of  the  sonthem  delegates  to  the  general 
conference  against  the  action  of  the  m^ority 
in  the  cBM  of  Bishop  Andrew  (1S44),  was  also  a 
member  of  the  conventi(Mi  of  eonthern  delegatce 
held  in  Louisville,  Ey.,  in  Hay,  1846,  and  drew 
np  the  report  of  the  committee  on  the  organi- 
cation  ot  the  charcb  Sonth.  After  serving  as 
editor  of  the  "  Qaarterly  Review  "  of  the  M. 
E,  ohnroh  South  (1849-'B0),  and  oh^rman  of 
th«  board  of  commissioners  to  settle  the  con- 
troverey  between  the  northern  and  southern 
diviffiona  of  the  church,  he  was  elected  to  the 
epiwopal  office  a  short  time  before  his  death. 
Hb  works  (4  vols.  8vo,  NaahviUe,  ISSO  and  laSfl) 


oomprise  semions,  addresses,  lectnres,  and  es- 
says on  infidelity,  mental  and  moral  science, 
moral  and  politick  philoBophy,  Ac,  and  "Meth- 
odiam  and  Slavery, '  a  defence  of  the  soathem 
branch  of  the  ohurch.  As  a  pulpit  orator.  Dr. 
Bascom  was  singnlarly  fervid  and  powet^l, 
and  the  fame  of  Ids  eloqnence  was  scarcely 
surpassed  by  that  of  any  other  public  speaker 
in  church  or  stato.  His  bio«vphy  has  been 
writtHi  by  the  Rev.  M.  H.  Heiikle  (12mo,  Nash- 
ville, 1654). 

USCOK,  Jski,  an  American  scholar  and  an- 
ther, bom  at  Genoa,  N.  Y.,  May  1,  1827.  He 
is  a  gradnato  of  Williams  college  and  of  An- 
dover  theological  seminary,  and  bas  been  since 
18C6  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  former  insti- 
tution. He  has  published  a  treatise  on  "Polit- 
ical Economy  "  (1801) ;  "  Treatise  on  jGsthet- 
ios"  (1868) ;  "  Text  Book  of  Rhetoric  "  (1806) ; 
"Elements  of  Psychology"  (1889);  and  "Soi- 
ence,  Philosophy,  and  Religion  "  (1871),  a  series 
of  lectnres  delivered  before  the  Lowell  insti- 
tute, Boston,  in  the  winter  of  186B-'70. 

BtSB,  in  chemistry,  a  term  used  with  several 
applications,  varying  according  to  the  view 
taken  of  the  constitution  of  compounds.  As 
originally  used  in  the  exposition  of  the  dnalistio 
hypothesis,  it  signified  the  electro-poutive  ox- 
ide, sulphide,  &c. ;  but  in  the  new  unitary  hy- 
pothesis it  must  he  applied  to  those  electro- 
positive  elements  or  compound  radicals  which 
can  be  snbstitnted  for  the  hydrogen  of  acids. 
Alitolies  and  some  other  metallic  oxides  were 
formerly  regarded  as  comprising  all  the  strictlj 
defined  bases;  but  to  these  are  now  added  a 
large  class  of  organic  substances  existing  in 
plants,  which  wita  acids  form  salts,  and  may 
oe  separated  by  the  greater  affinity  of  the  acid 
for  stronger  bases.  These  vegetable  bases  or 
alkaloids  oondst  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  car- 
bon, in  combination  with  a  certwn  proportion 
of  nitrogen.  The  constant  presence  of  diis  ele- 
ment has  led  to  the  soppoffition  that  the  salifl- 
al>le  properties  of  these  compounds  may  be  at- 
tributed to  it.  The  vegetable  bases  are  usually 
in  white  crystals.  The  few  animal  bases  or 
aikalies  are  volatile,  liquid,  and  of  oily  cousis- 
tency.  The  medicinal  properties  of  plante  re- 
mdeinthebasesextractedfromthem.  Aorystal 
of  aconitine  contains  the  concentrated  strength 
of  nnmeraus  plants  of  the  monkshood ;  and  one 
of  morphia  combines  that  of  a  large  quantity 
of  opium,  as  one  of  quinine  does  of  Peruvian 
bark.    (See  Alkali,  Alkaloid,  and  Salts.) 

BASE  SlUi,  an  athletic  game  played  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  has,  as  a  national 
amusement,  a  prominence  almost  equal  to  that 
attidned  by  cricket  in  England.  It  has  reached 
its  present  importance  only  within  the  last  10 
or  IS  years,  though  it  was  long  before  played 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  indeed 
probably  derived  from  an  old  English  game 
called  "rounders."  It  is  played  with  a  hard 
ball,  composed  of  yarn  tightiy  wound  around 
a  piece  of  vulcanized  rubber,  and  a  round 
wooden  bat  not  mote  than  42  inches  in  length. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


S5S  BASE  BALL 

The  bait  mast  not  weiffh  lees  than  6  nor  more 
than  SI  ooncefl  avoirdapois,  and  mnst  be  be- 
tween 9  and  9i  inches  in  circumference.  The 
bat  must  not  be  more  than  2|  inches  in  diam- 
eter in  the  thickest  part. — A  base  ball  ground 
should  be  a  level  area  of  fine  turf  about  600  ft. 
in  length  b;  400  in  breadth,  at  one  end  of  which 
a  eqnare  of  90  ft.  is  marked  ouL  At  the  lower 
angle  of  this,  designated  as  the  home  base,  is 
fixed  a  white  iron  plate  or  stone,  while  the 
other  angles  are  indicated  by  white  canvas 
bags  filled  with  sawdust  and  attaohed  to  posts, 
or  more  commonly  iron  pins,  ennk  in  l^e 
ground.  Nine  players  constitute  a  side,  one 
ride  taking  the  bat  and  the  other  the  field. 
The  batsman  stands  at  the  home  base,  having 
the  pitcher  opposite  to  him,  at  the  distance  of 
46  ft.,  and  the  catcher  behind.  A  player  la 
also  stationed  at  or  near  each  of  tiie  three  can- 
Tas  bags,  known  as  the  first,  second,  and  tJiird 


^t^ 


,V 


y.-. 


■^\    i   ,.# 

Btitmax  i^ktmtBfue 

Caxthtr 

bases,  and  which  are  respectively  on  the  right, . 
opposite  to,  and  on  the  left  of  the  batamoD. 
Besides  these,  there  is  a  short  field,  called  the 
short  Stop,  behind  the  pitcher,  and  a  right, 
centre,  and  left  field  at  a  considerable  distance 
in  the  rear  of  the  second  base,  the  dntdes  of  all 
of  whom  are  to  cat«h  or  stop  the  balls  and  re- 
turn them  to  the  pitcher  or  tbe  basemen.  The 
positions  of  the  players  as  well  as  those  of  the 
bases  will  be  understood  by  reference  to  the 
annexed  diagram.  A  capt^n,  who  is  gen- 
erally the  catcher,  assigns  the  places  of  the 
players  on  his  side  and  directs  the  game. 
One  or  two  definitions  must  precede  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  actual  game.  The  batsman  may 
strike  a  ball  in  two  ways,  "  fair  "  and  "  foul." 
It  Is  a  fair  ball  when  it  is  struck  in  a  direction 
lying  within  the  lines  of  range  of  the  home  and 
tnird  base,  or  of  tlie  home  and  first  base — snp- 
podng  those  lines  indefinitely  continued  in  tbe 
direction  of  the  field — and  when  it  first  touches 
the  ground,  a  player,  or  any  object  within 
those  lines.  It  U  a  foul  hall  when  struck  out- 
side those  limits,  either  to  tbe  right,  left,  or 


BASEDOW 

rear  of  the  batsman. — The  actual  Uena  of  play  is 
ea  follows:  When  the  batsman  has  stnick  a 
fair  ball,  or  when  be  has  struck  three  times  at 
any  fiiirly  delivered  ball  and  missed  it,  each 
time,  he  mnet  start  for  tbe  first  base;  from 
which  it  is  his  object  to  reaoh  in  torn,  as  he 
has  opportanity,  tne  second,  third,  and  again 
the  "home."  When  he  succeeds  in  reaching 
tbe  homo  base  without  being  put  out,  and  after 
having  successively  tonched  the  first,  second, 
and  third  bases,  he  is  entitled  to  score  one  run. 
As  soon  as  each  batsman  begins  to  run  tbe 
bases,  he  is  succeeded  at  tbe  bat  by  asotber 
player  of  bis  own  side,  the  snc«easion  continu- 
ing until  three  players  of  the  side  are  oot,  ■ 
when  tbe  side  goes  to  the  field,  and  tbdr  ad- 
versaries take  tbeir  innings.  A  player  may  be 
put  out  in  the  following  different  ways:  1, 
if  while  be  is  acting  as  batsman  a  fair  ball 
struck  by  him  be  cangbt  by  an  adversary  be- 
fore it  toQches  the  ground ;  S,  when  a  foul  ball 
struck  by  him  is  eitner  so  caught,  or  caught  on 
the  first  bound;  8,  if  a  fair  baU  struck  by  him 
is  held  by  his  adversary  on  the  first  base  be- 
fore lie  reaches  that  base ;  4,  if  be  strikes  three 
times  at  fairly  delivered  balla  misses  each  lime, 
and  each  time  the  boll  is  caught  by  the  catcher, 
or  if,  after  so  striking,  the  hall  ia  held  by  the 
player  on  first  base  before  be  can  reach  it ;  G, 
if  while  running  the  bases  be  ia  touched  by 
tbe  ball,  while  in  play,  in  tbe  bands  of  an  ad- 
versary, at  a  time  when  no  part  of  his  peiwm 
is  touching  any  base ;  fl,  if  he  wilflilly  breaks 
certain  important  mles  concerning  detuls  <A 
play,  or  attempts  to  frustrate  by  any  improper 
means  a  legitimate  attempt  to  put  bun  out — by 
knocking  tbe  ball  from  the  hand  of  aplayer,  or  in 
other  waya.  A  ball  is  said  to  he  out  of  play 
after  a  foal  stroke,  until  it  has  been  returned  to 
tbe  bands  of  the  pitcher.  Nine  innings  are 
played  on  each  side,  and  the  party  making  the 
greatest  number  of  runs  wins  tbe  gome. — The 
mles  observed  throughout  the  country  in  play- 
ing tbe  game  are  those  agreed  upon  by  tbe  two 
national  associations  of  base  ball  players — one 
of  professional  players,  so  called,  and  the  ntber 
of  amatenrs.  Representatives  of  the  diSlerent 
cIuIh  belonging  to  these  meet  anunally  in  con- 
vention, revise  the  rules  of  play,  settle  con- 
tested points,  &c. ;  and  reference  may  be  made 
to  their  code  of  regulations,  printed  in  all  base 
ball  players'  manuals,  for  further  information 
concerning  the  details  of  tbe  game. 

B18ED0W,  JAina  Berakar^  a  German  re- 
former of  ©duoation,  born  in  Hamburg  in  8ep- 
teml>er,  1728,  died  m  Magdebnrg,  July  26, 1780. 
He  was  tbe  son  of  a  wig  maker,  and  a  pnpil  in 
tbe  Hamburg  gymnasium,  where  he  was  en- 
couraged in  his  stndiea  by  Reimama.  Subse- 
i^uentjy  he  spent  several  years  at  the  univer- 
sity of  l«ipsic  and  became  a  profeaaor,  Rons- 
gean'a  &miU  having  produoea  a  strong  impres- 
sion upon  bis  mind,  he  came  forward  in  1768 
in  favor  of  a  thorough  reform  in  education, 
and  received  assistance  for  tbe  publication  dS 
bis  EUmentamerk  (8  vols.,  1774;  trtiDslatcd 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Into  French  md  Latin),  with  100  of  Chodo- 
wiecki's  pistea,  illDBtrating  natoial  sciences  and 
industrT.  This  l)ecaine  the  model  of  manj 
school  books  of  the  kind,  imparUng  varied  in- 
formation in  a  cosmopolitan  and  liberal  spirit. 
Dnder  the  aaspices  of  Prince  Francis  Fred- 
erick of  Anhalt-Desaan,  he  opened  at  Dessan 
in  1T74  the  Philant/tTopin,  a  school  free  from 
sectarian  bias  and  from  corporal  panishmeat, 
and  designed  to  deliver  public  inatmctioD  from 
medieeval  bonds,  to  prepare  pnpils  for  higher 
academical  stndies  withont  pedantry  or  big' 
otTT,  to  introduce  gymnastic  exercises,  and  to 
impart  a  knowledge  of  modem  as  well  as  of 
ancient  langaoges.  This  school  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  many  similar  ones,  thongh  Base- 
dow himself  withdrew  from  it  in  1778.  He 
was  charged  with  not  duly  appreciating  the 
advsntages  of  a  thorough  olassical  and  of  an 
orthodox  reUgioos  training;  bnt  he  was  never- 
theless regarded  as  a  most  effective  and  phil- 
anthropic reformer. 

USEL  (Fr.  BmU  or 
BdU).  1.  A  canton 
of  Switzerland,  which 
since  1683  has  been 
divided  into  two  half 
cantons,  called  Basel 
City  and  Basel  Ooontry 
(Ger.  BaseUtadt  and 
Satelland) ;  area  of 
both,  17fl  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

in  1870,  101,887.      It 

is  Iwimded  by  Alsacte, 

Badeo,    and   the  can- 

lODS  of  Aargan,  Bolo- 

thom,  and  Bern.    The 

ncnthern  ohiuns  of  the 

Jura  here  descend  into 

the  plains  of  the  Rhine, 

which    are  abont   700 

fL  aboT«  the  level  of 

the  sea,  the  highest  ele- 
vation being  S,800  ft. 

The  conntry  is  hilly  but 

fertile,  and  the  climate 

mild,  the  cold  northern  winds  being  intercepted 

by  the  mountains.     The  canton  has  no  lakes ; 

the  Rhine  is  the  only  considerable  river,  though 

there  are  nomerons  small  streams.    Goal  and 

■alt  are  the  only  minerals.    The  agricultural 

Erodncta  present  bat  little  variety.  Cattle, 
ides,  batter,  cheese,  and  cherry  brandy  are 
exported.  There  are  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  iron,  cooper,  steel,  silk,  linen,  leather, 
and  paper ;  the  dyeing  and  bleaching  factories 
are  noted. — The  city  half  canton  has  an  area 
of  14  aq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  47,760,  of  whom 
34,465  were  Protestants,  12,801  Catholics,  SIQ 
Israelites,  and  486  of  other  sects.  It  had  in 
18i>S  a.  revenue  of  1,806,988  fr. ;  the  eipendi- 
tures  were  1,529,873  fr. ;  the  public  debt  was 
6,B87,685  fr.,  while  the  value  of  the  pnblio  do- 
mun  was  estimated  at  3,e&l,886  fr.  The  coun- 
try half  canton,  the  capital  of  which  is  Liestot, 
is  divided  into  fonr  districts  ;  area,  162  sq.  m. ; 


EL  357 

pop.  in  1870,  B4,127,  of  whom  43,628  were 
Protestants,  10,24C  Catholics,  181  Isrselit«8, 
and  228  of  other  sects.  The  yearly  expenditure 
is  abont  660,000  fr. ;  the  public  debt  in  1867 
was  824,000  fr. ;  wiiile  the  value  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  canton  was  estimated  at  2,961,830 
fr.  The  intiabitants  of  both  half  cantons  are 
purely  Tentonio,  but  generally  speak  a  mixed 
Franco-German  dialect.  II.  A  city,  the  capital 
of  the  half  oooton  of  which  it  forms  the  latest 

ert,  situated  on  the  Rhine,  43  m.  N.  N. 
of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  44,834.  It  is 
divided  into  Great  Basel  on  the  S.  and  Lit- 
tle Basel  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  river,  con- 
nected by  a  wooden  bridge  680  feet  long. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  unimportant  forti-  - 
fications,  and  contains  a  cathedral,  built  on 
the  spot  where  stood  the  Roman  fortress  of 
Basilia,  a  university,  a  public  library  con- 
taining puntings  by  Holb^n,  the  hall  where 
the  council  of  Basel  was  held,  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings,  among  which  are  many  educa- 


tional institutions,  toward  the  maintenance  of 
which  one-fifth  of  the  pnblio  revenne  is  ap- 
plied. Basel  is  the  most  important  monnfoo- 
toriog  and  commercial  town  in  Switzerland, 
and  the  wealth  of  its  citiiens  is  proverbial. 
The  ribbon  manufacture,  which  gives  employ- 
ment to  about  8,000  persons,  is  the  principal 
branch  of  industry.  There  were  formerly  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  paper  and  leather,  bnt 
these  have  declined  within  a  few  years,  and 
are  nearly  abandoned. — The  city  was  fonnded 
by  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  Basilia 
or  Basiliana.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  Germans,  and  rebuilt 
in  the  early  part  of  the  10th  century  by 
the  German  emperor  Henry  I.,  when  it  be- 
came the  residence  of  a  bishop,  and  belonged 
for  some  time  to  Burgundy,  but  after  1032  to 
the  German  empire.  The  territorial  dominion 
belonged  partly  to  an  Imperial  bailiff,  partly  to 


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tiie  bishop,  whose  see  eitended  over  other 
looalitiee,  and  partlj  to  Doblea  of  the  niral 
diatrictB  and  to  patriomn  btmliaB.  The  latter 
gradnaUy  became  sole  proprietturs  until  the^ 
joined  the  Swiaa  confedersdoa ;  tlie  oooutrj 
Dobilitj  emif^at«d  or  were  embodied  lanong 
the  pfttricians,  and  the  biehop  emigrated  with 
hia  chapter  to  Solothtun,  when  after  ICIO  tbe 
oity  embraced  with  ardur  the  reformed  faith. 
ThoB  the  whole  politJeal  swa;  waa  led  with 
the  patrieianB  and  trading  oorporaticKiB,  who  in 
time  became  omnipot«at  over  the  peasants, 
and  redoced  them  and  the  poorer  eitizena  to 
antgection,  agtunsb  which  the  latter  often  but 
in  yaia  rebelled.  The  first  French  r«^nblio 
.  gave  Booial  eqaality  to  ail  olaasea,  while  a  oou' 
tribntion  of  11,000,000  franca  waa  leTted  upon 
the  citj.  The  diasatislaotion  with  the  restora- 
tion of  the  ancient  prerc^tivea  of  the  priTi- 
leged  city  classes  led  in  1831  to  several  bloody 
battles  l>etween  the  aoldiery  of  the  city  and 
the  peaaonts,  until  the  Swiss  ctwfederation  in- 
tervened and  in  1888  acknowledged  the  in- 
dependence of  the  mral  canton.  At  Basel 
was  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
French  republic  and  Fraseia,  April  6,  and  that 
between  the  French  repnbha  and  Spain,  Jnly 
22,  176G.  The  population  of  the  oitj,  which 
was  much  larger  in  the  midiUe  ages,  was 
in  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century  greatly 
rednced  by  the  "death  of  Biisel,"  or  "black 
death." 

BifSX,  Cnodl  tl,  one  of  the  oecnm^ical 
eouncils  of  the  Roman  Oatholio  church.  Prop- 
erly leaking,  the  councils  of  Basel,  Ferrara, 
and  Florence  conatitnte  but  one  eoimoil,  of 
which  several  sessions  were  held  in  each  of 
these  cities,  and  which  is  nauallj  called  the 
council  of  Florence,  becanse  the  most  impor- 
tant  questions  were  definitely  settled  and  the 
council  terminated  at  this  latter  city.  The 
council  during  its  sessioDS  at  Basel,  until  its 
transfer  to  Feirara  in  1487,  was  acknowledged 
as  cecumeuical  by  Eugeniua  lY.,  and  its  de- 
oroes  were  confirmed  by  him,  with  the  eicej)- 
tion  of  those  which  interfered  with  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  hdy  see.  The  principal 


of  the  Greek  church,  and  to  refmm  eoolenaati- 
oal  discipline.  The  connoit  was  summoned  by 
Pope  Martin  V.  to  meet  at  Basel,  March  S, 
1481.  Meanwhile  he  died,  and  Eugeniua  lY. 
was  elected  to  succeed  him  on  the  very  day  of 
the  indiction  of  the  council,  and  immediately 
confirmed  the  acts  of  his  predecessor  convok- 
ing it.  On  the  daj  appointed  not  a  single 
bishop,  and  but  one  abbot,  appeared  at  Basel. 
The  last-menticoed  person  went  through  the 
form  of  declaring  hmiself  assembled  in  ceon- 
menica]  council.  Five  days  afterward  four 
deputjes,  together  with  Che  first-named  abbot 
and  a  few  clergymen  of  the  cit^  opened  the 
council  solemnly  a  second  time.  In  September 
Cardinal  Julian  Oesarini,  the  papal  legate,  ar- 
rived at  Sosel,  and  sent  letters  to  different 


prelates  exhorting  them  to  come  to  Hn  ootndL 
On  QefL  S6  he  held  a  BesaLon,  at  which  it  is 
Bud  three  bisbcjwAnd  seven  abbots  were  pres- 
ent. The  eardmal  having  sent  an  wivoj  to 
Rome  to  represent  the  staU  of  things  at  ^sel, 
Fi^ie  EngeniHs  IV.,  who  desired  U>  convok« 
the  council  in  a  place  more  convenient  to  tite 
Greeks,  sent  a  boll  to  his  legate  empowering 
him  to  dissolve  the  coundl  and  indioato  s  new 
<me  at  Bologna.  CanUnal  Julian,  who  at  first 
seemed  disposed  to  dissolve  the  council,  had 
however  changed  his  mind,  and  waa  deairons 
to  oootinne  it.  His  principal  reason  appesn 
to  have  been  that  he  thought  it  wonid  be  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  treating  with  the 
Husntes  and  recoudling  them  to  the  ehorch. 
He  himself  had  been  lately  in  Bohemia  on  a 
legation  from  the  holj  see,  and  was  more 
tntereeted  in  this  matter  than  in  the  affitirs  of 
the  Greek  church.  This  reascm,  howev^  made 
Engenina  still  nmre  desirous  to  tranefu'  the 
council,  as  the  affair  of  the  Husotee  had  been 
once  definitely  settled  at  the  council  of  Oou- 
stance,  and  he  did  not  wish  it  to  be  reopened. 
His  legate,  however,  waa  determined  if  pos- 
sible to  (Mintinue  the  council  at  Basel ;  and 
when  he  had  oollected  a  aofBcient  nnmber  of 
prelates,  the  charge  of  provoking  a  schism  de- 
terred the  p<»B  iium  presmng  violently  his 
own  wishes.  Bnt  on  Deo.  11,  1481,  the  pope 
published  a  bnll  dissolving  the.  council  of  !^- 
seL  The  cardinal  legate  obejed,  and  declared 
that  he  could  no  longer  act  as  president  of 
the  oonncU.  Nevarthelees  he  exerted  bimaetf 
in  th«  moot  energetic  manner  to  induce  the 
pope-to  revoke  the  bull,  aa  did  also  the  smnll 
number  of  f^elates  who  were  assembled.  In 
these  efibrts  they  were  supported  by  several 
sovereigns.  Alter  vunly  enaeavoring  to  effect 
an  amicable  transfer  of  the  council,  Engenios 
IV.  finally  revoked  his  former  bull,  and  on 
Feb.  14,  1438,  published  another,  authorizing 
the  cootinnance  of  the  council  at  Bssd.  Mean- 
while, however,  the  prelates  had  not  oesaed  to 
continue  their  sessions,  and  to  style  themselves 
an  (BcumeniceJ  council,  although  the  approba- 
tion of  the  pope  was  withdrawn  ftom  them, 
and  the  ear^nal  legate  had  oeased  to  preside. 
In  this  Uiey  justifled  themselves  bj  the  act  of 
the  council  of  Omstanoe  declaring  its  snprem- 
acy  over  the  pope  (141G);  an  act,  however, 
which  canonists  re^rd  as  only  intended  to 
apply  to  oontonding  claimants  of  the  pu>acy. 
and  as  not  synodical  becanse  the  connci)  was 
only  recognized  at  the  time  by  a  part  of  the 
church.  During  the  period  of  the  suspension 
of  the  council  by  Eugeniua  IV.,  the  prelates, 
who  after  a  time  increased  to  the  nomber 
of  80,  framed  sev^al  deoreea,  deciding  the 
sapenority  of  a  general  council  to  the  pwe, 
the  want  of  power  in  the  latter  to  dissolve 
or  transfer  it,  citing  Engenins  to  ^pear  vridiin 
a  certain  time,  &o.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  bull  of  transfer,  all  thew  edicts  were 
revoked  by  the  council,  and  the  legitimate  ses- 
sions reofflumenced  under  the  presidency  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASETI 

the  legate.  The  deoleration  of  the  tnperioritr 
of  e  general  ooimoil  to  the  pepe  wea  rsDewad^ 
however,  after  the  reooDcuiatiiMi,  though  th» 
legate  nrfiised  to  be  present,  or  saDotioQ  the  aot 
Id  aar  way.  A  Dnmber  of  decrees  of  reforma- 
tioD  were  ftwned,  whiah  k«  all  the  aoti  of  tbe 
coand)  erep  recognized  as  tral  j  B;nodiaal,  and 
na  sooh  approred  hj  the  hol^  see.  Great  ef- 
(orte  were  made  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  Greek  emperw,  though  without  fau- 
cets. Finallj,  EngMitus  IV.,  finding  Oirdinal 
Jnlian,  the  prixGipol  sorwugns,  and  the  Greek 
en^Mror,  altogether  dlipoeed  to  enter  into  his 
Tiewa,  on  Jane  18,  1487,  dissolved  onee  more 
the  ooancil  of  Baeet,  and  transferred  the  se»- 
siona  to  FerrarA.  There  had  been  from  tbe 
ootset  ftt  Basel  bnt  few  prdetes  and  biahopH  of 
high  rank,  and  a  great  nnmbar  of  the  inferior 
cle^y,  all  of  whom  had  been  admitted  to  a 
vote  in  violation  of  the  canons.  The  oardinalB 
and  the  principal  portion  of  the  prelates  of 
rank  obeyed  immediatelr  the  mandate  of  the 
bolj  see,  and  repaired  to  Ferrara.  The  patriarch 
of  Aqeileia,  the  archbishops  of  Aries  and  Pa- 
lermo, ^ith  a  few  other  prelates,  and  several 
hundred  priests,  remained,  and  oontinoed  the 
sessions  of  their  so-called  oonnoii,  from  this 
time  regarded  as  a  eorteiliabtdttnt  or  schismat- 
ical  assembly.  Tfaej  deolared  several  propo- 
rtions respecting  the  superiorit;  of  general 
ooanoils  to  be  arttolea  of  faith,  exoommnnicated 
the  conndl  of  Ferrara,  deposed  the  ptme,  and 
in  1489  elected  Amadens  VIII.,  farmvly  duke 
of  Savoj,  who  took  the  name  of  Ftdix  v.,  and 
continued  to  bear  it  during  .  10  years,  after 
which  he  abdicated  it,  and  sabmitted  himself 
to  Nicholas  v.,  who  made  him.  eardinsL  The 
oonncil  of  Basel  ctrntinned  its  sessions  during 
all  this  period,  and  flnatl?  the  dihrii  of  tbe 
cooncil,  which  had  adjoamed  to  Lanionne,  put 
an  end  to  itself  by  electing  the  reigning  pon- 
tic Nicholas  V.,  pope. 

IISETI,  GcerRe,  an  English  architect,  born  at 
Brighton  in  1T94,  died  at  Elj,  Oct.  IS,  1&4Q. 
He  was  a  pnpil  of  Sir  John  Soane,  and  travel- 
led in  Greece  and  Italy.  In  1819  he  com- 
menced practice  is  Iioodon  on  his  own  aeooont 
with  great  snocess.  Belgrave  square  was 
erected  from  his  designs.  He  was  joint  archi- 
tect with  Mr.  Sidney  Smirke  of  the  oonservtt- 
tive  olnb  boose,  Bt.  James's  street,  a  beantiM 
bnitding.  His  best  and  greatest  work,  tbe  Fitz- 
williara  museum  at  Oambridge,  was  finished 
by  Mr.  Oockerell,  While  inspecting  the  west 
bell  tower  of  Ely  oathedral,  then  being  restored 
nnder  his  direotion,  be  fell  through  an  Kpm- 
tare  a  distance  of  40  feet,  and  was  killed. 

BiSHAN,  in  Biblical  geography,  the  northern 

Birtion  of  trans-Jordanio  Palestine,  between 
unaacene  Syria  on  the  nortJ)  and  Gilead  on 
tiie  eonth.  It  is  s  high  table  land,  and  was 
annently  famous  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and 
for  its  oaks,  which  vied  with  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon.  Remains  of  these  forests  are  still 
Been  in  some  of  the  -  monntainons  districts. 
The  de^,  rich,  blaok  soil  on  tbe  plains  pro- 


BASHAK 


859 


duces  the  eame  Inmriant  pastare  as  in  anoient 
times,  and  the  flooks  and  herds  reared  there 
may  still  be  called  the  fotlings  of  Ba^an.  It 
wasconqneredfrom  the  Amorites  in  the  bloody 
battle  of  Edret,  where  Og,  the  ^ant  king  of 
Basben,  fell.  It  was  occupied  by  the  nomadio 
half  tribe  of  Maaaseeh.  Later  it  was  cap- 
tured from  Israel,  after  the  revolt,  of  the  t«ni 
tribes,  by  Hazaal,  king  of  Syria,  and  afterward 
recaptured  by  Jeroboam  11.  It  waa  also  the 
first  province  that  fell  before. the  Asmian  in- 
vaders. When  the  Israelites  were  taken  cap- 
tiv<^  the  eoatteied  remitanta  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  who  had  settiad  ammig  tiie  rooky 
pastes  of  Argob  and  Bermon,  and  in  tbe  des- 
ert, returned.  Henoefbrth  it  is  not  maoticsMd 
onder  its  name  of  Boshan  by  any  writer,  bnt 
tbe  provinces  into  which  It  was  divided  ore 
often  relbrred  to. .  Qaolamtis  waa  tbe  territory 
of  Golan,  the  andent  Hebrew  city  of  refoge. 
Anrenitis  b  the  Greek  name  of  the  Hauran  of 
Ezekiel.  Batanma  ia  the  name  given  to  the 
eost^Ti  mountain  range,  and  occauonally  used 
for  Rf'il'B"  in  general;  and  Traohonitis,  the 
rooky  region  of  tbe  north,  is  a  Greek  transla- 


OtfisHoDs  Uvfaig  In  tliat  dty  retired  to  Fella,  a 
town  of  Bashan ;  and  in  the  4th  century  neoriy 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  Chris- 
tians. Heathen  temples  were  converted  into 
churohes,  and  churches  were  built  in  almost 
every  town  and  village.  When  tbe  Saraoens 
overran  Syria  these  chnroheswere  converted 
into  mosques ;  and  when  the  ooontry  fell  into 
tbe  power  cS  the  Ottomans  its  desolation  was 
coR^leted.  The  raonntoins  of  Baahan,  thongh 
not  gener«lly  very  ste^  are  nigged  and  rooky. 
Tiie  remaina  of  terraces  are  still  to  be  seen  on 
tbe  slopes,  whi^  give  evidence  of  post  indus- 
try, and  oaks  uid  other  forest  trees  and  ihmbe 
abound  herci  The  wbele  moontain  range  is 
of  voloaiue  origin ;  the  peaks  shoot  up  cooically 
in  deep  serried  lines,  and  the  rocks  ore  black. 
One  or  two  craters  of  eiHnct  volcanoes  have 
been  Been  cm  the  plain.  The  anoient  province 
of  TraohonitiB,  now  Lepfah,  is  a  vaat  field  of  ba- 
salt in  the  midst  of  the  pliUn  of  Bashan.  In 
Argob,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Bashan,  SO  m. 
long  by  SO  broad,  Jalr'is  said  to  have  token  no 
fewer  tiian  BO  great  and  fenced  cities.  A  late 
traveller,  Oyril  Graham,  writes:  "Wefindoua 
after  another  great  stone  cities,  waUed  ^nd  nn- 
walled,  with  stone  gates,  and  bo  crowded  toge- 
ther that  it  becomes  almost  a  matter  of  won- 
der how  ^1  the  people  oould  have  lived  in  so 
small  a  place.  When  we  see  houses  built  of 
such  huge  and  mamve  stones  that  no  force 
which  can  be  brooght  against  them  in  that 
oonntrj  could  ever  batter  them  down ;  when 
we  find  rooms  in  these  houses  so  laifre  and 
lofty  that  many  of  them  would  be  considered 
fine  rooms  in  a  palace  in  Europe;  and  lastly, 
when  wo  find  some  of  these  town*  bearing  the 
very  names  which  cities  in  that  country  bore 
before  the  teaelites  came  out  of  E(bl>^  '  think 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


360  BASHAW 

we  cannot  help  feeling  the  Btrongeat  convio- 
tion  that  we  have  before  us  the  cities  of  the 
Rephaim  of  which  we  read  in  the  book  of  Deu- 
teronomy. "  Porter  visited  and  passed  by  more 
than  30  cities  and  towns,  and  saw  many  others 
dotted  over  the  plain.  In  his  description  of 
one  of  the  houses  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
he  says :  "  The  honse  Beema  to  have  undergone 
little  change  from  the  time  that  its  old  master 
left  it,  and  yet  the  thick  nitrons  crust  on  the 
floor  showed  that  it  had  not  been  inhabited  for 
ages.  The  walls  were  perfect,  bnilt  of  large 
blocks  of  hewn  basalt,  withont  cement  of  any 
kind.  The  roof  was  formed  of  large  slabs  of 
the  same  black  bast^t,  lying  as  regularly  and 
Joined  as  closely  as  if  ttie  workmen  had  just 
completed  tbem.  They  measnred  13  tt.  in 
length,  18  inches  in  breadth,  and  0  inches  in 
thinness.  The  end  rests  on  a  plain  stone  cor- 
nice projecting  aboat  a  foot  from  each  side 
wall.  The  outer  door  was  a  slab  of  stone  i} 
ft.  high,  4  wide,  and  8  inches  thick.  It  hnug 
npon  pivots  formed  of  prcueoting  parts  of  the 
slab  working  in  sockets  in  the  lintel  and  thresh- 
hold ;  and  though  so  massive,  it  conld  be 
opened  and  shut  with  ease.  At  one  end  of  the 
room  was  a  small  window  with  a  stone  shnt- 
ter.  An  inner  door,  also  of  stone,  bnt  of  finer 
workmanship,  and  not  quite  so  heavy  as  the 
other,  admitted  to  a  chamber  of  the  same  wze 
and  appearance.  From  it  a  much  larger  door 
commnnioated  with  a  third  chamber,  to  which 


two  rooms,  and  abont  25  ft.  long  by  20  high. 
A  semicircnlar  arch  was  thrown  across  it,  sup- 
porting the  stone  roof;  and  a  gate  so  large  that 
camels  conld  paaa  in  and  out  opened  on  the 
street.  The  gate  was  of  stone  ana  in  its  place." 
Borne  of  these  cities  were  supplied  with  water 
from  distant  springs  by  means  of  aquedncts. 
Desolation  reigns  everywhere;  the  cities  are 
deserted,  and  the  limited  nomber  of  Druses 
and  refugees  who  have  settled  there  raise  no 
more  than  is  indispensable  for  sustenance,  out 
of  f  jar  of  aroumng  the  rapacity  of  an  arbi- 
trary government  and  attracting  the  Bedoain 
robbers.  (See  Bohbak.)  The  principal  anthor- 
Ities  on  Bashan  are  J.  L.  Porter  ("  Damas- 
cus," "The  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,"  Ac.)  and 
Wetistein  {Reutberiekt  &d«r  Bauran  und  die 
Traehon^n,  Berlin,  ISflO). 

BASHAW.    See  Pasha. 

BA8HUK8,  or  Baikkutt,  onolvilized  tribes  of 
Rnswa,  scattered  from  the  Caspian  to  the  boun- 
dary of  Siberia,  chiefly  W.  of  the  Ural  moun- 
tains, and  inhabiting  large  tracts  of  land  (to- 
gether about  SO, 000  sq.  m.)  in  the  governments 
of  Perm,  Ufa,  Orenburg,  Samara,  and  adjoin- 
ing parts;  total  number  about  600,000.  They 
are  of  remote  Finnish  origin,  but  considerably 
mixed  with  Tartars,  and  have  their  local  or- 
ganizations of  cantons,  clanships,  yurts,  and 
villages,  thongb  tbey  have  been  under  Russian 
authority  since  their  final  subjugation  abont  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.    They  are  under 


the  eoole«aet]cal  JurisdicUon  of  the  Hohamme- 
dan  Tartar  mufti  of  Ufa,  and  are  nominally 
Sunnite  Mohammedans,  but  addicted  to  pa- 
ganism. They  have  many  of  tlie  Tartar  and 
Kirghiz  characteristics,  but  although  senii-sav- 
sges,  they  are  docile  and  inoffensive.  Abont 
G0,000  of  them  are  employed  in  the  Buesian 
oavalry  service,  and  the  whole  race  are  reUeved 
from  paying  taxes.  They  are  excellent  horse- 
men and  eat  horse  flesh,  and  their  horses,  fa- 
mous for  endurance,  are  highly  valued.  In  the 
war  of  1812  the  Bashkirs,  thougli  inferior  to 
the  Cossacks,  rendered  good  service.  In  the 
Crimean  war  they  were  chiefly  employed  in 
rongh  work  connected  with  the  transportation 
of  providons  and  material.  Some  of  them  re- 
side in  permanent  villages,  cultivating  the  soil, 


and  raising  cattle  and  beee;  others  are  nomads, 
wandering  (i«m  plaoe  to  place  with  their  flocks 
and  herds,  which  are  uiuneroua,  a  rich  man 
sometimes  having  2,000  sheep  and  600  head 
of  cattle.  About  400  schools  have  been  es- 
tablished among  them,  which  are  attended  by 
about  8,000  children. 

IA81L,  a  name  applied  to  various  odoriferous 
labiates,  but  especially  to  the  genus  ocymum. 
The  species  of  tnis  genus  numl>er  about  40,  and 
are  chiefly  indigenous  to  the  East  Indie^  where 
some  species  are  regarded  with  superstitions 
veneration  from  their  supposed  power  as  dis- 
infectants. Basil  has  been  cultivated  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  America  as  a  garden  herli, 
useful  iu  cooking  for  flavoring.  In  Mada- 
gascar the  roots  are  eaten.  A  few  apedes 
have  conspicuous  purplish  flowers  and  variega- 
ted foliage,  and  find  a  place  in  cultivation 
among  ornamental  plants ;  but  these  are  excep- 
tions, and  although  the  genus  is  closely  allied 
to  eoleat,  well  known  for  its  rich  foliage,  the 
species  are  usually  recommended  by  their  odor 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


and  not  bj  their  (tppe&nmoe.  All  the  species 
are  easily  cnltiv&tea  from  seed,  and  most  of 
them  are  half  hardj  in  the  latitude  of  Boston. 


ill  (Oqini 


1  triuLlLimiD), 


BASIL,  a  Bulgarian  monk  and  physician, 
fbnnder  of  a  religious  sect  called  Bogomilee 
(Slavic  Bog,  God,  and  miXui,  have  mercy),  burnt 
alive  fn  Constantinople  in  1118.  Uis  follow- 
ers believed  that  before  the  birth  of  Ohriat  Ood 
had  a  son  Satanaet,  who  revolted,  sednced  the 
angels,  created  the  visible  nniverse,  and  gave 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  that  Christ  had  the  mission 
to  destroy  the  power  of  Satanael  by  consiniing 
him  to  hell  mider  the  name  of  Batan.  Basil 
repndiated  marriage,  favoring  a  free  intercourse 
of  the  aoTes,  r^ected  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rectJon,  the  books  of  Uoees,  and  the  encharist, 
abolished  baptism,  characterized  ohnrchee  as 
devilish,  denonnced  priests  and  monks,  and 
would  not  recognize  any  litnrgy  bat  the  Lord's 
prayer.  He  condemned  all  cruelty  to  animftls, 
and  objeoted  to  the  eating  of  meat  and  eggs. 
In  1111  the  emperor  Aleris  Comnenns  con- 
vened a  synod  for  the  condemnatioii  of  the 
Bogomilea ;  and  entrapping  Basil,  as  their  chief 
leader,  into  making  a  confession  of  his  faith,  he 
convened  a  second  synod  (1116),  calling  upon 
him  h>  retract;  but  he  remained  firm,  expect* 
ing,  even  while  the  flames  surrounded  him, 
that  angels  would  come  to  hie  rescue.  See 
Engelhardt,  KirchengtKhichtlidie  AhhandWor 
gen  (Eriangen,  1882). 

BASIL  L,  or  BasUlM,  snmamed  the  Macedo- 
nian, emperor  of  the  East,  bom  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hacedon  about  826,  died  March  1, 
B8G.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  a  party  of  Bulgarians,  who  carried  him 
into  their  countrv  and  sold  him  as  a  slave. 
Having  obtained  his  liberty,  he  proceeded  to 
Gonstantinople,  where  a  monk  caused  him  to 
be  presented  to  Theopbilus  the  little,  a  relative 
of  the  emperor.  Accompanying  his  master  to 
Greece,  he  won  the  favor  of  a  rich  widow,  who 
made  him  her  heir,  and  whose  wealth  enftbled 


IIL  881 

him  to  purchase  large  estates  in  his  native  conn- 
try.  He  conUnned  in  the  service  of  Theopbilus 
tiU  842,  when  be  brongbt  himself  to  the  notice 
of  the  emperor  Michael  111.  by  vanquishing  in 
single  combat  a  gigantic  Bulgarian.  He  grad- 
nalTy  rose  to  the  dignity  of  caief  chamberlain, 
and  repudiated  bis  wife  in  order  to  marry 
one  of  the  emperor's  concnbines.  He  formed 
a  conspiracy  against  Bardus,  on  whom  the  dig- 
nity of  Cfesar  had  been  conferred,  caused  him 
to  be  assassinated  in  the  presence  of  Michael, 
and  soon  afterward  was  created  Augustus  and 
recognized  as  heir  apparent.  Henceforward, 
in  conseqnence  of  the  inebriety  and  incapacity 
of  Michael,  the  whole  administration  of  the 
government  devolved  npon  him.  The  empe- 
ror, perceiving  himself  reduced  to  a  cipber,  oe- 
came  jealous  and  resolved  on  Basil's  ruin;  but 
the  plot  was  revealed  to  Basil,  and  on  BepL  24, 
867,  Michael  III.  was  murdered,  Baal  was 
now  proclaimed  emperor,  and  during  a  reign 
of  over  18  years  displayed  a  vigor  and  ability 
which  few  of  his  predecessors  had  equalled. 
He  removed  the  patriarch  Photins  from  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  because  of  the  religious  fends 
which  he  had  excited  there,  and  installed  Igna- 
tius in  his  place;  reduced  the  revolted  Panli- 
cians  to  obedience ;  compelled  the  Arabs  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Ragnsa  in  872,  vanquished 
them  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  in  several  en- 
gagements, and  attempted  to  drive  them  ont  of 
Italy.  His  general  Procopias  was  defeated  and 
slain  through  the  treachery  of  his  lieutenaDt 
Leo,  whom  Basil  accordingly  caused  to  be  mu- 
tilated and  sent  into  exile.  Basil  meanwhile 
became  jealous  of  his  own  son  Leo,  owing  to 
the  slanders  of  a  courtier;  but,  convinced  at 
the  last  moment  of  the  young  man's  innocence, 
he  restored  him  to  his  affections,  and  punished 
his  calumniator.  The  emperor  died  in  conse- 
qnence of  a  wonnd  received  from  a  stag.  He 
made  a  collection  of  some  of  the  laws  of  the 
eastern  empire,  which  was  entitled  the  "Ba- 
nlican  Constitutions,"  and  wrote  a  small  work 
on  the  moral,  reli^ons,  social,  and  political  du- 
ties of  sovereigns,  which  he  dedicated  to  bis  son 
and  successor  Leo  the  Philoeopber.  This  work 
is  still  extant ;  the  best  edition  of  it  is  that 
published  in  GBttingen,  16T4.— Bull  n.,  empe- 
ror of  the  East,  eldest  son  of  Romanns  II., 
horn  in  958,  died  in  102C.  Romanns  bad  de- 
creed that  his  in&nt  sons  Basil  and  Constan- 
tine  shonid  reign  together  nnder  the  guardian- 
ship of  their  mother.  Immediately  after  the 
death  of  Romanua,  however,  their  mother 
married  Nicephorus  Fhocas,  and  raised  him 
to  the  throne ;  and  the  brothers  did  not  suc- 
ceed to  their  inheritance  till  Q70.  Conetan- 
tine  gave  himself  ap  to  licentiousness,  and  the 
whole  adminiEitration  of  the  government  de- 
volved on  Basil.  His  reign  was  a  series  of  do- 
meetic  and  foreign  wars.  He  jmt  down  the 
formidable  revolt  of  Scleras,  defeated  the  at- 
tempt of  Otho  IL,  emperor  of  German;^,  to  en- 
force his  claim  to  Calabria  and  Apnlia  in  Italy, 
in  right  of  his  wife  Theopbania,  the  sister  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASIL  THE  GREAT 


Badl;  &nd  was  repaatedl^  eagtistA  in  w 
with  the  caliph  of  Bagdad,  from  whom  he 
made  valaable  conqaeata,  and  witk  his  old 
allies  the  Si^as  Arabi.  Bot  hi*  most  impor- 
tant war  waa  that  which  reaolled  in  the  <ion' 
qneit  of  Bulgaria.  This  war  broke  out  in  U87, 
and  laated,  with  few  intennlsnona,  till  1018. 
In  the  first  years  *>f  it  Badl  oooquered  a  con- 
riderable  portion  of  the  aonlhwesteni  divirion 
of  Ifaat  kiDgdom ;  bat  in  BBS  Saraoel,  its  Idng, 
overran  ail  Maoedonia  and  TImiiimIj,  laid  siege 
to  Tbeanlonica,  and  penetraMd  into  the  Pelo- 
pofflnesna.  Dnring  his  homeward  maroh,  how- 
ever, be  was  enoonntered  bf  BadI  on  the  banks 
of  the  SperchinB,  and  defeated.  Id  669  Nio»- 
phoms  Aiphias,  the  general  of  BadI,  captured 
two  of  the  moat  important  strongholdB  in  Bnl- 
garia  profier;  and  in  1002  Samuel  again  in- 
vaded Macedonia  and  Thraoe,  and  even  took 
.  Adrianople,  bat  was  driren  back  to  his  own 
kingdom.  BsmI  gare  hia  enemies  saoh  an 
ov«rthrow  at  Zetnnium  that  tbey  nerer  reoov- 
toftd  tram  the  blow.  On  this  occasioD  the  em- 
paor  showed  no  meroy  to  the  vanqni^ed.  Of 
10,000  priaonen  he  ordered  the  eje*  of  all  to 
be  pnt  oat  save  titose  of  one  in  every  100,  who 
waa  to  guide  his  69  onfortonate  brethren  in 
arms  to  tiieir  native  land.  The  cries  at  these 
poor  wretches,  as  they  approached  the  camp 
of  ttieir  comitrymen,  lud  an  effect  on  the  Bnl- 
garian  monardi  nbidi  the  shonta  of  his  foes 
ooald  never  prodnce ;  he  fell  to  the  grotmd  in- 
sensible, and  expired  <hi  the  third  daj  alter. 
The  oonqaest  of  Bulgaria  was,  however,  not 
entirely  completed  till  1018,  when  it  becune  a 
Greek  province  and  was  sabject«d  to  the  rule 
of  a  Greek  governor.  Ba^  cantemplsted  the 
expulsion  of  the  Arabs  from  Sitalj ;  hut  in  the 
midst  of  his  preparations  for  it  he  waa  seized 
with  an  illness  whioh  terminated  hia  life.  To 
expiate  the  aaa  of  his  jonth,  Bodl  wore  the 
hair  shirt  of  a  monk  beneath  hia  imperial  robe, 
and  lived  the  abstemioni  life  of  an  ascetic. 
Notwithstanding  his  inoeflsant  wars,  he  aeon- 
mnlated  from  bis  sarplns  revenne  daring  his 
reign  an  enormons  fortune,  estim^ed  to  nave 
been  eqnal  to  £8,000,000  sterling. 

B18IL  nE  «EEAT,  a  saint  of  the  Christian 
oharoh,  bom  at  Cnsorea  in  Oappadoda  in  S28 
or  889,  died  Jan.  1,  S79i.  His  iiuher  and  moth- 
er were  SL  Basil  the  Elder  and  St.  Emmelia. 
Hia  fbther  belwiged  to  a  noble  family  of  Fon- 
tos,  which  had  Itmg  been  Ohristian.  He  had 
nine  brothers  and  slstera,  all  of  whom,  aocord- 
ing  to  the  testimony  of  theirintimate  friend  St. 
Gregory  Naiianzen,  were  remarkable  for  sanc- 
tity, and  three  of  whem  are  ouionized,  vis.,  St 
Gregory  Nyssen,  St.  Peter  of  Sebaste,  and  St. 
Macrino.  His  eorij  ednoatim  was  snperin- 
tended  by  his  father,  af^r  whose  death  he  oon- 
tinaed  his  stadies  at  Gssarea,  Oonstantinople, 
and  Athena.  Ua  excelled  in  eloqaence  and 
lone,  applied  faimaelf  also  to  philosophy,  nata- 
ru  Bcienoe,  medicine,  poetry,  and  the  fine  arts, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  ardent  advocates  of 
the  study  of  claaaical  literatore  and  eloqnenoe 


in  CihHatian  sohodi.  At  Athens  he  fanned  an 
intimai?  with  St;  Gregory  Naaanxen.  He  re- 
turned to  Ctssarea  in  SJiS,  end  t^Hoed  a  sehool 
of  rhetoric  with  brilliant  saccew,  bnt  socm  gave 
it  up  for  the  pan>ose  of  embracing  a  religions 
life.  Dividing  the  principal  part  of  hia  prop- 
erty among  the  poor,  he  travelled  throngh 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt,  to  visit  the 
most  celebrated  anchorets  ana  monasteries.  In 
S58  he  returned  home,  was  ordained  lector 
by  Dianins,  and  retired  to  his  grandmother's 
honae  in  Pontos.  Bia  mother  and  sister  had 
already  founded  a  female  convent  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, on  the  l>ank  of  the  river  Isia,  in  which 
his  sister  waa  snperior.  Baail  now  fonnded  a 
monasterv,  according  to  some  anthorities  on  the 
opDOtnte  bank,  according  to  othera  at  Selenco- 
bol,  and  in  the  conree  of  time  other  aEBliated 
monasteries.  He  remaned  in  his  own  convent 
as  saperior  for  four  yeara,  when  he  yielded  his 
place  to  his  brother  St.  Peter  of  Sebaste.    After 


posed  mlas  and  spiritnol  treatises  for  them ; 
and  the  principal  part  of  tlie  reliEioas  in  the 
East  ore  hence  called  Basilians.  In  8S9,  dnr- 
ing a  famine,  be  sold  the  remaining  portion  of 
his  property  for  the  relief  of  the  snfferers. 
Gregory  Joined  him,  and  has  left  an  intwMtiag 
account  of  the  life  they  led  in  common,  in  a 
little  hat  with  a  barren  garden  spot  oronnd  it, 
where  they  fonnd  esercise  and  diversion  m  cat- 
ting st<me,  carrying  wood,  planliiig  flowere,and 
making  canals  to  irrigate  the  sandy  soil.  In 
863  Baidl  went  bock  to  Cateorea  and  took  with 
him  a  number  of  his  religious  brethren,  it  aeems, 
to  found  a  cloister.  Julian  the  Apostate  was 
now  emperor;  he  had  been  Basil's  fellow  stu- 
dent at  Athens,  and  he  sent  a  hypocritical  in- 
vitation to  him  to  come  to  bis  court  This  in- 
vitation was  declined,  and  was  followed  by  an- 
other, which  was  accompanied  by  an  order  lo 
Say  1,000  pounds  of  gold  to  the  treasurer  ot  be 
ragf^  through  the  dty.  Baail  replied  in  a 
very  bold  and  severe  style  to  his  old  comrade, 
who  soon  aftwward  found  his  death  bi  the  Per- 
son war.  In  hia  85th  yearBonl  wasorduned 
priwt  by  Ensebins,  the  succeesor  of  Dionius  in 
Cnsarea,  but  for  some  reason  waa  soon  dis- 
missed from  the  high  post  whioh  the  Insbop 
had  assigned  him.  Ensetiias's  conduct  met  witn 
general  censure.  BoaU  retired  again  to  Pontus, 
bnt  in  866  Ensebins  was  obliged  to  recall 
him  to  Cfesarea,  to  Eteni  the  irruptions  which 
Arianism  was  making  under  the  auspices  of  the 
emperor  Volena.  In  370,  on  the  death  of  Quse- 
bius,  he  was  elected  archbiohop  of  Catsarea. 
Dnring  the  remaining  nine  years  of  bis  life  he 
preuded  over  this  important  see  in  such  a 
manner  aa  to  win  the  repatation  of  one  of  the 
greatest  bishops  of  tiie  ctiurch.  The  whole 
city  fbllowed  him  to  the  grave,  Jews  and 
heathen  wept  with  the  Ohristians  at  hia  death, 
and  St.  Gregory  Nadanzen  prononnoed  bis 
panegyric.  The  principal  efforts  of  St  BbmI 
the  Great  were  directed  to  the  defence  of  tbe 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BABILAM 

dirini^  of  Jesoa  Oluigt  agahut  tiM  Aj*"""  -On 
account  of  this  he  U  styled  bj  the  generel 
cooncil  of  Ohalcedoa  "  the  ereat  Basil,  tiie  Mr- 
Vftot  of  orace,  who  hM  proolainied  the  troth  to 
the  whole  earth,"  lie  la  held  in  eBpeoial  ven- 
eration in  the  Qreek  ohdroli,  though  ha  was  a 
Btreiinous  iopporter  of  the  Nioene  creed,  nil 
works  were  firetpabliafaed  at  Basel  with  a  pref- 
ace bj  Erasmns  in  1532.  The  nioit  complete 
edition  is  that  of  Gamier  (8  toIs.,  Paris,  1721- 
'80 ;  reprinted  in  Paris  in  6  Tols.  8vo,  1689). 

BmLUI,  on  island  of  tlie  Malay  archipelago, 
the  largest  of  the  Sooloo  groap,  separated  bj 
the  strait  of  BaMlan,  12  m.  wide,  from  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  the  idand  of  Mindanao; 
area,  abont  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  abont  5,000.  The 
coast  aboonds  witb  fisb ;  there  are  wild  hogs, 
deer,  uid  elepbanta  in  tlie  fwesta.  It  is  a 
&rorite  reaort  of  piratei. 

BA8IU1N  »MKB,  or  Ktaki  ef  St.  Bufl,  «  re- 
ligioas  order  foonded  by  St.  Baail  the  Qreat, 
abont  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  When 
the  saint  retired  into  the  deserts  of  Pontiu  he 
fonnd  there  a  vast  nninber  of  solitaries  whose 
manner  of  life  he  strove  to  copy.  Crowds  of 
followers  gathered  around  him,  and  go  rapidly 
did  their  nninber  increase  that  he  found  it  neoes- 
sory  to  build  a  large  monastery,  and  to  embody 
in  a  code  of  written  laws  instractions  for  their 
condnot.  The8eraleawerepQbliahediaS62,and 
recMvad  the  aanotjon  of  Pope  Uberius.  The 
new  order  spread  rapidly  tiirooghont  the  East, 
and  it  is  said  that  before  his  death  Baail  saw 
bimselfthe  spiritual  &ItierofoTer  90, 000  monks. 
In  the  8th  oenlury  tbey  were  treated  with  great 
severity  by  the  emperor  Oonstantine  Ooproay- 
mas,  a  violent  iconoclast.  The  Basilian  rule 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  RnSnns,  and  there- 
upon paa»ed  into  the  West,  where  it  became 
t)ie  basis  of  all  monastio  institutions  op  to  tbe 
time  of  St.  Benedict.  Great  numbers  embraced 
it  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain ;  but,  Cliough  calling 
themselves  by  the  common  name  of  "  monks  of 
St.  Basil,"  these  variocu  oommunitiea  were  in- 
dopondent  of  each  other  until  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  nnited  them  nnder  one  head,  and  at  the 
same  time  oorrected  severe  abuses  which  bad 
crept  in  among  them  during  the  lapse  of  years. 
Various  oaoaes  have  since  led  to  their  decline 
in  the  West,  bnt  the  order  is  stilt  lai^e  and  im- 
portant. Their  principal  monastery  is  that  of 
St.  Saviour  at  Messina.  In  Spain,  where  they 
are  very  numerooa,  the  LaUn  rite  is  nniversolly 
followeil;  in  Italy  and  Sioily  they  generally 
conform  to  the  ritual  of  the  Greek  ohnrch, 
with  a  few  modifications.  Host  of  the  monks 
of  the  Greek  church  in  Russia  claim  ta  belong 
to  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  bnt  if  so  they  have 
deviated  widely  &om  their  original  rule.  The 
historians  of  the  order  state  that  it  has  pro- 
daced  14  popes,  numerous  patriarchs,  oardi- 
nals,  and  archbishops,  1,600  bishops,  and  11,- 
800  martyrs. 

BisniCA  (Gr.  ^Ojm^,  from  /JaaiAttf,  king), 
A  t«rm  first  applied  in  Athens  to  buildings 
in  which  public  bnsinesa  was  transacted,  and 


BA8IL1DE8  863 

afkenrard  in  Koma  to  stately  edifices  of  an 
oblong  shape,  with  four  oomera,  adorned  with 
Corinthian  colomns,  generally  used  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  for  other  pnblio 
pniposes.  The  flrrt  basilica  at  Rome  was  built 
by  Oato  the  Elder,  and  wascalled  Foreia,  The 
batiiifea  JuUa,  bnilt  by  Vitravius  at  Fanum  for 
Julius  Cesar,  was  supported  by  100  marble  pil- 
lars. emt>el]isned  with  gold  and  preoious  stones, 
and  contuned  IS  Judgment  seats  for  the  pnettvs. 
There  were  about  20  habeas  in  Rome,  and 
one  in  every  provincial  town.  The  only  one 
of  which  considerable  rranains  etiil  exist  is  that 
of  Tr^an.  Among  tbe  most  celebrated  basili- 
cas were  those  at  Polestriaa,  Pompeii,  and 
PiBStam.  Many  of  them  became  churehea, 
some  of  which  in  the  4tli  and  6th  centuries 
were  colled  basilicas;  and  the  term  was  also 
given  to  the  tomb  of  Edward  the  Oonfeasor 
and  other  medieaval  chm-ch-like  sepulchral 
monuments,  There  are  severe]  ohnrches  in 
Rome  called  basilicas,  but  the  name  is  chiefly 
applied  in  modem  times  to  the  five  patriarch- 
at  cburcbee  of  St  Peter,  St.  John  Lateran, 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  St  Paul,  and  St.  Lo- 
renzo, the  last  two  being  without  the  walls. 
Of  the  smaller  basilicas  the  most  important  are 
those  of  Santa  Croce,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Agnes, 
and  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli. — See  Bunsen,  DU 
ehrittliektn  BatiUktn  Somi  (Manicb,  1643), 
and  Hhbsch,  I)«r  altehrittliehe  KireAerUitui 
(Oarismhe,  1862). 


tween  it  and  the  gulf  of  Taranto,  oocupying 
tfaegreaterpart  of  ancient  Lnconia;  area,  4,122 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T1,  500,069.  The  chief  rivers, 
the  Binno,  Agri,  Basento,  and  Bradano,  form 
extended  valleys  bounded  by  ofisets  ft-om  the 
Apennines,  which  latter  slope  gradut^y  toward 
the  sea  and  settle  into  low  plains  within  10  m. 
of  the  coast.  These  plains,  famous  in  antiquity 
as  the  plains  of  Metapontum  and  Heraclea, 
are  still  remarkable  for  their  fertility.  The  in- 
terior is  monntoinons,  rugged,  and  little  virited, 
and  the  inhabitants  retain  primitive  modes  of 
life.  The  principal  tree  is  ttie  pine.  The  most 
extensive  foreets  are  along  the  Sinno.  In 
tbe  moat  northern  part  of  the  province,  wa- 
tered by  the  Ofanto,  is  the  volcanic  region  of 
Mount  Vnltnr,  which  extends  N.  and  S.  be- 
tween 16  and  20  m.,  and  is  20  m.  wide.  The 
mountain  proper  is  situated  between  HetS  and 
Rionero,andis8,000ft.high.  Disastrous  earth- 
quakes occurred  here  in  1661  and  in  December, 
1857.  Banlicata  is  rich  in  cattle,  dlk,  wine, 
and  saffron.  Cotton  and  olive  oil  are  produced 
moderately.  The  chief  cereals  are  maize  and 
bockwheaL  It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
LagonegTo,  Melfi,  Matero,  and  Potenza.  Co- 
ital, PotenKO. 

BISIUDES,  tbe  founder  of  a  Gnostic  sect, 
who  taught  in  Alexandria  abont  the  year  120. 
Some  say  that  he  was  bom  in  Egypt,  others  in 
Syria  or  Persia.  He  taught  that  the  Supreme 
Being   prodnoad    from    himself  seven    other 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


beingB,  called  teoae.    These  are,  InteltigeiH: 


the  Supreme  Being  himwl^  cunstituting  the 
perfect  eight  ('Oydmlr)-  T^«  *"■"  Wisdom  and 
Power  prodnced  the  angels  of  the  first  order, 
who  produced  those  of  the  second  order,  and 
BD  on  to  the  namber  of  86S  orders,  each  order 
dwelling  in  ita  own  heaven.  From  Greek  let- 
ters the  tinmerical  value  of  which  is  865  was 
formed  the  mistical  word  Abraxas,  which  be- 
came the  Bjrmbol  of  the  sect  founded  bj  Basil- 
ides.  The  seven  angels  of  the  lowest  order, 
whose  archon  or  chief  was  the  God  of  the 
nebrews,  were  the  creators  of  the  world.  AU 
humjut  BOiUs  had  committed  sins  in  a  previons 
state  of  existence,  and  were  consequently  ex- 
clnded  from  the  realm  of  light.  To  effect  their 
return  to  this  realm,  the  »oaa  nnited  himself 
with  the  man  Christ  Jesas  at  the  time  of  his 
baptism;  but  the  sufferings  which  Jeans  en- 
dured were  borne  by  the  man.  only,  and  were 
in  expiation,  as  all  suffering  is,  of  sina  com- 
mitted by  him  in  a  former  state  of  existence. 
BaMJides  forbade  marriage  and  the  eating  of 
meat.  He  wrote  a  book  entitled  Exeffetica, 
fragments  of  which  are  still  extant,  and  several 
other  works,  among  which  is  a  gospel.  His 
followers,  the  Basilidiana,  existed  as  late  as  the 
4th  century;  but  they  soon  degenerated  from 
the  doctrines  of  their  founder,  affirming  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews  to  be  the  enemy  of  the 
world  of  light,  and  became  grossly  immoral. 

BASILI9CV8,  emperor  of  the  East,  died  in 
Gappadocia  in  477.  Though  his  early  exploits 
against  the  Scytliians  had  been  far  from  bril- 
liant, he  was  through  the  influence  of  iiis  sister, 
the  empress  Veriua,  wife  of  Leo  1.,  placed  in 
command  in  468  of  the  Scet  which  sailed  from 
Constantinople  to  Carthage  against  Genserio, 
consisting  of  over  1,100  ships  and  100,000 
men.  The  expedition  safely  reached  the  coast 
of  Africa,  but  ended  disastrously.  Bamliscus, 
after  displaying  cither  the  greatest  pusillanim- 
ity or  treachery,  fled  to  Constantinople  at  the 
beginning  of  the  contest,  and  hid  himself  in  St. 
Sophia  until  his  lister  had  appeased  the  wrath 
of  the  emperor.  He  was  pimiahed  merely  with 
banishment  to  Thrace.  After  the  death  of 
Leo  I.  (474)  the  throne  devolved  on  his  infant 
grandson,  Leo  II.,  the  son  of  his  daughter  Ari- 
adne and  of  her  Isaurian  consort  Zeno.  Tlie 
latter,  hoping  to  become  sole  ruler  otter  the 
saspicioualy  sudden  death  of  his  son.  was  de- 
posed by  Verina  and  Bnsiliscus,  and  Bnsiliscns 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  senate.  Dur- 
ing his  brief  adminiBtration  Constantinople  was 
iiartly  laid  in  ashes  (4Tii),  the  famous  public 
library  with  over  120,000  MS.  volumes,  includ- 
ing the  48  books  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey, 
executed  in  golden  letters,  being  burned.  He 
burdened  the  people  with  taxes,  and  his  rule 
became  so  int^nernble  that  Zeno  was  recalled 
and  Baralisous  and  his  wife  and  children  were 
imprisoned  in  a  tower  in  Cappadocia,  where 
they  were  left  to  die  of  cold  and  starvation. 


BASILISK 

B18ILBK  (boHlueia,  Laorenti),  a  genns  of 
saurian  reptiles  of  the  family  of  iguanida,  in- 
habiting the  northern  parte  of  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America.  The 
genns  is  characterized  by  a  thin  triangular  fold 
of  skin  rising  verticdly  from  the  ocdput  and 
inclined  backward,  resembling  in  shape  a  Phry- 
gian cap;  the  external  edge  of  the  posterior 
loea  is  Dordered  with  a  Bt^y  serrated  fringe; 
the  back  and  tall  are  surmounted  in  the  adult 
male  by  an  elevated  crest,  supported  on  the 
spinous  process  of  the  vertehne,  of  varying 
height,  and  serrated ;  in  one  species  this  crest 
resembles  the  dorsal  fln  of  a  fish,  ti'hile  in  the 
other  it  is'merely  a  serrated  scaly  ridge;  be- 
tween the  dorsal  and  candal  portions  the  crest 
is  interrupted,  and  both  are  covered  with  thin 
scales  disposed  in  aeries  parallel  to  the  spinous 
procesaes.  Under  the  neck  is  a  rudimentary 
angular  crest,  behind  which  is  a  well  marked 
transverse  fold.  There  are  6  or  6  teeth  on 
each  palatal  bone,  and  60  to  60  in  each  jaw, 
pointed  and  subcorneal,  or  compressed.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  iguana  by  the  absenL« 


of  femoral  pores.  The  head  is  covered  with 
small  many-sided  ridded  scales;  the  body  above 
baa  rhomboidal  ridged  scales,  arranged  in  trans- 
verse bands;  the  ventral  scales  are  either  i^mooth 
or  ridged,  according  to  the  species.  The  limts, 
especially  the  posterior,  are  very  long,  as  arc 
also  the  toes,  which  are  slender  and  armed  wilb 
nails;  the  body  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  the 
tail  compressed  and  three  times  as  long  as  the 
trunk.  Two  apecics  are  described.  1.  The 
hooded  basilisk  (B.  mitratut,  Daudio)  has  the 
above-mentioned  cap  and  dorsal  crest,  and  the 
ventral  scales  Bmooth,  without  transverse  black 
bands  on  the  back ;  the  color  above  is  yellowish 
brown,  beneath  whitish ;  the  sidea  of  the  neck 
are  leaden  brown,  and  the  throat  is  marked  by 
longitudinal  bands  of  the  same  color;  some- 
times there  is  a  while  band  bordered  with 
black  on  tlie  sidea  of  the  neck  and  back;  the 
length  varies  from  24  to  80  inches,  of  which  the 
tail  measures  about  two  thirds.  2.  The  banded 
basilisk  (B.  tittatiu,  Wiegmann)  differs  from  the 
preceding  in  having  only  a  sliglit  serrated  crest 
along  the  back  and  tail,  the  ventral  scales 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BA8IL08AURU8 

ridged,  and  black  bands  aoroaa  the  back;  the 
general  color  ia  the  same,  with  the  exception 
of  dark  brown  ^ota  on  the  head,  chest,  and 
limbi,  aod  6  or  7  black  baada  extending  acruaa 
tiie  back  to  the  ventral  anrfaoe.  This  apeoiee 
waa  conaidered  bj  Kanp  as  belonging  to  a 
different  genua,  which  he  called  earythaohu ; 
U  formed  the  genua  mdieorypAat  of  Wagler. 
Notwithstanding  its  forbiddii^  appearance,  the 
baailiek  ia  a  perfectly  hormleea  aniina! ;  it  feeda 
on  insects,  and  hvea  principally  on  trees,  which 
it  cliniba  with  great  dexterity ;  it  is  supposed 
that  the  dorsal  creat  may  serve  to  steady  ita 
motiona  aa  it  springs  from  tree  to  tree.'— The 
ancient  poeta  imagined  an  animal,  which  they 
called  baffllialc,  whose  breath  poisoned  the  air, 
whoae  glance  was  death,  and  whoae  presence 
waa  tatnl  to  all  other  creatures,  inclnding  man ; 
they  Buppoeed  it  to  have  the  form  of  a  snake, 
and  to  be  produced  from  the  egg  of  a  oook 
brooded  upon  hj  a  serpent.  The  ttiphoni  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  is  a  true  snake,  improperiy 
called  basiliak  in  the  Greek  vernon,  and  in 
the  English  translation  cockatrice,  an  animal 
as  fabuloaa  as  the  anoient  haailisk, 

B18IUM1IWS.    Bee  ZsroLono:?. 

BASKEtYILLE,  JAa,  an  English  printer  and 
type  founder,  bom  in  1706,  died  in  Birming- 
ham, Jan.  8,  1TT5.  Previous  to  becoming  a 
type  founder  he  was  a  writing  master,  a  tomb- 
stone cntter,  and  a  sncceaafiil  japanner.  He 
preatly  improved  type  founding  and  the  qual- 
ity of  printing  ink.  Hia  printing  has  a  rich 
pnrple-hlack  hue,  auppoeed  to  be  made  by  aub- 
Jecting  each  sheet  as  it  came  ttom  the  press 
to  pressure  between  heated  copper  platea.  He 
retired  in  1765,  bnt  hia  preaa  condnned  to 
be  highly  esteemed  in  Birmingliam  until  the 
Priestley  riotaoflTOI,  when  the  mob  destroyed 
the  printingoffice.  His  remains  were  removed 
in  1921  to  Ohriat  church. 

BJ18KEF,  a  vessel  made  by  interweaving 
twigs  or  reeda,  grasses,  leaves,  metiU  or  glass 
wire,  whalebone,  or  any  umilar  material. 
Ba^eta  differ  greatly  in  their  forma,  aizea,  and 
the  nsea  to  which  ihej  are  applied,  from  the 
radest  utensils  of  necessity  to  the  most  deli- 
cately wronght  articlea  of  Inxnry  and  taste. 
A  breastwork  on  the  parapet  of  B  trench  ia 
sometimes  fanned  of  what  is  called  baskets 
of  earth  (corbeils),  wbicb  are  ao  placed  aa  to 
allow  the  aoldiera  to  fire  between  tiiem,  shel- 
tered from  the  fire  of  the  enemy. — Boaket 
making  ia  one  of  the  aimplest  and  most  ancient 
of  the  arta.  The  Romans  found  wicker  boats 
covered  with  akins  in  ose  among  the  ancient 
astivea  of  Britain,  Round  boats  of  wicker- 
work  covered  with  bitumen  or  skins  were 
used  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  in  the  times 
of  Herodotna ;  and  similar  boata,  about  7  ft,  in 
diameter,  are  still  nsed  there.  In  India  boata 
of  a  similar  form  and  construction  are  still  in 
nse  in  crosnng  the  less  rapid  rivers ;  they  ore 
made  of  bamboo  and  akina,  requiring  only  a 
few  honn'  labor;  they  are  about  12  fL  in 
diameter  and  4  deep,  are  navigated  with  oaia 


BASKET 


865 


or  poles,  or  towed  by  oxen  or  men,  and  are 
Bometimea  used  to  transport  large  armies  and 
heavy  artillery.  The  ancient  Britons  manufac- 
tured wicker  vessels  with  extraordinary  skill 
and  ingenuity ;  their  coatly  and  elegant  basketa 
are  mentioned  by  Juvenal  in  spetdcing  of  the 
extravagance  of  the  Bomana  in  his  time.  The 
natives  of  South  America  make  baskets  of 
rushes  so  closely  woven  as  to  hold  liquids ; 
their  mannfacture  and  sale  throughout  the 
Spanish  countries  is  very  extensive.  The  na- 
tives of  Tasmania  wove  similar  water-tiglit 
vessels  of  leaves.  The  Cafeea  and  Hottentots 
possess  equal  skill  in  weaving  the  roots  of  cer- 
tain plants.  Shields  in  audent  times  were 
constmcted  of  wiokerwork,  plain  or  covered 
with  hides;  they  are  etiU  thna  made  among 
savage  tribes.  Wickerwork  is  now  largely 
used  for  the  bodies  of  light  carriages.  On  the 
continent  of  Enrope  Holstein  wagons,  carriages 
drawn  by  two  horses  and  carrying  several 
persons,  are  made  almost  entirely  of  wicker- 
work.  In  different  parts  of  the  world,  honses. 
hata,  galea,  fences,  aledgea,  and  shoea,  and 
other  articles  of  use  and  ornament,  are  formed 
by  this  ancient  and  nniveraal  art. — In  making 
baskets,  the  twigs  or  rods,  being  assorted  ac- 
cording to  their  size  and  nse,  and  being  left 
considerably  longertban  the  work  to  be  woven, 
are  arranged  on  the  floor  in  pairs  parallel  to 
each  other  and  at  email  intervals  apart,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  longer  diameter  of  tbe 
basket.  Then  two  large  rods  are  lud  acroea 
the  parallel  ones,  with  their  thick  ends  toward 
the  workmui,  who  is  to  pat  his  foot  on  them, 
thereby  holding  them  firm,  and  weave  them  1 
one  at  a  time  attemately  over  and  under  those 
first  iud  down,  confining  them  in  their  places. 
This  forms  the  foundation  of  the  basket,  and  is 
technically  called  the  slat  or  slate.  Then  the 
long  end  of  one  of  these  two  rods  ia  woven 
over  and  nnder  the  pairs  of  short  ends,  all 
around  the  bottom,  tiA  the  whole  is  woven  in. 
The  same  is  done  with  the  other  rod,  and  then 
additional  long  ones  are  woven  in,  till  the  botr 
torn  of  the  basket  is  of  sufficient  size.  The 
sides  are  formed  by  sharpening  the  large  ends 
of  enough  stout  rods  to  form  the  ribs,  and'plait- 
ing  or  forcing  the  sharpened  ends  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  basket,  from  the  circumference  to- 
ward the  centre ;  then  rai»ng  the  rode  in  the 
direction  the  aidea  of  the  basket  are  to  have, 
and  weaving  other  rods  between  them  till  the 
baeket  is  of  the  required  depth.  The  brim  ia 
formed  by  bending  down  and  fastening  the 
perpendicular  Ndes  of  the  ribs,  whereby  the 
whole  is  firmly  and  compactly  united,  A 
handle  ia  fitted  to  the  basket  by  forcing  two 
or  three  sharpened  rods  of  the  right  length 
down  tbe  wearing  of  the  ride^  close  to  each 
other,  and  pinning  them  faat  about  two  inches 
below  the  brim,  so  that  the  handle  may  retain 
its  powtiiHi  when  completed.  The  ends  of  the 
rods  are  then  bound  or  plaited  in  any  way  the 
workman  chooses.  This  is  a  basket  of  the  ru- 
dest kind.    Others  will  vary  according  to  tbe 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


366       BASNAGE  DK  BEAUVAL 

artist's  pnrpow,  skill,  and  tnaterials.  Wheo 
whole  rodi  or  twi^  are  not  adapted  to  the 
kind  of  work  required,  they  are  divided  into 
splits  and  ekeins.  Splits  are  made  by  cleaving 
the  rod  leogthwise  into  foar  parta,  b;  mesDS 
of  an  implement  ooosining  of  two  blades,  cross- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles,  the  int«rBeotion 
of  which  passes  down  the  pith  of  the  rod. 
These  ^lits  are  nert  drawn  throagh  an  imple- 
ment resembling  a  common  spoke-shave,  keep- 
ing the  pith  presented  to  the  edge  of  the  iron, 
and  the  back  of  the  split  against  the  wood  of 
the  implement.  The  split  is  then  passed  through 
another  implement,  called  an  upright,  to  bring 
it  to  a  more  uniform  shape.  This  consist  of  a 
flat  piece  of  steel,  each  end  of  which  has  a  cut- 
ting edge,  tike  that  of  an  <wdlnarf  chisel ;  this 
piece  is  Lienb  ronnd,  and  the  edgee  are  made  to 
approach  each  other  as  near  as  desired  by 
means  of  screws,  the  whole  being  fixed  into  a 
handle.  By  passing  the  splits  between  these 
two  edges,  thej  are  reduced  to  any  required 
thickness.  The  implements  required  in  basket 
making  are  few  and  simple,  consisting,  besides 
those  just  mentioaed,  of  knives,  bodkins,  and 
drills  for  boring,  leads  for  st«adying  the  work 
while  in  progress,  and  when  It  is  o(  small  di- 
mennons,  and  a  piece  of  iron  called  a  beater. — 
The  splints  of  Tariona  kinds  of  wood,  partjca- 
larly  certain  species  of  ash,  elm,  and  birch,  are 
extensively  onployed  in  basket  work.  These 
splints  are  obtained  by  beating  logs  of  the  wood 
with  a  manl,  thus  loosening  and  separating 
the  different  layers  or  rings  into  narrow  strips. 
This  is  the  simple  and  primitive  process,  and  is 
necessarily  slow,  and  restricted  to  woods  of  a 
free  textnre.  Several  machines  have  been  in- 
vented and  are  now  employed  tor  the  mann- 
fiioture  of  splints,  by  whioh  different  kinds  of 
wood,  prepared  by  steaming  or  otherwise,  are 
cnt  or  rived  into  the  required  form.  Basket 
willow  and  osier  are  terras  commonly  applied 
to  the  apeoies  of  lalia  most  used  in  basket 
work.    (Bee  Obieb.) 

llSHAfiE  DG  BEICVIL,  JacfM,  a  French  au- 
thor and  diplomatist,  bom  in  Bouen  in  1S68, 
diedattheHagneinl7BaorlT28.  Hereceived 
an  excellent  theological  and  classical  education, 
was  Protestant  minister  at  Rouen  from  1678  to 
1686,  and  ou  the  suppresrion  of  the  Reformed 
church  in  that  city  was  pensioned  and  permitted 
to  go  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  had  charge  of  the 
Walloon  chnroh  till  1709.  He  afterward  pre- 
nded  over  the  same  denomination  at  the  Ilagae 
at  the  request  of  Heinsius,  whose  influence  also 
led  to  his  being  employed  diplomatically.  In 
1 71 7  he  cooperated  with  the  abb6  Dubois  in  con- 
clnding  a  defensive  alliance  between  the  states 
genertu  and  France  and  Great  Britain,  at1«r 
which  his  oonflscat«d  Rouen  estates  were  re- 
stored to  him.  He  was  the  anthor  of  varioos 
theological  and  other  works,  the  best  of  which 
is  his  Hittoire  dei  Ju\/i,  depuii  JitTa-OhrUt 
hmn'aw  pritent.  pour  HTvir  de  tuppUment  A 
PaUtoir«  de  Jotiphs  (6  vols.,  Kottenlam,  1706; 
new  ed.,  Paris,  1710). 


BIMIDB  ?B0VnM8>    Bee  Bibqitks. 

BtSQCEB,  a  peculiar  race,  who  ftvm  time 
immemorial  have  inhabited  both  slopes  of  the 
Pyrenees.  They  number  about  8(>0,000,  of 
whom  about  150,000  are  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Baases-Pyr^ndes,  the  remainder  in  the 
Spanish  provinces  of  Navarre,  Biscay,  Gnipuz- 
Goa,  and  Alava.  The  last  three  provinces  are 
usnally  styled  the  Basque  provinces.  From 
the  renote«rt  times  the  Basques  have  remained 
unsnbdned  in  their  mountain  homes,  end  nei- 
ther Carthaginian,  Roman,  Gothic,  Saracen, 
French,  nor  Spanish  domination  has  been  able 
to  efface  their  distinctive  charBCteristica-  They 
are  of  middle  nze,  compactly  bnilt,  robnat  and 
agile,  of  a  darker  complexion  than  the  Span- 
iarAx,  with  gray  eyes  and  Mack  hair.  They 
are  simple,  but  prond,  impetuous,  merry,  and 
hospitable.  The  women  are  beantifal,  ^Ufol 
in  performing  men's  work,  and  remarkable  for 


their  vivacity  and  graoa.  The  Basques  are 
much  attached  to  danoug,  and  are  very  fond 
of  the  rouac  of  the  bagpipe.  The  national  dress 
is  a  red  Jacket,  long  breeches,  a  red  or  brown 
sash,  a  square-knotted  neck  tie,  hempen  shoes, 
and  pointed  caps.  The  women  wear  head- 
dresses of  gay  colors  over  their  variously 
braided  and  twisted  hair.  In  the  social  rela- 
tions of  the  Basques  patriarchal  manners  and 
habits  prevail.  The  art  of  agriculture  ia  bat 
little  advanced,  yet  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  industry  of  the  oocupants  produce  an  abun- 
dance. Among  the  Spanish  Basques  there  i« 
an  almost  universal  equality  of  conditions,  the 
nobility  being  few  in  number.  There  are  few 
cities  or  villages,  but  small  houses  lie  scattered 
upon  nearly  all  the  heights.  In  their  political 
constitution,  they  are  divided  into  districts, 
each  of  whioh  chooses  annually  an  alcalde,  who 
ia  both  a  civil  and  military  officer,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  supreme  jomta,  which  meets  eveiy 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASQUES 

jear  for  deliberation  upon  matters  of  general 
interest.  Their  rights  are  protected  bj  the 
fuera»,  or  written  constitntions,  which  were 
granted  bj  ancient  Spanish  kings.  In  religion 
Iher  are  Roman  CaCbolios.'^Wiiatever  aiaj 
have  been  the  origin  and  ethnological  relations 
of  the  Basque  people,  tbey  have  ei^'ojed  an 
iramemorial  repntation  for  valor  in  their  pres- 
ent seaU.  Thej  were  the  Cantabri  of  the 
Romans,  and  are  allndod  to  b;  Horace  as  a 
people  hard  to  be  taught  to  bear  the  voice. 
The  Spanish  Basqnes  long  maintained  tiiem- 
sclres  independent,  thongh  tiituated  between 
the  rival  monarcljies  of  Navarre  and  Castile; 
and  though  in  tlie  ISth  centarj  the/  were  in- 
corporated into  the  Castilian  raonarobj,  the; 
retained  their  old  liberties,  paid  no  taxes,  and 
eryojed  thronghoat  Spain  all  tlie  exemptions 
of  the  nobilitj.  The  Spanish  conatitntion  of 
1812  stripped  them  of  their  long-poesessed 
privileges,  which  however  they  recovered  in 
1B23,  after  an  energetic  insurrection.  When, 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  ISSS, 
Isabella  determined  to  take  their  pHvileBCB 
from  them  again,  tbey  embraced  with  ardor 
the  cause  of  Don  Carlos,  and  after  six  years 
of  rebellion  reoognized  the  young  qneen  only 
when  the  reSstablishment  of  the  fuefoi  was 
promised  them. — The  proper  name  of  the 
Basque  language  is  Eu»eara  or  Etoiiera, 
which  d^enerated  into  Va*e,  BoKongada,  and 
in  the  French  provinces  mtoBatcuenM.  Euth 
or  Ese  probably  signifies  sunrise  or  east,  point- 
ing to  the  original  country  of  the  Basques. 
The  people  ca]l  themselves  Etuealdunae,  peo- 
ple of  tlie  langnage,  designating  all  strangers  as 
Erdaldiittoc,  people  of  foreign  language.  Some 
natives  derive  the  name  of  Bascon  from  batoeoa, 
forest-dwulter.  There  are  three  principal  dia- 
lects of  this  langnage;  the  Gnipuzcosn,  the 
purest,  pleasantest,  and  most  developed  of  all, 
spoken  in  Guipnzcoa  and  Alava ;  the  Vizcayan ; 
and  the  Labortan  of  Lower  Navarre,  Laboacd, 
and  Zaberoa,  which  is  softer  than  the  Viz- 
caydn.  Great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among 
writers  on  everything  concerning  not  only  the 
history  bnt  the  langnage  of  this  brave,  hardy, 
industrious,  freedom-loving  people.  It  is,  how- 
ever, certain  that  the  Euscara  entirely  differs 
from  thelangnages  of  the  Indo-European  family. 
It  has  some  common  traits  with  tne  Magyar, 
Osmanli,  and  other  dialects  of  the  Uralo-Altdo 
family.  This  similarity  consists  in  blending 
several  words  into  on^  ecraecially  in  the  con- 
jugation of  verbs,  and  in  the  exclusion  of  oom- 
binations  like  cr,  jp-,  pr,  pi,  tr,  &o.  Bnt  there 
are  few  coinoidenoea  of  the  roots  of  words. 
The  Enseara  is  the  primitive  langnage  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Spain,  who  were  called  Iberi  by 
the  classic  writers,  were  settled  in  the  whole 

Kninsnla,  in  a  part  of  Aqnitania,  partly  in  Sici- 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  and  traces  of  whom  are 
found  in  Italy  and  in  Thrace.  By  an  invasion 
of  ■  branch  of  Oelts,  in  prehistoric  times,  these 
aborigines  were  mixed  in  a  part  of  the  pen- 
insula with  the  invaders,  thus  producing  the 
76  TOL.  n.— 24 


BASS  367 

Oeltiberi,  who  included  the  Cantabri.  Uanj' 
writers  confound  tlie  latter  with  the  aborip- 
nal  Basques;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Iberia  at 
the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  were  of  three 
aorta:  the  Iberi,  the  Celtici,  and  the  Celtiberi, 
to  whom  the  Cantabri  belonged.  The  settle- 
menta  of  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Carthagini- 
ans on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  sea ' 
are  of  much  later  date.  The  Enscara  has  no 
words  beginning  with  r,  f,  at;  it  has  more 
ubilants  than  the  Greek,  viz.,  «,  t,  hard  and 
soft  U;  it  is  very  rich  in  words  and  grammatio 
forms;  it  is  full  and  well-sonnding,  and  very 
percpicuons.  Its  predominant  combinations 
of  Bounda  are:  or,  man;  bae,  be,  low,  deep; 
cal,  damage ;  oar,  gar,  high ;  matn,  men,  power ; 
nit,  plun,  high ;  0,  high ;  te,  ee,  plam,  &c. 
Very  rare  combinations  are  ntr,  and  tar,  ter. 
We  possess  the  most  valuable  grammatical  in- 
foiTuation  in  the  Vizcayan,  the  beet  lexical  de- 
velopment in  the  Guipnzcoan  (Larramendi's 
Diecionario  trtlirxff&ej  CatUllano,  Bateittnet, 
y   Latin,   Ban   Sebastian,   1853),   but  scarcely 

anything  available  in  the  Labortan  dialect 

William  von  Humboldt  (in  Adelung's  Mitkri- 
data,  and  in  hia  work  on  tlie  aborigines  of 
Spwn,  &c.,  Berlin,  1821),  Prince  Louis  Lncien 
Bonaparte,  and  Chaho  {Dictionnaire  hatgm, 
Paris,  1SG7  et  ug.)  (iimisb  the  best  materiala 
among  all  foreign  writers  on  the  Basque  lan- 
guage. See  also  Ticknor's  "  Spanish  Litera- 
ture," vol.  iii.,  and  Le  pay*  hatq-at,  ta  popula- 
tion, ta  langnt,  »e»  maurt,  >a  litiirature  tt  la 
mvnqui,  by  Francisque  Michel  (Paris,  1867), 
whonas  also  published  a  Romaneiro  dn  pay* 
&(u;u0  (Paris,  18SB). 

US-RHIN,  a  former  department  of  France, 
now  included  in  the  German  imperial  terri- 
tory of  Alsace-Lorraine.     (See  Alsaok-Lob- 

BiSS  (^nnr),  a  family  of  sea  and  f^esh-water 
fishes  or  which  there  are  many  well  known 
varieties  in  American  waters.  They  belong 
to  the  diviwon  aeanthopUrygii,  or  those  having 
spinous  fins,  to  the  family  of  the  pereida,  or 
those  of  the  perch  type,  and  have  several  sub- 
genera, as  ffryitei  and  eentrarehtu,  which  are 
the  most  remarkable.  Baas  of  various  kinds 
are  fonnd  in  most  of  the  wat«rs  of  the  wurld, 
and  are  everywhere  well  esteemed,  both  as  a 
table  fish  and  by  the  angler.  The  principal 
European  variety  Is  the  lairax  Ivpui,  which 


Ennpeui  But  (Lubiu    hiput]. 

has  by  some  writers  been  confounded  with  our 
striped  bass,  an  entirely  different  fish,  first  dis- 
tinguished by  Dr.  Samnei  L.  Mitchill  of  New 
York.    The  following  are  the  American  vario- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ties:  I.  The  »ea  bass,  sometimes  called  bine  or 
black  bass  (eentToprutU  nigrieant).  This  is 
purely  a  (ea  speciee,  never  coming  into  fresh 
water.  Its  Keneral  color  is  blae-black,  slightlf 
bronzed,  Ttie  edges  of  all  the  scalee  are  of  a 
darker  color  than  the  ground,  wbicli  gives  it 
the  appearance  of  being  covered  by  a  black 
network.  The  fins,  except  the  pectoral,  are 
pale  blue,  the  anal  and  dorsal  spotted  with  a 
darker  shade  of  the  same  (»lor.  TLe  teeth  are 
set,  like  those  of  a  carding  machine,  over  all 
the  bones  of  the  month,  those  on  the  lips  the 
largest  The  dorsal  fin  has  10  spioes,  11  Boft 
rays;  the  pectorals,  18  soft  rays;  the  ventrals, 
1  spine,  G  soft  rays;  the  anal,  8  sjiioea,  7  soft 
rays;  the  oandal  is  trilobed  end  has  18  soft 
rays.  The  weight  of  the  sea  baas  varies  from 
i  lb.  to  IT  lbs.,  the  latter  very  rare.  2.  The 
striped  bass  (L,  lineatv*),  Tbi*  is  the  rock  fish 
of  the  Delaware  and  Potomac.  Its  cdor  is  blu- 
ish brown  alxive,  silvery  white  below,  with  from 
T  to  9  eqoidistant,  dark,  parallel  stripes  of  choc- 
olate brown,  those  above  the  lateral  line  ter- 
minating at  the  base  of  the  caudal  fin,  those 
below  it  fading  away  above  the  anal  fin.  The 
teeth  are  numerons  on  the  palatal  and  maxil- 
lary bones,  and  on  the  tongue.  The  Ist  dorsal 
fin  has  9  spines;  the  2d,  1  spine,  12  soft  rays; 
the  pectorals,  16  soft  rays;  Uie  ventrals,  1 
spine,  6  soft  rays;  the  anal,  fl  spines,  11  soft 
rays;  the  candal,  which  is  deeply  lanated,  has 
IT  soft  rays.  This  flsh  winters  in  the  deep, 
wann,  muddy  aea  baya,  and  rune  up  the  rivers 
in  the  spring  in  pursuit  of  tlie  smelt,  and  to 
devour  the  shad  roe,  and  in  the  autnmn  to 
spawn.  It  runs  from  the  size  of  a  smelt  up  to 
60,  GO,  ondTOlbs,  weight    It  is  very  voracious, 


they  abound,  at  about  the  meeting  of  the  fresli 
water  and  the  tide,  as  the  river  perch  and  the 
white  perch.-— We  now  come  to  tiie  purely 
fresh-water  species,  which  are  as  follows:  6. 
The  black  bass  of  the  lakes  {grytta  nigritani). 


BUped  Bub  (Libnx   llnentiu). 

excellent  on  the  table,  and  an  especial  favorite 
of  the  angler.  8.  The  bar  Ssb  (L.  notatvt),  a 
variety  of  the  flsh  above  described,  distinguish- 
ed from  it  by  Lieut  Col.  Smith  sf  the  Briti»>b 
army.  Tlie  principal  distinction  is  that  the 
lines  on  the  sides  are  not  continuous,  bnt  ore 
broken  into  spots,  4.  The  ruddy  bass  (L.  ru- 
fut).  5.  Tlie  little  white  bass  (L.  pallid-ua). 
These  are  two  smalt  and  insignificant  varieties, 
not  exceeding  a  few  inches  in  length,  known 
to  anglers  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  where 


Black  Biu  (Girita  Dlgiioani). 

Its  color  is  blue-back,  glossed  with  bronze,  an^ 
marked  with  darker  douded  bandings ;  helly 
lighter  colored.  Both  jaws  are  armed  with  a 
broad  patch  of  small,  sharp,  recurved  teeth: 
tlia  vomer  has  also  a  patch,  and  the  palatal 
bones  a  belt  or  band  of  teeth  of  the  same  do- 
scrintion.  The  dorsal  fin  has  0  spines;  the 
2d  dorsal,  1  spine,  \4i  soft  rays;  the  pectorals, 
18  soft  rays;  the  ventrals,  1  spine,  12  soft  rays; 
the  caudal,  16  soft  rays.  It  is  found  every- 
where west,  from  the  baan  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  tributaries  of  tlie  Ohio,  aud  has 
lately  been  extensively  introduced  into  the  wa- 
ters of  New  York  and  New  England.  It  nma 
from  a  few  inches  in  length  to  rarely  6  lbs. 
weight.  It  is  a  bold  biter  and  an  excellent 
fish.  7.  The  Oswego  bass  {G.  mega»toma)ia 
often  confounded  wiui  the  species  last  described, 
but  is  entirely  distinct  Its  principal  feature 
is  the  great  size  of  its  mouth.  It  is  a  thicker 
fish,  and  its  head  is  larger  as  compared  to  its 
size.  Color,  dark  greenish  blue,  lighter  on 
the  belly.  Tlie  dorsal  fin  has  S  spines,  14  soft 
rays;  the  pectorals,  13  soft  rays;  ventrals,  1 
spine,  6  soft  rays;  anal,  8  spines,  11  soft  rays; 
oandal,  20  soft  rays.  It  abounds  in  the  bays 
and  river  mouths  of  Lake  Erie,  bites  well  at 
live  or  dead  minnow,  and  is  a  good  fish,  bnt 
inferior  to  the  last  describod  variety.  .8.  White 
bass  {multilin«atv»\,  eoioetimee  called  white 

Erch,  peculiar  to  Lake  Erie  and  the  upper 
[OS,  and  very  abundant  in  them.  In  color  it 
is  light  olive  above  and  silvery  white  on  tlie 
sides  and  belly,  with  numerons  longitudinal 
dark  lines,  the  numbers   varying  in   dilTerent 

rcimens.  This  flsh  has  not  been  scientifically 
cribed,  so  that  its  dental  system  and  tliat 
of  its  flu  rays  cannot  be  given  with  accuracy. 
It  is  said  to  he  an  excellent  fish  on  the  table, 
and  a  bold,  voracious  biter.  9.  Tlie  grass  bass 
(centraTchwi  hexaeanthut),  sometimes  called 
the  roach,  also  peculiar  to  I.iake  Erie,  where  it 
is  abundant  in  the  small  hays  and  at  the  river 
moutha  In  color  it  is  spotted  or  marbled 
above,  with  dork  shades  on  a  aca-green  ground. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASS 

and  on  the  sides  with  the  same  marks  on  light ' 
green  or  yellow.  The  aiJea  of  the  head  and 
bodj  ure  of  an  iridescent  white,  the  bellj  sil- 
verj-  white.  Like  the  precedinff  fish,  it  has  not 
been  Bcientiticallj  distinguished  or  descrihed. 
Its  anal  fln  is  said  to  be  estremelj  long,  and  its 
(ibdomen  consequently  very  small.  Wherever 
the  largc-jDonthed  bass  is  found  this  fish  is 


BoA  Bua  (CtDtu^us  *$Deiu). 

plentiful.    It  rarely  esceeda  10  inches  in  length 
and  2  lbs.  in  weight     10.  The  rock  bass  [C. 
aeneiu).    Its  color  is  dark   coppery  yellow, 
banded  with  irregnlar  darker  clouds  and  green 
reflections ;  flns  uluish  green ;  teeth  emaU,  re- 
curved, on  the  maxillaries,  vomer,  palatals, 
and  pharyngeals.     The  dorsal  tinhn^  11  spines, 
12  soft  rays;   the  pectorals,  14  soft  rays;  the 
ventrala,  ]  spine,  6  bott  rays ;  the  anal,  G  spines, 
11  soft  rays;  the  cau- 
dal, IT  rays.    This  fish, 
originally  peculiar    to 
the   basin  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,    lina    come 
down  the  Erie  canal 
and   become   common 
in  the  Hudson  river, 
where  it  is  freely  ta- 
ken.   It  rarely  exceeds 
a  pound  in  weight,  hut 
is  au  excellent  fi»h  on 
the  table,  and  affords 
admirable  sport  to  the 
angler.    11.  The  growl- 
er  {gryttea   lalmonoei- 
da),    generally  called 
the   white    salmon    in 
the    southern    states, 
closely  resembles   the 
black  bass  in  form,  but 
grows    larger.      It    is 
of  a  deep  bluish  green 

above,  lighter  below ;  when  young  has  25  or 
30  longitudinal  dark  bands,  which  grow  paler 
by  age.  The  dorsal  fin  has  10  spines,  14  soft 
rays;  the  pectorals,  16  soft  rays;  the  rentrals, 
1  spine,  G  soft  rays ;  the  anal,  3  spines,  12  soft 
rays;  the  caudal,  IT  soft  rays.  This  also  is 
said  to  be  a  bold  biter  and  a  good  fish.  With 
this  species  ends,  so  for  as  is  yet  ascertained, 
the  list  of  the  bass  family  proper  to  American 
waters,   although  it  is  probable  that  in  the 


BAS8AN0  369 

course  of  time  future  varieties  may  be  dis- 
covered in  the  vast  network  of  lakes  and  rivers 
which  have  not  yet  been  scientifically  explored 
through  one  fourth  of  their  extent. 

BASS,  or  BawwoMl.    See  Linden. 

BISS,  George  k.,  an  English  navigator,  died 
early  in  the  10th  century.  He  was  a  surgeon  in 
the  navy,  and  mode  in  1796  with  Matthew  Flin- 
ders his  first  two  voyages  of  discovery  on  the 
coast  of  New  Sooth  ^  ales  in  a  boat  only  8 
ft.  long,  which  they  called  tlie  Tom  Thumb. 
In  ITBT  the  government  despatched  him  on  a 
third  voyage,  during  which  he  discovered  in 
1T98  the  strait  that  bears  his  name,  between 
Tasmania  and  New  South  Wales.  He  was  soon 
aft«r  sent  agun,  with  Flinders,  with  directions 
to  soil  aromid  Tasmania  and  examine  and  pro- 
ject the  coast.  His  labors  greatly  increased  the 
progress  of  colonization,  but  lie  died  unhon- 
ored  and  unrequited  for  his  arduous  and  ad- 
venturous elTorta.  See  "  Voyage  to  Terra  Aub- 
tralis"  (2  vols.,  London,  1814},  by  Flinders. 

BlSStXO,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Pia- 
cenza,  on  the  left,  bank  of  the  Brcnta,  81  m. 
N.  by  W.  of  Padua  and  IB  N.  E.  of  Vicenza ; 

Kp.  about  13,000.  The  fine  bridge  over  the 
enta  built  by  Palladio  was  swept  away  in 
1T48,  and  restored  by  Ferracino.  The  old  walls 
of  Boiisano  are  clad  with  ivy ;  the  sidewalks  are 
paved  with  marble  found  in  the  vicinity,  aud  the 
streets  with  granite  and  other  materials.  The 
partly  ruined  castle  of  Ezzelino  in  the  centre  of 
tlie  town  is  now  occupied  by  the  archbishop. 


the  piazza  San  Francisco  con- 
tains an  extensive  library,  a  picture  gallery,  and 
collections  of  coins  and  rare  engravings.  The 
palace  of  the  podesta  contains  frescoes  and 
statuary.  Near  the  town  are  the  villa  Rez- 
zonico,  famous  for  its  extensive  view  and  for 
works  of  ort,  and  the  villa  Parolini,  with  a 
botanical  garden.  The  town  contains  a  num- 
ber of  convents,  a  gymnasium,  and  about  80 
churches,  severid  of  which  have  paintings  ex- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


370 


BASSANO 


et^uted  by  the  Bassano  familj.    Th«  Remondini 

Erinting  establishment,  once  the  first  in  Italy, 
I  still  of  Eome  importance,  and  has  paj>er  mills 
and  a  scliool  of  engraving  annexed  to  it.  Tlie 
trade  is  considerable,  especially  in  silks.  The 
chief  mttnufoctnres  are  woollen  cloths,  straw 
hats,  and  leatlier.  Enzelino  reiiided  here  fur 
some  time.  The  town  was  fortified  and  im- 
proved by  Francis  of  Carrara,  lord  of  Padoa, 
and  was  ruled  by  the  Visconti  of  Milan,  who 
in  1404  ceded  it  to  the  repnbiio  of  Venice,  of 
which  it  became  a  separate  province  with  a 
local  administration,  in  the  16th  century  it 
BDffereU  during  the  war  of  the  leagae  of  Cam- 
bray  aKflinst  Venice.  On  Sept.  8, 1T9B,  Napo- 
leon, after  a  forced  march  of  two  days  from 
Trent,  annihilated  here  tlie  Aastrian  army  un- 
der Vormser.  Battles  were  also  fought  here 
between  the  French  and  the  Austrians  in  No- 
vember, nee,  in  IBOI,  ISOG,  and  1813.  Ka- 
poleon  raised  Bossano  to  a  duchy  for  the  benefit 
of  Maret.  Canova  was  bom  in  a  village  10  m, 
from  Basaano. 

USSANO,  or  Banu.  I.  FruccMf  da  pNte, 
the  head  of  a  school  of  painters,  called  the 
Baasans,  bom  in  14T6,  died  in  Bassano  in  1G30. 
He  stadied  in  Venice  under  Giovanni  Bellini, 
and  painted  frescoes  superior  to  those  of  his 
master,  llis  beat  eompoaition  is  a  "Descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in  a  church  at  Oliero, 
near  Bassano.  He  is  called  the  elder  Bassano, 
to  distinguish  him  trom  his  son.  II.  GlitOTM  da 
pMte,  commonly  called  II  Basbaito,  son  and 
pnpil  of  the  precedmg,  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  the  family,  born  in  1610,  died  in 
Venice  in  1S92.  lie  derived  his  principal  edu- 
cation fHim  the  cartoons  of  Parmigiano,  and 
in  copying  Bonifazio  and  Titian,  llis  picture 
of  tlie  "Nativity,"  in  the  church  of  San  Gia- 
setipe  at  Baasauo,  is  his  masterpiece,  and  a 
celebrated  work  in  force  of  colors  and  chiaro- 
scuro, in.  FrticMto,  called  the  yonnger,  son 
of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1548,  died  in  1591.  He 


coes  after  Paul  Veronese.  His  best  wortcs  are 
the  fresco  c«iling  of  the  palace  of  the  doges  at 
Venice,  representing  the  capture  of  Pavia. 

BiSSiKO,  HasH*  Benud  JIant,  dnke  of,  a 
French  statesman,  bom  in  D^on,  March  1, 
1TS3,  died  in  Paris,  May  18,  1839.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  physician,  received  an  excellent 
edncation,  ana  went  to  Paris  to  practise  law; 
but  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  changed 
his  plans,  and  ho  edit«d  the  MulUtia  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  constituent  assembly,  which 
became  the  origin  of  the  Monilevr,  the  offi- 
cial journal,  and  won  for  him  great  political 
Influence.  Although  in  favor  of  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  club 
of  the  FeuiUants,  he  became  in  ITBl  chief  of  a 
bureau  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
was  sent  in  1792  on  an  extraordinary  mission 
to  Ijondon  after  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations with  England.  Failing  in  his  nego- 
tiations with  Lord  Grenville,  he  returned  to 


the  MmiiUar.  In  July,  1T93,  he  was  Appoint- 
ed ambassador  to  Naples;  but  he  and  his  trav- 
elling companion,  the  French  envoy  to  Torkey, 
were  captured  by  the  Austrians  in  Switzerland 
and  imprisoned  in  Mautun  and  BrOnn  about 
two  years.  He  was  linnliy  exchanged  for  the 
daughter  of  Louis  XVL,  and  was  received  in 
Paris  with  great  distinction  ;  but  owing  to  hia 
former  opposition  to  the  Jacobins,  he  received 
no  public  employment  till  1707,  when  he  wa» 
sent  to  Lille  as  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  for 
the  negotiation  of  peace  with  England.  In 
1T98  the  Cisalpine  rejiublic  yiresented  him  with 
estates  of  the  value  of  1GO,000  francs  as  an 
indemnity  for  his  captivity.  Having  formerly 
lived  in  the  same  house  with  Bonaparte,  the 
latter  on  his  return  from  Egypt  greeted  him 
as  on  old  friend  and  employed  him  as  private 
secretary.  After  the  18th  Bmmaire  he  became 
secretary  general  and  subEeauently  secretary 
of  state,  offidating  after  the  dismissal  of  Bour- 
rienne  as  the  chief  director  of  the  home  office, 
manipulating  the  press  and  exerting  immense 
influence  over  his  master,  whom  he  accompa- 
nied in  almost  all  bis  campaigns  and  assisted 
in  all  his  diplomatic  negotiations.  The  minis- 
try of  foreign  afiairs  having  been  placed  under 
his  direction  in  1811,  he  signed  in  February  and 
March,  1812,  the  treaties  which  he  hod  nego- 
tiated with  Prussia  and  Austria  to  secure  the 
coCperation  of  those  powers  during  the  Bus- 
eien  campaign.  Napoleon  invented  him  with 
the  duchy  of  Bas^no,  with  an  annual  revenue 
of  about  50,000  francs,  besides  presenting  him 
with  a  palace  and  valuable  property  in  Paris, 
and  rettunlng  hhn  as  bis  most  intimate  adviser 
even  after  he  had  removed  him  from  the  sec- 
retaryship of  state  and  the  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs.  During  the  hundred  days  he  resumed 
the  former  position,  was  made  a  peer  on  June 
2,  and  remained  by  the  side  of  the  emperor  at 
Waterloo.  During  the  restoration  he  liied  in 
exile  at  Gratz  till  1820.  Louis  Philippe  re- 
stored him  to  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1831,  and 
in  1884  he  acted  for  a  few  days  as  minister  of 
the  interior  and  president  of  Uie  cabinet.  He 
was  restored  in  1632  as  a  member  of  the  arad- 
eniy.  His  interesting  correspondence  and  liter- 
ary productions  have  not  yet  been  published. — 
His  son,  Napoi^oh  Joseph  Huoces  Mabet, 
dnke  of  Bassano,  bom  in  Paris,  July  8,  1803, 
was  appointed  in  1B51  ambassador  to  Brussels, 
and  in  1852  senator.— A  younger  son,  Prince 
EuofesK  DK  Bassano,  ruined  himself  in  mining 
operations  in  Algeria.  He  published  in  1848, 
with  E,  de  Solms,  Pryet  de  colonuatUm  de 
rAlgiri«  par  Vauoeiation. 

BISSIXTIM,  or  Btsnatou,  Jiws,  a  Scotch 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  bom  abont 
1504,  died  in  1568,  He  was  a  son  of  the  laird 
of  BasBontin,  studied  at  Glasgow  end  <m  the 
continent,  ac()Qired  renown  and  some  fortona 
as  profesBor  of  mathematics  in  tlie  nnivemity 
of  Paris  and  also  aa  an  astrologer,  retnmcd  Ur 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BA83ANVILLE 


Scotland  in  1562,  and  v 


earl  of  Murray,  HU  principal  w 
f  passed  tlirough  several  e( 
DSlat«<l  by  TornsisiDs  from  French  into 


ily  snpported  the 

editions,  and 


Latin  (Geneva,  18B9).  He  had  scarcely  any 
knon'ledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  is  sap- 
posod  to  have  received  literary  aasislance  in 
the  preparation  of  his  various  ivritings,  one 
of  his  treatises  being  entitled  Muiiea  tectia- 
dum  Platonem. 

BASSINTILLE,  lub  Lehnm  de,  coantcss,  a 
French  writ«r,  bom  in  1606.  She  was  educat- 
ed under  the  direction  of  Ume.  Gampan,  and 
has  acquired  renown  by  her  naraerons  school 
books,  novels,  &o.,  including  Arentaret  ffitne 
jpi'n^b  (ISld);  Lei  mimoirei  cTunejetinefilU 
(lS4e);  I)eridui:atu>nd*i/emmu(18ai);  la 
litlon*  (TautrffoU,  louvenin  intiraet  (lBei-'4); 
Let  ouvriires  illuitra  (1663) ;  Let  tecrett  d'une 
jeuneJilU  (1863) ;  and  Le  code  da  cirimonial, 
guids  del  gent  da  tnoade  (1867).  She  founded 
the  Journal  det  jeuite*  Jillei,  edited  the  Moni- 
tear  det  damet  et  det  demoitelUi  and  Le  Di- 
manehe  dee  famillee,  and  has  displayed  mnch 
literary  industry  in  other  directions. 

BISSEU.  L  The  chief  town  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of  Pegu, 
British  India ;  pop.  about  3,GO0,  It  is  utnated 
on  a  channel  formed  by  an  offset  of  the  Irra- 
waddy,  which  is  here  called  Baesein  river,  and 
further  down  the  Negrais.  The  channel  offers 
safe  anchorage  for  the  largest  ships.  The  town 
was  oaptnred  by  the  English  May  19,  1852. 
n.  A  decayed  town  in  the  Foona  division  of 
the  presidency  of  Bombay,  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name  (area,  Ba  sq.  m.),  separated  by  a 
narrow  channel  from  the  mainland  of  N'orth 
Ooncan,  and  affording  a  shelter  for  shipping,  28 
m.  N.  of  Bombay.  It  was  once  a  prosperous 
place,  with  many  churches  and  other  public 
buildings,  ruins  of  which  form  the  chief  attrac- 
tion in  the  now  desolate  city. 

BlS8EU!f,  OUTier,  a  French  poet,  bom  at 
Val-de-Vire,  Normandy,  died  about  1418.  He 
was  a  fuller,  and  became  famous  for  his  drink- 
ing songs,  which  were  first  called  Vaux-de- 
Vire  from  the  place  of  their  origin,  whence  the 
French  word  taudetille.  Jean  le  Hoax  had 
them  printed  about  IGTO,  and  the  most  recent 
edition  is  by  Jnlien  Travers  (AvraQches,  1833). 

US8E»-ALPfS,  a  S,  E.  derartment  of  France, 
formerly  part  of  Upper  Provence,  bounded 
by  Italy  and  the  departments  of  Alpes-Mari- 
times,  Var,  Bonchea- da -Rhine,  Vauoluse, 
DrAme,  and  Uautes-Alpes ;  area,  2,686  sq.  m. ; 

Kp.  in  1872,  189,382.  It  is  watered  by  the 
irance  and  its  tributaries.  In  density  of 
popnlation  it  is  exceeded  by  all  the  other  de- 
partments of  France.  The  greater  part  is 
covered  by  ranges  of  mountains,  between 
which  are  fertile  valleys.  Excellent  pastu- 
rage is  fonnd  upon  the  sides  of  the  mountains. 
Plums  are  prodnced  in  large  quantities  in  tlie 
vicinity  of  Digne,  which  are  dried  and  known 
in  commerce  as  prvitet  de  Brifnolet.  The  de- 
partment is  divided  into  the  arrundisaements 


BASSOMPIEBBE  371 

of  DiffBC,  Sisteron,  Barcelonnotte,  Coatellone, 
and  Forcalquier.    Capital,  Digue. 

BASSES-PVB&N&IS,  a  department  of  France, 
bounded  S.  by  the  Pyrenees  and  W.  by  the  bay 
of  BiFKiay;  area,  2,945  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
478,700.-  It  was  formed  from  Biam,  Navarre, 
and  a  part  of  Gascony.  About  half  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  pastures  and  marshes ; 
forests  occupy  one  sixtii;  the  rest  is  fertile. 
The  mountains  give  birth  to  namerous  tor- 
rents, the  principal  of  *hich  are  the  Adonr, 
Bidouze,  and  Nivc.  Tlie  cbief  mineral  springs 
are  those  of  Eaux-Bonnos  and  Eanx-Chaudes. 
There  is  mnch  industrial  and  commercial  activ- 
ity, and  an  active  trade  is  carried  on  through 
Bayonne.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
menu  of  Pan,  Bayonne,  Orthez,  Oloron,  and 
Maulton.     Capital,  Pan. 

BlSSE-IEBBt  L  The  chief  town  of  the  isl- 
and of  St.  Christopher  in  the  British  'West  In- 
dies, on  the  8.  W.  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
river;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  well  built  and 
protected  by  three  forts.  The  trade  is  con- 
siderable. A  sandy  beach  prevents  the  near 
approach  of  laden  vessels,  and  ships  are  loaded 
and  unloaded  from  a  lighter  called  a  "iloses," 
which  is  thrown  up  in  the  lull  of  the  surf. 
IL  The  chief  town  of  the  French  island  of 
Guadeloupe,  West  Indies,  situated  in  the  W.  di- 
vision of  the  island  and  on  its  8,W.  coast;  pop. 
abont  18,000.  The  former  capital,  Pointe-tk- 
Pitra,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1848, 
po^eesed  a  better  harbor  than  Basse-Tcrre, 
which  however  became  the  principal  seat  of 
commerce,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the 
prodncing  portion  of  the  island. 

BlSSl,  Liara  Maria  Ctfartoa,  nn  Italian  scholar, 
born  in  Bologna,  Oct,  31,  1711,  died  there,  Feb. 
20,  1776.  At  the  age  of  21  she  sustained  suc- 
cessfully in  public  a  philosophical  thesis  in 
Latin  against  seven  professors,  nnd  received 
the  degree  of  doctor,  the  senate  appointing 
her  professor  of  philosophy.  Afterward  she 
taught  for  over  80  years  experimental  physios 
and  languages.  She  was  the  wife  of  Dr.  Giu- 
seppe Verati,  and  had  several  children, 

BlSSOMPIEUtE,  Fruftls,  baron  de,  a  French 
oourtior,  bom  in  Lorraine,  April  12, 1579,  died 
Oct  12, 1840.  Henry  IV.  appointed  him  mem- 
ber of  the  council  and  commandant  of  a  regi- 
ment, and  under  Lonis  XIII.  he  was  made 
marshal  and  envoy  to  Spain,  Switzerland,  and 
Great  Britain.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  La 
Rochelle,  and  served  sgamst  the  Ilnguenots  in 
other  places.  He  became  obnoxious  to  Riche- 
lieu, who  sent  him  to  the  Bastile  (1631),  where 
he  was  detained  11  years  till  the  cardinal's 
death.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  Mimoiret  du 
marechal  de  BaeiomvUrre  depute  1698  j<^u'A 
eon  entried  la  BaitUleen  1631  (Cologne,  10G6). 
Previous  to  his  arrest  be  was  reported  to  have 
consigned  to  the  flames  more  than  6,000  love 
letters.  One  woman,  who  had  borne  him  a  eon, 
spent  eight  years  in  lawsuits  to  compel  him  to 
marry  her;  but  he  wus  already  secretly  mar- 
ried to  the  princess  of  Conti,  Louise  de  Lor- 


bigitizedbyGoOglc 


873 


BASSOON 


raine,  who  died  of  grief  when  she  heard  of  his 
de&th.  He  was  oa  fnscimitiD);  and  accomplished 
as  he  was  reckless  and  unprineipled. 

BASSOOV,  a  musical  wind  instniment  made 
of  wood,  in  the  shape  of  a  long  tube,  which  is 
plojed  by  means  of  a  reed  through  a  bent  brass 
mouthpiece.  It  is  called  by  the  ItaliaiiB /npotfc, 
becAiiBO  composed  of  two  pieces  of  wood  hound 
together  like  a  fagot,  and  serves  as  the  base  to 
the  clariDot  and  oboe,  its  tone  being  closely 
assimilated  to  tliat  of  the  latter.    It  has  a  com- 

Sass  of  three  octaves,  from  double  B  flat  to  B 
at  in  alt,  and  from  its  sweet  and  plaintive 
tone  is  an  agreeable  instrument  in  the  orches- 
tra, where  for  many  years,  however,  it  occu- 
pied a  very  subordinate  position.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Alfranio,  a  canon  of  Pavia,  in  1639, 
and  was  introduced  into  England  by  Handel 
abont  1720. 

BISSOBIB,  or  Bam,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, in  the  eyalet  of  Bagdad,  on  the  riglit  bank 
of  the  Sliat-el-Arab,  about  70  m.  from  its  mouth 
in  tlie  Persian  gulf;  pop.  reduced  by  wars,  pesti- 
lences, and  inundations  ftom  150,000  about  I7IiO 
t«  not  much  over  4,000  in  1872.  It  is  still  an 
important  commercial  and  maritime  station. 
The  soil  of  the  surrounding  country  is  fertile, 
but  few  articles  are  cultivated  except  dates,  of 
which  immense  quantities  are  sent  to  Persia 
and  India.  Horses  are  also  exported.  Copper, 
once  exported,  is  at  present  imDorted,  as  well 
ascoffee,  indigo,  rice,  spices,  ana  timber.  The 
English  Tigris  and  Euphrates  company  have 
had  a  station  here  since  18G2.  Old  Bassorah, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  8  m.  S.W.  of  the  present 
town,  was  celebrated  as  the  chief  emporium  of 
the  oa]ii)hs  of  Bagdad.  One  of  tlio  first  Uo- 
haramedan  learned  schools  was  founded  hero 
in  the  7th  century,  and  the  town  was  called 
Eubhtt-el-I»lam  (the  cupola  of  Islam).  In  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  it  had  already  begun 
to  decline,  the  poet  Edrlsi  relating  tliat  he  found 
its  "7,000"  mosqnes  deserted.  The  present 
town  dates  from  the  17tli  century,  and  was 
desolated  in  the  18th  by  wars  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Persians.  It  was  occupied  from 
1832  to  1840  by  the  Egyptians. 

BIBS  BOCK,  an  island  rock  near  the  mouth  of 
the  frith  of  Forth,  Haddingtonsiiire,  Scotland, 
S  m.  N.  E.  of  N.  Berwick.  It  is  nearly  round, 
about  1  m.  in  circumference  and  400  ft.  high, 
composed  of  green  or  clink  stone,  traversed  by 
a  vast  cavern  from  N.  W.  to  8,  E.,  inaoceamble 
on  ail  sides  e.tcept  on  the  S.W.,  where  it  is  im- 
possible to  land  in  stormy  weather.  The  pre- 
cipices rising  out  of  the  sea  give  shelter  to  great 
numbers  of  solan  geese  and  other  aquatic  birds. 
Charles  II.  purchased  the  rock  for  £4,000  as  a 
prison  for  covenanters.  A  hundfnl  of  partisans 
of  James  H.  hold  it  from  Juno,  1691,  to  April, 
1(194,  against  all  the  forces  sent  by  William  III., 
who  bad  the  fortifications  demolished  in  1701. 
In  1706  the  rock  passed  Into  the  possession  of 
the  Dalrympte  family,  and  they  derive  a  reve- 
nne  by  lettmg  it  to  a  keeper,  who  sells  the 
yonng  geese  and  receives  fees  from  visitors. 


BAST 

BiSS  STRUT,  a  channel  between  Tasmania 
and  New  Sontb  Wales,  about  250  ra.  long  and 
140  wide.  At  the  E.  entrance  stands  Flinders 
island,  and  at  the  W.  King's  island.  It  abounds 
in  small  islands  and  coral  reefs,  which  mate- 
rially obstruct  the  navigation.  Tin  was  found 
in  one  of  the  islands  in  1872. 

BlfiSCTOS,  a  tribe  or  a  political  union  of  sev- 
eral tribes  of  the  Bechuanas,  S.  Africa.  Their 
territory,  which  covers  an  oreaof  abont  12,700 
sq.  m.,  is  bounded  E.  by  Caffraria  and  Katal, 
N.  and  W.  by  the  Orange  Free  Stale,  and  8. 
by  Cape  Colony ;  pop.  estimated  at  about 
100,000.  The  Bassntos  are  indebted  to  a  chief- 
tain named  Moshesh  for  improvements  in  agri- 
culture, the  introdnctSon  of  something  like  civ- 
ilized manners,  and  tlie  organization  of  a  reg- 
ulated administration.  Protcstjmt  misdona- 
ries,  chiefly  those  of  the  French  Moetfli  de*  mil- 
tiont  itangiUqva,  have  been  laboring  among 
them  since  1830,  and  have  numerous  stations. 
After  jirotracted  wars  with  the  Orange  Free 
State,  the  Baasutos  had  on  Marcli  26,  1866,  to 
conclnde  a  peace  by  which  a  portion  of  their 
territory  was  ceded  to  that  republic ;  the  re- 
mainder, with  about  B0,000  inhabitanta,  was 
on  March  12,  18G8,  annexed  to  Natai 

BASSTILLE,  or  BMBcvlDe,  Klnlti  Jmb  B»f»  or 
BuMM  de,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  as- 
sassinated in  Bome,  Jan.  13,  179S.  Previons 
to  being  appointed  in  17S2  as  secretary  of  le- 
gation at  Naples,  he  was  known  as  a  teach- 
er, author,  and  Jonmaiist.  He  was  sent  from 
Naples  to  Rome  for  the  protection  of  French 
commercial  interests,  and  wliile  there  the  con- 
vention sent  to  him  a  M.  Flotte  with  instruc- 
tions to  hoist  the  republican  flag  on  the  con- 
sular building,  and  ordering  the  French  resi- 
dents to  make  similar  demonstrations.  Thi» 
being  resisted  by  the  mub,  a  riot  broke  ont, 
during  which  Bassville  was  killed.  The  con- 
vention took  up  the  case  bs  a  violation  of  in- 
ternational law,  adopted  his  son,  and  forced 
the  Roman  see  to  pay  800,000  francs  to  be  di- 
vided among  the  victims.  The  Italian  poet 
Monti  made  this  event  the  subject  of  a  pow- 
erful poem,  entitled  BatKilliana;  and  other 
writers  have  commemorated  Bassville's  fate, 
though  he  had  much  less  to  do  with  display- 
ing the  republican  emblems  than  the  subori^- 
nate  agent  Flotte. 

BAST,  or  Btsi,  the  inner  bark  {endopMitvm) 
of  dicotylodonoua  plants,  contiguous  to  the 
woody  circle.  It  is  the  fibrous  part  of  the  bark, 
and  consists  of  a  tissue  of  cells,  including  the 
so-called  laticiferons  vessels.  Less  frequently  it 
occurs  in  the  pith  and  leaves  of  dicotyfedonoos, 
and  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  monocotjle- 
donous  vegetables.  It  originates  out  of  the 
eambium  (organizing  tissue),  and  belongs  to  the 
vascular  bundle.  The  bast  cell  grows  long  at 
the  expense  of  the  surrounding  parenchyma, 
without  producing  new  cells.  The  wood  and 
bast  cells  of  monocolyledouons  plants  are  not 
eaaly  distinguishable.  There  are  none  in  the 
cryptogamous.    For  the  plant  itself,  as  well  as 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BASTARD 


373 


for  technical,  tnedicinal,  and  other  pnrposcs, 
the  baet  cell  is  of  the  highest  iraporbmce.  It 
condnct9  sap,  serves  to  exehange  &nd  alter  the 
Tegetable  matters,  produces  Dutritions  or  poi- 
Bonons  or  medicative  matters,  and  is  largely 
Dsed  ia  the  fabrication  of  clotli,  ropes,  mats, 
sacks,  &c.  The  bast  oelis  are  disposed  and  de- 
veloped TarioQsly  in  different  plants;  occnr- 
riug  in  rowa,  wreaths,  more  or  less  spread 
bundles,  or  single  within  the  parenchyma.  In 
(some  plants  baat  is  formed  but  onee,  in  others 
every  year.  Some  are  simple,  others  branched ; 
some  primary,  others  secondary ;  some  ever 
flexible,  others  ohanging  into  wood.  They  are 
most  developed  toward  the  ontside.  While 
yonng  they  contain  a  granulary  liqaid,  which 
disappears  by  the  thiakening  of  their  walls. 
In  tne  cAelidenium  iTtajui  this  liquid  remains 
as  ;rcUo^  milk.  The  laticiferous  cells  of  the 
apecynat,  euphorbiaeea,  and  eompotita  (dan- 
delion, lettuce,  dec.)  are  developed  just  like  the 
fibrons  cells  of  flax.  Yonng  naat  cells,  when 
treated  by  a  solution  of  iodine  and  chloride  of 
zinc,  become  pale  Mae,  tiie  older  onee  violet, 
the  AdI  grown  pink.  Thickened  cells  are  plun- 
ly  stratified,  and  their  walls  often  become  con- 
tiguous by  the  disappearance  of  the  cavity. 
The  waits  exhibit  various  designs,  spiral  or 
Other  lines,  more  or  less  constantly,  according 
to  the  variety  of  the  plants,  and  also  to  the 
treatment  by  alkali  and  acids.  By  each  treat- 
ment, and  by  the  microscope,  the  nature  of 
the  various  fabrics  made  of  bast  may  be  deter- 
mined. Thomson  and  F.  Banr  have  thus  de- 
mmstrated  the  sheets  around  Egyptian  mnm- 
miea  to  be  of  linen.    The  degree  of  decom- 


the  ba«t,  vary  in  different  plants.  They  are 
very  long  in  Hax,  hemp,  in  some  nettles,  spurges, 
tte. ;  very  short  in  cinchona.  Cotton  consists 
of  long  hairs,  and  not  of  bast  cells,  which  it 
very  much  resembles  otherwise.  Tlie  bast  cells 
of  monocotyledonoos  nlants  ttre  mostly  Jignl- 
fled.  The  onlignifiea  are  very  hygroscopic 
(water-attracting),  contain  oiten  cblorophyl 
(the  green  matter  of  plants),  and  more  fre- 
quently a  sort  of  milk,  which  is  condensed  into 
Km  elastic,  gutta  perclia,  opium,  &a.  The 
nified,  on  the  contrary,  conduct  sap  bnt  a 
short  time,  become  filled  with  air,  and  thns 


nses  of  bsMt  are  manifold.  Flax  bast  is  soft, 
flexible,  seldom  with  swellings;  hemp  bast  is 
very  long,  suffer  and  thicker  Uian  flax,  more 
stratified;  nettle  (urtiea  ijtoica)  bast  resembles 
cotton,  has  swellings,  and  is  thicker  than  hemp. 
Branched  and  lignifled  bast  cells  of  great 
l>eanty  are  those  of  the  mangrove  tree  (rkieo- 
phora  mangle),  and  the  secondary  ones  of  aiiet 
ptetinata.  Among  the  mouocotyiedonous  bast 
fibres,  those  of  the  New  Zealand  flax  {phor- 
mtum  Unax)  are  the  most  remarkable,  being 
found  in  bnndles  near  the  margin  of  leaves. 
They  resemble  hemp,  are  very  white,  some- 


times jellowbh,  very  long,  and  contain  much 
lignine,  somewhat  stiff,  but  very  tough,  and  fit 
for  stout  ropes.  In  palms  a  highly  developed 
body  of  lignified  bast  surronnds  their  vascular 
bundle,  while  particular  bast  bundles  are  found 
also  in  the  bark,  leaves,  and  interior  of  the 
stem.  Of  this,  the  husk  of  the  cocoanut  is  an 
example.  A  similar  disposition  exists  in  tli<; 
draearui  rrflexa,  and  in  some  aroidea,  Every- 
body  knows  the  tenacity  of  the  bast  of  the 
linden  tree,  which  is  hence  also  called  bass- 
wood.  The  Chinese  grab's  cloth  is  made  of 
ramie,  Bakmeria  puya.  Manila  hemp  comea 
from  the  mitta  textilii;  rice  bags  are  made  in 
India  from  anliarit  laeeidom.  The  Latin  name 
of  bast,  Wter,  was  nsed  to  signify  book,  from 
the  use  of  bast  in  ancient  times  for  writing  on. 
Oar  word  book  also  means,  originally,  lieecli 
(/agtu),  from  the  same  use  of  its  bast  before 
the  invention  of  other  materials. 

BASTUD  (old  Ft.  baitard,  of  nncertain  deri- 
vation), a  person  born  without  lawful  parentage. 
By  the  English  law  a  child  born  after  the  mar- 
riage of  its  parents,  whatever  may  be  the  time, 
is  legitimate,  unless  non-access  of  the  husband, 
who  is  otherwise  presumed  to  be  the  fiither, 
can  be  proved.  Birth  of  a  child  after  the  death 
of  the  husband,  if  within  a  possible  period 
of  gestation  commencing  from  a  time  ant»< 
rior  to  such  decease,  is  also  held  to  be  legiti- 
mate; and  this  period  has  in  some  instances 
been  allowed  of  on  extravagant  extent,  bnt 
is  now,  in  accordance  with  the  opinion  of 
medical  writers  as  to  the  limit  of  any  acciden- 
tal variation  from  the  accustomed  course,  fixed 
at  10  months.  To  avoid  any  question  which 
might  arise  in  cases  of  second  marriage  by  the 
widow  soon  after  the  death  of  the  husband,  it 
was  a  rule  of  the  civil  law  that  she  sliould  be 
prohibited  tVom  marrying  ii\fra  annum  l-uctta 
(wiUiin  the  year  of  mourning),  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  Roman  calendar,  was  10 
months ;  and  the  same  role  was  adopted  by  the 
Saxons  and  Danes,  except  that  the  year  was  13 
months.  By  the  civil  and  canon  law  the  inter- 
marriage of  the  parents  aiter  the  birth  of  a 
child  rendered  sach  child  legitimate;  and  this 
is  the  law  of  Scotland,  France,  Holland,  and 
Germany.  The  ecclesiastics  unsncoessfutly 
urged  the  parliament  of  Merton  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  to  adopt  this  rule  of  the  canon 
law ;  it  has  never  been  accepted  in  England.  A 
bastard,  by  the  English  common  law,  being  held 
to  be  nullivs  Jiliu*,  cannot  take  real  or  per- 
sonal estate  as  the  heir  of  either  parent,  nor 
has  he  even  the  name  of  the  father  or  mother, 
but  may  assume  it  or  any  other  name,  and  is 
known  in  law  only  by  snch  assumed  or  re- 
pntad  name.  Ho  is,  however,  able  to  take  real 
or  personal  estate  by  will  or  other  conveyance, 
and  to  dispose  of  the  same  in  a  similar  man- 
ner; but  only  his  children  can  inherit,  and  in 
case  he  dies  intestate  without  children,  his 
real  estate  escheats  to  the  crown,  and  his  per- 
sonal estate  is  disposed  of  by  administration 
for  the  benefit  of  the  crown  or  its  grantee. 


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BASTIA 


The  futher  at  common  law  was  not  bonnd  to 
provide  for  a  bastard  child,  bat  bj  the  statutes 
provision  ia  made  tor  compelling  the  father  to 
give  security  for  the  maintaDHiice  of  a  child,  so 
as  to  preveut  its  becoming  a  charge  upon  the 
pariati. — In  the  United  Stat«s  important  modi- 
iications  liave  been  made  in  rcapect  tn  the 
rigiits  of  ille^timate  children.  In  most  of  the 
states  a  bastard  umj  take  b;  inheritance  as 
heir  or  next  of  kin  of  the  mother,  and  the 
mother  may  inherit  from  her  i] legitimate 
child;  bnt,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  common 
law  rule  that  the  intermarriage  of  the  putative 
father  and  mother  does  not  leKitimate  a  child 
born  before  the  marriage  Htiil  obtains.  The 
provisions  of  the  I^nglish  statutes  in  respect  to 
compelling  the  father  to  give  security  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  child  have  been  generally 
adopted  in  this  country,  the  object  being,  in 
general,  only  to  indemnify  tlie  town  or  county 
from  the  charge  of  the  child  as  a  pouper. 

BASTll,  a  »eaport  town  on  the  N.  E.  coast 
of  the  islaud  of  Corsica,  69  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Ajaccio;  pop.  aboat  20,000.  It  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  an  amphitheatre,  on  a  mountain;  has 
narrow  angular  streets,  and  is  defended  by 


ButlL 

modem  forta.  It  has  a  small  but  convenient 
liarbor,  is  the  chief  commercial  cit  -  of  Corsica, 
and  the  seat  of  its  highest  courts.  The  in- 
habitants carry  on  a  tiade  in  skins,  wine,  oil, 
wax,  and  fruits.  Ba.itia  was  founded  in  1380, 
by  the  Genoese,  I^eonel  Loraellino.  In  1746 
the  English  took  it,  but  were  compelled  to  sur- 
render it  in  the  following  year.  In  1T4S  it  suc- 
cessfnlly  defended  itself  against  the  Austrians 
and  the  Piedmontese.  After  tlie  uuion  of  Cor- 
sica with  France,  in  1T68,  the  English  held  it 
for  a  short' time,  and  in  1T04,  under  Admiral 
Hood,  they  took  the  city  after  a  long  siege. 

BISTUV,  idtlpk,  a  German  traveller,  bom  in 
Bremen,  Jane  2fl,  182G.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
merchant,  was  educated  as  a  physician,  and  in 
I!;51  went  to  Australia  as  the  sorgeoQ  of  a  soil- 


BASTIAK 

ing  Teasel.    He  travelled  in  Sontb  America,' 

the  West  Indies,  the  United  States,  China,  In- 
dia, and  South  Africa,  and  afterward  made  a 
journey  through  Buruiah,  Siam,  Java,  the  Phi- 
lippbee,  Japan,  and  China,  returning  to  Europe 
through  Asiatio  Kusaia.  Since  1S6S  he  has 
been  director  of  the  ethnographical  collection 
iu  the  Berlin  museum.  In  ISBB  he  established 
the  ZeiUckr(fl  far  Etknoloffie,  the  organ  of  the 
Berlin  anthropological  and  ethnological  so- 
ciety. Ilisprincipal  worksare:  Die  VSlter  da 
Oettliehen  Alien*  (6  vols.,  I.eipsio  and  Jena, 
1866-'71) ;  AfrikanitekeReiten  (Bremen,  1859); 
Der  Men*ch  in  der  Guchichte  (S  vols.,  Leipsic, 
18ii0);  BeitT&ge  zur  tergleiehenden  pKyehoiogie 
(Berlin,  1868);  SpraehtergleicheT\4e  Stvdim, 
hetondert  avf  dem  Gehiete  der  indochinetitthen 
SpTitchea  (l.eipsic,  1870);  and  Die  EechUrer- 
haltniMe  der  venchiedengn  Vulier  dtr  Erde 
(Berlin,  18T2),  a  learned  contribution  to  com- 
parative ethnology. 

BASTIIN,  H.  ChiittM,  an  English  phymcian 
and  physiologist,  horn  at  Truro,  April  26,  1837. 
After  a  brilliant  course  of  study  he  was  admit- 
ted member  of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons  in 
1860,  in  1860-'63  was  assistant  curator  in  the 
anatomical  and  patho- 
logical museum  of  Uni- 
lersity    college,    Lon- 
don, and  in  lS)t4^'6  as- 
sistant medical  officer 
to  the  Broadmoor  crim- 
inal   lunatic    asylum, 
in  1666  he  became  as- 
sistant physician    and 
lecturer  in  St.   Mary's 
hospital;  in  186T,  pro- 
fessor  of   patliological 
anatomy  in  University 
college,  and    assistant 
phvsician  to  the  hos- 
pital;   in   1868,   assis- 
tant physician  to  the 
hospital  for  the  para- 
lyzed   and    epileptic ; 
and  in  1871  pbyeician 
to    University    college 
hospital.    1b  1871   he 
published  "The  Modes 
of  Origin  of  Lowest  Organisms,"  and  in  1872, 
"The   Beginnings  of  Life"  (2   vols.).      He 
has   also   contributed    many  valuable   papers 
to  various  medical  and  philosophical  journals. 
Dr.  Bastian,  the  youngest  member  of  the  royal 
society,  has  gained  an  excellent  reputation  as 
a  general  pathologist,  end  is  an  authority  on 
the  pathology  of  the  nervous  system.     The 
study  of  the  microscopical  character  of  the 
blood  in  acute  diseases  led  him  to  question  ac- 
cepted views  in  regard  to  the  lowest  forms  of 
life  and  their  mode  of  origin,  and  he  has  prose- 
cuted tlie  investigation  of  this  subject  with 
such  Eoal  and  originality  that  he  is  now  re- 
garded as  at  the  head  of  the  school  of  hetero- 
genists  or  believers  in  the  doctrine  of  sponta- 
neous generation. 


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BASTIAT 


BISIUT,  rriHrlt,  s  French  economist,  bom 
in  Bfiyunnc,  June  29,  1801,  diad  in  Rome,  Dec. 
24,  1850l  He  waa  educated  for  commercifll 
pnrsnite,  but  the  bent  of  bis  mind  was  toward 

Klitical  ecoDom? ;  and  a  larg^o  inheritance 
t  bim  in  1825  enabled  him  to  derote  liimself 
to  that  studv.  In  1940  be  travelled  through 
Portngal  aud'  Spain  -  in  1944  he  made  hia  first 
appearance  as  a  writer  in  an  article  attacking 
tlie  protective  sjste in,  published  in  tbaJourTial 
da  ieoaomitta ;  In  184i3  he  visited  England, 
and  made  tlie  acquaintance  of  the  Manchester 
school,  one  Iruit  o(  which  was  a  work  entitled 
Cobden  et  la  liffut,  ou  Vagitation  anglaiie  pour 
ll  liberU  del  iehanga  (1  vol.  9vo,  Paris,  1946); 
in  1946  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  establish' 
uient  at  Bordeaux  and  at  Paris  of  a  free-trade 
association,  becoming  its  Parisian  secretary, 
and  the  chief  editor  of  the  journal  Le  libre 
iikange.  At  tliii  time  he  also  came  forward 
as  one  of  the  opponents  of  the  socialists  of  hia 
country,  whose  idea  of  the  omnipotence  of  the 
state  he  combated.  In  1819  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  constitaent  and  then  of  the 

X'  ktire  assembly,  but  his  health  did  not 
r  him  to  appear  at  the  tribane.  He  gained 
a  great  reputiition  by  hia  controversies  with 
Proadhon.  His  labors  exhausted  him,  and  his 
phjucians  ordered  bini  to  Italy  in  September, 
]8o0.  Among  his  most  striking  works  are  the 
pamphlet  Capital  et  rente,  gratuiU  dn  credit 
(Porio,  1849),  and  Harmoniet  ieonomi^ua,  left 
incomplete  at  bis  death.  The  last  is  an  at- 
tempt lo  demonstrate  that  the  laws  of  eooD- 
omy  all  tend  concurrently  and  harmnnionsly 
to  the  amelioration  of  hnmon  life.  This  work 
was  the  occasion  of  a  prolonged  controversy 
in  the  Paris  Journal  da  iconomietee  between 
M.  Bastiat  and  hU  friends  and  Mr.  Henry  G. 
Carey  of  Philadelphia,  who  contended  that  the 
principle  of  economical  harmony  was  a  dis- 
covery of  his  own.  An  American  translation 
of  U.  Bastiat's  "  Esuys  on  Political  Economy  " 
was  published  in  Chicago  in  1869. 

BISTIDE,  Jiln,  a  French  publicist  and  poli- 
liHan,  bom  in  Paris,  Nov.  23,  1800.  The  son 
of  a  man  of  business,  he  became  a  timber  mer- 
chant after  having  studied  law,  and  participated 
in  many  revolutionary  attempts  against  Charles 
X.  lie  was  one  of  the  first  French  carbonari, 
and  on  the  ontbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1930 
he  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  hoist  the 
tricolor  flag  on  the  Tuileries.  In  1S32  he  was 
SJTcsled  at  Grenoble  as  an  abettor  of  republi- 
can movements,  and  after  his  release  he  was 
the  leader  of  the  riot  which  broke  out  (June 
'ij  during  the  funeral  of  Gen,  Lamnrgue.  He 
was  sentenced  to  deatli,  but  fled  to  England, 
and  OB  his  surrendering  to  the  French  authori- 
ties in  1834  he  was  acquitted.  After  the  death 
.>f  Armaod  Carrel  he  and  his  commercial  part- 
ner Charles  Thomas  became  joint  editors  of  the 
yntional  newspaper,  ttota  1830  to  1846.  In 
1847  he  and  Buchez  founded  the  Bnve  natto- 
tmle,  and  continued  to  advocate  moderate  re- 
[>ublicaa  institutions  as  compatible  with  the 


BA8TILE 


375 


Roman  Catholic  faith.  In  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  1948  he  was  secretary  general,  and 
under  Lamartine's  esecutlve  commission  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs,  and  for  a  short  time  of  the 
navy,  being  also  a  member  of  the  constituent 
assembly.  He  remained  in  the  cabinet  under 
Cavuignac,  and  left  it  Dec.  20.  He  assi-ited 
in  preparing  the  second  edition  of  tlie  i/iV 
toirs  parlementaire  de  la  rerolution  frait(iiLte, 
by  Buchei  (5  vol.<.,  1845-'7),  and  published  the 
first  volume  of  IlUtotre  de  I'anembUe  legitla- 
tiee  (1847),  but  did  not  continue  this  publica- 
tion, which  was  to  have  comprised  20  volumes. 
His  more  recent  works  incliide  La  ripubUque 
franfaiie  et  ntalie  en  1948  (Brussels,  1869), 
and  Guerra  de  religion  en  France  (2  vols., 
Paris,  186!)). 

BIOTILE  ( Fr.  la  SattilU),  the  state  prison  and 
citadel  of  Paris,  begun  in  1369  by  Charles  V., 
enlarged  in  succeeding  reigns,  and  destroyed  by 
the  people  in  1789.    Situated  at  the  gate  8t 


Antoine,  it  had  when  completed  eiglit  huge 
round  towers,  connected  by  curtains  of  massive 
masonry,  and  was  encircled  by  a  wide  ditch 
23  ft.  deep,  which  was  nsuatly  dry.  This  ditch 
was  Burronnded  by  a  high  wall,  to  which  was 
attached  a  wooden  gallery  called  "  the  rounds," 
accessible  by  two  staircases,  and  guarded  by 
sentinels.  The  administration  of  the  Bostile 
in  the  iSth  century  was  vested  in  a  governor, 
a  royal  intendant,  a  mt^ior,  a  major's  nid,  a  sur- 
geon, and  a  matron.  The  garrison  was  com- 
posed of  100  men,  commnnde<l  by  two  captains, 
a  lieutenant,  and  sergeants.  The  cells  were  sit- 
uated in  all  the  towers,  the  walls  of  which  were 
at  least  12  fL  thick,  and  at  the  base  30  or  40. 
Eacli  cell  had  an  aperture  in  the  wall,  defended 
by  three  iron  gratings,  the  bars  of  which  were 
an  inch  thick  and  so  arranged  that  altliough 
the  openini^  in  each  grating  were  really  of  4 
inches,  only  S  inches  were  left  nn obstructed. 
The  dungeons  were  19  ft.  below  the  level  of 
the  courtyard,  and  5  below  that  of  the  ditch, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


876 


BA8TILE 


with  no  opening  bat  a.  narrow  loopliole  cotn- 
tntinicating  with  tbe  (liu^h.  The  Bestile  conld 
contain  '50  stat«  prisoners  in  Botitaiy  cells. 
When  a  greater  nomher  were  placed  within 
its  Walts,  they  were  confined  in  oelU  opening 
on  the  ditches  which  carried  off  the  ordure 
and  sewerage  of  the  prison,  amid  odors  insuf- 
ferable/ They  were  iniBerablj  fed,  but  tliis 
was  owing  rather  to  tho  abuses  of  the  governor 
than  to  the  government,  which  paid  enomions 
sums  for  the  maintenance  of  the  state  prisoners. 
Benneville  asserts  thst  in  his  time  Bernaville, 
who  was  then  governor,  had  a  great  number 
of  prisoners  at  all  prices,  up  to  26  francs  a 
head  per  dUm,  and  that  their  daily  subsistence 
did  not  ooat  him  on  an  average  20  sous.  There 
was  a  regular  tariff  of  expenses  for  the  table, 
lights,  and  washing  of  all  prisoners,  according 
to  their  rank.  Thus  a  prince  of  the  bloou 
was  allowed  GO  francs  a  day ;  a  considerable 
burgher,  or  an  advocate,  8  francs;  and  the 
members  of  all  the  inferior  classes,  2  francs 
and  10  sons,  the  same  being  the  rat«  allowed 
for  the  guards,  wardens,  and  servants  of  the 
prison.  The  inhuman  treatment  to  which  pris- 
oners in  the  Bastile  were  subjected  has  few  par- 
allels in  the  history  of  penal  craelty.  Put  there 
without  accusation  or  trial,  on  a  simple  lettre  de 
eaehet,  allowed  no  oommonication.with  friends, 
their  final  fate  was  dependent  npon  the  caprice 
of  despotism  and  nnknown  to  the  worid.^Up 
to  the  dat«  of  the  accession  of  Charles  VII.  the 
Bastile  continued  to  he  merely  a  royal  fortress, 
when  it  became  a  state  prison,  nnder  the  gov- 
ernment of  Thomas  Beaumont,  who  was  in 
command  when  in  1418  the  populace  broke 
into  its  precincts  and  massacred  the  princes  of 
the  house  of  Armngnac.  Within  the  walls  of 
this  prison  died  Charles  de  Oontaut,  sieur  de 
Biron,  marshal  of  France,  for  treason  against 
Henry  IV.  Here  also  were  imprisoned  Bas- 
sompierre,  Marshal  Richelieo,  Voltaire,  Latnde, 
who  in  vain  made  an  citraordinary  escape,  and 
that  victim  of  Louis  XIV.  known  aa  the  Man 
in  the  Iron  Mask,  whose  identity  has  never 
been  absolutely  established,  (See  Irou'  Mask.) 
Aft«r  the  death  of  Lonis  XIV.  the  Bastile  de- 
eenerat«d  from  being  a  place  of  Incarceration 
for  suspected  princes,  pretenders  to  the  throne, 
and  subjects  too  powerfbl  for  the  state,  into  a 
common  jail.  The  imprisonment  of  Blaizot, 
the  king's  librarian,  by  the  minister  De  Bre- 
t«nil,  nominally  at  Uie  king's  order,  broncht  to 
light  the  whole  system  of  iniquity.  BInixot 
was  delivered,  hut  De  Bretenil  was  not  pnn- 
ished.  On  July  14, 1789,  after  a  brief  defence 
by  Delaunay,  then  povemor,  and  the  frnard 
consisting  of  82  invalids  and  32  Swiss,  the  Bas- 
tile was  onpture<l  by  the  people,  ransacked,  and 
on  the  followine  diiy  its  towers  were  rnzed  and 
its  dungeons  filled  with  the  copings  of  its  battle- 
ments. Seven  persons  were  found  in  its  cells 
and  dungeons :  one,  the  count  de  Solace,  a  pris- 
oner since  his  llth  year;  another,  Tavernier, 
who,  after  10  years  at  the  Marguerite  islands, 
had  passed  80  years  in  the  Bastile,  and  who 


BAT 

reappeared  on  his  liberation  bewildered,  with 
a  broken  intellect,  like  a  man  awaked-  tVom  a 
sleep.  Records  of  horrors  even  worse  than  this 
were  found  inscribed  on  the  registers  of  the 

Srison.  On  its  site  now  stands  the  column  of 
uly,  which  was  erected  in  memory  of  tiie  pa- 
triots of  1T3&  and  1630. 
lAsnoifi  Bee  Fobtificattoh. 
XlSnOP,  a  8.  central  county  of  Teias,  in- 
tersected by  the  Colorado  river;  area,  1,001 
aq.  m. ;  nop.  in  18T0,  12,290,  of  whom  6,333 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  numerous 
sraaU  affluents  of  the  Colorado,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  steBmboats  dnring  six  months  in  the 
year.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile  and  the  sur- 
face moderately  uneven.  Lumber  is  abnndsnt, 
and  lignite  is  found.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  868,874  bushels  of  com,  8,728 
hales  of  cotton,  and  fl,fi90  lbs.  of  wool.  There 
were  6,781  horses,  1,889  mules,  and  102,040 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  Capital,  Bastrop. 
B18irr08>  See  supplement. 
BAT}  a  memmiferous  quadruped,  whose  dif- 
ferent genera  constitute  the  order  eheiroptera. 
Its  general  form  is  disposed  for  Sight ;  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  skin  is  stretched  between  the 


Coounon  B4t  (VnpertUIo  commnDb). 

four  limbs  and  the  greatly  elongated  fingers  of 
the  anterior  eitremities ;  this  flying  membrane 
is  naked,  or  nearly  so,  on  both  sides ;  the 
breast  has  mammte ;  the  clavicles  are  very 
strong ;  the  forearm  is  Jncspahle  of  rotation  in 
consequence  of  the  union  of  the  bone?.  The 
bats  conwst  of  two  very  distinct  groupa,  charac- 
terized mainly  by  tbe  structure  of  the  teeth. 
The  first,  containing  the  genera  pleropvi  and 
eephalotes.  is  frugivorouR,  has  the  molar  teeth 
with  fiattish  crowns,  obliquely  tnmciitcd  and 
longitudinally  grooved.  8  joints  in  the  fingers, 
generally  provided  with  o  nail  on  the  second 
finger,  and  the  tail  wonting  or  mdimenlary. 
The  second  group,  containing  the  genera  u»- 
ptrtilio,  phyllottoma,^  ttyelerit,  tc,  has  the 
molars  with  sharp  points  like  the  true  insecti- 
vora,  showing  at  once  the  different  nature  of 
their  food.  The  skeleton  of  the  bats  combines 
ft  great  degree  of  lightness  with  peculiarities 
in  the  anterior  eitremities  suitable  for  pur- 
poses of  flight.  The  head  is  the  longest  in  tho 
frugivorous  group ;  In  all,  the  portion  of  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


temporal  bone  coTitaising  tlie  organ  of  hearmg  | 
19  much  developed ;  the;  all  Lave  caaine  and 
incisor  teeth,  the  latter  varying  in  number 
from  2  to  4  in  the  npper,  and  from  2  to  0  in  the  i 
lower  jaw  ;  the  raolars  also  vary  from  8  to  6  in 
each  jaw.  The  vertebrea  of  tbe  neck  are  very 
broad ;  those  of  tbe  bock  and  loins  are  simple 
and  almost  without  spinooa  processes,  and 
much  compressed  at  the  ^de ;  tlie  socrnm  is  | 
very  long  and  narrow  ;  the  tail,  when  ))resent,  I 
is  snort,  and  of  nse  to  support  the  interfemoral  ' 
membrane  and  direct  the  fliglit.  The  number  ■ 
of  vertebras  in  pUropia  is  probably  less  than  in 
any  other  mammai,  being  only  24,  The  ribs  , 
are  remarkably  long,  as  is  the  breast  bone ;  the  ' 
npper  part  of  tbe  latter  is  preatlj  oipandod 
laterally,  to  ^ve  a  firm  support  to  the  very 
strong  collar  bones;  the  front  of  the  bone  has 
also  a  (rrest,  like  the  keel  of  the  bird's  stemam, 
and  for  a  similar  purpose,  viz.,  the  origin  of  the 
powertul  muscles  of  nigtiL  As  the  collar  bone, 
eo  the  shoulder  blade  is  highly  developed,  os- 
pecialij  in  tbe  active  insectivorous  bats ;  the 
arm  bone  is  very  long  and  slender ;  the  forearm 
consists  of  the  usual  two  bones,  but  the  ulna 
is  quite  rudimentary,  and  is  nnited  to  the  radi- 
us ;  the  latter  is  very  long  and  robust,  and  can- 
not be  rotated,  an  admirable  provision  for  an 
animal  whose  progres<iion  requires  a  constant 
re«stance  to  the  air.  But  the  most  remarkable 
modiflcation  of  tbe  anterior  extremity  ia  in  the 
huid ;  the  bones  of  all  tbe  fingers,  except  the 
thumb,  are  extremely  elongated,  for  the  at- 
tachment of  the  flying  membrane ;  tbe  thumb 
is  comparatively  short,  and  provided  with  a 
hooked  nail,  by  which  the  animal  con  climb  or 
suspend  itself.  The  thigh  bone  is  of  moderate 
size,  and  so  turned  that  the  front  surface  is 
directed  nearly  backward  ;  the  fiV^'a  is  quite 
small  and  slender,  and  has  the  remarkable  con- 
dition of  deficiency  in  its  upper  portion,  the 
usual  state  of  tilings  being  the  reverse.  The 
foot  is  not  developed  like  the  hand,  the  only 
peculiarity  being  a  long-pointed  bony  process 
ariung  from  tbe  heel,  and  eDclosed  in  the  mem- 
braue  between  the  legs  ;  the  toes  are  5  in  num- 
ber, nearly  eqaal,  and  furnished  with  hooked 
nails,  by  which  tJiey  suspend  themselves  when 
at  rest,  with  the  head  downward.  The  seem- 
ing deformity  and  ugliness  of  tbe  bats  led  the 
ancienta  to  consider  them  as  impure  animals ; 
even  ancient  naturaliste  display  the  grossest 
ignorance  concerning  them.  Aristotle,  Pliny, 
and  others,  considered  them  as  birds;  tliese 
opinions  were  copied  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  are  even  now  entertained  by  many  per- 
sons. The  faculty  of  flight  depends  on  an 
entirely  diSerent  organization  in  the  bird  and 
in  the  bat.  The  principal  part  of  the  bat's 
flying  membrane  is  stretched  between  tbe 
enonnonsly  elongated  fingers,  and  from  them 
reflected  to  the  posterior  extremities ;  but  in 
the  bird,  the  parts  which  correspond  to  fingers 
are  eo  mdimentary  that  the  hand  can  btu^ly 
be  said  to  exist;  the  wings  extend  beyond  it, 
bearing  the  quills,  tlie  principal  part,  which 


T  37T 

belong  to  the  epidermic  system  ;  the  wings  in 
the  two  cases  are  in  no  respects  homologous. 
The  bat,  so  active  in  the  air,  is  very  awkward 
on  the  ground.  When  the  animal  attempts 
to  walk,  the  wings  are  shut  and  become  fore 
feet ;  the  hook  of  one  thumb  ia  fixed  to  some 
object,  and  by  it  the  body  is  pulled  forward 
and  te  one  side,  the  next  step  being  by  a  simi- 
lar movement  by  means  of  the  hook  of  the 
other  thumb.  By  this  diagonal  tumbling,  tbe 
bats  progress  on  a  level  surface  ;  the  length  of 
the  wings  prevents  them  from  rising  from  such 
a  sitnatlon,  and  it  is  only  when  they  gain  some 
trifling  elevation  that  they  can  commence  their 
flight.  In  the  air  they  are  perfectly  free,  and 
when  desirous  of  rest  they  seek  some  dark  re- 
treat, from  the  top  of  which  they  can  hong,  head 
downward,  suspended  by  their  hind  clawe;  in 
case  of  danger,  they  have  only  to  loose  their 
hold,  when  their  wings  are  at  once  spread. 
The  diminutive  size  of  the  eyes  is  well  known, 
and  familiarly  expressed  in  the  very  common 
saying,  "  as  blind  as  a  bat."  The  insectivorous 
group,  whoso  ears  are  largely  developed,  have 
very  small  eyes,  placed  almost  within  tbe  auri- 
cle and  concealed  by  the  hair ;  but  in  the 
fruit-eating  genera  tlie  eye  is  of  the  nsnol 
size,  as  is  also  the  ear.  The  diminutive  eye 
is  compensated  for  by  the  great  development 
of  the  oraon  of  hearing ;  the  external  ear  is 
enormoUMy  large,  in  the  pleiotm  auritia  nearly 


lemg-eoni  Bat  (TlBlotui  Burttni). 

OS  long  as  the  body  ;  there  is  a  proportionate 
increase  in  the  extent  of  the  internal  ear.  The 
organ  of  smell  in  many  insectivorous  bats,  as 
the  rMnolcphidtt,  is  exceedingly  acute;  it  is 
provided  with  folds  of  the  integument,  of 
great  size  and  the  most  grotesque  forms,  ren- 
dering their  physiognomy  like  that  which 
would  be  produced  by  a  nose  turned  inside 
out  and  complicated  by  a  hare-lip.  These 
appendages  are  found  in  tlie  groups  whose 
habits  lead  them  into  the  darkest  caverns, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


878  B 

where  there  is  not  even  a  ray  of  light,  and 

are  intended,  bj  increosiug  tbe  delicac;  of 
the  eeDse  of  smell,  to  act  ae  substitatea  for  eyes 
in  situatioSB  where  vision  is  iin]>ossil>1e.  Bats 
}iave  eucU  an  extraordinary  exaltation  of  tbe 
senae  of  touch,  that  Spollanzani  was  led  into 
the  belief  that  they  had  a  sixth  sense;  his 
oxperitDents  showed  that  they  could  fly  with 
perfect  accuracy  in  the  dark,  avoiding  every 
obstacle,  even  aher  the  eyes  were  put  out  and 
tbe  ears  and  nose  completely  stopped  up.  But 
Cuvter  discovered  that  this  exquisite  sense  of 
touch  residca  in  tbe  flying  niouibrnne.  Tim 
membrane  arises  from  tbe  skin  of  the  flanks, 
and  consists  of  an  abdoraiDat  and  a  dorsal 
leaflet,  united  into  an  exceedingly  thin  and 
delicate  network ;  it  includes  not  only  tbe 
arras  and  hands,  but  the  hinder  extremities, 
being  prolonged  more  or  less,  according  to  tbe 
genera,  between  tbe  legs,  and  spread  tbe  length 
of  the  tail,  formisg  a  sensitive  surface  entirely 
disproportionate  to  tbe  size  of  the  body ;  to 
increase  its  sensitiveness,  it  is  entirely  or  nearly 
destitute  of  hair.  Tbe  bat,  therefore,  is  made 
acquainted  with  the  distance  of  bodies  by  the 
difl'erent  modifications  impressed  upon  this 
membrane  hj  tbe  impulse  of  the  air.  The 
only  peculiarity  in  the  nervous  system  is  the 
large  size  of  the  spinal  cord  in  the  loiver  cer- 
vical and  diirsal  region,  from  which  arise  the 
nerves  of  sensation  distributed  to  the  wings. 
Id  the  nycterit,  an  African  genus,  tlie  skin 
adheres  to  the  body  only  at  certain  poiota,  and 
by  a  loose  cellular  raembraoe,  and  is  capable 
of  being  inflated  with  air  by  a  communication 
with  the  large  cheek  pouches ;  this  inflation 
may  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  tbe  ani- 
mal resembles  a  balloon  with  head,  wings,  and 
feet.  Tlie  month  of  the  bat  is  unconimoDly 
large,  affording  great  f^ilities  for  the  capture 


cuiar  row  of  wart-like  elevations,  forming  a 

complete  suctorial  disk ;  by  means  of  tbia  these 
animals  are  enabled  to  suck  the  juice  of  fruits 
and  tbe  blood  of  animals.  By  mistake  this 
faculty  has  been  attributed  to  some  of  the  large 
species  of  l\\^  pttropva  of  Asia,  and  hence  have 
arisen  the  fearful  stories  of  the  fabulous  vam- 
pire, which  destroyed  people  at  night  by  suck- 
ing their  blood,  fannirg  tiieir  victims  into  un- 
consciousness by  the  flapping  of  tbeir  wings. 
The  vampire  bat  is  a  large  South  American 
species,  of  the  genus  tampirut,  whose  natu- 
ral food  is  insects,  but  which,  if  pressed  by 
hunger,  will  suck  the  blood  of  poultry,  cattle, 
and  even  of  man ;  the  blood  is  obtained  en- 
tirely by  suction  from  the  capillary  vessels, 
and  not  through  any  wounds  made  by  the 
teeth  ;  the  storiM  told  by  travellers  are  much 
exaggerated,  as  the  animal  is  harmlesa  and  not 
at  all  feared  by  the  natives.  The  insectivorons 
bats  have  the  simple  stomach  and  short  intes- 
tines of  tbe  cornivora ;  while  the  frugivoroos 


Vuspin  But  (Vusplnia  (peotmn). 

of  insects  on  the  wing.  In  the  genus  tampi- 
ru»  or  p/njlloitama,  peculiar  to  America,  the 
tongue  is  provided  at  its  eitremity  with  a  cir- 


Flflng  Foi  or  BouuoUa  (Ptovpaa   rabricoUla). 

Species  have  a  complicated  stomach  and  a  long 
alimentary  canal. — Bate  are  natives  of  all  the 
temperate  and  tropical  regions  of  the  globe ; 
those  of  North  America  belong  chiefly  to  the 
Tripertilionida.  The  large  East  India  species, 
the  roussettee,  of  the  genus  pleropiu,  are  exten- 
sively used  as  food.  The  fnr  of  bats  is  generally 
exceedingly  flue  and  soft.  Bats  fly  to  a  consider- 
able height  and  with  great  rapidity  ;  Ibey  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  avoiding  the  light  and 
niiise  of  day ;  in  tbe  wann  summer  evenings 
they  sally  forth  in  search  of  prey,  and  them- 
selves fail  easy  victims  to  the  owla  and  birds 
of  night  and  to  any  snare  that  may  bo  set  for 
them ;  tbcy  pass  tbe  winter,  and  indeed  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  in  a  state  of  torpid- 
ity. Tlie  cktiropttra  are  intermediate  between 
tbe  quadrumana  and  the  true  insectivora.  The 
galeopithecm,  or  rat-monkey,  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  presents  many  characters  of  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BATAK 

tietrtrptera,  though  beloD^g  to  the  qaadm- 
mana;  the  frugivorous  genera  approach  the 
quadraiRaua  in  their  teeth,  while  the  insect- 
eaters  resemble  the  true  insectivora  in  their 
dentition  ;  we  flod  the  monkey  characters  alao 
in  the  free  moTements  of  the  thamb,  the  deep 
dirisious  of  the  fingers,  the  pectoral  utaation 
of  the  hrea.it9,  the  check  pouches  of  manj,  and 
in  the  orgBD.a  of  generation  and  digestion.  The 
batA  differ  from  the  quadrumana  especially  in 
the  great  development  of  the  brea«t  bone  and 
in  tlie  impossibility  of  rotating  the  forearm.— 
North  America  has  the  following  bats :  Vaper- 
tilio  Noteborneensii,  V.  pruirumu,  V.  lubalaltu, 
V.  noetivagaTu,  V.  CarolineTuii,  V.  monticola, 
V,  Virginianua  ;  molcttiu  tynoeephalui,  M.fu- 
li^'matui ;  pleeotiu  Leeontii,  P.  Toaiuendi. 

liTlK,  a  remarkable  race  of  the  island  of 
Somatro.  They  inhabit  that  portion  called 
Batta.  or  Battaa,  botmded  N.  by  Acheen  and 
S.  by  the  ancient  Ualay  territory  of  Menan- 
kabow,  while  on  the  east  and  west  they  are 
hemmed  in  by  Malay  colonies,  which  confine 
them  to  the  moantiunons  region  and  plateaus 
in  which  the  riverB  Ledang,  Bilo,  Summon, 
and  Batang  Gadis  have  their  sources;  area, 
20,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  abont  350,000.  They  have 
B  written  character,  entirely  original,  forming 
an  alphabet  of  22  sabstantive  leCters  and  6 
vowel  marks.  They  write  from  left  to  right, 
for  ordinary  pnrposes,  npon  poliabed  Joints  of 
bamboo.  Their  books  are  composed  of  the 
inner  bark  of  a  species  of  palm  cot  into  long 
dipe  and  folded  in  sqnares,  leaving  part  of  the 
wood  at  each  extremity  to  serve  for  the  enter 
covering.  Their  literary  works  are  chiedy 
rode  treatises  on  the  medical  properties  of 
plants,  chronicles,  stories  of  necromantia  feats, 
and  works  on  divination,  which  latter  they 
consult  on  all  imbortant  occasions.  They  are 
oannibala,  eating  tne  flesh  of  crimmals,  prison- 
ers of  war,  ana  snch  others  as  may  for  any 
canse  brins  upon  themselves  the  anger  of  the 
people.  The  victim  is  attached  to  a  stake,  and 
pierced  with  kreescs  and  lances  until  death 
ensues,  when  he  is  violently  mangled  and  eat- 
en. This  degradation  of  the  dead  bodies  of 
their  enemies  is  their  highest  ideal  of  revenge 
or  retributive  justioe,  as  is  shown  by  the  ex- 
treme respect  they  pay  to  the  remains  of  those 
whom  they  esteem.  Their  hnbita  are  of  the 
most  disgusting  character.  Their  sii^le  gar- 
ment (farang)  is  never  washed,  hot  to  worn 
nntil  it  actni^ly  falls  to  pieces;  their  cooking 
and  hoa^hold  utensils  are  simple,  and  are 
never  cleansed.  They  seem,  indeed,  to  have 
literally  no  idea  of  the  meaning  of  cleanliness. 
Tbe  entrails  of  animals  are  considered  by  them 
the  greatest  delicacy;  but  they  are  also  fond 
of  almost  every  kind  of  meat,  and  even  eat 
beeties  and  other  insects.  They  live  in  houses 
of  considerable  size,  each  containing  one  room, 
in  which,  however,  several  families  often  re- 
aide  together.  The  buildings  have  no  win- 
dows, and  only  a  few  holes  near  the  roof  to 
permit  tbe  poasage  of  smoke  from  tbe  fires 


BATAVI  379 

constantly  bnming  on  the  floor.  The  houses 
are  raised  from  the  ground  by  posts ;  they  are 
painted  and  carved,  sometimes  with  no  small 
skill,  and  are  covered  by  thatched  roofs.  The 
entrance  is  a  small  opening  closed  by  a  kind 
of  portcnllis,  and  is  reached  by  a  ladder.  Un- 
der the  house,  between  the  roivs  of  posts,  is  the 
shelter  for  tiieir  cattle  and  poultry.  The  reli- 
gion of  the  Bataks  is  simple.  They  are  pagans 
and  idolaters,  olthongh  for  centuries  surrounded 
by  a  Mohammedan  population.  Their  deities 
have  Sanskrit  namesr  Batara-Guru,  the  sa- 
prerae  good  spirit;  Siiraya-Ouru,  his  vice- 
gerent; and  Naga-Padoha,  the  spirit  of  evil. 
In  taking  a  solemn  oath,  they  cut  the  tiiroat 
of  a  chicken  after  the  manner  of  the  Chinese. 
They  understand  the  smelting  and  forging  of 
iron,  the  raising  of  rice  hy  irrigation,  the  cnl- 
tnre,  weaving,  and  dyeing  of  cotton,  and  have 
domesticated  the  ox,  horse,  bnffaJo,  and  hog. 
One  portion  of  their  territory,  Padang  Lnwas 
(wide  plain),  is  a  bleak,  treeless  steppe,  over 
which  a  deuccating,  scorching  wind  blows  from 
the  west  for  months  together.  On  the  other 
hand  are  the  beantiful  and  fruitful  valleys  of 
Mandeling,  protected  N.  and  S,  by  the  lofty 

Kaka  of  Barapi  and  Mali,  and  bordering  the 
nks  of  the  Batang  Gadis  (vir^  river}, 
which  runs  between  the  central  mountains  of 
Sumatra.  These  high  ranges  are  covered  to 
their  summits  with  stately  woods,  which  afford 
abundance  of  good  timber.  The  Bataks  are 
divided  into  three  independent  states,  aad  not 
fewer  than  40  petty  raiahships  are  ennmerated. 
The  Dntch  have  obtained  access  to  a  portion 
of  their  country  on  the  western  side,  which  is 
comprised  in  what  is  called  the  Tapanooly  resi- 
dency, and  the  country  of  Menankabow  is  also 
included  in  theirpossessions.  IdaPfeifferissaid 
to  have  of  all  European  travellers  penetrated 
the  furthest  into  the  territory  of  the  Batak, 

UTINXI.    8ee  Bashah. 

BlTiSGlS.  I.  A  province  in  the  B.  W.  part 
of  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands;  pop. 
247,000,  The  greater  part  of  its  snrface  is 
level  and  very  fertile,  producing  coffee,  cotton, 
cacao,  indigo,  mdze,  nutmegs,  pepper,  &c    A 

fortion  of  the  province  is  mountainous.  Lake 
oal  in  its  central  part  contains  an  island,  in 
which  is  tbe  crater  of  a  volcano  still  active. 
In  the  midst  of  the  crater  is  a  small  lake, 
whose  waters  cont»n  large  quantities  of  sul- 
phnric  acid.  There  are  few  manufactures. 
battle  are  raised  here  and  sent  to  the  market 
of  Manila.  II.  A  town,  the  capital  of  the 
preceding  province,  situated  on  a  bay  opening 
into  the  strait  of  Mindoro;  pop.  about  20,000. 
It  was  founded  in  1581,  contains  a  number  of 
handsome  buildings,  and  bos  a  good  trade  with 
Manila. 
B1T1T18.  See  Potato,  and  Yam. 
BlTin,  a  tribe  of  the  ancient  Ohatti,  a  Ger- 
man nation.  At  an  unknown  period  they  emi- 
grated from  the  country  of  the  Chatti,  north 
of  Bavaria,  and  settled  on  an  island,  afterward 
called  Insula  Batavorom,  formed  by  the  Rliinc^ 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


380  BAT 

the  Waal  (Vahalis),  tlie  'Hasa  (Mosa),  and  tbe 
ocean.  The  Canioefetea,  another  tribe  of  the 
Chatti,  occupied  a  portioD  of  tbe  same  inland 
in  Cffisar'd  time.  Tho  Batavi,  who  wei-e  good 
borsetnen,  were  emplojod  as  cavair;  bj  tlio 
Romans  in  their  campniena  on  the  lower 
Rhine  and  in  Britain,  and  alao  as  infantry.  In 
A.  D.  SO  they  rose  in  arms  under  tbeir  chief 
Claudius  Civilis  against  the  Homans,  but  though 
Buccesaful  for  a  time,  they  were  ultimately  re- 
duced to  submission.  (See  Civilis.)  Although 
included  in  the  Roman  empire,  they  paid  no 
taxes,  and  were  considered  rather  as  allies 
than  subjects.  They  served  as  Roman  aniil- 
iaries  as  late  as  gfiO. 

BITITU,  a  city  of  Java,  capital  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  tbe  East  Indies,  in  lat.  6°  10'  S., 
Ion.  106°  50'  £.,  on  a  swampy  plain  at  tbe  head 
of  a  deep  bay  of  the  Java  soa,  on  tbe  H".  W. 


coast  of  the  ialand,  opon  both  banks  of  tbe 
river  Jacatra.  Tlie  bay  in  protected  by  a 
number  of  islands,  and  forms  a  secure  har- 
bor. The  population  in  1832  was  118,300,  of 
whom  2,800  were  Europeans,  25,000  Chinese, 
80,000  natives,  1,000  Moors  and  Arabs,  and 
9,500  slaves;  the  present  number  is  various- 
ly stated  at  from  70,000  to  150,000,  the  dis- 
crepancy apparently  arising  from  the  differ- 
ent areaa  embraced,  the  wealthy  inhabitants 
now  residing  beyond  the  limit  of  the  fortifica- 
tions, upon  several  broad  roods  running  for 
some  distance  inland.  Tbe  local  trade  and 
handicrafls  are  mostly  in  tho  hand^  of  the 
Chinese;  the  foreign  commerce  in  those  of 
the  Dntch,  although  there  are  also  English, 
French,  German,  and  American  merchants. 
Abont  1,500  vessels  anauoUy  enter  the  port, 
two  thirds  of  which  are  Dntch.    The  principd 


articles  of  export  are  spices,  rice,  coffee,  sogar, 
bdigo,  tobacco,  djewooda,  and  gold  dust.  In 
1667  the  total  value  of  the  exports  was  $37,- 
227.025;  imports,  $22,439,435.  Batavia  was 
originally  laid  out  on  the  model  of  a  Dntch 
city,  with  broad  streets  having  each  a  canal  in 
the  centre.  Under  a  tropical  sun  these  almost 
stagnant  waters,  soaking  into  tbe  soft  soil, 
produced  malaria,  and  tlie  city  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  graveyard  of  Europeans;  the 
wealthy  classes  took  up  their  residence  in  tlie 
suburbs  which  formed  the  new  town  on  the 
heiphts  of  Weltevreden,  whither  the  govern- 
ment offices  were  removed.  Within  a  few 
years  canals  have  been  tilled  up  and  drainage 
introduced,  so  that  the  city  is  considered  toler- 
ably healthy.  Tlie  tbermometer  ranges  from 
65°  to  90°.  Tbe  old  town  is  mainly  Inhabited 
by  natives  and  tbe  poorer  Chinese.    The  cily 


lias  a  bank  and  a  newspaper,  and  has  recently 

been  connected  with  Singapore  by  a  telcpraphic 
cable  6'I0  m.  long.  Among  tbe  princijial  pnb- 
lic  buildings  are  the  Lutheran  cburih,  mili- 
tary hospital,  and  exchange. — Batavia  uocnpies 
the  site  of  the  former  native  citv  of  Jacatra, 
which  was  seized  in  1619  by  the  butch  gover- 
nor Jan  Pieterszoon  Koen,  the  Dntch  having 
a  few  years  before  set  up  a  factory  here.  The 
capital  of  tbe  Dutch  possesions  in  India  was 
now  removed  from  Amboyna  to  this  place.  In 
162B-'9  Hie  allied  sovereigns  of  Bantam,  Jaca- 
tra. and  Mataram  twice  besieged  tbe  new  city, 
with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  but  were  repulseii. 
In  1641  there  was  a,  revolt  of  tbe  Chinese  popa- 
lation,  of  wliom  12,000  were  massacred  by  or- 
der of  the  governor,  Adriaan  Valckeaaer.  In 
1811  it  was  captured  by  tbe  English,  but  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch  after  the  peace. 


Digitized  byGbOgIc 


BATAVTA 

UTlTtA,  a  village,  capital  of  Genesee  conn- 
ty,  N.  Y.,  30  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Roclieatcr,  on  Ton- 
avanda  creek,  the  New  York  Central  railroail, 
which  hero  joina  the  Canondtdgna,  Batavia, 
and  Tonawanda  branch,  the  Batavia  and  Attica 
railroad,  and  the  Batf'alo  division  of  the  Erie 
road ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,S90.  It  contains  churches 
of  various  donomi nations,  2  banks,  and  S  neira- 

Elper  offices.  Tlie  atate  inatitation  for  the 
lind,  erected  here  in  1S69,  is  one  of  the  flnest 
public  edifices  of  the  atate. 

BJTIVUN  KEPCBUG,  the  name  given  to  Hol- 
land after  its  conquest  by  tiie  French  in  17S5, 
and  the  organization  of  a  republic.  May  16,  by 
the  French  faction  in  that  country.  The  Dew 
republic  vaa  obliged  to  cede  to  ita  oonqnerors 
some  of  the  sonthem  portions  of  its  territory, 
included  in  which  were  the  cities  of  Maestricht 
and  Venloo,  to  pay  France  100,000,000  florins, 
and  to  receive  French  garrisons  into  its  for- 
tified places.  The  Batavian  constitution  was 
modified  in  ISOl  and  1806,  and  at  length  the 
legidatire  body,  urged  by  Napoleon,  cnanged 
the  republic  into  a  kingdom,  and  oflerod  the 
crown  to  Louia  Bonaparte,  who,  on  June  5, 
180S,  was  proclaimed  king  of  Holland. 

KlTCBIUf,  or  BiQu,  one  of  the  northern 
group  of  the  Molucca  or  Spice  lalandii,  in  lat. 
0°  85'  S,,  Ion.  ]2T°  35'  E,,  between  the  islands 
of  Gilolo  and  Tawall,  separated  from  the  latter 
by  a  narrow  strait ;  area,  800  sq.  m,  A  low 
Isthmus,  on  which  is  the  small  town  of  Batchian, 
connects  the  N.  and  S.  parts  of  the  island,  both 
of  which  are  mountainous,  while  the  S.  portion 
ia  volcanic.  There  are  some  navigable  streams, 
alluvial  plains,  and  luxuriant  palm  forests.  The 
clove  tree  gro»'s  wild.  The  interior  of  the 
island  is  oninhabited,  but  on  tlie  coast  there 
are  a  few  Portuguese,  Malays,  and  Indians 
diiven  from  neighboring  i^tland9.    Gold,  cop- 

BT,   and   coal  are  found  in  the   nortli.     The 
utch  extend  their  authority  over  the  island, 
but  the  government  is  administered  by  a  naUve 

BATE91K,  Itt*  JtwpUM,  an  American  ac- 
tress, bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct  7, 1843.  At 
three  years  of  age  ahe  made  her  d^but  n])on  the 
stage  at  l.;0nisville,  Ey.,  as  one  of  the  "Babes 
in  the  Wood"  in  a  piece  of  that  name;  and 
daring  the  next  10  years,  in  company  with  her 
yonn^r  sister  Ellen,  slie  acted  with  great  suc- 
cess in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
England.  The  children  developed  remarkable 
talent,  and  in  such  juvenile  pieces  as  "  The 
Gny  Connie,"  written  specially  for  tiiem,  in- 
variably drew  large  audiences.  In  183B  Kate 
retired  from  the  stage,  bat  reappeared  as  a 
star  actress  in  New  York  in  1860  m  "Evange- 
line," a  drama  written  by  her  mother.  In 
December,  1862,  she  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  Boston  as  I.eali,  a  jiart  peculiarly  iden- 
tified with  her,  and  which  she  subsequently 
frequently  performed  in  Great  Britdn  and  the 
United  Stotes.  In  London  it  was  repeated  211 
nights  in  1863-'4.  In  October,  1866,  she  was 
married  to  George  Crowe,  M.  D.,  of  London. 


BATES 


881 


In  18T2  ahe  appeared  in  London  with  marked 
success  as  Medea  in  a  play  of  that  name. 

BlTXHlTiS.    See  AsaAsetss. 

BlTESj  a  W.  county  of  Missouri,  on  the  Kan- 
sas frontier,  watered  by  the  Osage  river  and  its 
tributaries ;  area,  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  IBTO, 
15,980,  of  whom  120  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  chiefly  rolling  prairie.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  104,533  bushels  of  wheat, 
910,266  of  Indian  corn,  166,621  of  oats,  47,118 
of  potatoes,  and  35,350  lbs.  of  wool.  Thero 
were  7,331  horses,  1,0S3  mules  and  asses,  6,507 
milch  cows,  11,798  other  cuttle,  11,21)4  sheep, 
and  21,701  swine.     Capital,  Butler. 

BITES,  Barnabas,  a  promoter  of  cheap  postage 
in  the  United  States,  bom  at  Edmonton,  Eng- 
land, in  1785,  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  11,  1853. 
He  came  to  America  at  an  early  age,  became 
a  Baptist  preacher  in  Rhode  Island,  and  was 
for  a  time  collector  of  the  port  of  Bristol.  In 
1825  he  eatablislied  in  New  York  the  "  Chris- 
tian Inquirer,"  a  weekly  journal.  Afterward, 
while  acting  as  assistant  in  the  post  office  at 
New  York,  he  became  interested  in  the  ques- 
tion of  cheap  postage.  He  investigated  the 
subject  for  years,  wrote,  published  pamphlets, 
and  lectured,  and  finally  effected  a  material  re- 
duction in  the  rates  of  land  postage.  He  was 
endeavoring  to  obtain  a  corresponding  reform 
in  ocean  postage  at  his  deatli. 

BATES,  Edward,  LL.  D.,  an  American  states- 
man and  jurist,  born  in  Goochland  co,,Ya.,  Bept. 
4, 17B3,  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  March  26, 1869. 
He  emigroted  in  1814  to  Missouri  with  his 
elder  brother  Frederick,  then  secretary  of  the 
territory,  commenced  the  practice  of  law,  and 
became  eminent  at  the  bar.  He  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  legislature  of  Missouri  for  many 
years,  under  the  territorial  and  state  govern- 
ments, as  well  OS  of  the  convention  utiich 
framed  the  constitntion  of  the  state,  and  he 
represented  the  state  in  the  20tb  congress 
(1827-9).  He  was  however  bnt  little  known 
out  of  his  own  stat«  when  the  internal  im- 

trovement  convention  met  at  Chicago  in  1847, 
efore  which  he  deUvercd  an  address  which 
gave  him  a  national  reputation.  Ettbrts  were 
made  to  bring  him  back  to  political  life,  but  he 
would  neither  be  a  candidate  for  office  in  Mis- 
souri, nor  accept  a  place  offered  bini  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Fillmore.  Mr.  Bates  was 
the  friend  of  Henry  Clay  in  1824,  and  followed 
him  in  supporting  the  administration  and  in 
advocating  the  reelection  of  Mr.  Adams.  In 
1854  he  was  an  opponent  of  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  compromise,  and  afterward  opposed 
the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the  Lecompton 
constitutjon.  He  presided  at  the  whig  national 
convention  at  Baltimore  in  1856,  was  strongly 
supported  as  a  candidate  for  president  in  the 
republican  national  convention  at  Chicago  in 
1860,  and  was  United  States  attorney  general 
under  the  administration  of  President  Lincoln, 
which  office  he  resigned  in  1864. 

BITES,  JMthu,  an  English  banker,  bom  at 
Weymouth,  Mass.,  in  1788,  died  in  London, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Sept.  24, 1864.  At  the  ape  of  IB  he  entered 
the  connting-honse  of  William  R.  Graj  in  Bos- 
ton, And  by  hin  remarkable  capfteitj  soon  at- 
tracted the  notice  ot  Mr.  Gray's  father,  who 
Bent  him  to  the  north  of  Europe  to  protect  his 
interests  there.  In  182fl,  through  the  inSnence 
of  Messrs.  Baring  Brothers  and  company,  he 
formed  a  honse  in  London,  in  connection  with 
Mr,  John  Baring,  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Baring, 
under  the  firm  of  Bates  and  Baring.  On  the 
death  of  Mr.  Holland  these  gentlemen  were 
both  made  partners  in  the  honee  of  Baring 
Brothers  and  company,  of  which  Mr.  Bates  re- 
mained till  his  death  an  actlTe  member.  In 
1854  Mr.  Bates  was  appointed  umpire  in  the 
English  and  American  commission  which  had 
been  arranged  by  the  two  govemmenta  to 
settle  claims  held  by  the  citizens  of  one  coun- 
try against  the  government  of  the  other.  In 
1862  be  chanced  to  read  the  official  report  of  S 
plan  for  establishing  a  free  pablic  library  in 
Boston,  and  wrote  immediately  to  the  mayor 
of  Boston  offering  to  contribate  $50,000  toward 
the  scheme,  on  condition  that  the  income  of 
hia  fund  shonld  annually  be  spent  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books  of  permanent  value,  and  that 
the  city  should  always  provide  comfortable 
acoominodationa  for  their  use,  both  day  and 
evening,  by  at  least  100  readers.  The  boilding 
was  dedicated  in  1358,  and  up  to  that  time  he 
had  given  to  the  library  between  20,000  and 
80,000  volames  over  and  above  all  that  had 
been  pnrchased  by  the  resources  of  his  fond. 
Mr.  Bates  was  married  in  I81S  to  Lucretla 
Augusta  Stur^^  by  whom  he  had  one  surviving 
child,  Madame  Van  de  Weyer,  wife  of  an  emi- 
nent diplomatist  of  Belgium. 

BAIH,  a  place  or  vessel  for  washing  the  body. 
Besides  the  employment  of  natural  streams  and 
bodies  of  water,  the  artificial  bath  haa  been 
naed  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have 
any  record.  It  is  mentioned  in  Homer,  the 
vessel  for  bathing  being  described  as  of  polished 
marble,  like  many  of  the  basins  which  have 
been  found  in  the  Roman  baths.  Even  the 
warm  bath  is  referred  to  in  the  Iliad  and  Odys- 
sey, but  it  is  spoken  of  as  effeminate.  In  the 
hiatorical  periods  of  Greece  there  were  numer- 
ous baths  in  Athens  and  the  other  large  cities: 
hut  we  know  little  of  their  arraogement,  and 
they  appear  never  to  have  attained  the  magnifi- 
cence afterward  reached  in  Rome.  At  Rome, 
in  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war  and  of  the 
vigor  of  the  republic,  the  baths,  according  to 
Seneca,  were  dark,  small,  and  inconvenient.  It 
was  only  with  the  beginning  of  the  empire  that 
they  began  to  be  among  the  most  magnificent 
buildings  of  the  city,  the  immense  ruins  which 
still  exist  testifying  to  the  almost  unparalleled 
luxury  of  their  arrangements.  The  public  bath 
at  Pompeii  (uncovered  in  1824),  though  inferior 
in  size  and  appointments  to  those  of  the  capital, 
was  similar  probably  to  them  in  its  internal  nr- 
rangementa.  It  occupied  an  area  of  abont  10,- 
OOO  sq,  ft.,  and  contained  two  distinct  bathing 
establishments,  of  which  the  emolter  is  believed 


to  bare  been  appropriated  ezolnsively  to  Hie 
women.  In  the  men's  baths  is  first  a  court, 
about  60  ft.  long,  bounded  on  two  sides  by  a 


Doric  portico,  in  which  those  who  were  waiting 
their  turn  for  admission  to  the  therms  might 
walk  or  repose  upon  the  benches  placed  along 
the  wall.  From  this  court  there  was  a  com- 
munication by  means  of  a  corridor  with  a  small- 
er room,  fngidarium,  in  the  walls  of  which 
holes  are  observed,  which  served  for  the  inser- 
tion of  pegs  on  which  the  clothes  of  the  bathers 
might  be  hung.  This  room  was  the  apodyU- 
rium  (the  place  where  the  clothes  were  left) 
for  those  who  intended  to  take  the  natalio,  or 
cold  bath.  From  it  another  door  opened  into 
an  apartment  in  which  waa  placed  tLe  natato- 
Tiam,  or  theputcino,  a  boain  for  the  cold  bath. 
The  pUeina  itself  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
room ;  it  is  of  white  marble,  circular,  12  ft.  10 
in.  in  diameter,  and  a  little  more  than  3  ft,  in 
depth ;  10  in.  below  the  lip,  and  2  ft.  4  in.  from 
the  bottom,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  marble  seat,  1 1 
in.  in  width.  The  water  was  condncted  into  the 


'Frigldiriain  in  i  B4th  it  Buns. 

basin  by  a  bronze  spout,  the  remains  of  which 
can  still  he  discerned  in  the  wall  of  the  cham- 
ber. In  the  bottom  was  an  outlet,  by  which  the 
water  could  be  let  out  and  the  piteina  cleaned, 
while  the  rim  is  furnished  with  a  waste  pipe. 
From  the /riyi(iari«m  a  door  opened  into  a  simi- 
lar room,  which  appears  to  have  been  warmed 
by  a  large  portable  fireplace,  and  was  (iimished 
with  bronze  sea'.s  placed  along  the  walL    This 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


room  serred  u  an  apodpterium  for  tiaoae  who 
were  to  au  the  wann  bath*,  and  here  the 
bathera,  previens  to  eatering  the  ealdarium, 


ApodjUrUm  at  Fompdl 

were  nibbed  and  anointed  with  some  of  tbe 
immense  namber  of  fragraiit  oils  and  oiotmenta 
which  were  employed  by  the  ancienta.  Having 
left  his  dresa  in  the  kpidarium,  tlie  btvther 
passed  directly  into  the  ealdarium.  The  floor- 
ing of  this  apartment,  which,  is  Bcconlaace 
with  the  directions  of  Vitrnvius,  is  twice  as 
long  aa  it  is  broad,  is  placed  npon  small  pillars 
(tutpentura),  so  that  the  heat  from  the  fumacea 
had  ready  and  f^ee  admission  beneath  it  The 
walla,  too,  were  hollow,  the  inner  being  oon' 
nected  with  the  onter  wall  by  strong  clamps 
of  iron  and  brick,  and  thej  thus  formed  one 
largo  tine  for  the  oiroalation  of  the  heated  air. 
At  one  end  of  this  room  was  placed  the  hot 


m  8S3 

In.    From  tlie  centre  projected  a  braas  tube, 
probablj  throwing  up  cold  water.     This  was 

GrhapB  received  apon  the  head  of  the  bather, 
fore  lie  quitted  tlie  heated  atmosphere  of 
the  ealdarium.  Af^oining  the  ealdarium  was 
placed  the  fomace  over  which  was  set  the 
caldron  for  supplying  hot  water  to  the  baths. 
The  arrangement  will  be  explained  by  the  an- 
nexed oopy  of  a  fresco  discovered  in  tbe  baths 
of  Titos  at  Rome.    The  women's  baths  resem- 


bled those  of  the  men,  except  that  the  different 
apartments  were  much  smaller,  and  the  ar- 
rangements leaa  complete. — The  great  therms 
erected  by  the  emperors  at  Rome  were  mnch 
more  extensive  and  magnificent  etructnres. 
The  baths  of  Caracalla  were  1,500  ft.  long  by 
1,2C0  ft.  broad.  -  At  each  end  of  the  bailding 
is  a  large  oblong  hall,  a,  having  on  one  of  its 
sides  a  semicircular  tribune,  6.  The  halls 
were  probably  designed  for  exercise,  as  was 
also  the  large  open  space  /  before  the  baths. 
From  the  tribunes  oratora  and  poets  spoke  to 
those  assembled  at  this  favorite  place  of  resort. 
The  large  central  apartment  e  ia  called  the 
pinacotheea,  but  excellent  authorities  believe 
It  to  hare  been  the  etlla  ealidaria.  The  cir- 
cnlar  apartment  e  was  the  laeonieum,  or  room 
for  the  vapor  batli ;  while  the  apartment  d^  at 
the  other  aide,  waa  ^b  eella  frigidaria.  The 
water  for  all  tbe  bailding  came  from  the  ele- 
vated reservoir  h,  passing  under  the  rows  of 
eeala  g,  from  which  spectators  witneeaed  the 


bath.  This  was  a  aballow  cistern  {a,lwut\  15 
ft.  in  length  by  abont  4  ft.  in  breMth,  and  S 
ft  and  half  an  inch  in  depth ;  it  was  elevated 
above  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  tbe  batbera 
ascended  to  it  by  moans  of  two  Bt«p9,  the  top 
one  serving  for  a  seat;  on  tbe  inside  another 
seat  surrounded  the  whole  of  the  cistern  ot 
about  half  its  depth.  The  hot  water  was  fiir- 
nished  by  caldrons  placed  upon  the  other  ude 
of  the  wall.  At  the  end  of  the  room,  opposite 
the  alteat,  was  the  ItArum,  a  huge  vase  or 
tozza  of  whit«  marble,  8  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
having  a  depth  uiternally  of  not  more  than  8 
YT  Tou  u.— 25 


below.  All  the  apartments 
of  the  bath  were  magnificently  ornamented 
with    mosaic,    and    profusely    adorned   with 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


384  Bi 

pdating,  Btacco  work,  and  statnarir.  In  theae 
immense  eBtsblishmeutB,  the  aportmenta  were 
Dot  only  more  namerons,  bat  some  of  them 
oa  a  very  mncb  larger  scale.  Thua  the  no- 
tatorium,  or  BwimmiDg  batb,  in  tbe  batha 
of  Diocletian,  was  200  ft.  long  hj  100  ft. 
broad,  and  it  is  calculated  that  in  Uie  whole 
establieliment  more  than  1S,000  persons  could 
bathe  at  the  eame  time. — In  the  times  of  the 
republic  the  cold  batb  alone  was  ordinarijy 
employed,  but  later  the  hot  air  aed  worm  bath 
were  likewise  generally  used.  Tbe  order  in 
which  they  were  taken  varied  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  physicians  or  the  inclination 
of  the  bather.  Previons  to  bathing,  gentle 
exercise  was  generally  taken ;  then  it  was  rec- 
ommended that  the  bather  shoold  remain  in 
tbe  tepidarium,  or  warm  chamber,  for  a  time 
previons  to  nndressing;  after  undressing  he 
proceeded  commonly  to  tbe  ealdariwa,  and 
afWr  sweating  some  time  in  its  heated  atmos- 
phere, he  either  gradually  immersed  himself  in 
the  hot  water  bath,  or  had  hot  water  simply 
poured  over  the  head  and  shoulderB ;  then  cold 
water  was  poured  over  the  head,  or  the  bather 
plnoged  into  the  cold  pitcijia.  He  was  now 
scraped  with  ttrigilt*  (small  curved  ingtm- 
ments,  made  generally  of  bronze),  dried  and 
nibbed  with  linen  cloths,  and  finally  anointed. 
When  one  bath  alone  was  desired,  it  was  taken 
Jest  before  the  principal  meal;  but  the  Ro- 
mans bathed  after  as  well  as  previons  to  their 
ecena,  and  Commodusis  said  to  have  indulged 
in  seven  or  eight  baths  a  day. — The  Turks  and 
Arabs  have,  since  the  decline  of  Romas  civ- 
ilization, more  particularly  cherished  the  cus- 
tom of  bathing  than  any  other  nations.  The 
laws  of  Mohammed  ordain  five  prayers  daily, 
and  on  ablution  of  the  face,  hands,  and  feet 
before  each  of  them.    There  are  many  other 


for  bathing,  and  the  public  bath  is  sa 
sore  to  be  found  in  every  village  as  the  mosque. 
With  these  eastern  nations,  as  well  as  in 
Egypt,  pablio  bathing  is  a  very  complicated 
art.  The  bather,  having  left  his  dress  in  the 
reception  room,  proceeds  through  a  long  grad- 
ually warmed  passage  into  the  spacious  bath- 
ing room,  in  which  the  steam  of  boiling  wa- 
ter and  the  peifumes  of  burning  ess«aices  are 
combined.  He  tliere  reclines  upon  a  kind  of 
hammock,  and  when  he  lias  perspired  suffi- 
ciently, the  proceee  of  shampooing  and  bending 
the  joints  is  performed  upon  him.  He  then 
passes  into  an  a^oining  apartment,  where 
bis  head  is  profnsely  covered  with  the  foam 
of  soap,  and  his  body  with  a  kind  of  poma- 
tam.  In  two  other  rooms  ho  is  washed  with 
both  warm  and  cold  water,  and  he  returns 
to  the  open  air  as  he  entered,  throngb  a  l<»ig 
passage  the  temperature  of  which  is  gradu- 
ated.— In  India,  also,  there  ore  pnblic  bath& 
which  are  associated  with  the  practice  of 
shampooing.  The  bather  is  extended  npoo  a 
plank,  and  a  vigorous  attendant  pours  hot 
water  over  him,  presses  and  bends  the  varions 
parts  of  the  body,  cracks  all  the  joints,  and 
continues  this  operation  of  pouring,  puiling, 
and  pressing  for  about  half  an  hour,  lie  then 
rubfl  him  briskly  with  a  hair  brush,  with  soap 
and  perfumes,  alter  which  the  subject  is  obliged 
by  his  fatigue  to  sleep  a  few  hours,  but  wakes 
extremely  refreshed.  The  women  in  India 
take  a  lively  pleasure  in  being  shampooed  by 
their  slaves,  and  Europeans  who  enter  upon 
the  process  with  a  sort  of  fear  describe  the 
sensation  which  results  as  delightful  and  pe- 
cnliar.^ — The  northern  nations  have  also  their 

eeculiar  usages  in  respect  to  bathing.  The 
ussian  lord  baa  his  bathing  room  in  his  own 
house,  and  the  people  in  the  villages  frequent 
the  public  bath  at  a  small  expiense.  The  en- 
tire operation  conusts,  first,  of  a  perspiration, 
then  of  ftiction,  and  of  succes^ve  ablutions  in 
hot  and  cold  water.  The  poorer  people,  how- 
ever, adopt  a  simpler  metAod.  They  remsla 
in  the  bathing  room  only  till  they  begin  to 
perspire  freely,  and  then  rush  out  and  throw 
themselves,  perhaps  through  a  crust  of  ice, 
into  the  nearest  stream  or  pond,  thus  exposing 
themselves  snddenly  to  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature, and  tempering  themselves  ss  steel  is 
tempered.  Among  the  Russians  of  Siberia, 
the  bath  is  especially  in  use  as  a  means  of  driv- 
ing off  the  effecte  of  a  violent  cold  and  prevent- 
ing fever.  The  subject  is  taken  into  the  bath 
room  and  placed  upon  a  shelf  within  an  inch 
or  two  of  a  steaming  furnace.  After  he  is  well 
parboiled  in  this  position,  he  is  drubbed  and 
flogged  for  about  half  on  hour  with  a  bundle 
of  birch  twigs,  leaf  and  all.  A  pailful  of  cold 
water  is  then  dashed  over  him  from  head  to 
foot,  the  effect  of  which  is  described  as  electri- 
fying. He  is  next  pat  in  an  eibausted  condi- 
tion to  bed,  and  physic  is  administered.  It  is 
rare  tiiat  a  fever  does  not  beat  a  retreat  after 
a  few  repetitions  of  the  bath  and  the  phyuc 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BafBrd  Taylor,  ia  his  winter  trav«1ii  in  Lap- 
land, gives  an  acooont  of  Kmilar  baths.  There 
the  batlier  is  placed  on  an  elevated  platform, 
and  vapor  is  produced  b;  throwing  water 
on  heated  stones  beneath. — In  Mexico,  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  vapor  or  steaoi  bath  is  in  use. 
The  deam,  generated  below  the  floor  of  a 


small  ^artment,  is  adniitt«d  aroond  the  balder, 
who  reclines  on  a  low  bench. — The  Japanesa 
are  oonatast  fr«qaenters  of  the  bath,  thongh 
bathing  is  with  them  a  simple  proceas.  A 
large  tank  or  pond  oooapiea  the  c«ntre  of  thai 
\jtui  house,  and  m«i  and  women  bathe  toge- 


ther. The  warm  bath,  in  ita  more  elaborate 
forms,  is  seldom  Ibond  in  Japan. — The  ose  of  the 
bath  has  not  narked  the  manners  of  the  most 
civilized  modem  nations,  as  it  did  those  of  the 

K1it«  nations  of  ontiqtiitj,  Tet  it  is  less  ne^ 
:ted  now  than  formerlj,  and  pnblio  baths, 
though  tbej  ore  not  centres  of  resort  for  the 
people,  are  fonnd  in  all  large  cldeB,  and  private 
baths  ore  oommen  in  dweUiog  houses.  Turk- 
ish baths,  with  some  pecnliaridee  adopted  ft-oni 
the  haths  of  other  easUirn  nations,  have  also 
become  popular  of  late  years  in  western  En- 
rope  and  America,  and  ore  now  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  large  city ;  and  Russian  baths 
are  also  numerouB. — Hygiene  qf  Bathing.  To 
bathe,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  is  to 
BQrrcnnd  the  body,  or  a  portion  of  it,  for  a 
temporary  period,  by  a  medium  different  from 


that  in  which  it  usually  exists.  The  medium 
may  consist  of  air  or  vapor,  of  watw,  dther 
pure  or  lidding  varioos  Hubstauoes  in  solution, 
or  finally  even  of  sand  or  mud.  The  body 
m^  be  wholly  or  partially  immersed  in  the 
mediom,  as  io  the  ordinary  plunge  bath,  the 
foot  bath,  hip  bath,  &«. ;  or  the  medium  may 
be  poured  with  greater  or  less  force  upon  the 
body,  OS  in  the  shower  and  douche  bath.  The 
temperature  of  the  medium,  as  it  is  warm,  hot, 
or  cold,  modifies  powerfully  the  eflTeet  of  the 
bath.  In  the  present  article  we  shall  confine 
our  attention  to  the  efii^cta  of  the  ordinary 
water  iiath,  and  of  the  hot  air  and  vapor  baths. 
The  temperature  at  which  the  water  batt  may 
be  taken  varies  from  sa°  to  112°  or  even  120'' 
F.,  and  baths  are  ordinarily  divided  into  cold, 
warm,  and  hot,  according  to  tbe  sensation  tb«y 
oommnnioate  to  the  bather.  These  aensaUoDS) 
it  must  t)e  recollected,  are  no  very  accurate 
measure  of  the  true  temperature ;  the  water 
which  to  one  person  seems  warm,  to  another 
feeling  cooi.  Sygtematio  writers  have  farther 
multiplied  these  divisions;  perhaps  the  most 
convenient  among  them  is  that  proposed  by 
Dr.  John  f'orbes.  He  divides  the  water  baths 
into  the  oold  bath,  from  83°  to  60°  F. ;  tbe 
cool,  60°  to  76° ;  the  temperate,  7S°  to  85° ; 
the  tepid,  86°  to  93°;  the  wiirm,  98°  to  96°; 
the  hot,  98°  to  112°.  On  plunging  into  cold 
water  the  bather  eiperieDoes  a  shock  attended 
with  a  sensation  of  oold  that  may  amount  to 
rigor,  and  with  a  sudden  catching  of  tbo  breath, 
caused  by  the  contact  of  the  oold  fluid  with 
the  surface  of  the  face  and  trunk ;  in  some  per- 
sons this  spasmodic  anbelation  is  so  great  aa 
entirely  to  prevent  speech.  Tbe  surface  ap- 
pears contracted  and  shrunken,  the  superficial 
veins  become  smaller  or  disappear,  the  color 
assumes  a  bluish  tint.  After  a  short  time,  the 
duration  of  which  depends  partiy  upon  the 
coldness  of  the  water,  partly  upon  tbe  consti- 
tntipnal  vigor  of  the  bather,  reaction  takes 
place ;  the  chilliness  and  rigor  disappear,  and 
are  succeeded  by  a  sensation  of  warmth,  whith 
diffuses  itself  over  the  whole  surface ;  the  res- 
piration becomes  tranquil,  and  there  is  a  gen- 
eral feeling  of  lightness  and  vigor.  After  a 
variable  period  the  bather  again  be^ns  to  suf- 
fer from  the  cold,  trembling  and  ngor  super- 
vene, the  movements  become  impaired  and 
feeble,  tbe  pulse  is  smaller  and  less  frequent, 
the  breathing  is  oppressed,  and  the  whole  body 
islanguid  and  powerless.  Ifbeleave  the  water 
before  tbe  occurrence  of  the  second  period  of 
chill,  there  is  a  renewal  of  the  reaction,  a  glow 

Eervodes  the  surface,  the  color  returns  and  is 
eightened,  the  pulse  is  fuller  and  stronger  than 
before  the  immersion,  and  there  is  a  general 
feeling  of  buoyancy  and  vigor.    M.  Begin,  ei- 

Erimenting  upon  the  cold  hath,  took  nine 
ths  in  the  Moselle  under  the  ramparts  of 
Hetz,  toward  the  end  of  October,  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  open  air  standing  at  from  2° 
to  e°  R£aaraur  (8S  j  t"  45}  F.).  At  tbe  moment 
of  immersion  there  was  a  sensation  as  if  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


blcxxl  were  all  driven  to  the  interior  of  the 
bod/,  pBrticalarl;  to  the  chest;  the  breatli was 
eoapin;,  interrupted,  qnickened,  almost  to  suf- 
focation ;  tlie  palM  ooncentrated,  BmoU,  and 
bard  ;  there  was  rigidity  of  the  tissaes,  but 
without  trembling.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three 
miniitea  a  feeUng  of  ealm  followed,  the  respi- 
ration became  deep,  the  skin  warm,  and  all  the 
movements  were  bee  and  aasj.  "  AH  the  muB- 
cnlor movements  are  quick,  eaaj,  and  precise; 
one  feels  as  if  the  skin  and  aponeuroses  were 
applied  more  closely  to  the  muBclos,  and  that 
these  thus  hold  down  acted  with  greater  force 
and  energy  than  in  their  ordinary  state.  Soon 
a  lively  redness  covers  the  BUr&ce,  a  marked 
and  pleasant  feeling  of  warmth  spreads  over 
the  skin;  it  seems  as  if  one  swam  in  a  liquid 
raised  to  8G°  or  96° ;  the  body  appears  to  seek 
to  expand  in  order  to  mnltiply  the  surface  of 
contact;  the  palae  is  large,  full,  strong,  regu- 
lar. Few  sensations  are  so  dehcions  aa  those 
felt  at  such  a  moment.  AU  the  springs  of 
the  animal  maoliine  acquire  greater  flejibilitj, 
streuarth,  and  firmness  tnan  tney  had  previous- 
ly ;  tne  limbs  cleave  with  ease  a  fluid  which  no 
longer  offers  any  resistance ;  one  moves  with- 
out effort,  with  qnickneaa,  and  above  all  with 
an  incredible  lightness."  In  from  IS  to  20 
minutes  there  was  a  gradual  return  of  cold  and 
difloomfort ;  it  was  then  time  to  leave  the  wa- 
ter. If  the  bather  still  remuned,  he  was  seized 
witik  chills,  and  the  difficulty  of  moving  became 
so  great  tnat  he  was  in  danger  of  drowning. 
On  quitting  the  water,  contLnnes  U.  Begin, 
before  the  reaction  has  ceased,  tiie  trandtion  to 
the  cold  air  gives  no  unpleasant  sensation.  In 
despite  of  the  wind  and  the  moisture  which 
covers  the  body,  the  latter  remains  warm,  and 
the  skin  is  so  insensible  that  the  friction  of  the 
towel  is  not  perceived ;  indeed,  M.  Begin  some- 
times rubbed  off  the  cuticle  without  being 
aware  of  it.  To  endure  a  bath  of  such  a  tem- 
perature with  safety,  to  say  nothing  of  ei^oy- 
ment  and  beneSt,  requires  a  vigorous  constitu- 
tion and  greatpromptness  of  reaction.  M.  Ros- 
tan,  another  Frenah  pliyucian,  was  unable  to 
remain  longer  than  six  minutes  in  the  Seine  at 
a  time  when  the  water  was  43°  F.,  and  then 
reaction  only  fully  occurred  on  the  following 
night  after  many  hours  of  discomfort,  accom- 

t anted  by  a  painful  feeling  of  weight  about  the 
ead.  Reaction  takes  place  most  promptly, 
and  a  lower  temperature  can  safely  be  borne, 
when  exercise  is  ooqjoined  with  bathing,  as  in 
swimming,  than  when  the  body  is  at  rest.  Salt 
water  is  more  stimulating  than  fresh,  and  ren- 
ders the  reaction  more  marked  and  of  longer 
dnration ;  the  shock  of  the  waves  too,  by  ren- 
dering musonlar  action  necessary  to  renst  it, 
has  a  simitar  influence.  The  effects  of  the  cold 
bath,  where  it  agrees,  are  tonic  and  bracing; 
it  stimulates  the  skin,  improves  the  appetite, 
and  renders  the  circulation  more  active  and 
vigorous.  It  hardens  the  system,  and  caoses 
it  to  be  much  less  seuMtive  to  vicissitudes  of 
temperature.    The  regular  employment  of  the 


cold  bath  is  the  best  protoptira  against  the  lia- 
bility to  take  cold  on  moderate  expKwnre.  Itj 
beneficial  effects  depend  mainly  on  the  prmnpt- 
nesB  and  completeness  of  the  stage  of  reaction; 
if  full  reaction  does  not  take  plaoe,  if  the  bather 
remains  cold  and  shivering,  with  a  sense  of 
weight  abost  the  bead,  the  bath  is  ii^jnrious. 
It  should  not  be  taken  when  the  t}ody  is  fatigued 
and  exhausted,  or  when  it  is  overheated  by  ex- 
ertion in  hot  weather ;  on  the  other  hand,  a 
moderate  degree  of  warmth,  or  even  a  gentle 
perspiration,  provided  titere  is  no  exhaustion, 
does  not  contra- indicate  its  employment.  When 
first  employed,  it  should  be  used  but  a  few  min- 
utes until  the  bather  has  tested  his  powers  of 
resistance  and  reaction,  and  the  interval  can 
then  be  gradually  increased.  When  the  shower 
or  cold  bath  is  taken  in  the  house,  it  may  be 
used  immediately  on  riung  while  the  body  is 
still  warm  from  bed;  bnt  the  sea  bath  snita 
best  aboat  noon,  or  some  three  hours  after  the 
morning  meal.  The  presence  of  disease  of  the 
heart  or  of  the  great  blood  vessels  renders  tho 
use  of  the  cold  bath  dangerons.  The  cool  and 
temperate  baths  produce  effects  similar  in  kind 
to  tnoso  of  the  cold  bath,  but  less  in  degree; 
they  are  the  cold  bath  of  the  invalid  and  feeble. 
Infants  and  old  persons,  as  a  rule,  bear  the  cold 
bath  badly.  Young  infiints  in  particular  do 
not  react  promptly,  but  remain  eold  and  bine 
for  some  time  after  taking  a  bath ;  yet  in 
feeble  and  strumous  children  the  bath  is  one 
of  our  best  means  of  hardening  and  invigorat- 
ing the  constitution.  With  them  it  is  best  to 
commence  with  the  tepid  Ijath,  and  the  temper- 
ature should  groduaUy,  day  by  day,  be  lowered ; 
when  the  cold  bath  is  arrived  at,  it  shonld  be 
^ven  in  a  properly  warmed  apartment ;  th« 
immersion  should  be  sudden,  complete,  and 
continued  but  for  a  few  momenta,  and  the  child 
should  immediately  afterward  be  well  and 
thorouglily  rubbed  with  dry  fiannels. — The  ef- 
fect of  the  warm  batb  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the  cold  bath.  There  is  no  shock ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  temperature  is  grateful  to  the 
bather.  The  blood  fs  solicited  to  the  sorface, 
which  becomes  full  and  rounded.  The  cuticle 
absorbs  water  and  is  softened,  and  the  epithe- 
lial debris  are  readily  removed.  The  pulse  is 
unaffected,  irritability  of  the  nervous  s^item  ia 


the  skin  extends  to  the  deeper-seated  part^ 
Its  beneficial  effects  are  especially  recognirable 
after  excessive  muscular  exercise  or  ofter  the 
fatigue  and  exdtement  of  a  long  journey,  in 
refreshing  and  tranquillizing  the  system.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  warm  bath  exercises  nono 
of  the  tonic  and  astringent  influence  which  is 
produced  by  the  cold ;  its  frequent  nse  t«nds  to 
relax  and  debilitate,  while  it  renders  the  system 
more  sensible  to  the  variations  of  external  tem- 

Serature.— The  hot  bath,  98°  to  112°  F.,  pro- 
uces  at  flrst  an  inconvenient  and  even  painifol 
Bensation  of  heat ;  irom  the  determination  of 
blood  to  the  sarCace,  it  soon  becomes  reddened 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


and  awollen,  the  face  is  tnr^d,  the  eyea 
iqjected ;  the  aotion  of  the  heart  ia  increa 
the  poise  becomes  fiiUer  and  more  freaaeatl 
the  oarotid  artertea  in  particular  beat  with  vio- 
leDce ;  the  breathing  is  oppresaed,  and  there  is 
a  pcuntiil  aensatioD  of  weight  about  the  head ; 
soon  the  parts  not  covered  by  the  water  break 
ont  into  a  profnae  perapiratton,  which  only 
partially  relieves  the  discomfort  of  the  patient 
On  learinK  the  bath  the  excitement  doea  not 
iinmediatelj  anbside ;  the  palae  continnea  to 
bent  with  force  and  frequency,  the  extremitiea, 
partionlarly  the  lower,  remain  swollen,  and  the 
patient  perapiroa  abundantly,  while  the  aecre- 
tion  uf  urine  is  diminished ;  tliere  is  a  aenae  of 
muscular  fatigue,  and  the  whole  eystem  is  re- 
lazed  and  weakened.  These  symptoms,  how- 
ever, when  present,  are  to  be  attributed  to  a 
too  Budden  or  too  long  continued  action  of  the 
hot  bath.  The  best  mode  of  obtaining  its  l>ene- 
fioial  effects,  in  ordinary  cases,  is  to  b^in  with 
water  at  the  temperatare  of  Uie  tepid  bath, 
and  gradDally  raiae  it  to  that  of  the  hot  bath. 
When  the  full  effect  of  thia  is  produced,  and 
before  any  aigns  of  eihaastion  manifest  uiem- 
aelves,  the  leather  should  leave  the  hot  water 
and  take  a  momentary  ehower  or  douche  of 
cold  water,  to  be  followed  immediately  by  rub- 
bins  vrith  the  towel.  Iq  healthy  peraona  this 
will  usually  produce  a  moderate  and  agreeable 
reaction.  The  continaed  warm  or  hot  bath, 
however,  ia  aometimea  employed  intentionally 
to  produce  temporary  muscular  relaxation  in 
cases  of  dislocation  or  strangulated  hernia. — 
Bendes  the  cold  and  warm  water  bath,  the 
body  may  be  espoeed  to  tlie  action  of  air  arti- 
ficiidly  heated  or  to  the  vapor  of  boiling  water. 
The  former,  the  laccnievnt,  was  habitually  em- 

?loyed  by  the  Romans  and  is  now  used  by  the 
urka  and  the  Egyptians,'  and  the  latter  by  the 
RuariaDB.  The  effects  of  both,  when  the  tem- 
perature is  much  elevated,  are  at  first  highly 
■timnlating.  The  beat  of  the  heart  is  increased 
in  force  and  frequency ;  the  pulse  risea  to  60, 
100,  120,  and  even  ISO  or  160  beats  in  a  min- 
ute ;  the  blood  is  driven  powerAilly  to  the  snr- 
&ce,  the  face  becomes  flushed,  the  eyes  iii{ected 
and  anffiised,  the  skin  turgid,  and  the  bather 
■oon  breaks  oat  into  a  proAise  sweat ;  if  the 
temperature  ia  very  high  and  too  long  contin- 
ued, after  a  time  the  whole  mass  of  the  blood 
becomes  heat«d  above  its  normal  standard,  and 
this  may  be  attended  with  dangerous  or  fotat 
conaeqnaicaa.  Owing  to  the  free  evaporation 
from  the  surface,  the  not-air  bath  can  be  borne 
of  a  much  higher  temperature-than  the  vapor 
bath.  The  ordinary  heat  of  the  Russian  or 
oriental  ba^io  ia  from  120°  to  140°  F.,  though 
it  is  ocCBsionatly  raised  as  high  as  180°  or 
ISO";  while,  when  the  air  is  moderately  dry, 
a  temperature  of  from  260°  to  280°  F.  has 
been  borne  for  some  time  with  impunity. 
Hedicated  bathK  are  uaed  in  the  treatment  of 
dleeases,  generally  those  of  a  chronic  charac- 
ter, and  may  be  either  liquid  or  vapor  hatha, 
the  vehicle  being  water,  watery  vapor,  or  air. 


m  387 

Bilfl.  !•  A  W.  county  of  Vir^ia,  lying 
among  the  Allegbonies  and  bordering  on  West 
Virginia;  area,  T2G  aq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,796, 
of  whom  869  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hiUy,  and  well  watered  by  the  sources  of  the 
James,  Gowpasture,  and  Jackeon  rivers.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile  in  the  valleys.  There  are 
many  medicinal  apringa.  The  OheBapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad  traverses  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  80,068  bushels  of 
wheat,  49,202  of  Indian  corn,  2S,G62  of  oats, 
and  2,790  tons  of  hay.  There  were  1.081 
horses,  1,3G7  miloh  cowa,  8,684  other  cattle, 
8,029  sheep,  and  2,8S0  swine.  Oapital,  Warm 
Springs.  IL  A  N.  E.  county  of  Kentucky, 
watered  by  Licking  river  and  Slate  creek; 
area,  290  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 10,125,  of  whom 
1,702  were  colored.  The  N.W.  portion  is  re- 
markably fertile.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
great  abundance,  and  there  are  nnmerous  me- 
dicinal springs.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  4S,11S  bnshela  of  wheat,  28,092  of  rye, 
8flO,6Sl  of  Indian  com,  108,94fi  of  oats,  2,176 
tons  of  hay,  and  2S,4S0  lbs.  of  wool.  There 
were  4,178  horses,  2,199  mules  and  asse^  2,679 
milch  cows,  7,209  other  cattle,  8,848  aheep, 
and  23,406  swine.     Capital,  Owingsville. 

BITB,  a  city,  port  of  entiy,  and  the  capital 
of  Sagadahock  co.,  Uune,  situated  on  the  W, 
bank  of  the  Eennebec  river,  4  m.  below  ita 
junction  with  the  Androscog^n  at  Merrymeet- 
mg  bay,  12  m.  from  the  ocean,  and  8S  m.  by  rail 
B.  of  A^sU;  pop.  in  1860,  6,076;  in  1870, 
7,B71.  The  river  here  ia  a  mile  wide,  with 
abundant  anchorage  and  docks,  the  tide  ris- 
ing about  12  ft.  The  oitj  extends  2^  m,  along 
the  bank,  and  1  m.  back.  It  is  irregularly 
laid  out,  contains  6  national  banka,  2  savings 
banks,  2  Congregational  churches,  1  Baptist, 
2  Freewill  Bsptiat,  2  Methodist,  1  Univeraal- 
iat,  1  Episcopal,  1  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Swe- 
denborgian.  There  are  19  pnblic  achoota,  at- 
tended by  1,790  pupils.  The  valuation  of 
property  in  1860  was  fO,87e,99S,  and  in  1870, 
$6,898,876.  One  daily  and  one  weekly  news- 
paper are  pnbhshed.  The  principal  businew 
IS  ^ip  budding,  in  which  Bath  ranks  next 
after  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 
During  the  year  ending  June  SO,  1871,  there 
were  built  here  48  vessels,  of  8,826  tons.  A 
large  number  of  veseels  engaged  in  commerce 
In  all  parts  of  the  world  are  owned  in  Both. 
The  number  of  vessels  regiatcred,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  in  1871  was  196,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  81,961.  As  the  river  never  fteezea 
here  and  is  of  great  depth,  Bath  has  great 
advantages  as  a  commercial  port.  During 
tiie  year  ending  June  SO,  1871,  the  imports 
amounted  to  §182,012,  and  the  exports  to 
124,086;  4  American  vessels  of  2,691  and  27 
foreign  veseels  of  1,864  tons  entered  from  for- 
eign ports;  the  clearances  for  foreign  ports 
were  12  American  vessels,  tonnase  4,777,  and 
27  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  2,486.  The  entrances 
in  the  coastwise  trade  were  70,  with  an  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  42,SS2,  and  the  cleanucea  GS,  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


17,018  toiu.  Tberewere  32  Teweltof'eSl  tons 
engaged  in  the  ood  and  mackerel  fishery.  The 
onstofn  house  is  a  granite  edifice  built  at  a  cost 
of  about  $S0,OOO.  Abranohofthe  MaineCen< 
tral  railroad  connects  the  citjwlth  Brunswick, 
6  m.  distant ;  and  there  ie  steamboat  cixiinia- 
nicatiun  with  Boston  and  Portland.  Bath  was 
inoorporated  as  a  town  in  ITSO,  and  as  a  city 
in  1850. 

UTH,  a  township  and  village,  capital  of  Sten- 
ben  oo^  N.  Y.,  on  Conhooton  creek,  30  m.  N. 
W.  of  Corning;  pop.  of  the  township  in  1870, 
6,236.  The  Tillage  has  several  chnrches,  a 
lumk,  two  weekly  new^apers,  and  tome  mills 
and  factories.  The  Bafialo  division  of  the  Erie 
railway  passes  through  the  village. 

Uni  (anc.  Agva  Selii),  a  city  of  SomerBet- 
sbire,  England,  106  m.  W.  of  Londcm  by  the 
Great  Western  railway,  on  the  river  Avon,  13 


m.  above  Bristol ;  pop.  in  1871,  62,642.  Built 
chiefly  of  freestone  and  apon  the  sides  of  high 
liills,  the  city  rises  in  a  sucoeesion  of  terraces, 
circuses,  and  gardens.  It  is  a  place  of  resort 
for  invalids  on  acooont  of  the  hot  xprings  from 
which  the  (nty  ileriTfls  its  name,  ana  which  ore 
beneficial  in  pialsy,  rhenmatism,  goot,  and  sorof- 
ulons  and  mitaneons  afiiactions.  Their  charac- 
ter is  alkaline  sulphareons,  with  a  slight  pro- 
portion of  iron.  There  are  three  springs  of  a 
constant  temperature  of  109%  1 14°,  and  1 17°  P. 
The  last  named  yields  138  gallons  a  minDt«. 
Bath  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  fashion  and 
gayety.  In  the  last  centnry  and  tiie  beginning 
of  tlie  present  it  was  at  the  height  of  its  celeb- 
rity, bot  the  opening  of  the  continwt  after 
the  war  diverted  the  stream  of  visitors  toward 
the  German  spas.  The  city  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  in  Britain,  and  was  reputed  to  have 


been  founded  before  the  Roman 
was  a  statdon  on  the  old  Roman  road  leading 
from  London  to  Wales.  There  have  been  found 
at  and  near  the  rite  of  the  present  town  Ro- 
man coina,  vasee,  altars,  baths,  and  the  remains 
of  a  Corinthian  temple.  Joined  with  the  city 
vfW ells,  it  is  a  bishop's  see.  The  city  has  an 
abbey  church,  a,  relic  of  an  ancient  monastery. 
There  are  well  supported  hospitals  for  general 
purposes,  and  for  the  uses  of  those  poor  who 
resort  to  the  city  for  the  sake  of  tlie  hatha. 
Bath  has  been  the  residence  of  several  men 
of  political  distinction,  in  particnlar  of  Pitt 
and  Sheridan.  William  Beckfonl,  the  author 
of  "  Vathek,"  resided  and  died  in  Bath. 

BAIV,  Earl  ef.    See  Piiltbnet,  William. 

B11B,  Ealgkli  af  the,  a  military  order  in 
Great  Britain.  This  order  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  at  the  time  of  the  first  crusade,  bot 


first  dintinotly  mentioned  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.  FrcHuart  says  that,  at  the  coronation  cfT 
that  king  in  the  tower  of  London  in  1899,  46 
estjaires  were  made  knights,  and  were  o^ed 
knights  of  the  bath,  because  they  had  watch- 
ed and  bathed  during  the  night  preceding,  and 
that  they  wore  on  the  occasion  long  ooats  trim- 
med with  white  fur,  and  bad  white  laces  hung 
about  their  shonlders.  From  that  time  it  was 
usnal  for  English  kings  to  create  knights  of  the 
bath  at  the  coronation  of  themselves  or  their 
queens,  the  birth  or  marriage  of  prineee  or 
princesses,  on  the  eve  of  starting  npon  foreign 
military  expeditions,  and  after  gaining  a  battle 
or  taUng  a  town.  At  the  coronation  of  Charles 
II.  68  knights  of  the  bath  were  made,  but  the 
order  was  then  neglected  and  discontinued,  till 
in  173fi  George  I.  revived  it  by  letters  patent. 
Ue  gave  •  book  of  statutes  for  its  government. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BlTEORI 

bj  irfaich  it  was  deoraed  that  the  order  ahoald 
conust  of  the  sovereign,  a  grand  master,  and 
86  eompanionB.  Its  badge,  of  pnre  gold,  was 
to  be  a  Ksptre  of  three  nmted  imperial  crowns, 
from  which  grew  the  rose,  the  thistle,  and  the 
ahamroek,  and  around  which  was  inacribed  the 
ancient  motto,  Tria  htntta  in  wno.  It  was  to 
be  hoDg  hy  a  red  ribbon  tVoia  the  collar  ob- 
liquely over  the  right  shonlder.  The  collar 
■hoald  oontain  SO  ounces  troj  weight  of  gold, 
and  be  a  complicated  arrangement  of  nine 
crowna  and  eight  roses,  thistles,  and  sham- 
rocks, tlie  latter  being  enamelled  in  their  prop- 
er colors  and  attached  to  the  crowns  bj  gold 
knots  enamelled  white.  A  ulver  star  also, 
made  to  resemble  the  badge,  and  with  a  glory 
or  rays  proceeding  from  Its  centre,  shoatd 
adorn  the  left  sbonlder  of  the  knight,  being 
embroidwed  upon  the  left  side  of  his  mantle. 
The  apparel  of  a  knight  of  the  bath  was  or- 
dered to  he  a  red  sorcoat,  lined  and  edged  with 
white  and  encircled  by  a  white  girdle,  a  crim- 
son mantle  lined  with  white  and  fastened  about 
the  neak  with  a  cordon  of  white  silk,  a  white 
silk  hot  eormonnted  by  plnmeg  of  white  feath- 
ers, white  boots,  red  stockings  and  hreeohes, 
and  a  sword  in  a  white  leather  soabbard.  In 
]8I0  the  nnmber  of  the  knights  of  the  bath 
was  enlarged.  Three  denominations  and  ranks 
were  then  ordtuned  in  the  order:  the  first, 
connstmg  of  knights  grand  crosses,  to  be  oon- 
feired  only  upon  officers  who  had  reached  the 
rank  of  m^or  general  in  the  army  or  rear  ad- 
miral in  the  navy,  excepting  that  13  of  the 
number  might  he  appointed  for  eminent  civil 
servicee.  Im  grand  crosses  were  dtstingnish- 
ed  by  wearing  over  their  badge  and  star  a 
wreath  of  laurel  winding  abont  an  escrol,  on 
which  was  icseribed  leh  dien.  The  second 
clasa,  counting  of  knights  commanders,  take 
pteeedence  of  all  knights  bachelors  in  the 
jdngdom,  and  no  one  is  eligible  to  this  dignity 
till  he  has  reached  the  rank  of  m^or  general 
in  th«  army  or  rear  admiral  in  the  navy,  and 
no  one  is  eligible  as  a  grand  croea  till  he  has 
first  been  a  commander.  The  third  olaaa,  con- 
sisting of  knights  oompanions,  takes  precedi 


n  this  dignity  who  has  not  received 
a  medal  in  reward  for  valor,  or  been  especially 
mentioned  ss  of  signal  merit  in  the  deapatobes 
of  his  snperior  officer. 

KiTWU,  or  BitkwTi  the  name  of  a  noble 
Tranaylvanian  fbmily,  several  members  of 
wblob  bave  played  a  distingnished  part  In  his- 
tory. L  Slepkn  (IsttIs'),  of  the  Ecsed  branch . 
of  the  family,  a  commander  nnder  King  Mat- 
thiaa  Gorrinns,  achieved  a  great  victory  over 
the  Turks  at  Keny^rmozd  in  1479.  IL  Stepkea, 
of  the  8omlj6  branch,  was  wayvode  of  Tran- 
sylvania onder  John  Z&polya.  IDi  BtepkM,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1688,  was  elected 
prince  of  Transylvania  in  ISTl.  He  was  after- 
ward elected  k^ng  of  Poland,  and  crowned  at 
Cracow  in  1676.  On  this  event  he  reaigned 
his  role  over  Tran^lvania,  at  the  same  time 


BATHUBST  389 

recommending  his  brother  to  tlie  honse  of 
deputies  as  his  successor.  He  died  after  a 
proaperons  reign,  in  1686.  (See  POLAiin.)  IT. 
drMarlMir  {Kmwtbf),  elder  brother  of  tlie  pre- 
ceding, elected  prince  in  his  stead  in  1676. 
The  Jeenits  came  to  Transylvania  daring  his 
reign,  and  the  education  of  his  son  was  com- 
mitted to  their  charge.  He  died  in  16B1.  T* 
HglaHnd  (Zsiohohd),  son  of  the  preceding, 
choeen  prince  before  the  death  of  his  father. 
He  was  a  weak-minded  man,  and,  having 
married  a  princess  of  the  bouse  of  Hapsbnrg, 
made  an  agreement  with  the  emperor  Rn- 
dolph  II.  that,  if  he  should  die  without  issne, 
the  rule  of  Transylvania  ahonld  he  transferred 
to  the  emperor  or  to  bis  successor ;  a  compact 
which  he,  as  merely  an  elected  prince,  had  no 
right  to  make.  He  was  afterward  persuaded 
by  the  Jesuit  Simon  Genga  to  make  over  bis  ' 
principality  to  Rudolph,  on  the  promise  of  be- 
mg  made  bishop  and  cardinal.  Notwithstand- 
ing some  violent  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
deputies,  one  of  whom  was  pat  to  death,  this 
transfer  was  effected  in  1698,  and  B&thori  re- 
tired into  Silesia.  But,  after  waiting  several 
months  in  vain  expectation  of  the  promised 
bishopric  and  cardmal's  hat,  he  returned  to 
Transylvania,  reassnmed  the  princely  office, 
and  immediately  transferred  the  same  to  his 
uncle  Andrew.  He  then  retired  into  Poland, 
bat  on  the  death  of  his  brother  returned,  and  ' 
Bgun  assumed  the  government  of  Translvvania 
(1509).  He  was  soon,  however,  compelled  by 
the  emperor  to  resign  for  the  third  tune,  and, 
having  received  from  him  a  pension  and  an 
estate,  finally  died  at  Prague,  March  27,  161S. 
TI>  fiabrW  (GIbob),  a  cousin  of  the  preceding, 
became  prince  of  Transylvania  in  1608,  was 
capricioas  and  cruel,  and,  succumbing  to  a  re- 
volt, fled  to  Gross- Wardein,  where  he  was 
killed  by  some  malcontents  in  161S.  ¥11.  EUi- 
■bett  (EnzsiBrr),  the  wife  of  a  Hangarian 
count,  notmioas  and  execrated  for  her  re- 
morseless cruelty.  Believing  that  the  blood 
of  yonng  maidens  would  restore  freshness  and 
bloom  to  ber  shrivelled  skin,  she  caused  a  great 
many  to  be  brought  to  her  castle  on  various 
pretences,  snd  then,  to  obtdn  the  deedred 
tath,  had  them  bled  to  death  by  some  sccom-  - 
piices.  Her  horrible  practices  were  at  last 
discovered,  and  she  was  brought  to  trial.  One 
of  ber  accomplices,  a  man,  was  decapitated, 
two  females,  the  chief  instromente  of  her 
crimes,  were  burned  alive,  and  the  couiitess 
herself  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for 
life  (1611).  She  died  in  confinement  a  few 
years  later. 

BlTUliltST,  a  town  of  New  Bmnswick,  cap- 
ital of  Gloucester  county,  sitnated  on  the  most 
southern  point  of  the  bay  of  Chaleurs,  287  m. 
N.W.  of  Halifax;  pop.  abont  2,000.     It  is  a 

Krt  of  entry,  and  has  considerable  trade.     It 
B  a  good  harbor,  and  is  noted  for  its  ship 
bnOding, 

UIUIFUT.  1.  An  E.  connty  of  New  Sonth 
Wake,  Australia,  bonnded  K.  E.  by  the  Mac- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


qaarie,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Laohlaa;  area,  about 

i^OOO  B^.  in. ;  pop.  in  ISTl,  19,826.  It  was 
the  earliest  district  settled  on  the  W.  aide  of 
the  Bine  monntaliu,  through  which  a  practjca- 
ble  roate  waa  first  discovered  in  1813.  It  is  on 
esoellent  grazinfir  oountrj,  well  watered,  and, 
being  nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
aea,  has  a  moderate  climate.  The  first  discov- 
ery of  gold  in  Anstralia  was  made  in  this  coun- 
ty, Feb.  12,  18S1,  by  Edmund  Hargraves,  an 
Engllahman  who  had  been  a  miner  in  Califor- 
nia, n.  The  principal  town  of  the  preceding 
oonnty,  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  gold 
region  of  the  district,  on  the  river  Uacqnarie, 
98  m.  W,  N.  W,  of  Sydney ;  pop.  about  e,O00. 
Two  lofty  elevations  lie  near  the  town,  Hoant 
Bankin,  about  4  m.  to  the  N.  W.,  and  the  Bald 
Hill,  2  m.  to  the  S.  W.  The  town  was  fonnd- 
«d  by  Gov.  Uacqaarie  in  181S,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Lord  Batbnrst,  the  then  English  sec- 
retary of  Btat«  for  the  coloniea.  It  is  now  the 
finest  of  all  the  inland  towns  of  the  colony, 
and  ia  built  on  a  sloping  plain  intersected  by 
a  deep  watercourse,  over  which  there  are  sev' 
eral  bridges.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  crom 
Mch  other  at  right  angles.  Many  of  the  stores 
are  largejwell  built,  and  well  supplied  with 
goods.  The  Episcopalian,  Roman  Catholic, 
Presbyterian,  and  Uethodist  churches  are 
large  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  pnb- 
lio  and  private  schools,  and  an  eitensive  sciool 
of  arts.  There  are  several  good  hotels,  a  the- 
atre, and  a  large  and  well  managed  hospital. 
Bathnrst  was  erected  into  a  municipality  Nov. 
18, 1862,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  an  Anglican  bishop.  In  1872  two  bi-week- 
ly newspapers  wore  j)ablished  here. 

BITHVBST,  a  settlement  on  the  isle  of  St. 
Mary,  near  the  month  of  the  Gambia,  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa,  founded  by  the  English  in 
181S,  and  the  prindpa)  of  the  English  estab- 
llshmenta  in  Benegambia.  It  is  sitnatod  only 
12  or  14  feet  above  high-water  marl,  and  is 
not  a  healthy  station,  water  being  s«aroe  and 
not  of  good  qaallty.  The  island  has  aboat 
8,000  inhabitanta,  few  of  whom  are  Enropeons. 
BATHlltST,  an  old  Engliah  &mi!y,  prominent 
in  the  last  throe  centuries.  L  Kalplu  dean  of 
.  Wells,  bom  at  Howthorpe  in  Nortliampton- 
shiro  [q  1620.  died  June  14,  1704.  He  waa 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  of  which 
college  his  grandfather.  Dr.  Eettel,  was  presi- 
dent. Ha  took  his  degrees  of  bachelor  and 
master  of  arts  in  16S8  and  1S41,  studied  theol- 
(^,  and  waa  ord^ed  in  1644.  He  delivered 
some  theological  lectures  in  1649,  which  he 
soon  afterward  published,  and  which  g^ned 
him  mnch  reputation.  Bnt  the  troubles  of  the 
period  made  him  resolve  to  abandon  the  cleri- 
cal profesnon,  and  he  began  to  stndy  medicine, 
and  took  a  doctor's  degree  in  1664.  He  had  a 
large  practice,  and  was  made  physician  to  the 
navy.  Id  coqjunction  with  l3r.  Willis,  who 
like  himself  hui  abandoned  the  church  for  the 
medical  profession,  he  settled  at  Oxford,  where 
he  studied  chemi^ry  and  several  branches  of 


BATHYBID8 

natoral  pbiloaophy.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  foundation  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  16S3 
waa  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Oxford  branch  of 
the  society.  After  the  restoration  he  aban- 
doned physio  and  returned  to  the  church,  was 
made  chaplain  to  the  king  in  166S,  dean  of 
Wells  in  1370,  and  in  1691  waa  nominated  to 
the  bishopric  of  Bristol  which  he  declined. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  waa  president 
of  Trinity  college  and  vice  chancellor  at  the 
university.  He  wrote  good  Latin  poetr;r.  IL 
AHta,  first  Earl  Bathnrst,  bom  in  London  in 
November.  1684,  died  Sept.  16,  ITTB.  He  waa 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Beqjamin  Bathnrst,  tiea- 
sarer  of  the  household  to  Queen  Anne  before 
she  ascended  the  tlirone.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment in  170G,  and  was  called  to  the  honse  <^ 
lords  aa  Baron  Bathnrst  in  1711,  in  lTfi7  was 
made  treasurer  to  the  prince  ol  Wales,  and 
on  the  accession  of  this  prince  as  George  III. 
»oon  after,  declined  further  public  employ- 
ments, but  accepted  a  pension  of  £S.OD0  a 
year.  In  1772  he  was  created  Earl  Bathurrt, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retiremenL 
He  was  a  political  opponent  of  the  doke  of 
Marlborough  and  of  Sir  Bobert  Walpole,  and 
was  on  inSmate  terms. with  Pope,  Gay,  Ad- 
dison, and  Congreve.  IIL  Beary,  the  only  snr- 
viving  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  May  3,  1714, 
died  Aug.  S,  1794.  He  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  (ileas  in  17S4,  and  lord  chan- 
cellor in  1771,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Apdey, 
and  resigned  the  seals  in  1778,  having  voted 
against  the  Chatham  annuity  bill,  a  ministerial 
measure.  He  was  president  of  the  council  in 
1780,  and  in  the  Gordon  riots  was  assaulted  by 
the  mob.  IT.  HMry,  bishop  of  Norwich,  consin 
of  the  second  Earl  Bathurst,  bom  Oct.  16, 1744, 
died  April  5,  1887.  He  waa  educated  at  Win- 
chester and  New  college,  Oxford,  obtained  a 
rectory  in  Norfolk,  and  then  the  rich  &mily 
living  of  Cirencester,  with  the  deanery  of  Dur- 
ham, and  a  canonry  of  Christ  church,  Oxford. 
In  1606  he  was  made  bishop  of  Norwich.  In 
parUament  he  strongly  advocated  Roman  Catb- 
oUo  emancipation,  concessions  to  the  disMnt- 
ers,  and  parliamentary  reform.  His  life  was 
written  by  his  eldest  son.  Dr.  Henry  Bathurst 
Y.  Beary,  second  Earl  Bathnrst,  son  of  Baron 
Apsley,  bom  May  22,  1762,  died  July  27, 1884. 
He  entered  the  house  of  commons,  and  was 
successively  lord  commissioner  of  the  admiral- 
ty, commissioner  for  India,  foreign  aeoretary, 
and  colonial  secretary.  When  the  tories  came 
into  power  in  1828  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  but  resigned  in  1880.  He  was  after- 
ward first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

BiTHUBST  INLET,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  ocean, 
projecting  doe  8.  aboat  76  m.  oat  of  Corona- 
tion gulf.  lat.  68°  N.,  loo.  nr  W.  It  is  in 
a  direct  line  between  the  magnetic  pole  and 
Great  Slave  lake,  and  about  800  m.  ftom  each. 

BATHYXhTL    See  BatthtInti. 

B1THTBI1I8,  tlie  name  given  by  Prof.  Hux- 
ley to  a  very  low  form  of  the  protozoa,  found 
penetrating  in  every  directjon  tne  viscid  calca- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BATHYLLU8  OF  ALEXANDRIA 

reoDs  mud  brought  op  in  eea  dred^Dga,  bj 
Drs.  W,  B.  Carpenter  and  Wj-ville  Thomaon, 
from  a  depth  of  about  S50  fotboms  in  the  north 
Atlantic  ocean.  According  to  lluxloy,  a  very 
large  extent  of  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  is 
covered  by  this  living  expanse  of  transparent 
geUttnous  or  protoplasmic  matter,  growing  at 
the  expense  of  inorgaoio  elements,  in  which 
are  imtiedded  grannlar  bodies  which  he  calls 
coccollths  and  cocoospheres,  and  to  wbioh  tliey 
bear  the  same  relation  as  the  spicules  of  sponges 
do  to  tlie/Boft  parts  of  these  animals.  This 
mad  also  contains  minute  foraminifera,  the  so- 
called  glabigerinm,  whose  colaareous  remains 
are  forming  a  stratum  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  considered  by  Huxley  the  same  in  char- 
acter and  modeof  formation  OS  the  chalk  of  the 
cretaceous  period.  Dr.  Wallich,  on  the  con- 
trary, regards  the  so-called  hathybiua,  not  as 
an  animal,  but  as  a  complex  mass  of  slime,  with 
many  foreign  bodies  and  the  remains  of  once 
living  organisms  in  it,  and  also  with  numerous 
living  forms.  Denying  the  organic  nature  of 
bathybius,  he  maintdns  that  the  coocoliths  and 
coccospheres  stand  in  no  direct  relation  to  it, 
but  are  independent  structures  derived  from 
preexisting  similar  forms,  and  that  their  nutri- 
tion is  effected  hy  a  vital  act  which  enables  these 
organisms  to  extract  from  the  surrounding  me- 
dinm  the  elements  necessary  for  their  growth. 
Dr.  C.  W.  Gumbel  has  reoentJy  (1872)  pnb- 
lisbed  a  ntper  confirming  the  condn^ons  of 
Hnxlejr,  Carpenter,  and  Haeckcl  with  regard 
to  the  organic  nature  of  the  protoplasmic  ba- 
thybius and  the  coocoliths  (diseoliths  and  cya- 
tholiths),  and  their  relationship  to  each  other. 
A  ^mllar  growth  in  fresh  water  has  been  called 

BITSYLLIIS  OF  ILEXITTDEU,  a  freedman  and 
fevorite  of  Mncenas,  who,  together  with  Py- 
lades  of  Cilicia,  was  preeminent  in  the  tinitative 
dances  called j:>anlo>niini.  In  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, with  Bathyllusand  Pyladea  as  principal 
Serformers,  pantomimes  were  brought  to  their 
Ighest  point  of  perfection,  hut  they  afterward 
grew  more  and  more  obscene  and  demoralised. 
Bathyllns  excelled  in  the  representation  of 
comic  characters,  and  Pylodes  in  tragic  per- 
BoniHoations.  Each  had  his  school  and  disci- 
ples, aoA  each  was  the  bead  of  a  party. 

UTOEl,  a  tribe  of  8.  Africa,  who  occupy 
two  considerable  islands  in  the  river  Leeam- 
bye,  and  the  adjacent  country  on  either  bank. 
They  formerly  held  wide  sway,  but  are  DOW 
for  the  most  part  subject  to  the  Barotse.  The 
Bstoka  universally  knock  out  the  upper  front 
teeth  of  both  sexes  at  the  age  of  puberty.  They 
are  ver;  degraded,  and  addicted  to  smoking 
the  rautokwane  (cannaiu  tatiea),  from  the 
effects  of  which  the;  become  delirious. 

IITOHI,  PeapM  GlreUMt,  an  Italian  painter, 
bom  at  Lucca  in  1708,  died  in  Borne,  Feb.  4, 
1787.  Some  of  his  best  works  are  at  Lisbon 
and  St.  Petersburg.  Ilis  principal  picture  at 
Rome  is  tlie  "  Fall  of  Simon  Magus,"  at  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli. 


BATTERING  RAM 


391 


BITOK  BODGE,  a  city,  capital  of  the  parish 

of  East  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  and  formerly  of  the 
state,  situated  on  a  bluff  on  the  E.  hank  of  the 
Mississippi,  120  m.  above  New  Orleans;  pop. 
in  1870,  6,4B8,  of  whom  8,356  were  colored. 
It  was  one  of  the  first  French  settlements, 
said  to  have  been  the  ^te  of  an  old  Indian  vil- 
lage. It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  large  district  de- 
voted to  the  cultivatiou  of  sugar  and  cotton. 
The  town  is  well  built,  contains  a  national  ar- 
senal and  barracks,  a  military  hospital,  and  the 
slate  penitentiary  and  deal'  and  dumb  asylum. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Louisiana  state  university, 
which  in  1871  had  18  instructors,  181  students, 
and  a  Ubrary  of  7,000  volumes,  and  of  Baton 
Rouge  college.  It  has  one  weekly  and  two 
daily  newspapers  and  a  monthly  periodical.  In 
the  civil  war  Baton  Ronge  was  oocnpied  by 
federal  troops  shortly  after  tlie  capture  of  New 
Orleans.  On  Aug.  G,  1862,  Gen.  Williams  was 
attacked  there  by  the  confederate  Gen.  Brack- 
enridge,  and  fell,  gallantly  lighting,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  victory ;  the  ram  Arkansas,  on  the  co- 
operation of  which  the  assailants  had  counted, 
having  broken  her  eo^e  and  proved  a  failure. 

BATON  BOOG^  Eart  and  W«t  See  East 
Baton  Rodok,  aod  Wkst  Batok  Bonos. 

BlIBiCHUNS.    See  Amphibia. 

BATSHUN.    See  Batohiah. 

BATTA.     SeeBATAK. 

BATTiXING  BAH  (Lat  aria),  the  eariiest 
machine  for  destroying  stone  walls  and  the  or- 
dinary defences  of  fortified  towna.  The  primi- 
tive form  of  this  instrument  was  a  hnge  beam 
of  seasoned  and  tough  wood,  hoisted  on  the 
shoulders  of  men,  who  ran  with  it  at  speed 
against  the  obstacle.  The  second  step  was 
strengthening  and  weighting  tlie  impinging  end 
of  the  machine  with  a  mass  of  bronze,  brass, 


or  iron.  The  third  improvement  was  suspend- 
ing it  by  chains  or  ropes  from  a  crane  or  trivet, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  oilow  it  to  swing  some 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


893  BATTEBSEA 

30  or  40  feet  to  and  fro,  under  the  ImpnlBe  of 
human  force,  as  nearly  as  possible  od  toe  plane 
of  the  horizon.  When  the  impetnB  wa«  once 
given  to  thla  vast  beam  of  wood,  100  or  ISO 
feet  in  length,  all  that  wbb  requisite  waa  to 
impart  to  it  «ucb  continned  motive  force  aa  to 
keep  it  in  play,  when  its  own  impetus  vonld 
of  conrae  gradually  increase ;  and  it  wonld  ne- 
oeeaarily  act  with  the  force  of  its  own  natural 
weight,  multiplied  by  a  constantiy  increasing 
measure  of  velocity,  apon  the  object  on  which 
it  impinged.  To  thia  mnst  b*  added  that  the 
ram  being,  in  its  moat  highly  improved  state, 
played  in  ezact  time,  it  acqnii^d  a  perfect 
vibratory  motion  itaelf^  and  its  blows  being 
directed  continually  on  one  spot,  at  regular 
intervala,  a  similar  vibration  was  commnni' 
oated  to  the  wall;  which,  increasing  with  the 
increased  weight  of  the  blows,  a  second  wave 
beinralways  potinoircnlation  from  the  centre 
of -the  attack  before  the  preceding  wave  bad 
Bobsided,  soon  set  the  whole  mass  of  masonry 
enrging  and  swaying  backward  and  forward. 
The  objeottois  to  it  were,  that  it  ooold  only 
be  need  at  dose  quarters,  where  direct  accen 
could  be  had  to  the  foot  of  the  fortiflcation 
which  was  to  be  beaten  down,  by  bodies  of 
men,  who  necewarily  worked  for  the  most  part 
In  fall  view,  and  exposed  to  the  missllee  of  the 
defenders  at  an  exceedingly  short  range.  The 
former  of  these  requirements  rendered  it  ne- 
ceesarr  to  fill  up  or  bridge  over  the  monts  or 
ditohes  in  front  of  the  work.  The  lattor  led 
to  the  construction  of  towers  of  planking, 
covered  with  raw  hides,  of  many  stories  in 
hri^t,  rolling  on  wheels;  in  the  lower  stage 
of  which  the  ram  was  slung  so  that  the  men 
who  worked  it  conld  do  so  perfectly  nnder 
cover,  while  the  Upper  stages  were  filled  with 
archers  and  elingera,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
overpower  the  flre  of  the  defenders.  From 
the  top  of  these  machines  a  sort  of  bridge  was 
also  contrived,  which  conld  be  lowered  and 
hauled  out  with  chains  and  polleye  so  as  to 
fall  on  the  sommit  of  the  tower  or  castle  wall, 
and  give  free  access  to  the  assailants.  These 
towers,  which  were  the  last  improvement  on 
the  ram,  were  so  arranged  that  they  were  not 
only  fought  bet  propelled  by  men,  either  with- 
in ^e  structure,  or  placed  behind  it,  in  snch  a 
manner  as  to  be  protected  by  it  from  the  shot 
of  the  enemy.  They  continued  to  be  in  nse 
daring  all  the  middle  ogea,  and  were  stJll  effec- 
tive until  ordnance  was  so  much  improved 
that  it  conld  be  discharged  rapidly  ana  with 
correct  aim. 

BITTEB^I,  a  pariiih  of  Surrey,  England,  4  m. 
S.  W.  of  St.  Paulas  cathedral,  forming  one  of  the 
suburbs  of  London;  pop,  in  1871,  10,580.  A 
wooden  bridge  over  the  Thames  connects  this 
parish  with  Chelsea,  and  a  suspension  bridge 
with  the  metropolis.  It  was  formerly  much 
occupied  by  market  gardenera,  who  supplied 
London  with  vegetables,  bnt  ia  now  building 
np  with  villas. 

BITTEKT,  MTialt.    See  Galvakuh. 


BATTERY 

UTl'UT  (Iftw  I^t  hatUre,  frtnn  Saxon  hattU 
a  dab),  as  defined  by  Blackstone,  the  unlaw- 
ful beating  of  another.    Bnt  if  beating  be  here 

taken  in  its  usual  sense,  the  definition  is  not 
nice  enough ;  for  the  offence  Includes  every 
unlawtiil  or  wrongftil  touching  of  another's 
person  against  his  will  or  without  his  consent 
whether  it  be  in  the  fonn  of  violence  or  of 
mere  construnt.  A  battory  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  t^e  act,  the  threat  or  attempt  of  which 
constitutes  an  aasaulL  (See  Assaclt.)  As 
every  battery  is  rearlied  through  on  assault, 
these  two  ofiences  are  often  described  by  the 
latter  word  alone,  thotigh  the  phrase  of  the 
law,  aasanlt  and  battery,  sometimes  used  In 
common  speech,  preserves  the  proper  legal  dis- 
tinction. Thus  the  unlawfnl  raising  of  the 
hand  or  of  a  weapon,  as  if  to  strike  snother,  is 
an  assault  J  the  octoal  infliction  of  the  threat- 
ened blow  is  a  battery. — The  law  makes  one's 
person  inviolable.  Therefore  not  only  is  a 
blow  a  battery,  bnt  so  also  is  spitting  upon  one, 
throwing  wstor  or  any  other  enbatanoe  upon 
him,  pndiing  him,  or  pushing  another  person 
or  onytiring  against  him.  And  the  inviolabH- 
ity  of  a  man's  person  extends  to  all  that  at  the 
time  pertains  to  it.  Thus  it  is  a  battery  to 
strike  one's  cane  in  his  hand,  or  the  clothes  on 
his  body,  or  a  horse  on  which  he  is  riding  so 
that  he  is  thrown.  Taking  indecent  liberties 
with  a  woman,  kissing  her  or  otherwise  touch- 
ing her  without  her  consent  or  against  her 
will,  are  also  batteries.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  ii^ury  should  be  done  by  the  hand  of 
the  aggressor ;  for  the  offence  is  committed  not 
only  by  striking  another  with  a  stick  or  with  a 
st«me  thrown  at  him,  bnt  also  by  urging  on  a 
dog  so  that  he  bites  him,  or  by  driving  a  horse 
over  him,  or  driving  a  wagon  against  that  in 
which  the  other  is  riding,  so  that  he  suatuns 
bodily  injury.  Nor  need  the  injury  be  Im- 
mediately done  by  one  to  moke  him  gnilty. 
This  principle  is  illastrated  by  the  cases  of 
those  who  abet  one  who  maliciously  fights  or 
beats  another,  or  of  one  who  procures  another 
to  commit  an  assault  and  battery,  or  of  a  ship- 
master who  suffers  any  one  mtder  his  control 
to  commit  0  battery  on  board  his  ship  upon  one 
of  his  crew  or  passengers.  It  is  immateiiol 
whether  the  act  be  done  with  violence  or  in 
anger,  or  result  from  the  omiseion  of  that  eare 
which  the  law  requires  every  one  to  exercise 
toward  others.  Thus  when  A  threw  a  lighted 
squib  among  a  crowd  of  people,  and  it  was 
thrown  from  hand  to  hand  by  several  in  their 
attempts  to  escape  it,  till  it  fell  upon  B  and 
put  out  his  eye,  it  was  held  a  battery  hy  A. 
So,  one  who  rides  with  and  assents  to  the  reck- 
less and  nnlawftd  driving  of  another,  whereby 
a  person  is  run  over,  is  himself  guilty  of  the 
battery.  But  the  intention  may  be  material  eo 
far  as  it  determines  the  character  of  the  act 
of  touching  another  without  his  permission. 
For  to  put  one's  hand  on  another  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  attracting  his  attention  is  innocent ; 
and  BO  it  ia  if  the  iqjniy  was  entirety  acci- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BATTEUX 

deiitkl  and  nnderigned,  not  merelr  in  fact,  bnt 
in  view  of  that  rale  of  the  law  whicb  impotea 
^iltf  negligence  when  there  is  lack  of  dne 
care.  UpMi  these  principle*  one  is  guiltlesB 
when  his  hone  mne  withoat  bis  fault  and  in- 
jures BDother.  And  if  an  officer,  authorized  to 
aneatone,  lathis  hands  upon  him,  orusesonl^ 
neceesary  force,  for  the  parpoea  of  making  the 
arrest,  he  is  justified ;  or  if  one  is  threatened 
with  an  asstuut,  or  another  attempts  wrongful]; 
to  deprive  him  of  bis  goods,  he  may  justifiably 
use  sufficient  violence  on  the  wrong  doer  to 
protect  his  peraon  or  property.  But  the  use 
of  any  excessive  violeuee  in  snob  a  ease,  that 
is  to  aay,  of  any  more  violence  than  is  neoes- 
eary  to  prevent  the  threatened  ii^nry,  ia  a  bat^ 
tery.  The  reasonable  citaadaemaDC  of  a  child 
by  his  parent  or  bis  soboolmaster  is  not  bat- 
tery ;  nor  is  the  reasonable  even  though  forcible 
restrunt  of  a  Innatio  by  his  keeper,  or  the 
Miriog  or  holding  of  one  who  is  about  to  eoni' 
mit  an  assault,  or  the  wresting  of  a  weapon 
from.  him. — Battery  is  a  misdemeanor  by  the 
ocanroon  law,  pnniahableby  fine  and  imprison- 
ment ;  and  the  party  irynred  may  also  have  his 
private  civil  actioii  for  damages. 

BlTtEDX,  CkailM,  a  Freneh  writer  on  esthet- 
ics, bom  May  0, 1718,  died  Jnly  14, 17B0.  He 
was  ^pointed  profeasor  at  the  edUge  de  Li- 
nens in  Paris,  and  at  the  ooU^  de  Navarre, 
imd  snbseqnently  Greek  and  Latin  [HvfeMor  at 
the  college  de  France.  In  bis  Beause  art*  r<- 
iuitt  d  KB  stul  pHneiM  (Pftria,  1748),  and 
HUtoire  det  eaiue» premUtt*  (1769),  he  opposed 
maimerisra  and  conventiontuitiea,  and  etruve 
to  bring  art  and  pluloaoph^  back  to  a  doeer 
harmony  with  nature.  This  theory  waa  op- 
posed to  the  opinions  of  many  of  his  acoderoi- 
cal  fHenda,  and  ted  to  the  snppreseion  of  the 
chair  whioh  he  filled  at  the  college  de  Franoe. 
In  1754  be  became  a  member  of  the  academy 
of  inaoriptions  and  bellee-lettree,  and  in  1761 
of  the  French  ocademy. 

UTnivJiNyL  L  U»ir,ooant^aHnnnrisn 
statssman,  bom  June  4,  1807,  died  in  Faria, 
Jnly  18,  1864.  In  early  life  he  passed  some 
time  in  England,  and  upon  his  return  to  his 
native  oonntry  he  joined  the  liberal  party,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Uunsarian  diet,  and  in 
lS4a  took  an  active  part  in  Uie  national  war  in 
defence  of  the  southern  border.  After  hav- 
ing officiated  as  governor  of  various  districts, 
he  became  in  1S4G  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
nnder  the  administration  of  Koesutb,  and  sub- 
seqnentiy  shared  Eosauth's  exile  in  Torkey 
till  1851,  when  he  repaired  to  Paris.    In  that 

Sir  he  addressed  a  series  of  letters  to  die 
ndon  "Times,"  in  which  he  redacted  rather 
severely  upon  Rossnt^'s  character  aa  a  atates- 
man  and  patriot  IL  I4IH)  a  member  of  the 
same  &mily,  bom  in  Presborg  in  1809,  shot  in 
Peeth  by  order  of  the  Anstnan  government, 
Oct.  6,  1849.  He  was  a  cadet  in  the  Anatrian 
army  at  the  age  of  16,  and  afterword  travelled 
extensively,  but  returned  to  Hungary  to  take 
a  port  in  the  reform  movement  of  the  time. 


BATTLE  AXE  S93 

He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  in 
the  diets  of  1SS9''40  and  184a-'4,  and  in  1847 
was  preeminently  instrumental  in  promoting 
Kossuth's  election  to  the  house  of  deputies. 
After  the  revolution  of  March,  1848,  he  was 
prime  minister  of  the  national  administration, 
m  which  capaoity  he  evinced  equal  patriotism 
and  moderation.  When  the  war  was  precip- 
itated by  the  manceuvrea  of  the  court,  he  re- 
signed and  mode  some  fruitless  efforts  to  bring 
about  a  reoonciliatiDn.  At  the  opening  of  1849 
he  was  one  of  a  deputation  from  the  Hungarian 
diet  to  make  peace  overtures  to  WindischgrfiU, 
who  with  the  Anatrian  army  was  approaching 
Bndo-Pesth.  The  Austrian  general  reftased  to 
li(t«n  to  the  pn^iorition,  and  &e  seat  of  the 
revolutionary  government  was  removed  Arom 
Peath  to  Debraozin.  Butthy&nyi  remained  at 
Pesth,  where  he  was  arrested  Jan.  8,  1849, 
and  on  Oct.  6  fbUowing  sentenced  by  a  court 
martial,  presided  over  by  Marshal  Haynau,  to 
die  DO  the  gollowa  He  stabbed  himself  with  a 
doner,  and  inflicted  so  m«ny  wonnds  on  liia 
neek  that  he  could  not  be  hanged,  and  accord- 
ingly be  was  shot.  His  estates  were  con- 
flsoated,  bnt  restored  to  his  family  on  the  res- 
toration of  die  Hnngarian  constttotion  in  186T. 

BlITUB,  tt  market  town  of  SuMex,  England, 
Se  m.  by  rdl  B.  E.  of  London,  and  T  m.  ttom 
EastingH,  named  fVom  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
between  William  the  Conqueror  and  King  Har- 
old II.,  whioh  waa  fought  near  the  town,  Oct. 
14, 1066.  On  the  ^t  where  Harold's  banner 
had  been  planted,  William  fbunded  a  great  ab- 
bey, the  magnificent  gateway  of  which  atill  re- 
mains. There  are  extensive  mills  for  the  mun- 
u&cture  of  gunpowder  in  the  vicinity  of  Battle. 

SiTIlE  IIE,  an  ancient  military  weapon  of 
offence,  nnnaed  by  the  Greeks  or  Romans,  and 
apparently  of  oriental  or  northeaat«m  Euro- 
pean ori^n.  The  Amaions  are  always  de- 
scribed as  armed  with  the  double-beaded 
battle  axe,  bipainii,  and  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  Perwan  best  at  Marathon  Herodotus 
mentJMiB  the  Saom  as  fighting  with  brazen 
shields  and  battle  axes.  Horace  speaks  of  the 
Rfaieti  and  Vindelioi,  barbarians  of  the  Alps, 
as  armed  from  the  remotest  times  with  Am- 
azonian axes.  The  axe  does  not,  however, 
appear  to  have  become  a  general  instmment 
M  war  until  the  descent  of  tiie  Teutonic  na- 
Uims,  all  of  whom  used  some  modiflcatjon 
of  this  weapon,  which  alone  was  capable  of 
crushing  in  or  cleaving  asunder  the  linked 
steel  moil.  The  axe  of  the  Sasons,  who  were 
a  nation  of  foot  soldiers,  soon  assumed  the 
form  of  the  bill,  glaive,  or  gUarmA,  whioh  with 
the  bow  became  the  national  weapon  of  the 
English  infantry.  The  Normans,  who  were 
especially  cavaliers,  retained  the  old  fonn  of 
the  battle  axe,  with  a  heavy  oie  blade  forward 
of  the  shaft  and  a  sharp  spike  behind  it,  besides 
a  point  perpendicular  to  the  handle,  which 
could  be  used  for  thrusting  at  an  enemy.  The  ' 
battle  axe  was  carried  slung  on  one  aide  of  the 
pommel  of  the  man-at-arms'  saddle,  as  was  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


894 


BATTLE  CREEK 


maoo  at  the  other;  it  was  of  great  weight, 
often  10  pounds  or  over. 

BilTLE  CBEEK,  a  citj  of  Calhoun  oonntj, 
Vichigan,  at  tlie  junction  of  Battle  creek  with 
the  Kalamazoo  river,  120  m,  W,  of  Detroit,  on 
the  Michigan  Centra]  and  the  Peninsula  rail- 
roads; pop.  in  IBTO,  6,S88.  It  is  in  the  vioinit; 
of  qnarriea  of  snperior  sandstone,  and  contains 
«  namber  of  woolleti  factories,  fioor  mills, 
saw  mills,  machine  shops,  4  grammar  and  IS 
primarj  schools,  and  several  chorohes.  Fire 
newspapers  and  periodicals  are  published  here. 

BiTO  KHAN,  Mongol  sovereign  of  Keptchak, 
died  in  1256.  On  the  death  of  bis  father, 
Tnshi,  about  1224,  he  received  from  his  grand- 
father Genghis  Khan  the  rule  over  tlie  west- 
ern conquests,  E.  and  W.  of  the  Volga,  out  of 
which  he  subaeqnentlj  organized  the  khanate 
of  Kaptchok  or  of  the  Golden  Uorde.  On  the 
death  of  Genghis,  in  1227,  he  acknowledged 
the  supremao;  of  his  uncle  Oktai  as  great  khan, 
and  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
China,  and  at  his  command  swept  over  Russia, 
Pdaud,  HongaiT,  and  Dalmstia.  He  foaght 
Henrj,  dake  of  Lower  Silesia,  at  Wahlstadt  in 
1241,  and  Bela  IV.,  king  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Sttj6,  in  1242.  Bela  fled  into  Dalmatio,  whither 
Batn  followed  him  and  ravaged  that  territory, 
bat  retreated  the  next  fear.  He  held  Russia 
for  10  years. 

BlTDTl,  Iti,  MoDAMHED  iBN  Abdallar,  a 
Mowiah  traveller  and  theologian,  bom  at  Tan- 
gier in  1302,  died  about  1ST6.  He  made  ex- 
tensive journeys  between  182G  and  18G3  over 
Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  Perns,  China,  Tartary, 
Hindostan,  the  Maldive  islands,  the  Indian 
archipelago,  central  Africa,  and  Spain,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  the  origmal 
manuscript  of  which  has  not  been  discovered, 
although  suppoaed  to  have  been  preserved  at 
C^ro  or  at  Fez,  to  which  latter  place  he  re- 
turned after  the  completion  of  his  travels. 
Fragments  of  hie  manuscript  were  epitomized 
by  Mohammed  ibn  Tazri  el-Eelbi,  and  ei- 
troots  of  this  epitome  were  made  by  another 
Moorish  admirer  of  Batuta,  named  Mohammed 
ibn  Fal.  This  "Extract  of  an  Epitome,"  as 
it  is  called,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Burck- 
bardt,  who  bequeathed  it  to  the  English  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  A  translation  of  the 
■' Extract,"  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lee  of  Cam- 
bridge, appefu^  in  1828,  in  the  publications 
of  the  oriental  translation  fund.  A  French 
version  of  Batuta's  travels  was  published  at 
Paris  m  1853,  in  4  vols.  Svo. 

BATl'DSBKOFF,  CMStuUi  NlkilaTeTttch,  a  Rus- 
sian poet,  bom  at  Vologda,  May  26,  ITHT,  died 
there,  July  29,  1SS5.  He  was  educated  at  St 
Petcrsbarg,  1«o)(  part  in  the  campugn  against 
Finland  and  in  the  French  wars  of  1813'-'14, 
was  some  time  librarian  in  thepnblio  library 
of  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  subsequently  at- 
tached to  the  foreign  office  at  home,  and  to  the 
Russian  embassy  at  Naples.  He  wrote  in  prose 
on  Russian  literature,  and  translated  Schiiler^s 
"  Bride  of  Messina  "  into  Russian.    He  lost  his 


BAUDENS 

mind  in  1818.  Aoomplet«  edition  of  his  poems 
appeared  at  St.  Petersburg  in  16S4,  and  in 
Smirdin's  collection  of  classic  Bassian  poets. 

BIGCHEB,  FrufBl),  a  French  teacher  of 
horsemanship,  bom  at  Veraaiilea  about  the  be* 
ginning  of  this  century,  died  in  1878.  He  invent- 
ed a  system  of  equina  gymnestics,  a  portion 
of  which,  the  method  of  suppling  the  norse's 
neck  and  Jaw,  boa  passed  into  general  use  and 
is  adopted  by  every  skilful  trainer  of  sad- 
dle horses.  By  a  progressive  series  of  flex- 
ions the  muscles  aro  made  so  supple  and  yield- 
ing that  the  animal  ceases  to  bear  or  pull 
upon  the  bit;  while  by  the  application  of  the 
whole  system  he  comes  to  have  no  will  except 
that  of  his  rider.  Baucher  waa  repeatedly  em- 

Eloyed  by  the  French  government  to  train 
orsce  for  the  cavalry  service;  but  the  refin»- 
'menta  of  his  method  were  not  suited  to  that 
purpose.  He  had  many  partisans  in  foreign 
countries,  and  was  a  persontO  favorite  with  l£e 
duke  of  Wellington.  He  wrote  in  defence  of 
his  system,  and  his  ifithode  cCigmtation  ba*i* 
tur  de  nouttaw  prineipM  (Paris,  1842;  llth 
ed.,  186S)  has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
gnsgea.  In  the  United  States  it  has  been  pub- 
lished under  the  title  "  Method  of  Horseman- 
ship on  new  Frindples  "  CPbiIadeli)hia,  1802). 
BAUCIS,  in  mythology,  a  Phrygian  woman, 
who,  with  her  husband  Philemon,  entertained 
Jupiter  and  Mercury  when  tfaey,  while  travel- 
ling in  disguise,  had  been  refiised  hoepitalitT' 
thronshout  their  route.  A  delude  destroyed 
the  inhospitable  people,  but  Baucis  and  Phile- 
mon wero  saved.  At  their  reqnest  the  gods 
tranaformed  their  cottage  into  a  temple,  in 
which  they  conld  act  as  priest  and  pneateas. 
The^  expressed  a  denro  to  die  together,  and 
Jupiter  changed  them  into  trees. 
BADDELAIBE,  Charta.  See  supplement, 
BiDDELOCtpE,  Jtu  LhIs,  a  French  surgeon 
and  accoucheur,  born  at  Heilly,  Picordy,  in 
1744,  died  May  1,  1810.  He  studied  anatomy, 
surgery,  and  obstetrics  in  Paris,  and  obtained 
the  first  priice  in  the  school  of  practical  anat- 
omy. About  1771  he  was  appomted  first  sur- 
geon to  the  hospital  La  Charity  but  after  a 
few  years  began  to  devote  himself  more  ex- 
clusively to  midwifery,  in  which  he  soon  ao- 
quired  a  commanding  reputation,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the  school 
of  hygiene,  and  sui^^on-in-chief  to  the  mater- 
nity hospital.  He  was  generally  rect^nized  as 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  obstetricians  of 
Paris,  and  was  selected  by  Napoleon  as  chief 
accoucheur  to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  He 
waa  one  of  the  earliest  practitioners  who  made 
use  of  the  forceps  as  a  means  of  delivery  in 
difficnlt  parturition.  His  works  are:  Prineipt* 
dt  Part  da  aecovciementi  (Paris,  1775 ;  fith 
ed.,  1821);  An  in  Partu  propter  AnauMtiam 
Ptlnii  impotttbUi  Symphyiit  Ouium  Pvbii  (*- 
eandaf  (1776);  and  i'art  det  aeeovehemottU 
(1781;  6th  ed.,  1822). 

BAUDENS,  Jeaa  BaptMe  Lidw,  a  French  mili- 
tary surgeon,  bom  at  Aire,  Pas^le-Calaia,  April 


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BATJDIN 

t,  1804,  died  in  Puns,  Dm.  8, 1867.    He  foond- 

■«d  a  hospital  in  Algiers,  in  which  he  tanght 
anfttoin^andsorgerjfurniDe  jears.  Kewaa  in 
most  of  the  African  eomp^gns,  and  figures  in 
two  of  Horace  Vernet's  paintings.  In  1841  he 
became  director  of  the  Paris  militar}'  hospital 
of  instruotion,  the  Val-de-Grflce.  Daring  tlie 
Crimean  war  he  was  a  member  of  the  sanitar; 
committee  of  the  armj'.  Uta  principal  works 
are:  IfouwlU  miChode  det  ampuUitioni  (Paris, 
1642),  and  La  giitrr»  d«  Onmie.  la  eampt- 
tatnU,  let  abris,  let  ambulaneet,  U»  Mpitata, 
Ac.  (Paris,  1867;  Sd  ed.,  1862;  Ger.  transla- 
tion, Kiel,  1604). 

BADDM,  HlMlM,  a  French  sea  oaptun  and 
natarolist,  born  on  the  island  of  Ri  in  17S0, 
died  in  tbe  Isle  of  Fraace,  Sept.  18,  160S.  He 
entered  the  merohant  navj  at  an  eaTl7  age, 
and  in  178S  went  on  a  botanical  expedition  to 
the  Indies,  sailing  from  Leghorn  nnder  the 
Aostrian  flag,  with  a  Tesael  nnder  his  own 
command.  His  collections  in  this  expedition, 
and  in  a  second  expedition  which  he  made  to 
the  West  Indies,  were  presented  bj  him  to 
the  government  of  France,  which  promoted 
him  to  the  rank  of  capttdn,  and  sent  him  in 
1800  with  two  corvettes  on  a  scientific  mission 
to  Anstralia.  P£roD  accompanied  him  and 
wrote  an  acconnt  of  the  voyage  (  Voj/age  aia 
Urrtt  atutraltt,  Paris,  1607). 

BADDUf  DE8  UDEHIfiS,  Oaita,  a  French 
nnval  o^tiat,  )x>m  at  Sedan,  Jnlj  21,  1784, 
died  in  Paris  in  Jane,  16Si.  In  1812,  as  lien- 
tenant  in  command  of  the  brig  Renard,  nccom- 
panTii^t  an  expedition  of  14  sail  with  moni- 
tions trotti  Genoa  to  ToqIoq,  he  conducted  his 
convoj  safely  into  the  harbor  of  St  Tropei, 
thoDgh  oontinual)  J  pursued  b;  English  omisers; 
bat  his  fiag  ship  was  immediately  after  at- 
tacked by  an  English  brig,  which  he  disabled 
after  a  desperate  conflict.  For  this  service  he 
was  made  captain  of  a  frigate.  After  the  res- 
toration he  resigned,  and  in  1816  entered  Uie 
merchant  service,  bnt  after  the  July  revolution 
reentered  the  navy.  Jo  1888  he  was  made 
rear  admiral,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
of  S3  ships  agunst  Mexioo.  Fuling  to  effect 
an  amicable  settlement  with  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment, he  bombarded,  Nov.  27,  1886,  the 
fortress  of  San  Jnan  de  TJItoa,  which  snrren- 
dered  on  the  following  day.  On  Dec.  S  he 
miade  an  attack  on  Vera  Oraz,  which  was 
repelled  by  the  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anno, 
who  lost  a  leg  in  the  action;  and  the  French 
were  compelled  to  reEmbark  and  retire  from 
Mexico.  Bandin  was  now  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  vice  admiral,  and  in  1840  was  sent 
as  military  and  diplomatic  plenipot«ntiary  to 
the  repnblio  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Intrusted 
with  the  chief  command  of  the  French  fleet  in 
the  South  American  waters.     He  was  marine 

C'ect  at  Toulon  from  1841  to  1847.  In 
ch,  1848,  he  was  apptdntad  commander  of 
the  French  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
May  IG,  when  Naples  was  threatened  by  the 
Inzxaroni  and  soldiery,  the  presence  of  his  Beet 


BAD£R 


395 


kept  the  rioters  in  check.  In  September  the 
French  fleet,  in  conJunoCion  with  tnat  of  Great 
Britain,  protected  Messina  against  the  designs 
of  nian^eri.  Baudin  was  also  aucoessful  in 
recovering  at  Naples  and  Tunis  sums  due  to 
French  residents.  In  July,  1649,  he  withdrew 
fVom  active  service. 

BAEDEtlS,  Jean,  a  French  author,  bom  at 
Tonra,  Aug.  14,  1749,  died  May  4,  183S.  He 
began  bis  literary  life  at  Paris  by  writing  Val- 
legreue  mllageout^n  honor  of  the  danpbin's 
marriage,  1781.  He  was  a  revolutionist  and 
enemy  of  Louis  XVI.,  whose  lost  testament  he 
coontersigned  as  witness.  He  was  employed 
in  various  magisterial  posts  during  the  repub- 
lic and  the  consulate,  and  eventually  at  the  col- 
ony of  Gaadeloupe,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  Cayenne.  He  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Napoleon,  was  removed  from  his 
otfloe,  and  emigrated  to  the  United  Slates, 
where  he  passed  18  rears,  living  by  manual 
labor.  His  chief  work  is  liis  unfini^ed  Evai 
*ur  forigin*  tt  la  progri*  da  Vart  dramatiqut 
en  Fraru!»  (8  vols,,  Paris,  1701). 

BADDUXiRT,  Heul  Jmc^  Um,  a  French 
political  economist,  bom  in  Pans,  Nov.  28, 
1821.  He  published  essays  on  Voltaire  (1844) 
Tnrgot  (1846),  and  Madame  de  Sta^l  (1660),  and 
in  16S3  a  work  on  Jtan  Bodin  et  ion  Umpt,  for 
which  the  academy  awarded  him  the  first  Mon- 
thyon  prize.  Since  18G5  he  has  been  chief 
editor  of  tbe  JovrtMl  det  ieonamitUt.  He  is 
also  connected  with  the  Journal  da  Dibatt, 
having  married  in  1S66  the  daughter  of  its 
chief  editor,  M.  de  Saoy ;  and  he  was  editor-in- 
chief  of  the  Cajutitationnel  in  1868  and  1869. 
In  16S6  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  his- 
tory of  political  economy  in  the  college  de 
France.  He  is  a  writer  for  the  principal  cyclo- 
piedias,  for  the  Beeaa  da  Dmtx-Monda,  and 
other  periodicals,  and  is  the  author  of  many 
wt^ka  relating  to  political  economy,  moral 
science,  spiritnalisin,  and  the  prc^ess  of  the 
laboring  classes  and  of  trades  unions.  Hia 
Manuel  d'ieonomU  politique  (1807)  obtcuned 
from  the  French  academy  the  Monthyon  prize, 
and  his  I}e*  rapport*  de  la  morale  et  de  Vieo- 
nomU  politique  (1860)  rectived  a  prize  medal. 
Among  his  other  works  are ;  Etudet  de  philoto- 
pkie  morale  et  d'eeonomie  politique  (2  vols., 
1858);  La  liberte  dtt  travail,  rateoeialion  et  la 
diTnoeratie  (18S6) ;  and  Stimtmte  d'iantomie 
rwrale,  induttrielle  et  eomm&roiale  (1667). 

BiDB,  Alt**,  a  German  jurist,  bom  in  GOt- 
tingen,  Aug.  16,  1772,  died  there,  June  1,  1848. 
He  was  a  professor  in  Marburg  and  in  Gottin- 
gen,  and  in  1840  was  appointea  privy  judiciary 
councillor.  His  principal  works  are;  i/«AT^ueA 
de*  NatvrreehU  (Marburg,  1806;  8d  ed.,  Gdt~ 
tingen,  1823);  Orundt&ge  da  philotopkieehen 
Strttf^eehU  (182G);  and  Lahrbueh  dee  Straf- 
proeeeeei,  a  revised  edition  of  a  previons  work 
(Gdttingen,  188B;  2d  ed.,  1846). 

BADEB,  Beraftrt,  abb6,  a  French  priest,  bom 
in  Pesth,  Hungary,  in  1 629.  He  was  a  member 
of  a  wealthy  Jewish  family,  1^  Us  studies  to 


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396  BAUEB 

enlist  in  the  French  Ktaj  in  1848,  and  Bfter 
an  adventnronB  life  beoame  a  ounvert  to  the 
Boman  Catholic  churoli  and  join^  the  Oar- 
melite  order.  His  eloquence  acqoired  for  him 
a  Kreat  reputation  in  Giermany  and  France ; 
and  he  became  honorary  canon,  apostolical 
prothonotarj,  and chaplainat  the ToUerieg.  Me 
was  a  apeciij  favorite  of  the  empreea  EogSnie, 
whom  he  acoompanied  to  Egj pt  at  the  opening 
of  the  Snez  canal.  Dniing  the  siege  of  Paris 
he  figured  aa  chaplain  of  the  ambulances  of 
the  press,  having  under  his  orders  SOO  frhre* 
oAnstMnj,  dressed  as  priests,  tliongh  not  in  hotjr 
orders.  He  often  auowed  bimaelf  on  horse- 
back, dressed  in  a  sontane  and  long  boots,  with 
tiia  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  on  his 
breast,  and  an  episcopal  ring  on  bit  finger.  He 
has  pablished  Lt  Judaiime  eomme  prew>«  du 
Ckrutianime^  a  series  of  lectares  which  he 
had  delivered  in  1866  in  Vienna  and  Paris; 
ITapoUon  III.  tt  VEuropt  en  1867,  a  political 
pamnhlet  (Paris,  1867) ;  ai^  L«  but  de  la  ^ 
a  oolleotion  of  hia  sermona  preached  at  the 
Tnileries  (1869). 

BIDEK.  L  Bma,  a  German  oritio  and  theo- 
lo^on,  bom  at  Eisenberg,  Sept.  6,  1809.  Ed- 
ucated in  Berlin,  he  became  in  1884  a  t«acher 
at  the  nniverritj  there.  He  was  then  a  H^- 
lian  philoeopher  of  the  old  school.  In  I8S6  he 
■evereiy  criticised  Strauss's  "Life  of  Jesna," 
proposing  to  reconcile  the  free  action  of  reason 
with  the  Christian  revelation,  which,  in  com- 
mon with  Hegel,  he  regarded  as  a  gradnal  self- 
revelation  of  human  reason.  This  position  he 
abandoned  in  1889.  In  that  year  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Bonn,  bat  in  1842,  on  account  of  the 
rstionalistic  boldness  displayed  in  his  writings 
and  lectures,  was  deprived  of  permission  to 
^ve  public  instmction.  He  then  retnmed  to 
Berlin  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  historical 
and  critical  pablications.  In  these  writings  he 
asserts  tiiat  the  gospels,  as  well  as  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  principal  epistles  of  Pani, 
are  fictions,  written  during  the  2d  century  with 
a  view  to  account  for  the  rapid  spread  of  ChriS' 
tianitf  at  a  time  when  the  origmal  history  of 
its  estAblishment  bad  already  fallen  into  oi>- 
Bcnrity;  that  religion  should  be  abolished,  and 
that  science  and  ethics  of  human  reason  ^ould 
be  substituted ;  and  that  all  attempts  at  apolo- 
gizing for  the  soientiSc  deficiencies  of  Christian- 
ity and  revealed  religion  in  general  ore  futile. 
His  principal  works  are:  Kritii d«r  tvatiffeii- 
tchan  6e*iAicht*  d«a  Jehanne*  (Bmnen,  1S40) ; 
Kritik  dar  tBongtlitdien  OeiehiehU  dar  Sgnop' 
tiher  (Sd  ed.,  8  vtJs.,  Leipaic,  ]S41~'S) ;  KrUik 
der  Etxmgelien,  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  18fi0-'61] ;  Dia 
Ap<MUl^hiiikU(\^m(i)\aaA  Kritik  dm- Pauli- 
niteften  Brief e  {\B5fi).  Of  bis  minor  works  are 
to  be  mentioned  Lia  Jvdat^'raga  (Brnnswiok, 
1848),  in  which  he  protested  agunst  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  Jews,  who  according  to  his 
views  were  first  to  emancipate  themselvea  by 
abandoning  tbeir  clanniahnass,  rehgion,  and 
trading  in  money.  His  AUgam^'M  LUaratur- 
laitwoQ  (Oharlottenburg,  184S-'4),  his  works  on 


BAUGS 

the  history  of  the  French  revolution,  on  Ger- 
man history  since  the  French  revololion,  and 
on  the  causes  of  the  intility  of  the  revolution  of 
1848-'B,  though  still  democratic  in  spirit,  were 
partly  direct«^  against, the  atopian  tendencies 
of  the  revolutionary  party.  In  hia  later  writ- 
ings (on  the  "Dictatorship  of  ^e  Western 
Powers,  1866,  on  the  "Position  of  Roama," 
1855,  &c.)  he  evinced  a  more  and  more  de- 
cided leaning  toward  political  conservatism,  of 
which  he  has  ultimately  beoome  a  (Jiampion. 
IL  Edgar,  brother  of  the  precoding,  born  at 
Oharlottenburg  in  1831.  His  pamphlet  in  de- 
fence of  his  brother  Bnmo  (1843)  was  confis> 
cated,  and  his  Centurinttruetiai^  written  du- 
ring the  preparatioD  of  the  trial,  was  also  seued, 
but  published  in  Bern  in  1844.  On  account  of 
his  work  Der  StrtU  der  Kritik  mit  Eireht 
und  Stoat,  he  was  condemned  in  1848  to  im- 
prisooment  in  the  fortress  of  Uogdebnrg  for 
fonr  jeara.  He  was  a  co-worker  with  his 
brother  in  some  of  his  publications,  and  pre- 
pared while  in  prison  Iha  Oeatkiehte  der  cmi- 
ititKtionellen  Beteegtaig  im  w&dUehen  SeuUeh- 
land  wOhrmd  der  Jahre  18S1-'S4  (8  vols., 
Oharlottenburg,  1845-'6),  and  GaehiehU  da 
iMtherthumt,  m  the  Bibliotheh  der  devtaekan 
Au/ildrer  (5  vols.,  Leipsic,  ]846-'7).  After 
his  release  in  1648  he  published  a  poUtioal  re- 
view caUed  Die  Parteien  (Hamburg,  18*9),  and 
Ueber  die  Ehe  iffl  Siane  de*  lAttkertiiwn*  (Leip- 
sic, 1849) ;  and  in  1367  appeared  in  Leipsic  his 
Eagliteha  Freilieit. 

BAUER,  Gearg  Lsnu,  a  German  theologian, 
bom  at  Hilpoltstein,  Aug.  14,  1T5G,  died  in 
Heidelberg,  Jon.  12, 180S.  He  stndiod  theology 
in  Altdorf,  and  was  minister  and  professor  of 
theolt^j  in  Nuremberg,  Altdorf^  and  Heidel- 
berg. He  introduced  mto  theology  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  Bible,  like  the  works  of  the  old 
otasaics,  must  be  interpret«d  by  grammatical 
and  historical  considerations,  and  not  with 
reference  to  theological  doctrines.  He  was 
among  ^e  first  to  elaoidate  the  d<^matic 
opinions  of  the  different  Biblical  writers,  and 
to  show  the  difierences  between  them.  He 
also  shows  the  difierences  between  the  opinions 
of  the  Biblical  writers  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
creed  of  the  Lutheran  chnrch  on  the  other,  and 
was  the  first  to  write  a  systematic  exposition 
of  the  Christian  dogmas  as  they  are  omtaiued 
in  the  Bible,  and  in  each  Biblical  book  in  par- 
ticular. Among  his  writings  are :  fferrn^nett- 
tiea  aacra  V.  T.  O^ipnc,  1797) ;  Bibliieha  Tke- 
oloffie  de»  Neven  TettamenU  (Leipsic,  1800-'2) ; 
H^triiiteha  Mythologia  dat  Alten  vnd  Ifauen 
TatamtnU  (Leipsic,  1602~'S).  Bauer  was  a 
distingaiahed  orientalist,  and  translated  the 
Arabian  history  of  Abulfarttj. 

BICCK,  a  French  town,  department  of  Maine- 
et-Loire,  28  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Angers ;  pop,  in  1866, 
8,562.  This  town  is  celebrated  in  history  for 
a  battie  fought  between  the  ^gtish  and  the 
French  in  1421,  in  which  theformer  were  totally 
defeated  and  their  leader,  the  duke  of  Clarence, 
was  killed.    Kear  this  town,  at  Bang£-le-Viel, 


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BAUHIir 

are  the  rains  of  on  old  cabUs  that  fiHinerlf  b«- 

loDsctl  to  Uio  dukea  of  Aqjoo. 

ItlCIIL\)  Jcaa,  a  Swisa  physician  and  natu' 
rolist,  bom  in  Biuel  in  1041,  died  in  1(113. 
He  was  a  papil  of  the  botanUt  Fuchs  at  Tfibin- 
gen,  accomponiod  Conrad  Gesner  in  his  botani- 
cal oscnraions,  travelled  eitensively  over  cen- 
tral Europe,  and  became  court  physician  to 
Duke  IJlrio  of  WOrtemberg.  Baabin  cultivated 
in  the  dncol  gardona  of  Hontb^liard  a  great 
nomber  of  plants  then  recently  introdaoed  into 
Europe.  Ilis  greatest  work  is  HUUtria  Plan- 
tamm  Nbta  at  Ab*olulit*ima  (8  vols.,  Yverdun, 
1650-'51). 

UGMUHraftBLG,  a  cave  in  Uie  Hartz,  in  the 
dnohy  of  Bnuuwick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Bode,  abont  5  m,  from  Blonkenbnrg.  It  is  a 
cavity  in  a  limestone  monntain,  divided  into 
Kx  principal  apartments  and  several  sinaiier 
ones,  which  are  all  profusely  studded  with  sta- 
lactites. Fossil  bones  of  the  great  cave  bear 
Hud  other  animals  are  fonnd  here.  It  was 
named  from  a  miner  who  discovered  it  in  16T2. 

UHifi,  iatsiM,  a  French  apothecary  and 
chemist,  bom  at  Senlis,  Feb.  2S,  1728,  died 
Oct.  16,  1804.  He  was  the  son  of  an  inn- 
keener,  and  received  on  imperfect  ednoationj 
bat  ae  was  apprenticed  to  the  Qhemist  Geofihly, 
and  was  highly  snooessful  in  scientific  re- 
searches. At  the  age  of  24  (17q2)  he  was 
made  a  member  of  tiie  coU^^  of  pharmacy, 
Paris,  uid  was  soon  after  appointed  professor 
of  cheioiatry.  He  established  a  manu&otory 
for  the  preparation  of  acetate  of  lead,  muriate 
of  tin,  mercoriat  salts,  antiinonial  preparations, 
and  other  articles  for  medicine  and  the  arts, 
and  maonfactured  for  the  flrat  time  in  Franoe 
sal  ammoniac,  previously  imported  from  Egypt. 
He  invented  a  process  for  bleaching  raw  wIks, 
devised  s  cheap  method  of  parifying  saltpetre, 
improved  the  process  for  dyeing  soariet  in 
the  Gobelins  manufactory,  and  mode  improve- 
ments in  the  manafaotnre  of  porcelain  and 
in  the  areometer,  oonstrooting  for  the  latter  a 
scale  which  is  still  in  use.  Acqairiag  a  com- 
petence, he  abandoned  m&nnfoctaring  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  application  of  chemis- 
try to  the  arts.  Ho  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  (1778),  and  a  correspon- 
d.'Dt  of  the  institute  (1793).  His  works  ore: 
Diuertatum  iut  Vither,  and  Plan  (Tub  eoun 
de  ehiiaie  txpirimentaU  (l2mo,  Paris,  1757) ; 
OputcuUt  de  ehimie  (8vo,  1798) ;  £UmenU  de 
pharraacie  thiorique  et  pratique  (2  vols.  8vo, 
]Tfi2,  and  later  editions,  1769, 1778,  and  1818); 
Chimi'.  expirimeiiUtle  et  TaUonnee^i  vols.  8vn, 
1773);  and  several  papers  in  the  Mimoiree  oi 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  in  the  Dietion- 
naire  det  art*  et  mitt&n. 

UUVfiiRTEN,  ilrajuder  GsCtlleb,  a  German 
author,  bom  in  Berlin  in  1714,  died  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  was  professor  of 
philosophy.  May  36, 1763.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  science  of  sstlietics  in  his  two  works: 
J)e  Konn^lu  adPoema  pertinentibtu  (Hallo, 
1735),  and  j£ethetiea  (3  vols.,  Franklbrt,  1750- 


BAUMQABTEN-OBUSIUS         397 


the  first  to  attempt  a  scientific  analysis  of  the 
principles  of  beauty  in  nature  as  well  as  in  art, 
and  of  those  faculties  of  the  mind  by  which  the 
beautiful  is  recognized.  He  maintained  that 
the  mind  has  a  double  faculty  of  perception, 
tlie  higher  or  logical  one,  which  forms  reason- 
able notions  establishing  the  truth,  while  the 
lower  or  testhelic  perceives  immediately,  wilh~ 
out  conscious  reasoning,  the  elements  of  beauty. 
Other  works  of  Bauiogarten  are  itelaphyiica, 
Ethiea  PhUoeophiea,  and  luitia  PMUeophia 
Practiea. 

BAimcUTEir,  Ikhad,  a  German  theologiaii, 
bom  at  Haseldorf,  in  Holstein,  March  26, 1812. 
He  stadiud  at  Kiel,  became  professor  at  Rostook 
in  1850,  and  in  lS68he  was  removed  on  aoconnt 
of  his  alleged  deviations  from  the  established 
evangelical  chnrch,  and  tried  for  having  pub- 
lished his  vindication  (£ins  birehliche  Kri$it  in 
Meeklenburgy  Brunswick,  18S8),  but  acquitted. 
Since  1865  he  has  been  prominent  in  tne  first 
Protestant  German  convention  at  Eisenach,  and 
as  the  most  energetic  defender  of  the  Protestant 
association.  His  writings  include  A^oeteige- 
tehichte,  oderEntaichelimgegangderKirehevoA 
Jerutaleia  bie  Rom  (2  vols.,  Brunswick,  1862; 
2dod.,  1859);  DU  Oeechiehte  Jetu  {i%S,i)\  eoA 
Danid,  der  KorUg  ohne  fleiehtn  (Berlin,  18S2). 

BiEMGAETEN,  Slsaad  Jakak,  a  German  tbeo- 
lo^an,  born  at  WolmirstAdt,  Uarch  II,  170ft, 
died  in  Halle,  July  4,  1767.  He  was  a  grad- 
uate of  llollo,  a  follower  of  Wolf^  and  a  friend 
of  Semler,  who  after  his  death  contuiued  his 
Allgaaeine  Wtltffeiekiehte  (prepared  from  Eng- 
lish sonrMS,  16  Tola.,  Halle,  1744^'66),  and  in 
1768  published  his  biog;raphy.  fie  was  among 
the  most  inSnential  theologians  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. His  works  include  Auttvg  der  Firchen- 
geeehiehte  (8  vols.,  1748-0),  Naekfichten  von 
«««•  HallmMn  Bibliothek  (8  vols.,  1748-'fll), 
and  Naekrichten  von  merkwurdifen  B&chem 
(la  vols.,  17E2-'7). 

BADBeABTia-CltrsiIl.  LIMtoTKarfWim^ 
a  German  philologist,  bom  in  Dresden,  Jan.  24, 
17Se,  died  Uaj  12,  1846.  He  studied  theology 
and  clssttoal  literature  at  Lelpsc,  and  was  a 
teacher  and  rector  in  tlie  schools  of  Merseburg, 
Dresden,  and  Ueias^  and  a  member  of  tns 
Dresden  municipal  assembly  in  1830.  As 
teacher  and  I^islator  he  brought  about  many 
reforms  in  the  school  system,  and  during  the 
German  war  of  independence  he  roused  the 
enthuEiosm  of  the  Qemian  youth  by  his  patri- 
otic publications.     He  prepared  pocket  edi- 


ography  of  Georg  Fabricins  (Lei^nic,  18B9), 
besides  mieoetlaneous,  ethical,  religious,  and 
travelling  sketches.  U.  Udwig  FrMlld  OtU, 
a  German  theolt^an,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, bom  in  Merseburg,  July  81,  1788,  died 
in  Jena,  May  81,  184S.  He  studied  in  Leip- 
no,  and  was  over  26  years  professor  of  thecd- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


898  BAUUGARTNES 

ogf  at  Jens.  Hii  writingg  oa  the  historj  of 
Christian  do^as  made  him  prominent.  He 
was  in  rnanj  respeots  a  follower  of  Schleier- 
macher,  and  pabliahed  in  18S4  Veber  Sehleier- 
maeher,  seme  Dtnkart,  vnd  aein  Verdieiut. 

BIDMCIRTNER,  iidrew  TM,  baron,  on  Aus- 
trian statesman  and  savant;  born  at  Friedberg, 
Bohemia,  Nov.  28,  I7B8,  died  at  Hietzing,  near 
Vienna,  Jalj  2S,  186S.  Eestudied  mathemat- 
ics, and  in  I81T  baoame  professor  of  pbjsical 
science  at  Olm&tz,  and  in  iS28  in  tbe  nnirersit; 
of  Viemia.  Ill  health  compelling  him  to  re- 
iVain  from  teaching,  he  snbaeqaentlj  anperin- 
tended  various  mannfactories  controlled  by  the 
government,  and  after  1S46  he  direct«d  the 
oonatrnctioD  of  telegraphs  and  railways.  He 
was  minister  of  commerce  and  pnblio  works 
and  of  finance  from  ISSl  to  18&6,  and  in  1861 
became  a  member  of  the  house  of  peers.    He 

Sopularized  science  in  relation  to  art  and  In- 
Dstry,  and  his  teotnres  were  collected  in  a 
volume  entitled  Meehanik  in  ihrer  AnwendnTig 
aV  Kilrutt  iind  Oaearhe  (2d  ed.,  Vienna, 
ISSS).  HU  NaturUhre  (182S ;  8th  ed.,  1844-'C) 
and  his  contributions  to  periodicals  diffused 
much  knowledge  of  natural  scienoe;  and  his 
ChemU  und  Oaehiehte  der  JBimmeUkdrper 
nack  dtr  Sp^tralanalyie  (1862),  and  Dit  «i«- 
cAonwcA*  Theorie  der  W&rme  (1664),  contain 
his  academical  lectures  on  chemistrj. — See 
BchrOtter,  ^eihwr  ton  Baumgartnir,  eine 
LebenuHaa  (yieaaa,  1866). 

UCMeUHlEB,  CaBu  jRkek,  a  Swiss  politician 
and  historian,  bom  at  Altatfttten,  Oct.  18, 17S7, 
died  in  St.  GaU  in  Jdy,  18S9.  He  was  tlie 
B<»i  of  a  mechanic,  studied  law,  and  became 
prominent  as  a  leader  of  the  liberal  party  in 
SL  Gall  till  abont  1841,  when  bis  alliance  with 
tbe  oltramontanes  diminished  his  popularity, 
thongh  his  eloquence  and  eiecntive  ability  led 
to  his  being  chosen  in  1848,  and  again  in 
I85T-'60,  as  a  member  of  varions  legislative 
bodies.  He  wrote  DU  Sekwtit  in  iKrm 
KAinpfen  Knd  Umgettaltungan  von  1880  fiit 
1850  (4  vols.,  Zurich,  18B8-'98). 

BlCHClB'niEX,  Kart  H(lari(b,  a  German  phys- 
iolof^Bt,  bom  at  Pforzheim,  Baden,  Oct.  21, 
17B8,  He  is  a  graduate  of  Heideltiei^,  and  was 
professor  of  dinics  there  from  1824  to  1862, 
when  he  pnblisbad  VermSehtnUte  eina  Klini- 
hen.  He  acquired  renown  by  his  observations 
on  the  development  of  animals,  and  by  his  inves- 
tigations on  the  circulation  of  tbe  blood.  His 
medical  works  included  Handhuch  der  gpeeiel- 
Itn  ErankheiU-  vnd  HeilungtUkre  (2  vols., 
Btuttgart,  1B86;  4th  ed.,  1842),  and  OrandzOge 
tur  Pky$iologie  vnd  xur  allgaminen  Krank- 
heiU- und  Heilvrifftlehn  (1837  i  Sd  ed.,  1864). 
These  two  works  constitute  his  Duaiitlitehet 
Sy*tem  der  Mrdecin.  Among  his  physiological 
publications  are  JHe  Emhryonalanlage  dureh 
'  £eim»paltungm  (IB54),  AnJ&ngetu  Hner  phy- 
$iolegitehen  Schdpjwigtgetchiehte  (1856),  and 
SehSpfungtg^danim  (Freiburg,  ie68-'B). 

Blli'K,  FerdlBSBri  CbrMlaa^  German  Cheolo- 
l^on,  bom  at  SchmJden,  WQrtemberg,  June 


21,  17S2,  died  in  Tllbmgen,  Dee.  2, 1800.     He 
was  educated  at  Ttibingeu,  became  a  clergy- 

ond  afterward  a  private  tutor,  and  in 


lower  of  Neonder  and  Schleiermacber,  and 
published  Symbolik  wad  Mythologie,  oder  die 
NaUirreligion  dv  AlUrthumt  (3  vols.,  8tutt> 
garl,  1824-'6),  which  won  for  him  in  1826  the 
chair  of  evangelical  theology  in  the  university 
of  Tabingen^hioh  he  occupied  during  the  rest 
of  bis  life.  He  became  the  founder  of  die  new 
Tubingen  school  of  theologj  (see  his  letter  to 
Hase  of  Jena,  1856,  and  bis  Die  TCbinger 
Schule,  16t>9)j  which  further  developed  his  sys- 
tem of  applying  critical  teats  to  the  canonical 
writings.  He  denied  the  authenticity  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John,  and  all  the  Pauline  epiatlea 
except  those  to  the  Golatians,  Corinthians,  and 
Bomans.  He  drew  many  inferences  from  Hegel 
without  altogether  identifying  himself  with  tbe 
Hegelian  system  of  philosophy,  and  was  chained 
by  his  adversaries  with  having  converted  He- 
gelianism  into  pantheism,  and  positive  Cbris- 
tinn  faith  into  Gnostic  idealism,  and  with  the 
subversion  of  the  fondamental  doctrines  of  or- 
thodoK  Christianity.  His  followers,  however, 
regard  him  as  tbe  greatest  master  mind  in  the- 
ology «nce  the  death  of  Schleiermacber.  Bis 
works  relating  to  the  New  Testament  include 
Lit  ChritttupartH  in  Jfi*  torinthitehen  Qt- 
meinde,  der  GegentaU  det  pavlinitehen  vnd 
pttrinitchen  Chrittenthumi  (in  the  Tubingen 
Zeittehr^ftJ^r  TheoUgie,  188G);  Dittogenann- 
ten  Paiteralhriefe  det  ApotUU  Paulu$  (Stutt- 
gart, I8S6 ;  2d  ed.,  1868-'7) ;  and  Pavlut,  der 
ApoiUl  Jem  Chritti,  lein  Leben  und  Wirken, 
teint  Briffe  imi  teitie  Lehr«  (1845).  The  last 
named  work  contains  the  general  result  of  all 
his  investi^tions  relating  to  Kt.  Paul,  and  his 
KritiKha  Uhtemtehiingen  iier  die  ianoniieheti 
Etangelien,  ihr  Verhdltniti  «u  einander,  ihren 
Unprung  vnd  Charakler  (TObingen,  1847), 
gives  his  researches  relating  to  St.  John,  St 
Luke  (which  two  had  been  previously  pnblish- 
ed  in  1844  and  1646  respectively),  St.  MotIl 
end  St.  Matthew.  His  works  on  dogma,  bued 
on  liiatorical  treatment,  comprise  Lat  Mani- 
chUitehe  ReligiimttyiUm  (1881);  Bit  ekritt- 
liehe  Onetit,  oder  die  ekrietlieht  SeligiontphUo- 
tophie  (18S6),  from  the  2d  to  the  ISthcenturj; 
JHe  ehrittliehe  Lehre  ron  der  Vertdhnttng 
(1888);  Die  ehriitliehe  Lehre  ron  der  Drei- 
einigheit  vjid  Mentehwerdung  Oottet  (3  vols., 
1641-'3) ;  and  Lehr&veh  der  ekrittliehen  Dog- 
mengeiehiehte  (Stuttgart,  1847;  8d  ed.,  1887). 
Against  the  symbolism  of  Mohler  he  published 
Enciderang  gegen  Mdhler'i  nfvtete  Polemih 
(1884),  Oegeruate  dee  Katholieiantu  mid  Fro- 
tatantiimiu  (2d  ed.,  1888),  and  other  wri- 
tings. Among  his  last  and  moat  eitendve 
historico-eccktdastical  productions  are  Epothen 
der  kire/ilieken  QeechiehUehreibvng  (1852), 
and  a  history  of  the  Christian  church  to  the 
ISth  century  (5  vols,,  1868-'e8),  the  last  two 
volumes  of  which,  left  nearly  completed,  wero 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


.     BAUBBET 

edited  bj  his  son,  PrcrfeaBor  Ferdinand  Fried- 
rich  Banr,  and  by  E.  Zeller.  Other  poathu- 
mons  works  edited  by  his  son  are  FiirfMun- 

1904),   and  Forfwun^tfn'  i)&#r  dU  ehrutliehe 


bom  ftt  Pondioheny  in  1748,  died  in  Paris, 
June  31,  1824.  He  was  sent  to  France  when 
jonn^,  edncated  at  the  seminary  of  8t.  Bolpice, 
took  orders,  and  became  bishop  of  Alais  in 
1TS4.  In  1787  he  was  elected  a  depatj  to  the 
asMmblv  of  notables  at  VerHsilles,  and  snb- 
■eqnently  to  the  states  general.  When  this 
assembly  nndertook  to  ^ter  the  chnrdi  es- 
tabUehment,  Baoaset  was  one  of  the  nftners 
of  the  protest  presented  by  the  clerical  mem- 
bers. He  afterward  emigrated,  bat  returned  to 
Paris  m  1792,  when  he  was  imprisoned.  He 
was  restored  to  libertj'  on  the  revoladon  of 
the  Otii  Tbermidor.  Having  obtained  all  the 
manuscripts  left  by  F^nelon,  he  wrote  his 
biography  {ffutoire  dt  Ferulon,  3  vols.  8vo, 
1806-'9),  which  was  reaeived  with  marked 
fitTor.  On  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons 
be  entered  the  chamber  of  peers,  was  admitted 
to  Uie  French  academy  in  1816,  was  created  a 
cardinal  in  1817,  then  ocmmander  in  the  order 
of  the  Holy  Ohost,  and  nunister  of  state.  Be 
also  wrote  L'Sittoin  da  JBonuet  (4  vols.,  1814), 
and  several  historical  memoirs. 

UIITIH,  L*^  G^iM  Marie,  a  French  phi- 
losopher and  theolo^an,  bom  in  Paria,  Feb. 
17,  1796,  died  Oct  18,  1867.  When  only  20 
yeare  old  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philoeo- 

Sihy  at  Btrssbnrg,  where  he  acquired  reputation 
or  his  leoming  and  eloqnenoe.  Ordaioed  a 
priest  in  1828,  be  became  director  of  the  semi- 
nary. In  1830  he  reagned  his  professorship, 
.  bnt  was  ^ght  years  later  elected  dean  of  the 
litbrary  faculty  of  S&asbara;  in  which  capacity 
he  continned  till  184B.  He  then  became  sa- 
perintondent  of  the  college  of  Jnilly,  and  was 
subsequently  vicar  generu  of  Paria  and  profes- 
sor in  the  theological  foonlty  of  that  city.  He 
published  Ptyehologie  txpintnentaU  (2  vols., 
1838),  PkiloMphU  morale  (3  vols.,  1840),  C/m- 
firenett  lur  la  religion  el  la  liberti  (1848), 
and  other  works. 

UDTZEH  (Lusatian,  Buditnn),  a  town  of 
Saxony,  capital  of  Upper  Lnsatia,  on  the  Spree, 
Slm.E.N.E.  ofDruden;pop.  iD]871,  18,166. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  owned  in  common  by  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  two  public  libraries, 
a  bo^ital,  and  manofactnres  of  woollen  and 
linen  cloths,  paper,  and  leather.  The  battle 
of  Bantzen  was  guned  May  20  and  21,  1813, 
by  Napoleon,  with  about  12S,000  men,  over 
the  alued  Pmsdans  and  Buesians,  numbering 
nearly  100,000,  The  engagement  began  eariy 
in  the  morning  of  May  20,  and  the  French 
easily  gained  possession  of  the  town,  but  Ondi- 
not  ^ed  in  bis  attacks  on  the  left  wing  of  the 
enemy.  On  the  following  and  decisive  day 
they  captured  Preititz  and  the  heights  of 
Gleioa,  while  Soult  stormed  those  of  Ereck- 
73  TGI.  n.— 26 


BAVARU  899 

witz,  the  key  to  BlAcher's  pontion.  The  aBied 
monarcbs,  being  now  reminded  of  their  danger 
of  being  crushed  by  Ney,  who  hod  already  at- 
tacked the  right  Sank  of  their  forces,  effected 
a  masterly  retreat  without  losing  a  gun. 

UlfXriC    Bee  ALnoNi. 

IITAI.    See  Bat  at. 

BAVtBU  (Ger.  Bagem  or  £aierri),  a  king- 
dom of  central  Europe,  next  after  Prusria  the 
moot  important,  member  of  the  German  em- 
pire. Capital,  Munich.  Bavaria  consists  of 
two  parts,  separated  by  Hesse-Dannstadt,  Ba- 
den, and  WOrtemberg,  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween the  diviidons  being  80  m.  The  larger  or 
eaetem  division,  lying  t>etween  lat.  4T°  IS'  and 
60°  86'  N.,  and  Ion.  r  and  18°  60'  E.,  is  bound- 
ed N.  by  Saxony,  Reuss,  SaJfe-Oobnrg-Gotha, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe-Weiroar,  and  tbe  Pnis- 
rian  province  of  Hesse  (Cassel);  E.  by  the 
Austrian  empire ;  S.  by  Switzerland  and  the 
Austriaa  eoipire ;  and  W.  by  HeBse-Darmstodt, 
Baden,  and  WQrtemben;.  The  smaller  division, 
known  as  the  Palatinate  (Gar.  lyalt}  or  Khe- 
niA  Bavaria,  lies  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
between  lat.  48°  67'  and  48°  60'  N.,  and  lon. 
7°  6'  and  8°  SO'  E.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  Rhenish  Prussia ;  E.  by  the 
Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  Baden ;  S.  by 
Alsoce-Lorrune  j  and  W.  by  Rhenish  Prussia. 
Area  since  the  peace  of  1866,  in  which  218  sq, 
m.  were  ceded  to  Prussia,  29,292  sq.  m.  The 
population  according  to  the  censos  of  1871  was 
4,861,402.  The  increase  during  the  last  50 
years  has  been  nearly  26  per  cent.,  as  the 
total  population  in  1818  nnmbered  8,707,966. 
In  166T,  in  a  total  population  of  4,824,421, 
there  were  8,441,020  Roman  Catholics,  1,S38,- 
713  Protestants,  4,839  other  Christian  sects, 
and  49,840  Jews.  The  Protestants  were  di- 
vided into  989,343  Lutherans,  8,267  Reformed, 
and  836,108  United  Evangelicals.  In  1871  the 
Roman  Catholic  population  embraced  several 
thousand  Old  Catnolics.  The  number  of  per- 
sons who  emigrated  from  Bavaria  amounted 
from  1880  to  1899  to  about  288,000.  The  king- 
dom and  population  are  distributed  in  eight 
Regi«rvngi-Betirk«  (administrative  districts), 
as  follows :  ' 


1.  Uppnr    BuTlllil  (Obor- 

biyml  

S.  I«wor  ^nrll  (SiedH- 

tarern) 

lUJPftll) I 

PlbUlulU     Bird, 
ibon      (Oberpbli 


■"ST.. 


D.  Upper  Fnooonla  (Ober- 

&  Utddta  nwH»iila'(Wlt 
Ulbimksn) 


Aachilfr  Dboig  (Unit 
tnnlieii  lud  A  J 

8.  Bwibli  uid  Nnibnrs. 

AnDT  of  OccDcaUoD 


USt    TI»,M4|  TM,1S1 


AU,R«g 

vn^  wm  tXfBm.  ut,uT 


ia^ttuxngtt  <MijSM:4.6ei.#)a 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


400  BAT, 

^e  popolfttion  u  almoat  esclnnvelf  of  G«r- 
muiio  origin.  A  few  hnndred  tboosond  inhab- 
itaota  of  the  Fichtel  monntaiiis,  who  are  of 
Slavic  desoeat,  lutve  Iodk  taaco  been  taSj 
Germanized ;  only  in  the  Palatinate  there  are 
abont  8,600  Frenchmen.  Three  ori^nal  Ger- 
manic tribes  con3tttat«  the  population:  the 
Boioarians  or  Bavariaoa,  between  the  Allgan 
Alps  and  the  so-called  Franoonian  Jara,  and  the 
rivers  Lech,  Inn,  and  Salxacb ;  the  FranconianB 
or  Franka,  between  the  Franoonian  Alps,  the 
Thoringian  and  Bohemian  moanttuna,  and  in 
the  Palatinate ;  and  a  branch  of  the  Bwabiana 
bordering  on  WQrtemberg.  The  FrancoDiana 
number  abont  3,600,000,  the  Swabians  600,- 
000;  the  rest  are  BaTariana. — Bavaria  is  an 
elevated  conntir,  hilly  rather  than  mountun- 
ona,  on  the  bordera  of  which  are  the  Bavarian 
Alpa,  in  the  south  ;  the  Bohemian  Forest,  in 
the  eaot;  the  Fiohtelgebii^  and  the  Fntn- 
conian  Forest,  in  the  norOieast;  and  the 
EhSn  and  Spesaart,  in  the  northwest.  The 
Bavarian  Forest,  the  Franoonian  Jnro,  and 
other  minor  rangea,  toavene  the  interior,  N. 
of  the  Danube.  The  Palatinate  ia  traversed 
bj  the  Eardt  monntiuns,  a  branch  of  the 
Voages.  The  highest  point  is  the  Zngspits, 
abont  ]0,DOO  ft.,  in  the  Bavarian  Alps;  in  the 
Bohenuan  Forest,  the  highest  points  are  the 
Arber,  4,S00  ft.,  and  Rachelberg,  4,7E0  ft ;  in 
the  Fiohtelgebirge,  the  Schneeberg  is  8,480 
ft ;  in  the  RhOn  the  highest  point  is  abont  8,000 
ft ;  Donnersberg,  the  culminating  point  of  the 
Hardt  moontftins,  is  about  3,200  ft.— The  riv- 
ers of  the  Palatinate  belong  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine ;  the  prinoipal  ones  are  the  Lanter, 
Qneiob,  Blies,  and  Nahe.  The  rivers  of  Ba- 
varia proper  are  the  Main  and  Danube  and 
their  aStneotfl.  The  principal  tribntariea  of 
the  Main  are  the  R^nitz  and  Saale.  The 
Dannbe  flows  for  2T0  m.  throngh  the  centre 
of  the  kingdom,  until  at  Fassan  it  enters  Ans- 
tria,  being  navigable  throughout  this  distance. 
It  receives  in  Bavaria  more  than  80  consider- 
able affluenta,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
Iller,  Lech,  Isor,  and  Inn  from  the  right; 
from  the  left  the  WSmitz,  AltmQht,  Eooner, 
Naab,  Ttegen,  and  Ilz.  Bavaria  has  several 
small  lakes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Ohiem,  Wunn,  and  Ammer,  all  sitaated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Bavarian  Alps,  The  circuit  of  none 
of  these  exceeds  40  m.  A  comer  of  the  lake 
ct  Constance  also  belongs  to  Bavaria.— The 
olhnate  ts  for  the  most  part  healthy,  although 
the  temperature  is  variable.  It  is  colder  in  the 
winter  and  warmer  in  the  summer  than  that  of 
the  neighboring  countries.  In  the  mountains 
there  are  heavj  falls  of  snow,  and  the  Alps,  the 
Fiohtelgebirge,  and  the  Bohemian  Forest  are 
distiaguisbed  ^om  the  lower  land  by  the  length 
and  severity  of  their  winters.  There  are  exten- 
flive  foresia,  especially  upon  the  hills  and  monn- 
tain  Mdes.  Great  quantities  of  wood  are  ob- 
tuned  fkvm  these,  and  distributed  through  all 
the  snrronnding  countries.  About  one  third  of 
the  foreM  land  is  the  property  of  the  state ;  the 


rest  is  in  private  hands.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertjle,  producing  wheat,  rye,  oata,  and  bariey; 
buckwheat,  maize,  and  rice  are  also  cnltivated, 
and  potatoes  are  an  important  crop.  The  hop 
thrives,  and  the  vine  flonriahes  in  some  parts, 
especislty  near  Lake  Constance  and  upon  the 
lower  course  of  the  Main.  Fruits,  tobacco, 
hemp,  flax,  and  licorice  are  cultivated.  But 
upon  the  whole  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
condition.  Cattle-raiuug  is  the  most  impor- 
tant industry  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alpa;  but, 
with  the  exception  of  stieep,  little  has  been 
done  to  improve  the  breed  of  the  domestio 
animals.  The  total  area  of  the  prodnotive  eoil 
is  27,682  sq.  m.,  of  which  12,862  sq.  m.  are 
arable  and  garden  land,  6,804  meadows  and 
pastures,  and  9,  ST  6  woodland.  The  latest  agri- 
cultural statistics  (1883)  showed  868,628  horses, 
8,186,882  homed  cattle,  2,068,688  sheep,  926,- 
622  swine,  and  160,866  goats.  The  annual 
produce  of  wine  is  estimated  at  16,218,000  gal- 
lons; that  of  raw  tobacco  at  114,676  cwt— 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  very  con- 
siderable. Goal  and  iron  are  found  almost 
everywhere.  In  the  Palatinate  are  mines  of 
copper,  manganese,  mercury,  cobalt,  and  plum- 
bago. There  are  numerous  choice  varieties  ot 
marble,  as  also  gyponm,  alabaster,  and  some 
of  the  finest  porcelain  day  in  Europe.  Salt, 
which  is  a  government  monopoly,  is  produced 
by  evaporation  fhnn  the  saline  springs  in  the 
8.  E.  comer  of  the  kingdom.  8till  the  mineral 
wealth  is  to  a  great  extent  nndeveloped.  The 
production  of  salt  in  1866  was  977,672  cwt. ; 
of  ooal,  7,847,247  cwL ;  and  of  iron  in  1868, 
961,882  tons.  The  most  important  article  of 
industry  ia  Bavarian  beer,  brewed  to  the  high- 
est perfection  in  Munich,  Nurembei^  and 
Bamherg,  and  consumed  in  vast  quantities  in 
the  country  itself.    The  kingdom  had  in  1871 


optical  instruments  manufactured  at  Monich 
arenotsurpassedby  any  in  the  world.  Nurem- 
berg is  the  great  emporium  for  toys;  Augsburg 
ia  noted  for  the  proauction  of  gold,  nlver,  and 
plated  ware;  the  plumbago  cruoibleeofPaseau 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world ;  and 
the  ornamental  glass  of  Bavaria  rivals  that  of 
Bohemia.  Coarse  linen  is  the  roost  important 
branch  of  textile  manufactures,  the  production 
of  cotton,  woollen,  and  worsted  goods  not  being 
equal  to  the  home  consumption.  There  are 
considerable  manufactures  of  leather,  straw 
goods,  glass,  nails,  needles,  and  porcelain.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  timber,  grain, 
wine,  buttor,  cbeeae,  and  glass,  the  annual 
value  being  about  |6,000,000.  The  principal 
imports  are  sugar,  coffee,  woollens,  silks,  cotton 
goods,  drugs,  hemp,  and  flax. — The  oenD^ 
position  of  Bavaria  gives  it  the  transit  trade 
between  North  Germany  and  Austria,  Switz- 
erland, and  Italy.  There  are  several  canals, 
the  principal  of  which,  the  Lndwig's  canal, 
constructM  by  the  government  at  a  cost  of 
$4,000,000,  nnitea  tlie  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


and  through  th«m  the  Geitnan  ocean  witL  the 
Black  Bea,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
works  of  the  kind  in  Eorope.  Aboat  the  mid- 
dle of  1871  Bavaria  had  1,801  m.  of  raUwaj 
in  operatJon,  a  comparatiTely  larger  number 
than  ProBBia;  1,208  m.  were  stale  property  or 
administered  hj  the  state,  and  G63  m.  beltmged 
to  private  companies.  The  aggr^ate  length 
of  telegraph  lines  iu  ISTO  naa  8,S4T  m.,  and 
that  of  telegraph  (rires  11,182  m.;  the  num- 
ber of  despatobes  was  86S,T0S;  the  revenue 
derived  from  them,  447,690  &.,  and  the  cost  of 
administration  802,690  fl.  The  navigation  on 
the  Danube  in  1871  employed  IE  steamers  and 
more  than  2,000  suling  vessels,  that  on  the  Inn 
aboat  2,000  veseels,  that  on  the  Rhine  12  steam- 
era  and  236  sailing  vessels.  In  1869  Bavaria  had 
2S3  eavingg  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
26,410j840fl.;  the  number  of  depontors  was  249,' 
869. — The  direction  of  education  is  nnder  the 
eontrolof  the  minister  of  public  instraotion,  with 
inapeotora  who  report  to  him  on  the  condition 
oftheeohooU.  All  children  whose  parents  have 
not  reodved  pennisaion  to  have  them  educated 
at  home  must  attend  the  public  school  until 
they  are  14  years  old,  and  must  also  attend 
Sunday  school  two  years  longer.  Every  parish 
has  at  least  one  elementary  school;  besides 
which  there  are  lyoeums  and  other  schools  of 
a  higher  grade,  and  trade  schools,  supported 
by  the  conunanes,  in  which  are  taught  mathe- 
matios,  mechanics,  chemistry,  drawmg,  arohi- 
tectore,  and  other  branches.  The  course  in 
these  schools  occupies  three  years,  from  the 
age  of  12  to  15,  after  which  the  pupil  may 
enter  one  of  the  three  polytechnic  schools,  the 
conrse  ot  which  occupies  three  more  years, 
with  another  year  for  engineers.  There  are 
three  nniversities,  of  which  Uunich  and  WOrz- 
burg  are  Roman  Catholic,  the  latter  celebrated 
for  its  medical  faculty,  and  Eriangen  is  Frotes- 
tanL  The  university  of  Uonioh  had  iu  1870, 
next  to  Berlin  and  Leipsio,  the  largest  nnmber 
of  profeaeors  (118)  and  students  (1,321)  of  any 
Oenoan  university.  Of  other  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning,  Bavaria  in  1 870  hod  8  lycenuis 


:  6e»e«rb»ehulen,  10  normal  schools,  and  1 
EealMiAiile.  The  number  of  elementary  schools 
in  1866  was  8,197,  with  604,916  pupils.  The 
polyteohoic  school  of  Munich,  whicn  was  re- 
oi^anized  in  1868,  and  which  had  in  1871,  in 
five  q)eotal  departments,  47  profeasora  and  60G 
students,  is  the  first  in  oil  Germany  as  regards 
the  number  of  students.  At  Hnnich  on  acade- 
my of  punting,  a  school  of  sculpture,  and  an 
arcbitectoral  academy  owe  their  establishment 
to  King  Louis  I.  The  number  of  newspa- 
pers in  1866  in  Bavaria  was  88B,  of  which 
99  were  strictly  devoted  to  politics.  At  the 
head  of  them  stands  the  Augsburg  AUff»m«in« 
Zeilung,  which  ei^oys  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation.— Rather  more  than  seven  tenths  of 
the  population  are  Soman  Catholics,  but  reli- 
gion is  entirely  free,  Protestants  and  Oatbolics 


LRU.  401 

having  the  same  fights,  and  the  loverrign  may 
be  either ;  civil  rights  have  not,  however,  been 
eitended  to  the  Jews,  or  to  one  or  two  small 
Ohrislian  sects.  The  Catholics  have  2  arch- 
bishoprice,  Munich  and  Boniberg,  6  bishopric^ 
171  deoueriea,  and  3,756  parishes,  there  oeing 
one  clergyman  to  464  souls.  The  Protestant 
church  is  ouder  a  general  oonsiatory  and  4  pro- 
vincial oonnstories ;  there  ore  920  parishes,  and 
one  clergyman  te  1,018  souls. — Bavaria  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  the  present  constitn- 
tioo  having  been  framed  in  1816,  but  some- 
what modified  in  1648-'9.  The  crown  is  hered- 
itery  in  the  male  line.  The  ezecutive  power 
is  vested  in  the  king,  but  is  exercised  through 
ministers  who  are  responsible  for  all  his  acta. 
The  diet  cousiBta  of  two  hoiises.  The  liaieh»- 
rath  or  upper  house  is  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  royal  &mily,  the  crown  dig- 
nitaries, the  archbiBh(^)a,  and  the  heads  of 
certain  noble  famUiee;  to  these  are  added  a 
Oatholio  bishop,  the  preadent  of  the  Protestant 
consistory,  and  a  number  of  other  members 
appointed  by  the  crown  at  pleasure ;  in  1871 
it  nnmbered  72.  The  lower  house  is  com- 
posed of  deputies  from  towns  and  univer^tiea 
and  various  religious  corporations.  The  rep- 
resentation (164  members  in  1871)  is  calculated 
at  one  deputy  to  81,500  persons.  The  deputies 
are  selected  by  electors  who  are  chosen  by 
popular  vote.  To  be  on  the  electoral  lists,  a 
person  must  be  2S  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  10  florins.  A  deputy  must 
be  80  years  of  age,  and  have  an  assured  income 
from  the  funds,  a  trade,  or  a  profession.  Ao- 
cording  to  the  treaty  of  Versiulles  O^ov.  28, 
1870),  which  regulated  the  entrance  of  Bavaria 
into  the  German  empire,  the  Bavarian  troops 
constitute  two  army  corps  of  the  German  im- 
perial array.  In  time  of  war  the  two  Bavarian 
corps  nnmber  1S6.Q17  men.  The  military  or- 
eonization  is  in  all  essential  points  to  be  con- 
formed to  that  of  Prussia,  but  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  officers  and  the  management  of  the 
army  in  time  of  peace  greater  rights  have  bera 
accorded  to  the  king  of  Bavaria  than  to  any 
other  German  prince.  The  public  debt  amount- 
ed in  1870  to  843,000,000  4.  The  towns,  bor- 
oughs, and  rural  communities  had  in  1870  an 
aggr^ate  debt  of  27,269,235  fl.  The  budget 
of  expenditures  for  each  of  the  two  years  1873 
and  1878  was  68,629,668  fl.— The  name  Bof/mt 
is  derived  from  the  Boil,  supposed  by  some  to 
he  of  Celtic  ori^o,  who  inhabited  the  country 
before  the  Christian  era.  Others,  however, 
deny  the  Celtic  origin,  mainly  on  the  gronna 
that  the  Bavarian  dialect  bears  no  trace  of  it 
Southern  Bavaria  formed  a  part  of  the  Ro- 
man provinces  of  Rhntia,  Vindelicia,  and  No- 
ricum.     After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  power  the 

Cple  were  governed  by  their  own  duke^ 
n  about  630  to  630,  when  the  country  be- 
came incorporated  into  the  Frankish  king- 
dom, and  embraced  Christianity,  The  Bavarians 
were  still  under  the  immediate  government 
of  their  own  dukes,  several  of  whom  revolted 


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402  BAY. 

agunat  their  Frankish  sovereigiiB.  The  last  re- 
Tolt,  onder  ThaMilo  II.,  in  777,  was  effectaallj 
BQppressed  bj  Charlemagne,  whoee  deBcendantB 
ruled  Bavaria  at  kings  tUI  Bll,  when  the  Carlo- 
Tinman  line  became  extinct.  From  this  time 
for  a  centnrj  and  a  half  the  coontrj  was  con- 
Tnlsod  with  troablea,  partly  arimng  from  inter- 
nal disaenaions,  and  partly  from  contesU  with 
tiie  Kagyara,  and  later  from  the  craaades.  In 
1180  the  count  palatine  Otto  von  Wittelsbach 
became  duke,  and  his  deacendanta  have  gov- 
erned the  country  to  the  present  time.  One 
of  these,  Loais  the  Bavarian,  was  emperor 
of  Germany  from  1814  to  1347.  Maiiinilian, 
dnke  of  Bavaria,  the  head  of  the  CatholiQ 
league  in  the  SO  years'  war,  was  made  an  elec- 
tor in  1638,  in  lien  of  the  proscribed  elector 
palatine  Frederick.  Dnring  the  middle  ages 
the  Franconian  part  of  Bavaria  had  become 
a  centre  of  trade,  industry,  and  art.  Aogft- 
burg  and  Nuremberg  rivalled  Venice,  Genoa, 
and  Milan  an  mercantile  entrepots.  The  Swa- 
biana  raised  Gothic  architecture  to  its  high- 
eat  perfection,  and  excelled  in  poetry.  In 
painting  the  Franconian  school  produced  Al- 
bert Barer,  Locas  Cranaob,  and  Hans  Holbein. 
The  rainnesingera  and  masteraingera  had  their 
original  homes  in  Franconia  and  Bwabia. 
There  originated  the  idea  of  a  confederation  of 
the  free  cities  of  Germany.  Tlie  reformation 
found  both  stanch  adherents  and  violent  ene- 
mies in  Bavana,  and  within  ita  limits  Gnstavns 
Adolobns  fought  both  Tilly  and  Wallenstein. 
The  aiacover;  of  America  transferred  the  seat 
of  the  world's  conmiorce  to  the  Atlantic  shore, 
and  resulted  in  the  decay  of  the  free  cities  of 
Franconia  and  Swabio.  Nuremberg,  which  in 
the  ISth  century  had  a  population  of  100,000, 
declined  to  a  (Quarter  of  that  number.  It  stUl, 
however,  retamed  much  of  ita  old  industry, 
and  within  the  last  80  years  has  greatly  pros- 
pered. In  1703  the  elector  of  Bavaria  took 
sides  with  Louis  XIY.  of  France  agunst  Aub- 
tria,  England,  and  Holland,  in  the  war  of  the 
Bpaniah  succession.  The  French  and  Bavarian 
forces  were  defeated  at  Blenheim  by  the  duke 
of  Harlboroagh  and  Prince  Eugene  in  1704 ; 
the  elector  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  em- 

?ire,  and  Bavaria  was  for  ten  years  governed 
y  imperial  commissioners.  In  1742  the  elec- 
tor Oharlea  Albert  was  chosen  emperor  by  a 
m^ority  of  the  eteotors,  and  commenced  hos- 
tilities against  Austria;  hut  the  empresa  Maria 
Theresa,  aided  by  England,  defeated  him  and 
aeized  the  electorate.  Maximilian  Joseph,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Charles  Albert,  was  re- 
stored to  his  possessions  upon  renouncing  all 
claims  to  the  imperial  di|;ni'ty.  In  December, 
1777,  the  direct  reigning  line  became  extinct, 
and  the  succession  devolved  upon  a  collateral 
branch,  governing  the  Palatinate.  Bnt  the 
sDccession  was  claimed  by  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, which  took  military  possession  of  a  part 
of  Bavaria.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 
supported  the  elector,  and  Austria  resigned  her 
pretenfflona  upon  receiving  a  small  strip  of  dis- 


puted territory.  In  die  early  part  of  the  wars 
growing  out  of  the  French  revolution  Bavaria 
flimiehed  her  contingent  of  troopa  to  the 
Austrian  army.  In  1T96  Moreau  at  tiie  bead 
of  a  French  army  entered  Bavaria  and  took 
possession  of  the  capital ;  a  separate  peace  was 
concluded,  the  elector  withdrew  his  contJogent 
from  the  Austrian  anny  and  fell  more  and 
more  under  French  influence;  and  when  the 
war  of  IBOS  broke  out  between  France  and 
Austria,  Bavaria  was  a  firm  ally  of  the  former. 
The  victories  of  Ulm  and  Ansteriitz  enabled 
Napoleon  to  dictate  terms  of  peace.  He  re- 
warded his  ally  by  giving  him  considerable 
additional  territory,  and  raising  the  elector  to 
the  royal  dignity  under  the  title  of  Maximilian 
Joseph  I.  The  king,  now  the  leading  member 
of  the  Rhenish  confederation,  took  part  with 
France  in  the  war  agdnat  Pm»sia,  which  was 
decided  by  the  battle  of  Jena  (1S06),  and  at  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  1807,  Bavaria  gained  still  more 
territory.  In  1809  Austria,  emboldened  by  the 
absence  in  Spain  of  a  great  part  of  the  French 
army,  declared  war  against  France.  The  Ba- 
varian tFoopa  formed  the  main  body  of  the 
army  with  which  Napoleon  won  the  battles 
of  EckmOhl  and  Wagram,  and  the  king  was 
rewarded  by  still  further  acouisitions  of  terri- 
tory. The  Bavarian  troops  formed  part  of  thi* 
force  with  which  Napoleon  in  1813  invaded 
Russia.  By  this  time  Bavaria,  like  all  the 
other  German  states,  had  become  weary  of  the 
French  domination.  In  1813,  when  Napole<m 
fell  back  from  Leipsio  toward  the  Rhine, 
Maximilian  declared  war  against  him,  and  en- 
deavored to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  French ; 
bnt  the  Bavarian  army,  under  Wrede,  was  de- 
feated at  Hanan.  From  this  time  Bavaria 
acted  vigorously  with  the  allies  against  Napo- 
leon,  and  by  the  treaties  of  1814-'16  was  con- 
firmed in  most  of  her  acquired  territories; 
receding,  however,  her  ptwsesidons  in  Tyrol 
to  Austria,  but  receiving  equivalents  in  Fran- 
conia and  on  the  Rhine.  When  the  Gennanio 
confederation  was  formed  in  1816,  Bavaria 
occupied  the  third  place.  Louis  I.  aacended 
the  tiirone  in  1826.  Bavaria  was  little  affected 
by  the  liberal  movements  of  the  next  fiO  years, 
but  by  1848  general  disaffection  had  arisen, 
which  reached  ita  culmination  when  the  king 
fell  under  the  inflnence  of  Lola  Montez,  and  he 
was  forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son  Maxi- 
milian II.,  whose  reign  lasted  till  1804.  Maii- 
milian's  chief  political  aim  was  to  hold  the 
balance  of  power  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 
Thepresentting,  Louis  IL  {bom  Aug. 26, 1846), 
succeeded  to  the  tiirone  March  10,  1864.  Un- 
til recently  he  followed  the  general  policy  of 
hia  predecessor.  When  in  18fi6  the  war  broke 
out  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  Bavaria  took 
part  with  the  latter,  suffered  severe  defeata, 
and  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  separate  peace, 
ceding  to  Prussia  a  small  tract  of  territory, 
£18  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of  about  84,000. 
In  1887  Bavaria  joined  the  North  German 
Zollvereln.    When  the  emperor  Napoleon  de- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAVAY 

fiared  war  against  PraaBia  in  1870,  he  ooimted 
upoQ  ttie  aid  or  at  least  the  neutrditj  of  the 
•oatfaem  Btates  of  Germaojr;  but  Bararia 
speedilT'  entered  into  a  close  alliaDoe  with 
North  Germanj,  placing  her  whole  roilitarj 
force  at  the  diKposal  of  the  Prasaian  king,  and 
the  Bavarian  corps  bore  a  distingoishea  port 
in  the  whole  ciimpugn.  King  Louis  took  the 
iaitistive  in  tlte  measores  which  led  to  the 
establisbmeat  of  the  German  empire.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  jeor  he  wrote  to  the  king  of 
Saxon;  and  several  other  princes,  urging  the 
consolidation  of  Germany  under  the  king  of 
Prosaia  aa  emperor.  In  becoming  a  part  of 
the  empire,  Januarj,  1871,  Bavaria  reserved 
some  special  rights  as  to  her  domestic  autono- 
my, the  control  of  her  army,  and  representa- 
tion abroad.  The  opposition  among  the  Cath- 
olic clergj  to  the  decision  of  the  CBonmenical 
oonnoil  fonnd  in  18T0  its  foremost  exponent  in 
Dr.  Dfillinger,  now  rector  of  the  university  of 
Mnnich,  and  Bavaria  has  since  been  the  prin- 
cipal battle  ground  of  Old  Catholicism. 

BlflT,  or  Bav^  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  IS  m.  E.  8.  E.  of  Valen- 
Oiennes;  pop.  in  IBSS,  1,646.  The  town  occu- 
pies the  ute  of  the  ancient  Bagacum  or  Bsga- 
nnT",  the  capital  of  the  Nervii  before  the  con- 
qaest  of  Ganl  by  Cs^ar,  and  an  important  mil- 
itary poet  nnder  the  Romans  till  the  end  of 
the  4ta  centnry.  The  remains  of  an  aqueduct, 
an  amphitheatre,  and  rained  fortifications  are 
among  its  many  remarkable  relics  of  the  past; 
anditis  the  point  of  union  of  seven  still  existing 
Roman  roads,  called  the  Chanss^es  de  Brnne- 
haat.  Its  manufactures  are  gloss,  earthen  and 
hardware,  iron  implements,  and  sagur. 

BiWlUI  (Malay,  babi,  hog;  Javanese,  iavi, 
hog's  abode),  an  island  abont  SO  m.  N,  of  Java 
and  Madora,  in  lat.  5°  40'  S.,  Ion.  112°  44'  E. ; 
ares,  43  sq.  m. ;  pop.  abont  S3,000,  or  more 
than  800  to  the  sq.  m.  The  soil  is  of  volcanic 
formation,  like  that  of  Java,  and  equally  pro- 
ductive, and  yet  the  isiand  imports  annually 
from  Java  and  Bali  about  2,000  tons  of  rice  for 
the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
chiefly  fishermen  and  traders.  The  inhabitants 
speak  a  Madura  dialect,  and  are  nndoubtedly 
descendantsof  colonists  from  that  island.  They 
are  a  simple,  industrious  people,  and  crimei 
against  person  and  property  are  rare.  Their 
chief  exports  are  small  horses  for  Java,  and 
tripang  for  China,  for  which  they  take  in  ex- 
change tools,  nnwrought  iron,  and  coarse  do- 
mestic clotlis.  The  wild  hog  is  abundant,  but 
sot  a  nngle  oamivorons  animal  is  to  be  fonnd 
except  the  tanggalung,  a  species  of  civet  cat 
Hot  springs  abound,  and  here  grows  the  valu- 
able teak  tree.  There  is  a  roadstead  in  a  small 
bay  on  its  8.  coast,  near  the  town  of  Sangya- 
pnra  (city  of  imagination). 

BIWB,  AleiaadflBt  S^Ue  Chit  4e  Clmpgiud, 
barniees  de,  a  French  dramatist  and  novelist, 
bom  in  Btnttgart  in  1773,  died  in  Paris,  Jan. 
1,  18S1.  She  received  lessons  in  mnsioal  eom- 
poffltion  from  Gr6try.    She  married  when  still 


BAXTER  403 

young  the  count  de  St  Simon,  the  founder  of 
the  Saint  Simonian  school.  Her  husband, 
thinking  her  unfit  to  be  the  wife  of  the  first 

man  in  tlie  world,  sued  for  a  divorce,  which 
was  granted.  Left  to  her  own  resources,  Alex- 
andrine composed  songs  (romaaeed),  and  after- 
ward  wrote  plays  nnder  the  assumed  name  of 
M.  Fraugois.  In  1806  she  married  the  wealthy 
baron  de  Bawr,  with  whom  she  lived  for  a  few 
months  in  happy  retirement;  but  a  frightful 
accident  carried  hjin  off  suddenly ;  and  a  littie 
later  her  fortune  having  been  lost,  she  wrote 
some  novels  and  plays  which  brought  her  both 
money  and  &me.  Some  of  her  plays  are  still 
occasionally  performed,  and  her  novels,  Le  n«< 
vice,  Saoul,  on  V&iiHda,  &c,  were  successful. 

BAXTER,  lalrew,  a  Scottish  metaphysiuan 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Al>erdeen  in  1086  or 
1687,  died  at  Wittingham  in  1760.  He  was  a 
teacher  of  private  pupils,  gentiemen  of  rank, 
with  whom  he  frequently  travelled  on  the  con- 
tinent, spending  some  years  in  Utrecht.  His 
greatW  work  ia  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Natnre 
of  the  Human  SonI,  wherein  its  Immateriality 
ii  evinced  from  the  Principles  of  Reason  and 
Philosophy"  (4to,  1730;  Sd  and  best  ed.,  2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1746;  appendix,  17B0).  In 
this  treatise  some  opinions  are  advanced  which 
were  more  thorongnly  argned  by  Priestley.  In 
a  later  work,  entitled  Matho,  *iv»  Cotmotheoria 
Puarilit  (2  vols.  8vo  and  12mD),  he  &tt«mpt«d 
to  simplify  qnestions  of  science,  and  adapt  uiern 
to  the  capacity  of  children.  He  left  behind 
him  many  unfinished  treatises.  As  a  student 
he  was  inde&tigable,  spending  whole  nights  in 
literary  toil. 

BAXTER,  BIAari,  an  English  nonconformist 
clergyman  and  theological  writer,  bom  at  Row- 
ton,  Shropshire,  Nov.  12,  161S,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  8,  1691.  His  early  bias  was  toward 
rehgioua  meditation  and  exercises  of  piety; 
and  this  bias  was  confirmed  by  his  research' in 
the  library  of  Mr.  Wickstead,  chapl^n  of  the 
Ludlow  council.  A  brief  trial  of  life  at  court 
confirmed  him  in  his  determination  to  become 
a  preacher ;  and  after  a  abort  interval  of  teach- 
ing, during  which  his  preparatory  studies  were 
diligently  prosecuted,  ne  was  ordained  at  Dud- 
ley, at  the  age  of  23.  Two  years  later  he  be- 
came the  minister  of  the  important  town  of 
Kidderminster,  where  he  was  neld  in  high  es- 
teem, notwithstanding  his  refusal  to  take  the 
eoolesiastical  oath.  In  the  dvil  wars  which 
soon  after  broke  out,  he  took  sides  with  the 
parliament,  was  chaplain  in  Whalley's  regi- 
ment, and  ted  for  some  years  an  nnsettied  life. 
He  had  no  sympathy  with  the  assumption  of 
supreme  power  by  Cromwell,  and  advocated 
the  return  of  Charles  II.  to  his  father's  throne. 
In  return  for  his  services  to  the  cause  of  le^ti- 
maoy,  he  was  mode  one  of  the  chapluns  of  the 
restored  monarch,  and  was  offered  a  bishopric, 
which  his  oonscientioQB  scruples  about  con- 
formity compelled  him  to  decline.  His  favor 
with  the  king,  however,  could  not  shield  him 
from  perseontson.    He  was  prohibited   from 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


404 


BAXTEB 


preacbing,  accnsatioDH  of  bereay  were  mnlti- 

Elied  against  him,  and  after  nnmerons  arrests 
e  waa  brought  at  lost,  at  the  age  of  70,  before 
the  tribunal  of  Jndge  JeSre/a,  on  charges  of 
eeditios  and  hostility  to  the  epiBcopacy,  lonnd- 
ed  on  paaaages  in  bis  "  PBrapnrase  on  the  New 
TAstJiinflnt.."      Tn  t.hft  t.rinl  Jpffrevfl  wiw  a  nmo- 


Teatament.  In  the  trial  Jeffreys  was  a  pros- 
'  eentor  as  well  as  Judge,  abuEing  the  priBoner, 
insnlting  his  coniuel,  and  imposing  a  fine  of 
500  marks,  the  defendant  to  tie  is  prison  till 
the  fine  was  paid,  and  to  be  bound  to  good 
behavior  for  seven  yean.  Unable  to  pay  the 
fine,  he  was  committed  to  the  king's  bench 
prison,  where  he  was  confined  18  months,  when 
his  fine  was  remitted,  and  he  was  pardoned 
liirough  the  mediation  of  Lord  Powis.  Baxter, 
thongn  a  royalifit  in  his  principles  and  the  ad- 
vocate of  an  established  church,  was  yet  in  his 
tastes  and  temper  sternly  pnritan,  He  was  a 
foe  to  all  dissolnteneea  of  life,  to  all  arbitrary 
measures,  to  every  kind  of  tyranny  aad  oppres- 
don.  His  opposition  to  absolute  power  was 
oncompromising,  and  neither  fear  nor  flavor 
oonld  bring  him  to  yield  it.  He  was  a  media- 
tor among  the  sects;  yet  his  views  were  so 
■harp  and  podtive  that  he  became,  in  spite  of 
hia  desire,  the  founder  of  a  school  of  theology 
which  still  continues  to  bear  his  name.  BaZ' 
ter's  love  for  theolo^cal  subtleties,  not  lese 
than  his  restless  promptness  in  taking  hold 
of  every  subject  of  religions  concern,  involved 
him  in  perpetual  controversy.  He  had  many 
and  noble  friends,  but  he  made  a  multitude  of 
enemies  botii  in  church  and  state.  His  works, 
in  every  form,  from  balky  folios  to  pamphlets, 
number  not  less  than  1Q8  titles.  Most  of  them 
are  written  in  English ;  yet  the  Methodiu 
Thtologia,  issued  in  187^  showed  a  fhir  mas- 
tery of  the  Latin  tongue.  His  treatises  on 
"Universal  Concord"  and  "Oatholio  Theol- 
ogy" failed  to  produce  that  harmony  among 
Recta  which  was  the  purpose  of  their  publica- 
tion. Baxter  was  a  fearless  metaphyncian ; 
yet  that  he  was  credulous  of  strange  tales,  and 
ready  to  believe  marvels,  is  shown  in  hia  trea- 
tise "  Oertwnty  of  the  World  of  SpiriU."  The 
three  works  bv  which  Baxter  is  best  known 
are  his  "Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,"  his  "Call 
to  the  Unconverted,"  and  nis  autobiography, 
pnblished  five  years  after  his  death  ("  Seliquia 
£aateriana ;  A  Narrative  of  his  Life  and 
Times,"  folio,  169H;  edited  by  Dr.  Calamy,  4 
vols.  8vo,  171S).  The  first  two  of  these  works 
have  a  popularity  which  remuns  still  undi- 
miniaheo,  Boctrinally,  these  celebrated  works 
are  more  liberal  than  his  treatises  of  divinity. 
His  works  have  been  collected  in  S8  vole.  8vo, 
and  his  "  Practical  Works  "  in  4  vols.,  the  lat- 
ter mMiy  times  reprinted. 

BAXTER,  wmiaa,  an  English  philolof^t  and 
archsologist,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Llanllugan,  Montgomeryshire,  in  1660,  died 
'n  London,  May  SI,  1723.     He  had  few  advan- 


he  knew  not  a  single  letter  and  no  language 


BATADEEB 

but  his  native  Welsh.  In  a  few  years,  how- 
ever, he  was  noted  for  bis  accurate  knowledge, 
not  only  of  the  ancient  dialects  of  Britain,  bat 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  clashes.  While  a 
schoolmaster  in  a  private  school  at  Tottenham, 
in  Middlesex,  and  afterward  in  the  Mercers' 
school  in  London,  he  published  moet  of  his 
works.  These  constat  of  a  Latin  grammar, 
(1679),  two  editions  of  Anacreon  (1096  and 
1710).  two  editions  of  Horace  (1701  and  1725), 
and  Olouarium  Antwuitatvm  BrilannieaTwa 
(1719 :  new  ed.,  17B8).  After  hia  death  was 
pnblisned  the  letter  A  of  a  glossarv  of  Roman 
antiquities,  under  the  title  of  Seliquim  Sax- 
terianm,  n'i«  OviUtlmi  BaaUri  C^tra  pott- 
huma  (Svo,  London,  1726;  new  ed.,  Qloita- 
rivm  Antiquitatum  Sornattarum,  1781). 

Bll,  an  £.  central  county  of  Michigan,  on 
Ba^aw  bay,  watered  by  Rifie  river  and  nn- 
meroos  other  streams;  area,  760  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  1S,S00.  The  Flint  and  P^re  Mar- 
qaette  railroad  extends  to  Bay  City,  in  the 
8.  E.  part  of  the  county,  which  is  alsotivversed 
by  the  Jackson,  Lansing,  and  Sa^naw  rail- 
road. Lumber  forms  the  principal  industrial 
interest  of  the  county.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  9,898  hushela  of  wheat,  1,799  of 
rye,  8,4eeof  Indian  com,  10,008  of  oats,  S6,60S 
of  potatoes,  and  8,688  lona  of  hay.  There 
were  478  horses,  700  milch  cows,  743  other 
cattie,  and  468  swine.     Capital,  Bay  City. 

BATADEEB  (Fort.  bailadHra,  a  dandng  wo- 
man), a  profea^onal  dancing  and  singing  girl  of 
India.  The  bayadeers,  more  commonly  called 
nautchnees,  or  nantch  giria,  are  recruited  from 
almost  every  condition  in  life,  but  the  better 
class  are  generally  from  the  familiee  of  mer- 
chants and  laborers.  They  are  chosen  for 
beauty,  apprenticed  to  dhyat,  themselves  m- 
perannnateKl  nautchnees,  and  subjected  to  a 
course  of  severe  physical  trwning,  by  which 
they  Bcqnire  great  suppleness  and  quickness  of 
motion,  and  gracefiil  carriage.  They  are  also 
taught  singing  and  various  arts  of  adornment. 
The  kite  dance,  in  which  the  beyadeer  assumes 
the  varions  postures  of  one  fiying  a  kite,  is 
among  the  most  famous  and  popular  of  her 
performances.  If,  as  la  frequently  the  cases 
the  nautohnee  has  been  devoted  to  tlie  servioo 
of  tbe  gods  from  her  infancy,  she  enters  a  tem- 
ple and  becomes  a  detadatet  or  slave  of  the 
gods,  taking  rank  acoordine  to  the  cast«  of  her 
femijy,  the  miportance  of  the  divinity,  and  Oa 
endowment  of  the  temple ;  here  she  assists  at 
the  formal  services  of  tne  shrine,  celebrates  in 
songs,  generally  licentious,  the  deeds  of  tie 
^oA  or  goddess,  dances  b«f<»«  the  image,  deck- 
it  with  flowers,  and  attends  tt  wiUi  dmcee  and 
songs  when  it  is  carried  abroad  in  procession. 
Devadaaees  are  excluded  from  ceremonies  of 
pecnliar  solemnity,  such  as  funeral  saerifices 
and  suttees.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to  thi 
sisterhood  of  devadasees  tlie  nantchnee  must 
be  under  the  marriageable  age,  and  free  fh>m 
physical  defect  If  of  a  high  caste,  die  is 
o<Hiflned  to  the  inner  temple,  and  as  long  as 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BATADEEB 

h«r  ohArmB  murive  she  serres  the  panionB  of 
Uie  Brabmans,  If  aha  has  children,  the  girli 
are  edDoated  to  be  nantchneea  and  the  boys 
mnaicians.  The  deTwlAftees  of  the  Soodra  caste 
nnk  lower,  bat  enjoy  more  freedom ;  whea 
not  on  duty  in  the  temples,  they  are  at  liber- 
ty to  go  abroad,  and  their  earnings  are  tbeir 
own.  They  attend,  when  sent  for,  at  the 
boaaea  of  the  noble  and  the  wealthy,  to  asaiat 
with  their  aonss  and  dances  at  weddings  and 
other  feasts.  The  devadaaeea  receive  stated 
wages  in  money  and  rioe.  The  inferior  class 
add  to  these  resonrceathe  fhiits  of  an  infamons 
profession.  Every  temple  entertains  a  troop 
of  8, 12,  or  even  more  devadaseee.  Sometimes 
the  naatchnee  becomes  a  kaTuihenee,  a  doomin- 
ea,  or  a  baeetghaniee,  terms  for  the  different 


BATABD 


406 


BarHlHr. 

sorts  of  dancing  girls  who  wander  throngh  the 
oonntry  in  troops  of  10  or  12  to  enhirtain 
strangers  with  masic  and  dancing.  These  at- 
tend at  ekoolt/rett  at  inna,  or  at  the  garden 
honaea  of  wealthy  Hindoos;  and  in  ai\  the 
laige  cities  of  Hindoatan  there  are  sets  of  these 
nantfibnees  nnder  the  management  of  dbyas, 
ready  to  be  hired  for  religions  or  other  por- 
poaea.  The  nantob  girls  form  a  distinct  'body 
in  Hindoo  society,  living  nnder  the  protection 
of  government  and  regulated  hy  the  peculiar 
ralea  of  their  order.  Tbeir  costame  la  cum- 
broDS,  of  rich  material,  gayly  colored,  and 
oonsiats  of  a  p^r  of  embroidered  tronsers,  a 
petticoat  contaioiog  at  least  twelve  breadtha, 

fold  or  silver  fringed,  and  a  eoorUa  or  vest, 
alf  hidden  by  an  immense  veil  which  crosses 
the  bosom  several  times,  hanging  down  in 
front,  and  at  the  back  in  broad  ends.  The 
bands,  anna,  neck,  legs,  toes,  feet,  ears,  and 
now  are  decked  with  gold  and  jewels,  and  the 
bair  is  braided  with  silver  ribbons  and  confined 


with  bodkins  of  beantifol  workmanabip.  The 
donee  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  pantomime,  ex- 
plained with  mosio,  in  wbicb  commonly  the 
old  etory  of  love  and  its  troubles  is  related. 

BATIGOHUS,  an  Indian  tribe,  of  Choctaw 
affinity,  on  the  Mississippi,  who  with  the  Mon- 
gonlachas  were  also  known  bj  the  name  of 
Qninipissas.  They  are  noticed  by  e*rly  writers 
for  their  strange  temple  in  which  divine  honors 
were  paid  to  the  opossnm.  They  were  friendly 
to  the  French,  and  the  missionary  Limoges 
labored  among  them,  hot  witbont  fruit,  as  they 
seem  to  have  been  cruel  ond  treacherous. 
Tonti  in  1686,  looking  for  La  Salle,  left  a  tetter 
for  him  at  the  village  of  this  tribe,  where  Iber- 
ville foand  it  in  1699.  Before  tbeNatcheEWor 
they  had  merged  in  other  tribes. 

BATiMO,  an  inlu)d  town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
Eastern  department,  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  some  name,  situated  in  a  plain  on  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  river  Oanto,  96  ro.  S.  £.  of  Paerto 
Principe;  pop.  previona  to  the  civil  wsr,  whioh 
commenced  in  ISeS,  about  16,000.  It  is  in  the 
main  badly  built.  It  has  a  trade  through  the 
Canto  with  the  ports  of  Manzanillo  on  the 
southwest  and  Holgnin  on  the  northeast.  The 
chief  productions  of  the  district  are  horses  and 
honied  cattle,  whioh  are  laigely  rused. 

UTIKD.  I.  JiBH  isMM,  an  American  law- 
yer and  statesman,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Jnly 
3S,  ITer,  died  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  Aug,  6, 
1616.  His  ancestor,  Nicholas  Bayard,  a  French 
Hngaenot,  arrived  in  this  oonntry  in  1647  in 
company  with  his  brother-in-law  Peter  Stuy- 
veeant,  the  last  Dutch  governor  of  New  York. 
James  Bayard  was  educated  at  Princeton  col- 
lege, studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  began  prac- 
tice in  Delaware,  and  in  1796  was  elected  to 
congresa  as  a  supporter  of  the  federal  adminia- 
tration.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  hy  Presi- 
dent Adams  minister  to  France,  but  declined. 
He  was  a  leader  in  the  policy  which  resulted 
in  the  election  of  Mr.  Jefiferson  as  president  by 
the  house  in  1601,  and  in  1S04  was  chosen 
United  States  senator  as  sncoessor  of  bis  father- 
in-law  Gov.  Bassett,  and  remained  there  ondl 
selected  by  Mr.  Madison  as  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  negotdating  the  treaty  of  Qhent  in 
1818.  He  took  a  prominent  aliare  in  the  ne- 
gotiations, and  after  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  he  was  appointed  envoy  to  Hnsais,  but 
refused  the  appointment.  n<  Bkkari  H^^khi 
of  the  precedmg,  born  in  Wilmington,  Del., 
in  1796,  died  in  PhUadelphia,  March  4, 1866. 
He  was  United  States  senator  from  1886  to 
1889,  and  again  from  1841  to  1846,  and  waa 
sent  to  Belgium  as  charg£  d'affaires  in  1660. 
III.  Jaaes  Isketn,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  elected  senator  from  Delaware  in  16C1, 
1667, 16SS,  and  1869.  He  was  an  able  lawyer, 
and  for  several  years  waa  chairman  of  the 
judiciary  committee.  He  resigned  owing  to 
ill  health  in  1869.  IT.  TbMas  Fraads,  son  of 
the  preceding.     See  supplement 

BITUD,  J«u  Tratib  iUnd,  a  French  drem- 
atiat,  bom  at  OharoUee,  department  of  SaAue- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


i06 


BAYARD 


et-Loire,  Muoh  17,  1763,  died  Feb.  SO,  1858. 
In  1821  he  wrote  Une  promenade  A  Vauehue, 
which  wBB  SDOceasfully  performed  &t  the  van- 
derille  theatre.  It  was  followed  by  La  reins 
d«  teUe  an*,  brought  oat  at  the  QymrutM,  and 
received  with  great  iavor.  Bayard  united  hia 
labors  in  many  instances  to  thoae  of  M^lesyille, 
Oarmouche,  Domanoir,  and  Scribe,  whose  niece 
he  married  in  1827.  He  was  the  author  of 
over  200  plays.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  in  8  vols.,  containing  a  memoir  written 
by  Scribe,  waa  brongbt  out  at  Paris  in  186Q, 

BITUP;  PUm  dm  Temll,  chevalier  de,  a 
French  knight,  bom  at  the  ohdtean  de  Bayard, 
in  Danphiny,  in  1475,  died  in  Italy,  April  80, 
1624.  He  came  of  a  martial  family:  hia  great- 
great-grandfather  was  killed  at  Poitiers,  his 
Eeat-grandiather  at  CrSoy,  hia  grandfather  at 
ontlfifery,  and  hia  father  receivedinany  wonnds 
in  the  wars  of  Louis  XI.  As  page  to  the  dnke 
rf  Savoy  and  in  the  househola  of  Paul  of  Lni- 
embniv,  ooont  de  Ligny,  he  received  while 
yoang  nis  education  in  horsemanship,  feats  of 
arms,  and  mlee  of  chivalry.  At  the  age  of  18 
he  entered  the  service  of  Oharlea  VIIJ.  and 
accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  to  Naples  in 
1404-'G,  during  which  he  distinguished  himself 
by  capturing  a  stand  of  colors  in  the  battle  of 
Fomovo.  In  the  Italian  wars  of  Louis  XJI.  he 
displayed  great  courage,  especially  at  the  siege 
of  Milan  (1499),  where  in  the  eagerness  of  por- 
gnit  he  was  carried  by  the  press  of  fugitives  in- 
side the  gates,  but  waa  liberated  with  norse  and 
armor,  without  ransom,  by  Ludovico  Sforza. 
On  one  occasion  he  alone  defended  a  bridge  over 
the  Oarigliano  against  200  Spaniards  until  the 
French  army  had  effected  its  retreat.  He  waa 
wounded  in  the  assault  of  Brescia,  and  carried 
to  a  house  in  the  town,  where  in  his  disabled 
condition  he  defended  the  ladies  of  the  house- 
hold against  the  brutality  of  the  soldiery.  For 
thia  service  hia  hostess  prevailed  upon  him  to 
accept  2,000  pistoles,  which  heat  once  bestow- 
ed Dpon  her  two  daughters  aa  marriage  por- 
tions. In  the  war  with  the  English  king 
Henry  VIII,  at  T6rouanne  and  Tonrnay,  Bay- 
ard struggled  bravely  to  sust^n  the  failing  for- 
tunes of  Louis  XII.  In  the  "  battle  m  the 
spurs"  at  Gninegate,  Aug.  IB,  1S13,  he  with 
14  men-at-arms  held  the  English  army  in  check, 
while  the  French,  who  were  retreating  panic- 
stricken,  reassembled.  Bayard  with  an  ad- 
vance force  preceded  Francis  I.  on  his  expedi- 
tion into  Italy  to  regun  Milan  and  other  con- 
quests of  hia  predecesaora ;  ho  captured  Pros- 
pero  Golonna,  who  bad  formed  an  ambush  for 
the  French,  and  on  Sept.  13  and  14,  ISIS, 

Eained  the  battle  of  Marignano,  during  which 
e  performed  such  feata  of  valor  that  at  the 
close  of  the  contest  Francis  asked  to  be  knight- 
ed by  his  hands.  In  1C22,  with  a  force  of 
1,000  men,  he  defended  the  unfortified  frontier 
town  of  M^zi^res  for  six  weeks  wainst  the  in- 
vading army  of  tlie  connt  of  Nassan,  which 
numbered  86,000  and  was  aided  by  strong  ar- 
tillery.   For  thia  service  Bayard  received  die 


BAYBERET 

ooUar  of  St.  Michael,  and  was  made  a  cixn- 
mander  of  100  men-at-arms — a  pouUon  until 
then  never  held  except  by  princes  of  the  blood 
royal.  In  1624  he  was  summoned  from  Ban- 
phiny,  over  which  be  had  been  made  lieutenant 
general,  and  given  a  subordinate  command  m^ 
the  army  of  Bonnivet,  which  Francis  I.  sent 
into  ItaXj  to  act  againat  the  constable  de 
Bourbon.  Bonnivet  was  obliged  to  retreat, 
and  being  wounded  committed  the  army  to 
Bayard,  who  succeeded  for  a  while  in  checking 
the  enemy.  While  fighting  in  a  ravine  near 
the  banks  of  the  Sesia  he  was  stmck  by  a 
stone  from  an  arqnebuse,  taken  from  his  horse, 
and  at  his  own  request  left  seated  against  a 
tree  with  his  face  to  the  advancing  enemy, 
among  whom  he  died  after  having  coufeeeed 
his  sins  to  his  squire.  With  his  fall  the  battle 
ended;  the  French  lost  standards,  ordnance, 
and  baggage,  and  their  retreat  became  a  disw- 
derly  flight  Bayard  waa  the  last,  as  be  was 
the  best,  example  of  the  institution  of  knight 
errantry.  Ho  lived  at  a  time  when  the  strict 
laws  of  chivalry  were  becoming  greatly  relaxed, 
and  when  knights  were  assuming  the  vices  as 
well  as  the  profession  of  mere  soldiers  of  for- 
tune. For  this  reason  his  loyalty,  purity,  and 
scrupulous  honor  guned  for  him  the  more 
nuiversal  admiration,  and  the  titles  of  "the 
good  knight"  and  the  ehetalier  tant  peur  tt 
Mnt  reproeh*.  According  to  original  signa- 
tures of  his  preserved  in  the  national  library, 
Paris,  the  name  should  be  spelled  Bayart. 

BITBERRT,  or  Wax  Jlirrtl*  (myriea  eerifera, 
Linn.),  alow,  crooked  ahrub,  8  to  8  feet  high, 
growing  in  extensive  patohea  or  in  thick  clus- 
ters on  every  variety  of  soil,  nsually  near  the 
seacoast,  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
bayberry  is  typical  of  the  natural  order  myri- 
eacea  of  Lindley,  related  to  the  birches,  but 
diatinguiahed  chiefly  by  the  I-celled  ovary, 
with  a  single  erect,  straight  ovnle,  and  the 
drupe-iike  nut.  This  order  embraces  three  or 
four  genera,  shmhs  or  gmal!  trees  covered  wilh 
resinous  dots  and  glands,  and  alternate,  simple 
leaves,  with  or  witiiout  stipules,  indigenous  to 
Korth  and  South  America,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  India.  Their  flowers  are  discions, 
amentaciouB,  naked ;  the  stamens  2  to  8,  gen- 
erally in  the  axil  of  a  scaly  bract;  anthers  S  to 
4-celled,  opening  lengthwise ;  ovary  1-oelled, 
ovnle  solitary;  stjgmas  2,  subulate  or  else pe- 
taloid;  fruit  drupaceous;  eeeds  solitary,  erect, 
the  embryo  eialhuminonB.  The  bayberry  has 
an  irregular,  crooked,  seldom  erect  stem,  which 
gives  off  rough  brandies  in  clusters ;  the  bark 
brownish  gray,  sprinkled  with  ronnd  or  oblffltg 
white  dots ;  tne  leaves  irregularly  scattered, 
often  in  tofts,  nearly  sessile,  obovate  lanoe- 
shaped,  abruptly  pointed,  cuneate  at  base^ 
wavy,  slightiy  serrate  and  revolute  at  the  edge, 
yellowish  beneath.  The  flowers  appear  in 
April  and  May,  the  barren  ones  in  short,  stiff, 
erect  catkins,  having  looee,  rhomhoidal  scales 
contmning  each  S  or  4  stamens;  the  fertile 
Sowers  are  much  smaller  and  occur  on  a  dif- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAY  CITT 

fereot  plant,  the  Bcoles  imbricated,  oval,  point- 
ed, each  coutaiiiing  an  ovarj  wito  3  subulate 
stigmas.  The  fertile  ament  ripens  into  a  branch 
of  4  to  9  drj  berries,  which  are  covered  with 
rounded  waxj'  parCicies,  giving,  ont,  as  well  as 


BAYEUX  TAPE8TBY 


407 


Buyberry  (Uyricm  nrlfcn). 

the  entire  plant,  a  tiagruit  and  balsamio  odor. 
This  species  is  especially  prized  for  its  wax 
(see  Wax),  but  seems  to  be  held  in  more  esteem 
in  Europe  thou  in  America;  and  in  certwn 
parts  of  France  it  has  become  perfectiy  accli- 
mated.— Other  species  of  myrica  are  known 
as  the  fragrant  gales,  of  which  a  famiiiar  exam- 
ple is  M.  gale  (Linn.),  a  dark-cotored  bnsh  2 
to  5  feet  high,  having  wedge  or  lance-shaped, 
scarceij  serrated,  iragrant  leaves,  and  stiff 
brown-scaled  aments  appearing  in  April,  and 
fomid  in  inondated  places.  A  southern  species, 
(M.  tnoijora,  Bartram),  a  shmb  with  whitish 
bark  and  perennial,  coriaceous,  oblong,  obtuse, 
entire  leaves,  sparinglj  dotted,  is  found  on  the 
margin  of  swamps  near  the  seacoast  of  Florida. 
The  sweet  fern  (  Comptonia  a^lenifolia,  Alton), 
a  vei7  common  plant  in  old  and  neglected  pas- 
tures throughout  the  United  States,  also  belongs 
t«  the  order  mjfrieaeea.—The  medicinal  quali- 
ties of  the  order  are  astringent  and  tonic,  as  in 
the  sweet  fern,  which  is  employed  in  diarrhisa, 
while  in  its  aromatic  bark  reside  both  benzoic 
and  tannic  acids  combined  with  a  resinous  mat- 
ter. The  roots  of  the  bayberrj  are  reputed 
emetic  and  drastic.  The  sweet  gale  has  been 
used  as  a  vermifuge,  and  its  leaves  employed 
in  brewing;  it  afibrds  a  <rellow  dje,  and  its 
stems  and'branches  are  used  in  tacning. 

BAT  cm,  a  city  of  Michigan,  capital  of  Baj 
coantj,  on  the  E.  side  of  Saginaw  river,  near 
its  mouth  in  Ssginaw  baj,  a  part  of  Lake 
Huron;  pop.  in  I860,  1,688;  in  1870,  7,064. 
The  city  has  9  churches,  of  which  2  are  Ger- 
man, 6  school  honses,  2  large  hotels,  and  1 
daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Within  its 
Umite  are  16  saw  mills,  which  prodaoe  daily 


abont  1,000,000  ft.  of  lumber.  Uost  of  tbese 
have  salt  wells  and  salt  factories  attached  to 
them,  which  produce  annoally  from  80,000  to 
100,000  barrets  of  salt.  The  annual  export  of 
lake  flsh,  white  fish,  trout,  pike,  and  herring  is 
from  60,000  to  60,000  barrels.  There  is  also  a 
lar^e  manufactory  of  gas  and  water  pipes,  and 
one  of  buckets.  Six  lines  of  passenger  steam- 
boats and  more  than  1,000  vessels  touch  at  the 
Birt ;  and  there  is  railroad  communication  with 
etroit,  Jackson,  and  Chicago.  Bay  City  was 
first  settled  in  18S6,  was  incorporated  as  a  vil- 
lage in  1659,  and  as  a  city  in  1865. 

BITEB,  Jekaai,  a  German  astronomer,  bom 
in  Bavaria  abont  1573,  died  in  Augsburg 
abont  1660.  He  was  a  Protestant  preacher, 
BO  distinguished  for  ability  that  he  was  called 
0*  Protatantium.  His  principal  work  is 
Urainometria  (fol.,  Augsburg,  1608),  afterward 
enlarged  under  the  title  of  Calum  SuUatvm 
Ckrutianvm  (1827;  new  ed.,  01m,  1728), 
with  an  astronomical  atlas  of  51  plates,  in 
which  the  stars  of  each  constellation  were  for 
the  first  time  designated  by  the  first  letters  of 
the  Greek  alphabet. — Ilia  grandson,  Gottlieb 
SiKGVRiED  (bom  in  1694,  died  in  1738),  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  author  of  Miueam  iSinieum, 
containing  a  Chinese  grammar,  &c.,  and  of  vari- 
ous other  philological  and  srchnologicsl  works. 

BlIEEl  (anc.  Bajocai,  or  Cittita$  Bajoeai- 
rivm),  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Calvados,  on  the  river  Aure,  fi  m. 
from  tlie  sea,  and  16  m.  N.  W.  of  Caen;  pop. 
iu  1666,  9,1S6,  It  has  a.  commercial  college,  a 
pnblio  library,  a  Gothic  cathedral,  extensive 
manufactories  of  lace,  damasks,  calico,  serges, 
cotton  yam,  a  large  porcelain  factory,  paper 
mills,  many  tanneries,  and  dyeing  and  printing 
establiahmentfi,  and  an  important  trade  in  but- 
ter. During  the  wars  between  the  dnkes  of 
Normandy  and  the  kings  of  England  with  the 
kings  of  France,  it  often  changed  masters.  It 
was  captured  by  Henry  I.  in  1106,  by  Philip 
of  Navarre  in  1866,  and  finally  retaken  from 
the  English  by  Dunois  in  1460.  During  the 
religious  wars  it  was  alternately  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Huguenots  and  the  league. 

BAIEIJXTlPESTBI,Bpieceof  pictorial  needle- 
work, supposed  to  have  been  done  by  Matilda, 
wife  of  Wdliam  the  Conqueror,  and  the  ladies 
of  her  court,  representing  the  events  connected 
with  the  conquest  of  England.  It  is  worked 
like  a  sampler  m  woollen  thread  of  different 
colors,  is  20  inches  wide  and  214  feet  long,  and 
has  72  divisions,  each  with  a  Latin  inscription 
designating  its  subject.  It  is  of  great  historical 
value,  unce  it  not  only  ezhihits  with  minute- 
ness Norman  customs  and  manners  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest,  but  pictures  events  of  which 
no  other  record  exists — among  others,  tlie  siege 
of  Dinan  and  the  war  between  the  duke  of 
Normandy  and  Conan,  ear!  of  Brittany.  It  re- 
mained in  the  cathedral  of  Buyeui,  in  Nor- 
mandy, for  which  it  was  probably  wrought,  till 
1808,  when  by  order  of  Napoleon  it  was  token 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


408 


BAYFIELD 


to  Paris,  where  it  was  exhibited  at  the  national 
mtuenin,  and  thence  to  other  Inrge  towns  in 
Franoe.  It  was  then  deposted  in  the  town 
hall  of  Bayenx,  where  it  now  remains,  pre- 
Mrved  under  glass  in  the  public  library. 

IITFIHJ),  a  N.  W.  counter  ot  Wisconshi,  on 
Lake  Snperior,  inclnding  a  number  of  islands 
in  the  take ;  area,  abont  1,4G0  aq,  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  844.     Capital,  Bayfield. 

BATLE,  Finn,  a  French  philosophio&l  wri- 
ter, bom  at  Carla,  in  the  oonntj  of  Foiz,  Not. 
18,  1647,  died  in  Holland,  Dec.  28,  1700.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  clergyman,  and 
was  edacated  at  the  nniTersitr  of  Pnylanrena 
and  hj  the  Jesuits  of  Tonlonse,  nnder  whose 
tofinence  he  renounced  Proteetantiam ;  bnt  he 
soon  recanted,  and  to  avoid  persecution  took 
refiige  in  Geneva,  where  he  became  aoqnaint- 
ed  with  the  Cartesian  philosophj.  He  wished 
to  devote  himself  to  soienne ;  but  being  poor, 
he  served  as  a  tutor  in  several  families.  Re- 
tomin?  to  France,  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  Protestant  Qniversity  at 
Bedan  in  16TS.    There  he  wrote  an  anonymous 

Eamphlet  in  defence  of  the  dabe  of  Lnzem- 
urg,  who  was  charged  before  a  high  court  of 
connoitlors  of  state  with  having  made  a  com- 
pact and  holding  regular  intercourse  with  the 
devil ;  and  soon  afterward  published  his  Cojfi- 
tatMne*  rationale  de  Deo,  Anima  at  Male,  in 
opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Poiret.  In  1681 
the  nniversity  of  8edan  was  sappressed  by 
Loois  XIV.,  and  Bayle  with  the  other  profes- 
sors removed  to  Sotterdam,  where  be  contin- 
ued bis  professorship.  His  PbtuUi  gar  la  eo- 
mitt,  published  there  in  1 682,  to  allay  the  fears 
revived  ammig  the  people  on  the  appear- 
ance of  the  oomet  of  1860,  was  prohibited  in 
France  by  the  police,  but  eagerly  read.  His 
pamphlet  in  reply  to  the  HUtoire  dw  Calvi- 
nitmt  of  the  Jesuit  Maimbourg  was  also  very 
suocessfhl,  and  was  ordered  to  be  publicly 
burned  by  the  executioner.  In  16S4  Bayle 
commenced  a  literary  jonmal,  under  the  title 
of  IfowelUi  de  la  repvblique  dew  httrei,  which 
was  popular,  bat  led  to  many  quarrels.  On  the 
oooanon  of  the  severe  meaauree  of  Louis  XIV. 
against  the  Proteatanta,  he  wrote  a  plea  for  tol- 
eration entitled  CommentairephilMOphique  mir 
1(9  poTolet  da  V&tiangiU :  "  CimiraiTU-U*  d'et^ 
trer."  For  this  Jurieu,  the  Jealous  author  of  a 
rival  and  unsncoeaeful  answer  to  Haimbonrg, 
denounced  him  as  indifferent  to  religion,  in  fact 
almost  an  infidel,  and  finally  had  him  dismissed 
from  his  professorship,  deprived  of  his  pension, 
and  at  last  in  1698  forbidden  by  the  common 
oouncil  of  Rotterdam  to  teach  either  publicly  or 
orivately.  Bayle  then  began  his  famous  and 
long  projected  DicHonnaire  hUloriqva  et  cri- 
tique, in  which  he  intended  to  point  out  the  er- 
rors and  snpplytbe  deficiencies  of  the  most  im- 
jMirtant  publications  of  the  same  Icind.  In  1696 
the  first  edition  appeared  (3  vols,  folio,  Rotter- 
dam), and  had  at  once  an  immense  sacceas. 
His  enemies,  however,  arraigned  him  before 
the  oonaiatory  of  the  Walloon  chnroh,  who  or- 


BATLET 

dered  him  to  make  many  correctims  and  alter- 

atdone  in  various  important  articles.  The  etm- 
troversy  in  this  matter  occupied  much  of  his 
time,  and  prevented  him  from  improving  m 
completely  as  he  wished  the  work  to  which  be 
had  devoted  hia  life.  Bayle  has  been  called 
the  Montaigne  of  the  17th  century;  bnt,  with 
a  similar  tendency  to  skepticism  and  greater 
earnestness,  he  lacks  the  eaae  and  grace  of  that 
writer.  Ha  published  the  second  edition  of  his 
Dietiimnaire  in  1703,  but  the  most  valuable 
editions  are  those  of  1740,  at  Basel  and  Am- 
sterdam, both  in  4  vols,  folio.  The  English 
edition  by  Thomas Birob  and  Lookman(]0  vols, 
folio,  London,  1784-'41},  contains  many  addi- 
tions. The  most  recent  is  that  of  Beachot 
(16  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1820). 

BATLEir,  or  SaDea,  a  town  of  Spun,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  ntoated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Uorena,  22  ra.  N.  of  Jacn;  pop.  about 
7,900.  It  commands  the  road  from  Castile  into 
Andalusia.  In  the  peninsnlar  war  the  French 
general  Dapont,  while  attempting  to  cross  the 
Sierra  at  tiiis  point,  was  surronaded  by  the 
Spaniards  and  surrendered  to  Csstaflos,  July 
20, 1808,  with  about  18,000  troops. 

BiTLET,  JsMM  iMsev^  an  American  arch- 
bishop, grandson  of  Richard  Bayley,  M.  D^ 
bora  in  New  York,  Aug.  23,  1814,  died  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct  8,  1877.  He  was  a  grado- 
ate  of  Washington  (now  Trinity)  college,  Hart- 
ford, studied  theology  with  Dr.  Samuel  Farmer 
Jarvis  of  Middletown,  Conn^  was  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  chnrcb, 
and  preached  at  Harlem,  N.  Y.,  and  afterward 
at  Hagerstown,  Ud.  He  then  joined  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  prepared  himself  for  the 
priesthood  at  St.  Snlpice  in  Paris,  and  was  or- 
damed  in  New  York,  March  2,  1842,  by  Bishop 
Hughes,  He  was  appointed  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  BL  John  8  c<dle^e,  Fordham,  N.  T., 
of  which  he  was  president  in  1846-'6,  and  from 
1848  to  185S  was  eeoretary  to  Arohbishop 
Hughes.  On  OcL  80, 1863,  he  was  consecrated 
first  bishop  of  Newark,  N.  J,,  which  nnder  hie 
administration  became  one  of  the  most  proq>er- 
ous  dioceses  in  the  United  States.  He  founded 
Seton  Hall  college  and  numerous  schools,  acad- 
emies, convents,  and  chnrchea.  On  July  80, 
1872,  he  was  appointed  arohbishop  of  Balti- 
more. He  published  a  "Sketch  of  the  His- 
tory of  the  Catholic  Ohnrch  on  the  laland  of 
New  York"  (New  York,  1868;  revised  ed^ 
1866);  "Memoirs  of  Simon  Gabriel  Bmt£,  firat 
Bishopof  Vincennes"  (1860);  and  "Pastorals 
for  the  People." 

BilLET,  BMui.  an  American  phyncian, 
born  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  in  174£,  died  Aug.  17, 
1801.  He  studied  in  the  hospitals  of  London, 
and  in  1772  returned  to  New  York  and  com- 
menced practice,  becoming  especially  distin- 
guished in  the  treatment  of  croup.  In  1776 
he  revisited  England,  but  in  the  spring  of  177S 
returned  to  New  York  as  staff  surgeon  to  Sir 
Ony  Garleton.  He  resigned  his  oommisBion 
in  the  army  the  next  year  and  resnmed  prac- 


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BATLOB 

dee  k  Nev  Tork.  His  lettera  to  Dr.  Eontor 
apOD  the  croap  were  published  in  1781.  In 
178T  he  gkve  lectures  upon  larger;.  The  next 
year  his  collection  of  apeotmena  of  morbid  anat- 
omy was  totally  destroyed  by  the  "doctors' 
mob."  In  IT93  be  was  professor  of  anatomy 
in  Colombia  college,  and  afterward  of  sorKery. 
He  was  the  first  health  ofBcer  of  Ifew  York, 
and  in  1TB7  published  an  essay,  and  afterward 
a  series  of  letters,  od  the  yeiiow  fever  tben  pre- 
vailing, attribntiDg  it  entirely  to  looal  causes, 
and  repudiating  the  theory  of  contagion.  He 
ezertea  himself  to  obt^n  the  psssage  of  proper 
qaarantine  taws,  in  which  be  was  finally  sao- 
oeesflil.  He  died  of  ship  fever  contracted  in 
the  discharge  of  his  official  dnties.  His  daugh- 
ter, Ura.  Seton,  founded  the  Sisterhood  of 
Oharity  in  the  United  States.  (See  Sbton, 
Euuk  Ash.) 

BATLOB,  an  unsettled  K.  W.  oonnty  of  Texas, 
watered  by  the  Big  Wichita,  the  mwia  or  Salt 
fork  of  tiie  Brazos  river,  and  Antelope  oreek ; 
area,  900  sa.  m.  The  surface  is  mostly  high, 
broken,  ana  rocky ;  between  the  Brazoe  and 
Big  Wichita  it  is  mountainous.  The  bottom 
lands  of  the  Brazos  are  rich. 

BilLT,  ntMM  Bajnes,  an  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  bom  near  Bath,  Oct.  IB,  179T,  died 
April  aa,  1889,  For  a  time  he  was  a  student 
at  Oxford,  with  the  intenldon  of  taking  holy 
orders;  but  inheritutg  a  fortune  fW>m  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  an  eminent  solicitor,  be  was 
E eminent  in  fashionable  society  in  Bath  and 
ndon.  Iq  18S1  he  met  with  a  pecuniary 
reverse  which  oomprelled  him  to  turn  to  ao- 
oonnt  his  talent  for  mnsic  and  Song-writing, 
and  his  general  literary  abilities,  which  had 
lonK  before  attracted  favorable  attention.  His 
"  Melodiee  of  Various  Nations,"  with  muucal 
Bocompaniments  arranged  and  composed  by 
himself  and  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  appeared  in 
1889,  and  attained  an  immediate  success.  In 
a  very  few  years  be  wrote  86  pieces  for  the 
stage,  several  novels  and  tales,  and  hnndreds 
of  songs.  Among  his  best  known  songs  are : 
"We  met,  'twas  In  a  crowd,"  "The  Soldier's 
Tear,"  "  Oh  no,  we  never  mention  her,"  "  Why 
don't  the  men  propose!"  and  "I'd  be  a  butter- 
fly." His  literary  works  are;  "Ayimers,"  a 
novel ;  "  Kindness  in  Women,"  a  oolleotdon  of 
tales  in  8  vola  ;  "  ParliamentBry  Letters  and 
other  Poems ;  "  "  Rough  Sketches  of  Bath  ;  " 
and  "  Weeds  of  Witchery,"  a  volume  of  poems. 
After  his  death  his  widow  pnbUahed  2  vols,  of 
bis  poems,  with  a  biography. 

BATHE,  Pctir,  a  Scottish  antbor  and  oritio, 
bom  In  AberdeeDshire  in  1839.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Uarischal  college,  Aberdeen,  and  after- 
ward studied  theology  at  Edinburgh,  and  philos- 
ophy nnder  Sir  WiEIam  Hamilton.  In  18SI-'a 
he  contributed  to  "  Hogg's  Instructor  "  a  series 
of  oritical  essays  on  De  Qnincey,  Alison,  Hugh 
Miller,  and  others,  which  attracted  marked  at- 
tention, and  were  especially  commended  by 
De  Qnincey  and  Alison.  Their  success  de- 
termined bun  to  devote  himself  to  literary  life, 


BATONWE 


409 


and  in  1866  he  published  "  The  Christian  Life, 
Social  and  Individual,"  in  which  Hugh  Miller 
etdd  some  of  tbe  biographies  "  condense  in 
comparatively  brief  space  the  thinking  of  ordi- 
nary volumes."  This  work  was  immediately 
repnblished  in  Boston,  and  was  followed  by  a 
oolleotjon  of  the  essays  from  "  Hi^'s  Instruc- 
tor," with  several  new  onee  written  for  this 
edition,  under  the  title  of  "Essays  in  Bic^ra- 

Eby  and  Critioism"  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1867-'8), 
1  1866  be  was  editor- in-ohief  of  a  Glasgow 
newspaper,  "The  Commonwealth;"  but  in 
1866  he  resigned  and  visited  Germany  for 
health  and  study.  After  his  arrival  in  Berlin 
he  was  appointed  to  suooeed  Hugh  Miller  as 
editor  of  the  Edinburgh  "Witness,"  but  did 
not  assume  that  position  till  the  summer  of 
1SS7,  meantime  pursuing  his  German  studies 
and  marrying  a  daughter  of  Gen.  Gerwien  of 
tbe  PmsBiBn  army.  He  has  mnoe  published  in 
the  "Witness"  several  extended  eeeays  and 
oriticions,  particularly  a  series  in  defence  of 
Hogh  Miller's  "  Testunony  of  the  Rocks" 
s^nst  an  attack  in  the  "  North  British  Re- 
view," and  these  have  been  issued  in  a  pam- 
phlet edition.  He  has  also  published  "Teeti- 
mony  of  Christ  and  Christianity"  (reprinted  in 
Boston,  1862),  and  "The  Days  of  Jezebel,"  a 
historical  drama  (Boston,  1872). 

BATONPT,  a  sword-like  blade  adapted  to  be 
affixed  to  the  muxzle  of  a  musket  or  rifle  and 
used  by  infantry.  It  was  invented  in  France 
(at  or  near  Bayonne,  whence  tbe  name)  abont 
the  year  lft40.  Up  to  that  time  tbe  mus- 
keteers were  mixed  with  pikemen  to  protect 
them  fVom  a  closing  enemy.  Tbe  bayonet  en- 
abled musketeers  to  withstand  cavalry  or  pike- 
men,  and  thus  gradually  superseded  the  pike. 
Originally  the  bayonet  was  fastened  to  a  stick 
for  insertion  into  the  barrel  of  the  musket; 
the  socket  bayonet,  fastened  by  a  tube  pass- 
ing round  the  barrel,  was  a  later  invention. 
The  French  did  not  do  away  entirely  with  tbe 
pike  tiU  1703,  nor  the  Bnasians  tiU  1731.  At 
the  battle  of  Spire,  in  1703,  charges  of  infan- 
try were  first  made  with  fixed  bayonets.  The 
bayonet  has  been  variously  modified  in  form, 
the  better  to  adapt  it  to  its  ori^nal  purpose 
or  to  collateral  uses.  Among  recent  improve- 
ments is  the  trowel  or  spade  bayonet,  calcu- 
lated both  for  offensive  use  and  for  digging 
intrenobments. 

BATOlfHE  (Basque,  baia  ana,  good  bay),  a 
city  of  S.  W.  France,  department  of  Bassee- 
Pyr§n6es,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nive  with 
the  Adonr,  2}  m.  fhim  the  bay  of  Biscay,  18 
m.  from  the  Spanish  fi-ontier,  and  US  m.  S.  8. 
W.  of  Bordeaux ;  pop.  in  1886,  26,833.  It  is 
separated  into  three  parts.  Great  and  Little 
Bayonne  and  the  suburb  of  Pont  St.  Esprit, 
which  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Adour, 
and  is  inhabit«d  mamly  by  Jews,  descendants 
of  (iigitiTes  from  Spain.  Bayonne  is  strongly 
fortified,  has  one  of  the  finest  arsenals  in  France, 
handsome  qnays  and  promenades,  a  mint^  a  the- 
atre, a  seminary,  schools  of  oommerce,  naval 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


410 


BAYOU  SABA 


and  conunerciel  docks,  chamber  and  tribunal 
of  commerce,  distilleries,  eugar  refineries,  and 

tiasa  works.  It  bas  a  con«deiubIe  trade  with 
pain,  and  exports  timber,  tar,  corks,  haioa, 
chocolate,  liqueurtt,  and  cream  of  tartar.  It 
has  a  cathedral  of  the  12th  centnry,  and  a  cita- 
del built  by  Vauban,  Bajonne  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  named  La- 
pnrdum.  Though  it  has  been  besieged  man; 
times,  it  has  never  been  captured,  -wherefore 
tbe  inhabitants  call  it  the  virgin  city.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  long  held  bj  the  English 
with  Aquitaine,  but  was  surrendered  to  Charles 
VII.  in  1461.  It  was  here  that  the  notorious 
convention  between  Napoleon  and  the  conrt 
of  Spain  was  held  in  April  and  May,  1608,  in 
which  the  emperor  by  persuasion  and  threats 
extorted  from  Ferdinand  VII.  the  retrocesMon 
of  the  Spanish  orovu  to  his  &ther  Charles  IV., 


BAZA 

and  from  the  latter  (Uay  6)  an  abdication  in 
favor  of  a  sucoesaor  to  be  chosen  by  NapolMU. 
This  successor  was  hie  brother  Joseph. 

BITOC  SAKl,  a  village  of  West  Feliciana 
parish,  La.,  utuatcd  on  the  Missiasippi  river, 
163  m.  above  New  Orieans ;  pop.  in  1870,  440. 
It  is  an  important  shipping  point  for  com  and 
cotton.  A  railroad  connects  it  with  Woodville, 
Mississippi. 

BlIKHOFFER,  Kat)  1%MMr,  a  German  phi- 
losopher and  politician,  bom  in  Harbnrg  in 
1812.  He  studied  law,  but  devoted  himself 
snbsequeotly  to  philosophy,  on  which  Eulyect 
he  began  to  lecture  in  1834  in  Marburg,  where 
in  183S  be  received  the  appointment  of  special 
and  in  184C  of  permanent  professor  at  the 
university.  He  advocated  the  views  of  Hegel, 
and  in  184S  published  in  the  JahrbHehtr /^r 
Wiue7>Kht^ft  und  Leben  a  series  of  papers  un- 


der tbe  name  of  Untertuchxingen  Uher  TF«#n, 
Qttehiehte  und  Kritik  der  Religion,  in  elncida- 
tion  of  his  \-iews  of  the  Marburg  Lichlfrevnde, 
and  of  the  other  new  religions  organization 
which  grew  ont  of  the  German  Catholic  move- 
ment J(e  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revo- 
lutionary movements  of  1846,  and  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year  was  made  a  member  of  the 
diet  of  Ilesse-Caascl,  in  which  body  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and  for  a  short 
time  president  of  the  chamber;  but  after  the 
defeat  of  the  democratic  party  he  went  to  Paris 
and  afterward  to  America. 

BiZl  (anc.  Batti),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  61  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Gra- 
nada; pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  situated  in  a 
high  valley  near  the  river  Baza,  between  the 
Sierras  de  Baza  and  de  Javalcol,  and  has  a 
suburb  chiefly  conasting  of  cnvems.     In  the 


Gothic  collegiate  church  is  tbe  tomb  of  its 
patron  saint,  Uaximns;  and  there  are  several 
other  flue  churches  and  convents.  The  women 
of  Baza  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty  and 
picturesque  costume.  Tlie  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants  is  mainly  agricultural.  A  rich  red 
wine  is  produced  iu  the  vicinity  and  mixed 
with  aguardiente  distilled  from  aniseed.  Re- 
mains of  antiquity  abound  in  this  re^on.  Tbe 
town  was  oailed  Bastiana  in  the  middle  ages 
and  Bastoh  by  the  Moors,  who  captured  it 
early  in  the  6th  century,  and  under  whom  it 
became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial 
emporiums  of  Andalusia,  with  a  population  of 
50,000.  It  was  taken  from  them  in  li89  by 
the  Spaniards  commanded  by  Queen  Isabella 
in  person,  after  a  siege  uf  seven  mouths.  Some 
of  the  rude  cannon  used  by  tbe  Moors  are  still 
preserved  here.     In  August,  1810,  Soult  de- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAZAINE 

feated  over  20,000  Spaniards  on  the  plain  of 
Baza.  The  hot  snlphor  Bpringa  of  Beiualema, 
Dear  Zi^ar,  at  the  foot  of  tha  Javalcol  moun- 
tain, are  often  called  the  spring  of  Baza. 

BAZUNE,  Fraaf«U  itUDt,  a  Freuch  seneral, 
born  in  VersailleB,  Feb.  18,  1811.  He  enlisted 
as  a  private  In  18S1,  became  a  lieatenant  in 
Algeria  in  1886,  captain  after  two  ;ears'  aer- 
vice  with  the  foreign  legion  ag»nst  the  Carlista 
in  Spain,  lient«nant  colonel  in  1848  after  nine 
years'  aetive  duties  in  Algeria  and  Morocco, 
colonel  of  the  foreign  legion  in  1860,  and  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  the  Crimean  war,  acting  as 
commander  of  Sebastopol  after  its  captnre. 
He  acquired  the  rank  of  general  of  division  in 
ISfiC,  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  Ein- 
bnm.  Subsequently  he  held  the  post  of  mili- 
tary inspector  in  France.  In  the  Italian  cam- 
paiga  he  was  wonnded,  Jane  8,  1869,  while 
commanding  a  division  in  the  attack  apon  Mo- 
legnano,  and  he  took  a  oonspicnous  part  in  the 
battle  of  Solferino.  In  18S3  he  commanded  in 
Mexico  the  first  divinon  of  the  French  army, 
aad  hj  defeating  Comoofort  compelled  the  sur- 
render of  Pnebla,  Hay  18,  18S3,  shortly  after 
which  the  French  entered  the  capital.  On  Oct 
1,  1863,  he  snocoeded  Forey  as  commander- 
JD-ohief,  acting  also  as  civil  administrator  of 
the  occupied  districta ;  and  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal was  conferred  on  him  in  1864.  Id  Febm- 
arj,  18S6,  he  captured  the  town  of  O^oca, 
together  with  a  Hexican  army  of  7,000  men 
nnder  Diaz.  Though  he  persnaded  Maximil- 
ian to  issae  the  most  rigorous  decrees  agaiust 
the  JuaristA,  and  himself  relentlessij  eiecoted 
them,  ha  was  generally  believed  to  be  engaged 
in  secret  plottings  with  the  enemies  of  Oiat 
emperor,  in  pursuance  of  personal  ambitions 
whemea.  He  married  a  rich  Mexican  lady 
whose  family  sided  with  Jnarez,  In  February, 
186T,  he  wiuidrew  with  his  forces  from  the  cap- 
ital, declaring  Maximilian's  position  to  be  un- 
tenable, and  soon  afterward  embarked  at  Vera 
Ornz.  On  his  arrival  in  France,  though  ex- 
poaed  to  violent  public  denonoiations,  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  senate,  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Sd  anny  corps ;  ana  in  October, 
1869,  after  the  death  of  St  Jean  d'Angely,  he 
booama  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperii 
gnurd  at  Paris.  Oil  the  outbreak  of  the  Frui- 
OO-German  war  in  1870  ho  was  placed 
maud  Dear  Metz  of  the  8d  corps,  coosi 
four  divisions  of  infantry,  one  of  cavalry,  and 
a  strong  force  of  artillery.  After  the  defeats 
of  WCrth  and  Forbach,  he  assumed  on  Aug.  8 
the  command  of  the  maia  French  amues,  in 
place  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  began  his 
retreat  from  Hetz  Aug.  14,  hoping  to  effect  a 
jnnction  with  the  army  near  ChAlons  and  with 
the  new  forces  gathering  under  MaoMahon. 
Bat  he  was  attacked  on  the  same  day,  when  still 
in  fVont  of  the  fortress,  and  after  the  succeeding 
bloody  battles  of  Mars-la-Tour  (Ang.  16)  and 
Gravelotte  (Aug,  18)  was  forced  to  retire  with- 
in the  fortificatioaa,  and  soon  after  hermetically 
shut  in  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles.    Ue  made 


BAZARD 


411 


several  fbtila  attempts  to  break  through  the  in- 
vesting army,  that  of  Aug.  Bl  to  Sept.  ]  proving 
very  diBastrons.  After  the  capitulation  at  Se- 
dan he  renewed  these  attempts  (Oct.  ?,  8)  to 
escape  from  Metz,  and  then  tried  to  negotiate 
with  the  Germans  at  Versuilles  through  his 
adjutant,  Oen.  Boyer,  and  in  the  interest,  it 
was  thought,  of  tha  deposed  dynasty ;  but  he 
was  compelled  on  Oct.  27  to  surrender  to 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  with  his  entire  force 
of  ITS, 000  men,  inclnding  8  marshals,  S  com- 
manders of  corps,  40  generals  of  division,  100 
brigadier  generals,  and  6,000  other  officers,  who 
by  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  all  became  pris- 
oaers  of  war,  Bazaine  himself  being  permitted 
to  join  the  ex-emperor  at  Cassel.  After  the 
preliminary  treaty  of  peace  he  removed  to  Oe- 
neva  in  March,  1871.  Having  been  charged 
with  treason  by  Gombetta,  he  defended  him- 
self in  his  Bapport  tommaire  *ut  let  opirationi 
de  Varmit  du  Rhin  du  IS  ao^t  au  39  oeuibre. 
He  was  placed  under  arrest  May  14,  1872,  bnt 
his  trial  had  not  taken  place  up  to  June,  1878. 

BIZALGFITE,  JMeph  WHHaH,  an  English 
civil  engineer,  ef  French  extraction,  bom  in 
1819.  He  stndied  in  London  under  Sir  John 
McNeil,  and  eventually  became  engineer  to  the 
metropolitan  commission  of  aewers,  and  en- 
gineer-in-chief to  the  metropolitan  board  of 
works.  He  axecnted  the  main  drainage  works 
of  London,  and  planned  the  improved  drunage 
of  many  localities  at  home  and  abroad.  Among 
his  great  achievements  are  the  works  connected 
with  the  Thames  embankment. 

BlZiirCODIT,  Cfcar  «k,  baron,  a  French  writer, 
bom  in  1810,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  26, 1866.  Un- 
der Louis  Philippe  he  was  director  of  the  library 
at  Compile,  and  wrote  namerons  novels  and 
a  "History  of  Sicily  under  Norman  Domina- 
tion" (2  vols.,  1846).  Under  Napoleon  III.  he 
became  the  official  historian  of  the  Crimean 
and  Italian  campaigns.  His  works  on  those 
subjects  (each  2  vols.,  18B7BndlB50-'eO)  passed 
through  many  editions.  He  also  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  the  French  expeditions  to  China  and 
Cochin  China  (2  vols.,  18Bl-'2),  and  a  work  on 
fencing  {La  lecret*  de  Pipee,  1861). 

BAZIBD,  AmuhI,  a  French  carbonarist  and  St 
Simonian,  bom  in  Paris,  Sept.  19, 1791,  died  at 
Courtray,  July  29,  1882.  In  1818  he  became 
the  principal  editor  of  VArUlarqug,  an  oppod- 
tion  Jonmal.  When,  on  the  assassination  of 
the  duke  of  Barry  in  1820,  the  freedom  of  the 
press  was  restricted,  ha  published  many  pam- 
phlets to  difihse  liberal  opmions  among  the  peo- 
ple I  and  at  the  same  time  he  founded  the  lodge 
of  le*  amit  de  la  tiriti,  pursuing  his  poUtical 
purposes  under  the  cover  of  freemasonry.  Aid- 
ed by  Dugied  and  Joubert^  he  organized  carbo- 
nari societies,  which  soon  numbered  200,000 
members.  He  took  part  in  the  many  conspira- 
cies which  tended  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Bourbon  monarchy.  On  the  discovery  of  the 
B6ford  military  plot  he  was  outlawed,  bnt 
escaped.  He  afterward  became  one  of  the  first 
disciples  of  St  Simon,  and  in  1826  one  of  the 


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413 


BAZEILLES 


naatiihjiton  to  tiieProdueteur.  la  1828,  when 

the  Bt,  Slmoniona  commenced  ezpoonding  their 
doctrines  in  public  meetingi,  Bazttrd  waa  with 
Enfandn  their  acknowledged  head.  He  wished 
to  confine  the  doctrinee  to  strictly  phiJoBophioal 
theory,  and  quarrelled  with  Enfantin,  who  pro- 
posed to  convert  them  into  a  religions  creed 
r^eotiog  the  ties  of  marriage,  in  1881  he  pnb- 
iiahed  a  manifesto  charging  Enfantin  ana  bia 
followers  with  planning  a  new  aociai  order 
fonndod  npon  corruption,  licentiouaness,  and 
bad  fiiitb.  He  at  the  same  time  proclaimed 
himself  chief  of  the  new  St.  Simonian  hie- 
rarchy; bnt  the  great  m^ority  of  the  St,  8i- 
monians  adhered  to  Enfantin. 

BlZEIIiJ&  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes,  at  the  conSaenoe  of  the 
Chiers  and  the  Givonne,  half  a  mile  fhjm  the 
Ifense,  and  3  m.  B.  uf  Sedan;  pop.  in  1866, 
3,046.  It  had  cloth  manufactories  and  iron 
works.  At  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Se- 
dan (Sept  1,  1870}  the  ^lage  was  wholly  de- 
stroyed by  the  Bavarians,  who  charged  the  in- 
habitants with  having  fired  from  their  honsea 
on  the  woonded  Germans  and  the  physiciauB. 
In  1872  it  was  already  in  great  part  rratored. 

BAZU.  L  Aattlu  Plerr*  bwst,  a  French 
pbydoian,  bom  at  Bt  Brioe,  Feb.  20,  1807. 
Like  many  of  bis  ancestors  be  early  adopted 
the  medical  professioD,  and  has  been  since  1847 
physician  of  the  hospital  of  St  Louis  and  pro- 
fessor of  dermatology.  His  principal  works 
relate  to  diseases  of  the  skin  and  to  syphilis, 
and  a  second  edition  of  his  L«potu  thivriq^ta 
et  eliniquu  rur  la  »yphilU  Bt  U*  lyphilidet  was 
pablished  in  1807.  IL  IiMm  Pkm  Uals,  a 
French  philologist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  March  26,  1799,  died  in  January,  IS6S. 
He  was  professor  of  Chinese,  translated  many 
works  from  that  language,  and  in  1866  pub- 
lished Qrammaire  mandariTie,  on  prineipet  gi- 
niraux  d»  la  lan^ite  ehinoite  parlit. 

BDEUIin,  a  gum  rean  obtained  from  tihe 
onwrw  eommiphora  of  India  and  Madanscar, 
and  the  Senegal  variety  from  the  Beuielotia 
JJrieana,  Its  color  is  brownish  red.  The 
fi'aotnre  Is  dnll  and  wax-like.  It  bums  with  a 
balsamic  odor,  and  resembles  myrrh  in  taste, 
smell,  and  medicinal  properties.  It  u  some- 
times, bnt  rarely,  used  for  plasters,  and  is  also 
administered  internally. 

BEICH,  Mmh  Yale,  an  American  meohanio 
and  editor,  bora  at  Wollingford,  Conn.,  Jan.  7, 
1800,  died  there,  JolylQ,  1868.  At  the  age 
t^  14  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  cabinet-maker 
at  Hartford,  bnt  pnrchaBed  his  freedom  in  hia 
18th  year.  After  failing  in  tlie  cabinet  business 
at  Northampton,  Haas.,  he  removed  to  Spring- 
field and  endeavored  to  manufacture  a  gun- 
powder engine  for  propelling  balloons.  The 
attempt  was  unsuoc^sfnl.  He  next  undertook 
to  open  steam  navigation  on  the  Connecticut 
river  between  Hartford  and  Springfield,  but  the 
ruinous  state  of  his  affairs  obliged  him  to  oesee 
operations  while  his  steamer  was  on  the  stocks. 
Ur.  Beach  soon  after  devised  a  rag-outting  ma- 


chine, which  was  adopted  in  paper  milU  He 
next  remoYed  to  Ulster  county,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  became  oonceroed  in  on  exten^ve  psfwr  milL 


e  acimirt 


newspaper  in  New  York,  the  pioneer  of  the 
penny  press,  of  which  he  soon  made  himaelf 
sole  proprietor.  In  1867  he  retired  from  bnri- 
ness  and  took  np  his  residence  in  Wallingford. 

BEilMIfSFIiZil),  a  market  town  of  Bnoking- 
hamsfaire,  England,  28  m.  W.  by  N.  of  London ; 
pop.  in  1871,  3,026.  It  is  situated  on  high 
ground,  where  once  there  was  a  beacon.  The 
remains  of  Edmund  Burke  are  depodted  in  the 
parish  ohnrch;  and  the  churchyard  contains 
a  monument  to  the  poet  Waller,  who  owned 
the  manor.  Beoconsfleld  gave  the  title  of  vis- 
oaant«SB  to  the  wife  of  Beqjamin  Disraeli. 

BE4D  (A.  6.  btad,  prayer ;  Ban.  btdt,  to  pray\ 
a  small  perforated  body,  nsnolly  glob^dor,  made 
of  various  materials,  and  need  as  an  ornament 
or  U>  number  prayers.  Beads  are  worn  in  tlie 
form  of  a  cbun  by  stringing  them  together. 
The  wearing  of  beads  for  ornaments  is  of  very 
great  antiquity.  The  Egyptians,  beades  wear- 
ing them,  adorned  their  mummies  with  th^n. 
The  Egyptians,  and  probably  the  Phcenidans, 
made  glass  beads  more  than  8,000  years  >^ 
The  Old  Testament  often  refers  to  the  wearing 
of  beads,  as  in  Canticles:  "Thy  cheeks  are 
comely  with  rows  of  jewels,  thy  neck  witii 
chains  of  gold,"  chuns  in  this  passage  agniz- 
ing perforat«d  articles.  Beads  made  of  marine 
shells  were  used  from  remote  traditional  times 
by  the  New  England  Indians  as  a  currenoy, 
underthenameofwampufn,  and  were  also  woth 
in  a  belt,  called  leampumpaqw.  Schooloraft 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  discoverr  of 
beads  of  various  forms  and  materials  in  Isle 
Ronde,  Lake  Hnron.  Necklaces  and  bracelets 
made  of  beads  of  metals,  shells,  teet^  coral, 
seeds  of  plants,  and  other  materials,  ore  de- 
scribed by  nearly  all  travellers  among  prim- 
itive peoples.  Beads,  princip^ly  of  glass,  bnt 
of  other  materials  also,  are  in  common  nse 
among  the  tribes  of  Africa  as  a  currency,  and 
are  carried  there  in  great  quantities  by  travel- 
lers. In  the  Boman  Catholic  church,  beads,  in 
the  form  of  chapleta,  are  used  in  saying  the 
rosary,  aseriesof  prayers  to  the  Blessed  Vu^n. 
"  St  Outhbert's  beads  "  was  the  name  given  to 
a  ohaplet  of  beads  made  from  the  joints  of 
the  stems  of  fossil  encrinites.  (See  Kosabt.) 
The  worshippers  of  the  grand  lama  nse  a  string 
of  beads  in  their  religious  ceremonies.  The 
Chinese  chaplet  contains  108  beads,  and  ia  worn 
as  a  necklace;  some  of  the  beads  denote  the 
rank  of  the  wearer.  The  Uohammedans  nse  a 
chaplet  of  beads,  which  they  count  with  their 
fingers  while  reciting  the  99  qnalities  of  God 
mentioned  in  the  Koran. — Mnrono,  a  small 
island  near  Venice,  and  BirnuDgham,  England, 
are  the  principal  seats  of  the  manufaotnre  of 
glass  beads.  They  are  qiade  from  tnbea,  which 
are  out  into  pieces  of  the  desired  length,  tbe 
sharp  edges  being  then  rounded  by  hsing, 
either  with  the  blowpipe  or  by  the  applicotiw 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEAQLE 

of  he&t  in  Borne  other  mode.    At  Marano  & 

.  mixture  of  fine  sand  and  charcoal,  to  prevent 
the  pieoea  from  fodog  together,  is  stirred  with 
them,  when  thejr  are  agitated  in  a  red-hot  iron 
pan  which  roonda  them.  The  core  of  eand  is 
then  eanly  removed. 

WMCIJ!)  a  small,  well  proportioned  hound, 
not  more  than  10  or  11  inches  in  height  at  the 
ahonlder,  with  long  pendolons  ears,  smooth 
hur,  and  color  either  black  or  dark  brown  with 
whit«  spots,  or  pure  white,  or  white  with  black 
and  tan  ean  and  eye  patches.  B;  c&reftil  breed- 
ing the  animal  haa  been  reduced  in  size,  and 
the  imalleet  ar«  known  as  lapdog  beagles.    It 


BEAM 


418 


Bnsls. 

is  distingnished  for  its  fine  scent  and  peraeve- 
roDce.  Fomnerl^  it  was  a  favorite  in  England 
for  hare  hunting;  its  small  size  and  slow  but 
sure  movements  prolonged  the  pleamre  of  the 
chase,  and,  though  distanced  at  first,  ita  per- 
severance made  it  sore  of  killing  the  hare  at 
last  The  ohase  with  beagles  could  be  followed 
on  foot.  In  this  sport,  however,  the  beagle  is 
"walmoet  entirely  superseded  by  the  harrier. 


the  miiveraity  of  I«ndon  in  1851,  and  is  profes- 
sor of  general  pliysiology  and  morbid  anatomy 
at  King's  college.  He  established  in  1B57  the 
"Archives  of  Uedicine,"  contribnted  actively 
to  the  "  Lancet "  and  other  periodicals,  and  has 
written  "  How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope  " 
(Sded.,  1866);  "Hicroscopismin  its  Application 
toHedioine"(8ded.,  1867);  "  Kidney  Disessea, 
Urinary  Bepoaits,  Ac."  (Sd  ed.  enlarged,  18QS) ; 
"Protoplasm,  or  Life,  Matter,  and  Mind"  (en- 
larged ed.,  18TO);  "IMsease  Germs,  their  Sup- 
posed Nature"  (1870);  "  Phywological  Anat- 
omy;" "Anatomy  of  Mao,"  Ac. 

BEILJE,  Hiry,  an  English  artist,  bom  in  Snf- 
folk  in  ieS2,  died  Dec.  28,  1897.  She  be- 
came not«d  OS  a  portrait  pwnt«r  in  1673,  for 
the  beanty  of  her  coloring,  which  she  had  at- 
tdned  by  copying  the  paintings  of  Correggio, 
Vandyke,  and  others.  She  studied  with  Sir 
Peter  Lely,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the 
bishop  of  Chester,  the  ear!  of  Clarendon,  and 
other  distingnished  persons.    She  worked  in 


oils,  water  colors,  and  crayons,  and  received 
large  prices  for  her  pictures.  Her  husband 
was  a  painter  and  color-maker,  but  had  no  rep- 
ntation  aa  an  artist.  Mrs.  iieale  was  well  edu- 
cated, and  wrote  some  poetical  pieces. 

BEiM  (Sex.  beam,  a  tree),  in  architeotnre,  a 
piece  of  timber  or  iron,  long  in  proportion  to 
ita  breadth  and  thickness,  used  either  to  sup- 
port a  euperincambent  weight,  or  to  bind  to- 
gether the  parts  of  a  frame  ss  a  tie,  by  resist- 
ance to  extension,  or  to  hold  them  apart  aa  a 
strnt,  by  resistance  to  compression.  The  term 
is  ^tplied  particularly  to  tile  largest  piece  of 
tunber  in  a  building,  that  which  liee  across  the 
walla  and  supports  the  principal  rafters.  Im- 
portant improvements  have  been  introduced 
within  a  few  years,  ia  various  departments  of 
practical  construction,  by  the  use  of  iron 
beams,  especially  in  the  bailding  of  fire-proof 
Btmctnree  and  bridges.  Prior  to  their  mtro- 
dnction  the  only  method  of  securing  safety 
from  fire  was  by  massive  and  cnmbersome 
constmctions  of  masonry.  This  system  of 
groined  arches  involves  great  loss  of  room,  the 
most  solid  foundations  and  heavy  watts  and 
piers  to  sustain  their  weight  and  thrust,  and 
often  an  inconvenient  arrangement  and  divi- 
non  of  the  interior  of  the  edifice.  It  is  not 
only  not  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  business, 
bnt  ita  expense  is  auch  as  to  preclude  ita  use 
for  ordinary  warehouses,  offices,  and  dwellings. 
The  introduction  of  cast-iron  beams  and  tight 
segmental  arches  to  some  extent  obviated  these 
inconveniences ;  but  experience  has  shown 
that  wrought  iron  is  much  better  adapted  to 
resist  transverse  struns,  and  the  testimony  of 
eminent  engineers  and  architeota  is  unanimous 
in  preferring  it  for  this  purpose,  as  both  more 
trastworthy  and  more  economical  than  cast 
iron.  The  first  instance  on  record  of  the  oon- 
stmction  of  a  building  with  cast-iron  beams  is 
that  of  a  fire-proof  cotton  mill  erected  in  Man- 
chester by  Boulton  and  Watt,  in  1801.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  after  the  elaborate  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  in  1830,  upon  the 
strength  and  properties  of  cast  iron,  that  the 
best  form  of  section  was  determined,  or  that 
iron  l>eams  were  used  for  spans  exceeding  14 
feet.  He  found  the  resistance  of  oast  iron  to 
compression  to  be  about  six  times  aa  great  as  ita 
resistance  to  extension,  and  that  equal  strength 
could  be  obtuned  with  half  the  weight  of  ma- 
terial formerly  used,  by  giving  the  proper  pro- 
portions to  the  parts  eobjeoted  tx>  these  re- 
spective strains.  Much,  however,  was  still  tc 
be  dewred  on  the  score  of  security  and  econ- 
omy, and  numerous  accidents  have  Justified 
the  general  want  of  confidence  in  beams  of  cast 
iron,  unless  great  precautions  are  observed  in 
casting  them  and  properly  proportioning  their 
parts ;  and  even  when  Uiese  precautions  are 
observed,  and  iron  of  good  quality  is  selected, 
secnrity  can  be  obtained  only  by  making  the 
most  ample  allowances  for  unequal  shrinkage 
in  cooling^  and  for  hidden  imperfections  not 
apparent  on  the  sui&ce,  or  to  be  detected  onl^ 


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414  BE 

bj  the  most  oarefU  examination.    Other  ob- 

iieotionH  to  cast-iron  beams  Eire,  that  tbej  are 
iable  to  ful  witbont  warning,  espMially  if  snb- 
Jeoted  to  concauion,  and  to  be  orolcea  by  the 
frequent  application  and  removal  of  loads 
much  lesa  than  the  permanent  load  they  would 
anetain  with  a&fet^f.  Bj  a  H^tem  of  testing, 
in  some  oases,  defective  beams  may  be  de- 
tected ;  hot  in  otherft,  the  load  applied  in  the 
test  itself  maj  so  wea>ken  the  beam  that  it  maj 
afterward  fail  with  a  load  mnoh  leas  than  that 
employed  in  the  test,  especiaUy  if  it  is  to  be 
subjected  to  conciiBGion  or  repeated  deflections, 
even  thoagh  small  in  amonnt  The  anooMafoJ 
construction  in  1649  of  the  tubular  bridges 
over  the  Conway  and  Jlenal  straits  was  one 
ti  the  earliest  applications  of  wrought-iron 
beams,  and  on  the  most  giganda  scale.  The 
laws  and  the  amount  of  the  reeistanoe  of 
wronght  iron  to  the  varions  strains  to  which 
it  is  snliyected  in  its  application  to  beams  were 
first  determined  by  the  most  oorefol  and  elab- 
orate experimental  and  the  snperioritj  of 
wrought  iron  for  this  purpose  clearly  demon- 
strated. By  means  of  the  data  thus  obtained, 
Mr.  Stephenson  was  enabled  saoceBsfully  to 
carry  out  his  conception  of  using  for  the 
bridges  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  rwJway 
tubular  beams  of  sufficient  strength  and  rigid- 
ity to  permit  the  uassage  of  the  heaviest  rul- 
way  traina  at  the  nighest  speed.  These  appli- 
oations  of  wrought-iron  beams  on  the' grand- 
est scale  have  been  followed  by  their  more 
modest,  but  even  more  useful  application  to 
flre-proof  buildings,  whereby  at  the  same  time 
perfect  security  and  a  material  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  fire-proof  constructiona  have  been  at^ 
tained.  Wrought  iron  is  an  elastic  material 
of  fibrous  strooture.  Ita  ultimate  strength  of 
reaistance  to  extension  is  greater  than  U>  com- 
pression ;  but  when  these  strains  do  not  exceed 
about  one  half  its  nltimate  strength,  it  offers 
equal  reustance  to  eitlier  strain.  Within  these 
limits  the  amount  of  the  extension  or  compres- 
sion which  it  undergoes  is  about  half  that  of 
cast  iron  for  equal  loads ;  but  the  amount  of  its 
extension  or  compresaon  before  rupture  is  mnch 
greater  than  that  of  cast  iron.  A  wrought- 
iron  beam  will  ttios  be  more  rigid  than  one  of 
cast  iron,  with  any  load  that  wiU  in  practice  be 
pennanently  tqipUed  to  it  \  but,  unlike  the  lat- 
ter, by  ita  excessive  deflection  when  overloaded, 
wiU  give  warning  of  danger  before  rupture  can 
take  place.  This  characteristic  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  beams  which  may  be  sobjected  to 
unpact,  as  the  falling  of  a  heavy  weight,  the 
resistance  of  the  beam  being  in  proportion  not 
only  to  its  Btren^th,  bnt  also  to  the  amount  of 
defection  that  it  will  undergo  before  rupture. 
The  various  processes  of  forging,  rolling,  &o., 
to  which  wrought-iron  beams  are  subjected  in 
their  manufacture,  will  cause  any  aerious  defect 
to  be  detected.  They  can  be  used  for  much 
greater  spans  than  beams  of  oast  iron,  and  it  is 
often  an  important  consideration  to  dispense 
with  oolumna  or  dividon  walls,  when  large 


rooma  are  reqidred. — For  irronght-iron  beams 
the  most  advantageous  forms  are  tbe  double- 
flanged  or  X  beam,  and  the  box  or  tubular 
beam.  Unlike  those  of  cast  iron,  the  flanges 
or  horizontal  rides  are  usually  of  equal  area. 
When  lateral  deflection  cannot  take  place,  there 
is  Uttle  diSerenoe  in  respect  to  strength  be- 
tween these  forms,  the  smgle  vertical  web  of 
the  one,  and  the  horizontal  flanges  projecting 
ftom  it,  b^ng  respectively  the  equivalents  of 
the  two  vertical  and  of  the  two  horizontal  aides 
oftheother.  For  floor  beams  the  X  form  is  ordi- 
narily employed.  It  is  not  only  more  economical, 
but  has  the  great  advantage  of  allowing  the  ma- 
terial of  which  the  flooring  between  the  beams 
is  formed  to  rest  upon  ita  lower  flangea,  thui 
saving  space,  and  surrounding  and  protecting 
thebeamBfrom theefiectsofflre.  In tne tubular 
beam  not  only  do  its  upper  and  lower  sides  con- 
tribute to  its  lateral  stifflieBS,  but  the  vertical 
sides  resist  lateral  flexure  in  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  tube,  exactly  aa  the  horizontal 
sides  resist  vertical  flexure  in  proportion  to  ita 
depth,  while  in  the  X  beam  lateral  stifbess  is 
due  principally  to  the  flanges.  A  vertical 
load  upon  a  beam  is  sustained  by  the  resistance 
of  its  fibres  to  the  forces  of  compression  and 
extendOQ.  A  body  subjected  to  compreasion, 
as  a  column,  if  its  lengui  he  great  in  compari- 
Hon  with  its  lateral  dimenaiona,  will  fail  by 
bending  under  a  load  much  less  than  would  be 
required  to  crush  the  material  if  the  column 
were  maintained  in  the  direct  line  of  atroin. 
The  tendency  of  a  body  subject  to  oompressicm 
to  yield  hy  flexure  beiuE  in  proportion  to  the 
square  of  its  length,  while  the  vertical  strength 
of  a  beam  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  ita  length 
mmply,  it  may  often  happen  that  tbe  limit  of 
strength  of  a  beam  will  be  not  ita  vertical  bat  its 
lateral  stiflheas ;  and  hence  in  some  cases,  as  for 
prders  witliont  lateral  Hopports,  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  nae  the  tubular  form,  while  for  floor 
beams  which  are  secured  from  lateral  deflection 
by  the  flllingin  between  them,  the  X  form  is 
preferable.  Wrought-iron  beams  of  dther  forni 
may  be  mode  by  riveting  together  plates,  angle 
bars,  T  bars,  or  other  shapes ;  the  rivets  should 
always  be  &stened  while  hot,  in  order  that 
their  contraction  in  cooling  may  draw  the  parts 
closely  together. — The  manufacture  of  solid- 
rolled  beams  has  effected  a  ftrther  important 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  flre-proof  construction. 
This  manufacture  was  flrst  introduced  in  this 
countf7  by  the  Trenton  iron  company,  at  thdr 
works  in  Trenton,  H.  J.  These  beams  have 
been  adopted  by  the  various  departments  of 
the  government  of  the  United  States  in  the 
construction  of  the  many  custom  honses,  marine 
hospitals,  and  other  public  buildings  erected 
since  their  introduction,  to  tlie  entire  excluuon 
of  Oie  system  of  groined  arches  and  also  of  riv- 
eted beams,  except  in  cases  where  the  latter 
are  used  because  solid-rolled  beams  of  suffident 
size  cannot  be  obtained.  This  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  construction  has  also  led  to  the  erection 
of  many  flre-proofbonking  houses,  worehonscs, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


maanbotoiies,  Ac,  and  tbe  iTstem  ia  rapidly 
coming  into  genera]  aee.  For  filling  in  between 
the  beamB  for  fire-proof  floora  tuioub  ByBteina 
have  been  adopted.  In  France,  wbere  fire- 
proof oonatraction  with  iron  beamB  ia  exten' 
uvelj  used,  tbe  filling  in  is  generallj  a  eoncrete 
of  refnao  materials  and  plaster  of  Paria.  Beams 
of  the  X  form  are  placed  2^  or  S  feet  apart ; 
their  ends  ore  boilt  in  tbe  waUs  and  secnred  bj 
anchors ;  no  beams  are  placed  immediately  at 
the  walls  parallel  with  the  beams.  The  beam 
next  each  wall  is  connected  to  it,  and  each 
beam  connected  with  the  one  next  adjoining, 
bf  inter-tiea  of  ronnd  or  sqnare  iron  of  aboat 
half  a  square  inch  in  sectional  area,  and  placed 
2)-  or  8  feet  apart ;  the  inter-ties  pass  tluvogh 
holes  near  the  centre  line  of  the  beams,  and  are 
provided  with  a  head  at  one  end  and  riveted 
np  at  the  other  aller  thej  are  pat  in ;  the  ends 
that  are  bnilt  into  the  walls  are  beat  to  form 
anchors.  Smaller  rods  parallel  with  the  beams, 
and  7  or  8  inches  apart,  are  snsnended  A'om 
the  inter-ties,  the  ends  of  the  roos  being  bent 
np  so  as  to  hook  over  the  inter-ties,  wbue  the 
rods  themselves  are  on  a  level  bnt  little  above 
that  of  the  bottom  of  the  beams ;  or  the  inter- 
ties  may  be  supported  npon  tbe  lower  fianges 
of  tbe  l>eajns  and  be  bent  np  at  the  ends  so  as 
to  hook  over  the  npper  flanges,  and  the  smaller 
rods  parallel  with  tne  beams  be  lud  npon  tlie 
inter-ties.  A  fiat  centring  is  placed  against  the 
bottoms  of  the  beams,  and  Broken  bricks  or 
other  refuse  materials  siutable  for  concrete  are 
put  npon  the  centring ;  and  plaster  of  Paris 
bang  ponred  in,  the  whole  mass  soon  becomes 
snEoientlj  set  to  allow  the  centring  to  be  re- 
moved, and  the  concrete  to  be  sustained  bj  the 
iron  framework  between  the  beams.  In  some 
CBsea  the  plaster  concrete  fills  np  the  whole 
space  between  the  beams,  and  flooring  tiles  are 
laid  directly  npon  it;  in  otiiera  the  depth  of 
the  concrete  is  less  than  that  of  the  i>eams,  and 
wooden  strips  are  laid  across  the  beams  per- 
pendicnlar  to  their  length,  to  which  ordinary 
flooring  boards  are  naued.  A  finishing  coat 
of  plaster  pat  directly  on  the  concrete  forms 
the  ceiling  below.  Hollow  potteries  placed 
upon  tbe  iron  latticework,  with  tbe  interstices 
filled  with  plaster,  are  freqnently  used  instead 
of  oonoretS.  A  very  light  and  superior  floor 
is  thns  made,  and  tbe  rigidity  of  the  whole 
system  considerably  increased. — The  nse  of 
plast«r  for  the  filiing  in  between  the  beams  has 
not  been  adopted  in  England  or  America,  be- 
cause of  tbe  greater  cost  and  inferior  quality 
of  the  plaster  that  can  be  obttuned.  The  sys- 
tem known  as  that  of  Fox  and  Barrett  bos 
been  Qsed  extensiTeiy  in  England.  Light  strips 
of  wood  with  narrow  spaces  between  them  are 
supported  on  the  bottom  llanges  of  the  beams, 
and  reach  from  beam  to  beam.  On  these  strips 
is  spread  a  layer  of  coarse  mortar,  which  is 
pressed  down  between  them.  Ooncrete,  made 
with  cement,  is  filled  in  between  the  beams, 
and  a  tile  or  wooden  floor  is  laid  immediately 
npon  it.  A  rough  and  a  finishing  coat  of  plas- 
79  TOi-  II.— 27 


^M  416 

ter  are  pnt  directly  on  the  cement  to  form  the 
ceiling  below.  Floors  have  also  been  made  by 
the  UM  of  arched  plates  of  wrought  iron  or  of 
corrugated  sheet  iron  supported  upon  the  lower 
fianges  of  tlie  beams,  with  a  filling  of  con- 
crete above  the  arched  pistes  or  ourmgatod 
iron  on  which  tbe  floor  is  laid.  The  sys- 
tem of  light  segmental  brick  arches  spring- 
ing from  the  lower  flanges  of  the  beams  and 
levelled  up  with  concrete  is  that  most  gen- 
erally employed  in  this  coontry  and  in  Eng- 
land. It  is  more  strictly  fire-proof  than  any 
other,  and  much  more  economical  than  the  nse 
of  arched  plates  or  corrugated  sheet  iron,  and, 
except  in  France,  where  plaster  is  cheap,  than 
the  French  system.  The  weight  of  the  floors 
themselves  forms  a  much  greater  part  of  the 
total  load  to  be  carried  by  the  beams  than  in 
the  lighter  French  system ;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  the  arches  and  concrete  add  materiallj 
to  the  strength  and  rigidity  of  the  beams,  not 
only  by  preventing  lateral  deflection,  bnt  by 
adding  to  some  extent  the  resistance  to  com- 
pression of  BO  much  of  the  arches  or  concrete 
as  is  above  the  neutral  line  to  that  of  the  npper 
parts  of  the  beams,  whereby  they  become  in 
fact  an  integral  part  of  the  beams  themselves. 
Long  beams  should  be  supported  in  tlie  middle 
of  their  length  by  wooden  scantlingB  nntil  the 
cement  of  the  arches  or  concrete  is  set,  in  or- 
der to  get  the  full  advantage  of  this  additional 
resistance.  Tbe  arches  should  have  a  rise  of 
not  less  than  one  inch  to  the  foot  of  span,  and 
are  generally  tbe  width  of  a  brick  in  thickness, 
unless  the  span  exceeds  0  or  8  feet,  when  they 
should  be  8  inches  at  the  soffit  and  4}  inches 
at  the  crown.  If  a  wooden  flooring  is  to  be 
used,  wooden  strips  parallel  with  the  beams 
are  laid  in  the  concrete  filling  above  the  arches, 
to  which  the  flooring  can  be  nailed.  To  form 
the  ceiling  below  the  beams,  wooden  strips 
may  be  secured*  to  the  lower  flanges  of  the 
beams,  to  which  ordinary  furring,  lathing,  and 
plasterii^  can  be  nailed  ;  or  the  plaster  may 
be  put  dffeotJj  upon  the  arches,  so  as  to  show 
the  system  of  construction,  and  thus  with  suit- 
able mouldings  a  good  architectural  effect  can 
be  obtained.  Any  inequality  in  the  thrust  of 
the  arches  on  the  beams  Ib  counteracted  by 
the  tie  rods  perfiendicnlar  to  the  length  of  the 
beams  connecting  them  together.  The  toad  to 
be  sustained  by  the  floors  of  dwellings,  offices, 
and  buildings,  other  than  manufactories  and 
buildings  for  the  storage  of  heavj  goods,  is  or- 
dinarily assumed  at  160  lbs.  per  square  foot. 
The  weight  of  the  beams,  arches,  concrete,  &C., 
forming  tbe  floor,  will  ordinarily  be  about  75 
lbs.  per  square  foot,  leaving  75  lbs.  per  square 
foot  for  the  variable  load.  This  is  as  great  a 
load  as  can  bo  brought  npon  a  floor  by  a  crowd 
of  people.  For  wrought-iron  floor  beams  the 
actual  or  safe  working  load  should  not  produce 
a  greater  strain  than  12,000  lbs.  par  square 
inch  of  section  at  the  port  of  the  beam  which 
is  subjected  to  the  greatest  strain  by  the  action 
of  the  load.    In  tiie  following  part  of  this 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


416 


BEAM 


uticle  thetenp  "eafoload"  will  mean  the  load 
corresponding  to  that  strain.  The  safe  load 
will  be  lesa  than  one  third  of  the  altimate  or 
breaking  strength  of  the  beam,  thus  allowing  a 
eutScient  margin  of  strength  to  insure  safety. 
Tlie  defleoUon  of  floor  beams  should  not  ex- 
coed  ^  of  an  inch  for  each  foot  of  span.  If 
the  depth  of  the  beau  is  not  less  than  ^  of 
the  Bpan,  the  deflection  will  be  within  that 
limit  for  the  safe  load.  For  spans  for  which 
a  greater  depth  than  15  inches  is  not  required, 
solid-rolled  beams  are  ordinarily  used,  and  for 
greater  spans  riveted  beams. — The  following 
table  gives  the  dimensions,  weights  per  yard, 
and  coeflicients  to  determine  the  safe  loads  for 
rolled  wroQght-iron  beams  of  the  sizes  most 
used  in  this  country  : 


STcZ."^ 

I 

Ji 

•3 

S 

u 

ll 

li 

± 

m 

11 

¥ 

l» 

k 

5 

(K 

B-7S 

too 

7*8,000 

lift. 

eaa 

8 

IbO 

■m 

0-8 

e-B 

311,000 

i 

04T 

4-S 

1!9 

«n.m 

(MT 

ISS 

"H 

I 

(KM 
0-BI 

I's 

1!S 

SS0.00O 
wsooo 

i 

OSS 

8ft 

SB 
70 

isv.ooo 
iiK,ono 

1" 

0-M 

BO 

mooo 

m 

m 

08 

SB 

60 

10!,000 

iSeoo 

«•■ 

0-28 

40 

K.SM 

w» 

40 

40,100 

Ml 

0-2S 

SO 

88,100 

0-111 

S 

m.m, 

0S5 

S-JS 

80 

80.100 

The  safe  load,  uniformly. distributed  over  the 
span,  when  the  beam  is  supported  at  lioth  ends, 
and  lateral  deflection  is  presented  by  the  fllling 
between  the  beams,  will  be  fbnnd,  in  pounds, 
by  dividing  the  coefBcient  given  in  the  table 
by  the  span  estimated  in  feet.  If  the  span  be 
less  than  that  given  in  the  column  headed 
"Limitotion  of  coefllcient,"  the  load  should 
nevertheless  not  exceed  the  safe  load  for  that 
8pan,  in  order  that  the  shearing  strain  upon 
the  stem  shall  not  exceed  the  sofo  limit.  The 
deflection  at  the  middle  of  the  span,  for  the 
safe  distributed  load  as  given  by  the  above 
rule,  will  be  fonnd  by  dividing  the  square  of 
the  span,  estimated  in  feet,  by  TO  times  the 
depth  of  the  beam,  estimated  in  inches ;  and 
for  any  less  load,  it  will  be  proportionally  less. 
If  the  beam  is  free  to  deflect  laterally,  the 
coefficient  given  in  the  table  must  be  modifled, 
to  allow  for  the  increased  strain  brought  npon 
the  beam,  as  follows:  multiply  the  coefficient 
by  the  number  given  in  the  colnmn  headed 
"  Correction  for  lateral  resistance,"  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  sum  of  that  number  and  the 
square  of  the  span  estimated  in  feet.  The 
strength  of  various  forms  and  dimensions  of 
riveted  Iwaras  may  be  determined  by  the  or- 
dinary formulas  for  the  strength  of  materials. 


BEAN    , 

BEUT,  the  seed  of  leguminous  plants  of  three 
genera,  faba,  pKateolitt,  and  dolichtit,  of  which 
the /aba  tmli/aris  furnishes  the  different  varie- 
ties of  the  common  bean  cultivated  for  food 
tlirou^hout  the  world.  It  originated  in  the 
East,  18  swd  U>  be  still  fonnd  wild  in  Persia, 
and  has  been  known  and  cnltivated  in  all  ages. 
The  French  kidney  bean  (haricot)  is  the  seed  of 
the  phiueolut  tulgarit ;  and  in  India  and  South 
America  species  of  dolickot  are  r^sed,  such  as 
the  sword  bean  of  India  {D.  etit\formU)  and 
the  Lima  bean  (the  latter  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  United  States),  and  furnish  an  important 
item  of  food.  The  common  bean  is  either  a  run- 
ning vine,  trained  on  frames,  hashes,  or  poles, 
or  a  bushy  shrub  growing  one  or  two  feet  high, 
and  requires  a  rich,  well  prepared  soil,  which 
it  does  not  exhaust,  and  in  which  it  grows 
rapidly  and  luxuriantly.  It  bears  a  pod  con- 
taining several  oblong,  rounded  seeds,  which 
are  used  when  soft  and  green,  or,  when  dry, 
ground  into  meal  or  softened  by  soaking  in 


^ 


KIdne;  Ban  (Phundni  vDl^ria). 

water  and  boiling  or  baking.  Beans  are  highly 
nutritious,  containing  84  per  cent,  of  notri- 
tiouB  matter,  while  wheat  has  but  74  per  cent. 
For  horses  this  food  is  more  nonrishing  than 
oats.  Baked  beans  are  a  heallhfA,  strength- 
ening, and  &vorite  dish  throughout  the  north- 
em  states,  especially  in  rural  regions;  and 
in  France  and  in  the  United  States  several  va- 
rieties are  cooked  and  eaten  with  the  green 
pods,  while  French  beans  and  pods  are  cut  np 
and  salted  for  winter  use  in  Germany  and  Hol- 
land. The  garden  and  field  beans  brought  to 
market  have  a  variety  of  names,  among  which 
the  Lima,  Windsor,  dwsr^  ond  kidney  are 
favorites. — In  ancient  times  beans  were  used 
as  ballots,  white  for  affirmative  and  black  for 
negative.  Ovid  ^ves  a  description  of  an  im- 
portant ceremony,  in  which  the  master  of  a 
family,  otter  wasliing  his  hands  three  times, 
throws  black  beans  nine  times  over  his  head, 
with  the  words  "I  redeem  myself  and  family 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEAK  GOOSE 

b;  these  beans."  Pjthagoras  arged  abst'mence 
from  beans,  and  the  Egyptian  priesU  considered 
the  dgbt  even  of  beans  to  be  oncletm. — The 
name  Tiean  ia  also  applied  to  the  firuit,  hen?,  or 
product  of  such  p'aDts  as  the  castor,  cotfee 
tree,  tamarind,  vanilla  vine,  and  some  others. 

IEA.\  GOOSE.    Use  Gooea. 

KEIB  (uraus).  "The  &tnil]r  of  bears  ore 
classed,"  says  Robert  Mudie  in  his  "  Glean- 
ings from  Nature,"  "among  those  camivoroDs 
animals  which  are  plantigrade,  or  walk  apon 
the  Boles  of  their  feet.  They  dilfer  from  the 
more  typical  carnivora  in  many  respects.  In 
the  first  place,  the;  do  not  confine  themselves 
to  animad  food,  bat  eat  succulent  vegetables, 
honej,  and  other  substances  which  are  not 
animal ;  in  the  second  place,  they  do  not  kill 
the  animals  which  they  eat  in  what  may  be 
called  a  bnsiness-like  manner,  by  attacking 
them  in  some  vital  part,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
hag  or  tear  them  to  death  ;  and  in  the  third 
place,  tho!!e  of  them  that  inhabit  the  cold  cli- 
mates, which  are  their  appropriate  places  of 
residence,  often  hibernate  daring  the  winter, 
or  some  part  of  it,  which  is  never  done  by  the 
characteristic  camivora.  There  are  bears  in 
almost  all  latitudes,  from  the  equator  to  the 
^le;  bat  those  which  inhabit  the  warmer  iat- 
itades  ore  tame  and  feeble  as  compared  with 
the  natives  of  the  cooler  ones,  and  therefore 
wo  muHt  regard  them  as  being,  in  their  proper 
home  and  locality,  animals  of  the  colder  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  whole  genua  has  ia  &ct  a 
polar  rather  than  an  equatorial  character,  and 
may  thus  be  considered  as  geographically  the 
reverse  of  the  more  formidable  of  the  strictly 
carnivorous  animals — the  liun  and  tiger  in  the 
eastern,  and  the  Jaguar  in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere. These  are  all  tropical  in  their  homes, 
l^bitually  ardent  in  their  temperament^  and, 
though  they  can  endore  hunger  for  considerable 

Criods,  they  feed  all  the  year  round,  and  thus 
•e  no  season  of  repose.  The  bears,  again,  are 
seasonable  animals,  retiring  during  the  winter, 
and  coming  abroad  in  the  spring.  But  it  is  not 
from  the  storm  that  the  bears  retire ;  it  ia  tWtm 
the  cold  serenity— the  almost  total  cessation  of 
atmospberio  as  well  as  of  living  action — which 
reigns  during  the  polar  winter;  the  storm  is 
both  seedtime  and  narrest  to  the  bears.  Dur- 
ing its  utmost  ftiry  they  range  the  wilds  and 
forests,  aocompanied  by  the  more  powerful  owls 
and  hawks,  which,  like  the  hears,  are  equally 
remarkable  for  their  strength  and  their  impene- 
trable covering.  At  those  times  many  of  the 
smaller  animals  are  dashed  lifeless  to  the  earth 
bj-thestorm,  or  shrouded  in  the  snow,  and  upon 
these  the  bears  make  an  abundant  sapper — a 
Bupjier  of  days,  and  even  of  weeks — before  they 
retire  to  their  long  rest.  So  also,  when  the 
Btotrn  begins  to  break,  they  find  a  plentiful  eol- 
lectioQ  of  the  carcasses  of  such  animals  as  have 
perished  in  the  snow,  and  been  concealed  from 
Mght  and  preserved  from  putrefaction  under 
it." — The  polar  boar  (P".  maritimot)  ia  the 
lai^eat,  strongest,  most  powerful,  and,  with  a 


BEAR 


417 


single  exception,  the  most  ferocione  of  bears. 
Its  distinguishing  characteristics  are  the  great 
length  of  its  body  as  compared  with  ita  height; 
the  length  of  the  neck ;  the  smallncM  of  the  ei- 
teraal  ears;  the  large  size  of  the  soles  of  the 
feet;  the  fineness  and  length  of  the  hair;  the 
straightness  of  the  line  of  the  forehead  and 
the  nose ;  the  narrowness  of  its  head,  and  the 
expansion  of  its  muzzle.  It  is  invariably  of  a 
dingy  white  hue.  The  size  varies  considerably. 
CapL  Lyon  mentions  one  8  ft  7  in.  long,  weigh- 
ing 1,G(N)  lbs.  The  domestic  habits  of  these 
powerful  animals  are  not  much  understood,  and 
whether  they  hibernate  or  not  is  not  very  well 
ascertained,  although  It  is  believed  that  the 
male  at  lea.it  is  not  dormant  so  long  as  the 
land  bears  of  the  north.  The  admirable  work 
of  Dr.  Kane  seems  to  place  it  in  doubt  whether 
either  sex  absolutely  hibernates,  as  we  find 
ahe  bears  with  their  cubs  visiting  his  winter 
quarters  during  the  midnight  darkness.  The 
pairing  season  is  understood  to  be  in  July  and 
Augnst;  and  the  attachment  of  the  pur  is 


Folwai 


e  Bsar  (Umia  DMriUmnt), 


such,  that  if  one  ia  killed  the  other  remdns 
fondling  the  dead  body,  and  will  suffer  itself 
to  be  killed  rather  than  leave  it.  The  same 
wonderful  affection  of  the  femole  for  her  cobs 
has  been  noticed,  from  which  neither  wounds 
nor  death  will  divide  her ;  and  all  the  arctic 
navigators,  from  Dr.  Scoresby  to  Dr.  Kane, 
have  recorded  their  sympathy  with  and  regret 
for  the  poor  savage  mothers,  vainly  endeavor- 
ing to  persnade  their  dead  cubs  to  arise  and  ac- 
company them,  or  to  eat  thefood  which  they  will 
not  themselves  touch,  althongh  starving.  The 
habits  of  the  polar  hear  are  purely  maritime; 
and  although  their  system  of  dentition  is  the 
some  with  that  of  the  other  bears,  their  food, 
from  necessity,  is  wholly  animal.  The  polar 
bear  is  comparatively  rare  in  menageries,  as  it 
suffers  BO  much  from  the  heat,  even  of  our 
winters,  and  from  the  want  of  water,  that  it  is 
not  easily  preserved  in  confinement, — The  next 
bear  in  all  respects  to  the  polar  species,  and 
superior  to  him  in  ferocity  and  tenacity  of  life, 
is  the  grisly  bear  (P.  korribilu)  of  America. 
This  powerful  animal,  which  is  to  the  Ameri- 
~~  fauna  what  the  Bengal  tiger  is  to  that  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


fiindoatan  and  the  lion  to  that  of  central  Africa,  I  his  race.    If  it  be  not  certain  that  he  will  rol- 

to  of  comparativelf  Iste  diKOvery,  having  been  '  nntarilj  attack  a  human  being,  ' 


first  distingaished  by  X^ewis  and  Clarke  in  the! 
weeteni  explorations.    Its  gec^rapbicol  range 


OiUr  Bsv  (Umu  honlUlli). 

ts  from  the  great  plains  west  of  the  Missouri, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Rock^  monntaina,  throagh 
tipper  California  to  the  Pacific  ocean.  Its 
characteristics  are  etronglj  marked  and  dear. 
"  The  line  of  its  forehead  and  mnzde  iastraight«r 
than  in  auj  other  species ;  and  its  claws,  espe- 
cial); those  of  the  fore  feet,  are  much  more 
produced  and  far  mn^  crooked,  though  its 
general  habit  is  not  that  of  a  climber.  The 
snoot  is  black  aod  movable,  the  central  fiirrow 
being  distinct ;  the  lips  are  partially  extensile ; 
the  eyes  very  small,  haying  no  third  eyelid, 
and  the  irides  being  of  reddish  brown.  The 
ears  are  short  and  rounded,  and  the  line  uf  the 
forehead  thence  to  the  eyes  is  a  little  convex, 
but  it  continues  straight  to  the  point  of  the 
snout.  The  hwr  on  the  face  is  very  short,  but 
on  the  body  generally  it  is  long  and  very 
thickly  set.  The  hair  in  the  adult  is  a  mixture 
of  brown,  white,  and  black.  The  tsJl  is  short, 
and  in  the  living  aniraol  completely  hidden  by 
the  hrir.  On  the  fore  paws  the  claws  are 
rather  slender,  bnt  long,  as  well  as  crooked 
and  sharp  at  the  lips,  though  the  sharpness  is 
rather  that  of  a  chisel,  by  being  narrowed  at  the 
edges,  than  a  point.  This  structure  gives  the 
tips  of  them  (treat  additional  strength,  and  ac- 
counts for  the  severe  gashing  wounds  which 
are  inflicted  by  their  stroke.  The  soles  of  the 
hind  feet  are  in  great  part  naked,  and  the  claws 
on  them  are  considerably  smaller  than  those 
on  the  fore  paws,  though  ranch  more  crooked; 
and  their  trenchant  points  form  very  terrible 
lacerating  instroments  when  the  animal  closes 
with  its  enemy  in  hugging.  They  are  sniBoient 
to  tear  the  abdomen  even  of  a  large  ani- 
mal to  shreds,  while  the  fore  paws  are  at  the 
same  time  compresring  the  thorax  to  suffoca- 
tion."   The  griidy  bear  is  the  moat  aavage  of 


that  if  attacked  he  will  pursue  the  assailant  to 
the  last,  nor  quit  the  conflict  while  life  rerauns. 
He  is  also  the  most  tenacious  of  life  of  all  ani- 
mals. One  shot  by  Gov.  Clarke's  party,  ^ller 
receiving  ten  bolls  in  his  body,  four  of  which 
passed  ^trough  his  lungs  and  two  through  his 
heart,  survived  above  20  minutes,  and  swam 
half  a  mile,  before  succumbing  to  his  wonnds. 
The  cave  bear  [CT.  tpelaut),  larger  than  the 
grisly  bear,  lived  in  the  caverns  of  Europe  in 
the  poet- tertiary  epoch. — The  European  brown 
bear  (V.  areto*)  and  the  American  black  bear 
{U.  Amerieanta)  are  closely  allied,  and  are 
very  vmilar  in  babita,  although  the  former  is 
fiercer  and  more  aangainary,  eq)ecially  as  he 


grows  old,  when  he  will,  though  rarely,  attack 
men,  particularly  if  he  have  once  tasted  human 
blood.  They  are  both  excellent  climbers,  pas- 
sionately fond  of  honey,  great  devonrers  of 
roots,  green  wheat,  and  in  America  green  taBhb, 
and  especial  enemies  to  h(^  and  young  cslvea. 
The  brown  bear  is  distinguished  by  the  promi- 
nence of  his  brow  above  the  eyes,  which  is  ab- 
ruptly convex,  with  a  depression  below  them; 
the  black  bear,  by  the  regular  convexity  of  it* 
whole  tiscial  outline,  from  the  ears  to  the  mus- 
zle.    The  latter  never  attacks  man  except  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


aelf-defence,  and  tben  only  when  hard  pressiKl 
And  cornered.  The  fleah  of  tlie  block  bear  ia 
very  good,  reiterabling  pork  with  &  peculiar 
wild  or  perfumed  flavor. — The  cinnamoD  bear 
(F.  oeeidentaii»)  ia  generally  regarded  as  a 
mere  variety  of  t)ie  black  bear,  whoae  place  it 
takes  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  mountaiDs,  It 
receives  its  name  from  the  yetlowiah  red  color 
of  the  fur.  It  is  not  oncommon  in  California, 
and  often  deacauda  from  the  npper  sierras  into 
the  valley  villages  in  wint«r  in  search  of  food; 
though  very  fond  of  berries  and  nuta,  it  ooca- 
aionally  takes  a  calf^  pig,  or  aheep ;  it  is  savage 
if  attacked  or  wounded.— The  Asiatic  or  sloth 
hear  ( U.  labiatw,  so  called  from  its  lung  lips)  is  a 


-T/:'-,?' 


Aditle  or  Sloth  Beu-  (Untu  libl*tng). 

timid,  inoffensive  creature  ordinarily,  though  it 
will  fight  fiercely  when  wounded,  or  in  defence 
of  its  young.  It  inhabits  the  high  and  monn- 
tainons  regions  of  India,  burrowa  in  the  earth, 
feeds  OQ  ants,  rice,  and  honey,  and  lives  in 
pairs,  together  with  Its  joaag,  which  when 
alarmed  mounts  the  back  of  the  parent  for 
safety.  It  is  called  sloth  bear  from  the  eden- 
tate character  of  the  jaws,  from  the  early  loss 


B71IU  Bar  (Uniu  luMlioiu}. 

of  the  incisor  teeth,  and  the  fillbg  up  of  the 
sockets.— The  Syrian  bear  (r.  ItahelUnut)  ia 
interesting  chiefly  becaose  it  is  the  one  often 


IR  419 

Blinded  to  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  When 
j.onng  it  is  grayish  brown,  becoming  nearly 
white  when  old ;  the  hair  ia  long,  somewhat 
curled,  forming  a  mane  npon  the  shouldera, 
and  near  the  skin  surrounded  by  a  soft  fur. 
It  is  gentle  in  disposition,  a  vegetable  feeder, 
and  ia  found  now  in  the  mountains  of  Pales- 
tine.—Three  or  fonr  other  species  of  bears, 
principally  Asiatic,  have  recently  been  distin- 
guished, but  al!  of  very  inferior  interest  to  those 
above  specified,  and  one  at  least  of  extremely 
doobtf^l  authenticity  as  a  distinct  speoies. 
This  is  the  Siberian  bear  ( U.  eollarit),  ao  nearly 
identical  with  the  common  black  bear  aa  to 
be  distinguished  from  it  only  by  a  white  or 
grizzly  collar  encircling  its  shoulders  and  breast, 
and  is  probably  a  mere  casual  variety.  It  is 
aaid  to  be  peculiar  to  Siberia.  The  spectacled 
bear  (?.  cmatui)  is  a  native  of  the  Chilian 
Andes,  Ita  tnr  ia  smooth,  shining,  and  black, 
with  the  exception  of  a  pair  of  seraicircu- 
lar  marks  over  the  eyes,  whence  its  naine, 
and  the  fijr  on  its  mnzzle  and  its  breast,  which 
is  of  a  dirty  whilo  color;  little  or  nothing  ia 


The  SpMtultd  B 


r(C™i 


known  of  it!<  habits.  The  Thibelin  bear  or 
Isabel  bear  (Jf.  Tiietanvt)  is  charact«ri7ed  by 
the  shortnesB  of  ita  neck  and  the  straightneas 
of  ita  facial  outline.  Its  color  is  black,  with  a 
white  under  lip,  and  a  white  mark  in  the  shape 
of  a  letter  Y,  the  stem  lying  on  the  middle  of 
the  breast,  with  arms  diverging  upward  on  the 
shonldora.  It  ia  a  small-Bized,  harmless,  and 
purely  vegetable-eating  anunal.  The  Malayan 
snn  bear  {helarctM  Malayami*)  is  small,  jet 
black,  with  a  Innar  white  mark  on  ita  breast,  and 
a  yellowish  mnzxle.  It  has  a  long,  slender,  pro- 
trusive tongue,  unlike  that  of  other  bears.  It  is 
perfectly  inolfensive,  feeding  on  honey  and  the 
young  shoots  of  the  cocoanut  trees,  of  which  it 
makes  extreme  havoc  When  domesticated  it 
becomes  exceedingly  tame,  is  aagscioaa,  intel- 
ligent, and  affectionate,  and  will  not  touch 
animal  food.  The  Bomean  bear  {H.  evrytpi- 
tut)  differs  from  the  above  by  having  a  large 
orange-colored  patch  on  the  chest.    It  doea  not 


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exceed  fbnr  feet  ia  length,  and  liaa  the  loag, 
slender,  protrusiTe  tongue  of  the  species  lasj: 
describea,  fitting  it  eepeciaUj  to  feed  on  honey, 
whioh,  with  frmts  and  vegetables,  ia  its  sole 


Utli;ui  Bun  B«r  (lI«Urctu  Miikr>l>il>). 

food. — There  has  always  existed  a  doubt  as  to 
the  existence  of  any  species  of  bear  in  Africa. 
PJiny  mentions  that  in  the  consulship  of  M.  Piso 
and  M.  Uessok,  61  B.  0.,  L.  Domitins  Aheno- 
barbas  exhibited  100  Numidian  bears,  and  as 
matiy  Ethiopian  hunters,  in  the  circus ;  but  at 
the  same  time  he  asserts  that  there  are  no  bears 
in  Africa.  Herodotus,  Virgil,  Juvenal,  and  Mar- 
tial all  speak  of  Libyan  bears  as  well  bnown 
animals.    Ebrenberg  and  Forahal  both  speak 


which  they  both  saiv  and  hiint«d,  bnt 
It  is,  however,  a  good  rule  in  natural  history 
to  adopt  no  animal  on  hearsay,  or  nntil  a 
q>edinen  is  produced.  On  this  view  it  must 
be  held  that  there  is  no  African  hear  nntil  one 
shall  he  produced  and  described ;  although  there 
is  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be. — Beor- 
i>uting  with  mastafis  was  formerly  a  favorite 
and  even  royal  amasement  in  England  ■  and 
the  readers  of  "Kenilworth"  will  remember 
the'  oharacteristio  scene  in  which  Bnseei  is 
represented  as  pleading  before  Elizabeth  the 
cause   of  the  bear  warden  against  tlie  stage 

filayers,  Raleigh  defending  the  latt«r,  and  qnot- 
ng  the  passage  of  Shakespeare  personifying  the 
queen  as  "a  fair  vestal  throned  in  the  west," 
on  which  she  snffers  the  bear  ward's  petition 
to  drop  unheeded  into  the  Thames.  In  the 
Qortb  of  Europe  the  brown  bear  is  hunted  in 
the  winter  with  snow  shoes,  and  shot  without 
the  aid  of  dogs.  Id  the  west  and  southwest 
of  the  United  States,  the  bear  is  svstematically 
chased  with  packs  of  hounds  bred  for  the  par- 

Cose — a  cross  generally  of  the  large  slow  fox- 
oand  with  the  mastiff;  and  tbo  sport  is  highly 
exciting,  and  by  no  means  devoid  of  danger, 
when  Bruin  turns  to  hay,  and  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  go  in  with  the  knife,  to  close  quar- 
ters, in  order  to  save  the  lives  of  the  hounds. 


BEAED 

BEIS,  Gratf  and  Uner  (urs^  major  and 
minor),  two  constellations  of  the  northern 
hemispbere.  The  former  in  the  latitude  of  45° 
N.  never  passes  below  the  horizon.  The  most 
remarkable  stars  in  it  are  a  group  of  seven 
(marked  by  astronomers  with  the  first  seven 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet),  which  have 
been  called  the  "  wagon,"  "  Charles's  wain," 
and  the  ''dipper."  Four  uf  them  are  arranged 
in  an  irregular  quadrangle,  constitating  the 
body  of  the  "dipper,"  while  the  other  tlireo 
are  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  and  form  the 
handle.  Two  of  the  stars  in  the  body  of  the 
dipper  rauge  nearly  with  the  north  star,  and 
are  therefore  called  the  "  pointers."  Wiiar,  in 
the  handle,  is  a  double  star.  Benetnash  is  a 
brilliant  star  of  the  first  magnitnde,  according 
to  some  maps-  in  others  it  is  set  down  at  1^. 
— The  Lesser  Bear  has  in  it  a  cluster  somewhat 
resembling  the  dipper  in  Ursa  M^or,  bnt  haa 
no  stars  larger  than  the  third  magnitude.  Nei- 
ther of  these  constellations  has  any  resemblance 
to  the  figure  of  a  bear,  and  llax  Moller  is  uf 
opinion  that  the  Greeks,  by  whom  they  were 
first  called  after  that  animal,  applied  to  tbem 
the  terra  ipurot  (bear)  by  a  corruption  of  their 
original  Sanskrit  name  arktktu,  "the  bright 

BEAKD,  the  hair  which  grows  on  the  chin 

and  lower  parts  of  the  human  face.  That  por- 
tion which  is  found  on  the  upper  lip  is  gener- 
ally (lietingui sited  as  the  mustache,  while  that 
upon  the  sides  of  the  face  is  known  by  the 
name  of  whisker.  Although  the  beard  is  ordi- 
nari1;r  only  seen  on  the  male  adult,  it  appears 
occasionally  in  certain  exceptional  cases  on  the 
faces  of  women  and  children.  Full  beards 
were  onltivated  among  eastern  nations  in  early 
times,  and  have  always  been  regarded  by  them 
as  a  bodge  of  dignity.  The  fact  tiiat  the  ancient 
Egyptian  pictures  frequently  represent  the  hu- 
man male  fignre,  especially  when  of  a  king  or 
dignitary,  without  the  beard,  wonld  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  it  was  a  mark  of  rank  in  Egypt  to 
be  devoid  of  that  appendage.  In  ancient  India, 
Persia,  and  Assyria,  however,  the  beard  waa 
allowed  to  grow  long,  and  was  always  esteemed 
a  symbol  of  dignity  and  wisdom.  The  Turks 
let  the  beard  grow  in  full  loinnanoe,  while 
the  Peruons  cut  and  trim  that  upon  the  chin 
and  tlio  sides  of  the  face,  according  to  fashion 
or  caprice.  In  Turkey  it  is  considered  an  in- 
famy to  liave  the  t>eard  cut  off,  and  the  slaves 
of  the  seraglio  are  shaved  as  a  mark  of  their 
servile  condition.  Proviooa  to  the  reign  of 
Alexander  the  Great  the  Greeks  wore  beards, 
but  daring  the  wars  of  that  monarch  they  com- 
menced shaving,  tlie  practice  having  been  sug- 
gested, it  is  said,  by  Aleiander  for  the  purpose 
of  depriving  the  enemy  of  an  opportnnity  of 
catching  the  soldiers  by  the  beard.  The  faeh- 
ion  thus  begun  continued  nntil  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  when  long  beards  ag^  became  cus- 
tomary. The  year  300  B.  0.  is  given  as  the 
time  about  which  the  Romans  commenced  the 
practice  of  shaving,  and  Soipio  AiHcanns  wao. 


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aooordins  to  Pliny,  the  first  of  the  Romans 

wbo  daily  submitted  to  the  razor.  The  antique 
basts  and  coins  prove  that  the  Roman  emperors 
Bhaved  until  tbe  time  of  Hadrian,  wbo  is  said 
to  have  let  his  beard  grow  to  conceal  an  uglj 
scar.  Tbe  philosophers,  however,  from  the 
earliest  periods  seem  to  have  affected  the  full- 
grown  Wrd,  it  being  esteemed  bj  tbem,  as 
among  tbe  Greeica,  a  ajmbol  of  wisdom.  All 
tbe  ancient  inhsbitants  of  Europe  wore  beards 
at  the  earliest  period  of  which  any  record  ex- 
ists. The  fashion,  however,  seems  to  have 
varied  with  tliem  subsequently  at  different 
times.  The  Lombards  or  Longobsrds  derived 
their  name  from  the  practice  of  going  unshaved. 
We  learn  from  Tacitus  that  tbe  ancient  Ger- 
mans cultivated  the  beard  from  ita  first  growth 
tintU  they  bad  killed  an  enemy  in  battle,  and 
from  Juiius  Cessar  that  the  Britons  merely 
allowed  the  mustache  to  grow.  Until  tbe  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  the  Anglo-Saxons  all 
wore  beards  without  distinction,  but  then  the 
clergy  were  compelled  by  law  to  shave.  The 
English  princes  were  in  tbe  habit  of  wearing 
mustaches  till  the  conquest  of  William  I.,  and 
they  felt  it  to  be  a  very  great  indignity  when 
the  conqueror  compelled  them  to  cut  them  off, 
in  accordance  with  the  Norman  fashion.  The 
practice  and  precepts  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
wbo,  like  the  Jewish  rabbis,  denounced  sha- 
ving as  a  violation  of  the  law  of  God,  made  the 
wearing  of  the  beard  during  the  early  mediee- 
val  centuries  a  distinguishing  &stuott  of  the 
continental  kings,  nobles,  and  dignitaries.  Roy- 
al personsges  were  in  the  habit  of  weaving 
gold  with  the  beard,  or  ornamenting  it  with 
togs  of  that  metal.  Of  long  beards,  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  was  that  of  a  German  artist 
of  the  name  of  John  Uayo,  who  was  called 
John  the  Bearded ;  it  reached  the  ground 
when  he  stood  up,  and  he  was  consequently 
obliged  to  tuck  it  into  his  girdle.  Tilt  tlie  sep- 
aration of  the  Greek  from  the  Latin  chnrob, 
which  began  in  the  Sth  oentary,  the  popes, 
emperors,  nobles,  and,  except  in  England,  the 
priests  had  scrupulously  abstained  from  the 
nse  of  the  razor.  Leo  III.,  to  distinguish  him- 
self from  the  patriarch  of  Constantmople,  re- 
moved his  beard.  Thirty  years  later  Gregory 
IV.,  pursuing  the  same  system,  eiyoined  penal- 
ties upon  every  bearded  priest.  In  the  12th 
century  the  prescription  which  required  all  the 
clergy  to  shave  their  faces  was  extended  to  the 
laity,  and  even  to  monarchs.  Godefroi,  bishop 
of  Amiens,  refused  the  offerings  of  any  one  wbo 
wore  a  beard.  A  preacher  directed  bis  elo- 
quence against  King  Eenry  I.  of  England  be- 
cause he  wore  a  beard,  and  tbe  monarch  yield- 
ed. Frederick  Barbarossa  offered  a  similar 
example  of  resignation.  The  confessor  of  I^uis 
VJI.  of  France  refused  him  absolution  till  he 
submitted  to  lose  his  beard.  This  was  not  long 
kept  np.  In  the  ISth  century  Pope  Honorius 
ni.,  in  order  to  con.ceal  a  disfigured  lip,  allowed 
his  beard  to  grow,  and  inaugurated  anew  the 
foahion,  which  became  prevuent  in  Europe  in 


lED  421 

the  age  of  Francis  L  The  right  of  the  oIsiot 
to  wear  their  beards  was  tlien  agun  dispntM. 
Francis  imposed  a  heavy  tax  upon  every 
bearded  bishop,  and  in  1561  the  college  of  the 
Sorbonne  decided,  after  mature  deliberation, 
that  a  beard  waa  contrary  to  sacerdotal  mod- 
esty- In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  there  were 
various  styles,  distinguished  as  tbe  pointed 
beard,  tbe  square  beard,  the  round  benrd, 
the  aureole  beard,  the  fan-shaped  beard,  the 
swallow- tailed  beard,  and  the  artichoke-leaf 
beard.  In  England,  during  tbe  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  tiie  beard  was  worn  generally  by 
those  of  higher  rank,  and  was  tnmmed  in  a 
style  more  or  lees  distinctive  of  each  class. 
The  fashion  of  wesring  the  beard  declined  under 
tbe  Stuarts,  and  at  the  restoration  there  was 
no  hair  worn  upon  the  face  but  the  mnstoche, 
which,  however,  was  luxurianUy  cultivated  by 
the  courtiers  and  gallants  of  those  days.  Tbe 
decline  of  the  beard  in  France  dates  &om  Louis 
XIII.,  and  in  Spain  from  the  accession  ofPhilip 
V.  The  Russians  retuned  their  beards  until 
Peter  the  Great  returned  from  his  western 
tour,  when  one  of  his  first  edicts  toward  the 
compulsory  civilization  of  his  peo|)le  had  refer- 
ence to  the  beard.  Ho  taxed  this  appendage, 
and  afterward  ordered  all  those  he  found 
bearded  to  have  the  hair  plucked  out  with  pin- 
cers or  shaven  with  a^blunt  razor.  Thus  tbe 
practice  of  shaving  became  almost  universal 
in  Europe  until  a  comparatively  recent  period, 
France  was  the  first  to  return  to  the  old  fash- 
ion of  wearing  the  beard,  and  England  was  the 
lost. — The  practice  of  wearing  the  beard  is  ad- 
vocated by  many  physicians,  at  a  protection  to 
the  throat  from  cold  and  damp. 

BEiBD,  e««rge  MUkr.    Sea  snpplement. 

BEiRD.  h  Jaaes  H^  an  American  punter, 
born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1815.  In  early  in- 
fancy he  was  removed  to  Painesville  in  north- 
ern Ohio,  where  at  the  age  of  14  he  be- 
gan to  paint  portraits,  after  having  received 
only  four  lessons  from  a  travelling  artist.  He 
subsequently  practised  portraiture  in  many 
parts  of  Ohio,  and  finally  settled  in  Cincinnati, 
where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Henry  Clay, 
Gens.  Harrisoa  and  Taylor,  and  .other  pablio 
men,  of  most  of  whom  he  painted  portralto. 
For  many  years  he  was  esteemed  the  leading 
artist  in  bis  peculiar  walk.  In  1846  he  pro- 
duced his  first  original  picture,  "The  North 
Carolina  Emigrants,"  which  was  exhibited  and 
sold  in  New  York,  and  at  once  established  hia 
reputation  aa  a  genre  painter.  Among  his 
other  pictures  are  "The  Long  Bill"  and  "Tbe 
Land  Speculator;"  and  his  ^test  work,  "Out 
all  Night,"  has  been  engraved  in  London.  Of 
late  years  he  has  devoted  himself  principally  to 
composition  and  tbe  painting  of  domesticated 
animals.  His  works  are  characterized  by  nat- 
ural force  and  simplicity,  with  correct  draw- 
ing, and  a  keen  sense  of  humor.  II,  WIIOoM 
B,,  on  American  painter,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  in  Painesville,  Ohio,  about  1824. 
At   21    years  of  age    he   took    up  portr^t 


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423 


BEAR  LAKE 


iniiitiiig,  Bod  About  18C0  opened  a  studio  at 
Boffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  soon  atler  began  to 
dsTote  himself  eioluBivel/  to  genre  and  animal 
painting.  After  aoquirlng  a  considerable  local 
reputation  he  visited  Earope  in  IBSfi-'OO,  and 
in  the  latter  year  settled  in  New  York,  tie  is 
noted  for  the  production  of  a  series  of  works 
conceived  in  a  vein  of  grotesque  humor,  in 
which  bears,  apes,  and  other  animab  enact 
scenes  from  the  drama  of  human  life.  Promi- 
nent among  these  are  his  "  Bears  on  a  BenO- 
er,"  "  Court  of  Justice,"  "  Dance  of  Silenus," 
"Bear  Dance,"  and  "  Watchers."  In  some  of 
his  pictures  the  comic  element  predominates ; 
others  are  almost  entirel;f  satirical. 

BEAR  LAKE,  Grait,  a  bodj  of  water  in  North 
America,  between  lat.  66°  and  67°  N.  and  Ion. 
117=  and  ISS"  W.,  200  it  above  the  sea,  irreg-. 
nlar  in  shape,  with  an  area  estimated  at  about 
14,000  sq.  m.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  IGO 
m.,  and  greatest  breadth  120  m.    Its  chief  sup- 

Ety  is  from  the  Deose  river ;  its  outlet  is  Bear 
ale  river.  The  lake  water,  which  is  very- 
clear,  and  appears  of  a  light  blue  color,  has 
been  sound«i  to  the  depth  of  270  ft,  without 
bottom,  and  abounds  in  fish,  particularly  the 
herring- salmon.  The  second  land  expedition 
nnder  Franklin,  in  162^,  wintered  at  tiieB.  W. 
extremity  of  the  lake,  and  hnitt  Fort  Franklin, 
afterward  one  of  the  I^udson  Bay  company's 
stations.     Simpson,   Bichardson,   and  others, 

ianmeying  from  Canada  to  the  Arctic  ocean, 
ave  passed  this  point.  The  lake,  which  is 
4°  6.  and  38°  W.  of  the  magnetic  pole,  as  deter- 
mined by  Boss  in  1831,  is  the  basm  of  a  water- 
shed 4O0  ID.  iu  diameter. 

BEAR  LAKE  BITES,  the  ontlet  at  the  S.  W. 
extremity  of  Bear  lake,  runs  8.  W.  TOm.  and 
joins  Uackenzie  river  in  lat.  64°  S9'  N.,  about 
SOO  m.  from  the  mouth  of  that  river  in  tiie 
Arctic  ocean.  The  breadth  of  Bear  Lake 
river  is  not  less  than  4G0  fL  except  at  a  point 
80  m.  Scorn  the  lake,  where  "  the  Rapid  " 
descends  8  m.  through  high  rock  walls.  The 
depth  of  the  stream  is  from  one  to  three  fath- 
oms, and  the  current  is  6  m.  an  hoar.  It  re- 
ceives in  its  course  several  small  branches. 

BEAB  nOIUiTlIir,  in  the  N.  E.  comer  of  Dau- 
phin CO.,  Penn.,  7B0  ft.  high,  is  near  a  valley 
of  the  same  name,  having  rich  deposits  of 
anthracite  coal,  and  belongs  to  the  first  or 
Bonttiern  coal  district  of  Pennsylvania. 

BEARN,  formeriy  a  province  of  S.  W.  France, 
bordering  on  Spain,  now  forming  the  eastern 
and  larger  part  of  the  department  of  Basses- 
Pyrin^es.  It  is  mountainous  and  well  watered, 
and  excellently  adapted  for  raising  cattle  and 
horses.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  primi- 
tive inhabitants,  the  Benehorui.  The  bulk  of 
the  present  population  is  of  Bosque  descent, 
still  speaking  the  Basque  tongue,  and  under- 
standing very  little  French ;  the  people  are  en- 
ergetic, industrions,  and  freedom-loving.  B6arn 
was  a  part  of  ancient  Aquitania,  and  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Yisignths,  and  afterward  of 
the  Franks.    Its  first  feudal  posseasor,  Centul- 


BEATON 

las,  IB  mentioned  in  tbe  9tii  centory,  and  bil 

descendants  ruled  it  to  the  close  of  the  ISth 
century,  when  it  came  into  possession  of  the 
counts  of  Foix  by  marriage,  and  by  the  female 
line  of  this  house  into  the  handsof  the  kings  of 
Navarre,  by  the  last  of  whom,  Henry  IV.,  it 
was  united  with  France,  tliough  the  act  of  an- 
nexation was  not  finally  accomplished  till  1630, 

BEAK  BIVER.  I.  A  stream  in  Utah  territory, 
400  m.  long,  which  rises  in  a  spur  of  the  Bocky 
mountains  about  76  m.  £.  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
flows  first  N.  W.  into  Idaho  territory,  where  it 
makes  a  sharp  bend  and  returns  by  a  S.  8.  W. 
course  into  Utah,  and  falls  into  Great  Bait 
lake.  At  the  bend  of  the  river  in  Idaho, 
about  46  m.  from  Lewis  river,  are  the  Beer  and 
St«amboat  springs,  highly  impregnated  with 
magnesia  ana  other  mineral  substances.  The 
valley,  which  is  6,000  ft,  above  the  sea,  through 
most  of  its  extent  is  narrow,  but  portions  of  it 
are  described  by  Fremont  as  extremely  pictn- 
resqne.  II.  A  river  in  California,  which  risea 
on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  runs  W. 
and  8.,  forming  the  boundary  for  some  distance 
between  Yuba  and  Placer  counties,  and  anitea 
with  Feather  river,  81  m.  below  Marysville. 

BEAS,  or  Beyrasha  (anc.  the  upper  ffyphiuW), 
a  river  of  the  Punjanb,  in  western  India.  It 
rises  in  the  Himalaya  nionntaina,  13,200  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  Hows  into  the 
Sutlej  at  Endreesa,  lat  81°  10'  and  Ion.  75°  4'. 
Its  lengdi  is  about  260  m.  In  the  winter  it  is 
fordable  in  most  places,  but  in  summer  has 
been  known  to  be  740  yards  wide  and  have  a 
swift  current  at  a  distance  of  20  m.  from  ite 
conflnence  with  the  Sutlej. 

lEASLEY,  FKderlcb,  an  Amerienn  divine,  bora 
near  Edenton,  N.  C,  in  1777,  died  at  Elizabeth- 
town,  N.  J.,  Nov.  2,  1846.  In  1801  he  was 
ordained  deacon  in  the  Episcopal  church,  and 
was  successively  rector  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and 
in  Baltimore,  Md.  He  was  from  1818  to  1828 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  nniverntj 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  published  in  defence  of 
the  philosophy  of  Locke  a  "Search  of  Truth 
in  the  Science  of  the  Human  Mind  "  (1622). 
After  retiring  from  the  university  he  t«ok 
charge  of  a  church  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where 
he  wrote  an  answer  to  the  doctrinal  views  of 
Dr.  Ghanning.  From  1886  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment at  Elizabeth  town. 

BEAimCATlON,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  an  act  of  the  pope  whereby  a  deceased 
person  is  declared  blessed  previous  to  being 
canonized  as  a  saint  The  person  must  have 
had  a  reputation  for  sanctity  and  supernatural 
gifts,  and  before  the  decree  is  pronounced  a 
long  and  minute  investigation  is  made  into  his 
or  her  merits,  and  this  cannot  be  completed 
till  50  years  after  death.  In  early  times  the 
decree  of  beatification  was  pronounced  by 
bishops,  but  in  1170  that  right  was  reserved 
to  the  holy  see  by  Alexander  III.,  and  has  been 
held  by  it  ever  since. 

BEATON,  BctM,  BeatoD,  or  Bcane,  DarM, 
a  Scottish  statesman  and  ecclenastio,  bom  io 


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1494,  ueaaaiiiated  at  8t  Andrews,  Ma;  28, 
154S.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews  and 
at  Paris,  and  reoeiTed  from  hta  nncle,  Jamea 
Beaton,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  the  reo- 
torj  of  Campaia  and  the  abbacy  of  Arbroath. 
He  was  ambawador  to  Franue  151S~'25,  be- 
came a  favorite  of  James  V.,  and  was  appoint* 
ed  lord  privy  seal  in  1528.  In  isas  fie  was 
sent  to  France  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  marriage 
between  Jomee  and  Magdaleoe,  daughter  of 
Francis  I.,  and  agwi  aft«r  ber  death  in  1587  to 
bring  over  Mary  of  Guise.  Francis  I.  made 
him  bishop  of  Mlrepoii,  and  tlie  following  year 
procnred  for  him  Mm  Pope  Paul  III.  the  rank 
of  cardinal.  In  15S9  he  sacceeded  his  ancle 
in  the  primacy  of  Scotland  as  archbishop  of 
Bu  Andrews.  He  at  once  began  a  vigorous 
persecation  of  the  reformers  in  Scotland,  com- 
pelled many  suspected  persons  to  recant,  and 
two  men,  Norman  Ooarlay  and  David  8traiton, 
were  bamed  near  Edinburgh.  Soon  afterward 
Beaton  was  appoint«d  by  the  pope  legate  d  la- 
tere. After  the  sadden  death  of  King  James 
(Deo.  18,  1M2),  leaving  as  his  snccesaor  the 
tn&nt  Uary,  five  days  old,  Cardinal  Beaton 
conceived  the  idea  of  seizing  the  government, 
and  with  the  aid  of  a  priest,  Henry  Balfonr, 
is  said  to  have  foiled  a  will  for  the  king,  nomi- 
nating himself  regent  with  three  of  the  nobility 
as  his  asdstonts.  This  will  was  proclaimed 
at  the  cross  of  Edioborgh  a  few  days  after  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  the  cardinal  took  pos- 
session of  the  regency.  Bnt  the  earl  of  Arran, 
who  hod  prospective  claims  to  the  succession, 
called  an  assembly  of  noblemen,  who  set  aside 
Beaton  and  pat  Arran  in  his  place.  The  car- 
dinal, however,  had  the  sapport  of  the  qneen 
dowager  and  of  powerful  friends;  and  after  a 
brief  imprisonment  he  was  released  and  made 
lord  high  chancellor  (December,  1048),  and  soon 
sncceeded  in  making  the  weak  Arran  his  tool. 
The  English  invasion  which  soon  followed  was 
saccessfully  opposed,  and  during  the  suoceed- 
ing  peace  the  recent,  by  the  advice  of  Beaton, 
endeavored  to  strengthen  the  Scottish  connec- 
tion with  France.  Fully  established  in  the 
rivil  as  well  OS  ecclesiastical  administration  of 
affairs,  the  cardinal  renewed  his  persecution 
of  reformers,  hanging,  drowning,  and  burning 
several  of  them.  In  1640  be  burnt  George 
Wishart,  the  most  eminent  preacher  among 
the  reformers,  and  sent  to  the  stake  several  of 
his  followers,  His  enemies,  seeing  no  other 
hope  of  relief  from  these  persecutions,  re- 
solved npon  his  death.  Early  in  the  morning 
of  May  28,  154S,  several  conspirators  entered 
the  cardinal's  bedchamber  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews.  The  assaaains  were  Norman  Leslie, 
Peter  Cormichael,  and  James  Melville,  who 
charged  him  with  his  wicked  life,  and  especially 
his  marder  of  George  Wialiort,  and  struck 
him  down  with  daggers  and  a  stag  sword.  As 
he  fell,  he  cried  out,  "  Fie,  fie  I  I  am  a  priest ; 
all's  gone."  Oardinal  Beaton  lived  luiurious- 
ly,  and  was  scandalously  licentioos.  He  is  said 
to  have  written  an  aoconct  of  his  embassiea, 


BEACOE  423 

and  other  works.  He  was  eminently  miooee» 
ful  in  diplomacy. 

BEITUCG  POBTHIAEI,  the  object  of  the  poet^ 
ical  devotion  of  Dante,  bom  about  1386,  died  in 
1290.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Folco  Porti- 
nori,  a  noble  Florentine,  and  is  represented  as 
posaessi^  remarkable  graces  of  person  and  of 
mind.  "Hie  poet  first  met  her  at  a  social  party 
when  she  was  but  nine  years  of  age,  and  was 
at  once  so  affected  that  he  became  almost 
speechless.  The  story  of  his  love  is  recounted 
in  the  Vita  Nuota,  which  was  mostly  written 
after  her  death.  Bante  saw  little  of  Beatrice 
during  her  lifetime,  but  she  grew  in  his  mind 
and  imagination  to  be  the  erol)odiment  of  divine 
truth,  and  in  this  character  she  appears  in  the 
Divina  Commedia.  She  was  married  before 
128T  to  Simone  del  Bordi,  a  citizen  of  Florence. 

lEATTIE,  J»a«<  a  Scottish  poet,  bom  in 
Einoordineshire,  Oct,  2G,  1T8S,  died  in  Aber- 
deen, Aug.  16,  1808.  He  obtained  a  scholar- 
ship at  Marischol  college,  Aberdeen,  and  in 
1TS8  became  one  of  the  masters  in  the  Aber- 
deen grammar  school,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  the  head  master.  In  ITSO  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  Horisonat  col- 
lege. In  ITeShepnblishedapoem,  ^' The  Judg- 
ment of  Paris,"  which  g^ned  no  celebrity.  The 
work  which  won  him  the  greatest  fame  was  an 
"Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Immutability  of 
Tmth,"  designed  as  a  reply  to  Hume,  which 
was  translated  into  Beveral  langnages,  and  pro- 
cnred for  ita  author  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  tVom 
the  Quivernty  of  Oxford,  and  a  private  confer- 
ence with  George  III.,  who  granted  him  a 
pennon  of  £200.  While  in  London  he  became 
intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Dr.  Portena,  and 
other  distinguished  literary  characters.  His 
tamons  poem  "  The  Minstrel "  appeared  In 
pariB  from  1771  to  1774.  In  1788  he  publish- 
ed " Dissertationa,  Moral  and  Critical,''  and  in 
1786  "  The  Evidencea  of  the  Christian  Reli- 

K'on,"  written  at  the  request  of  the  bishop  of 
indon.  In  1 790  he  published  the  first  volume, 
and  in  1798  the  second,  of  his  "Elements  of 
Moral  Science ; "  subjoined  to  the  latter  was  a 
dissertation  against  Uie  slave  trade.  Hia  lost 
publication  was  an  account  of  the  life,  writ- 
ings, and  character  of  his  eldest  son,  James 
Hay  BeattJe. 

BEArClISE,  a  commercial  town  of  France, 
department  of  Gard.  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
RhAue,  12  m.  E.  of  Nlmes ;  pop.  in  ISBQ,  9,895. 
It  is  opposite  Tarascon,  with  which  it  ia  con- 
neoted  by  a  suspension  bridge,  and  is  near  the 
junction  of  rulways  to  Avignon,  Marseilles, 
Oette,  and  Alois,  by  Nlmes.  It  has  conader- 
able  trade  in  grain,  fionr,  and  wine,  and  an  annual 
fairinJuly,  established  in  1217  by  Raymond  VI., 
count  of  Toulouse,  which  was  formerly  the  larg- 
est in  Europe.  The  oanal  de  Beanoaire,  opened 
in  1773,  connects  the  town  with  Aigues-Mortea. 

BEAECE,  a  S.  £.  county  of  the  province  of 
Qnebeo,  Canada,  bordering  on  Maine;  area, 
1,160  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  37,2Ca.  Ito  great- 
est length  is  about  46  m.,  uid  its  greatest  wLdUi 


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4:21 


BEAUOEESNE 


abont  80  m.  It  is  traversed  by  the  river  Ohan- 
di^re,  and  watered  hj  several  of  ita  brauohei. 
Chief  town,  St.  Joseph. 

BEIGCHESNE,  UiMt  BTMlilbe  da  B«b  M,  a 
French  avthor,  bom  at  Lorient,  March  SI, 
18M.  He  belongs  to  an  ancient  Breton  family, 
became  in  1826  prominently  connected  with 
the  department  of  fine  arts,  and  in  16S7  with 
the  court  of  Charles  X.  Since  1863  he  has 
been  connected  with  the  archives,  which  ena- 
bled him  to  collect  materials  for  his  principai 
work,  LouU  SyjJ.,  »a  vie,  ton  agonie  et  «a 
mart  (2  7ois.,  18S2 ;  4th  ed.,  186fl),  and  which 
with  the  Beqnel,  Vie  de  Mme.  £iii^th  and  L« 
litre  dtt  jennet  mirei,  poems  (1B68;  3d  ed., 
1960),  received  a  prize  from  the  academy.  He 
is  also  the  author  ot  Stnitaiin  poitigiiet  {1BS0\ 
8d  ed.,  1834),  &c 

BEmCLERK,  TwhU)  one  of  Dr.  Johnson's 
fovorite  frienas,  born  in  17S9,  died  March  11, 
1780.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Lord  Sidney 
Beanderk,  third  son  of  the  first  dnke  of  St. 
Albans,  the  son  of  Oharles  U.  by  Eleanor 
Gwynn.  Ho  studied  at  Oxford,  and  his  oon- 
versatJonal  talenta  so  mach  charmed  Johnson 
that  when  the  "  Literary  Club  "  was  founded 
he  was  one  of  the  nine  original  members.  When 
he  went  to  Italy  in  1702,  Johnson  wrote  to  his 
Mend  Baretti  warmly  commending  Beanolerk 
to  his  kindness.  In  1706  he  accompanied 
Johnson  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge.  He  seduced 
Lady  Biana  Spencer,  wife  of  Viscount  Boling- 
broke  and  daughter  of  the  dnke  of  Uarl borough, 
in  1708,  and  married  her  immediately  after  ^e 
was  divorced. 

BEADFMtT.  I.  An  E.  county  of  North  Oar- 
olina,  bordermg  on  Pamlico  sonod  and  inter- 
sected by  PamUco  river,  which  is  navigable  by 
vessels  drawing  8  ft.  of  water ;  area,  about 
1,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  13,011,  of  whom 
4,682  were  colored.  The  soriace  is  level  and 
the  soil  sandy  or  marshy.  Tar  and  turpentine 
are  produced  in  large  qnantities.  The  chief 
produotiODs  in  1870  were  179,B94  bushels  of 
Indian  com,  102,626  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,687 
bales  of  cotton,  and  69,200  lbs.  of  rice.  There 
were  706  horses,  2,469  milch  oows,  4,888  other 
cattle,  2,883  sheep,  and  16,780  swine.  Capital, 
Washington.  II.  A  county  forming  the  sontli- 
em  extremity  of  South  Carolina,  bounded  N. 
E.  by  the  Combohee  river,  S.  E.  by  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  and  separated  on  the  S.  W.  from 
Georgia  by  the  Savannah  river;  area,  1,640 
sq,  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  34,869,  of  whom  29,060 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  the  Broad, 
Cooeawbatchie,  and  New  rivers,  which  are  all 
navigable  by  small  vessels.  On  the  coast  are 
several  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  Port 
Boyal,  St.  Helena,  and  Hilton  Head,  producing 
sea  island  cotton.  The  Charleston  and  Savan- 
nah railroad  traverses  the  county.  The  sur- 
face is  low,  the  soil  sandy  and  diuvial.  The 
chief  productions  in  1670  were  38S,fi82  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  118,038  of  sweet  potatoes,  7,486 
bales  of  cotton,  and  9,069,130  lbs.  of  rice. 
There  were  1,721  horses,  1,804  mules  and  ossea, 


BEAUPOBT 

4,S19  milch  cows,  4,003  other  cattle,  1,921 
sheep,  and  16,683  swine.    Capital,  BeanforL 

BEADFOBT.  I.  A  town  and  port  of  entry,  cap- 
ital of  Carteret  county,  Hortn  Carolina,  at  the 
month  of  Newport  river,  a  few  miles  from  tho 
sea,  11  m.  N.  W.  of  Cape  Lookout,  and  130  m. 
8.  E.  of  Raleigh ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,480,  of  whom 
1,342  were  colored.  It  is  accessible  by  steam- 
boat from  Albemarle  sound,  and  has  a  commo- 
dious and  well  sheltered  harbor,  considered 
the  best  in  the  state.  On  Bogne  point,  at  its 
entrance,  ia  Fori;  Macon.  There  is  an  exten* 
sive  trade,  chiefiy  in  turpentine  and  roan. 
U>  A  town  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of  Beau- 
fort county,  South  Carolina,  on  Port  Royal  isl- 
and, and  on  on  arm  of  Broad  river  communi- 
cating with  Port  Royal  entrance  on  the  0Q« 
hand  and  St.  Helena  sound  on  the  other,  about 
16  m.  from  the  sea,  and  46  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Charleston;  pop.  in  1B70,  1,789,  of  whom 
1,278  wero  colored.  It  has  a  spacious  harbor, 
with  24  feet  of  water  on  the  bar,  and  is  a  &- 
v(»4te  summer  resort.  It  has  some  for^gn 
trade,  and  a  weekly  new^iaper.  Beaufort  was 
occupied  hy  the  United  States  forces  Deo.  0, 
1861,  having  been  abandoned  by  the  confod«- 
rat«s  after  the  naval  fight  at  Hilton  Head. 

BOCFOBT.  L  A  town  of  Ai^on,  France, 
in  the  deportment  of  Moine-et-Ijoire,  16  m.  E. 
of  Angers ;  pop.  in  1866,  2,629.  Among  the 
various  manufactures,  those  of  sail  cloth  are 
the  most  famous.  Beaufort  beoeme  a  county 
in  the  I8th  century,  and  came  into  possesaoQ 
of  King  Ren6  in  the  IGth.  The  ancient  castle 
of  Beaufort  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish house  of  Lancaster  at  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  and  gave  the  title  to  the  natural  and 
afterword  le^timatized  children  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  to  whom  the  lineage  of  the  present 
English  dukes  of  Beaufort  is  traced.  IL  The 
French  dukes  of  Beaufort  originated  from  Ga« 
brielle  d'Estr^es,  mistress  of  Henty  IV.,  who 
became  duchess  of  Beaufort  from  an  estate  of 
that  name  in  Champagne,  which  belonged  to- 
her  family.  IIL  The  Bellas  dukes  end  counts 
of  Beaufort  or  Beanfibrt  trace  their  title  to  the 
beginning  of  the  llth  century,  and  to  a  castle 
of  that  name  in  Namur. 

BEAnVKT,  Sir  Fnadi,  an  English  hydrogra- 
pher,  bom  at  Collon,  county  Lowth,  Ireland, 
in  1774,  died  in  Brighton,  Dec.  17,  1857.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  of  French  extroo- 
tion ;  entered  the  navy  in  1787;  served  as  mid- 
shipman under  Admiral  Oomwollis ;  was  under 
Howe  in  the  naval  battle  off  Brest,  June  1, 1794; 
became  lieutenant  in  1796,  and  commodore  in 
1 800,  in  reword  for  his  services  at  the  battle  off 
Malaga,  where  he  was  wounded.  He  acquired 
scientific  reputation  by  his  hydrogrophic  labora 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  in  I811~'12,  and 
published  "Earamanio,  or  a  Brief  Description 
of  the  South  Coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  the 
Remains  of  Antiquity  "  (London,  1617),  which 
has   proved  very  iiseflil    to    later  explorers. 


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obliged  to  retara  to  England,  where  subse- 

aoentlf  be  drew  np  mftny  maps,  and  was  hy- 
rographer  of  the  admirftltj  from  1882  to 
1S55.  Oeograpfaioal  and  maritime  exploratjoos 
were  greatly  promoted  by  his  labors,  and  lie 
was  a  prominent  fellow  of  tlie  royal  society, 
and  member  of  tbe  Bstronomical  and  geograph- 
ical  societies,  and  a  commiasioner  of  the  pilot 
service.  lie  became  honorary  rear  admiral 
in  1846,  and  was  knighted  in  1846. 

BEAUFORT,  Fnuifria  M  Vvtitm,  dnke  of,  son 
of  G£sar  de  Vendbme  and  grandson  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  bom  in  Paris  in  January,  lfil6, 
died  Jnne  26,  1669.  He  served  with  some 
distinction  during  the  SO  years'  war,  and  med- 
dled in  the  conspiracy  of  Cinij-Mars  against 
Cardinal  Bicheliea.  In  consequence  of  thid 
last  affair  he  was  obliged  to  seek  a  refage  in 
England.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV., 
the  qneen  regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  showed 
him  great  favor,  which  he  rcp^d  with  in- 
solence. Implicated  in  a  plot  against  the 
life  of  Mazarin,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
ch&tesa  of  Vincennes.  Escaping  in  1048,  he 
joined  the  Frondeora,  l>ecame  extremely  pop- 
olar  with  the  Parisian  popniace,  and  was 
called  the  king  of  the  markets.  He  killed 
his  brother-in-law,  the  doke  of  Nemonrs,  in  a 
dnel,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  his  seconds, 
H^ricoort,  was  killed  by  the  martjnis  de  Vil- 
lars.  a  second  of  Nemonrs.  Becoming  tired  of 
civil  war,  he  made  his  peace  with  the  oonrt; 
and,  Lonis  XIV.  having  taken  into  his  hands 
the  reins  of  government,  Beaufort  waa  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  navy.  In  1SS4 
and  1605  be  successfully  led  attacks  ag^nat  the 
corsairs  of  Africa;  in  1666  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  fleet  which  was  to  Join  the  I>ut«h  in 
the  war  against  England;  and  in  1669  he 
went  to  the  asnstance  of  the  Venetians,  then 
l)edeged  by  the  Tarks  in  the  island  of  Gandia, 
where  he  was  killed  in  a  sally. 

BEACrOET,  Hcuy  t^  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  bom  about  18T0,  died  at  Winches- 
ter, April  11, 144T.  He  was  a  legitimatized  son 
of  John  of  Qaont  by  his  mistress,  afterward 
his  third  wife.  Lady  Catharine  Swynford,  who 
had  l>een  govemees  in  bis  family,  and  he  was  a 
half  brother  of  Henry  IV.  He  studied  in  Oi- 
fbrd  and  Aix -la-Ob  apelle,  became  bishop  of 
Lincoln  in  1397,  chancellor  of  the  uniTersityof 
Oxford  in  1899,  bishop  of  Winchester  aa  suc- 
cessor of  Wiiliam  of  Wyckham  in  1404,  and 
lord  chancellor  in  the  parliaments  of  1404-'5 
and  on  other  occasions.  Subsequently  he  was 
appointed  cardinal  of  St.  Easebius  by  Pope 
Martin  V.,  whose  election  he  had  promoted, 
and  who  made  him  legate  d  latere  in  England 
for  raising  a  criiaade  against  the  Hussites. 
The  pope's  good  will,  however,  was  lost  by  his 
alleged  appropriation  of  the  funds  for  the  cru- 
sade toward  the  expenses  of  the  war  with 
France.  Ho  was  president  of  the  court  which 
sentenced  Joan  of^Aro  to  death.  The  wealth 
amassed  in  the  see  of  Winchester  enabled  him 
to  advance   nearly  £80,000    to  his    nephew 


FORT  425 

Henry  V.,  and  over  £10,000  to  the  infant 
Henry  VJL,  who  was  brought  up  under  his 
care.  After  the  death  of  Henry  V.  in  1432, 
and  during  the  minority  of  Henry  VI.,  when 
the  dnke  of  Glonoester  became  regent  in  the 
absence  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Beaufort 
was  a  mentl>er  of  the  council  of  regency,  a 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  Gloucester 
and  Beaufort  diaturlied  the  public  tranquilli- 
ty, embarrassed  England  in  her  conflict  with 
Frncce  for  over  20  years,  and  well  nigh  culmi- 
nated in  ciiil  war,  Bedford  and  others  viunly 
attempting  to  recoifcilc  the  two  rivals.  A 
court  of  arbitration  effected  an  apparent  recon- 
ciliation, but  Beaufort  took  umbrage  at  the 
terms  of  their  decision,  resigned  the  chancel- 
lorship, and  went  with  Bedford  to  Fruice. 
He  escorted  Henry  VI.  on  bis  coronation  in 
Paris  in  1429,  and  induced  parliament- to  put 
an  end  to  Gloncester's  regency,  after  which  he 
became  so  omnipotent  that  Gloucester  put  him- 
self at  the  bead  of  a  formidable  opposition, 
renewing  former  and  bringing  forward  new 
charges  affecting  bis  integrity,  questJoning  the 
legal  compatibility  of  his  cardinal's  hat  with 
his  episcopal  functions,  and  making  his  posi- 
tion so  untenable  that  Deaufart  could  only 
sustain  himself  by  bills  of  indemnity  from  par- 
liament (1432  and  1437)  exempting  Lim  from 
punishment  for  his  alleged  crimes.  Eventu- 
ally he  wreaked  his  revenge  on,  Gloucester 
by  having  him  indicted  for  treason  at  St. 
Eidmnndsbury,  and  arrested.  The  dnke  was 
found  dead  on  the  day  appointed  for  his  vindi- 
cation, and  though  no  signs  of  violence  were 
detected  upon  his  body,  it  was  not  believed 
that  be  came  to  a  natnral  end,  and  Beaofort, 
who  died  about  five  weeks  afterward,  was 
generally  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death. 
Shakespeare,  in  the  "Second  Part  of  King 
Henry  Vl.,"  represents  the  cardinal  as  having 
died  in  an  agony  of  remorse  and  despair.  He 
beaueathed  his  property  to  charitable  purposes, 
endowed  the  stilt  existing  hospital  of  St.  Cross 
at  Winchester,  and  was  bnried  in  the  chantry 
of  Winche8t«r  cathedral  which  bears  bis  name. 
BEICFORT,  Hntt  Cbariw  FUzrej  Sevcnet,  8th 
duke  of,  an  English  soldier  and  politician,  bom 
in  Paris,  Feb.  1,  1S24.  He  studied  at  Eton, 
and  became  successively  aide-de-camp  to  Wel- 
lington, Hardinge,  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge, 
retiring  from  active  service  in  1861  as  lieuten- 
ant colonel.  He  was  a  tory  member  of  par- 
liament for  Gloucestershire  from  1846  to  I85S, 
when  on  the  death  of  his  fether,  who  had  ex- 
ercised great  political  influence  by  his  immense 
wealth,  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage. 

BEirFOKT,  Margiret,  countess  of  Richmond 
and  of  Derby,  bom  at  Bletsoe,  Bedfordshire,  in 
1441,  died  in  1609.  She  was  a  daughter  of  the 
I  duke  of  Somerset,  great-grandson  of  Edward 
'  III.,  and  was  married  to  the  cart  of  Richmond, 
half  brother  to  Henry  VI.,  by  whom  at  Ihe  age 
of  18  years  she  had  one  son,  afterward  king  of 
England  under  tbe  title  of  Henry  VII.  After 
the  death  of  the  earl  of  Richmond  she  married 


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4S6 


BEAUGENCY 


mcc«6^vtiij  Sir  Henrr  Stafford,  a  connectioii 
of  the  dacaL  house  of  tinckingluim,  and  Thomas 
Lord  Btanlej,  afterward  earl  of  Derb;,  but 
had  issue  bj  neither  of  these  marriages.  She 
was  ii«iebrat«d  for  her  devotion  and  ohanty. 
By  her  boonty  two  colleges,  Christ's  and  St. 
John's,  were  endowed  at  Cambridge,  and  a 
professorship  of  divinity  eBtablished  in  each ; 
bnt  the  endowments  were  subseqnently  re- 
covered by  Henry  VIII.  as  her  heir  at  law. 
She  translated  the  "Mirroure  of  Golde  to  the 
Sinfiill  Sonl,"  irom  a  French  translation,  of  the 
Speculum  Aureum  Peccatontm,  and  the  4th 
book  of  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ." 

BEICCENCY,  an  old  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Loire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire, 
IS  m.  8.  W.  of  Orleans;  pop.  in  1880,  S,OSB. 
In  11C2  a  coancil  was  held  nere  which  divorced 
King  LonisVIL  from  Eleanor  of  Aouitaine,  who 
soon  became  the  wife  of  Henry  Flantagenet, 
then  heir  apparent  of  the  crown  of  England. 
Beangencj  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walie, 
flanked  with  towers  and  bastions,  and  protect- 
ed by  a  powerfnl  castle,  the  ruins  of  which  stjil 
remun.  The  kings  of  France  had  a  palace  here 
in  the  14th  century.  On  Dec.  8, 1870,  the  Ger- 
man troops  nnder  the  grand  dnke  of  Mecklen- 
burg, aft«r  A  successful  fight  at  Menng  on  the 
7th,  defeated  here  the  French  army  of  the  Loire 
nnder  Gen.  Chanzy,  who,  on  the  evacuation  of 
Orleans,  tlius  vainly  endeavored  to  cover  Tours, 

BEAtHABMAIS,  Aleiudre,  viconite  de,  a 
French  general,  horn  in  the  island  of  Mar- 
tinique in  1760,  guillotined  in  Paris,  July  28, 
1T94.  He  was  mqjor  in  a  regiment  of  infantry 
when  he  married  Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pa- 
gerie,  who  became  after  his  death  the  wife  of 
Bonaparte.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
American  war,  under  the  command  of  Connt 
Rochambean.  In  1789  he  was  elected  deputy 
to  the  states  general  by  the  nobles  of  Blois, 
and  was  among  the  first  of  his  order  who 
joined  the  Hers-ilat.  He  was  twice  president 
of  the  national  assembly,  and  occupied  the 
chair  when  the  flight  of  Lonis  XVL  was  made 
known.  A  little  later  he  joined,  ss  a  general 
of  division,  the  army  of  Custine  on  the  Khine, 
and  was  accused  of  causing  the  surrender  of 
Uenti  by  his  inaction,  for  which  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  rovolntionary  tribunal. 

lElFBARKUS,  Eigiie  it,  duke  of  Lenchten- 
berg  and  tirince  of  EiohstAdt,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding ana  stepson  of  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
bora  in  Paris,  Sept  8,  1781,  died  in  Munich, 
Feb.  21,  1824.  He  served  in  Brittany  under 
Gen.  Hoche,  who  hod  been  his  father's  friend, 
and  in  179G  went  back  to  Paris,  and  called  on 
Gen.  Bonaparte  to  obttun  from  him  his  father's 
sword,  which  had  been  taken  away  on  the 
disarming  of  the  sections  subsequent  to  the 
13th  Vend6miaire,  Bonaparte  at  once  granted 
his  request,  and  soon  received  a  visit  of  thanks 
from  Mme.  Beanhamais,  whom  he  married  in 
1796.  In  1798  Eugene  followed  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Acre, 
He  retomed  to  France  with  Bon^arte,  was 


BEAUHAKNAIS 

appcnnted  to  a  captaincy  in  the  consnlar  guards, 
and  aft«r  the  battle  of  Marengo  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  mi(jor.  On  the  establishment 
of  the  empire  he  became  a  prince  and  colonel 
general  of  the  cliosseurs;  in  180S  state  arch- 
chancellor,  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  viceroy  of  Italy.  On  the  occasion  of  ids 
marriage  with  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  Napoleon  invested  him  with 
the  title  of  prince  of  Venice,  and  procbimed 
him  "his  adopted  son,  and  hdr  apparent  to 
the  crown  of  Italy."  He  was  then  only  24 
years  old,  but  showed  at  once  great  prudence 
and  discretion.  The  Italian  army  was  rein- 
forced, and  soon  ranked  among  the  heat  troops 
of  the  great  empire ;  the  fortresses  and  the 
coasts  were  put  in  a  state  of  defence,  nniform 
laws  promulgated,  facilities  for  public  educa- 
tion increased,  beggary  suppressed  by  tiie  es- 
tabiisbmcnt  of  asylums  for  the  poor,  and  the 
cathedral  of  Milan  completed.  All  this  was 
accomplished  without  any  addition  to  the 
taxes;  never  were  the  fiscal  charges  so  mode- 
rate, and  yet  in  181S  the  pnblic  treasury  had 
a  Burplas  of  62,000,000  livres,  Italian.  When 
the  fourth  Austrian  war  broke  out,  he  wss 
defeated  by  the  orchdnke  John  in  the  battle 
of  Bacile,  April  16,  IBOO;  bnt  he  soon  took 
his  revenge  on  tbe  banks  of  the  Piave,  where 
he  inflicted  on  the  Austriane  a  less  of  10,000 
soldiers  and  15  pieces  of  cannon.  Eneine 
pursued  them  into  Carinthia,  defeated  tnem 
m  several  encouiit«rs,  and  joined  the  great 
French  army  in  the  piuns  of  Austria.  Then 
he  invaded  Enngary,  and  gained  on  June  14, 
near  Baab,  a  victory  over  Archduke  John, 
whose  army  was  one  third  stronger  than  bis 
own.  Three  weeks  Istcr  he  took  an  important 
part  in  the  battle  of  Wagram.  When  his  mo- 
tlier  was  divorced  from  Napoleon,  Eugene  as 
state  arch -chancellor  was  obliged  to  announce 
the  event  to  the  senate.  In  1812  he  oonunand- 
ed  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  tbe  army  which 
invaded  Russia,  and  greatly  contributed  to  tbe 
victory  of  Borodino.  Dnring  the  retreat  frtim 
Moscow  he  was  not«d  for  his  self-poseeeaon, 
firmness,  and  intrepidity,  and  the  retreat  he  con- 
ducted from  Posen  to  Leipeic,  as  commander- 
in-chief  after  the  departure  of  Mnrat,  has  been 
considered  as  one  of  tlte  most  extraordinary 
war  operations  on  record.  Before  leaving  the 
army  he  contributed  mnch  to  the  victory  of 
Latzen.  Then  he  repaired  to  Italy,  where  in 
less  than  three  months  a  new  army  amounting 
to  50,000  soldiers,  was  organized,  and  all  the 
foriressea  were  prepared  for  defence.  He  de- 
fended Italy  bravely  against  the  aUied  forces, 
but  was  finally  forced  to  yield,  and  retired  to 
the  court  of  his  father-in-law  in  Bavaria, 
There  he  received,  with  the  prini^pality  of 
Eichstfidt,  the  title  of  duke  of  Leuchtenberg 
and  first  peer  of  the  kingdom.  He  left  two 
eons  and  four  daughters.  The  eldest  danghter, 
Josephine,  married  Oscar,  king  of  Sweden ; 
the  next,  Eng6nie  Hortense,  married  the 
prince  of  Hohenzollem-Hechiiigen;    nnd  tbe 


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third,  Amelia  Angnste,  became  the  wife  of 
Dom  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil.  Of  the  t»o  sona.  the 
elder,  Aagnste  Charlea,  the  first  husband  of 
Qneen  Mariaof  Portugal,  died  March  SS,  1B35; 
and  the  jonni^r,  Masimilisn  Joseph,  who  ia 
1839  raarried  the  grand  dnchesB  Hario,  dangh- 
ter  of  Czar  Nicholas,  died  Nov.  1,  1863. 

IRIUIUKfillS,  FuiT,  the  familiar  name  of 
Habie  Anhb  Fsanqoiss  Hodohabd,  oomtesse 
de  BeHDhumais,  a  French  writer,  bom  in 
Paris  in  1788,  died  there,  Joiy  2,  1813.  Her 
father  was  receiver  general  in  the  province  of 
Champagne.  Bhe  was  married  id  1TG3  to 
Goant  de  IteanbamaiK,  micle  of  Aleiaodre,  bnt 
soon  separated  from  him  and  took  up  her  resi- 
dence in  Paris.  Here  she  devoted  herself  to 
literary  pnraoits,  and  made  her  rooms  the  ren- 
dezvons  of  many  of  the  most  prominent  writers 
of  the  day.  Uer  own  writings,  however,  met 
with  litde  success.  Among  them  are  several 
comedies,  which  failed  in  the  theatres,  a  his- 
torical novel,  and  many  poems. 

BEiDHlUlIS,  Prsttt*!*)  marqais  de,  a  French 
royalist,  brotherof  Alexandre  Beauhamus,  born 
at  La  Roohelle,  Ang.  13,  1766,  died  March  4, 
1846.  He  was  a  member  of  the  states  general. 
In  1792  he  formed  a  plan  for  the  flight  of  the 
royal  family ;  but  having  failed  in  his  attempt, 
he  left  France  and  waa  appointed  mf(jor  gene- 
ral nnder  the  prince  of  Cond£.  He  was  re- 
called to  France  on  the  ocoamon  of  his  daogb,- 
ter's  marriage  with  M.  de  Lavalette,  and  ap- 
pointed director  geueml  of  tiie  post  office, 
and  in  1806  ambaBsador  to  Etraria  and  after- 
ward to  Spain ;  but  Napoleon  being  dieeatis- 
flod  with  his  servicea  in  Spain,  he  was  recalled 
and  sent  into  axile  at  Bologne.  Be  returned 
to  Paris  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  waa  made  a  peer. 

BEiDHlSllilS,  Hntwte  E^jMe,  wife  of  Lonis 
BoDSparte  and  qneen  of  Holland,  bom  in  Paris, 
April  10, 1788,  died  at  Arenen  berg,  Switzerland, 
Oct.  6, 1887.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Alexandra 
Beanharaais  and  Joaephine,  afterward  wife  of 
Napoleon.  On  Jan.  8, 1802,  in  compliance  with 
the  wiah  of  Napoleon,  ahe  became  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Loais.  The  union  was  not  a  happy  one. 
When  her  hnaband  was  made  king  she  went 
to  Holland  with  great  relnctance.  Loaia  abdi- 
cated in  &vor  of  his  son  in  181Q,  and  she  was 
appointed  regent ;  but  the  emperor  soon  after 
annnlled  this  arrangement,  and  anitad  Holland 
with  the  empire.  After  her  retnm  to  Paris 
Hortebse  lived  apart  from  her  hoBhand,  al- 
though the  emperor  would  not  allow  them  to 
be  divorced,  and  is  said  to  have  led  a  dissolute 
life.  Among  her  repnted  lovers  were  the 
count  of  Flahant,  for  whom  she  composed  the 
popular  air  Partant  pour  la  Syrie,  and  Admi- 
ral Verhnel,  a  Dutch  naval  oSioer,  to  whom  is 
frequently  attributed  the  paternity  of  Napoleon 
IIL  After  the  divorce  of  Josephine,  Hortense 
remained  on  intimate  terms  with  Napoleon, 
and  had  condderable  inflnence  with  him.  She 
alone,  of  all  the  Bonaparte  family,  remuned  in 
Paris  on  the  restoration.    After  Waterloo  she 


BEAUMANGIR 


427 


liTed  suooesrively  in  Augsburg,  in  Savov,  and 
at  her  castle  of  Arenenberg,  on  the  boraers  of 
Lake  Constance,  in  Switzerland,  where  she  de- 
voted herself  to  the  ednoation  of  her  children. 
In  1631  her  sons  Napoleon  Louis  and  Louis  Na- 
poleon (the  fatnre  emperor)  became  involved  in 
the  insurrectionary  movements  in  Italy,  and  the 
elder  died  at  Forti.  After  that  she  returned  to 
Paris,  and  was  conuderately  treated  by  Lonia 
Philippe.  She  passed  several  yeara  again  in 
Switzerland,  but  was  called  from  her  retire- 
ment in  18SB  by  the  arreat  of  Louis  Napoleon 
at  Strasburg.  She  Interceded  for  him,  and 
after  his  eiile  to  the  United  States  returned  to 
Switzerland,  where  she  waa  mnch  admired  for 
her  talents  and  benevolence. 

BEillHUNOIS,  a  8.  W.  county  of  the  prov- 
inoe  of  Quebec,  Canada,  bounded  N.  W.  bj 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  inclnding  Grand  island; 
area,  200  sg.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  14,709.  The 
Ueanhamois  canal,  connecting  Lake  St  Lonis 
with  Lake  SL  Francois,  runs  through  the  N. 
border,  and  the  Chateangay  river  along  the  8. 
E.  border.  The  chief  staplea  are  osta,  wool, 
and  dairy  products.  Chief  town,  Beanhamois, 
on  Lake  St.  Louis,  18  m.  8.  W.  of  Montreal. 

BEiCJOLilS,  a  subdivision  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Lyonnaia,  France,  forming  now 
the  northern  part  of  the  department  of  the 
RliAne,  and  a  small  part  of  that  of  the  Loire. 
After  having  formed  an  important  separate 
barony,  it  came  in  14O0  into  poesesBion  of 
the  duoal  house  of  Bourbon,  was  confiscated 
in  1638  from  the  great  constable  de  Bourbon 
and  united  to  the  crown  by  Francis  I.,  but  sut>- 
seqnently  given  back  to  a  nephew  of  the  con- 
stable. In  162S  it  came  by  marria^  to  the 
house  of  Orleans,  in  whose  possession  it  re^ 
mained  until  the  revolution.  It  ia  noted  forita 
floe  vineyards.    lu  capital  was  Bea^jen. 

BEAOIiNOIR,  J«y,  sire  de,  a  French  knight, 
born  in  Brittany,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century.  He  was  the  friend  and  com- 
panion in  arms  of  Dn  Guesclin,  and  distin- 
?aiahed  himself  tn  the  civil  ware  of  Brittany, 
ghting  on  the  side  of  Charles  of  Blois  agunst 
John  of  Hontfort  and  the  English.  Whilein 
command  of  the  castle  of  Joseelin  in  1S61  be 
challenged  Bemborough,  the  English  com- 
mander at  Ftofrmel,  to  meet  80  French 
knights  with  80  Englishmen  at  a  place  between 
the  two  castles  known  as  Midway  Oak.  On 
the  first  onset  the  English  excelled  tbeir  adver 
saries;  hnt  Bemborough  having  been  killed, 
the  French  renewed  the  struggle,  and  won  the 
victory.  This  combat  was  long  known  as  the 
battle  of  the  thirty.  At  the  battle  of  Auray, 
in  13B4,  Beaumanoir  was  taken  prisoner. 

BEAnUNOIR,  FUllpiM  de,  a  French  Jurist 
bom  in  Picardy,  died  in  1296.  In  1280  he 
was  bulifT  of  Clermont  in  Beauvaiais,  which 
town  was  in  the  hands  of  Robert,  son  of 
Louis  IX.  and  the  head  of  the  Bourbon  fami- 
ly. It  waa  according  to  directions  from  this 
prince  that  he  digested  and  committed  to 
writing  the  tradititnal  law  regulations  of  th« 


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428 


BEAUMAECHAI8 


oonDtiy.  This  book.  La  eoutume  de  Beauvoi- 
Mt,  is  one  of  tbe  most  Talnable  moDiiraeDte 
of  French  law  dnring  the  middle  ag«8.  It 
greatly  contributed  to  refonning  the  excesses 
of  the  feudal  system,  and  enforcing  the  para- 
mount power  of  tbe  monarch. 

BEAliJUBCHllS,  Pl«m  lifwUi  Cuw  ift,  a 
French  dramatic  author  and  specnlator,  born  in 
Paris.  Jan.  24,  1T82,  died  there,  May  19,  17B9. 
He  was  the  bod  of  a  natehmaker  named  Caron, 
and  received  his  early  education  at  a  private 
school,  which  he  left  when  only  13,  aflier 
having  shown  remarkable  precocity.  His  fa- 
ther desired  him  to  study  watchmaking;  but 
he  neglected  bis  work  to  devote  himself  to 
IDUUC,  for  which  he  had  an  absorbing  taste,  and 
farther  annoyed  bis  father  by  his  somewhat  dis- 
solute habits.  Threatened  with  severe  punish- 
ment, however,  he  devoted  himself  for  a  time  to 
his  trade,  and  almost  immediately  achieved  a 
great  snocesa  by  tbe  invention  of  an  improved 
escapement,  which  secnred  him  the  appoints 
ment  of  watchmaker  to  tbe  court,  then  estab- 
lished at  Versailles.  Caron,  now  only  about 
28  years  of  age,  attracted  much  attention  in 
the  court  circle  tA  which  he  was  admitted,  and 
acqnired  by  his  abihty,  personal  beauty,  and 
gallantry  a  position  entirely  disproportionate 
to  his  rank.  In  1755  an  old  government  offi- 
cial, Franqnet,  with  whose  young  wife  Caron 
had  long  stood  in  questionable  relationa,  died ; 
and  the  young  watchmaker  not  only  married 
his  widow,  but  succeeded  through  court  influ- 
ence to  his  office.  Less  than  a  year  after  her 
marriage,  Hme.  Caron  died  after  a  very  short 
illness ;  and  her  husband's  many  enemies  took 
advantage  of  the  rapidity  with  which  her  death 
followed  tiiat  of  Franquet  to  bring  a^tainst 
Oaron  an  accusation  of  poisoning,  which  he 
promptly  disproved,  but  which  was  afterward 
several  times  revived  in  the  less  tangible  form 
of  a  rumor,  and  formed  a  favorite  court  scandal. 
In  175T  Caron  assumed  the  name  of  Beaumar- 
chais;  but  he  had  no  legal  right  to  his  title  of . 
nobility  till  1T61,  when  he  purchased  a  oom- 
missiott  as  secretary  io  the  king,  a  ^necnre 
which  conferred  noble  ronk  on  its  piosaessor. 
He  still  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  music, 
especially  to  playing  the  harp,  in  which  instru- 
ment he  made  several  improvements.  His  skill 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  princesses  Ade- 
laide and  Victolre,  daughters  of  Louis  XV., 
and  he  at  once  became  a  great  favorite  with 
them.  Succeeding,  through  tbe  influence  thus 
acqnired,  in  advancing  certain  schemes  of  the 
rich  contractor  Duvomey,  the  latter  admitted 
him  to  a  shore  in  hia  profitable  mercantile  ven- 
tures, which  probably  first  gave  him  the  passion 
for  speculation  that  was  afterward  a  distin- 
guishing feature  of  his  life.  He  now  began 
the  rapid  accumulation  of  a  fortune,  and  by 
way  of  farther  advancement  he  nurcbased  a 
second  office,  that  of  vice  presluent  of  the 
tf^umtl  de  chattel.  In  1764  Beaumarchais 
went  to  Madrid  where  he  hod  mercantile 
eohemes  in  progress ;  but  his  visit  is  principally 


noteworthy  on    account  of  his    revenge  on 

Clav(jo,  tbe  Spanish  writer,  who  had  broken  a 

g'omise  of  marriage  made  to  his  younger  sister. 
e  not  only  compelled  him  to  apologize,  but 
succeeded  in  having  him  removed  fWim  his 
position  at  court,  and  prevented  by  decree 
froiD  ever  again  holding  any  ofSce  under  the 
crown.  Goethe's  drama  of  Clatigo  has  made 
this  incident  one  of  the  most  famous  in  the  life 
of  Beaumarchais.  In  April,  1768,  he  was  mar- 
ried at  Paris  to  a  rich  widow,  Mme.  L^Tfeone. 
Just  before  tins  marriage  he  had  made  his  first 
important  literary  venture,  in  bringing  out  his 

Elay  of  Euginie,  but  had  met  with  no  success. 
n  1770  he  received  a  still  greater  rebuff  in  the 
&ilure  of  a  second  drama,  Lu  deux  amit.  In 
tlie  same  year  his  second  wife  died,  and  the 
old  stories  of  poisoning  were  revived  against 
him.  Duverney,  the  financier,  also  died  in 
17T0,  just  after  making  a  moiit  advantageous 
contract  with  Beaumarchais.  The  contractor's 
heir  contested  this,  and  Beanmarchais  found 
himself  suddenly  involved  in  a  maze  of  law- 
suits. He  carried  on  the  legal  conflict  for  seven 
years,  and  won,  after  making  some  remarkable 
dtaplays  of  oratorical  power  and  wit,  which 
rendered  him  famous  even  outside  of  France. 
It  was  during  this  memorable  time,  too,  that 
ho  found  leisure  to  produce  his  liarbier  de 
Sirille,  written  in  1773,  and  played,  after 
several  refusals  irom  different  managers,  in 
January,  1775.  No  sooner  had  he  extricated 
himself  from  the  troubles  just  recounted  than 


actress,  who  succeeded  in  having  him  ille- 
gally imprisoned  for  a  time.  Counsellor  Goez- 
mann  had  charge  of  his  case,  and,  ss  the  custom 
was,  Beaumarchais  sent  Mme.  Goecmann  a  pre»- 
ent  of  money,  which  she  promised  to  retnm  in 
case  her  btiaband'a  re^rt  on  the  matter  should 
be  adverse  to  him.  It  so  happened,  but  she 
returned  only  a  part  of  the  gift.  Beaumar- 
chais preferred  an  accusation  of  venality  s^oinst 
Goennann,  and  an  extraordinary  trial  ensued,  in 
which  the  accuser  developed  a  most  remark- 
able power  of  satire,  eloquence,  and  skill,  and, 
though  he  did  not  gain  his  end,  made  himself 
for  a  time  the  best  known  man  in  Paris.  Two 
other  somewhat  scandalons  trials  followed,  for 
Beaumarchais  no  sooner  escaped  one  difficulty 
than  he  rushed  into  another.  All  this  time  he 
was  involved  in  speculations :  among  them, 
one  for  the  sale  of  timber  from  the  Ibftst  of 
Chinon  (just  before  Dnvemey's  death),  and 
one  for  supplying  arms  and  munitions  to  the 
Americans,  in  their  contest  with  England.  As 
eariy  as  1776  he  had  submitted  to  the  king  a 
memorial  in  which  he  insisted  that  the  French 
government  ought  to  assist  the  Americans, 
giving  as  his  deliberate  opinion  that  tfaej 
would  prove  unconquerable.  Beaumarchais 
passed  a  part  of  the  year  1775  in  England  as 
an  agent  of  the  French  ministry,  had  interviewa 
with  Arthnr  Lee,  and  was  in  the  most  intimate 
relations  of  correspondence  with  Vergennee. 


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BEAUMAROHAIS 

His  aaorec?,  his  sagacity  in  interpreting  a  hint 
from  a  minister  witLont  forcing  him  to  com- 
mit himself  even  verbal!  j,  hia  qnickness  of  per- 
ception, and  his  social  Attractions,  made  him 
a  convenient  instrument.  His  papers  served 
to  fix  the  wavering  purpose  of  the  kin^,  and 
when  Manrepaa,  the  chief  minister,  hesitated, 
Baanmarchais,  bj  letters,  rejiresentAtions,  and 
adroit  flattorj,  assisted  to  bring  him  to  the  de- 
cision which  liis  own  love  of  ease  wuidd  have 
staonned.  The  French  cabinet  cDnaentad  to 
help  Besuraarchais  in  his  plans  to  famish  the 
colonies  with  arms  and  ammunition.     For  that 

finrpose  the;  seeretif  advanced  to  him  1,000,000 
ivres,  an  equal  sum  being  furnished  b;  Spain, 
and  delivered  to  him  arms  and  ammunition 
from  the  pnblio  arsenals,  on  the  condition  that 
be  would  paj  for  or  replace  the  same.  Beaa- 
marchuB,  under  the  firm  of  Roderique  Eortaloi; 
and  Co.,  aa  early  as  the  twginning  of  1777  for- 
warded three  of  his  own  ships,  carrying  200 
pieces  of  ordnance,  25,000  muskets,  200,000 
IbsL  of  gunpowder,  and  other  ammunition.  Ue 
had  also  engageil  more  than  50  officers,  who 
sailed  on  board  the  Amphitrite,  his  largest 
ship ;  and  among  the  number  were  La  Rouerie, 
Pntagki,  and  Steuben,  who  so  powerfully  aided 
in  the  success  of  the  American  troops.  This 
first  fleet  safely  arrived  at  Portsmouth,  and  in- 
spired the  colonists  with  renewed  hope.  Sev- 
eral other  ships  were  sent  oat  during  the  same 
year,  and  abont  the  month  of  September  Beaa- 
marcbais's  disbursements  amounted  to  more 
than  5,000,000  francs.  Congress,  being  under 
the  impression  that  these  supplies  were  gra- 
tuitously famished  by  the  French  government, 
under  a  disg^aised  form,  neglected  to  make  re- 
mittances to  Beaumarcbais,  who  found  himself 
in  einbarraased  circumstances,  from  *hich  he 
was  relieved  by  the  French  government  ad- 
vancing him  another  million  of  franca.  The 
forwarding  of  supplies  was  continued,  and  to- 
ward the  beginning  of  1779  no  less  than  10  ves- 
sels sailed  at  once,  but  few  of  them  reached 
their  destination.  At  that  time  the  United 
States  were  indebted  to  Roderique  Hortales 
and  Oo,,  or  rather  Beanmarchais,  to  the  amonnt 
of  more  than  4,000,000  francs.  Although  con- 
gress did  not  hesitate  to  acknowledge  its  obli- 
gations toward  the  French  firm,  the  settlement 
of  so  large  an  indebtment  met  with  many  diffi- 
culties, and  it  was  not  till  1836  that  the  final 
balance  of  about  BOO.OOO  francs  was  paid  to  the 
heirs  of  Beaumarcbais.  The  transaction,  far 
from  having  been  profitable  to  the  latter,  as 
it  has  been  frequently  asserted,  resulted  in 
losses,  which  he  was  enabled  to  withstand 
through  government  aid  and  some  more  sue- 
cessfol  speculations.  In  an  interval  of  his  occu- 
pations, he  produced  in  April,  1784,  his  Mariaoe 
de  Figaro.  Its  production  was  vehemently 
opposed  by  the  court,  and  the  &ot  that  it  was 
pUy«d  at  all  was  a  remarkable  triumph  for  its 
author,  to  say  nothing  of  its  popular  success. 
In  1785  he  had  a  quarrel,  famonii  at  the  time 
from  the  notoriety  and  caustic  writings  of  both 


BEAOOXLE  429 

parties  to  it,  with  Ifiraheau,  on  the  qnestions 
connected  with  the  introduction  of  water  into 
Paris — an  enterprise  in  which  he  was  largely 
iutercBt«d.  This  ended  with  only  a  war  of 
words.  In  1787  he  produced  TaTore,  another 
play  which  failed  utterly,  but  which  Beaumar- 
cbais afterward  claimed  he  had  written  in 
sympathy  with  the  growing  signs  of  the  revo- 
lution, in  his  ReqiUte  A  MM.  lea  repraentantt 
delaeommuned«PaTU,\1W.  The  events  of 
1789  found  him  just  finishing  a  magnificent 
house  not  far  from  the  Bastile,  and  about  to 
begin  what  he  hoped  would  be  for  him  a  period 
of  quiet.  Ue  expressed  sympathy  with  the 
ends  of  the  revolution,  but  did  not  enter  with 
enthusiasm  into  the  means  taken  to  attain 
them.  For  a  time  it  seemed  thot  he  would 
succeed  in  keeping  apart  from  public  afiairs; 
but  bis  apparent  apathy  regarding  much  that 
happened,  and  a  sale  of  arms  to  HoUand,  con- 
ducted by  him  solely  sa  a  speculation,  but 
used  against  him  by  his  enemies,  threw  him 
into  disfavor,  and  finally  caused  him  to  leave 
the  country.  Soon  after,  and  while  he  was  in 
England  and  Eolland,  bis  enemies  caused  his 
name  to  be  enrolled  in  the  list  of  imigra  and 
his  property  to  be  confiscated.  After  many 
endeavors  he  finally  succeeded  in  giuning  per- 
mis^oD  to  return  to  France,  but  could  not 
recover  his  wealth,  though  he  constantly  peti- 
tionod  the  directory  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life  to  restore  it.  On  the  morning  of  May 
19,  1799,  Beaumarohais  was  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  having  been  seized  during  the  night  by 
on  attack  of  apoplexy. — Of  the  plays  written 
by  Beaumarcbais,  the  Bariier  de  SitiiU,  the 
Manage  de  Figaro,  and  La  mire  eoupabU 
form  a  trilogy,  being  parts  of  a  dramatic  story, 
and  properly  standing  in  the  order  named. 
Ls»  deux  ami*  and  Tarare  are  distinct  dramas. 
All  these  works,  with  perhaps  the  exception 
of  Z<H  deux  ami*,  are  principally  devoted  to 
exceedingly  witty  attacks  on  the  old  regime, 
and  to  the  promulgation  of  Ideas  called  revo- 
Intionary  at  the  time  of  their  publication.  Be- 
sides dramas,  Beanmarchais  wrote  many  able 
arguments  and  pamphlets  connected  with  his 
suits  at  law,  and  a  celebrated  Justification  of 
his  conduct,  addressed  to  the  convention,  and 
called  Me*  *ix  ipoque*.  He  prepared,  at  enor- 
mous expense  end  great  loss  to  himself,  a  com- 
plete edition  of  the  works  of  Voltaire.  His 
own  works  were  published  by  Gudin  de  la 
Brenellerie  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1809,  and  B  vols., 
1821-'T);  and  memoirs  of  his  life  have  been 
written  for  that  edition  and  as  a  separate  work 
by  Cousin  d'Avallon  (Fie  privet,  pvbliqtie 
et  liUiraire  de  3*aumare/iai>,  Paris,  1802). 
See  also  Beaumareh^iii  et  ion  tempi,  &tadeg 
sur  la  eoeiiti  fraTtfaite,  he,  by  Louis  Leonard 
de  Lom^nie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  18GS ;  2d  ed.,  18G6). 
BEACMEUIe,  Uvnt  ImllTM  4e  la,  a  French 
author,  horn  at  Yalleraugue,  department  of 
Gord,  Jan.  28,  1738,  died  in  Park,  Nov.  17, 
1778.  He  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
Copenhagen,  and  while  there  wrote  Me*  pen- 


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430 


BEAUMONT 


tJM.  Something  in  this  work  greatlj  displeased 
Voltaire,  end.  when  Lft  Beaiunelle  returned  b> 
France  be  was  arrested  at  his  instigation,  and 
confioed  for  six  months  in  the  Bastile.  R«- 
Btored  to  liberty,  he  wrote  a  very  witty  pam- 
phlet in  answer  tA  an  attack  directed  against 
aim  by  Voitaire  during  hia  captivity,  in  the  snp' 

Slement  to  the  SUcle  de  Louu  XIV.,  and  then 
evoted  himself  to  the  oompoaition  of  hia  Ma- 
moire*  pour  ttrtir  d  rhittoire  de  Madame  de 
MainUrum,  which  was  pnbliahed  in  1766,  and 
received  with  marked  favor.  He  was  arrested 
a  second  time,  and  confined  again  for  more  than 
a  year  in  the  state  prison,  where  he  mode  a 
translation  of  Tocitns.  Some  time  aft«rward 
hie  warfare  with  Volture  was  renewed,  and 
La  Beanmelle  displayed  such  tact,  energy,  and 
wit,  that  he  sometimes  got  the  better  of  hia 
powerful  rivaL  At  last,  in  1770,  he  obtained 
permistrion  to  return  to  PoriB,  where  he  reeeiv ed 
an  appointment  as  assistant  in  tlie  royal  library, 
and  afterward  a  pennon.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  engaged  on  an  edition  of  Voltiure's 
works,  with  notes,  of  which  only  one  volume, 
the  Henriade,  was  finished.  Voltaire  caused 
it  to  be  anppressed,  bnt  there  is  an  edition  bj 
Frfiron,  with  changea  (1776). — His  son,  Viotoe 
LatrSENT  SoxANSB  Hoiss  (bom  in  1772,  died 
in  Rio  Janeiro  in  1831),  served  as  colonel  of 
ennoeers  in  the  army  of  Dom  Fedro,  and 
published  an  interesting  pamphlet  on  the  Bra- 
Qlian  empire,  besides  several  tracts  on  the  war 
with  8pam. 

BEAmONT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  defurt- 
ment  of  Ardennes,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Hease,  10  m.  6.  E.  of  Sedan;  pop.  1,306.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  battle  fought  in  its  neigh- 
borhood Aug.  80,  1870,  between  the  French 
forces  nnder  Mar^al  UacHahon  and  the  Ger- 
man army  nnder  the  crown  prince  of  Saxony; 
the  ol^ect  of  the  German  commander  being  to 
prevent  the  Junction  of  the  marshal's  troops 
with  those  of  Marahoi  Bazaine,  then  shut  up  in 
Metz.  The  battle  opened  with  the  snrpnae 
and  rout  of  tbe  French  fitUi  corps,  in  front  of 
Beamuont  Two  other  corps  were  aoon  en- 
g^d.  After  a  severe  struggle  the  Frasuans 
took  the  town,  and  drove  their  opponents 
across  the  Mease,  entirely  defeating  them.  By 
this  victory  the  great  end  was  gained  of  ena- 
bling the  Pruaaian  crown  prince  to  reSnforoe 
witbhiscommand  the  corps  nnder  the  prince  of 
Saxony ;  a  combination  so  strong  as  to  compel 
IheinmiediatesnrrenderoftheFrencb  at  Sedan. 
READHONT,  fete  4e.  Bee  ^Lta  ns  Beauudnt, 
BEAHnHTT,  Sir  Getrge  Hawlaid,  an  English 
patron  of  art,  born  at  hia  family  seat  in  Leices- 
tershire, Nov.  9,  1768,  died  Feb.  7,  1827.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  sabsequentlj  de- 
voted himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  stndy  of 
glinting  and  to  the  aollection  of  works  of  arL 
e  was  among  the  first  to  discover  and  en- 
courage the  genius  of  Wilkie,  some  of  whose 
finest  woAs  were  painted  for  him.  Tie  was 
instrumental  in  establishing  the  British  national 
gallery,  and,  as  an  inducement  to  parliament  to 


BEAtJMONT  AND  FLETCHER 

purchase  the  celebrated  Angerat^in  collection 
for  that  purpose,  presented  16  of  his  best  pic- 
tures to  the  collection. 

BEADHONT,  Sir  JsJM,  an  English  poet,  bom 
in  168S,  died  in  1B28.  He  was  the  elder 
brother  of  Francis  Beaamont,  the  dramatist, 
and  pabiished  first  a  poem  on  Bosworth  Field, 
and  then  a  small  volume  of  poems,  remarkable 
for  their  high  moral  tone.  He  also  wrote  a  poem 
called  "The  Crown  of  Thorns,"  in  8  books, 
which  is  lost.  Winstanley,  in  his  "Honor  of 
Parnassus,"  describes  Sir  John  Beaumont  aa 
one  of  "  the  great  souls  of  nnmbera," 

BGAinaNT,  WlffliH,  a  surgeon  in  the  U.  8. 
army,  horn  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  in  1796,  died  in 
St.  Lonis,  April  26,  186S.  He  is  principally 
noted  for  his  discoveries  regarding  the  laws  of 
digestion  resulting  from  his  experiments  npon 
the  body  of  Alexis  St.  Martin.  In  1S22  Beaa- 
mont was  stationed  at  Michilimaokinao,  Mich- 
igan. On  June  fl  St.  Martin,  a  yonng  man  18 
years  of  age,  in  the  service  of  the  American  fbr 
company,  was  accidentally  shot,  receiving  the 
whole  charge  of  a  musket  in^hia  left  side,  from 
a  distance  of  about  one  yard,  which  carried 
with  it  portions  of  his  clothing,  fractnred  two 
ribs,  lacerated  the  Inngs,  and  entered  the  stom- 
ach. Br.  Beaumont  restored  him  in  a  year  to 
good  health,  with  his  former  strength  and 
spirits,  thongh  the  aperture  in  his  body  was 
never  oloaed.  In  1826  Dr.  Beanmont  com- 
menced a  aeries  of  experiments  npon  the 
stomach  of  St.  Martin,  studying  its  operations, 
secretions,  the  action  of  the  gastric  jnioes,  Ac. ; 
these  experiments  he  renewed  at  various  in- 
tervals nntU  his  death,  his  patient  during  so 
many  years  presenting  the  remarkable  spec- 
tacle of  a  roan  eigoying  good  health,  appetite, 
and  spirits,  with  au  aperture  opening  into  his 
stomach  through  which  the  whole  action  of 
the  organ  might  be  observed.  The  result  of 
hia  ejiperiments  was  published  by  Dr.  Beaa- 
mont in  1888.  He  was  thus  the  first  who  ac- 
tually obtained  the  gastric  juice  in  the  haman 
subject,  and  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  its 
chemical  properties  and  digestive  powers. 
Previous  to  his  time  R6aumur  m  1TG2,  Stevens 
in  1777,  and  Spallanzani  in  1787  had  given 
evidence  to  show  that  digestion  must  be  ac- 
complished in  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  sol- 
vent fluid,  and  some  experimenters  had  even 
detected  certain  of  the  ingredients  of  this  fluid. 
But  Dr.  Beanmont  first  obtained  the  gastrio 
jnice  in  conaiderable  quantity,  and  ^owed 
tliat  it  had  the  power,  ontaide  the  body,  at 
proper  temperstnres,  of  iiquefying  and  dissolv- 
ing various  articles  of  food.  St.  Martin  is  still 
living  (18T2)  in  Oakdole,  Mass. 

BElliHONT  iHD  FLETGBEB,  two  English 
dramatista  and  poets,  whose  nnmea  are  in- 
separably connected  by  the  fact  that  they 
produced  their  works  jointly,  and,  without 
indicating  the  parts  written  by  each,  publish- 
ed them  nnder  their  united  names. — Fbakoib 
Beaitmont,  bom  at  Gracedien,  Leiceetersliire, 
about  1665,  died  in  1616.    He  was  the  ««m  of  » 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BE&UHOHT  Aim  FLETOHKR 

Jndgeof  the  common  pleai,  and  ADramberirfft 
tta^j  whifj)  bad  hdd  important  abit«  odces 
for  sereral  generatioiu.  In  1687  he  entered 
Oxford,  and  on  takine  his  degree  beoame  a 
student  of  law  in  the  Inner  Templ&  Bnt  he 
Defected  his  profeenon  for  literarj  poraaitB, 
in  which  he  became  almoRt  immediatet?  as- 
Mwiatad  with  Fletcher.  Of  Beaamont's  per- 
sonal historj  there  is  little  record.  He  married 
ga  161S,  it  is  believed)  Urania,  daughter  of 
enr;  Idej,  of  Simdridge,  Kent,  and  had  two 
danghtera,  who  appear  to  hare  aarvived  htm. 
He  died  when  not  quite  SD  years  old,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster.  The  idea  hinted  at  in 
an  epitaph  written  hj  BiBhop  Oorbit,  and  in  a 
etanza  hj  Beaumont's  brother,  tiist  he  had 
oanaed  his  earij  death  b^  too  great  literary 
labor,  seeniB  a  very  probable  one  when  we 
oonaider  the  long  list  of  works  to  each  of 
wbioh  be  most  have  contributed  Terr  largely. 
The  only  writings  which  he  is  believed  to  have 
prodnoed  alone  are  the  "Maaqoe  of  the  Inner 
Temple  and  Gray's  Inn,"  and  the  minor  poems 
in  the  colleotioo  of  his  and  Fletcher's  works, 
with  one  exception,  Fletcher's  "  Honest  Mao's 
Fortune,"  acoompanying  tlte  play  with  the  some 
title. — JoBT  Flbtohbi,  bom  in  IGTS,  died  in 
London  in  IflSS.  He  was  the  eon  of  Riohard 
Fletcher,  a  promment  eeolesiastio  who  was  dean 
of  Peterborough,  and  afterward  saocesdvely 
bishop  of  Bristol,  Worcester,  and  London. 
He  received  his  edncation  at  Cambridge,  but 
of  hia  personal  history  after  hia  graduation 
almost  nothing  is  known.  Ko  record  of  his 
marriage  has  bieen  found,  and  as  he  lived  as  a 
bachelor  with  his  IHend  Beaumont  nntil  the 
latter  took  a  wife,  at  which  time  Fletcher  was 
nearly  40,  there  is  a  f^r  pretumptJou  that  he 
died  unmarried.  The  slight  cloes  we  possess 
to  his  story  seem  to  show  that  he  spent  most 
■rf  his  life  in  London,  among  a  onnpany  of 
litwaiT  men  who,  as  was  apparency  the  case 
with  him  also,  wrote  for  bread,  and  assisted 
each  other  in  both  pecnniary  and  Uterair  mat- 
ters, forming  a  kind  of  brotherhood. '  Allnrions 
in  Beaumont's  "Letter  to  Ben  Jonaon"  show 
that  he  and  Fletcher  were  among  the  otrole 
of  wits  of  the  famons  Uermaid  tavern. — The 
collected  works  of  the  two  poeta  consist,  be- 
sides the  writings  named  above  ae  attributed 
to  Beaomont  eielosively,  of  S2  plays.  Of 
tiieee  Fletcher  is  CMimdoKd  by  good  antborities 
to  have  written  18  nnaided,  probably  either 
before  Beanmont  Joined  htm  or  after  the  lat- 
ter's  death.  The  chief  among  those  which 
were  the  joint  prodneUons  of  Uie  two  friends 
are  "The  Haid's  Tragedy"  (represented  sbont 
1810,  and  often  considered  the  best  of  all  their 
dramas),  "King  and  No  King,"  and  "Phi- 
laster."  Of  those  oonudered  the  sole  work  of 
Fletcher,  "The  Faithftil  Shepherdess"  is  es- 
pedally  famona  for  the  grace  and  delicacy  of 
Its  verse.  Tbe  plays  are  somewhat  disflgnred 
for  modem  readers  by  the  lioentions  langnAge 
which  tbe  time  of  their  prodnotion  permitted  ; 
hot  they  abound  in  strong  and  b«aatifnl  con- 
80  VOL.  u.— 28 


BEADBEOASD 


431 


ceptlons,  and  is  examples  of  a  literary  ^yle 
which  baa  been  held  superior  to  that  of  Ben 
JonsMi,  and  has  even  given  rise  to  an  inge- 
nionsly  defended  theory  that  Shakespeare  aided 
in  e<xnposing  two  or  three  of  tbe  dramas. 

tUtaWft  BE  U  BOMIliKE,  CMtave  l^nto 
de,  a  French  advocate  and  writer,  bom  in  the 
department  of  Sarlbe,  Feb.  16,  1803,  died  at 
Tours,  March  a,  1866.  In  1891  he  was  sent 
with  Aleiis  de  Tocqueville  to  the  United  States 
to  make  inquiry  into  the  penitentiary  system; 
and  the  result  of  their  visit  was  a  report,  Du 
tj/ttime  piaitentiaire  atee  Stati-lTnii  et  dt  ton 
mplieation  en  France.  Bemdes  this  work, 
Beaumont  produced  a  kind  of  novel,  Marie,  ov 
de  Teeelanage  aia  State-  Unit,  which  has  been 
translated  and  reprinted  in  this  coimtry.  In 
1689  he  pnblished  L'lrlande  politique,  lociaU 
et  reliffieute,  which  was  rewarded,  as  well  as 
the  preceding  work,  with  the  Monthyon  price 
of  the  French  institute.  In  1840  Beaumont 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  sided 
with  the  Bo-called  dynastic  opposition,  and  fa- 
vored electoral  reform  in  1847.  In  the  oon- 
Btitnent  assembly  in  1848  he  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  on  foreign  affairs.  Qen.  Gavai- 
gnao  appointed  lum  ambassador  to  England, 
which  poeiti on  he  resigned  on  the  election  of 
Louis  Napoleon  as  president  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislative  assembly,  where  he  did  not 
play  a  conspicuous  part,  and  after  the  eovp 
d'itat  of  December,  1851,  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment In  1886  he  married  his  oonsln,  a  grand- 
dau^ter  of  Gen.  I^afayette. 

BEiCIIB,  an  old  town  of  Burgnndy,  France, 
department  of  G6te  d'Or,  38  m.  8.  8.  W.  of 
Dnon,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  which  produces  ex- 
cellent wine;  pop.  in  1866,  10,907.  Its  most 
remukable  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  founded  by  Duke  Henry  of  Bnr- 
gnndy  in  9T6,  and  the  boapital,  founded  by 
Chancellor  Rollin  in  144a.  Before  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes  Beanne  was  among 
the  leading  mannfaotnring  citiea  of  eastern 
France;  it  still  produces  cloth,  cntl^,  leatiier, 
vinegar,  casks,  ice,  but  its  aotnal  importance 
is  mostiy  derived  from  its  wine  trade,  which  is 
considerable.  It  was  anciently  fortified.  Ear- 
ly in  1871  the  town  was  repeatedly  occupied 
by  the  Germane  under  Gen.  von  Werder. 

BUGNE-LA^BOUNDE,  a  village  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Loiret,  on  the  road  leading 
ft^nn  Montsi^  to  Rthiviers,  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  forest  of  Orleans;  pop.  in  1868, 
1,963.  On  Nov.  28,  1870.  a  battle  was  fought 
here  between  the  lOtb  German  army  corps, 
belonging  to  the  army  of  Prince  Frederick 
OharW  and  the  French  army  of  the  Loire, 
under  Aureile  de  Paladines.  The  latter,  who 
were  the  BssailontB,  HOstained  a  loss  of  7,000, 
and  fell  back  to  their  fortified  lines  before 
Orleans. 

BEllfSEGiBD,  Plcm  Gvtave  Teitaat,  an  Amer- 
ican general,  bom  near  New  Orleans  about 
1817.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
In  the  Mexican  war  he  earned  the  brevet  rank 


Digitized  byGoOgIC 


432  BEAUEEPAIRE-KOHAN 

of  captain  at  Gontreraa  iud  Cburabnsco,  and 
of  miuor  at  Chapultepeo,  where  he  wu  twice 
WQcnued.  Id  18SS  he  was  mode  captain  in 
the  corps  of  engineerB,  From  1849  to  1860 
he  waa  stationed  muiilT  at  New  Orieana, 
where  he  had  the  general  cbar^  of  the  con- 
iitniction  of  the  mint,  onstom  hoiue,  and  ma- 
rine hospital,  as  well  as  of  the  engmeering 
operations  on  the  lower  MiEeissippi  and  the 
gulf.  In  January,  18SI,  be  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  military  academy  at  West 
Point ;  but  in  less  than  a  month  he  reaigned 
his  oonunissioQ  in  the  army,  and  rec^ved  the 
rank  of  brigadier  (i^neral  fW)m  the  southern 
confederate  government.  He  condncted  the 
attack  Qpon  Fort  Snmter,  and  was  afterward 
sent  to  Virginia,  where  he  virtaally  com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Bull  Bun ;  Gen.  J.  E. 
Johnston,  who  outranked  him,  having  just 
come  upon  tlie  field,  and  adopting  his  plan 
of  operalionB.  In  the  spring  of  18t)2  he  was 
sent  to  the  west  as  second  in  command  of  the 
department  of  Tenneeaee.  Gen.  A.  8.  John- 
ston having  been  killed  early  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  or  Pittsburgh  Landing,  April  S,  Bean- 
regard  took  the  command,  and  gained  a  con- 
mderable  ancccsa ;  bnt  the  next  day,  Oen.  Bnell 
having  in  the  night  joined  Geo.  Grant,  he  waa 
worsted  and  forced  to  abandon  the  field.  He 
retired  to  the  fortified  position  at  Corinth, 
which  be  strengthened  and  beld  against  Oen, 
Halleok  to  the  end  of  May.  liis  healti)  soon 
i^er  failing,  he  was  for  a  time  relieved  from 
active  service,  but  was  afterward  placed  in 
command  at  Charleston,  which  he  aucceaafbUy 
defended  throughont  the  year  1863,  repelling 
the  attacks  nnder  Gen.  Gillmore  and  Admiral 
Bidilgren.     In    1864,  when    Grant   was    ap- 

Eroaching  Richmond,  Beauregard  held  Petere- 
urg  until  the  arrival  of  Lee  at  Richmond, 
■peedlly  checking  the  advance  of  Gen,  Butler. 
In  the  antamn  of  1864  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  the  west,  and  made 
stfcnnons  but  nnavailing  efforts  to  prevent 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  An«r  the  oloae 
of  the  war,  in  which  be  attuned  the  highest 
rank  in  the  confederate  service,  that  of  tvii  gen- 
eral, he  took  up  hia  rendence  at  New  Orleans. 
BEICREPUEE-BOHAV,  Btari  At,  a  Brazilian 
traveller,  of  French  origin,  bom  in  Picardy 
aboutieie.  He  explored  Paraeuay  in  1846-'6, 
viAted  Bonpland  at  Boija,  and  published  J)e- 
terippda  de  uraa  viagera  de  Cayaba  ao  Rio  de 
Janeiro  (Rio,  1846).  Promoted  in  ISGO  to  the 
rank  of  m^or  of  engineers,  and  charged  by 
the  government  with  the  exploration  of  cen- 
tral Brazil,  he  has  since  published  several  new 
works  on  the  geography  and  history  of  parts 
of  that  empire. 

BEAUSOBBE,  Inac  de,  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  bom  at  Niort  in  Poitou  in  1669, 
died  in  Berlin  in  1788.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  academy  of  Sauraur,  and  was  ordained  by 
the  ayaod  of  T,«iidnn  in  168S.  He  asanmed 
the  charge  of  the  Calviniat  church  at  Ohfttillon- 
sarrlndre,  and  waa  obliged  to  close  his  place 


BEATJTEMPS-BEADPBfi 

of  worship  npon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  in  1683,  bat  continued  to  hold  meet- 
ings of  hia  congregation  at  bis  own  honse  nntil 
threats  of  imprisonment  compelled  him  to  leave 
Franoe.  He  took  refage  in  tloUand,  where  he 
waa  appointed  privat*  chaplain  to  the  princess 
of  An  halt-Dessau,  a  daughter  of  the  dowager 

Srinceas  of  Orange.  On  the  deatli  of  the  hus- 
ond  of  his  patroness,  he  changed  his  residence 
to  Berlin  in  16S4,  and  waa  appointed  paator  of 
a  French  Proteatant  church  tlicre,  and  in  1707 
a  member  of  the  consistory,  a  position  which 
be  held  till  his  death.  He  also  acted  for  many 
years  aa  inspector  of  the  French  achools  and 
churches  of  the  city.  He  was  the  principal 
contributor  to  the  Bibliothigva  allemande,  M- 
gun  in  1720,  of  which  00  volumes  were  pnb- 
lisbed,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Jtmr- 


"  Defence  of  the  Dootnnes  of  die  Reformers  " 
(IGM);  an  anfinished  history  of  the  reforma- 
tion (Beriin,  17B6;  translated  into  Eo^ish, 
1S02) ;  with  L'Enfant,  a  French  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  (Amsterdam,  1718),  and 
tworolnmesof  oommentarieanpon  it.  Amorg 
bis  nnmerous  historical  and  theoli^cal  worka 
of  leas  importance  are  his  Suloirt  de  ilanit^ie 
et  dv  Maniekiuine  (Amsterdam,  17S4-''9),  and 
SuppUment  A  ChitUArt  det  ffvMaiter  (Lansanne, 
174C).  His  sermona  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished after  his  death  (Sd  ed.,  4  vols.,  Laasanne, 
1768).  , 

BElITEMPS-BEirPBE,  ChariM  Fraafris,  a 
French  hydrographer,  bom  at  Neoville-an- 
Pont,  near  Ste.  Menehould,  in  1760,  died  in 
1864.  Be  studied  engineering  and  geography 
at  tiie  depot  of  marine  charts  and  plans,  of 
which  hia  cousin  Baache  was  the  chief.  At 
the  early  age  of  1 S  he  waa  made  a  government 
engineer,  and  received  a  commiaaon  to  revise 
thechartaoftbe  "Neptune  of  the  Baltic."  He 
was  rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1791  acted  as  first 
hydrographer  to  the  expedition  sent  out  un- 
der D^ntrecaateani  to  search  for  La  Pironse. 
He  made  a  very  accurate  and  valuable  set  of 
charta  of  all  the  regions  visited  by  the  fleet 
On  his  return  in  1796  he  completed  his  Allot 
de  la  Baltigu»,  begun  some  tmie  before,  and 
at  the  order  of  the  government  piepared  a 
general  hydrographio  chart  to  be  used  by  the 
French  expedition  then  about  to  circumnavi- 
gate the  globe.  He  was  now  promoted  to  th« 
pontion  o[  assistant  to  the  chief  of  the  marine 
department,  and  for  six  years constantiy  labored 
in  oonneotion  with  the  surveys  undertaken  by 
this  branch  of  the  service.  He  made  during 
this  period  many  of  the  most  valuable  of  the 
French  charts — among  them  those  of  the  E. 
coaat  of  the  Adriatic.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  institute.  In  1811  he  made 
valuable  hydrographio  surveys  of  the  coast 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  ;  and  the  German 
engineers  recognized  hia  aervice  to  science  by 
m^ing  him  in  1816  a  member  of  the  royal 
society  of  Gdttingen.     In  1814  he  was  ap- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BEAUTY 

poiDtod  chief  of  his  departanenL    In  1815  h« 

made  A  oompleta  aurver  of  the  ooMts  of  France, 
one  of  the  moat  valuable  worlu  of  his  life.  The 
works  ahoTO  named  are  those  by  which  he  is 
beat  known ;  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  de- 
voted to  their  constant  revieion  and  improve- 
Dient,  and  to  the  doties  of  his  department  He 
also  edited  Le  piloU  /ranfaitf  the  sixth  vol- 
ume appearing  in  1844.  He  was  called  in  Eng- 
land "the  father  of  liydrographj." 

BEIDTY.    Bee  iBerKKTina. 

lElDVAIS  (ano.  Caiaromairu*),  a  city  of 
France,  o«)itaI  of  the  department  of  Oiee,  sit- 
uated on  the  Th^rain,  40  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Paris; 
pop.  in  1866,  15,307.  When  the  Romans  in- 
vaded Qaol,  it  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Uello- 
vaci.  It  became  early  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
the  holder  of  which  was  one  of  the  12  peers  of 
France  onder  the  Capetian  kings.  The  English 
made  aa  nnHncoeasful  assault  on  the  city  in 
14H3,  bat  they  held  the  snrronnding  country, 
and  it  was  Herre  Cauchon,  bishop  of  Bean. 
vtus,  who  pronounced  the  sentence  of  death 
upon  Joan  of  Are,  In  1472  the  city,  being  be- 
nched by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  ot  Burgundy, 
was  coarageonsly  defended  by  its  inhabitants, 
among  whom  a  woman,  Jeanne  Lain^  oele- 
bratea  ander  the  name  tn  Jeanne  la  Hacliette, 
distinguished  herself  by  her  intrepidity.  Her 
statue  was  set  dd  in  the  city  in  1861.  The  an- 
cient ramparts  nave  been  partly  levelled  and 
converted  into  promenades.  The  cathedral  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  France,  and  iu  choir  is  a 
masterpiece  of  Gothic  architecture ;  the  church 
of  St.  Etieune  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  re> 
Daiasance  style,  and  contdns  famous  sculptores 
and  stained  windows.  The  abbey  chnmh,  prior 
to  the  revolution,  contained  statues  of  all  the 
Uerovinglan  kings.  The  city  has  important 
mannfactores,  especially  in  sUks,  carpets,  and 
tapestries. 

BEIDTAIS,  Charics  nftdwe,  a  French  zen- 
eralj  born  in  Orleans,  Nov.  8,  1773,  died  in 
Pans  in  1830.  He  entered  the  army  aa  a  pri- 
vate, rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  adjutant  gen- 
eral, went  to  Egypt  with  Bonaparte,  but  re- 
fflgned  on  acooant  of  some  disagreement  with 
his  chiei^  and  while  returning  t«  France  was 
made  prisoner  by  a  oorsur  and  taken  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  was  detained  for  18 
months.  Ue  reentered  the  army  in  1809, 
served  in  Spain,  waa  afterward  sent  to  the 
Khiue.  oommanded  at  Bayonne  in  1816,  and 
was  dlemissed  on  the  second  retnra  of  the 
Bourbons.  He  then  devoted  himaelf  to  liter- 
ary pnrsDits,  compiled  a  popnlor  publication, 
Vietoire*  et  eonq'oiUt  da  ^angau  (28  vols., 
1817  et  teq.),  and  edited  the  CorretpoTidanM 
offieielle  et  eo7\fid«atielle  de  NapoUia  Bona- 
parte asee  lei  court  itrangire*  (7  vol*.  8vo, 
181B-'20). 

BElVTlt,  de,  an  ancient  French  family  of 
Aiyon. — Rssi  aided  Duke  Ren6  of  Ai^oD  in  the 
conquest  of  Naples,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Benevento  in  I3G6. — Locis  co- 
operated in  the  reoonquest  of  Normandy  from 


BEAVER 


433 


the  English,  144fl-'50,  and  died  in  1462.— Bee- 
TBAND,  who  died  in  1474,  was  one  of  the  cuun- 
sellors  of  Charles  VIl.  and  hoais  SI.,  and  was 
frequently  employed  in  diplomatic  missions. — 
RENfi  FEANQOia,  bom  in  16M,  was  bishop  of 
Toumay,  and  daring  the  siege  of  that  city  by 
Prince  Eugene  was  distinguished  for  his  char- 
ity. He  was  president  of  the  states  of  Langue- 
doc  over  20  years,  and  patronized  many  learn- 
ed publications  relating  to  that  part  of  France. 
He  died  Aug.  4,  17S9. — Chablsb  Juste,  born 
at  LunSville,  Sept  10, 1720,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Prague  in  1742,  and  in 
varioos  subsequent  engagements,  especially  at 
Corbach  in  1760.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  academy,  governor  of  Provence,  and  mar- 
shal, and  was  lor  five  months  in  1789  a  member 
of  the  cabinet  of  Louis  XVI.  He  died  May  3, 
1798. 

BEADTOB,  iBtntae  Hiile  Fmctli  JMepb  PaH- 
Nt  de.  ^e  pAuaoT. 

BEICZEE,  Nltalis,  a  French  grammarian,  born 
In  Verdun,  May  B,  1717,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  28, 
1789.  Declining  employment  under  Frederick 
the  Great,  he  suoceeded  Dnmarsais  in  prepar- 
ing grammatical  articles  for  the  great  Eneyelo- 
pedie,  which,  together  with  those  of  Marmon- 
tel,  were  separately  published  in  1789  (Ji  vols., 
Li^),  under  the  title  of  DictionvMirt  it  gram- 
maire  et  de  litUrature.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  waa  professor  at  the  royal  military 
school  in  Paris.  His  most  important  work  is 
Qrammaire  geniraU  (2  vols.,  1767;  new  ed., 
1619).  Among  his  other  works  are  translations 
of  S^lust  (1770)  and  of  the  "  Imitation  of  Jesus 
Christ"  (1788). 

BEATS  (ea*U>r,  Gnv.),  a  fhr-bearing  amphib- 
ions  animal,  of  the  rodent  or  gnawing  order 
{rodantia).  The  beaver  has  the  head  com- 
pressed, with  an  unbroken  line  of  profile  irom 
occiput  to  mnzde;  9  large  incisors  and  8 
molars  in  each  jaw,  with  large  and  powerful 
muscles  regnladng  the  movements  of  the  in- 
ferior jaw ;  eyes  disproportionately  small  and 
vision  of  short  range ;  ears  small,  hut  hearing 
very  acnte ;  sense  of  smell  powerM ;  body 
short  between  the  fore  and  bind  lags,  broad, 
heavy,  and  clomsy ;  length  when  full  grown, 
from  tip  of  nose  to  end  of  tul,  8  ft.  6  or  8  in. ; 
weight  from  80  to  60  lbs. ;  color  reddish  (in 
some  localities  yellowish)  brown,  in  rare  instan- 
ces black,  and  a  few  albinos  or  white  beavere 
have  been  found.  The  fore  feet  of  the  beaver 
are  digitigrade,  and  the  hind  ones  plantigrade. 
The  paws  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  animal, 
and  compared  with  the  nind  feet ;  in  swim- 
ming they  are  not  used,  and  are  folded  nnder 
the  body  ;  but  they  are  capable  of  some  rotary 
movement,  which  enables  the  beaver  to  handle 
and  carry  sticks,  limbs  of  trees,  mud,  and 
stones,  and  to  use  his  paws  as  hands  while  sit- 
ting np  or  walking  on  bis  hind  legs.  The  bind 
legs  are  the  propelling  power  in  swimmii^, 
and  the  feet  are  fnlly  webbed  to  the  roots  of 
the  claws.  The  most  conspicuous  oi^n,  the 
tail,  is  from  10}  to  Hi  in.  long,  6i  in.  broad. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


nearly  flat,  straight,  and  covered  forthe  length 
of  9  or  10  in.  with  black  horoT  Bcales,  and  is  at- 
tached by  strong  musclea  to  a  posterior  projec- 


tion. The  common  error  that  the  t^l  is  the 
beaver's  trowel  is  confiited  by  the  fact  that  the 
animal  always  nses  nind  and  sotl  earth  as  mor- 
tar ;  bnt  it  serves  as  a  pounder  to  pack  road 
and  earth  in  constracting  lodg«s  and  daraa,  ie 
used  in  swimming  as  a  scull,  elevHt«s  or  de- 
presses the  head,,  turns  the  body,  assists  in  div- 
ing, and  by  striking  a  powerfiil  blow,  the  re- 
port of  which  can  be  heard  at  the  distance  of 
a  half  miie,  it  gives  an  alarm ;  while  the  strong 
mascles  enable  the  beaver  when  standing  erect 
to  use  the.  tail  as  a  prop.  Beaverv  are  mono- 
tremes,  and  dissection  is  necessary  to  distin- 
gaish  the  sex.  The  female  brings  forth  from  2 
to  0  yonng  in  May,  and  weans  them  in  S  weeks. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  from  19  to  16  weeks, 
and  the  beaver  lives  l  from  13  to  16  years. 
Water  is  the  natnral  element  of  the  beaver, 
and  its  movements  on  land  are  awkward  and 
slow.  For  commercial  pnrposes,  besides  its 
fbr,  the  beaver  furnishes  castoremn,  a  secretion 
used  in  medicine  as  an  anti-spasmodio,  and  its 
ttesh  is  mnch  esteemed  as  food  by  trappers  aod 
Indians. -~The  beaver  is  social,  pairs  and  brings 
np  a  family  to  maturity,  and  sometimes  two  or 
more  families  inhabit  the  same  pond.  The 
common  snppoation  that  beavers  live  In  vil- 
lages or  colonies  is  erroneous.  All  the  inhabi- 
tants may  assist  in  constructing  or  repairing 
the  common  dam,  bat  each  family  has  its  own 
lodge  and  burrows,  and  lays  in  its  own  supply 
of  provisions  for  the  winter.  As  their  work  is 
carried  on  by  night,  little  is  actually  known  of 
their  method  except  fVom  the  examination  of 
what  they  effect.  They  only  build  dams  when 
they  have  cho<ien  the  site  of  their  settlements 
on  running  streams  which  do  not  afford  a 
snfHcient  depth  of  water  to  be  secure  against 
freezing  in  winter ;  and  this  they  do  by  cutting 
down  trees,  invariably  up  stream  of  the  place 
selected  for  their  weir,  so  that  the  current 
may  bear  them  down  toward  the  site.  The 
trees  which  they  thns  cut  down  with  their 
fore  teeth  are  often  five  or  six  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Where  the  current  is  gentle,  the  dam 
is  carried  horizontally  across;  hnt  where  the 


water  runs  swiftly,  it  is  built  with  an  angle  or 
convex  carve  up  stream.  These  materials  rest 
on  the  bottom,  where  they  are  mixed  with 
mud  and  stones  by  the  besvera,  and  still  more 
solidly  secured  by  the  depont  of  soil  carried 
down  by  the  stream,  ana  by  the  occasional 
rooting  of  the  small  willow,  birch,  and  poplar 
trees,  which  they  prefer  for  their  work,  in  the 
soil  at  the  bottom.  Their  bouses  or  lodges, 
seldom  made  to  contain  more  than  fonrold  and 
six  or  eight  young  beavera,  are  very  mdelv 
built;  sticks,  stones,  mnd,  and  all  the  materials 
nsed  in  constructing  the  dam,  are  piled  horizon- 
tally, with  no  method  beyond  that  of  leaving  a 
cavity  in  the  centre.  There  Ie  no  driving  in  of 
piles,  wattling  of  fences,  and  mud  plastering, 
as  described ;  and  when  leaves  or  grass  are  in- 
terwoven, it  is  done  casually,  not  to  bind  the 
mortar,  as  men  apply  hair  for  that  purpose. 
The  beaver  conveys  the  matorials  between  his 
fore  paws  and  chin,  arranges  them  with  his 


DMter  LodgM  sad  Dun. 

fhre  feet,  and  when  a  portion  is  placed  as  he 
wishes  it,  he  turns  about  and  gives  it  a  slap 
with  his  tail.  En  the  breeding  season,  and  in 
early  summer,  the  beavers  do  not  live  in  their 
houses,  nor  in  communities,  but  only  become 
gregarious  in  the  winter,  and  when  preparing 
for  it.  They  begin  to  build  ordniarily  in  the 
latter  part  of  August,  although  they  sometimes 
fell  their  timber  earlier  in  the  summer;  but 
their  houses  are  not  finished  and  plastered  nn- 
ti!  late  in  the  season,  when  the  freezing  of  the 
mud  and  water  as  the  material  is  laid  on  adds 
much  to  the  security  of  the  beavers  against  the 
wolverene  or  glutton,  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  man,  is  their  worst  enemy.  The  food 
of  the  Iwaver  consists  of  the  bark  of  the  aspen, 
willow,  birch,  poplar,  and  alder,  of  whicn  it 
lays  up  in  summer  a  stock  for  the  winter, 
on  the  bank  opposite  its  lodges ;  but  unless 
compelled  by  necessity,  it  avoids  the  resinous 
evet^eens,  such  as  the  pine  and  hemlock. 
The  beaver  is  easily  doroesticsted,  and  b«- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


oomea  very  tame. — The  babitat  of  the  Amer- 
ioan  beaver  formerly  extended  twai  the  Arctic 
eea  to  the  golf  of  Mexico ;  the?  were  foond 
iD  the  greateit  number  near  Hudgon  bay, 
on  the  BnoreB  of  Lake  Superior,  at  the  betui 
waters  of  the  Uisuesippi,  and  on  the  Yokon, 
Haokenzie,  Frazer,  and  SiLcramento  rivers. 
During  the  eolooial  period  beavers  were  abun- 
dant in  New  England,  New  York,  to  some 
extent  in  the  Ganadaa,  and  on  the  margins  of 
rivers  throughout  the  aonth ;  they  are  still 
seen,  bat  rarelj,  in  Maine,  New  York,  and  Vir- 
ginia. Colonization,  which  the  beaver,  hooted 
for  its  fur,  in  no  small  degree  induced  in  some 
regions,  contracted  its  habitat;  later  trapping 
and  hoQtiog  has  oompletel;  exterminated  the 
animal  in  rcfpons  where  it  once  was  abundant, 
and  it  is  now  found  only  in  the  Hodaon  Bay- 
territory,  in  the  Oanadas,  in  upper  Michigan, 
on  tbe  upper  MlHouri,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Washington,  Nevada,  California,  and  Oregon. 
The  colonists  and  the  Indians  pursued  the 
beaver  hont  with  snch  rapacity  aa  to  eitwmi- 
nate  the  animal,  in  regions  within  reach,  and  as 
early  aa  ITOO  beaver  bMds  were  no  longer  ex- 
ported from  New  England,  Nuw  York,  and  the 
middle  Kates.  Settlement  and  hunting  at  the 
west  have  driven  beavers  within  a  narrower 
drde ;  and  the  hunter's  ingenuity  in  traps  and 
scent  baits,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  habits  of 
the  animal,  soon  results  in  thie  capture  of  nearly 
every  heaver  in  the  hunted  region.  The  trap- 
ping season  benns  in  November  and  ends  m 
Haroh,  but  the  nunt  is  pnrsoed  throughout  the 
year,  in  spring,  summer,  and  fall  on  Oie  dams, 
and  in  winter  through  the  ioe.  A  trapper 
manages  from  50  to  TO  traps  in  a  oircnit  of  80 
or  40  miles ;  and  on  the  8.  shore  of  Lake  Su- 
perior an  Indian  family  of  four  good  trappers 
will  take  from  75  to  160  boavere  in  a  season. 
Of  late  years  the  substitution  of  silk  forfur  for 
hate,  and  the  conaaqnent  decline  in  the  value 
i>t  the  skins,  have  oanaed  a  relaxation  of  the 
hnnt  and  some  inorease  in  the  numbera  of  the 
animal  on  the  upper  Misnswppi  and  around 
1^0  Buperior.  A  regulation  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  company  compels  an  interval  of  Sve  years 
in  a  beaver  distriot  after  a  season's  bunt  before 
tr^ping  is  resumed ;  but  it  b  not  possiblo  for 
the  beaver  to  recover  its  former  numbers  in 
any  region.  There  was,  however,  an  increased 
activity  in  trapping  and  in  the  trade  in  1871, 
occasioned  by  uie  of  tlie  fnr  in  Rusua  and  on 
the  continent  for  trimmings  for  ladies'  wear, 
and  for  men's  gloves  and  collars ;  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1672,  there  was  an  advance  of  35  per  cent. 
over  the  prices  in  1871.  The  extent  of  this  fur 
trade  may  he  estimated  from  tlie  following  sta- 
tistics :  In  18M  the  Dutch  West  India  company 
b^an  t|ie  trade  in  America  by  exporting  Irom 
New  Amsterdam  400  skins ;  from  1825  to  1635, 
81,188  skins  were  exported ;  in  1748  the  Hud- 
son Bay  company  exported  150,000  skins;  du- 
ring the  years  1854,  1855,  and  16GS  this  com- 
pany aold  in  London  627,665  beaver  skins,  a 
portion  of  the  drat  sales  being  the  accnmulation 


VER  435 

of  previous  years.    In  ISTl  the  London  sales 

of  the  Hudson  Bay  company  were  124,688 
skins,  but  probably  the  entire  soles  abroad 
were  150,000  skins,  to  which  must  be  addeil 
25,000  skins  in  the  United  States,  making  the 
production  for  the  year  in  the  United  States, 
at  Hudson  bay,  and  on  the  Columbia  river, 
175,000  skins.  From  January  I  to  March  8, 
1ST2,  the  Hudson  Bay  company  sold  in  three 
auctions  in  London  85,510  skins.  During  the 
Dutch  occupation  of  New  Amsterdam  pelts 
were  worth  about  $2  36,  and  were  used  as  part 
of  the  currency;  in  1820  on  the  upper  Mis- 
souri beaver  skins  were  worth  {T  and  $8  per 
Eound;  in  the  same  locality  in  1862  they 
rou^t  tl  26,  and  in  1868  $2  per  pound.  In 
1872  the  price  in  London  was  from  10».  to  84t, 
per  skin,  according  to  color  and  size,  and  $4 
gold  for  the  best  skins  in  the  United  States; 
for  cub  skins  8«.  to  It.  sterlii^  The  lai^ 
skins  weigh  from  H  to  2  lbs. — The  European 
beaver  was  once  found  in  the  British  iflan'is, 
in  all  parts  of  tlie  continent,  in  Siberia,  and 
in  A«a  Minor,  It  is  now  eiUoct,  except  in 
rarely  found  solitary  purs  on  some  of  the 
rivers,  snch  as  the  Rhine,  BhOne,  and  Dannbe, 
and  in  Siberia.  The  European  is  a  larger  ani- 
mal than  the  American  beaver,  with  a  paler- 
cciored  fur;  and,  though  probably  not  a  dis- 
tinct speciOs,  its  habits  are  different.  It  is 
solitary,  not  gregarious,  and  generally  lives  in 
burrows  instead  of  constmctiug  lodges  and 
dams, — See  "  The  American  Beaver  and  his 
Works,"  by  LewU  H.  Morgan  (Svo,  Phila- 
delphia, 1868). 

SEITEK.  J.  A  W,  connty  of  Pennsylvania, 
bordering  on  Ohio,  and  intersected  by  the 
Ohio  and  Beaver  rivers;  area,  660  sq.m.;  pop. 
in  ISTO,  36,178.  The  soil  near  the  streams 
is  remarkably  fertile.  The  sorfeoe  is  undulating, 

in  some  places  covered  with  extensive  for- 
BituminoUB  coal  and  limestone  are  abun- 
dant The  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chi- 
cago, and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Cleveland  rail- 
roads traverse  the  county.  The  ohief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  174,508  bushels  of  wheat, 
68,800  of  rye,  414,238  of  Indian  com,  532,625 
of  oate,  21,540  of  barley,  198,425  of  potatoes, 
80.224  tons  of  hay,  036,107  lbs.  of  butter,  and 
421,907  of  wooL      There  were  5,882  horses, 

I  milch  0OW8,  6,702  other  cattle,  88,800 
sheep^and  12,092  strine.  Capit^  Bearer.  II. 
A  S. «.  county  of  Utah,  bordering  on  Nevada, 
and  intersected  by  Sevier  river;  area,  about 
8,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,007.  The  Wah- 
sotch  mountains  lie  along  the  E.  border,  and  a 

ion  of  PreusB  lake  is  in  the  N.  W.  part 

«  is  some  good  farming  land,  and  depouta 
of  iron,  lead,  and  silver  are  found,  and  hare 
been  aomewhat  mined,  Oapitol,  Beaver  City, 
BGlTim,  PhUr,  an  English  navigator  and 
philanthropist,  horn  Feb,  28,  1T60,  died  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  April  5,  1813.  He  served 
1  the  royal  navy  dnring  the  war  of  the  Amer- 
:an  revolution,  and  alter  the  peace  organized 
an  association  to  found  a  colony  in  Africa  for 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


436  BEAVEB  HEAD 

cultivating  the  soil  bf  free  labor  and  dTQirang 
the  neKToea.  He  left  England  April  18, 1792, 
with  thT««  eliipa  and  2TS  white  colooists,  for 

Bukma  island,  on  the  W.  coast  of  AMoa.  The 
expedition  proTcda  failure.  Witbiii  four  months 
more  than  a  third  of  the  ooloniata  had  died  bj 
fever,  andmore  than  half  thesarTivoreretamed 
toEnKtand.  Beaver  himself,  thuagh  often  pros- 
trated by  ferer,  persevered  in  the  enterprise; 
but,  unable  to  revive  the  spirit  of  the  oolonista, 
he  departed  with  them  for  Sierra  Leone,  Nov. 
2S,  179S,  and  in  Uay,  1794,  reached  England 
with  only  one  of  hie  original  companions.  The 
abaroholdere  of  the  association,  in  spite  of  their 
losses,  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal  for 
his  disintereetfid  and  resolute  conduct  He  pnb< 
Ushed  a  narrative  of  his  eiperienoes  entitled 
"  African  Memoranda."  Subsequently  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Aberorombie  in  Egypt 
in  1801,  and  in  the  capture  of  the  Isle  of  France 
in  1810.  In  1818  he  cruised  in  the  Indian  ocean 
in  command  of  the  frigate  Nisus. 

BElVfZ  HEAD,  a  B.  W.  county  of  Montana 
territory,  separated  on  the  8.  and  V.  from 
Idaho  by  the  Rocky  mountains  and  bounded 
JS.  by  the  Big  Hole  mountain ;  area,  4,250  sq. 
m.;  pop.  In  1870,  722.  Alfiaente  of  Jefferson 
river,  one  of  the  head  streama  of  the  Missouri, 
take  their  rise  in  this  county.  The  surface  is 
very  monutainous.  The  county  contains  three 
quartz  mills  for  the  production  of  gold  and  a 
saw  roiJL    Capital,  Bannock. 

BEAVEB  IlfDUNS,  a  branch  of  the  Cfaipe- 
wyans,  belonging  to  the  Athabascan  family, 
They  inhabit  a  beautifHil  district  on  the  Peace 
river,  and  are  allied  with  the  Manvais  Uonde. 
Their  dialect  differs  somewhat  tVom  the  Chipe- 
wyan.  They  are  gay,  imnrovident,  and  given 
to  gambling. — A  tnbe  of  the  Algtokquin  family, 
called  in  early  French  accounts  Amikouek  or 
Beaver  Indians,  lay  north  of  Hsnitouline  island 
on  the  banks  of  Lake  Huron.  They  were  also 
called  Kei  Percys,  a  name  subsequently  given 
to  an  Oregon  tribe. 

BEiVEK  ISLUDS,  a  gronp  in  Lake  Hich^an, 
near  its  N.  extremity,  and  having  one  iriand 
of  considerabie  extent  (40  sq.  m.),  called  Big 
Beaver.  After  their  expulrion  from  Nauvoo,  a 
dissenting  branch  of  the  Mormons  established 
themselves  there  under  Joaenh  Strang. 

BEIZLET,  StMMl,  an  English  architect  and 
author,  bom  in  London  in  1789,  died  at  Tun- 
bridge  castle,  Kent,  Oct.  12,  1861.  He  erected 
three  great  theatres  in  London,  two  in  Dublin, 
and  three  in  the  provinces,  besides  remodelling 
several,  and  supplying  drawings  for  theatres  in 
India,  Belgium,  and  Brazil.  He  wrote  over  a 
hundred  dramas,  and  two  novels,  "The  Roq6  " 
and  "The  OioniaUB." 

BEBEEIIKE,  or  BctMria,  an  alkaloid,  having 
the  formula  Ci>HiiNO>,  obtained  from  the  be- 
beem  bark  or  bark  ofnectandra  Badiei.  This 
tree  belongs  to  the  family  lavraeea,  and  inhab- 
its Guiana  and  neighboring  regions  of  South 
America.  The  alkaloid  is  also  found  in  the 
hvru*  tempervirtn*  or  common  hox.    The  im- 


BEBUTOFF 

Eire  sulphate,  which  is  commonly  need,  oocon 
small  dark  brown  trasHluoent  scales.  It  is 
supposed  to  resemble  qainia  in  ita  propertiea, 
ana  has  been  used  in  the  aome  class  of  diseases. 
In  antiperiodio  power  it  probably  ranks  among 
the  v^table  bitters  as  next,  though  far  infe- 
rior, to  quinia. 

BfiBUN,  KMk  iHbrriit  Ai«nle,  a  French 
teacher  of  deaf  mntes,  bom  on  the  island  of 
Guadeloupe  in  1789,  died  there  hi  1884.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant  and  the  godson 
of  the  abb6  Sicard,  under  whose  direction  he 
qualified  hhnself  for  his  task.  He  pnblished  in 
1817  an  Euai  rar  Ut  iourd»-tn-aeU  et  tur  U 
langage  naturtl,  and  afterward  became  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  royal  institution,  where  he  excited 
so  mnch  jealousy  by  his  zeal  for  reform  that  he 
was  induced  in  3825  to  resign  and  retnm  to 
Guadeloupe.  Among  his  writings  are :  Jftino- 
ffrapAU,  ov  Euai  £ierituTe  mimique  (1822), 
and  Maniiel  d'entMgnement  praligue  (189'i^. 
The  academy  awarded  him  a  prize  for  his  MiUgt 
hittoriqut  A»  VaVbi  da  Vfyie. 


22,  1BS8.  His  family,  ori^nally  ArmentaDS, 
acquired  distinction  in  Georgia.  Be  joined  the 
army  of  the  Oancasus  in  1809,  served  in  1812 
against  the  French,  and  snbseqaently  took  part 
in  the  subjugation  of  a  part  of  Daghestan.  In 
I825-'7  he  was  governor  of  Imeretia,  and  in 
1828  fought  bravely  against  the  Turks  under 
Paskevitch  ;  and  he  was  made  m^or  general 
for  storming  AkhaltMkh  and  holding  that  ibr- 
tresB  in  March,  1829,  for  ten  days,  against  supe- 
rior Tnrkiah  forces,  until  relieved  by  Mnravleff. 
Appointed  governor  of  the  new  Russian  prov- 
ince of  Armenia,  he  conolnded  In  1886  a 
boundary  treaty  with  Persia,  and  was  in  1888- 
'40  a  member  of  the  Transcaucsman  adminlatra- 
tlon  in  Tiflia.  In  October,  1846,  he  defeated 
Sbamyl ;  and  in  Kovember,  1847,  he  became 
prendent  of  the  TransoBucasian  administrative 
conncil.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  army  of  ob- 
servation on  the  frontier,  and  by  routing  the 
Turks  near  Eadiklor,  Deo.  1, 18SS,  he  prevent- 
ed their  invasion  of  Russian  Armenia.  Be 
achieved  a  decisive  victory  near  Knruk-Dereh, 
Aug.  6,  1864,  over  Zarif  Pasha  with  40,000 
men,  an  army  more  than  twice  as  large  as  his 
own;  but  failing  to  follow  up  his  advantage, 
he  was  superseded  in  1866  by  Mnravieff,  utd 
detiuled  for  the  covering  of  Georgia,  where,  on 
hearing  of  Omar  Pasha's  arrival  in  Mingreha, 
he  lost  no  time  in  forcit^  him  to  retreat  In 
1866  he  succeeded  Uuravieff  as  commander-in- 
chief  until  the  arrival  of  Bariatinsky.  He  was 
made  general  of  infantry  m  January,  1867.— 
Two  of  his  brothers  fell  on  the  battlefields  of 
the  Caucasus,  ITis  third  brother,  David,  fought 
under  Paskevitch  in  Poland  and  Hnngary,  and 
before  Silistria  as  commander  of  the  Caucasian 
cavalry  re^ment,  became  lieutenant  general  in 
18fi6,  and  was  military  commander  of  Warsaw 
from  18B1  tiU  hie  death  there,  March  28,  1837. 


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BECCAFICO 


0(It«I.,  fig-p«cker),  &e  tj/lvia  httr- 
tentiM,  a  unging  bird  which  feeds  upon  insects, 
fi^  currants,  and  other  frnits.  it  belongs  to 
the  order  of  lyltriada  (warblers),  and  is  found 
in  Bome  Engtiil)  and  even  Scotch  counties,  but 
chiefly  in  southern  Europe.  It  has  &  roioe 
like  a  nightingale,  Inrts  shjly  in  the  thickest 


BEGEBBA 


43T 


Beccafloi  (SllTli  bortanali). 

foliage,  and  flies  with  lingnlar  grace.  It  was 
eal«n  with  mnch  delist  by  the  ancient  Bo- 
mans,  and  Btill  m  one  of  the  most  delectable 
moroeanz  on  Italian,  Grecian,  aod  French  ta- 
bles, especially  in  Venice.  An  annual  feast 
Intule  on  beocaflcoa  is  called  ieeeqfieata.  The 
term  beccaflco  is  applied  in  continental  En- 
rope,  rather  indiscriminately,  te  different  kinds 
of  sylvan  warblers,  when  they  are  fat  and  in 
condition  for  the  table. 

BECCIFDHI,  or  MMkeriw,  DtMlw,  an  Italian 
artist,  bom  at  Siena  in  1484,  didd  in  Genoa, 
March  18, 1649,  or  according  to  Lanzi  after  1051. 
He  began  life  as  a  shepherd,  amnnng  himself 
in  drawing  fignrea  of  his  flock  upon  the  sand. 
Beocafumi,  a  patron  of  art,  was  struck  by  hia 
talent,  and  attended  to  his  education  ;  and  he 
adopted  the  name  of  his  benefactor,  though  he 
occamonaily  used  his  real  name  of  Meoherino. 
He  studied  in  Venice  and  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  tu  Siena  ho  executed  bronze  statues  and 
bsfis  reliefs.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  the 
mosaic  pavement  of  the  Siena  cattiedral. 

RiXClBU,  Ocure  Iwewia,  marqais  of,  an 
Italian  jurist  and  economist  bom  in  Milan, 
March  15,  1788,  died  there,  Nov.  38,  1784. 
He  attended  the  Jesuits'  college  in  Parma  and 
itfterwArd  studied  philosophy  and  mathematios. 
Under  the  patronage  of  Count  Firmian,  gov- 
r  of  Lombardy,  he  established  a  literary 


dtlitti  e  delle  pern,  which  was  revised  hy  him 
and  by  Pietro  Verri  (3  vols.,  Venice,  1781), 
and  translated  into  English  ("  Crimes  and  Pun- 
ishments," Edinburgh,  1798),  German,  French, 
and  other  languages.  This  essay,  which  urged 
the  abolition  of  capital  punishment  and  the 
torture,  established  his  fame  as  the  originator 
of  a  more  humane  system  (tf  penal  jurispm- 


dence,  and  wrought  imDortant  reforms  al- 
most everywhere,  tJiough  in  his  own  coon- 
try  he    was   at  first    depreciated.    Voltaire 

wrote  a  commentary  on  it  under  the  title  of 
Un  arocat  de  B«»anjv>n  and  subsequently  Boo- 
caria  visited  him  and  D'Alembert.  The  cor- 
respondence of  Baron  Orimm  attests  the  great 
popularity  of  Beccaria's  views  in  France. 
Kant  oommended  them,  bat  the  most  learned 
disquisition  on  the  subject  is  by  Cesare  Canth 
(Florence,  1863).  Catharine  II.  adopted  Bec- 
caria's suggestions  in  the  Bussian  code,  and 
offered  him  an  ofBce,  which  he  declined  in  order 
to  accept  the  professorship  of  political  and  ad- 
ministrative sciences  especially  created  for  him 
at  Milan  in  November,  1768.  His  opening  di»- 
oourse,  "On  Commerce  and  Public  Adminis- 
tration," WH«  translated  into  French  hy  An- 
toine  Ccnoparet  (176S).  In  1T71  he  became 
a  member  of  the  supreme  economic  oounoil, 
and  on  the  abrogation  of  this  body  he  was 
transferred  to  the  magistracy,  and  placed  in 
1791  on  the  committee  for  the  reform  of  the 
civil  and  criminal  code.  He  promoted  reforms 
in  trade,  currency,  and  statistics,  and  urged  the 
adoptionof  uniformity  in  weights  and  measures. 
His  lectures  on  political  economy  have  been 
published  under  the  title  of  EUmenti  di  etth- 
nomiapubbliea,  in  the  collection  of  the  Seritlitri 
elatriei  italiani  di  eeonomia  politiea.  The 
best  complete  ediljon  of  his  works,  including 
his  ltie»reh«  infarmo  alia  natura  dew  itiie,  lis 
by  Villari  (Florence,  1854). 

lECCASll,  HwfcrtUali,  or  Gnrn^  ttlMt, 
on  Italian  electrician,  born  at  Mondovi,  Oct 
8,  irie,  died  in  Turin,  May  27,  1781.  He 
entered  the  religions  order  of  the  Piarists  in 
1782,  and  always  remained  a  member  of  it. 
He  became  professor  of  experimental  physics  at 
Palermo  and  afterward  at  Rome,  and  in  1748  at 
Turin.  Subsequently  he  was  tutor  of  the  prin- 
ces de  Chablais  and  de  Carignan,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  Turin.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
treatise  BelV  elttlricitmo  natnrale  t  artyfieiele 
(Turin  175S),  which  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Franklin  (Londm,  1771).  His  most 
remarkable  experiments  and  theories  relate  to 
the  limited  conducting  power  of  water,  to  the 
electrification  of  the  air  and  smoke,  to  the  ve- 
locity of  electricity,  to  its  influence  in  reducing 
met^  and  to  varioas  phenomena  connected 
with  storms  and  atmospherical  magnetism. 
The  "  Philosophical  Transactions  "  of  the  royal 
society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  made  a 
fellow  in  1705,  contain  bis  letter  to  Franklin 
(1760)  entitled  "Experiments  in  Electricity," 
and  other  papers  in  Latin.  At  the  sugges- 
tion of  Boscovich,  he  was  commissioned  in 
17G9  lo  measure  the  length  of  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Tarin. 
Tliis  work,  which  was  not  regarded'  as  very 
accurate,  he  completed  in  1768,  and  published 
an  account  of  it  in  1774  {Gradui  Taurinrntti*). 

BECraU,  Gaidar,  a  Spanish  sculptor  and 
fresco  painter,  bom  at  Baeza  in  1620,  died  in 
1570.    He  studied   under  Michel  Aagrio  at 


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438 

Rome,  and  on  hie  return  to  Madrid  ezeooted 
several  works  in  fresco  for  ibo  palftce,  Utd 
adorned  manj  charches.  His  maatorwork  is  a 
statae  of  the  Virgin. 

BIXHEB,  Jebtu  JwmUh,  a  Germaii  chemist, 
bom  in  Spire  in  1625,  died  in  London  in  Octo- 
ber, 1662.  In  spite  of  adverse  circumstances, 
be  acquired  a  knowledge  of  medicine,  pbyaicB, 
and  chemisliy,  became  profesrar  at  Mentz,  and 
in  1660  imperial  councillor  at  Vienna  and  first 

Shysician  to  the  elector  of  Bavu^a.  Ue  en- 
eavored  to  promote  industrj  and  a  spirit  of 
enterprise  in  Vienna,  bnt  incnrred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  court,  and  after  nuuij  nnfor- 
Innate  eiperieaoes  in  various  places  he  ended 
his  life  in  London.  His  fame  resta  on  his 
Fkytiea  SubUrranta  (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1S6S),  establishing  a  close  relation  between 
chemistry  and  medical  science,  and  on  bis 
founding  the  theoretical  basis  of  ohemistr/. 

lEOUTElN,  J*fe«u  KMUIm,  a  German  orai- 
thologiat  and  forester,  Itom  in  Walterahauseo, 
Saxe-Gotha,Jul7ll,  ITdT,  diedinlti3!i.  Hav- 
ing visited  the  most  celebrated  hnntlng  grounds 
of  Germany,  he  opened  at  Kemnate  a  school  of 
forestry,  and  became  in  1800  the  director  of 
the  Baie-Meiiungen  academy  of  forestij.  His 
principal  works  are  Qemeinnutngt  Natarge- 
tehiehta  DewUehlandi  (4  vols.,  Leipsio,  1799- 
'&6;  2ded.,  ISOl-'B),  and  ^TaU/rffttehieAU  der 
^^ubeatSffet  (4th  ed.,  Halle,  1840). 

BEGHCiiri(Bingnlar,  Mochuaita,  from  ehvana, 
f^«e,  and apersonal prefix),  apeopleof  6.  Africa, 
inhsbitiug  an  extensive  territory  on  both  ddes 
of  the  tropic  of  Caprioom.  divided  into  nu- 
merous tribes.  Their  complexion  is  a  coffee- 
colored  brown,  that  of  the  Barolong  tribe  be- 
ing the  lightest.  They  are  of  medium  size, 
symmetrically  built,  and  have  the  crisped  wool- 
ly  hair  of  the  negro.  They  are  of  a  gentle  dis- 
position. Slavery  hardly  exists  among  them. 
They  are  rich  in  sheep  and  goats,  but  less  so  in 
homed  cattle.  They  have  soma  notion  of  deity, 
but  have  no  religious  rites,  though  monkeys, 
snakes,  and  crocodiles  are  sometimes  worship- 
ped. Thay  affirm  that  tbey  originally  sprang 
irom  a  cave,  which  is  still  pointed  ont  in  the 
Bakoni  country,  and  where  tne  footmarks  of  tha 
first  man  may  be  still  seen  in  the  rocks.  Their 
faith  in  the  supernatural  power  of  a  class  of 
wizards  termed  rain-makers,  one  of  whom  at 
least  is  found  in  every  tribe,  they  share  with 
the  other  peoples  of  southern  Africa.  Polyg- 
amy exists  to  an  nnlimited  extent,  and  circum- 
ddon  is  a  general  practice.  Missionaries  have 
obtained  access  to  several  of  the  most  western 
tribes,  and  by  their  influenoe  the  women,  who 
formerly  performed  all  the  agricultural  work, 
have  been  relieved  from  the  heavier  tasks.  The 
government  of  the  Bechuana  is  both  monarchi- 
cal and  patriarchal,  and  of  a  mild  character. 
!Every  tm>a  has  its  chief  or  king,  who  resides 
in  the  largest  town,  and  Is  held  sacred  by  rea- 
son of  his  hereditary  authority.  Under  these 
chie&  are  the  heads  of  particular  districta  and 
villages,  and  ag^  under  these  are  the  coii,  or 


wealthy  men,  who  form  the  aristocracy.  The 
power  of  the  princes  is  very  great,  but  is  limit- 
ed by  the  general  assembly,  called  the  pieho, 
at  the  Butwrdinate  chiefs. — The  Bechuana  for- 
merly extended  8.  as  far  as  the  Orange  river,  but 
were  driven  hack  by  the  Hottentots,  At  b  re- 
cent period  the  Cafftrs  made  an  incnrsian  from 
tlie  east  deep  into  the  Bechuana  territory,  and 
devastated  the  country,  destroying  cities,  many 
of  which  had  a  population  of  20,000.  More 
recently  the  Boers  have  fuDOded  establish- 
ments, including  the  Orange  River  Republic, 
within  the  Bechuana  territory.  Among  the 
most  important  and  best  known  of  the  Bechu- 
ana tribes  are  the  Baseuto,  which  is  the  most 
southerly  of  them,  occupyingatableland  to  the 
west  of  the  Drakenberg  mountains,  partially 
civilized  and  Christianized ;  the  Batlapi,  among 
whom  missionaries  have  had  the  greatest  sac- 
cess,  dwelling  in  a  iiarched  region,  almost  des- 
titute both  of  wooa  and  water,  on  the  borders 
of  the  Kalahari  desert ;  the  Barolong,  dwelling 
Ui  the  north  of  the  preceding,  formerly  power- 
ful, but  now  scattered  and  almost  extirpated 
by  the  Cafifres:  the  Bangwsketse,  dwelling 
still  further  to  Oie  north,  in  a  fine  and  fertile 
valley,  who  were  formerly  wealthy,  but  have 
suffered  severely  from  the  incursioiis  of  the 
Cafires ;  the  Bahorntse,  dwelling  in  the  vidnitj 
of  the  foregoing,  in  one  of  the  finest  districts 
of  S.  Africa,  who  had  considerable  indnsfry  in 
agriculture  and  raising  cattle,  till  they  were 
driven  by  the  Caffl'eefrom  their  country,  which 
in  1B87  was  seized  by  tlie  Boers;  the  Batoana, 
dwelling  on  the  "S.  coast  of  Lt^e  Ngami,  the 
remnant  of  the  former  poweriul  tribe  of  Ba- 
mangwato;  the  Bakwams,  who  occupy  the 
fine  hilly  regions  along  the  rivers  Kotuani  and 
Mariqna;  and  the  Balaka,  who  are  not  of  Be- 
chuana stock,  but,  like  the  Bushmen,  live  scat- 
tered among  various  trit>ea,  and  are  generally 
despised.  Under  the  name  of  Bakalahari,  the 
Balaka  dwell  in  great  numbers  in  the  Kalahari 
desert.  The  Bayeye,  who  dwell  upon  the  bu'- 
ders  of  Lake  Ngami,  are  also  to  be  aistinguished 
from  the  Bechuana. — The  fullest  information 
concerning  the  tribes  of  southern  Africa  is 
contained  in  the  "Travels  and  Researches" 
of  Livingstone. 

BECK,  or  Beck,  BavU,  a  Dutch  portrait  paint- 
er, one  of  tiie  ablest  pupils  of  Vandyke,  bom 


,   died 


.   the   Bs 


'^?. 


L  1666.     He 


tainted  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  Charles 
of  England  ezclumed,  "Paith,  Beck,  t  be- 
lieve you  could  paint  riding  post."  Qneen 
Christina  of  Sweden  employed  him  in  painting 
the  portraits  of  European  sovereigns,  and  chief- 
ly her  own  portrait.  He  travelled  extensive- 
ly, and  while  sick  in  Germany  he  was  thought 
dead  and  prepared  for  the  grave,  bnt  revived 
and  was  gradually  restored  to  life,  His  subse- 
quent death  was  ascribed  to  poison. 

BECK,  Kuf,  a  German  poet,  bora  at  B^a,  Hun- 
gary, May  1,  181T.  Be  is  the  son  of  a  Jewish 
merchant,  studied  in  Pestb,  Vienna,  and  Leip- 
sio,  and  has  unoe  1848  chiefly  re«ded  in  Vienna. 


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BECEEB 


439 


Hia  finrt  poeme  app«ftred  in  1688  and  1880,  and 
hia  reputation  waa  eatablUhed  bf  hia  novel  in 
verse,  Jaaka,  der  nngantche  Jiottkirt  (Leipaic, 


Am  derBrnmath  (Dresden,  1862);  i/ator/^Io- 
rtua  (Berlin,  I8SS)  ;  Jadwiga  (Leipiio,  1S6S} ; 
and  EUgiem  (Vienna,  1866).  lie  wrote  a 
drama  entitled  iSlavi(LeipBJa,  1811),  notadapted 
for  the  stage.  Unn;  of  his  worka,  eapeoially 
Janie,  are  remarkable  for  their  delineation 
of  Hnngarian  characterialjca.  A  collection  of 
his  poems  {GaaraauUt  OedieAtt,  Berlin,  18M) 
has  passed  through  many  editiona. 

BEC&.  I.  TbMriMk  MMmtjm,  an  American 
physician,  bom  in  Scheneotady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11, 
1T91,  died  in  Utica,  N.  Y^  Nov.  19,  185C.  He 
waa  a  graduate  of  Union  college  (1807),  began 
hia  medical  career  in  Albany,  prepared  in  1818 
a  sjrstemadc  report  on  American  minerals,  Iw- 
came  in  1816  professor  of  the  inatitntea  of  med- 
icine and  lecturer  on  medical  iarispmdence 
1  the  college  of  physioiaiis  and  enrgeoDs  of 


he  was  profbssor  in  the  Fairfield  medioal  college, 
lB2S-'40,  and  in  the  Albany  medical  college, 
1840-'fi4.  He  was  president  of  the  New  York 
State  medical  society  in  1839,  fonnder  and  for 
aome  time  preslileDt  of  the  Albany  institute, 
and  one  of  the  managers  of  the  New  York  state 
Innatio  asylnm  from  the  time  of  its  foundation, 
and  ita  president  in  1854.  Hia  Btatiatioal  pub- 
lications relating  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  bad  a 
powerful  effect  in  inflnencing  the  atate  legisla- 
ture to  provide  for  their  education.  He  edited 
the  "American  Journal  of  Insanity  "  (1849-58) 
wrote  eitoneively  for  scientific  periodioala,  and 
published  with  his  brother  a  celebrated  work 
on  the  "Elements  of  Hedioal  Juriaprodence " 
(1828 ;  7th  ed.,  with  notes  by  Dr.  Donlap  and 
Dr.  Darwell,  London,  1843;  10th  ed.,  3  vola., 
Albanr.  1850).  II.  JOa  BrattMkd,  an  Ameri- 
can phyucian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bora 
in  Schenectady,  Sept.  18,  1794,  died  in  Khine- 
beck,  N.  Y.,  April  9, 1861.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Colombia  college  (1818),  practiaed  in  New 
York,  and  was  in  18S2  one  of  the  foondera  and 
for  seven  years  the  chief  editor  of  the  "New 
York  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. "  In  182S 
be  became  professor  of  materia  medioa  and  bot- 


that  of  medieat  jnriapmdence,  which,  togethi 
with  that  of  materia  medica,  he  filled  till  his 
death.  He  cooperated  with  hia  biother  in  hia 
"Elements  of  Medical  Juriaprndenoe,"  and 
published  "Medical  Essay)"  (1848),  "Infant 
Therapeutica "  (1849),  and  "Historical  Sketch 
of  the  State  rf  MeiUoine  in  the  Colonies " 
(ISfiO).  IIL  Lewis  G.,  an  American  naturalist, 
brother  of  the  precei^ng,  bom  in  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,  1798,  died  in  Albany,  April  31, 
1838,  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  college 
(1817),  and  profeaaor  successively  of  botany  in 
the  Sensselaer  institute  at  Troy  (1824-'9),  of 


botany  and  ohenustry  in  the  Vermont  academy 
of  medicine,  of  chemiatry  and  natnral  history 
in  Rutgers  ooUege,  U)d  of  ehemiatry  in  the 
Albany  medical  college.  In  18S7  he  was  ap< 
pointed  mineralogist  in  the  geological  survey 
of  New  York,  He  published  works  on  botany, 
chemistry,  adnlterationa,  the  "Mineralogy  of 
New  York"  (4to,  1843),  &c. 

BECKER,  aN.  W.  county  of  Minnesota;  area, 
1,400  sq.  m. !  pop.  in  1870,  808.  The  Red 
river  of  the  North  has  its  source  m  Elbow  lake, 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  county.  Detroit  lake, 
in  the  S.  W.  part,  emptiee  into  the  Red  river, 
and  White  Earth  lake,  in  the  N.  part,  into  Wild 
Rice  river.  Buffalo  river,  alao  a  branch  of  the 
Red,  drwas  the  W.  part,  while  the  S.  E.  comer 
is  watered  by  affluents  of  the  Grow  Wing  river, 

BECf  ER.  h  StUMtA  WIMra,  a  German  phy- 
sician and  writer,  bom  in  Leipaic,  Feb.  S2,  1778, 
died  there,  Jan,  17, 1854.  He  tranalated  some 
irf  Oooper'a  novda,  and  ia  mia  prigioni  of 
Silvio  Pellico.  By  hia  literary  labors  he  ao< 
cumulated  (40,000,  to  which  his  son  Kari  Ferdi- 
nand added  a  house  of  the  value  of  (7,000,  ap- 
propriating the  whole  amount  to  the  estaUish- 
ment  of  an  educational  and  charitable  inatitn- 
tion  for  the  blind  at  Leip^o.  IL  iLail  Frftlml. 
a  musician,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  fn  Leip- 
slo,  July  17,  1804,  died  Oct.  36,  1877.  He 
studied  the  piano,  harmony,  and  compoaitioa 
nnder  Friedrich  Schneider,  and  at  the  age  of 
14  publicly  appeared  as  a  pianist.  Soon  after 
this  he  turned  his  attention  specially  to  the 
organ,  and  became  profeaaor  of  the  organ  and 
of  harmony  at  the  Leipnc  conservatory.  Ue 
published  several  pieces  for  the  piano,  not  of 
great  value,  and  made  important  oolteotionB 
of  chorals ;  but  he  is  better  known  aa  a  writer 
on  musical  art  than  as  eitiier  a  composer  or 
compiler.  He  contributed  largely  to  moBical 
journals,  among  others  to  the  CcBeilii,  edited 
by  Gottfried  Weber,  the  £i{foniit,  the  Ti^^latt, 
and  the  Ziitgenetim^  Finnlly,  when  Robert 
Schumann  established  his  Neve  ZeiUehrift  fUr 
Munk.  Becker  became  one  of  its  mo»t  oonstaut 
ooDtributors.  He  published  BatKgelteT  /Or 
Organiiten  (Leipaic,  1828);  Sj/iUmatueh-e^o- 
TUilogUeht  DanteUung  der  mv*italUe/un  Lite- 
ralur  (1886)  ;  JHt  Hauammk  in  Devttckland 
in  dm  16.,  17.  und  18.  Jahrhund^t  (1840) ; 
an  index  of  mnuoal  works  published  during 
the  16th  and  I7th  oentnries  [Die  Timwerhe  dee 
16.  vM  17.  Jakrhwtdertt,  1847);  IHe  Ton- 
Mnetler  dee  19.  JiArhunderU  (1849),  &c. 

BECKB,  Karl  Ferdaaad,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Liser,  near  Trevee,  April  14, 1775, 
died  at  Offenbach,  Sept.  6,  1849.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Hildesheim,  taught  there  from  1794 
to  1709,  subsequently  studied  and  practised 
medicine,  and  was  a  snrgeon  in  the  army.  In 
183S  he  established  a  school  at  Offenbach.  In 
his  writings  on  oomparative  philology  he  fol- 
lowed lo^cal  and  poilosophioal  principles,  in 
opposition  Co  the  school  of  philologists  who 
hose  their  investigations  chiefly  u^n  historical 
and  ethnolo^cal  development    Hia  grammars 


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BECKEl,  Km)  IHeaUttk,  ft  Oennan  hirtoriui, 
bom  in  Berlin  in  1777,  died  there,  Maroh  16, 
1806.  He  studied  in  Berlin  and  Halle,  became 
a  teacher,  and  puUliihed  WeltgachiehU  J^r 
Kinder  und  Kmdtrlekrer  (9  vols.,  Berlin, 
1801-'6).  'WoltmniiD  added  to  this  Knes  a  10th 
volume,  and  A.  Uenzel  two  more ;  and  Adolf 
Sohmidt'0  edition  of  ISBO-'S?  contains  20  toI- 
nmes,  inctnding  Amd's  6e»ehiekU  dar  Utsten 
vi«nig  Jahre  and  its  continoations  to  1867. 
TiiB  same  author's  Gackiehte  der  Jahn  1887- 
1871  (iBt  vol.,  1873)  is  also  to  seire  ,aa  a  sup- 
plement. Becker's  original  nine  Tolnmes  con- 
tinue to  be  the  most  popular  part  of  the  work, 
eapecioltj  among  jnvenile  readers.  Eqoallf 
attractiTe  for  the  jQ\ma  are  his  three  volnmeB 
of  En&hluTtgen  aiu  der  alien  Welt  (Halle, 
]801-'8  1  4th  7ol.  bj  Gflnther,  1842,  ctmtuning 
IHe  Perta-kriege  ;  9th  and  revised  ed,  by  Eck- 
Btein,  1857). 

BBCKfS,  HMT  ZaAulM,  a  Qeitnan  author, 
bora  at  Erfurt,  April  S,  17fi9,  died  Maroh  2S, 
162S.  He  Btudiea  theology  at  Jena,  and  be- 
came a  teacher  and  Journoliat  at  Deman,  and 
eventually  at  Qotha,  where  the  wide  circula- 
tion of  hie  writinga  led  him  in  1797  to  estab- 
liBh  a  pabliahing  house.  Over  500,000  copies 
of  his  Ifoth'  und  SStf^nlehlein,  oder  Ithrreiehe 
J'Vead^n-  und  TravergeeeKiehU  del  Dorfa 
MUdkeim  {Gotha,  1787-'B8),  were  reld  within 
a  few  years  in  Oennany  and  in  foreign  trans- 
iations.  He  made  a  valnable  addition  to  Ger- 
man art  by  his  edition  of  HoiueKnitte  alter 
deuUeher  MeUter  (ie08-'16).  In  1814  ap- 
peared Beeker't  Leiden  und  Freuden  in  lieben- 
lehnmonatlieheT  JraneOliieher  Oefangenteht^fl, 
a  narrative  of  his  imprisonment  by  the  French 
(1811-'18)  on  acconnt  of  his  alleged  conspiracy 
agunst  Napoleon. 

IBCKEB.  I.  WfflhdB  fiMIek,  a  German  ar- 
chieologist,  bom  at  Oberkallanberg,  Nov.  4, 
]7es,  died  in  Dresden,  Jnne  8,  1818.  He 
■tndied  at  the  nniversity  of  Ldpsio,  was  a 
teacher  in  Dessau,  and  became  professor  at 
the  Dresden  art  academy  {Ritterakademi^  in 
1782,  director  of  the  gallery  of  antiquities  and 
of  the  nnmismatio  museum  in  1790,  and  of 
the  green  vaults  in  1806.  He  edited  the  Ea- 
eomium  Moria  of  Erasmus  {Lob  der  Narrheit, 
Basel,  1780),  and  published  the  works  of  Hol- 
bein (Berlin,  1781).  His  principal  works  ore  : 
Augvtteum,  Dre»den*  antike  Denhmdler  ent- 
\altend  (2  vols.,  Dresden,  1805-'9 ;  new  and  en- 
larged ed,,  1832-'7,  with  192  engravings),  and 
an  illustrated  work  on  the  coins  of  the  middle 
ages  in  the  Dresden  nnmismatio  mnsenm  (Leip- 
eic.  1813).  II.  VUhiJH  kMO,  son  of  the  pre- 
oedbg,  bom  in  Dresden  in  1798,  died  in  Meis- 
sen, Sept.  80,  1846.  He  was  professor  of 
closneal  archieology  at  the  university  of  Leip- 
sic  His  Oallvt  (3d  ed.,  2  vols..  Leipsic,  1888) 
and  Charielei  (2d  ed.,  8  vols.,  1854)  liave  been 
translated  into  English  by  the  Rev.  Frederick 
UeUsalfe,  with  notes  (London,  1844  and  1854). 


BEOEET 


In  these  works  the  life,  manners,  and  c 
of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  are  admi- 
rably depicted,  accompanied  by  learned  and 
elaborate  eicnrsoses.  Uia  principal  work  is 
Bandbuch  der  rdmitehen  Altertkwn^T,  com- 
pleted after  his  death  by  Uarqoardt  (5  vols., 
1848-'e4). 

BECKCT,  'IhMM  i,  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  horn  in  London  about  1117,  assasri- 
nated  in  Canterbnry,  Deo.  29,  1170  His  fa- 
ther, Gilbert  Becket,  a  native  of  Ronen,  was 
of  Norman  and  not  of  Saxon  blood,  and  his 
mother,  generally  repreaented  as  a  Saracen 
convert  to  Ohristisnity,  was  probably  actually 
bora  at  Caen.  Thienr  and  other  writers 
who  pictnre  Becket  as  a  champion  of  the  Sax- 
ons against  the  Normans,  are  not  sustained  by 
later  critics,  who  And  no  mention  of  him  in 
that  character  by  contemporary  anthoritiea; 
and  the  contest  had  moreover  then  become  one 
of  class  and  not  of  race.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth  his  father  was  established  in  London 
OS  a  merchant,  and  Becket  grew  up  with  the 
feelinga  of  an  Englishman  of  tiie  respectable 
middle  class.  He  was  educated  at  Merton 
abbey,  Surrey,  and  at  Oxford,  l«ndon,  and 
Paris.  While  employed  in  the  office  of  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  sheriff  of  London  and  acquaint- 
ed with  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
the  latter  enabled  him  to  stodylaw  in  Bologna 
and  in  Auxerre,  and  presented  him  on  his  re- 
turn to  England,  after  he  had  taken  deacon'; 
orders,  with  the  livings  of  St.  Mary  le  Strand 
and  Otterford,  Kent.  He  next  employed  him 
in  missions  to  Rome,  in  oue  of  which  he  sno- 
cessflilly  negotiated  for  the  restoration  of 
the  legatine  power  of  tlie  see  of  Canterbnry. 
The  archbishop  now  appointed  him  archdeacon 
of  Canterbury,  provost  of  Beverley,  and  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln  and  St.  Paul's.  In  1168 
Henry  II.  made  him  lord  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, in  which  c-Bpacity  he  had  to  discharge 
dl  the  ftinotions  which  now  devolve  upon  the 
difTerent  members  of  the  cabinet,  besides  offi- 
ciating jndicially.  He  was  fond  of  the  chase, 
and  as  cDnapicuous  on  the  battiefield  as  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  state.  The  valor  which  he 
di^layed  as  a  commander  by  the  nde  of  the 
king  in  France  led  to  his  being  made  tutor 
of  his  young  son  Henry,  whose  marriage  with 
Margaret  of  France  he  nt«otisited.  Intimately 
associated  with  the  king,  be  yet  refrained  from 
joining  in  his  excesses ;  and  Uiough  as  chancel- 
lor ana  as  a  soldier  he  threw  off  his  clerical 
character  and  was  addicted  to  stateliness  and 
display,  his  morals  were  exemplary  and  he  was 
by  no  means  irrelidoiis.  So  powerful  became 
his  inflnence  over  Henry  that  in  1182,  on  the 
death  of  Theobald,  the  king  pressed  bis  election 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury ;  and  some  authorities 
ascribeto  Henry  the  intention  of  making  Becket 
ruler  in  England  as  viceroy,  while  he  was  him- 
self to  rule  as  king  in  France.  He  was  the  first 
native  Englishman  who  held  the  arclibishoprio 
of  Canterbury,  and  having  been  orduned  as 
priest,  he  was  consecrated  with  great  pomp  as 


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primate  of  all  England.  He  incurred  the  dia- 
pleasare  of  hh  royal  master  by  relinqaiahiiiK 
the  chanoellor'B  office,  which  the  king  wanted 
him  to  retain ;  and  he  was  deprifiid  of  the 
archdeaoonrj,  which  Becket  wished  to  keep 
along  with  ^e  archbishoprio.  Becket  now 
became  aa  aoatere  and  aturdj  a«  a  prelate  as 
he  had  been  brilliant  and  oonrtier-like  as  a 
Btateanum ;  and  he  acqaired  great  renown  and 
popnlaritj  aa  a  fearless  champion  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  church,  and  incidentally  of 
the  people,  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
crown  and  the  nobility.  It  has  been  alleged 
that  his  qualities  Stt«d  him  better  for  the 
court  and  the  oamp  than  for  the  ohorcb  ;  bat 
It  was  only  throngn  the  latter  tiiat  one  of  his 
origin  could  in  his  day  have  risen  so  high. 
He  began  to  make  his  inSnence  felt  in  1163  at 
the  conncil  of  Rheims,  where  he  lodged  com- 
plaints against  English  laymen  for  tampering 
with  eoclesiasticttl  rights  and  property.  lie 
claimed  from  the  crown  Rochester  castle  as 
belonging  to  the  ohnroh,  and  this  and  other 
bold  steps  broke  off  his  friendly  relations  with 
the  government  and  the  nobility.  His  opposi- 
thin  to  the  famons  constitatlonB  presented  at 
Clarendon  in  1164  became  the  si^al  of  bitter 
fends  between  him  and  the  king.  The  privi- 
lege for  which  he  contended  related  to  the  de- 
livery of  the  most  helpless  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple fkim  the  grasp  of  the  royal  courts,  and  to 
the  trial  of  their  cases  by  the  milder  ecclesiasti- 
cal Jurisdiction.  One  of  the  Clarendon  constitu- 
tions, forbidding  the  ordination  of  villeins  witb- 
ont  the  consent  of  their  masters,  was  partioQ- 


gronnd  with  the  court  Henry  II.  withdrew 
bis  son  from  his  tntorship,  and  Becket  took  a 
scdemn  vow  to  reeist  the  Clarendon  ooDstlta- 
tions,  bat  at  length  was  compelled  to  recognize 
them  at  the  request  of  the  pope,  who  absolved 
him  from  the  violation  of  tits  pledge.  Henry 
nevertheless  continued  hostile  to  him ;  and  tA 
escape  from  his  persecotions,  he  fled  from  Eng- 
land, but  was  driven  back  by  stress  of  weather. 
Charging  him  with  a  breach  of  allegiance  on 
accomit  of  this  attempt  to  desert  his  post^  the 
king  had  him  tried  by  a  parliament  at  North- 
ampton ;  and  Becket,  overwhelmed  with  pen- 
altJee,  despoiled  of  his  property,  and  deserted  by 
all  bat  the  common  people,  fled  in  disguise,  em- 
barking from  Sandwich  for  Oravelines.  Henry 
confiscated  the  revenncs  of  his  see  and  made 
unavailing  efforts  to  have  him  expelled  from 
Flanders  and  France.  Becket  spent  nearly 
two  years  nnmotested  in  the  Cisteroian  abbey 
of  Pontigny  in  Burgondy;  and  although  the 
king  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome  for  the  vindica- 
tion of  his  connie,  Becket,  after  resigning  his 
see  into  the  hands  of  the  pope,  was  Immedi- 
ately reinstated  by  his  holiness,  and  his  cause 
was  also  taken  up  by  the  king  of  Fraoc«. 
Beckct's  boldness  increasing  with  bis  success, 
the  king  struck  his  name  from  the  litnrgy>  ex- 
pelled 400  of  hie  relatives  from  England,  and 


EFT  441 

made  it  a  criminal  offenee  to  correspond  with 
him  or  to  hold  interoonrse  with  him  in  any  way. 
The  pope  having  oonflrmed  Becket's  legatine 
power  or  primacy  of  all  England  except  the 
see  of  York,  the  arehbisbop  attempted  to  awe 
the  choreh  and  state  into  snbiaission  to  his 
and  the  pope's  will,  and  is  sud  to  have  been 
restrainaa  only  by  the  illness  of  the  king  from 
having  him  excommunicated.  The  efforts  of 
the  pope  and  the  French  monarch,  and  several 
persona!  interviews  between  the  king  and  the 
archbishop,  all  proved  nnavaiiing  to  effect  e 
reconciliation :  and  the  strife  increased  in  bit- 
terness when  Henry  U.  had  the  coronation  of 
his  son  Henry,  a  prerogative  of  the  primate, 

Cirformed  by  the  archbiahop  of  York.  The 
tter  and  his  assistant  bishops  were  conseqtient- 
ly  suspended  by  the  pope  at  Becket's  request. 
In  1170,  however,  a  reconciliation  took  place 
at  Freitville,  a  border  town  in  Tonrune,  and 
the  king  restored  to  him  his  see  and  all  its 
privileges.  On  his  return  to  England,  the  peo- 
ple gave  him  an  endiunastic  reception ;  bnt  he 
speedily  revived  the  old  feud  by  publi^ingthe 
snspen^on  of  the  archbishop  of  York.  The 
kiuK  who  was  In  Normandy,  tannted  his  at- 
tendants for  their  remisaiess  m  revenging  him 
on  the  overbearii^  prelate.  This  incited  Re- 
ginald Fitzmse,  WilUam  de  Tracy,  Hngh  de 
Morerille,  and  Richard  Brito,  four  barons  of 
the  court^  to  nndertake  the  task.  They  met 
Dec.  28, 1170,  at  the  castle  of  Banulph  de  Broo, 
near  Canterbury,  accompanied  by  a  body  of 
armed  men.  The  next  day  they  had  a  stormy 
interview  with  the  arcbbishop  in  his  palace, 
and  on  the  same  evening  invaaed  the  cathedral  - 
daring  the  vesper  service.  Becket  prevented 
all  oppoution  to  theur  ingrew  by  declining,  as 
he  said,  "to  convert  a  chardi  into  a  castle,"  ■ 
and  implored  his  assulants  to  spare  everybody 
except  himself.  They  attempted  to  drag  him 
oat  of  the  church  so  as  not  to  desecrate  it  by 
bloodshed ;  but  while  manfully  wrestling  with 
De  Tracy,  Becket  received  a  blow  which  in- 
flicted a  slight  wound  tipon  him,  and  which 
shattered  the  arm  of  his  falthM  crossbearer, 
Edward  Grimes.  The  archbishop  then  kneeled 
at  the  altar,  when  the  other  three  barons  gave 
him  the  deathblow  and  bis  brains  were  scat- 
tered on  the  floor.  The  murderers  fied  from 
the  wrath  of  the  people  to  Knaresborongh  and 
then  to  Rome,  whence  the  pope  sent  thera  as 
penitents  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  king  of  Eng- 
land barely  escaped  from  being  excommunicated 
by  the  nope,  who  ordered  the  cathedral  to  be 
closed  ror  one  year.  In  1172  Alexander  III. 
canonized  Becket  as  Baint  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bnry.  His  remains  were  deponted  in  1931  by 
Henry  III.  in  a  rich  shrine^  which  became  a 
resort  of  pilgrims  (described  in  Chancer's 
Canterbury  Tales  "),  the  scene  of  alleged  n 


its  precions  treasures,  and  had  the  saint's 
struck  out  of  the  calendar  and  his  bones  burnt 
and  scattered.    Not  a  vestige  remains  of  the 


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442  BEOE 

magnificent  Bhrine,  and  the  «atbedral  itself  wu 
partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  18T3,  the  interior 
of  the  eastern  part  of  it,  known  as  Beolcet's 
erown  or  corona,  hsving  beea  only  recently 
finislied. — The  most  importaDt  contemporary 
Latin  bion^phers  of  Becket  were  Edward  Grin), 
Eoger  of  Pontigny,  William  FitZ'Stephen,  Alan 
of  Tewkesbary,  Herbert  of  Basham,  and  an 
anonymooB  writer  whose  MS.  was  found  in 
the  library  of  Lambeth  palace  and  reproduced 
by  Dr.  Giles.  Garnier  de  Pont  Sainte  Uax- 
ence,  who  was  aoquaint«d  with  Becket's  ^ter 
Ifary,  abbess  of  Barking,  published  a  French 
bi<^apby  in  yerta  at  ^e  close  of  the  12th 
century.  Lord  Oeorge  Lyttelton  (ItMr-'T) 
and  Joseph  Berington  (ITSO),  in  their  historioal 
works  on  Henry  IL,  were  the  most  important 
En^ish  writers  on  the  subject  in  the  18tb  cen- 
tury. Sonthey'8"BookoftheChnroh"(1824; 
new  ed.,  IBSB)  contains  sn  atlxaotive  bic»raphy 
of  Becket.  Let  deux  ehancelien  d'AngUterrt, 
by  Ozanam.  appeared  in  Paris  in  1686.  The 
"Bemaias''  of  B.  H.  Fronde  (4  toIs.,  1888-'S) 
was  followed  by  two  editions  of  Dr.  Giles  from 
the  I*tiB  fS  vols.,  Oxford,  1846 :  6  vols.,  1848), 
and  by  his  better  known  English  "Life  and 
Letters  of  Thomas  i.  Becket"  (S  toIs.,  1846). 
Dean  Btaaiey's  "Historical  Uemoriais  of  Can- 
terbory"  (1B6G;  6th  ed.,  1869)  gives  a  minute 
narrative  of  the  martyrdom  and  the  posthnmoas 
history  of  Thomas  in  die  chapter  on  tiie  ehrine. 
Dean  Hilman's  "  History  of  Latin  Chrisldsnity  " 
contains  in  the  8d  and  last  volome  (London, 
lSIH)afiillaoooi)nt  oftheBecketor  Thomaaian 
controversy,  and  this  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  antborities.  The  German  work,  Dvr 
Meiligt  Thoma*  und  lein  Kampfj^r  die  Frei- 
heit  d«r  Sireha,  by  Boss  (Mentz,  1868),  was 
followed  in  London  in  1869  by  "  The  life  and 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  Beckef,"  Ac,  by 
iiohn  Morris,  canon  of  Northampton,  and  by 
"  Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  Biog- 
raphy," by  James  Oralgie  Robertson,  canon 
of  Canterbnry.  Edward  A.  Freeman's  essay 
on  "  St.  Thomas  of  Oanterbury  and  his  Biog- 
raphers," in  his  "  Historioal  Essays  "  (London, 
18T1),  throws  new  liftht  on  Becket's  life,  re- 
futes the  fallacies  of  Thierry  and  of  other 
writers,  and  reveals  the  religions  bias  of  the 
different  biographers.  A  "Ijfe  of  Thomas  i 
Beoket,"  translated  from  ^n  Icelandic  saga,  is 
in  oonrse  of  publication  nnder  the  auspices  of 
the  master  of  the  rolls  (London,  1872). 

>i!CKFOBD.  I.  WIBteM,  an  English  Dolitician, 
bom  in  the  West  Indies  in  1600,  died  at  Font- 
hill,  Wiltshire,  June  21,  1770.  He  became  a 
member  of  parliament  in  1T46  for  Shaftesbury, 
and  afterward  for  the  city  of  London,  and  was 
the  friend  and  supporter  of  Wilkes.  Succee- 
Nvely  alderman,  sheriff,  and  twice  lord  mayor 
of  London,  he  acquired  celebrity  in  1T70  by 
volnnteeriog  manly  remarks  to  George  ni. 
while  presenting  an  address  of  the  city  of 
London  remonstrating  against  parliament, 
against  the  king's  former  unfavorable  reply  to 
the  popular  grievanoea,  and  demanding  tne  re- 


moval of  the  cabinet  He  speech  condoded 
thus:  " Permit  me,  nre,  to  observe  that  who- 
ever has  already  dared,  or  shall  hereafter  en- 
deavor, by  false  inranoations  and  suggestion)!^ 
to  alienate  your  majesty's  affections  from  yonr 
loyal  suigeots  in  general,  and  froip  the  city  of 
London  Uk  particular,  is  an  enemy  to  your 
m^esty's  person  and  family,  a  violator  of  tlie 
public  peace,  and  a  betrayer  of  our  h^>py  con- 
stitution, as  it  was  established  at  the  glorious 
revolution."  The  excitement  prodnced  by  his 
boldness  preyed  upon  his  mind  to  snch  an  ex- 
tent that  lie  died  soon  afl«rward.  His  afatne 
was  placed  in  Gaildhatl,  and  his  epeecb  to  the 
king  engraved  on  the  pedestal.  As  he  was  a 
man  of  limited  culture,  it  was  believed  that 
John  Home  Tooka,  who  claimed  the  author- 
slup  of  the  speech,  had  either  prepared  it  before 
or  revised  it  aA«r  its  delivery.  U<  WlUiHt  an 
English  romancer,  son  of  the  preceding,  t>om 
in  1760,  died  Hay  2, 1844.  Heinheritedavast 
tbrtune,  estimated  as  yielding  over  £100,000 
annually,  and  be  clumed  lineal  descent  from 
the  royal  dynastiea  of  Scotland  and  from  other 
illustrious  ancest«rs.  The  great  earl  of  Chat- 
ham, his  father's  friend,  was  his  sponsor  and 
the  promoter  of  his  education.  The  precocity 
of  his  mind  was  revealed  in  1780  by  the  publi- 
cation of  a  satirioal  work  against  artists  ("Bi- 
(^raphical  Memoirs  of  Eitraordinary  Paint- 
ers"). Ho  was  in  Paris  in  1TT8,  where  be  be- 
came acenainted  with  Voltaire,  and  travelled 
extensivoiy  till  1783,  when  he  married  Lady 
Mai^aret  Gordon,  a  daughter  of  the  earl  erf' 
Aboyne,  who  biM'e  him  two  danghteia,  the 
eldest  of  whom  married  CoL  (afterward  Lieut. 
Gen.)  James  Orde,  and  the  younger  became 
dnchess  of  Hamilton.     He  was  a  member  of 

Carliament  at  different  periods,  and  acquired 
terary  celebrity  by  his  romance  of  "  Vstbek, 
an  Arabian  T^e,"  written  in  French.  An 
English  version  was  published  by  an  anony- 
mons  author  without  Lis  consent  in  1786,  pre- 
vions  to  the  issue  in  1767  at  Lausanne  of  his 
original  edition  in  French  {L' Hittoire  du  cal\ft 
VaUuhX  which  was  so  perfect  in  style  and 
idiom  that  many  regarded  it  as  tlie  work  of  a 
Frenchman.  North  in  his  "  Memoir  of  Beck- 
ford  "  says  that  "  Vatbek  "  is  "  the  finest  of 
oriental  romances,  as  '  Lalla  Rookb '  is  the 
finest  of  oriental  poems;"  and  Lord  Byron 
said  that  "  as  an  eastern  tale  even  '  Gssselas ' 
must  bow  before  it.  His  happy  valley  will  not 
bear  s  comparison  with  the  hall  of  Eblis."  He 
diirolayed  hie  fastidious  taste  for  magnificent 
buildings  in  the  erection  of  Fonthill  abbey, 
with  a  lofty  tower,  which  afterward  fell  owing 
to  its  hasty  construction.  After  having  sold 
Fonthill  in  1822,  in  consequence  of  the  oimin- 
ished  income  from  his  Jamaica  estat«a,  he  built 
another  remarkable  manuon  on  I^iusdown  Hill, 
near  Bath  \  and  previooidy  while  in  Portugal 
he  had  a  fairy  palace  constructed  at  Cintra, 
which  was  his  reudenoe  for  several  yeara,  and 
which  is  commemorated  by  Lord  Byron  in  the 
first  canto  of  "  Childe  Harold."    His  life  was 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEOEMANN 

spent  Id  urdnotu  xtndim,  and  his  exdaslTe 
habita  and  oriental  nuroandinga  added  the 
presti^  of  mystery  to  the  ertraordinarj  im- 

Eression  produced  by  his  palaces  and  towers, 
is  gems  of  art  and  fbroitnre ;  and  hia  foncifal, 
eitraragaat,  morbid,  and  eccentric  disposidon 
tallied  well  with  the  characteristics  of  his  cele- 
brated romaacB.  Many  works  were  published 
on  Fonthill,  and  on  its  artistic  and  literary 
treasures,  at  one  time  including  Gibbon's 
library,  which  he  had  purchased  at  Lansanne. 
Among  his  works  is  "Italy,  with  Sketches  of 
Spain  and  Portngal,"pnblished  in  1SB4,  though 

Sirinted  in  tlie  eariy  part  of  his  life,  from  his 
Bttera  written  during  a  residence  in  those 
conntries.  This  work  haa  been  characterized 
as  A  prose  poem,  and  aboands  in  pictnresqne 
and  enthasiastio  descriptions  of  scenery  and 
life.  In  1833  appeared  his  "  Recollections  of 
an  Excursion  to  the  Monasteries  of  Alcoba^s 
and  Batalha."  This  was  his  last  publication. 
His  "  Uemoirs "  were  published  in  London, 
1859  (S  vols.). 

nCKMlKN,  J*1un>,  a  German  technologist, 
born  at  Hoya,  Jnne  4,  1739,  died  in  Hanover, 
Feb.  4,  ISll.  He  was  educated  for  die  ohnrch, 
but  abandoned  theology  in  order  to  derote 
himself  to  the  natural  sciences.  For  some  time 
he  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
Lntheran  academy  of  St.  Petersonrg;  and 
after  studying  mineralogy  In  Sweden,  and 
forming  tiiere  the  scqnamtanoe  of  Linnens, 
he  was  appointed  in  1768  professor  at  68t- 
tingen.  He  acquired  a  high  repntation  by 
his  lectures  and  treatises  on  rural  economy 
(Qrund»Atte  ier  deuttehen  Zandairt/uehq/t, 
6th  ed.,  1806),  finance,  commerce,  technol(wy, 
politics,  &o.  He  wrote  BeitrOge  lur  Oetehiente 
der  ErfinduTig  {B  *ols.,  Leipsic,  1780-1805; 
English  translation,  "History  of  luTentions," 
tK.,  4  vols.,  London,  1817;  revised  ed.,  2  vols., 
1848).  His  editions  of  the  "Wonderftil  His- 
tories" of  Carystins,  of  Db  Mirahilibiu  Av»- 
caltatiaaibut,  and  of  the  "Treatise  on  Stones" 
by  Marbodins,  are  valned. 

VECKX,  PlMTe  Jhi,  general  of  the  society 
of  Jesus,  liom  at  Siohem,  near  Lonvain, 
Belginm,  Feb.  8,  1796.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  society  of  Jesns  at  Hildesheim  in  181B, 
was  confessor  of  Ferdinand  of  Anhalt-KCthen 
after  the  conversion  of  the  duke  and  dnoheas 
to  Roman  Catholicism  in  1825,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  newly  established  church  at 
kdthen.  After  Duke  Ferdinand's  death  in 
18S0  he  accompanied  bis  widow,  the  dncheas 
Julia,  countess  of  Brandenbuiv  (natnral  daugh- 
ter of  Frederick  William  III.  of  Pruasia),  to 
Vienna.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  procurator 
for  the  society  in  Austria,  but  the  revolution 
of  1848  obliged  him  to  leave  that  country,  and 
he  became  rector  of  the  college  of  Lonvain. 
Snbaeqaently  he  was  the  superior  of  the  society 
for  Hungary,  and  eventually  provinoinl  for 
the  whole  Austrian  empire  excepting  Galicia. 
After  the  death  of  F.  Roothaan,  May  8, 185BJie 
was  eIeot«d  general  of  the  society,  July  2.    His 


BEOQUEREL 


448 


principal  work,  Dtr  Monat  MariA  (Vienna, 
1643;  9th  ed.,  1881)  has  been  translated  into 
Italian,  Bohemian,  and  Polish.    In  December, 

1871,  he  published  an  apiieal  to  the  representa' 
tives  of  foreign  governments  on  the  question 
of  the  seizure  by  the  Italian  cabinet  of  the 
great  convent  of  St.  Andrew  on  the  Quirinal. 

BECQCESCL.  L  litatoe  Cfaar,  a  French  phys- 
icist, bom  at  Obfttillon-sur-Loing,  March  7, 
1788,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  18, 1978.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  the  polytechnic  school,  served  as  an 
officer  of  en^noers,  and  retired  in  181B  with 
the  rank  of  major.  In  1819  he  commenoed  the 
publication  of  nis  mineralogicoi  and  geological 
researches.  In  studying  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  amber,  be  was  led  to  experiment  on 
the  discharges  of  electridty  by  means  of  pres- 
snre ;  and  that  was  the  starting  point  of  almost 
all  bis  subsequent  Investigations.  He  then 
observed  the  evolutions  of  electricity  in  every 
kind  of  chemical  action.  These  researches  led 
to  the  refntation  of  the  "  theory  of  contact," 
by  which  Volta  explained  the  action  of  his 
pile  or  battery,  and  to  the  constructjon  of  the 
first  electrical  apparatus  with  a  constant  cur- 
rent. The  discoveries  in  electricity  made  by 
Becqnerel  have  been  published  in  the  Jnnale* 
de  phytiqve  et  ds  ehimie  and  in  tlie  Mimoire* 
d«  raeadimU  de»  tei^ncet.  His  investigations 
enabled  him  to  discover  a  very  simple  method 
of  determining  the  temperatnre  of  the  interior 
organs  of  men  and  animals.  He  made  numer- 
ous physiolo^oal  applications  of  this  method, 
aud  discovered  that  whenever  a  muscle  is  con- 
tracted a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  evolved. 
Becquorel  Is  also  one  of  the  creators  of  electro- 
ohemistry.  In  1828  he  made  use  of  this  new 
science  in  the  production  of  mineral  subatancee, 
and  in  treating  by  the  humid  process  the  oreb 
of  silver,  lead,  and  copper.  For  these  re- 
searches he  was  elected  member  of  the  royal 
society  of  London,  and  in  April,  1829,  of  the 
French  academy  of  sciences.  In  1887  the 
royal  society  awarded  him  the  Copley  medal 
for  his  nnmerous  discoveries  in  science.  He 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  Paris  museum 
of  natural  history  the  same  year,  and  was  pro- 
moted in  1886  to  the  rank  of  commander  of 
the  legion  ot  honor.  Among  the  list  of  new 
substances  which  Becqnerel  obtained  by  the 
action  of  electricity  may  be  mentioned  aln* 
minura,  silicon,  giucium,  crystals  of  sulphuf 
and  of  iodine,  and  numerous  metallic  snl' 
phurets,  such  as  dodecahedral  pyrites,  galena, 
sulphnret  of  aiiver,  iodnrets  and  double  iodu- 
rets,  carbonatea,  malachite,  calcareous  spar, 
dolomite,  metallic  and  earthy  phosphates  and 
arseniates,  crystallized  silica,  ibe.  He  also  dis- 
covered a  process  of  electric  coloring  on  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  which  has  been  extensively 
and  variously  applied  in  practice.  In  his 
electro-chemical  investigations,  Becquerel's  ob- 
ject was  to  discover  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween the  electric  forces  and  the  so-called 
chemical  affinities,  and  to  excite  the  latter  into 
action  by  means  of  the  former.     AU  kinds  of 


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444  HECSE 

plating  with  gold  or  silver  b;  the  humid  pro- 
cess, such  BB  electrotyping,  areonl^BoiDany  va- 
rious applications  of  electro-chemiBtrf.  Manf 
of  his  researches  relote  to  the  electric  con- 
dactibilitj  of  metals,  galvanometers,  the  eleo- 
trio  properties  of  toarmaline,  atmospheric  elec- 
trioitj',  the  effects  produced  bj  vegetation,  the 
electro-magnetic  balauoe,  capahte  of  measuring 
with  exactness  the  intensity  of  electric  our- 
rontfi,  and  to  the  use  of  marine  salt  in  agri- 
culture. Atnonghisprincipal workaare:  Tmite 
experimental  de  I'iieetricite  it  da  magnetame 
(7  vols.,  Paris,  lB84-'40;  new  ed.,  2  vols., 
1855);  Traitidephytiquedanttarapporttavte 
la  ekimia  (2  vols.,  1842-'4) ;  Traiti  de  Filtc- 
trieiti  et  du  magnititmt  (2  vols.,  1866-'9) ; 
and  Setumi  de  VhUtoire  de  VeleetriciU  et  du 
moffnetitme  ^1868).  II.  il«italr«  Etmimi,  son 
of  the  preoedmg,  bom  in  Paris,  March  24, 1820. 
He  was  assistant  profoasor  of  natural  sciences 
at  the  masenm,  and  afterward  professor  at  the 
eorteervatoiTt  de»  art*  et  mitien.  In  1853  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  phyucal  sciences. 
In  1861}  be  was  elected  member  of  the  academj 
as  successor  of  Desnretz.  He  discovered  a  chlo- 
ride of  silver  whicn  will  receive  and  retain  the 
colored  impressions  of  light,  so  that  the  colors 
of  the  runbow  m&j  now  be  nied  in  the  daguer- 
reotype in  all  varieties  of  hue;  but  the;  can 
onlj  be  retained  in  obscarity,  as  they  gradually 
disappear  when  long  exposed  to  hght.  In 
1863  he  published  £lude«  tar  Ceipotition  de 
LoTtdree,  the  phosphoroscope  of  his  invention 
having  attracted  much  attention  at  the  London 
exposition  of  1661.  He  asusted  his  father  in 
bis  later  works,  m.  Ltils  Alfred,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1814,  died  in 
IS62.  He  was  a  physician  and  a  professor  in 
the  faculty  of  Paris,  and  author  of  many  valu- 
able treatises.  His  Simiiotiqve  dee  wririe* 
(1841)  won  a  prize  from  the  academy ;  and  & 
second  edition  of  De*  application*  de  Velee- 
trieiti  A  la  tkerapeutique  medieaie  was  pub- 
lished in  1861. 

BECSE.  I.  OM  (Hung.  0-Secee),  b  market 
borough  of  S.  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bacs, 
on  the  right  bant  of  the  Theiss,  29  m.  N.  K.  £. 
of  NeusaU )  pop.  in  1870,  14,056.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  ia  com.  II.  New  ({/]• 
Beeee),  a  market  borough  and  steamboat  sta- 
tion in  the  county  of  Toront41,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Theiss,  about  4^  ra.  E.  of  the  preceding; 
pop.  in  ISTO,  7,198,  and  with  tlie  immediately 
adjoining  village  of  Franyova,  14,423.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  corn  markets  in  the  Ans- 
tro- Hungarian  monarchy. 

BEC8KEKEK.  I.  emt  (Hung.  Nagy-Beetie- 
reh),  a  town  of  8.  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Torontil,  on  the  Bega,  47  ra.  8.  W. 
of  Temesvar;  pop.  in  1870,  19,6G6.  It  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  Greek  church,  a  gym- 
nauum,  and  a  college  of  Piarists.  Tlie  princi- 
pal trade  is  in  agricultural  produce  acd  cattle. 
IL  UtUe  (Hung.  XU-Beeeherek),  a  village  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  and  10  m.  N.  W.  of 
Temesvar;  pop.  about  8,000.    It  is  in  a  fine 


BED  AND  BEDSTEAD 

agricultural  district,  famous  for  its  sheep,  and 
has  a  trade  in  wool  and  honey. 

BED  Unt  BEDSTEID.  The  articles  of  furni- 
ture derisod  by  the  people  of  different  nations 
to  secure  comfort  in  reclining  for  sleep,  natu' 
rally  vary  widely  with  various  degrees  of  civil- 
ization, with  differencos  of  climatea,  dwell- 
ings, and  national  characterisUcs.  Savages 
stretch  tliemselves  on  the  ground  or  on  piles 
of  leaves,  or  make  rough  preparations  fur 
sleep  by  spreading  skins — probably  the  first 
approaches  of  primitive  nations  toward  a  more 
elaborate  bed.  The  native  of  the  tropics 
sleeps  in  a  hammock,  or  on  a  cool,  tliin  mat  of 
grass.  The  East  Indian  at  night  unrolls  his 
light  portable  charpoy,  or  mattress,  which  in 
the  morning  is  again  rolled  together  and  car- 
ried away.  The  Japanese  lie  upon  matting, 
with  a  singular  and  to  the  European  most 
uncomfortable  wooden  neck  rest  in'the  place 
of  a  pillow.  The  Chinese  ose  low  bedsteads, 
often  elaborately  carved,  and  supporting  only 
mats  or  quilted  coverlets.  They,  too,  use  for  a 
pillow  a  peculiar  kind  of  wooden  fi^me,  gener- 
ally of  bamboo.  In  the  north  of  China  the  bed- 
ding is  laid  in  winter  upon  raised  platforms  of 
masonry,  which  are  gently  warmed  by  a  small 
furnace  underneath. — The  nations  of  continen- 
tal Europe  generally  use  the  French  bedstead, 
without  a  canopy  above  it,  and  with  mattresses 
of  various  materials,  sheets,  coverlets,  feather 

Eillows,  &o.  A  peculiarity  of  the  German 
eds  is  their  shortness;  besides  this,  the  bed 
clothing  always  consists  in  part  of  a  large  down 
pillow  or  upper  mattress,  which,  Miread  orer 
the  nerson,  is  supposed  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  fdl  other  ordmary  bedclotliing  combined. 
Often  this  is  the  only  covering  furnished ;  in 
the  houses  of  the  poorer  classes  and  in  small 
country  inns  this  is  almost  always  the  case ; 
but  all  the  ordinary  hotels  of  the  towns  have 
learned  to  add  to  it,  in  beds  intended  for  for- 
eigners at  least,  sheets,  blankets,  and  other  cov- 
erings.— In  England,  the  old  "four-poster  "  bed- 


Eulr  Engtlab  B«d. 

s(«ad,  an  immense  piece  of  Aimiture,  having 
a  canopy  supported  over  it  by  posts  at  the 
comers,  still  forms  the  pride  of  many  country 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BED  AND  BEDSTEAD 

^est  chambers,  and  is  everjwbere  common, 
though  the  Ampler  open  bed  ie  fast  taking 
ita  place.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  the  canopj 
covered  osAy  the  head  of  the  bed.      The  Eng- 


BEDDOES 


445 


Qn*t  Bed  of  Wtn. 

liA  beds  even  now  are  the  largeBt  in  the 
world,  and  the  &inon8  ancient  "  bed  of  Ware," 
alluded  to  by  Bhakespeare,  is  13  feet  sqnare. 
Tliia  bedstead  was  probably  conatraot«d  about 
tbe  jear  ISOO,  and  has  been  for  three  centuries 
or  more  preserved  in  an  inn  at  Ware  in  Hert- 
fordshire. It  is  of  solid  oak,  elabt^'atelj  carved. 
As  manj  as  12  persons  are  said  to  have  slept  in 
it  at  one  time. — Tbe  beds  of  the  ancients  had,  in 
general,  few  peculiarities  to  distingaish  them 
fi^m  our  own  simpler  forms.  Both  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  had  ttieir  bede  sapported  on  frunes 
much  resembling  oar  bedsteads ;  featlier  and 
wool  mattresses  were  common,  and  their  bed- 
clothing  was,  in  the  luxurious  periods  of  both 
nations,  of  great  magnificence,  and  decorated 
with  elaborate  needle -work.  The  ancient 
Briton  slept  on  skins;  after  tbeBomanconqaest 
Htraw  socks  became  common  as  beds.  The 
Egyptians  bod  a  couch  of  peculiar  shape,  if  we 


Andent  EgypUui  Dtd. 

maj  Jodge  from  their  inscriptioDs;  but  the  beds 
ordinarily  mentioned  in  tbe  Bible  seem  to 
have  been  of  the  customary  simple  kind. — In 
recent  years  many  arrangements  of  the  bed 
have  been  invented  by  leading  surgeons  for 
the  comfort  of  the  woonded  and  nek  \  some  of 
a  kind  permitting  the.  raising  or  depression  of 
one  portion  of  the  body ;  others  so  contrived 


that  the  patient  may  lie  at  soch  an  angle  as 
to  permit  the  performance  of  very  difficult 
Burpcal  operations.  The  most  nsefnl  of  all 
these  inventionii  has  been  that  of  the  hydro- 
static or  water  bed  of  Dr.  Neil  Arnott  This 
consists  of  a  trough  or  tub  partially  filled  with 
water,  and  covered  with  a  rubber  cloth  of 
sufficient  size  to  sink  deeply  into  the  tub  when 
empty.  This  of  course  floats  on  the  water, 
and  a  bed  laid  upon  the  cloth  accommodates 
itself  to  every  motion  of  the  person  lying  upon 
it.  Other  v^uable  beds  for  surgical  purposes 
are  tboee  in  which  tbe  patient  can  be  moved 
by  taming  handles  which  lower  or  raise  por- 
tions of  tbe  surface. 

BED  OF  JUSTICE,  a  name  originally  given  to 
the  raised  seat  occupied  by  the  earlier  kings 
of  France  in  their  councils  with  tbe  peers  and 
barons  for  the  decision  of  qaestions  of  import. 
As  the  parliaments  gainea  increased  power, 
tbe  king  appeared  personally  only  m  the 
gravest  cases ;  and  the  name  lit  dt  jiittice  was 
soon  applied,  not  to  tlie  seat,  but  to  an  occa- 
sion when  the  king  was  thus  present.  Still 
lat«r,  a  bed  of  justice  was  called  by  the  king 
when  tbe  parliament  refused  to  pass  a  measure 
of  which  he  approved.  He  then  appeared  and 
solemnly  commanded  its  passage;  so  that  the 
title  became  only  another  name  for  an  act  of 
arbitrary  power  on  the  part  of  tbe  sovereign. 
The  last  bed  of  justjoe  was  that  held  by  Louis 
XVI.  in  ITBT,  at  which  time  the  whole  parlia- 
ment, refusing  to  repster  the  royal  edict  for 
assembling  the  states  general,  were  arrested 
and  confined  in  prisons  in  different  parts  of 
France.     This  incident  forms  one  of  toe  most 


BfeDUlECX,  a  town  of  Langaedoc,  France, 
in  the  department  of  H^rault,  on  the  Orbc,  19 
m.  N.  of  B^siers;  pop.  in  IBSS,  8,985.  The 
town  has  a  college  and  manufactories  of  cloths 
and  woollen  goods.  In  1851  BMarieux  was 
the  scene  of  a  serious  insorrcction. 

BEDBUG.    See  Epizoa. 

BEDDOES.  L  neMss,  an  English  phy^cian 
and  author,  bom  at  Shiffnal,  Shropshire,  April 
13,  ITSO,  died  at  Clifton  in  December,  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  OiLfud,  studied  anatomy  in 
London,  became  a  pupil  of  Sheldon,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Spallanzani's  ^^Disserta- 
tions on  Natural  History."  He  removed  in 
1784  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  published  in  1T8G 
a  translation  of  Bergman's  "  Essays  on  Elective 
Attractions,"  to  which  he  added  many  valuable 
notes.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  scieU' 
tificBOoielJes  of  Edinburgh.  In  1788  he  visited 
France,  formed  an  intimacy  with  Lavoisier  and 
oUier  chemists,  and  on  his  return  to  Englanci 
was  elected  to  the  chemical  lectureship  at  Ox' 
ford.  His  talents  and  position  drew  nronnd 
him  many  men  of  learning,  including  Gilbert 
and  Erasmus  Darwin;  and  in  1790  (le  pub- 
lished a  dissertation,  in  which  he  claimeu  for 
the  speoolative  physician  Mayow  the  discovery 
of  the  principal  facts  in  pneumatic  chemistry. 


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446 


B£DE 


His  STinpathj  with  the  French  reTolntion 
dlunEi^iiig  his  position  at  Oxford,  he  resigned 
in  1792,  after  which  he  published  bis  work 
"On  the  Nature  of  Demonstrative  Evidenoe, 
with  an  Explanation  of  certain  DifHcnlties  con- 
carrisg  in  the  Elements  of  Geometry,"  in 
which  he  claimed,  in  opposition  to  ontologioal 
theories,  that  mathematical  reasoning  depends 
essentiallj  npon  experiment,  and  proceeds  only 
hj  evidence  of  the  aensea.  Re  anticipate  new 
improvements  in  medicine  from  the  science  of 
galvaniera,  which  was  now  arising  in  Italy ;  and 
in  his  first  medical  work,  embradng  observa- 
tions on  oalcnlas,  sea  scurvy,  consnmption,  ca- 
tarrti,  and  fever,  and  oo^jeoturea  on  other  ob- 
jects of  physiology  and  pathology,  he  showed 
his  tendency  to  found  medical  science  npon 
chemistry.  The  moat  popnlar  of  all  his  works, 
and  that  which  best  reveals  his  imagination 
and  taste,  as  well  as  jodgment,  was  hie  "  Bis- 
.  tory  of  Isaac  Jenkins,"  written  in  favor  of 
temperance,  for  the  benefit  of  the  working 
classes,  of  which  more  than  40,000  copies  were 
rapidly  sold.  He  was  enabled  in  1798  to  es- 
taohsh  a  pneumatic  instication  at  Bristol,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  father-in -taw,  Richard 
Lovell  Edgeworth,  and  of  Thomaa  Wedgwood. 
The  superintendent  of  this  institution  was  Hum- 
phry Davy,  then  a  yomig  man,  whose  first  dis- 
coveries ware  made  here.  The  numerous  pub- 
lications of  Dr,  Beddoes  at  this  time  had  refer- 
ence to  his  l^vorite  theory  of  the  efficacy  of 
the  permanently  elastic  fluids,  and  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  curing  all  diseases  by  breathing  a 
medicated  atmosphere.  He  was  especially  san- 
guine in  hia  expectations  from  the  brilliant  dis- 
covery by  Davy  of  the  respirahility  and  intoxi- 
cating qualities  of  nitrons  oxide ;  and  he  issned 
treatises  in  rapid  succession  till  near  the  time 
of  his  death.  Dr.  Stock  published  his  memoirs 
in  1811,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy  gave  him 
credit  for  talents  "  whicn  would  have  exalted 
him  to  the  pinnacle  of  philosophical  eminence, 
if  they  had  been  applied  with  discretion." 
II.  TkMUM  LfTtll,  an  English  poet,  son  of  the 

? receding  and  nephew  of  Haria  Edgeworth, 
om  in  Cliflon,  July  SO,  1808,  died  In  Basel,  Jan. 
Sfl,  1649.  He  was  brought  up  under  the  care 
of  Mr,  Daviee  Giddy  (afterward  Sir  Daviea  Gil- 
bert), and  educated  at  Pembroke  college,  Ox- 
ford.   "  The  Bride's  Tragedy  "  (T.ondon,  1832), 


reviver  of  English  tragedy.  Discouraged  by 
the  unwillingness  of  managers  to  produce  his 
plays,  he  went  to  QOttingen  in  1824  to  study 
medicine,  and  thenceforward  chiefly  resided 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Two  posthu- 
mous volumes  (London,  1S61)  contain  bis 
trwedies  "Death's  Jest  Book"  and  the  "Sec- 
ond Brother." 

BEPE,  or  Beda,  called  the  Tenerahle  Bede, 
a  Saxon  ecclesiastic,  and  the  earliest  historian 
of  England,  born  probably  at  Honkton  in 
Durham  in  672,  died  at  Girvy,  May  26,  78B. 
He  was  sent  in  his  childhood  to  the  monastery 


BEDEAU 

of  Saint  Peter  at  Wearmoath,  and  was  edu- 
cated there  under  the  abbots  Benedict  Biicop 
andCeolfrid.  Hewasmade  a  deacon  at  the  a^ 
of  10,  and  ordained  a  priest  at  80.  His  learn- 
ing and  ability  were  remarkable,  and  he  ac- 
quired a  wide  repQtatioQ  as  a  scholar  and 
writer.  William  of  Malmesbury  even  says, 
though  the  truth  of  the  statement  is  doubtAil, 
that  Pope  Bergins  sent  t«  Bede's  superiors, 
begging  them  to  requaet  him  to  go  to  Rome  to 
enter  the  immediate  service  of  the  pontifi*.  He 
did  not  leave  his  monastery,  however,  but  spent 
his  whole  life  at  Wearmoath,  absorb^  in  stndy 
and  in  writing.  His  greatest  work,  the  "  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  the  English  Nation," 
occupied  him  for  many  years,  and  has  re- 
mained the  beat  and  most  trusted  authority  on 
the  early  period  of  which  it  treats.  It  was 
compiled  fi^m  chronicles,  the  traditions  handed 
down  in  the  convents,  and  miscdlaneous  evi- 
dence of  many  kinds ;  but  it  is  remarkably  free 
from  the  exaggerations  and  distortions  which 
fill  the  books  of  many  of  the  later  monkish 
historians.  Bede  produced  a  great  number  of 
other  and  smaller  worts,  principally  essi^  and 
treatises  on  ecclesiastical  matters.  His  litwary 
activity  was  eitraordiuary,  and  his  devotion  to 
his  work  moat  entlmsiastio.  Even  during  hia 
last  Illness  he  continued  Do  dictate  to  an  amen- 
uensls  the  oonclurion  of  a  translation  of  the 
Gospel  of  St  John  (as  is  supposed)  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  immediately  after  completing  the  last 
sentence  he  reqnested  his  assistant  to  place  bim 
on  the  floor  of  nis  cell,  said  a  short  prayer,  and 
expired  as  thelast  word  passed  his  lips.  Bede's 
HUtoria  EeeUtiattiea  was  first  printed  in  Ger- 
many about  1476,  There  is  a  copy  of  this  edi- 
tion in  the  British  museum,  and  one  in  Paris, 
The  history  was  translated  from  the  Latin  into 
Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred,  and  his  version 
may  be  found  in  several  English  editions,  as 
those  of  Ounbridge,  1644  and  1729.     An  Eng- 


edition  of  Bede's  Latin  t«xt  is  that  of  the  Eng- 
lish historical  sodety  (1886).  A  later  EngliAi 
version  is  that  of  lit.  Giles  (London,  1840), 
who  has  also  published  Bede'a  complete  works, 
as  far  as  extant,  in  6  vols.  {184&-'4);  and  a 
new  translation  appeared  in  1671. 

BEDEiD,  Kaito  Uphsue,  a  French  general, 
bom  at  Yertou,  Aug,  10, 1804,  died  in  Nantes, 
Oct.  80,  1863,  He  was  the  son  of  a  naval 
officer,  was  edaoated  at  Saint  Cyr,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp  (1682)  as  aide 
de-camp  of  Generals  GSrard  and  Schramm, 
served  m  Algeria,  and  in  1844  became  lieuten- 
ant general  and  commander  of  the  province  of 
Constantine.  He  was  provinona)  governor  of 
Algeria  from  July  to  October,  1847.  Com- 
manding one  of  the  five  columns  in  Paris 
charged  with  the  represaon  of  the  insurrection 

'  February,  1848,  he  was  accQsed  by  Bugeaud 


of  having  evinced  too  little  energy,  bnt  prdVed 
that  he  had  strictly  obeyed  that  marshal's 
orders.    Though  appointed  by  the  revolntion- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEDEIX 

ary  government  minister  of  war,  he  preferred 
to  be  military  oommaDder  (^  Paris.  He  was 
next  commander  of  the  first  division  of  the 
army  of  the  Alps,  was  elected  to  the  constitn- 
ent  assembly  by  the  department  of  Loire-In- 
f§rienre,  and,  though  originally  a  legitimist, 
was  more  liberal  than  most  conservatlvee.  He 
was  wonnded  while  operating  nnder  Oavaignac 
ag^stthe  Paris  inani^nta  in  Jnne,  1846.  In 
1849  he  was  sent  to  the  le^slative  assembly 
by  the  denartment  of  the  Seine,  He  was  now 
considereo,  after  Cavai^nao  and  Lamoricifere, 
one  of  the  principal  military  sopports  of  the 
repnblican  constitntion.  The  amp  iFitat  of 
Dec.  S,  1851,  consigned  him  to  prison  at  Mazas 
and  Ham,  and  snbseqnently  to  banishment  in 
Belgium  tin  after  the  amnesty  of  1868,  when 
he  retunwd  to  France. 

BEDQi.  L  6rtgM7  TiWHMd,  D.  D.,  an 
American  clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal chnroh,  bom  on  Btat«n  Island,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
28,  1798,  died  in  Baltimore,  Ang.  80,  1884, 
while  on  his  way  to  Philadelphia,  where  he 
was  bnried  Sept,  3.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
Bishop  Uoore  of  Vir^nia,  and  a  graduate  of 
Oolnmbia  college  (1811).  Having  been  or- 
dained deacon  in  1814,  he  became  rector  at 
Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1816,  at  Fayettoville,  N.  0., 
in  1618,  and  of  St.  Andrew's  cbnreh,  Phila- 
delphia, which  bad  been  bnilt  for  his  use,  in 
1838,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He 
was  the  anthor  of  many  sacred  poems,  and  of 
several  masical  compositions,  some  of  which 
are  in  familiar  use  in  the  chnrches.  Among 
his  other  worlis  are:  "Bible  Btndies"  (9  vols., 
18S9),  " Eiekiel's  Virion,"  "Onward,  or  Chris- 
tian Progression,"  "  Waymarks,"  "  Is  it  well  t " 
Ac.  After  his  death  the  Rev,  Dr.  Tyng  pub- 
lished a  memoir  of  him  with  SO  of  his  sermons 
(2  vols.,  1836);  the  former  was  also  published 
separately.  As  stated  in  this  memoir,  "  he  was 
very  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  his  oratory, 
and  has  been  regarded  by  those  best  qualified 
to  judge  as  a  model  of  chaste,  digniQed,  and  h 


BEDFORD 


447 


pressive  eloontion."    n>  GrcgMf  nnrtWjD.  D., 

an  American  bishop  of  the  PTOt«stant  Episco- 
pal church,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Hud- 
son, N.  Y,,  Aug.  27,  1817.  He  was  educated 
at  Bristol  college,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  theo- 
logical seminary  of  Virginia,  was  ordained  in 
1840  at  St.  Andrew's  church,  Philadelphia, 
and  became  pastor  at  Westchester,  Penn.  He 
was  rector  of  the  chnroh  of  the  Ascension, 
New  Tort,  fhjm  1848  to  1856,  since  which 
time  he  has  been  assistant  bishop  of  Ohio. 
He  is  prominent  amons  the  evangelical  clergy 
of  the  Episcopal  church,  and  a  number  of  his 
sermons  nave  been  published  by  request  in  the 
United  States  and  England.  He  has  also  re- 
published one  of  his  father's  works,  "Pay  thy 
Vows,"  nnder  the  title  "RenonoiaUon,"  wiwi 
additions  of  his  own. 

BBDHJ^  VllllaH,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 

Black  Notley,  Essex,  in  IGTO,  died  at  Kilmore, 

Feb.  7,  1643.    He  was  secretary  to  Sir  Henry 

Wotton  (HI  his  embassy  to  Venice  in  1604, 

81  VOL,  11.— 3» 


Having  acquired  the  Italian  language,  he  trans- 
lated the  "Book  of  Common  ftayer,"  and 
presented  it  to  the  clergy  who  were  at  the  time 
appointed  by  the  republic  of  Venice  to  preach 
against  the  papal  power.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  remained  in  retirement  tor  some 
time,  but  was  at  length  presented  t«  a  living 
in  Norfolk.  In  163T  he  was  elected  provost 
of  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  which  office  he  de- 
clined until  the  Eing's  orders  made  his  accept- 
ance imperative.  He  was  next  made  bishop 
of  Kilmore  and  of  Ardagb,  but  resigned  the 
latter  see,  and  addressed  himself  to  the  task 
of  reforming  the  clergy  of  Kilmore,  and  of  in- 
troducing the  Protestant  worship  into  Ireland. 
He  studied  Irish,  and  had  the  Prayer  Book 
with  the  homilies  of  Ohrysostom  and  Leo  in 
praise  of  reading  the  Scriptures  translated  and 
circulated.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  great  Irish 
rebellion  he  was  at  first  not  molegt«d,  a  respite 
which  he  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  distressed 
Protestants.  Soon,  however,  his  palace  was 
invaded,  and  himself  his  two  sons,  and  son-in- 
law  were  carried  off  to  a  stronghold  of  the 
rebels,  where  all  except  the  bishop  were  put 
in  fetters.  The  exposure  during  the  winter 
brought  on  a  severe  fever,  of  which  soon  after 
his  release  he  died.  At  his  burial  a  concourse 
of  Roman  CathoUcs  attended,  and  a  volley  was 
fired  over  his  grave  by  the  rebels.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  was  published  in 
1686  at  the  expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle. 
His  life  was  written  by  Bishop  Bnrnet  (1686), 
moroKD,  the  name  of  counties  in  three  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Maryland  border;  area,  about 
1,000  »q.  m.;  pop,  in  1870,  S9,B35,  The  sur- 
face is  broken  by  numerous  ridges  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  whose  principal  chain  forms  the  W, 
border  of  the  county.  One  half  of  the  surface 
is  nnflt  for  onltivatipn,  but  in  this  portion  iron 
ore  is  abundant.  The  Pittsbui^b  and  Oonnells- 
ville  railroad  passes  through  the  8,  W.  comer, 
and  the  Huntingdon  and  Broad  Top  road  has  its 
terminus  near  the  centre  of  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  888,074  bushela 
of  wheat,  118,091  of  rye,  405,261  of  Indian 
com,  876,996  of  oats,  86,491  of  buckwheat, 
104,667  of  potatoes,  28,638  tons  of  hay,  467,341 
lbs.  of  butter,  and  80,706  of  wool.  There  were 
8,349  horses,  8,079  milch  cows,  10,189  other 
cattle,  21,746  sheep,  and  16,802  swine,  Oani- 
tal,  Bedford,  II,  A  S,  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
at  the  E.  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  bonnded  K. 
E.  by  the  James  and  S.  W.  by  the  Staunton 
river ;  area,  604  sq.  m. ;  pop,  in  1870,  36,827, 
of  whom  10,770  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  mountainous  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad  passes 
through  the  county.  The  chief  productions  in 
1S70  were  166,660  bushels  of  wheat,  368,990 
of  Indian  oom,  249,799  of  oats,  and  1,966,167 
lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  8,194  horses, 
8,996  milch  cows,  6,fi69  other  cattle,  5,935 
sheep,  and  12,649  swine.  Capital,  Liberty, 
III.  A  central  connty  of  Tennessee,  intersected 


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448  BED] 

bj  Dack  river ;  area,  6S0  Bq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1 870, 
24,888,  of  whom  6,484  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  undulatiii?  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
conntj  IB  traversed  b;  the  Ka«hville  and  Chat- 
tanooga railroad.  The  chief  productionB  in 
1870  were  212,922  bosheU  of  wheat,  l,010,ft42 
of  Indian  corn,  104,801  of  oats,  S5,fiIS  lbs.  of 
wool,  and  889  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
e,2SG  horses,  2,ST2  mulea  and  assea,  4^GG8  milch 
cows,  8,916  other  cattle,  25,204  sheep,  and 
88,962  swine.     Capital,  Shelb^ville. 

BEDFOKD,  a  post  boroogh,  capital  of  Bedford 
count;,  Penn^  2S6  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia, OD  the  KajstowQ  branch  of  the  Janiata 
river  1  pop.  in  1870,  1,247.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  q>rings,  aiteated  in  a  valle; 
aboat  H  m.  tVom  the  town,  and  muoh  reaorted 
to  by  invalids  in  eommer.  The  water  oon- 
tuna  carbonio  acid,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sul- 
phate of  lime,  and  mnriate  of  soda.  It  has 
two  weekly  newspapers. 

BEDFOKD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentarj 
boroQgb  of  England,  capital  of  Bedfordshire, 
ntnated  on  the  Ouse,  41  m.  N.W.  of  London  by 
a  new  branch  of  the  Midland  railway ;  pop.  in 
1871,  ie,849.  The  town  is  well  paved,  and  di- 
vided by  the  Ooae  into  two  parts,  which  are 
oooneotedby  afiaestonebridoe.  John  Banyan 

freaohed  here  and  composed  his  "  Pilgrim 's 
rogresa"  in  the  conntyjul.  The  charitable 
and  ednoationat  inetitations  of  Bedford  are 
larger  and  better  than  those  of  most  English 
towns.  Many  of  them  were  endowed  by  Sir 
William  Harpnr  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ; 
his  beqneBts  produce  over  £13,000  a  year,  and 
snpport  several  schools  of  different  grades,  in- 
olnding  a  grammer  school  (which  has  been  en- 
larged since  1861,  and  is  now  known  aa  the 
Tudor  collegiate  building),  and  over  GO  honsee 
for  paupers.  The  old  church  of  Bt.  Peter's, 
with  a  curioos  Norman  door  and  an  antique 
font,  was  enlarged  in  1846.  The  Bnnyun  meet- 
ing honsfi,  originally  a  Baptist  chapel,  has  been 
rebuilt,  and  was  opened  in  1850.  Among  the 
prominent  publio  edifices,  the  Bedford  sdtool 
buildings  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and 
extent ;  the  public  library  is  also  a  fine  e^ab- 
lisbment.  There  is  an  excellent  com  exchange, 
and  a  new  cattle  market  was  opened  in  1867. 
There  is  an  active  trade  in  wheat,  barley,  malt, 
coal,  timber,  and  iron.  The  principal  mann- 
faotnres  are  pillow  lace,  straw  plait,  shoes,  and 

r'oultnral  implements,  the  iron  ploughs  of 
Howard  estabhsbment  being  the  most  re- 
nowned of  England.  Bedford  has  sent  two 
members  to  parliament  ever  since  the  end  of 
the  ISth  centut?,  besides  the  two  retnmed  by 
the  county.  It  is  supposed,  to  be  identical 
with  the  town  of  Bedcanford  mentioned  in 
tlie  Saxon  Clironicle,  the  scene  of  confiicta 
between  the  Saxons  and  Britons  late  in  the 
6tb  oentnry,  and  400  years  later  between  the 
Saxons  and  the  Danes,  who  bnmed  it  early  in 
the  11th  century.  The  first  charter  on  record 
waa  granted  to  the  town  bj  Henry  II.,  and  the 
last  by  Charles  11. 


SEOnnD,  Gmlig  8.,  an  Amerioaa  pliyn- 
cian,  bom  in  Baltimore  in  1806,  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  G,  1870.  He  graduated  at  the 
ButgerB  medical  college  in  1829,  and  after- 
ward spent  two  yeara  in  professional  study  in 
Europe.  In  1888  he  was  ^pointed  profeseor 
in  the  medical  ooUege  of  Charleeton,  and  snb- 
seqnently  in  the  medical  college  of  Albany,  N. 
Y.  Soon  afterward  he  commenced  practice  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  medical  department  of  the  New 
York  univerrity  (1840)  he  was  created  profeseor 
of  obstetrics,  m  which  chair  he  continued  till 
1862.  His  two  principal  works,  which  have 
been  remarkably  popalar,  are  "  The  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Obstetrica,"  and  "  The  Diseaaee 
of  Women  and  Children,"  the  latter  of  which 
has  passed  through  t«n  editions.  They  have 
been  traiidat«d  into  French  and  German. 

BEDFORD,  Jaha,  Duke  of;  an  English  soldier 
and  stat«nnan,  bom  abont  1889,  died  in  Ronen, 
Franco,  Sept.  14,  14S6.  He  was  the  third  eon 
of  Henry  l¥.  of  EngUnd  and  of  Mary  de  Bo- 
hnn,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford.  He  waa 
knighted  in  1899,  at  the  coronation  of  hie  fa- 
ther, and  became  governor  of  Berwick-upon- 
Tweed  and  warden  of  the  Scottish  marches. 
His  brother  Henry  V.  in  141G  conferred  upon 
him  the  dukedom  of  Bedford,  and  appointed 
him  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Eng- 
land, while  he  vindicated  in  France  his  right 
to  that  realm.  Henry  V,  in  1422  de«gnated 
on  his  deathbed  the  duke  of  Bedford  aa  regent 
of  France  daring  the  minority  of  Henry  VI., 
then  one  year  old,  and  the  fonrth  son  of  Henry 
IV.,  the  dnke  of  Gloncester,  as  r^ent  of  Fin- 
land. So  great  was  Bedford's  renown,  that 
parliament  set  ande  the  king's  will  a    " 


chaise  this  function.  The  proceedings  on  this 
occaoiaD  established  animportant  constitutional 
precedent  in  favor  of  tiie  prerogativea  of  parlia- 
ment over  tlie  crown.  Bedford  first  offered  the 
regMioy  of  France  to  the  duke  of  Burgondj, 
on  whose  reftisal  he  assumed  the  office  in  virtue 
of  the  treaty  of  Troyee  in  1420,  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy  and  Brittany  having  renewed  their 
adherence  to  this  treaty,  and  the  union  between 
them  being  cemented  by  Bedford  and  the  duke 
of  Brittany  both  marrying  daughters  of  the 
dnke  of  Burgundy.  After  the  death  of  Charies 
VL  of  France  (Oct.  21,  1422)  Bedford  pro- 
olwmed  Henry  VI.  as  king  of  both  coontries; 
but  war  soon  broke  out  with  Charles  VII., 
who  was  defeated  at  Cr^vant  (1428),  end  over- 
whelmed at  Vemenil  (1424),  where  Bedford 
commanded  in  person  and  displayed  great  skill, 
but  waa  unable  to  follow  up  his  victory.  Jacque- 
line of  Luxemburg,  wifeof  thedukeof  GloDce*- 
ter,  had  eloped  from  her  first  husband,  the  dnke 
of  Brabant,  who  contested  her  Haiuant  pocco 
eions  with  Glonceeter;  and  when  they  were 
invaded  by  the  latter,  the  duke  of  BnrfruDdy 
came  to  the  aasistanoe  of  his  kinsman  of  Bra- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BEDFORD  LEVEL 

bant  Id  addition  to  th«  defection  of  the  Bar- 
gondiBn  forces,  Bedford  was  crippled  hj  the 
veifttions  oonrse  of  his  brother  iwd  of  por- 
UameDt,  uid  by  inteetine  agitation  in  England. 
Nevertheless,  bis  victoriee  would  probabl;  have 
culminated  in  the  conquest  of  France  if  it  had 
not  been  tor  the  rusing  of  the  siege  of  Orleans 
by  the  interpomtion  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Bedford, 
with  reinforcements  from  the  garrison  towns 
of  Normandy,  followed  Charlea  VII.  to  Paris. 
Before  the  walls  of  the  capital  he  succeeded  in 
repnlsing  the  maid  of  Orleans,  and  in  capturing 
her  while  she  was  attempting  to  make  a  sail; 
from  Compile  (May  24,  liSO) ;  and  he  was 
mbsequentl;  the  principal  agent  in  bringing 
her  to  the  stake.  After  the  death  of  his  wife, 
Nov.  14, 1482,  be  widened  still  more  the  breach 
between  him  and  the  doke  of  Burgnody  by 
marrying  Jacqoette,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  St. 
Pol,  cote  of  Boi^ondy'B  vaaaals.  Cardinal  Bean- 
fort  exerted  hunself  in  vain  to  reconcile  the 
two  princea.  At  length  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
■greed  npon,  but  this  was  regu^ed  as  hostile 
to  EngUsh  Interests,  and  Bedford's  death  was 
haatened  by  mortification  a  fortnight  before  ita 
facial  ra^cation.  He  was  a  patron  of  let- 
ters, and  acnoired  for  London  the  royal  library 
of  Paris. — Toe  dukedom  of  Bedford  was  revived 
in  1664,  and  conferred  upon  William  Bus- 
sell,  5th  earl  of  Bedford,  the  progenitor  of  the 
present  ducal  family. 

BENOBD  LETBL,  a  district  of  England,  oon- 
ristinR  of  an  extenuve  tract  of  level  country 
boonded  N.  E.  by  the  German  ocean,  and  on 
•U  other  sdea  by  highlands  which  enoompass 
it  like  a  horseshoe.  It  embraces  tlie  isle  of 
Ely,  in  Cambridge,  and  portions  of  Hnnting- 
doD,  Northampton,  Lincom,  Norfolk,  and  Snf- 
fotk ;  length  aboat  60  m.,  breadth  40  m. ;  area 
probably  about  400,000  aorea.  There  is  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  at  the  time  of  the 
Boman  invawon  the  surface  of  the  diatxiot  was 
mnch  lower  than  now,  and  covered  by  one  of 
those  vast  forests  into  which  the  nativea  used 
to  retreat,  and  whit^h  it  was  the  general  policy 
of  the  conqnerors  to  destroy.  The  subjngated 
people  were  employed  in  felling  the  trees  and 
oreoting  great  embankments  to  keep  out  the 
tea.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Sd  oentnry  the 
emperor  Severns  bnilt  roads  through  the 
mEU^aa,  one  of  which,  from  Peterbotongh  to 
Denver,  was  60  ft.  wide  and  made  of  gravel  3 
ft,  deep ;  it  is  now  covered  by  from  8  to  B  ft. 
of  BoiL  For  many  years  the  district  was  fertile 
and  well  cultivated ;  bnt  in  1386,  during  a  vio- 
lent storm,  the  sea  burst  thronzh  the  embank' 
ment  at  Wisbeaoh  and  other  places,  dcHog  im- 
mense damage  to  life  and  property,  and  redu- 
cing the  surviving  inhabitants  to  great  distress. 
A  second  accident  of  the  same  kind  oeonrred 
in  1258,  and  a  third  a  few  years  later.  The 
evil  was  sometimes  aggravated  by  improper 
measure*  taken  for  its  cure,  so  that  in  the 
ooorse  of  time  the  greater  part  of  the  district 
became  a  vaat  morasa,  some  portions  of  which 
vera  covered  witii  pools  of  stagnant,  putrid 


water  from  10  to  20  ft.  deep.  Efforte  to  drain 
it  were  set  on  foot  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII., 
EliEabetli,  and  James  I.,  but  all  fuled.    In  the 

time  of  Charles  I.  the  earl  of  Bedford,  after 


by  Ills  son,  who  brought  the  work  to  a  clone 
and  received  9G,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  land 
as  a  compensation.  A  regular  system  for  pre- 
serving and  improving  the  drained  lands  was 
now  inaugurated.  A  corporation  for  their 
management,  oonsisting  of  a  governor,  6  h&>- 
liffa,  20  conservators,  and  a  commonalty,  was 
chartered  and  ia  still  kept  up.  Of  lat«  years 
important  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  old  system  of  drainage,  which  in  some  re- 
spects proved  defective.  The  reclaimed  lands 
Sroduce  fine  crops  of  grain,  flax,  and  cole  seed, 
at  the  harvests  have  occasionally  suffered  by 
fresh  innndations,  one  of  which  in  1841  in- 
volved a  loss  of  over  £ieO,000. 

BEDF01P6BIRE  (often  abbreviated  Beds), 
a  county  in  the  south  midland  diviaion  of 
England,  bounded  by  the  counties  of  North- 
ampton, Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  Hertford, 
and  Buckingham ;  area,  about  COO  aq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  14«,2S6.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ouse  and  its  tribntary  the  Ivel.  The  only 
range  of  high  lands  ia  the  lowest  portion  of  the 
Chiltem  hills,  the  country  being  generally  level. 
The  woods  are  of  modern  growth.  The  chief 
wealth  of  the  conoty  is  agrtooltural.  Near 
the  valley  of  the  Ouae  the  soil  is  well  adapted 
for  market  gardening.  Ferruranous  peat  is 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  river  Ivel.  The  an- 
cient Ikeneld  and  Watling  Street  roads  passed 
through  the  county,  and  there  are  many  Roman, 
Saxon,  and  Norman  antiquities.  The  Roman 
forces  of  Julius  Cnsar  were  opposed  by  the 
chief  of  the  district,  which  was  called  Catyen- 
ohlana,  and  nnder  Oonstantine  Bedfordshire 
was  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Flavia 
Ccesarien^  Under  the  Saxon  heptarchy  it 
was  part  of  Mercia,  and  nnder  Alfred  it  re- 
ceived ita  present  name  and  divisions.  Among 
the  renowned  country  seats  are  Wobnm  Abbey, 
belonging  to  the  Kusseil  family  ;  Luton  Hoo,  to 
the  Earl  of  Bute;  Ampthill  park,  to  the  Hol- 
land family ;  and  Cardington  house,  once  the 
residence  of  the  philanthropist  Howard. 

BEDUM,  the  popular  designation  of  Beth- 
lehem hospital,  a  Innatio  asylum  in  London, 
derived  from  a  priory  founded  in  1246  by 
Simon  Fitz  Hary,  sheriff  of  London.  Aljter 
the  suppression  of  the  religious  houses,  Henry 
VIII.  granted  it  in  1S47  to  the  corporation  of 
London:  hut  it  retained  the  name  of  Fitz 
Uary's  hospital  till  ISTS,  when  the  building 
was  removed  from  Bishop^ate  without  (where 
now  is  Bethlem  oonrt)  to  Uoorfields,  near 
London  wall,  in  the  city  of  London.  The  new 
hospital  was  laid  out  by  the  architect  Ro1>ert 
Hooke,  and  cost  nearly  £17,000.  This  second 
hospital  was  taken  down  in  1814,  the  fonnda- 
tion  stone  of  the  third  and  present  establish- 
ment in  St.,  George's  Fields  having  been  laid 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


450  BED< 

April  IB,  1818.  The  building  has  been  mach 
eiuarged,  and  noir  covers  14  acres  and  accom- 
modates abont  600  patients.  The  aunttal  in- 
come is  nearlj  £30,000,  and  the  ezpenditnre 
over  £20,000.  The  wretched  maoageiiient  of 
the  first  hospital  led  in  ITTl  to  the  prohibition 
of  the  brutal  exhibition  of  maniacs,  whose 
treatment  t^imished  materials  for  Hogarth's 
picture  of  a  madhouse  in  his  "  Rake's  Pro- 
gress." Patients  partlf  onred  were  permitted 
to  go  at  large,  and  were  called  Bedlam  beg- 
gars, or  Tom-o'-Bedlems.  The  mismanaKcment 
continaed,  though  in  a  far  less  degree,  till  1615, 
since  which  time  improvements  have  been 
gradnallf  introduced. 

BEDOUINS  (Arab.  Bedawi,  pi.  Bedviiti,  dwell- 
er in  the  desert),  the  nomadic  trittes  of  Arabis., 
Irak,  and  the  eastern  and  soatheaatem  parts 
of  Syria.  They  live  in  tribes  of  from  300  to  20,- 
000  or  80,000  men,  moving  from  place  to  place 
as  the  exigencies  of  their  flocks  and  herds  re- 


qaire.  From  the  earliest  ages  they  have  led  e. 
pastoral  life,  dwelling  in  tents  and  rearing 
cattle,  with  which  they  supplied  the  cities,  go- 
ing ont  on  plondering  eicnrsions  or  spending 
their  leisure  time  in  horse-racing,  athletic 
sports,  story-telling,  and,  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  tobacco,  in  smoking.  All  domestic 
labor  except  milking  and  spinning  is  leit  to 
the  women  and  slaves ;  the  arable  land  is  culti- 
vatfld  by  the  neighboring  peasantry,  who  re- 
ceive one  third  of  the  produce  and  are  main- 
tained at  the  eipense  of  the  proprietor  during 
their  stay,  as  a  reward  for  their  service.  The 
women  also  perform  the  part  of  hairdressers 
to  their  husbands  in  curling  their  locks.  The 
tending  of  the  flocks  is  left  to  the  boys  and  girls. 
The  Bedouin  considers  agricultare  beneath  bis 
ilignity ;  he  despiacs  alike  all  labor  and  engage- 


ments in  commerce,  prond  of  his  liberty  and 
Kcnealogy,  which  he  traces  back  to  Mohammed, 
Ishmoel,  or  Joktan.  He  is  flerce  and  warlike, 
not  out  of  patriotism,  for  he  has  no  coontry, 
but  for  the  sake  of  plunder.     The  Bedouins  are 

Caionately  fond  of  poetry;  nearly  every  tribe 
a  poet,  who  recites  the  deieds  of  their 
heroes  and  adventures  of  lovers,  aocompany- 
ing  bis  songs  with  the  roAnfia,  a  kind  of  one- 
stringed  fiddle.  They  are  among  the  most 
expert  riders  in  the  world,  and  are  greatly 
attached  to  their  horses.  Their  diet  is  umple, 
consisting  of  the  flesh  and  milk  of  their  herds, 
rice,  and  cofifee.  They  dislike  sleeping  in  bnild- 
inga,  and  when  obliged  to  visit  the  towns  for 
the  sale  of  their  cattle,  wool,  and  grain,  their 
stay  there  is  as  brief  as. possible.  The  Be- 
douins are  of  middle  size,  spare  and  nuewy, 
capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue  and  exposnra 
to  the  fiery  sun  and  hot  winds  of  the  desert 
In  complexion  they  are  dark  brown,  have  reg- 
ular features,  vrith  deep-set,  piercing,  and  intrf- 
ligent  eyes.  Their  clothing,  especially  during 
p^redatory  eicurwons,  is  often  reduced  to  a 
single  cotton  shirt  bound  roond  the  wust  with 
a  leathern  girdle,  in1«  which  the  Bedouin  sticks 
his  arms  with  a  pipe  and  lighting  apparatus. 
The  wealthy  Bedoum  or  the  sheikh  wears  over 
his  shirt  a  long  gown,  often  of  scarlet  cloth, 
with  the  usual  arms,  pistols  and  short  dagger, 
in  his  girdle,  while  a  silver- mounted  sword  is 
swnnK  across  bis  shoulder,  and  a  flowing  mantle 
of  cashmere  covers  the  whole.  The  head  dresa 
consists  of  a  keMyi  or  shawl  of  woo)  or  silk 
interwoven  with  gold  Jace,  with  fiinges  of  the 
same  material,  folded  comerwise  and  tied  round 
the  head  with  «  cord.    He  wears  clumsy  boots 


of  red  or  yellow  leather.    The  Bedouins 


prao- 


rant,  superstitious,  flerce,  revengelbl,  and  of 
depraved  mm^ls.    Their  greatest  virtne  is  hoa- 

j>itality  to  their  guests;  but  even  this  is  ques- 
tionable, and  the  sanctity  of  the  asylum  idakkil) 
has  often  been  violated.  Instances,  however, 
are  not  rare  of  magnanimous  conduct,  where 
the  dakhil  has  been  faithfiilly  observed  even 
at  great  danger  to  the  protector.  Cnlike  the 
Turkomans  or  other  robbers  in  civilized  coun- 
tries, the  Bedouin  is  averse  to  shedding  blood, 
and  will  have  recourse  to  extreme  measures 
only  when  others  have  failed.  This  may  be 
partly  attributed  to  their  fear  of  oansing  a 
blood  feud.  The  Bedouins  have  no  criminal 
code  except  for  murder,  when  the  blood  feud 
is  rigidly  enforced,  and  the  murderer  and  some- 
times one  of  his  relations  is  liable  to  be  killed 
at  any  moment  by  the  survivors  <rf  the  victim. 
But  even  here  a  compensation  can  he  made 
and  accepted.  (See  Blood  Mo\et  )  The  gen- 
eral government  of  Arabia  is  patriarchal,  each 
tribe  having  ite  sheikh  or  chief  The  sheikh- 
ship  is  hereditary,  the  next  oldest,  whether  son 
or  Drother,  succeeding.  The  sheikh  leads  the 
men  to  battle,  represents  tne  tribe,  and  acts 
as  arbitrator  in  uifTerences  wbioli  may  arise 
between  them. — The  Bedouins  seem  never  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


iuve  been  conquered.  Retiring  to  tbeir  deserts 
when  danger  Uireatena,  it  is  almoat  impoBsible 
for  their  enemiee  to  follow,  where  the  wells 
are  only  known  to  themselvas.  But  they  have 
not  nnfroqaently  saffered  terrible  retaliation  for 
their  robberleB.  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  son  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  in  hia  campaigns  against  the  Wa- 
hsbees,  was  perhaps  their  most  eucoessful  aa- 
aailant.  The  Bedooina  have  been  maraadera 
and  aconrges  over  the  neighboring  territories 
tcom  the  earliest  agee;  and  in  the  Tth  century, 
when  stirred  np  to  the  highest  degree  of  ex- 
citement by  the  preaching  of  Mohammed,  they 
became  the  terror  of  both  Asia  and  Europe. 

BEE,  the  name  of  several  genera  of  honey- 
making  insecta,  of  theorder  hymmapura,  family 
anthophila,  divided  by  Latreille  into  the  two 
sections  andrenida,  aotitary  heea  consisting 
only  of  males  and  females,  and  apiarux,  either 
solitary  or  living  in  large  or  small  societies. 
Of  the  different  genera  of  bees  no  fewer  than 
2S0  species  are  natives  of  Great  Britain.  L 
■•MT  Bm  (idm),  the  best  known,  most  widely 
diffiised,  and  most  nsefiil  genns  of  the  apiaria. 
The  common  honey  bee  {A.  mtlUfUa,  Linn.)  is 
probablyofAuatic  origin,  whence  it  haa  spread 
over  Enrope,  has  been  introduced  in  America, 
and  is  fonnd  in  nearly  all  the  wanner  portions 
of  the  world.  There  are  many  other  species 
of  apU,  as  A.,  limutiea,  of  Spain  and  Italy ; 
A.  tinieolor,  of  Madagascar ;  A.  iTtdiea,  at 
India;  A. /aieiatti,  of  Egypt;  aai  A.  Adatuo- 
nii,  of  Senegal.  The  generic  description  of  A. 
mellifiea  wOl  answer  in  the  mun  for  all  others 
domesticated  in  hives  and  apiaries.  The  bee 
has  four  membranaceous  naked  wings,  the  up- 
per being  the  larger ;  the  mouth  is  furnished 
with  two  strong  mandiblee  and  four  palpi,  larg- 
est in  the  working  bee,  and  used  not  so  much 
in  eating  as  in  breaking  hard  substances  in 
their  various  labors ;  the  teeth,  concave  scales 
with  sharp  edges,  are  attached  to  the  ends  of 
the  Jaws  and  play  horizontally.  For  taking 
np  liquids  it  haa  a  long  flexible  proboacis  or 
trunk,  performing  the  office  of  a  tongue,  though 
it  is  formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  under 
lip ;  it  is  solid,  and  not  tubular  like  the  trunks 
of  other  hyraenopteroas  insects;  the  trunk  is 
supported  on  a  pedicle,  and  is  protected  by  a 
double  sheath ;  the  central  portion,  which  ap- 
pears like  a  thread  or  silky  hair,  under  the 
microscope  is  seen  to  terminate  in  a  sort  of 
button  frmged  with  hairs,  and  the  whole  orffan 
to  ita  very  base  is  aurrounded  with  similar 
fiinges,  admirably  adapted  for  licking  op  flnlda. 
The  eye  is  large,  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  oix-uded  facets  thickly  studded  with  hairs; 
there  is  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  be- 
tween the  antennce  there  are  three  small  bright 
spots,  considered  by  Swammerdam  and  RSan- 
mnroHeyes.  From  the  fact  of  bees  recognizing 
their  hives  from  long  distanoea,  and  flying  in  a 
Btralght  line  toward  them  with  the  greatest 
rapidity,  it  wonld  seem  that  the  sense  of  vision 
ia  very  acute ;  at  the  same  time  we  see  them  run- 
ning their  heads  against  the  hive,  and  actually 


feeling  their  way  to  the  door  with  their  anten- 
na ;  so  that  their  composite  eyes  are  probably 
fitted  only  for  distant  vision.     Whether  the 


..  Pollen  l«k«t  of  Bte  miffnUldd. 
Dlfltd.  S.  S,  g.  Bbh  Doiulnirllj 
Bfr  migtilflsd.  a.  Bae  leeo  thro 
the  momeEl  wtun  U»  akH  of 


Tnmk  of  >  Bm  iuw- 

,    oUg,    i.  Lam  of  the 

throvh  ■  iiuftnuyinj(  jflAU  tt 

■pptmr  between  the 


spots  described  by  Swammerdam  are  eyes  or 
not,  it  seems  that  the  antenns  chiefly  guide 
the  bees  at  night  and  in  the  vicinity  of  near 
objects.  Tlie  antennn  are  composed  of  18  ar- 
ticulations in  the  males,  and  of  12  in  the  fe- 
males; from  their  grest  flexibility  and  constant  i 
motion,  most  of  their  impressions  from  with- 
out are  doubtless  received  through  these ;  by 
them  every  object  is  examined  and  many  of  the 
operations  of  the  hive  performed,  as  building 
the  comb,  storing  the  honey,  feeding  the  larvse, 
and  ascertaining  the  presence  and  wants  of  the 
qneen;  their  removal  completely  changes  the 
instincts  of  both  workers  and  qneen.  The  legs 
are  six  in  number ;  in  the  hind  pair  of  the 
workers  the  middle  portion  is  hollowed  into  a 
triangular  cavity  or  basket,  narrounded  by  a 
margin  of  thickly  set  hwrs ;  in  this  receptacle 
are  carried  the  pollen,  propolis,  and  other  hive 
materials ;  at  the  end  of  the  feet  are  little 
hooks  by  which  they  adhere  to  the  hive,  and  to 
each  other  during  the  wax-secreting  process ; 
the  other  paira  of  feet  have  a  pencil  of  hairs  on 
the  tarsi  by  means  of  which  the  pollen  is  col- 
lected, and  bruahed  off  from  their  bodies  on 
arrival  at  the  hive.  The  bee  has  two  stomachs: 
the  first  is  a  large  membranous  bag,  pointed  in 
front,  for  the  reception  and  retention  of  the 
honey ;  no  diKcstion  takes  place  in  this,  the 
analogue  of  tite  crop  of  birds ;  its  walls  are 
muscular  and  capable  of  throwing  back  the 
honey  into  the  mouth  for  deposition  in  the  r 
cells  or  distribution  to  the  working  bees ;  di- 
gestion is  performed  in  the  second  stomach, 
which  is  of  a  lengthened  cylindrical  shape, 
communicating  witii  the  flret  stomach,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


with  the  intestine,  bj- a  projecting  valmlAr  ap- 
paratus, with  a  ver7  small  opening,  preventing 
all  regni^tation  of  the  food.  The  mascular 
strength  of  bees  is  rerj  great,  and  their  flight 
in  rapid  and  capable  of  being  long  sostained. — 
Notwithstanding  the  cultivation  of  the  .hive 
bee  from  the  earliest  antiqnitj,  its  history  was 
little  more  than  a  series  of  coi^eotnres  until 
the  invention  of  glass  hives  in  1T13  b^  Maraldi, 
a  mathematician  of  fiice,  enabled  nataraliats 
to  stadj  the  indoor  proceedings  of  the  bee ; 
this  invention  was  taken  advantage  of  b;R6an- 
mar,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  more  re- 
cent discoveries  of  Hnnter,  Schirach,  and  the 
Hubera.  Ahiveof  bees  consists  of  three  kinds, 
females,  males,  and  workers;  the  females  are 
called  qneena,  not  more  than  one  of  which  can 
live  in  the  same  hive,  the  presence  of  one  being 
necessary  for  its  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance; the  males  ore  called  drones,  and  may 
exist  by  hundreds  aod  even  thousands  in  a 
hive;  the  workers,  or  nenters,  as  thoy  have 
been  called  &om  the  supposition  that  they  be- 
longed to  neither  sex,  are  by  far  the  most  no- 
merouB.    The  qneen  lays  the  eggs  from  which 


the  race  is  perpetnated ;  the  males  do  no  work, 
and  are  of  no  use  except  t«  impr^nate  the 
females,  after  wMch  they  soon  die  or  are  hill- 
ed; the  workers  collect  the  honey,  secrete  the 
wax,  bnild  the  cells,  and  feed  end  protect  the 
yonnp.  The  females  and  workers  have  a  sting 
at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  absent 
in  the  males;  this  formidable  weapon  consists 
of  an  extensile  sheath,  enclosing  two  needte- 
BJiaped  darts  of  exceeding  finenen,  placed 
ride  by  side ;  toward  the  end  they  are  armed 
with  tnionte  teeth,  tike  those  of  a  saw, 
whence  it  happens  that  the  animal  is  fre- 
qneatly  unable  to  withdraw  the  sting  from 
ui  enemy  that  it  has  pierced,  causing  its  own 
as  well  as  its  victim  s  death ;    the  sting  is 

[irotmded  by  several  muscles  so  powerful  that 
I  will  penetrate  iV  of  an  inch  into  the  thick 
akin  of  the  human  hand.  When  the  sting  enters 
the  flesh  the  acrid  poison  is  sqneeeed  into  the 
wound  tVom  a  bag  near  its  base;  the  poison 
b  a  transparent  fluid  with  a  sweetish  and 
afterward  acrid  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction  ;  it 
is  of  so  active  a  character  that  a  single  sting 
almost  instantly  kills  a  bee ;  animals  have  been 


I  killed  and  men  nearly  so  by  the  stings  of  an  en- 
I  raged  colony  whose  hive  had  been  apset.  The 
queens  are  more  peaceable  and  leas  disposed  to 
I  ating  than  the  workers.  These  three  kinds  of 
{  bees  are  of  a  different  size  and  may  be  easily 
'  rect^nized ;  the  males  are  of  the  heaviest  fli^t. 
'  The  queen  bee  is  the  largest,  being  Bi  lines  in 
length,  the  males  being  7,  and  the  workers  6 ; 
her  abdomen  is  longer  in  proportion,  and  has 
two  ovaria  of  oonsiderable  size ;  her  wings  are 
so  short  as  hardly  to  reach  beyond  the  third 
ring,  and  her  color  is  of  a  deeper  yellow,  She 
is  easily  recognized  by  the  slowness  of  her 
march,  by  her  dze,  and  by  the  respect  and  at- 
tentions paid  to  her;  ahe  lives  in  the  interior 
of  the  hive,  and  seldom  departs  from  it  nnless 
for  the  purpose  of  being  impr^nated  or  to  lead 
out  a  new  swarm ;  if  she  be  removed  from  the 
hive,  the  whole  swarm  will  follow  her.  The 
qneen  governs  the  whole  oolony,  and  is  in  fact 
Its  mother,  she  being  the  only  breeder  oat  of 
20,000  or  80,000  bees.  The  impregnation  o{ 
the  qneen  bee  was  long  a  subject  of  uncertain- 
ty; it  is  now  known,  and  has  been  proved  by 
depriving  the  qneen  bee  of  her  wings,  that  this 
never  takes  place  within  the  hive,  and  that 
if  ahe  be  oonfined  she  always  remains  sterile, 
even  tiiougta  surrounded  by  males.  To  accom- 
plish it  the  qneen  leaves  the  hive  and  flies 
nigh  into  the  air;  after  an  absence  of  about 
half  an  honr  she  returns  with  unequivocal  evi- 
dence of  sexual  union,  having  robbed  the  male 
of  the  organs  ooncemed  in  the  operation.  The 
raale,  thus  mutilated,  soon  dies — a  fact  which 
has  been  proved  by  repeated  observation,  and 
from  which  Huber  infers  the  necessity  of  a 
great  number  of  males  being  attached  to  a 
hive  In  order  that  the  female  may  l>e  almost 
certain  to  meet  one  in  her  flight.  When  im- 
pregnation occurs  late  in  the  autumn,  the  laying 
of  the  eggs  is  delayed  by  the  cold  weather  nntu 
the  following  spring,  so  that  the  ova  are  ready 
to  come  forth  in  March  ;  but  the  youn^  qneen 
Is  capable  of  laying  e(^  BQ  hours  after  mipreg- 
nation.  Before  depositing  an  egg  she  eiaminea 
whether  the  cell  is  prepared  to  receive  it  and 
adapted  for  the  future  condition  of  the  grub,  for 
queens,  males,  and  workers  hare  cells  specially 
constructed  for  them;  the  e^  producing  work- 
ers are  deposited  in  six-sided  horizontal  cells; 
the  cells  of  the  drones  are  somewhat  irregular 
in  their  form,  and  those  of  the  queens  are  large, 
cironlar,  and  hang  perpendicularly.  Whenthe 
cells  are  ready,  the  qneen  goes  from  one  to 
the  other,  with  scaroely  any  repose,  laying 
about  200  eggs  daily;  ue  eggs  first  laid  are 
those  of  workers,  for  10  or  12  days,  during 
which  the  larger  cells  are  in  process  of  oon- 
stmetion;  in  these,  after  thev  have  reached  a 
very  large  size,  she  lays  maie  eggs  for  16  to 
34  days,  less  nmnerons  than  those  of  the  work- 
ers in  the  proportion  of  about  1  to  SO.  The 
royal  cellx,  if  from  the  prodnotiveness  of  the 
season  and  the  number  in  the  hive  it  is  de- 
termined to  bring  out  another  queen,  are 
now  oommenoed;  these  are  of  large  size,  an 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Inch  deep  and  one  third  of  an  inch  wide; 
during  tnnr  conatraotion  the  qaeen  In^s  the 
eggi  of  workera,  and  when  thej  ere  finidkad 
she  depoaiti  &  iingle  egg  in  each  at  one  or  two 
dajs'  interval,  worker  eggs  bdnx  l^d  in  this 
interval.  When  the  eggs  are  Uid  the  workers 
sapply  the  oelU  with  the  fioUen  of  flowers  for 
the  food  of  the  larvoa ;  the  pollen  is  mixed 
with  bone;  and  water,  and  partly  digested  in 
ttie  Btom&cha  of  the  narsing  bees,  and  dis- 
tributed of  different  qaalitiea  according  to  the 
age  of  the  yoang.  The  egi^s  are  of  a  bluish 
white  color,  of  a  lengthened  oval  shape,  alightl; 
ourred;  in  a  proper  temporatnre  tbey  are 
hatched  in  three  aajs;  the  larvEe  are  small 
white  wonns  without  feet.  The  workers  re- 
main five  days  in  this  state,  the  males  uz  and 
a  halt  and  the  females  five;  at  the  end  of  this 
time  the  month  of  the  oell  is  oloaed  hj  a  mix- 
tore  of  wax  and  propolis,  and  the  larvn  begin 
to  spin  a  ulken  envelope,  or  oocoon,  which  ia 
oompleted  in  86  hours ;  in  three  days  more  the 
I«^a  changes  into  a  papa  or  chrysalis,  and 


day.  The  color  of  the  bee  jost  out  of  its  oell 
is  a  light  gray ;  it  reqnires  two  days  to  acquire 
strength  for  flying,  darin|{  which  it  is  caressed 
and  plentifally  fed  by  tbe  nurses.  The  same 
oell  may  bring  several  workers  to  maturity ;  ^ 
when  the  insect  comee  ont  the  oell  b  cleaned,  i 
the  web  being  left  to  strengthen  the  sides.  The 
royal  oelts  are  never  used  bnt  onoe,  being  de- 
stroyed when  the  qaeen  esaanes.  The  eggs 
and  larvn  of  the  royal  family  ao  not  differ  in 
^pearanoe  from  thoee  of  the  workers ;  but  the 
j^nng  are  more  oarefally  nursed,  and  fed  to 
repletion  with  a  more  stimalating  kind  of  food, 
which  causes  them  to  grow  so  rapidly  that  in 
five  days  the  larva  is  prepared  to  spin  its  web, 
and  OS  the  16tll  day  beoomee  a  perfeot  queen. 
Bat,  aa  only  one  queen  can  reign  in  the  hive, 
the  yonng  ones  are  kept  close  prisoners,  and 
carefntly  guarded  against  the  attacks  of  tlie 
qneen  mother,  as  long  as  there  is  any  prospect 
of  her  leading  another  swarm  from  the  hive ; 
if  a  new  swarm  is  not  to  be  sent  off,  the  work- 
en  allow  the  approach  of  the  old  qneeo  to  the 
royal  cells,  and  she  immediately  oommencea 
the  destruDtJon  of  the  royal  brood  by  stinging 
them,  one  after  the  other,  while  they  remain 
in  the  cells.  Huber  observes  that  the  cocoons 
of  the  royal  larvis  are  open  behind,  and  he  be- 
lieves this  to  be  a  provision  of  natare  to  enable 
the  qneen  to  destroy  the  young,  which  in  the 
ordinary  cocoon  would  be  safe  against  her 
sting.  When  the  old  queen  departs  with  a 
swarm,  a  young  one  is  liberated,  who  imme- 
diately seeks  the  destruction  of  her  ustors,  but 
is  prevented  by  the  gnards;  if  she  departs  with 
another  swarm,  a  second  qneen  is  liberated, 
and  so  on,  until  further  swarming  is  impossible 
from  the  diminution  of  the  numbers  or  the 
coldness  of  the  weather;  then  the  reigning 
queen  is  allowed  to  kill  all  her  sisters.  If  two 
qneens  should  happen  to  come  out  at  the  some 


X  453 

time^  they  instantly  coiaraenoe  a  mortal  com- 
bat, and  the  survivor  is  recognized  as  the  sove- 
reign ;  the  other  bees  favor  Uie  battle,  form  a 
ring,  and  excite  the  combatants,  exactly  aa  in 
a  hnman  prize  fight.  The  male  bees  or  drones 
may  be  known  by  the  thicker  body,  more  flat- 
tened shape,  round  head,  more  obtuse  abdo- 
men oontaining  the  male  generative  organs,  the 
absence  of  the  sting,  and  the  hamming  noiso 
of  their  flight;  they  produce  neither  wax  nor 
honey,  being  idle  spectators  of  the  labors  of  the 
workers,  wno  support  them ;  they  comprise 
about  iV  "r  j^a  of  the  whole  number  of  a  hive 
in  the  spring  when  they  are  most  numerous ; 
their  use  is  only  to  impregnate  the  females,  and, 
secondarily,  to  supply  food  to  the  swallows 
and  carnivorous  insects  which  prey  npon  them 
when  they  lake  their  midday  flights.  When 
the  queens  are  impregnated,  utd  the  swarming 
has  ceased,  the  workers,  in  July  or  August, 
commence  on  indiscriminate  attack  npon  the 
drones,  cha«ng  them  into  the  bottom  and  cor- 
ners of  the  hive,  killing  them  with  their  stings, 
and  casting  out  the  dead  bodies ;  this  destruo' 
IJon  extends  even  to  the  eggs  and  larvn  of 
malee.  If  a  hive  ia  without  a  queen,  the  males 
are  allowed  to  survive  the  winter.  The  work- 
ing heee  are  the  smallest,  with  a  lengthened 
proboscis,  the  basket  conformation  of  the  pos- 
terior pair  of  legs,  and  the  apparent  absence 
of  generative  organs.  Tbey  have  been  divided 
by  Huber  into  nnrses  and  wax-workers ;  the 
former  are  the  smallest  and  weakest,  ill  adapt- 
ed for  carrying  hardens,  and  their  basiness  is 
to  collect  the  honey,  feed  and  take  oare  of  the 
grabs,  complete  the  cells  commenced  bv  tlie 
others,  and  to  keep  the  btve  clean ;  the  latter 
take  the  charge  of  provisioning  the  hive,  col- 
lecting honey,  secreting  and  preparing  wax, 
constructing  the  cells,  defending  the  hire  from 
attack,  attending  to  the  wants  of  the  queen, 
and  carrying  on  all  the  hostilities  of  the  com- 
mnnity.  The  number  of  the  workers  is  from 
6,000  or  10,000  to  60,000,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  hive ;  they  form  aboat  {{  of  the  whole ; 
they  are  armed  with  a  sting,  and  are  easily  ex- 
cited to  Dse  it.  They  are  sometimes  called  neu- 
ters, as  if  they  were  of  neither  sex ;  but  it  is 
now  established,  by  the  discovery  in  them  on 
minute  dissection  of  rudiments  of  ovaries,  that 
the  larvfe  of  the  workers  and  of  the  females 
do  not  differ ;  that  the  queens  lay  only  two 
kinds  of  ef^s,  one  destined  to  produce  males, 
and  the  other  capable  of  being  converted,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  into  workers  or 
qneens ;  in  other  words,  that  the  workera  are 
females,  in  which  the  generative  organs  are 
not  developed.  On  the  loss  of  the  qaeen  the 
hive  is  thrown  into  the  greatest  oonf^on; 
the  bees  msh  from  the  hive,  and  seek  the 
queen  in  all  directions;  after  some  hours  all 
becomes  qniet  again,  and  the  labors  are  resum- 
ed. If  there  be  no  eggs  nor  brood  in  the 
comba,  the  bees  seem  to  lose  their  faculties ; 
they  cease  to  labor  and  to  collect  food,  and  the 
whole  community  soon  dies.    But,  if  there  be 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


454  b; 

brood  in  the  combs,  the  labors  contume  as  fol- 
lows :  haviog  selected  a  gmb,  not  more  than 
three  da73  old,  the  workers  sacrifice  three  oon- 
tjgnous  cells  that  the  cell  of  the  f;rub  maj  be 
made  into  a  rojal  cell ;  they  supply  it  with 
the  peculiar  stimulating  jelly  reserved  for  the 
queona,  and  at  the  end  of  the  usaal  IB  days  the 
brvaofaworkerismetamorphosedintoa  queen. 
Thia  fact^  which  rests  on  indisputable  author- 
itj,  \a  certainly  a  moat  remarkable  natural  pro- 
vision for  tiie  preservation  of  the  lives  of  the 
colony.  While  a  hive  remains  withont  a  qneen 
Bsvanningcan  never  take  place,  however  crowd- 
ed it  may  be.  The  possibility  of  changing  the 
worker  into  a  queen  is  taken  advantage  of  in 
the  formation  of  artificial  swarms,  by  which 
the  emoont  of  honey  may  be  indefinitely  in- 
creased. In  a  well-proportioned  hive,  contwn- 
ing  20,000  bees,  there  would  be  ]S,4e9  work- 
ers, 600  males,  and  1  qneen, — The  food  of  bees 


honey  dew,  treacle,  ump,  and  any  saccharine 
substance.  They  Uck  np  honey  and  Snid  Bub- 
atancea  by  their  long  proboaois  from  the  blos- 
soms of  various  flowers;  the  mignonette  and 
clover  afford  honey  of  remarkable  iVagrance 
and  in  great  abundance.  It  is  inferred  that 
bees  have  an  imperfect  sense  of  taste  and  smell 
from  their  collecting  honey  indiaoriminately 
from  sweet-scented  and  offensive  flowers ;  it  is 
well  known  that  in  some  places  their  honey 
acquires  poisonous  qualities  irom  the  flowers 
of  different  species  of  laurel,  thorn-apple,  aza- 
lea, and  poison  osh  ;  many  mysterious  cases  of 
sickness  nave  been  traced  to  the  consumption 
of  such  poisoned  honey,  and  even  the  bees  are 
sometimes  destroyed  by  the  vegetable  poisons 
which  they  imbibe.  Dnring  the  spring,  and 
until  late  in  the  autumn,  bees  collect  the  pollen 
from  the  anthers  of  flowers  by  means  of  the 
hairs  on  their  legs,  and,  atter  forming  a  ball, 
transport  it  in  their  basket  to  the  hive  for  the 
food  of  the  young  brood  ;  this  pollen  consists 
of  small  capsules  which  contain  the  fecunda- 
ting principle  of  flowers,  and  is  so  abundant 
that  the  bees  of  a  single  hive  will  often  bring 
in  a  pound  daily ;  henoe  some  agriculturists 
have  supposed  that  the  bees  diminish  the 
fecundity  of  plants  by  abstracting  the  pol- 
len, when,  on  the  contrary,  they  easentially 
promote  it,  by  transporting  the  fecundating 
principle  m>m  plant  to  plant.  Honey  dew  is  a 
saccharine  fluid  discharged  from  the  tubes  at 
the  extremity  of  the  body  in  the  aphide*.  or 

Clant  lice ;  tiiesa  herd  together  on  plants,  and 
ccome  so  gorged  with  sap  that  they  are  oblig- 
ed to  i^ect  the  honeyed  fluid ;  this  falls  on  the 
loaves  and  dries,  forming  honey  dew,  eagerly 
sought  after  by  bees  and  ants ;  the  same  name 
has  been  given  to  a  sweet  exudation  of  the  aap 
from  the  leaves  of  plants  in  dry  weather. 
Bees  re<]nire  considerable  water,  bat  they  are 
not  particular  about  its  parity.  The  food  of 
the  queen  bee  has  been  subjected  to  chemi- 
cal analysis  by  Dr.  Wetherilfof  PhUodelphia. 


That  of  the  royal  grnbs  Is  a  kind  of  acescent 
jelly,  thick  and  whitish,  becoming  more  trans- 
parent and  saccharine  as  the  larva  increases  in 
size ;  it  has  been  shown  by  Huber  to  conust  of 
a  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen,  modifled  by  the 
workers;  the  former  appears  amorphous  under 
the  microscope,  is  heavier  than  water,  of  the 
consistency  of  wax,  sticky  and  elastic ;  it  con- 
sists of  wax,  albumen,  and  proteine  compounds, 
and  is  therefore  properly  called  bee  bread ;  it 
contains  albuminous  compounds,  which  would 
probably  prove  on  analyst  similar  to  the  glu- 
ten of  wheat.  Honey  alone  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  support  of  bees ;  they  require  nitro- 
genized  substances,  like  pollen,  as  well  as  hon- 
ey and  n on- nitrogen i zed  food.  Wax  is  secreted 
in  pouches  or  receptacles,  in  the  abdomen  of 
the  working  bees  only,  lined  with  a  membrane 
an'anged  in  folds  like  a  six-sided  network;  it 
accumulates  in  these  until  it  appears  exter- 
nally in  the  form  of  scales  between  the  ab- 
dominal rings ;  these  plates  are  withdrawn  by 
the  bee  itself  or  some  of  its  fellow  workers, 
and  used  for  building  and  repairing  tlie  cells. 
The  formation  of  wax  is  the  office  of  the 
wax-workera,  which  may  be  known  from  the 
nurses  by  the  greater  size  and  more  cylindri- 
cal shape  of  the  abdomen,  and  larger  stomach ; 
the  secretion  goes  on  best  when  the  bees  are 
at  reat,  and  accordingly  the  wax-workers  sus- 
pend themselves  in  the  interior  in  an  extended 
cluster  or  hanging  curtain,  holding  on  to  each 
other  by  the  legs;  they  remain  motionless  in 
this  position  about  16  hours,  when  a  nngle  bee 
detaches  itself  and  commences  the  construction 
of  a  cell,  and  the  others  come  to  its  asdstance 
and  b^n  new  cells.  The  quantity  of  wax  se- 
creted depends  not  at  all  on  the  pollen  oonsum- 
ed,  but  on  the  consumption  of  honey;  when 
bees  are  fed  on  cane  angor  they  form  wax  with 
more  difficulty  than  when  they  are  fed  on 
grape  susar ;  the  former  is  not  so  readily  de- 
composed, but  may  be  changed  into  the  latter 
in  the  bee's  body  by  the  absorption  of  2  equiv- 
alents of  water.  According  to  Liebig,  an 
equivalent  of  starch  is  changed  into  fat  by  los- 
ing 1  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid  and  7  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen;  and  Dr.  Wetherill  suggests 
that  wax,  which  bears  a  great  analogy  U>  fata, 
may  be  derived  from  honey  in  similar  man- 
ner. Wax,  composed  of  cerine  and  myricine, 
is  represented  chemically  by  CnHnOt,  and 
anhydrous  grape  sugar  by  CnHnOn;  so  that 
8  equivalents  of  grape  sugar  would  yield  1 
equivalent  of  wax  by  the  loss  of  2  equivalents 
of  carbonic  acid,  2  of  water,  and  28  of  oxy- 
gen.— Bees  breathe  by  means  of  air  tulea, 
which  open  externally  on  the  corslet ;  ex- 
periments show  that  tliey  soon  perish  in  a 
vacuum  or  under  water,  and  that  a  constant 
renewal  of  atmospheric  air  is  necessary  for 
their  well-being.  The  condition  of  a  hive, 
fliled  with  many  thonsand  active  and  crowded 
bees,  and  communicating  with  the  outer  ur 
only  by  a  small  opening  at  the  bottom,  and  that 
nsaally  obstructs  by  the  throng  passing  in  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


out,  b  vei^  nnfavonble  for  th«  maintenance 
of  a  pnre  air;  the  black  hole  of  Calcatta  ia  the 
011I7  human  receptacle  which  can  be  compared 
to  it;  a  taper  ia  verj  soon  extingniahed  in  a 
globe  of  the  dimeoaiona  and  with  the  apertare 
of  a  beehive;  and  yet  these  insects,  aa  ea^lv 
soffocatod  as  any  other,  get  along  very  well, 
and  their  respiratjoa  is  Bocompanied  by  the 
osasl  absorption  of  oxygen  and  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid  goa.  With  all  this  closenesB  of 
the  air  in  the  hive,  direct  examination  has 
proved  that  it  is  nearly  as  pnre  as  atmospheric 
air;  neither  the  contents  of  the  hive  nor  the 
bees  thernselvea  have  any  power  of  evolving 
oxygen,  but  the  air  is  renewed  through  the 
door  of  the  hive,  where  an  inward  current 
is  produced,  whenever  required,  by  the  rapid 
agitation  of  the  wings  of  the  twes.  Some  of 
the  workers  are  always  thna  employed  in  ven- 
tilating the  hive,  which  they  do  by  planting 
themselves  near  the  entrance,  and  imitating 
the  action  of  flying;  in  this  way  the  impnlse 
which  would  carry  them  forward  in  flight  is 
exerted  on  the  air,  prodocinR  a  powerful  back- 
ward cnrrent ;  this  fact  explains  the  humming 
sound  heard  in  the  interior  of  an  active  hive, 
especially  in  the  warmest  days.  From  their 
active  respiration  the  temperature  of  a  hive  is 
very  high,  varying  from  78°  to  84°  F.,  and  on 
some  occasions  rising  to  106° ;  they  are  very 
sensitive  to  thermometrical  changes,  the  warm 
sun  exciting  them  to  vigorous  action,  and  cold 
reducing  them  to  a  torpid  state. — The  instincts, 
and  in  the  belief  of  many  the  intelligence  of 
the  bee,  are  remarkably  displayed  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  hive,  the  oonstraclJon  of  the 
cells,  and  in  the  phenomena  of  swarming.  The 
first  thing  done  on  entering  a  new  hive  is  to 
clean  it  thoroughly,  to  stop  all  crevices,  and 
lay  the  foundation  for  the  oomb.  Wax  is  not 
the  only  material  used  by  bees  in  their  archi- 
tecture ;  beddea  this,  they  employ  a  reddish 
brown,  odoriferous,  glutinous  resin,  more  te- 
nacious and  extensible  than  wax,  called  tiro- 
palU,  which  they  obtain  from  the  buds  of  the 
poplar  and  birch  and  from  various  resinons 
trees.  This  adheres  so  strongly  to  the  legs  of 
the  bee,  that  its  fellow  laborers  are  obliged  to 
remove  it,  which  they  do  with  their  jaws,  ap- 
plying it  immediately  l«  every  crevice  and  pro- 
jection in  the  hive,  to  the  interior  of  the  cells, 
and  to  the  covering  of  any  foreign  body  too 
heavy  for  them  to  remove ;  in  this  way  even 
large  snails  are  hermetically  sealed  and  pre- 
vented from  imparting  a  noxious  quality  to  the 
air.     Bees  will  carry  home  many  artiflcially 

aared  glutinous  substances  in  their  tarsal 
ete.  After  the  workers  have  secret^  a 
sofBcient  amount  of  wax,  the  constmction  of 
the  combs  commences.  These  are  formed  into 
parallel  and  vertical  layers,  each  about  an  inch 
thick,  the  distances  l>etween  the  surfaces  of 
each  being  aboat  half  an  inch  for  the  passage 
of  the  bees.  They  may  extend  the  whole 
breadth  and  height  of  the  hive,  consisting  of 
thin  partitions  enclosing  ux-sided  cells,  abont 


X  455 

half  an  inch  deep  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  bottom  of  each  cell  has  the 
shape  of  a  flattened  pyramid  with  three  rhom- 
bic sides,  like  the  diamonds  on  playing  cards; 
this  gives  the  greatest  strength  and  greatest 
oapocitv  with  tho  leaat  expenditure  of  mate- 
rial. Maraldi  had  determmed  that  the  two 
angles  of  the  rhomb  shonld  be  lOB"  28'  and 
70  82'  by  mathematical  calculation,  and  by 
actual  measurement  they  are  110°  and  TO  . 
There  is  nothing  in  the  shape  of  the  antennn, 
maniUblea,  or  legs  of  the  bee  which  should 
determine  these  angles  in  the  cells.  From  the 
fact  that  bees  stand  aa  close  as  they  can,  each 
depositing  its  wax  around  it,  some  have  mun- 
tained  that  the  form  and  size  of  tlie  insect 
determine  the  shape  of  tlie  cell ;  that  the 
mathematical  accuracy  of  the  cell  depends  on 
ite  fbrm  and  structure  and  not  on  its  mstinct ; 
and  that  the  cell  tbrm  is  ineviteble.  The  foun- 
dation is  a  solid  plate  of  wax,  of  a  semicircalar 
form,  in  which  a  vertical  groove  Is  scooped  out 
of  the  size  of  a  cell,  which  is  strengthened  by 
farther  additions  of  wax ;  on  the  opposite  side 
two  otlier  grooves  are  formed,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  plane  opposite  the  firatj  after  the 
bottom  is  formed,  the  walls  are  raised  round 
the  sides.  The  cells  of  the  flrst  row,  by  which 
the  comb  ia  attached  to  the  roof  of  the  hive, 
have  five  sides  instead  of  six,  the  roof  forming 
one.  Tho  flrat  cell  determines  the  position  of 
all  that  succeed  it ;  and  two  are  not,  in  ordi- 
nary circamstences,  begnn  in  different  parts  of 
the  hive  at  the  same  time.  The  laborers  fol- 
low each  other  in  quick  succession,  each  one 
adding  a  little  to  the  work ;  when  a  few  rows 
have  been  oonatmcted  in  the  central  comb, 
two  other  foondation  walls  are  begun,  one  on 
each  side  of  it,  at  the  distence  of  one  third  of 
an  inchj  and  parallel  to  it,  and  then  two  others 
as  the  former  are  advanced :  the  comb  is  thus 
enlarged  and  lengthened,  the  middle  being  al- 
ways the  most  prominent  If  all  their  founda- 
tions were  laid  at  the  same  time,  it  would  be 
difficult  for  them  to  preserve  their  parallelism, 
which  is  perfect  only  at  the  last  stage  of  the 
building  process.  Besides  the  vacancies  be- 
tween the  cells,  which  form  the  highways  of 
the  hive,  the  combs  are  pierced  with  holes,  to 
permit  easy  communicabon,  and  prevent  loss 
of  time  in  going  ronnd.  The  symmetry  of  the 
architecture  of  bees  is  more  observable  in  their 
work  looked  at  as  a  whole  than  in  ite  deteila, 
as  they  often  bnild  irregularly  to  adapt  the 
structure  to  different  localities  and  various  un- 
favorable circamstences;  different-sized  cells 
are  made  for  the  larve  of  workers,  males,  and 
queens;  those  for  honey  and  pollen  magazines 
are  twice  aa  large  aa  ordinary  cells,  and  so 
placed  that  their  months  are  upward,  for  the 
easier  retention  of  their  contents.  These  sup- 
posed defects  are  generally  the  results  of  cal- 
culation, and,  when  mistakes,  are  very  soon 
remedied.  The  cells  at  first  are  whitish,  soft, 
and  translucent;  bnt  they  soon  become  yellow 
and  firmer,  and  quite  dark  in  an  old  oomb. — 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


456  BI 

Wlien  a  hiv«  beoransa  too  crowded,  or  for 
other  reaMQg  aa  yet  not  perfectlj  uDderatood, 
preparatiom  are  made  for  the  emigr&tioD  of  a 
Hwann  with  a  qneen;  scouts  are  sect  oat  in 
advance  to  select  h  proper  place  for  the  new 
hive,  and  the  workers  are  busy  in  collecting 
an  extra  quantit;  of  provieions  to  be  carried 
with  them.  When  the  weather  is  warm,  and 
after  a  full  stock  of  eggs  has  been  lud,  the  old 
queen,  nnsncceasAil  in  ner  attempts  to  deetro; 
Uie  rojal  brood,  abdicates  the  throne  which 
the  firat-bom  new  uneen  will  soon  dispute 
with  her.  During  the  preparations,  a  m^at 
bozang  is  occaaionallj  beard,  which  saddenlj 
ceases  on  the  day  of  departure.  When  all  is 
ready,  die  signal  is  given  by  the  workers,  and 
the  queen,  with  all  the  departing  swarm, 
rosbea  to  tlie  door,  and  rises  into  the  ur;  they 
follow  the  qneen,  alighting  with  her  in  a  dense 
closter,  and  returning  to  the  hive  if  she  does. 
Oold  weather,  or  even  a  passing  clond,  will 
■rrest  the  emigratioD  until  a  warmer  or 
brighter  period.  After  a  rest  at  their  first 
landing  place,  the  swarm  colloota  into  a  close 
phalanx,  and  flies  in  a  direct  line  to  the  selects 
ed  spot.  The  deserted  hive  is  bnsii^  occupied 
in  batching  ont  a  new  queen,  which  in  her 
tnm  leads  ont  a  swarm ;  two  or  three  will  be 
sent  off  in  a  eommer  fhim  an  old  hive.  After 
tha  massacre  of  the  males  in  Jnly  or  August, 
the  workers  busy  themselves  in  collecting 
stores  for  winter  use;  as  the  antunm  advances, 
honey  becomes  scarce,  and  they  are  obliged  to 
collect  the  sweet  eindations  fhnn  leaves,  honey 
dew,  and  also  the  juices  of  peaches  and  other 
sweet  fraits,  after  tlie  skin  lias  been  broken 
by  birds,  snails,  or  insecla;  when  all  other 
reaoarces  fail,  they  do  not  scruple  to  attack 
weaker  hives  and  despoil  them  of  their  honey. 
The  cold  of  winter  redncea  them  to  a  nearly 
torpid  state,  in  which  they  remain  nntil  the 
warm  days  of  spring.  The  instinct  of  the  bee 
and  lis  t^dency  to  thrift  are  cnrionsly  mamfeet 
in  the  fact  that  it  accnmulates  immense  stores 
of  btmey  in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  oonntries, 
where  there  is  no  necesnity  for  laying  up  sup- 
plies for  winter,  since  flowers  are  abnndant 
at  all  seasons.  In  fact,  the  lar^st  supplies  of 
honey  and  wax  are  exported  f^m  such  conn- 
tries  ;  the  latter  is  the  more  imixirtant  article 
of  commerce,  as  the  honey,  partionlarly  from 
the  West  Indies  and  Central  and  Sonth  Amer- 
ica, is  generally  of  an  inferior  quality. — Bees 
recognize  the  peraon  of  their  qneen;  if  a  new 
one  be  given  them,  they  will  generally  snr- 
round  her  and  suffocate  or  starve  her  to  death, 
for  it  is  remarkable  that  the  workers  never 
attnck  a  qneen  with  their  stings;  if  she  he 
permitted  to  live  24  hours,  she  will  be  received 
Bs  their  sovereign,  Hnber  discovered  that  if 
the  fecundation  of  the  queen  be  delayed  beyond 
the  2lBt  day  of  her  life,  she  begins  to  lay  the 
eggs  of  males,  and  produces  no  oth'^rs  during 
her  life ;  she  lays  them  indiscriminately  in 
large  and  small,  and  even  in  royal  cells ;  in  the 
latter  case,  they  are  treated  by  the  nurses  as 


if  they  were  royal  grubs.  Rwn  made  the  rin- 
gnlar  discovery  of  prolific  workers,  thna  ex- 
plaining the  laying  tff  eggs  in  hives  destitute  of 
a  qneen;  but  the  eggs  tbns  prodaced  are  al- 
ways those  of  males ;  this  is  acconnt«d  for  by 
their  having  passed  their  grub  state  in  cells 
coutiguoQs  to  the  royal  ones,  and  from  having 
their  generative  organs  partially  developed  by 
devouring  portions  of  the  stimnlating  roym 
food;  how  they  become  impregnated  has  not 
been  asoertained.  (See  Pabthketoobkesis,) — 
The  Italian  or.ljgnri^n  bee  (A.  liffuttUa)  has 
been  introdnced  into  the  United  States,  and 
found  fax  superior  to  the  OMnmon  bee.  (See 
Bbb-Eebpibo.) — The  natonit  enemies  of  bee* 
are  numerous ;  among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned wasps,  hornets,  spiders,  dragon  fliea, 
toads,  lizards,  woodpeoliera,  the  bee-eater 
and  most  insectivoroos  birds,  rats  and  mice, 
ant-eaters,  bears,  and  badgers.  They  seldom 
die  a  natural  death,  and  the  average  dnro- 
tioD  of  life  osnnot  be  more  than  a  year;  the 
whole  population  would  be  destroyed  by  tbeir 
enemies,  each  other,  and  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  were  it  not  for  the  snrprimng  fecon- 
dity  of  the  qneen,  who  will  lay  in  temperate 
climates  aa  many  as  00,000  eggt,  and  in  warm 
regions  three  times  that  nnmber;  a  sinde  im- 
pregnation is  sufficient  to  fecnndate  all  the  eggs 
which  a  queen  will  lay  for  at  least  two  years, 
and  probably  during  ber  life.  The  most  de- 
structive and  insidioDB  enemy  of  the  bee  ia  a 
lepidopterooB  insect,  of  the  group  erambidit, 
tbe  galUrUt  certatM  (Fab.),  commonly  called 
the  bee  or  wax  moth;  in  its  perfect  state  it  is 
a  winged  moth,  about  three  fonrths  of  an  inch 
long,  with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  a  little  more 
than  an  inch ;  the  females  are  tlie  largest,  of  a 
dark  gray  color,  tinged  with  pnrple-brown  and 
dark  spots.  (See  Bee-Ekepiko.)-—  Wild  Eoneji 
Sett.  When  bees  swarm,  if  they  are  neglected 
and  are  not  q>eedily  hived,  they  will  fly  away 
with  their  qneen  to  the  woods  and  And  a  home 
in  a  hollow  tree,  where  they  lay  op  honey,  rear 
brood,  and  send  ont  succesaive  swarms  for  new 
wild  colonies.  Wild  beesareabnndantinlndia, 
the  islands  of  the  Ualay  archipelago,  Crete  and 
all  the  Greek  islands,  the  W.  coast  of  AfHca, 
and  tbronghont  America.  Thoae  in  the  United 
States  are  all  of  fbreign  origin.  There  were 
none  W.  of  the  Mississippi  before  1TS7,  nor  in 
California  before  18G0;  and  the  Indians  call 
the  bee  the  white  man's  fly.  In  regions  where 
wild  bees  abound,  bee  hunting  is  a  distinct  and 
important  bu^eea,  pursued  by  professional 
hunters  or  experts.  In  AlHoa,  India,  and  the  In- 
dian islands,  the  banter  is  nnerringly  guided  to 
a  bee  tree  by  a  bird  of  the  onekoo  fhmily.  (See 
HoNBT  GiniiE.)  Wells's  "  Explorations  in  Ilon- 
dnraa"  (New  York,  18117)  states  that  in  Cen- 
tral America  wild  BWMTns  generally  establish 
themselves  in  the  hollow  limbs  of  trees ;  these 
are  removed  to  the  porches  of  the  houses,  and 
are  there  suspended  by  thongs;  inthisprimi- 
■  tive  way  large  qnantines  of  honey  and  wax 
]  are  obt^ed.    The  honey  of  some  of  these 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


swarms  is  stored  in  wax  bags  two  or  more 
inobea  long,  ranged  along  the  Live  in  rows, 
while  the  brood  cells  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
hire.  In  Timor  and  other  hidian  islands  there 
is  a  wild  bee  (A.  ior»ata)  that  bailds  huge  hon- 
eycombs, of  semidrcnlar  form,  and  oft«n  3  or 
4  ft.  in  diameter,  which  are  Buspeuded  in  the 
opoD  air  from  the  under  side  of  the  appennost 
branches  of  the  highest  trees.  These  the  hunt- 
er t&kes  by  climbing  to  them,  holding  a  smok- 
ing torch  under  them  to  stupefy  or  drive  away 
the  bees,  and  then  catting  off  the  comb  close  to 
the  lirob.  In  the  United  States,  at  the  south 
and  we»t,  where  bee-hnnting  is  eitensively  fol- 
lowed, the  method  Is  miiform  and  simple.  The 
honter  takes  mto  the  woods  a  box  or  basin  eon.- 
taining  abont  half  a  pound  of  honay,  and  Bome- 
timea  varions  tninla  or  essences  are  used  to  at- 
tract the  bees.  If  the  bees  will  not  oome  to  the 
honey,  one  or  two  we  oanght  and  bronght  to 
the  box,  or  are  canght  in  boxes  devised  for  the 
purpose.  Several  bees  collect  or  are  caught  la 
the  same  localities,  and  soon  fly  away  loaded 
with  honey.  As  the  bee  always  rises  and  circles 
around  till  it  sees  some  familiar  landmark,  and 
then  takes  a  "  bee  line''  for  home,  the  line  of 
flight  ia  ohserved  by  the  huDter  or  his  compan- 
ions. After  several  bees  Lave  flown  in  the 
same  direction,  or  in  two  or  more  directiooa, 
showing  that  two  or  more  diiferent  swarms 
have  been  marked,  the  hunter  removes  the  box 
to  a  point  at  an  angle  from  the  first  position, 
more  bees  are  cauglit  and  liberated,  and  thoir 
line  of  flight  ia  marked.  The  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  two  lines  gives  the  locality  of  the 
songht-for  tree.  The  best  time  for  bee-hnnt- 
ing  is  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves  are  oat, 
for  the  beea  come  out  freely  in  fine  days,  and 
their  tine  of  flight  can  more  eaaily  l>e  seen. 
When  the  bee  tree  is  discovered,  it  may  hold  a 
new  swarm  with  no  store  of  honoy;  bat  fre- 
qnently  there  is  a  prize  of  many  hundred 
poonds  of  wax  and  honey,  which  is  secured 
after  the  tree  is  cut  down  by  killing  or  driving 
away  the  beea  by  burning  straw.  Freqaently, 
if  the  tree  is  of  suitable  size  and  shape,  after  it 
is  cat  down  the  orifice  where  the  bees  go  in 
and  out  is  stopped,  and  the  section  cont^ning 
the  swarm  is  sawn  oat  and  carried  home, 
where  the  beea  may  be  ''drummed"  into  a 
hive  contaming  honey  and  brood  oomb,  in 
which  they  will  contentedly  make  a  new  home 
and  fnmisb  stock  for  successive  swarms.  Wild 
bees  abound  nearly  everywhere  in  the  vicinity 
of  domesticated  beea;  but  they  are  no  longer 
banted  to  any  great  extent  in  the  thickly  set- 
tled states,  owing  to  the  increased  valne  of 
timber  and  contests  as  to  ownership  or  pri- 
ority of  discovery,  ont  of  which  many  lawsnita 
have  arisen.  II.  HaaMekee,  a  genus  distin- 
guished by  the  lond  humming  noise  they  make 
during  flight,  whence  their  generic  name  iom- 
huM,  the  French  iouTdon,  and  the  English  bnm- 
blebee.  It  differs  from  the  honey  bee  in  its 
colors,  larger  ^ze,  and  having  the  tibice  of  the 
hind  legs  terminated  by  apinea.    Uore  than  40 


X  457 

diflTarent  kinds  are  native  in  Great  Britain,  and 
many  apedea  abonnd  in  America.  No  insect 
is  more  widely  ditlbsed ;  its  range  extends  from 
the  limits  of  floral  vegetation  to  the  equator, 
and  it  is  everywhere  tband  in  great  abandanoe 
in  the  temperate  Eone.  The  great  number  of 
the  British  species,  having  the  prevailing  colors 
yellow,  red,  and  biaok,  have  been  divided  into 
three  sections;  1,  apex  of  body  red;  2,  apex 
of  abdomen  white;  8,  groand  color  of  body 
yellow  or  baff.  The  bumblebees  live  in  mui^ 
smaller  societies  and  are  leas  prolific  than  the 
honey  bee.  The^  lay  in  no  store  of  honey,  and 
their  main  mission  seems  to  be  to  fecundate 
plants  by  carrying  pollen  frtmi  the  mole  to  fe- 
male flowers.  In  size  the  workers  are  the 
smallest,  the  males  are  larger,  and  the  females 
are  eomewLat  larger  than  the  males.  Late  in 
antanm  the  male  and  neuter  bumblebees  «lie: 
but  some  of  the  females  survive  in  a  torpid 
etate  and  without  food  till  spring,  when  they 
become  the  founders  of  a  new  eolimy,  and 
may  be  seen  prying  into  every  hole  and  orev- 
ioe  in  the  earth  in  search  of  a  suitable  nest 


niimblcbn  (Bombiu  terrctuls)  ud  Not. 

This  they  make  at  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet 
in  meadows  and  plains ;  they  make  caritiea  of 
oondderable  extent,  dome-shaped,  more  wide 
than  high ;  the  vault  is  made  of  earth  and 
moss,  and  the  interior  ia  lined  with  an  inferior 
kind  of  wax ;  the  entrance  may  be  either  a 
simple  aperture  at  the  lower  part,  or  a  tortuous 
moss-covered  path ;  the  bottom  ia  carpeted 
with  leaves.  Their  nest  has  little  of  the  archi- 
tectural regularity  of  the  hive  of  the  honey 
bee ;  there  are  only  a  few  egg-ahaped,  dark- 
colored,  irregularly  dii^wsed  cells,  arranged 
generally  in  a  horizontal  position,  connected  by 
shapeless  waxen  columns ;  tLeae  cella  are  not 
made  by  the  old  bees,  but  by  the  gmbs,  who 
spin  them  when  they  are  ready  to  undergo  the 
change  into  nymphs ;  from  them  they  are  lib- 
erated by  the  gnawing  of  the  old  ones;  the 
cocoons  are  afterward  used  as  storehouses  for 
honey.  The  true  breeding  cells  ere  cont^ned 
in  masses  of  brown  wax,  the  nnmber  of  egga 
varying  from  3  to  80,  the  whole  colony  seldom 
exceeding  flO,  though  the  nest  of  the  terrestrial 
speoies  (B.  terreitrit,  Latr.)  sometimes  cc'" 


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458  K 

aa  many  as  30O.  The  larvie  live  in  sooietj  until 
they  are  aboat  to  change  into  nymphs,  when 
each  Hpim  a  ailken  cocoon  in  which  the  oc- 
cupant ia  placed  head  downward,  and  from 
which  it  comes  out  in  four  or  five  daya  during 
May  and  Jane.  The  females  assiat  in  building 
the  cells,  and  depo«t  at  the  first  laying  eggs 
both  of  males  and  females ;  the  males  are  not 
reared  till  late  in  the  season,  and  like  the  hive 
drones  do  not  assist  in  the  care  of  the  young. 
Several  females  may  live  in  peace  nnder  the 
same  roof;  impregnation  takea  place  outside  the 
nest  The  honey  and  wax  are  of  the  same 
origin  and  nature  as  those  of  the  honey  bee. 
As  they  do  not  hibernate,  but  perish  duriuj 
the  winter,  the  aame  nest  is  not  occnpie( 
for  two  saccessive  years.  The  nest  of  the 
species  called  carder  bee  (S.  m«M»rum,  Latr.) 
is  composed  of  a  dome  of  moss  or  withered 
grass  placed  over  a  Bhallow  eicavaticm  in  the 
gronnd  of  about  half  a  foot  in  diameter;  the 
materials,  after  being  carded  by  means  of  the 
mandibles  and  fore  legs,  are  pushed  by  the  first 
bee  backward  to  a  second,  which  passes  it  to  a 
third,  and  so  on  until  the  nest  is  reached ;  they 
work  in  long  files,  the  head  being  turned  away 
from  the  nest,  and  toward  the  material.  Their 
domes  are  often  seen  rising  4  or  6  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  fields  and  meadows ;  the  en- 
trance is  at  the  bottom,  about  a  foot  long  and 
half  an  Inch  wide.  The  carder  bee  is  smaller 
than  the  terrestrial  humblebee,  and  shorter 
and  thicker  than  the  hooey  bee ;  it  resembles 
in  color  the  materials  of  the  nest,  having  the 
fore  part  of  the  back  a  dull  orange,  and  the 
bind  part  with  different  shades  of  grayish  yel- 
low rings.  The  lapidary  bee  (B.  lapidaritu, 
Latr.)  builds  its  nest  in  a  heap  of  stones,  of  bite 
of  moss,  neatly  arranged  in  an  oval  form  ;  they 
are  social  in  their  habits,  and  collect  honey  with 
great  industry;  the  individuals  of  a  nest  are 
more  numerous  than  the  carders,  and  mnch  more 
vindictive.  III.  S«ntarj  Bwa  display  as  much 
foresight,  ingenuity,  and  skill  in  the  construc- 
tion of  their  neata  as  do  the  social  species,  and 
perhaps  in  a  more  remarkable  manner,  as  a 
single  individual  begins  and  finishes  every  part 
of  the  work.  There  are  only  two  kinds  of  indi- 
viduals, males  and  females;  the  males  are  idle, 
and  the  females  perform  all  the  labor  of  mak- 
ing the  nest  and  providing  food  for  the  yonng; 
tiiey  ha^e  no  brush  to  their  hinder  feot  and  no 
basket  structure  on  the  external  side  of  the 
tarsi, — Different  species  of  mfgifkile,  antho- 
phora,  and  osmia  have  been  called  by  R^anmur 
mason  bees,  from  their  constructing  their  nests 
with  sand,  earthy  substances,  and  sometimes 
wood,  cemented  with  a  glutinous  secretion ; 
they  tiuild  in  the  interstices  of  brick  walls,  in 
crevices  in  stones,  and  wiierever  they  can  find 
a  suitable  place,  often  amid  the  busiest  throngs 
of  men.  Within  a  wall  of  clay  they  make  ftom 
one  to  six  chambers,  each  containing  a  mass 
of  pollen  with  an  egg ;  the  cells  are  sometimes 
parallel  and  perpendicular,  at  others  with  vari- 
ous inclinations,  and  are  closed  with  a  paste 


of  earth  ;  they  are  thimble-shaped,  and  ftbont 

an  inch  long.  Many  species,  not  larger  than  a 
horse  fiy,  have  been  called  mining  bees  (an- 
(£r«niz),  from  their  digging  in  the  gronnd  tiibulor 


Huon  B«  ud  Vnt. 

galleries,  a  little  wider  than  the  diameter  of 
their  bodies ;  they  are  fond  of  clay  banks,  in 
which  their  holes,  of  the  size  of  the  stem  of  a 
tobacco  pipe,  are  frequentiy  seen  ;  they  are  6 
or  8  inches  deep,  smooth  and  circular,  with  a 
thimble-shaped  horizontal  chamber,  almost  at 
right  angles  to  the  entrance,  and  nearly  twice 
OS  wide ;  in  this  is  placed  a  single  gmb  with 
its  supply  of  pollen. — There  are  several  British 
species  of  solitary  bees  to  which  Rgsnmnr  has 
given  the  name  of  carpenter  bees,  from  their 
working  in  wood  as  the  mason  bees  do  in  earth ; 


Caipeetn  Bee  ud  Heat 

they  select  posts  and  the  woodwork  rf  houses 
which  have  become  soft  ttata  commencing  de- 
cay. The  violet- colored  species  (xylofopa  rio- 
lacta,  Linn.)  makes  her  nest  by  gnawing  out 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


small  pieces  of  the  wood,  which  she  carries  to 
a  short  diatanoe  and  drops  for  ftitore  use,  re- 
tumiiig  by  a  oircDitons  route  as  if  to  conceal 
its  location ;  the  direction  of  the  tunnel  is 
obliijne  for  aboqt  an  inch,  sad  then  perpendic- 
nlar  in  the  axis  of  the  wood  for  12  or  15  inches, 
and  half  an  loch  in  brewlth ;  sometimeB  three 
or  fonr  snoh  eioavations  are  made.  The  tun- 
nel is  divided  into  cells  gomewlmt  less  than  on 
inch  deep,  separated  from  each  other  bj  par- 
titions made  of  the  chips  and  dust  cemented 
together ;  some  other  species  emploj  clay  for 
these  partitions.  At  the  bottom  of  the  cell  is 
placed  an  egc,  and  over  it  a  paste  of  pollen  and 
honey ;  in  this  way  are  completed  10  or  12 
cells,  one  above  the  other,  and  then  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  is  closed  by  a  similar  sawdust 
covering.  As  several  weeks  are  occupied  in 
these  labors,  and  as  the  bee  deposits  her  eggs 
at  considerable  intervals,  it  is  evident  that  the 
first  egg  will  have  become  a  perfect  insect 
before  the  last  em  has  left  the  grub  state ;  in 
order  to  enable  the  young  to  escape  as  they  are 
batched,  each  cell  has  a  laterai  opening. — 
Among  the  leaf-cntting  and  apholstering  bees 
may  b«  mentioned  the  poppy  bee  {otmia  papa- 
veru,  Latr.),  a  European  species,  one  thira  of 
an  inch  long,  of  a  black  color,  with  reddish 
grav  hairs  on  the  head  and  back,  and  the 
abdoDieo  gray  and  riiky.  She  excavates  a  per- 
pendionlar  hole  in  the  ground,  largest  at  the 
twttom,  which  she  lines  with  the  petals  of  the 
scarlet  poppy  cut  into  oval  pieces,  and  adapted 
with  the  greatest  nicety  and  smoothness ;  the 
hole  is  about  8  inches  deep,  and  the  lining  ex- 
tends externally  on  the  snrface ;  filling  it  with 
pollen  and  honey  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch, 
she  deposits  an  egg,  folds  down  the  scarlet 
tapestry,  and  fills  above  it  with  earth  ;  it  is 
rare  to  find  more  than  one  cell  in  an  excava- 
tion. The  rose-leaf  cutter  (megaehilt  emttvn- 
ealarit,  Latr.)  makes  a  cylindrical  hole  in  the 
hard  earth  of  a  beaten  path,  from  S  to  10  inches 


EoK-Leaf  Catter  uid  Neat  (Megncliila  oeulimcalaili). 

deep,  in  which  she  constructs  several  cells 
sbcrat  en  inch  deep,  thimble-sbaped,  and  made 
with  circnlar  pieces  of  leaves  neatly  cat  out 
and  folded  together ;  the  rose  leaf  is  preferred, 
but  almost  any  leaf  with  a  serrated  margin,  ss 
the  birch  and  monntwn  ash,  will  be  taken ;  no 
cement  is  employed,  the  elastic  property  of  the 


459 

leaves  keeping  them  in  place:  tt  takes  9  to  IS 
pieoes  to  make  a  single  oelL  which,  when  com- 
pleted with  its  contents  of  pollen  and  honey, , 
and  ungle  egg,  is  closed  witn  three  pieces  of 
leaf  exactly  circular;  the  convex  extremity 
of  one  cell  fits  into  the  open  end  of  the  next, 
by  this  means  greatly  increasing  the  strength 
of  the  fabric. 


poor,  and  little  rain  falls  in  summer.  Stock 
and  sheep  rai«ng  is  the  principal  indnstry, 
though  some  corn  is  raised.  In  1870  there 
were  2W  horses,  76  miloh  oows,  S,Si6  other 
cattle,  1,860  sheep,  and  865  swine.  Capital, 
Beeville. 

BEECH,  a  forest  tree  of  the  genus  yo^tu  of 
Endlicher's  order  eupuliferm,  lisdley  s  corj/la- 
e«(B,  JoMJen's  quereinta,  and  of  the  linnnaa 


class  numtBeiojioZyan/JruE.  The  generic  charac- 
ters of  the  genus  arer  sterile  (male)  flowers — 
ament  globular,  pendnlons  on  silky  thread; 
perianth  6-eleft,  bell-shaped ;  5  to  13  stamens. 
Fertile  (female)  flowers — 9  within  a  4-lobed 
prickly  involocre ;  perianth  4  to  6-lobed;  ovary 
8-celled  (3  abortive);  styles  8;  nut  one-seeded, 
triangular,  enclosed  in  a  cupnle  which  com- 
pletely covers  it.  Some  branches  hear  male, 
others  female  flowers.  The  number  of  specief 
is  very  limited,  some  being  considered  as  mere 
varieties.  In  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  on  both  continents,  there 
are  extensive  forests  consisting  of  beeches, 
which  also  occur  mixed  with  uaks,  pines,  firs, 
&c,  F.  tyhatica,  the  common  Enropeon  white 
beech,  has  the  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  slightly 
toothed,  ciliate  on  the  margin,  acute  at  base; 
nut  ovate,  8-sided,  obtuse,  pointed.  Of  this 
the  American  is  taken  to  be  a  variety,  growing 
in  Florida  and  other  southern  states,  F.ferru- 
ffitita,  or  red  beech,  has  the  leaves  oblong 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


460 

ovate,  acamin&te,  pobeacent  beneath,  ooarselj 
toothed,  obtiue,  aud  unequally  Bubcordate  at 
base;  not  acntely  8-sided,  muricate;  most  fre- 
quent in  the  northern  United  States.  P.  obligua 
and  Dombeyi,  both  haviog  valuable  wood  and 
a  beautiful  orown;  F.  proeera,  scaroelj  less 
towering  in  height  than  the  araaoaria ;  and  F. 
pumilia,  a  dwarf  apecies  growing  above  the 
region  of  trees  on  lofty  mountains,  are  all  na- 
tives of  the  Andes  of  xonthem  Chili.  Some 
species  grow  in  the  Uagellanio  regions,  others 
in  Tasmania  and  the  colder  parts  of  New  Zea- 
land. The  varieties  of  the  European  F.  mha- 
tiea  are:  F.  purpurea,  whose  bright  blood- 
oolored  leaves,  when  tossed  by  the  wind  in 
aonahine,  seem  to  be  flames ;  F.  euprea,  with 
copper- colored  Bhining  leaves;  F.  ruplenifolia, 
with  some  leaves  entire,  and  others  cut  into 
narrow  strips;  /*.  jitfruiula,  or  weeping  beeob. 
with  branches  drooinng  to  the  ground:  F. 
erittata,  with  ragged  orest-like  leaves;  F.  va- 
Hegata,  with  leaves  spotted  witb  white:  F.  la- 
f(ro^ta,  with  chestnnt-like  leaves,  &o.  Ail  these 
are  ornamental  trees. — The  beeoh  is  ea«t  j  pro- 


B*Kb  LuToa,  Ftowcn,  ud  Kfnt 

pagated  fkim  seed,  also  hj  grafting,  budding, 
and  m-arclung.  It  thrives  in  a  deep  moist  soil 
(on  the  Ohio  some  attain  100  fL  in  height)^  but 
also  snoceeda  well  in  roeky  soil,  in  heaps  of 
stone*  under  cliffs,  even  in  shaded  sitnationa 
When  crowded  by  its  kiodred,  or  by  other 
trees,  its  stem  riaes  pillar-like  even  to  BO  ft.  in 
nndiminished  thickness,  before  branobing  into 
a  tufty  crown,  reminding  one  of  Gothic  halla 
Standing  alone,  it  sends  forth  branches  at  from 
10  to  80  tt.  above  the  root,  at  a  lai^  angle,  far 
and  wide,  the  lower  ones  almost  horiiontal, 
while  the  upper  rise  to  form  a  m^eatio  crown. 
In  depth  of  shade  it  is  scarcely  eqnalled  by  any 
other  tree.  Ita  light  grayish  or  teaden-green- 
isli,  smooth,  shining  barb,  its  rich  green,  shining 
foliage,  which  appears  earlier  than  that  of  the 
oak,  from  long  bnds  in  tender  drooping  jets, 
and  which  is  tinted  yellow,  reddish,  and  brown 
in  the  aatnnm,  remdning  often  through  the 


winter  on  the  tree,  recommend  it  for  arennea, 
plantations,  and  clumps.  Of  these  Uiere  are 
many  in  Normandy  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
which  aboond  in  beech  forests.  The  diameter 
of  the  common  beech  seldom  surpasses  3  ft. 
The  tree  scarcely  bears  fruit  before  the  COth 
year  of  its  age,  and  then  not  every  year.  After 
the  I40th  year  the  wood  rings  become  thinner. 
The  tree  lives  for  alwut  260  years.  Some  stems 
are  fluted,  some  even  twisted.  The  roots  stretch 
{or  away,  near  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  partly 
above  it.  Yoong  beeches  are  useful  for  live 
hedges,  as  they  bear  pruning,  and  as  their 
branches  coaleaoe  by  being  tied  t<^etlier,  or 
by  nibbing  each  other.  Ampntations  of  limbs 
and  deep  incisions  in  the  tree  soon  become  ob- 
literated by  the  bark,  which  contains  a  pecnlior 
periderme.  The  wood  is  yellowish  white  in 
the  common  beech,  brownish  in  the  red;  verj 
hard,  permeated  by  transverse  lif^ter-colored 
pith  rays  and  shorter  rays,  so  that  the  longitn- 
dinal  fibres  are  somewhat  waving.  Its  cloaa 
wood  cells,  with  thick  walla,  afford  a  great 
quantity  of  heating  material  and  of  potAUi,  so 
tnat  the  wood  ranks  next  to  hickory,  oalc,  and 
maple  as  fuel  Tt  is  easily  decayed  by  alterna- 
tion of  dryness  and  moisture,  and  is  unfit  for 
many  pnrposes ;  but  it  is  good  for  cylinders  for 
polishing  ejass,  for  plane  stocks,  chair  posts, 
shoe  lasts,  tool  handles,  wheel  felloes,  cart 
bodies,  rollers,  screws,  bowls,  and  even  for 
ship  building  where  no  better  timber  can  be 
obtuned.  It  is  incomiptjble  when  constantly 
under  water.  The  tree  is  so  rarely  struck  by 
lightning  that  woodmen  and  Indians  consider 
themselves  safe  when  ander  its  shelter.  Very 
good  oil  may  be  pressed  from  the  beech  nut, 
almost  equalling  that  of  olivea,  and  lasting 
longer  than  any  other  afler  proper  pnrification. 
Wild  animals  feed  on  thenot,  swine  are  fattened 
on  it,  and  people  eat  it  in  Europe;  too  freely 
eaten,  it  produces  giddiness  and  nansea.  The 
hnska  of  the  nut  contun  fagine,  a  peculiar  nar- 
cotic extractive  principle. 

BEECHES.  I.  LyMia,  B.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  IS, 
1776,  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  ]0,  1868. 
His  ancestor  in  the  fifth  ascent  was  among  tlie 
earliest  emigrants  to  New  England,  having 
settied  at  New  Haven  in  1688.  His  mother 
dying  shortiy  after  bis  birth,  he  was  committed 
to  the  care  of  his  nncle  Lot  Benton,  by  whom 
he  was  adopted  as  a  son.  Ue  entered  Yale 
college,  where,  beddea  the  usual  cellmate 
course,  he  studied  theology,  and  gradnated  in 
1T9T.  During  his  cotle^te  course  he  had 
given  a  foretaste  of  the  zeal  and  eloquence  for 
which  he  was  afterward  noted.  In  1768  he 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  fit  East  Hampton,  near  the  E.  extremity 
of  Long  Island,  and  shortiy  afterward  married 
his  first  wife,  Hoxana  Foote,  His  salary  war 
only  $800,  after  five  years  increased  to  (400, 
besides  the  occapaucy  of  a  dilapidated  parson' 
age.  To  eke  out  this  scanty  income  his  wife 
opened  a  private  school,  in  which  the  husband 


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ga7«  instrnotitm.  Mr.  Beeoher  toon  became 
one  of  the  foremost  preachers  of  his  day.  A 
KTTnoa  which  he  preached  in  1804,  npon  occa- 
raoa  of  the  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a 
duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  excited  great  attention. 
Finding!  his  salar?  wholly  inadequate  to  sup- 
port his  increasing  familj',  he  resigned  the 
charge,  and  in  ISIO  was  inBtoUed  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  oh  arch  at  litchfield,  Conn. 
Here  he  remained  for  IS  years,  during  which 
be  took  rank  aa  the  foremost  clergyman  of  Mb 
denomination.  The  vice  of  intemperanoe  had 
become  a  common  one  in  New  England,  even 
the  formal  meetings  of  the  clergy  bting  not 
nnfreqaently  accompanied  by  gross  exoesaee. 
Ur,  Beeoher  resolved  to  takea  stand  against  thia 
vice,  and  abont  1814  preached  and  published 
his  fomoQS  six  sennocs  on  intemperance,  which 
cmtdn  passagea  the  eioqnence  of  which  ia 
hardly  exceeded  by  anything  in  the  English 
language.  Daring  his  re«dence  at  litohfield 
arose  the  Cnitariaa  controversy  in  New  Eng- 
land, in  which  ha  took  a  prominent  part. 
Litehfield  was  at  this  time  an  ednoatioa^  cen- 
tre, being  the  seat  of  a  famous  law  school  and 
of  severtu  other  institatio&s  of  learning.  Mr. 
Beecher  (now  a  doctor  of  divinity)  and  his 
wife  undertook  to  supervise  the  training  of  a 
nnmber  of  ^oang  women,  who  were  received 
into  his  family.  Here  too  he  found  io  tune  hie 
salary,  $S00  a  year,  inadeqaate  to  the  neces- 
nties  of  his  large  family.  In  1820  he  received 
a  call  to  become  pastor  of  the  Uauover  street 
church  in  Boston,  where  be  remained  for  six 
years,  which  were  the  most  active  and  labo- 
rion*  of  taia  life.  Tlie  religious  pnblic  had  be- 
come impressed  with  the  growing  importance 
of  the  great  west;  a  theological  seminary 
was  founded  at  Wolnnt  Hills,  near  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and  named  Lane  seminary,  after  one  of 
its  principal  benefsctora.  In  18S2  Dr.  Beecher 
accepted  the  presidency  of  this  institution, 
which  he  retained  for  20  years,  being  at  the 
same  time  for  10  years  pastor  of  the  second 
Preabyterian  oharch  in  C^oinnati.  In  1638, 
daring  the  absence  of  Dr.  Beeohci^  the  trus- 
tees <ri  the  seminary  prohibited  the  open  dis- 
cussion of  slavery  by  the  studenta,  a  lai^ 
m^ority  of  whom  withdrew.  In  1836  Dr. 
Beecher,  who  has  been  styled  "a  moderate 
Calvinist,"  was  arnugoad  b^ore  his  pr«ebytery 
on  charges  of  hypocrisy  and  teaching  false 
doctrine ;  he  was  acquitted,  and  an  ^p^  was 
takrai  to  the  synod,  which  decided  that  there 
was  no  foundation  for  the  charge.  When  the 
disruption  took  place  in  the  Preabyterian 
church,  he  adhered  to  the  New  Bchotd  branch. 
In  1852  he  resigned  the  prewdency  of  Lane 
seminary,  and  returned  to  Boston,  propoeinK 
to  devote  himself  mainly  to  the  revisal  and 
publication  of  his  works,  though  not  unfre- 
quentiy  preaching,  and  for  a  time  with  much 
of  his  former  eloquence.  But  his  intellectual 
powers  began  to  decline,  while  bis  physical 
strength  remuned  unabated.  Memory  first 
foiled,  then  the  capacity  for  expression.     The 


461 

f  last  ten  yean  of  his  life  were  passed  in  Brook- 
I  1^  N.  Y.,  the  residence  of  his  son  Henry  Ward 
I  Beecher.  Dr.  Beecher  was  a  man  of  great 
intellectual  power,  though  not  a  profound 
scholar.  His  sermons  were  usually  extemp<H« 
aa  far  aa  form  was  concerned,  but  were  care- 
tully  thought  out,  often  while  engaged  in 
active  phyHical  exeroiae ;  but  his  writings  were 
elaborated  with  the  utmost  care.  He  hwi  some 
striking  personal  peculiarities.  He  was  pro- 
verbiaUy  absent-minded,  and  after  having  been 
wrought  up  by  the  escitement  of  preaching 
was  accustomed  to  let  hiuiself  down  by  playing 
"Auld  Lang  Syne"  on  the  fiddle,  or  dancing 
the  "  doable  shuffle  "  in  hie  parlor.  His  auto- 
biography and  life  has  been  prepored  by  some 
of  his  children,  the  antobio^aphical  part  oc- 
cupying only  a  aobordinate  place.  Three  vol- 
umes of  his  collected  works,  revised  by  himself 
were  publiahed  in  18li2.  He  was  three  times 
married,  in  17B9,  1817,  and  18S6,  and  was 
father  of  13  children,  of  whom  11  are  living 
(1672).  One  died  in  infancy,  and  another, 
George,  a  promising  clergyman,  died  in  ISIS 
from  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  gun. 
Of  the  reminder,  tiie  following  have  attained 
distinction.  II.  OdfeertH  EMkcr,  bom  at  East 
Hampton,  Long  Island,  Sept  6,  1800,  died  ia 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,  May  13,  1878.  When  qnit« 
yonng  she  was  betrothed  to  Prof.  Fisher  of 
Yale  college,  who  perished  by  shipwreck  on  a 
voyage  tc  Europe,  and  she  remained  anmarried. 
Id  1822  she  opened  a  school  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
which  she  continued  for  ten  years,  during 
whicli  she  prepared  some  elementary  books  in 
arithmetic  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 
In  1882  she  accompanied  her  father  to  Cincin- 
nati, where  she  opened  a  female  seminary, 
which  she  was  obliged  to  disoontinne  after  two 
years  on  account  of  ill  health.  She  thence- 
forth devoted  herself  to  the  development  of  on 
extended  plan  for  female  education,  nbyeioal, 
social,  inteUeotnol,  and  moral.  In  this  she 
labored  more  than  80  years,  organizing  so- 
cieties for  training  teachers  and  sending  them 
to  the  new  states  and  territories,  and  for  other 
related  objeote,  writing  much  for  periodicals, 
and  publishing  the  following  books;  "Do- 
mestic Service,"  "  Duty  of  American  Women 
to  their  Country,"  "  Domestic  Receipt  Book," 
"  The  True  Remedy  for  the  Wrongs  of  Woman," 
"  Domestic  Economy,"  ''  Letters  to  the  People 
on  Health  and  Happiness,"  "Physiology  and 
Calisthenica,"  "Religions  Trainingof  Children,' 
"The  American  Woman's  Home,"  "Common 
Sense  applied  to  Religion,"  and  "  Appeal  to  thft 
People,  as  the  aathorized  Inferpretcrs  of  the 
Bible."  Apart  from  the  books  relating  to 
her  special  educational  purpose,  she  wrote 
memoirs  of  her  brother  George  Beecher,  and 
"Troth  Stranger  than  Fiction,"  an  account  of 
an  infelicitoas  domestic  ofiair  in  which  some  of 
her  friends  were  involved.  OL  Btwird,  D.  D., 
bora  at  East  Hampton,  L,  I.,  in  1804.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  ooll^^  in  1822,  stcdied  the- 
ology at  Andover  aad  New  Haven,  and  woa 


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pastor  of  the  Park  street  Oougregational  church, 
Boaton,  ftom  182S  to  1681.  In  the  lstt«r  Tear 
ha  vas  elected  president  of  Illinois  college, 
Jackaonville,  where  be  remained  tall  1844, 
•when  he  returned  to  Boston  as  pastor  of  the 
Salem  street  church;  and  since  1866  he  has 
been  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Qoiesbarg,  Ulinms.  His  works  are :  "Baptism, 
ito  Import  and  Mode"  (New  York,  1850); 
"The  Conflict  of  Ages  "(Boston,  1854);  "The 
Papal  Conspiracy"  (New  York,  1855);  and 
"The  Concord  of  Ages  "  (New  York,  1860). 
Few  works  in  speculative  theology  have  at- 
tracted more  attention  than  lie  two  on  the 
'^Ages."  The  central  idea  presented  in  them 
is  that  man's  present  life  npon  earth  is  the 
outgrowth  of  a  former,  as  well  as  a  prelude  to 
a  future  one;  that  during  the  ages  a  contlict 
has  been  going  on  between  good  and  evil, 
which  will  not  be  terminated  in  this  life ;  but 
that  sooner  or  later  oil  the  long  conflicts  of 
ages  will  become  harmonized  into  an  everlasting 
concord.  IV>  Btmtj  Ward,  bom  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Jane  24,  1813.  He  graduated  at  Am- 
herst college  in  1884,  and  studied  theology  at 
Lane  seminary.  In  1837  he  become  pastor  of 
a  Presbyterian  church  at  Lawrenceburg,  and  in 
1889  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.  In  184The  received 
a  call  from  the  Plymouth  chnrch,  a  new  Oon- 

Eegationalist  organization  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
ire  almost  &om  the  outset  he  began  to  ac- 
quire that  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator  which 
has  been  maintained  and  increased  during  a 
quarter  of  a  century.    The  church  and  con- 

Eegation  nnder  his  charge  are  probably  the 
i^eet  in  America.  He  has  always  discarded 
the  mere  conventionalities  of  the  clerical  pro- 
fesdon.  In  his  view  humor  has  a  place  m  a 
sermon  as  well  as  argoment  and  exhortation. 
He  is  fond  of  illnstration,  drawing  his  material 
from  every  sphere  of  human  life  and  thought ; 
and  his  manner  is  highly  dramatic.  Though 
his  keen  sense  of  humor  continually  manifests 
itself  the  prevailing  impression  given  by  his 
discourses  is  one  of  intense  earnestness.  The 
cardinal  idea  of  his  creed  is  that  Christianity 
is  not  a  series  of  philosophical  or  metaphysi- 
cal dogmas,  but  a  rule  of  life  in  every  phase. 
Hence  he  has  never  hesitated  to  discuss  ^om  the 
pulpit  the  great  social  and  political  questions  of 
the  day,  such  ss  slavery,  intemperance,  licen- 
tiousness, the  lust  for  power,  and  the  greed  for 
gain.  He  is  an  enthusiast  in  music,  aconnoisseur 
in  art,  a  lover  of  flowers  and  animals.  Apart 
from  his  pn rely  professional  labors,  he  is  a  popu- 
lar lecturer  in  lyceums,  and  orator  at  public 
meetings.  Before  beginning  to  preach  he  edited 
for  a  year  (1838)  a  newspaper,  "  The  Cincinnati 
Journal,"  and  while  pastor  at  Indianapolis  an 
agricnltural  jonmal,  his  contributions  to  which 
were  afterward  published  under  the  title, 
"Fruits,  Flowers,  and  Farming,"  For  nearly 
20years  he  was  an  editorial  contributor  to  "The 
Independent"  a  weekly  Jonmal  published  in 
New  York,  and  from  1861  to  1868  its  editor; 
his  contributions  to  this  were  signed  with  a  #, 


and  many  of  them  were  collected  and  pnb- 
bshod  as  "The  Star  Papers."  Since  1870  he 
has  been  editor  of  "The  Christian  Union," 
a  weekly  newspaper  published  in  New  York. 
Ilis  regular  weekly  sermona,  as  taken  down  by 
stenographers,  have  been  printed  since  1859,  and 
now  (1872)  form  10  volumes  under  the  title  of 
"The  Plymouth  Pulpit"  Besides  these  he 
has  published  "Lectures  to  Young  Men;" 
"Industry  and  Idleness;"  "Life  Thoughts," 
two  series  edited  by  Edna  Bean  Proctor  and 
Augusta  Moore;  "Sermons  on  Liberty  and 
War ;  "  "  The  Plymouth  Collection  of  Hymns 
and  Tunes;"  "Norwood,"  a  novel,  origuially 
published  in  the  "New  York  Ledger,"  to 
which  he  is  a  conatant  contributor ;  "  Sermons, 
frMn  Published  and  Unpubiidied  Discoursee" 
(2  vols.,  1870);  "Life  of  Christ"  (2  vols., 
1871-'8) ;  and  "  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  " 
(1872).  In  1863  be  visited  Great  Britwn,  with 
a  special  view  to  disabuse  the  public  in  regard 
to  the  issues  of  our  civil  war.  His  speeches 
exerted  a  wide  influence  in  changing  popniar 
sentiment,  which  had  been  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  southern  confederacy.  They  were  pub- 
lished in  London,  but  have  not  been  reprinted 
in  America.  V.  Banlet  Ellnbetk  (Stawe),  bora 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  14,  1812.  During; 
several  years  she  was  a  teacher  in  the  school  of 
her  sister  at  Hartford,  Conn.  In  1832  sliewent 
with  her  family  to  Cincinnati,  and  in  18SG  was 
married  to  Prof.  Calvin  E.  Btowe  of  Lane  sem- 
inary. In  1849  she  published  "Mayflower,  or 
Sketches  of  the  Deecendants  of  the  Pilgrima," 
several  times  republished,  with  additions.  In 
June,  1861,  she  commenced  in  the  "National 
Era,"  an  anti-slavery  newspaper  published  in 
Washington,  a  serial  story,  which  was  continued 
till  the  following  April.  In  18G2  this  was  is- 
sued in  two  volumes,  under  the  title  <^  "  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  and  achieved  an  unparalleled 
success.  In  four  years  there  had  been  printed 
in  the  United  Stales  813,000  copies,  and  proba- 
bly still  more  in  Great  Britain.  As  early  as  186S 
it  had  been  translated  into  French  (two  or  three 
versions),  German  (13  or  14),  Dutch  (two), 
Danish,  Swedish,  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Italian, 
Welsh  (two),  Russian  (two),  Polish,  Hui^^an, 
(three),  Wendish,  Wallochian  (two),  Armenian, 
Arabic,  and  Romuc ;  and  it  is  said  that  there 
are  also  translations  into  the  Chinese  and  Japa- 
nese.  The  truthfolneea  of  the  representa^ons 
in  "  Uncle  Tom  "  having  been  questioned,  Mrs. 
Stowe  in  1SC3  published  a  "Eey  to  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  presenting  the  "original  facta 
upon  which  the  story  was  founded,  together 
with  corroborative  Btat«meuts  verifying  the 
truth  of  the  work."  In  1868,  accompanied  by 
her  husband  and  her  brother  Charles,  she 
visited  Europe,  and  gave  the  results  of  their 
observations  in  "  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign 
Lands"  (1854).  Since  that  time  Mrs.  Stowe 
hss  written  much,  mainly  in  periodicals,  the  pa- 
pers being  Bubsequently  collected  into  volumes. 
Among  iLnese  volumes  are;  "Dred,  a  Tale  of 
the  Great  Dismal  Swamp"  (1856;  republished 


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BEEOHET 

fn  186S  under  the  title  of  "Nina  Gordon"}; 
"The  MiniBter's  Wooing"  (ISCfl);  "Tlie  Pearl 
of  Oit'b  laland  "  (1882) ;  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento  " 
(1868) :  "  Old  Town  Folks  "  (ISflfl) ;  "  My  Wife 
ftnd  I "  (1ST2),  and  several  others.  In  1868 
I  tbecoDnteea  Guiccioli  put  forth  her  "Becotleo- 

tions  of  Lord  BTTon."    Mrs.  Stowe  thereupon, 
I  in  September,  186B,  pnbhshedin  the  "  Atlantic 

Monthly  "  a  paper,  "The  True  Story  of  Lady 
Byron's  Ijfe,    in  which  ahe  nnderlook  to  show 
'  that  Byron  had  formed  an  incestuous  intimacy 

;  with  his  half-nster,  Mrs.  Leigh.    This  paper 

I  elicited  much  oommentand  many  replies.     She 

I  extended  her  magazine  article  into  a  volonie, 

"Lady  Byron  Vindicated"  (186B),  in  which 
she  reiterated  her  original  statement,  and  re- 
plied to  the  animadversions  which  it  had  ooca- 
eioned.  In  186S-'T0  she  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  "Hearth  and  Home,"  a  weekly  Uterary 
joamal  of  New  York.  Uerhome  is  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  but  she  passes  much  of  her  time  at  her 
winter  residence  in  Mandarin,  Florida.  VI. 
Ckailta,  bom  at  Litchfield,  Oonn.,  in  1816.  In 
1344  be  was  ordwned  as  a  clergyman,  and  be- 
came snoceaaively  pastor  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
Georgetown,  Mass.  He  has  written  "The 
Incarnation"  (1849);  "Heview  of  the  fipirit- 
nal  Manifestations"  (1853);  and  "PenPictnres 
of  the  Bible"  (18SQ).  He  aided  his  brother, 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  the  compilation  of  the 
"Plymonth  Collection  of  Hymns  and  Tunoa," 
was  joint  anthor  with  his  siater,  Mrs.  Stowe, 
of  the  "Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands," 
and  acted  as  editor  of  the  life  of  hia  father, 
Lyman  Beecher.  ¥IL  'neais  Kw^ntt,  bom 
at  Utchfield,  Conn.,  Feb.  10,  1834.  He  grad- 
nated  in  1843  at  Illinois  college,  of  which 
hia  brother  Edward  was  president,  and  en- 
gaged in  teaching.  He  after  ward  became 
pastor  of  the  New  England  Oougregatibnal 
oharcb  in  Williamsburgb,  now  a  part  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  about  185T  removed  to  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  where  be  is  now  pastor  of  a  church 
(1872).  He  baa  pnbliahed  a  volume  entitled 
"  Our  Seven  Churches  "  (Sew  York,  1870). 

BEECHET,  Frederick  WIIUsh,  an  English  navi- 
gator, bom  in  London  in  February,  1796,  died 
there,  Nov.  29,  185S.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir 
William  Beecliey,  the  painter.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  a  volunteer  at  the  age  of  10,  and  saw 
a  great  deal  of  service  (including  the  contest 
at  New  Orleans)  during  the  12  years  following, 
and  in  1816  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1818  he 
suiled  in  the  Trent,  nnder  Franklin,  on  his  first 
voyage  of  arctic  discovery,  acting  aa  artist  to 
the  expedition,  and  in  IBIB  he  was  lieutenant 
of  the  Becla  in  Parry's  first  arctic  voyage.  In 
1831  he  was  comtnisaoned  (with  his  brother 
H.  W.  Beechey)  to  make  a  survey  of  the  N, 
coast  of  Africa,  from  Tripoli  to  Derae.  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  sent 
out  in  1825  in  the  Blossom  on  another  arctic 
expedition,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  to  act  in  con- 
cert with  Franklin  and  Parry.  Having  passed 
Behring  strait,  he  reached  in  Angest,  1826, 
a  point  N.  of  Icy  cape,  and  went  in  boats  to 


BEE-EATEB 


463 


lat  71°  28'  81"  N.  and  Ion.  166°  21'  80"  W.,  only 

146  m.  fVom  the  extreme  point  simultaneoosly 
reached  by  Franklin.  As  they  were  not  aware 
of  each  other's  position,  neither  advamoed. 
Commander  Beechey  snbseqnently  discovered,  * 
in  1827  (m  which  year  he  was  made  post  cap- 
tain), two  secnre  harbors  S.  E.  of  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales,  and  near  to  Behring  str^t,  which  be 
named  Port  Clarence  and  Grantley  harbor. 
He  retnmed  to  En^and  after  an  absence  of 
nearly  three  years.  Between  1829  and  1889  ha 
was  employed  in  making  Burveys  of  the  coasts 
of  Sontli  America  and  Ireland,  and  in  1864  he 
was  appointed  rear  admiral  of  the  blue. 

BEECHEY,  Sir  WIUU*,  an  EuKlish  portrait 
punter,  bom  at  Burford,  Oxfordshire,  in  De- 
cember, 1T63,  died  at  Hampetead,  near  London, 
in  January,  1889.  He  was  articled  to  a  Lon- 
don attorney,  but  procured  his  release  at  the 
age  of  19,  became  a  student  of  the  royal  acad- 
emy, and  closely  imitated  the  style  of  Sir 
Joshna  Reynolds.  For  some  time  he  confined 
himself  to  portr^ts,  Uving  at  Norwich;  bat 
having  executed  some  snuUl  pieces  in  the  man- 
ner of  Hogarth,  which  were  very  saocessfnL 
he  returned  to  London,  where  he  obtained 
for  full-length  portraits. 


Charlotte.  In  1797,  having  painted  a 
good  picture  of  George  III.,  he  was  Icnighted, 
and  at  the  same  time  made  a  meml^er  of  the 
royal  academy. 

BEE-EATER,  a  bird  of  the  genus  meropt,  and 
family  meropidm.  There  are  26  species  de- 
scritied,  inhabiting  most  parts  of  the  old  world, 
and  migrating  from  place  to  place,  according 
to  change  of  season.  In  the  winter  they  seek 
the  warmest  portions  of  the  globe,  and  the  tem- 


perate regions  In  snuimer,  in  search  of  food, 
which  consists  exclusively  of  insects.  They 
commonly  perch  singly  or  in  small  parties  on  a 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


464 


BEE-EATER 


prominent  branch,  from  which  they  can  see  all 
around  tbem.  From  this  thej  captare  insects 
on  the  wing,  like  the  bw allow,  generallj  roturn- 
ing  to  the  same  perch.  At  morning  and  evea- 
'ing  they  often  congregate  in  considerable  nnm- 
bera.  Their  flight  is  graceful  and  sustained ; 
their  cry  is  lond,  consisting  of  pleasunt,  whis- 
tling notes,  continued  at  morning  and  evening. 
They  rear  their  joung  in  horizontal  botes  in 
the  sandy  banks  of  rivers,  or  in  soft  rocks 
which  tliey  can  ejccavute.  The  entrance  is 
Biuoll,  opening,  at  the  depth  of  8  or  4  feet,  into 
a  cavity  in  which  the  parent  can  easily  turn. 
The  eggs  are  from  G  to  T  in  number,  laid  on  the 
bare  ground,  or  on  mosa  or  other  soft  material. 
The  common  bee-eater  {merop»  upiatUr,  Linn.) 
inhabits  the  south  of  Earope,  especially  about 
the  UuBsian  rivers  Don  and  Volga,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  occasionally 
seen  in  England  and  Sweden.    The  other  species 


Bee  Wolf  (UeUtlothena  NaUcoi). 

of  the  genas  are  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  the 
Indian  archipelago.  The  common  species  is 
abont  10  inches  long ;  the  bill  1}  inch,  black 
and  pointed;  eyes  red;  forehead  bluish  green, 
and  behind  it  green ;  top  of  the  head  chestnut, 
with  a  green  tinge ;  hind  head  and  npper  part 
of  neck  chestnut,  paler  toward  the  hack ;  from 
the  hill  is  a  black  stripe,  passing  through  the 
eye;  the  back  andaoapalars  pale  yellow,  tinged 
with  chestnut  and  green ;  rtunp  and  upper  toil 
covertB  blue-green,  with  a  yellowish  tinge; 
throat  yellow;  nnder  parts  blae-groen,  palest  on 
the  belly ;  lesser  wing  coTerts  dull  green ;  qnills 
mostly  sea-green  withoot,  and  many  of  the  in- 
ner mfous— the  first  very  short,  the  second  the 
largest  of  all;  the  tail  wedge-shaped,  of  12 
featliers,  the  shafts  brown  above  and  whitish 
beneath,  the  two  middle  ones  sea-green,  shaded 
with  mfons,  and  the  longest  by  nearly  an  inch ; 
claws  black.  In  Egypt  tliis  species  is  eaten  as 
food.  The  e^  are  white.  It  receives  its 
name  from  the  msect  which  is  its  favorite  food, 


BEE-KEEPING 

thongh  it  feeds  on  most  of  the  winged  insects, 
which  it  takes  as  it  fiiee. — One  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  African  genera  is  the  bee  wolf 
{■melitlotheTea  Nttbiewi),  a  bird  of  the  most  bril- 
liant plumage.  Its  back  is  of  a  deep  red  color, 
its  under  side  rose  pink.  The  head,  throat,  and 
portions  of  the  tail  are  of  a  blnish  green ;  while 
a  black  stripe  runs  from  the  comer  of  the  beak 
to  the  ear.  The  tips  of  some  of  the  longest 
feathers  are  also  black.  The  eyes  arc  red,  the 
feet  brown,  and  the  beak  biack.  The  bird  is 
generally  abont  18  inches  in  length,  and  its 
breadth  of  wing  is  abont  12  inches.  It  inhab- 
its eastern  Africa. 

BEE-KEEPING.  The  apiary  shonld  be  well 
sheltered  from  strong  winds,  either  naturally 
or  by  building  walls  or  close,  high  fences,  and 
should  face  the  south,  the  east,  or  the  south- 
east, BO  aa  to  get  the 
sun  during  the  day. 

tered,  in  a  high  wind 
the  bees  are  unable 
to  strike  the  hive  and 
are  blown  to  the 
ground,  where  they 
are  chilled  end  die. 
It    should    not    bo 

near  large  surfaces        „!,,„  „,„  uie  Ground, 
of  water,  lest   the 

bees,  overcome  by  cold  or  fotigue,  should 
be  forced  to  alight  on  them,  or  be  carried 
down  by  the  wina.  After  &  suitable  place  tor 
an  apiary  ia  selected, 
the  hives  should  not 
be  moved  over  a  few 
feet ;  for  when  the 
bees  first  fly  out  in 
the  spring  they  mark 
the  location  and  take 
note  of  immediately 
surrounding  objects 
aa  guides  for  their 
return.  The  hives 
should  be  placed  in 
a  right  line;  the  dis- 
tance between  the 
hives  shonld  not  be 
less  than  two  feet. 
In  some  apiaries 
their  height  from  the 
ground  is  from  one 
to  two  feet,  but  many 

bee-keepers  of  eipe-  bi„,  ^  Two-foot  p«i<«i*it. 
rienoe  raise  the  plat- 
form only  two  inches  from  the  earth,  because 
fewer  of  the  fatigued  or  chilled  bees  that  miss 
the  hive  in  returning  and  alight  under  it  are 
lost,  the  flight  of  iasumg  swarms  is  lower,  and 
there  is  less  exposure  to  strong  winds.  Gronnds 
on  which  there  are  no  large  trees,  but  some 
of  small  size  and  shrubbery,  on  which  the 
swarms  may  alight,  are  preferable.  The  grass 
should  he  mown  frequently  around  the  hives, 
and  the  ground  kept  clean,  to  prevent  too 
much  dampness,  and  to  destroy  the  lurking 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


places  of  noxiooa  insects  and  vermiii. 

hivea   ahonld    be   on 

separate     stands,    to 

prevent  the  bees  from 

ranniog  from  one  hive 

to  another,  and  should 

be  of  dilferent,  not 

glaring     colors,     as 

f  tides  to  the  bees. — 
he  chamber  hive  is 
made  with  two  apart- 
ments— the  lower  for 
the  residence  of  the  dumber  ni™. 

bees,    the    apper   to 

hold  the  boxes  in  which  the  bees  put  their 
honey  after  having  filled  the  lower  part. 
These  hives  are  sometimes  mode  several  ioch- 


T^arliif  aiTsa. 


front  to  rear  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the 
top,  to  prevent  the 
comb  from  slipping 
down.  They  are 
I  also  sometimes  fur- 
I  nished  withinclined 
bottom  boards  to 
roll  ont  the  worms 
that  fall  upon  them, 
or  are  driven  down 
by  the  bees.  To  protect  the  bees  from  ver- 
min, several  kinds  of  suspended  hives  have 
been  contrived  with  inclined  movable  bottom 
boards.  The  dividing  hives  are  made  with 
several  compartmeota,  «o  as  to  multiply  at  the 
will  of  the  bee-keeper  the  number  of  colonies, 
withont  the  trouble  and  risk  of  swarming  and 
hiving.  By  means  of  these  hives,  the  partitions 
jf  which  are  supposed  to  divide  the  brood 
combs,  a  part  of  the  bees  and  of  the  combs  are 
removed  and  placed  by  themselves  to  go  OH 
making  honey,  and  multiplying  in  every  re- 
spect like  a  natural  swarm.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  where  a  swarm  is  divided, 


DlTldliw  H1t«. 

in  one  Apartment  there  will  he  no  brood  from 
which  to  raise  a  queen, — Several  inventions 
nav«  been  made  to  enable  the  bee-keeper  to 
change  the  combs  and  get  the  honey  with- 
out driving  ont  or  destroying  the  bees.  Change- 
able hives  are  made  in  sections,  generally  three 
drawers  placed  one  above  another,  with  holes 
to  allow  the  bees  to  pass.  When  the  boxes 
are  all  filled,  and  it  is  desired  to  change  the 
combs,  the  upper  box  is  removed,  and  its 
place  supplied  by  a  new  one  put  in  at  the 


bottom.  It  is  held  that  there  is  a  necessity 
for  changing  the  brood  combs,  because  the 
larvte  hatched  from  the  eggs  aoJ  sealed  up  in 
the  cells  there  spin  their  cocoons,  which  re- 


main when  they  go  out,  upon  the  walls  of  tha 
cells.  This  deposit^  although  extremely  thin, 
diminishes  the  size  of  the  cell,  affording  teas 
room  for  each  succeeding  generation,  thna 
causing  the  bees  to  gradually  deteriorate  to 
mze.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  denied  tliat  de- 
terioration is  caused  in  the  bees  by  the  filling 
Dp  of  the  brood  cells,  even  if  the  same  combs 
are  hatched  froml2  years,  and  time  and  honey 
are  therefore  needlessly  wasted  hy  keeping  the 
bees  constantly  making  new  brood  comb.  It 
is  estimated  by  some  writers  that  in  elaborat- 


ing a  pound  of  wax  the  bees  will  c 
lbs.  of  honey,  besides  losing  the  time  when 
they  might  be  laying  up  further  stores.  The 
dimcolty  of  putting  the  swarms  into  these 
hives,  and  the  many  lurking  places  they  afford 
to  the  bee  moth,  and  also  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing, in  this  method  of  taking  away  honey, 
that  which  is  good  and  free  from  cocoons  and 
bee  bread,  more  than  counterbalance,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  bee-keepers,  their  advantages. 
—■Swarming  hives  are  sometimes  need.  They 
are  made  with  sections,  so  that  by  closing  all 
or  a  part  of  them  the  space  which  the  bees  oc- 
cupy is  lessened,  and  they  are  crowded  out, 
and  their  swarming  hastened.  Non-swarmers 
are  arranged  so  as  to  allow  the  bees  to  go  on 
accumulating  honey  and  Increasing  in  number, 
and  in  theory  not  swarm  at  all.  A  hive  of 
bees  is  put  into  a  bee  house,  and  empty  hives 
connected  with  it,  so  that  as  soon  as  one  he- 
comes  filled  the  bees  pass  to  the  adjoining  ones. 
In  some  instances  more  snrplns  honey  has  been 
obtained  by  this  method ;  out  giving  the  bees 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


166 


BEE-KEEPING 


PoUita  II1>«. 


aaj  amoaot  of  room  will  not  prevent  their 
swarming.  The  reanlt  of  all  the  experiments 
teada  to  show  the  soperiorit;,  for  practical 
parposes,  of  the  simpler  Irives.  For  protection 
aguiDst  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  sam- 
mer  and  winter,  atraw  hives  are  excellent. — In 
Poland,  where  finer 
honey  is  prodticed 
,  and  bees  are  more 
I  anccesafullf  man- 
I  aged  than  elsewhere 
1  in  Europe,  hives  ore 
made  bj  excavating 
trnnlcs  of  trees,  tak- 
ing logs  a  foot  or 
more  in  diameter  and 
about  9  feet  long. 
They  are  scooped 
oiit  or  bored  for  the 
I  length  of  6  fe%t  from 
^  one  end,  forminghol- 
I  low  cylinders,  the  di- 
I  ameter  of  the  bore 
■  being  6  or  8  inches. 
A  longitodinal  slit  is 
made  in  the  cylin- 
der nearly  its  whole 
length,  and  abont  4 
inches  wide.  Into  tliis  is  flt!«d  a  slip  of  wood 
with  notches  on  the  edges  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit a  single  bee.  Tliis  slip  is  fastened  m  with 
wedges  orhinges;  if  it  is  in  several  parts,  it  will 
oftenbefonnd  more  convenient.  Thetop  is  cov- 
ered, and  tbe  trunk  set  upright  with  the  open- 
ing toward  the  sooth,  Throngh  the  door  the 
condition  of  the  entire  swarm  is  seen,  and  the 
honey  taken  from  time  to  time. — One  of  the 
best  hives  is  made  of  pine  boards  an  inch  thick, 
12  inches  sqoare  inside,  and  14^  deep.  Instead 
of  a  top,  with  boles  to  allow  the  bees  to  as- 
cend to  the  Ixiies,  there  shoold  be  slats  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide  and  an  inch  thick,  half 
an  inch  apart,  three  quarters  of  on  inch  below 
the  top  of  the  hive.  Four  or  five  quarter-inch 
strips  at  equal  distances  across  the  slats  wiU  be 
even  with  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  on  these  the 
sarpluB  boxes  can  be  set  Over  all  should  be  a 
cover  or  cap  14  inches  inside  and  7  inches  high, 
A  hole  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the  front  side,  half 
way  to  the  top,  fnmishes  an  entrance  for  the 
hees,  and  additional  entrances  may  be  made 
at  the  bottom  on  the  sides.  If  elass  boxes  are 
used  to  receive  the  honey,  guide  comb  must 
be  placed,  as  bees  will  rarely  build  on  glass 
withoat  it  Glass  boxes  are  the  most  profit- 
able, as  they  show  the  honey  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, and  are  sold  by  weight  with  the  ho- 
ney, which  pays  their  coat.  A  separate  cover 
for  each  hive  may  be  ea«ly  made  by  put- 
ting togetlier  two  boards,  letting  them  in- 
cline to  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  roof  It 
is  necessary  to  guard  against  shading  the 
hives  too  much  in  spring  and  fall,  against  pre- 
venting a  free  circulation  of  air  all  around 
them  in  summer,  and  exposing  them  too  mnch 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  to  tjie  sun.    The  bee 


house  should  not,  in  cool  weather,  moke  the 
temperature  around  the  hives  much  higher 
than  tbe  bees  will  encounter  at  a  distance. 
Simple  movable  covers,  which  are  easily  ad- 
justed as  the  season  demands,  with  hives 
made  of  boards  of  sufficient  thickness,  well 
painted  t^  prevent  warping  and  cracking,  will 
generally  prove  an  ample  protection,  except  in 
winter,  when  the  hives  must  be  houaed,  or 
covered  with  straw  mats.  In  the  movable 
comb  hive  each  comb  is  suspended  in  a  frame 
and  the  top  is  not  fastened,  permitting  combs 
to  be  removed  for  examinadon  or  for  transfer 
to  other  hives;  drone  comb  may  be  cnt  oat 
and  working  comb  substituted ;  swarming  for 
the  season,  af^r  one  swarm  has  issued,  can  be 
stopped  by  cutting  off  all  but  one  of  the  queen 
oclfs;  moth  wonns  can  be  detected  and  de- 
stroyed ;  and  the  amount  of  brood  the  colo- 
ny shall  raise  can  be  controlled. — The  new 
Bwarms  generally  appear  daring  the  months  of 
June  and  Jaly,  but  sometimes  as  early  as  May 

August,    and 
in  good   sea- 
sons    Italian 
bees        have 
swarmed      at 
intervals    for 
three  months. 
The    swarms  ■ 
are      usually  ■ 
hived,    when 
the      branch 
or     whatever 
they  alight  on 
can     be    re-  ! 
moved,       by 
shaking  them 
off  in  front  of  '. 
the  hive,  a  lit-  1 
tie  raised  on  ' 
one  side  to  al- 


not  be  shaken  off,  and  the  hive  cannot  be 

placed  near,  they  may  be  brushed  quickly  into 
a  sack  or  basket  and  carried  to  the  hive.  It  is 
irritating  to  the  bees  and  useless  to  endeavor 
to  make  the  swarms  collect  by  a  din  of  horns, 
tin  pans,  and  bells.  They  will  sometimes  col- 
lect on  a  pole  with  a  few  branches,  some  broom 
corn,  dry  mnllein  tops,  or  similar  things  fas- 
tened to  the  end  and  held  in  the  air.  Tbey 
may  sometimes  be  arrested  when  going  off  by 
throwing  water  or  earth  among  them.  It  is 
very  seldom  that  a  swarm  starts  for  its  chosen 
destination  without  previously  alighting.  If 
two  or  more  swarms  issue  at  the  same  time 
and  unite,  they  may  be  separated,  if  desired, 
by  shaking  them  from  the  branch  between  two 
or  more  hives  placed  near  together.  Bhould 
the  queens  enter  the  same  hive,  the  bees  must 
be  shaken  out  between  empty  hives  as  before, 
and  this  oneration  repeated  till  tbe  queens  sep- 
arate, or  the  bee-keeper  b  able  to  catch  one  or 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEE-E££PING 


467 


more  of  them,  and  pnt  them  with  the  bees 
where  wanted.  Or  if  there  are  onl?  two 
■warms  united,  a  part  ma;  be  separated  and 
retomed  to  tlia  parent  hivea,  and  the  rest  put 
into  one  hive ;  or  the;  ma;  a)I  be  pot  into  one, 
and  bases  put  on  immediately.  It  is  aome- 
timea  deurable  to  nnite  amatl  awarms;  this 
ma7.be  easily  done,  if  the;  ieane  aboat  the 
aame  time,  bj  invertinK  one  hive  and  placing 
the  other  over  it ;  the  Dees  in  the  lower  wiU 
ascend.  When  it  is  desirable  to  defer  for  a 
short  time  the  isHning  of  a  swarm  which  the 
(dgns  indicate  to  be  just  at  hand,  the  bees  on 
the  ontside  of  the  nive  should  be  sprinlded 
with  water.  This  is  effectnal  onl;  before  the 
swarm  has  started.  Sometimes  the  swarm  is- 
taes  and  returns  several  times ;  if  this  is  owing 
to  the  inabilit;  of  the  queen  to  &;,  she  should 
be  fonod  if  possible,  and  pat  witti  the  others 
in  the  new  hive.  It  has  been  proved  b;  the 
movable  eomb  hive  that  the  old  qaeen,  if  she 
can  tiy,  always  leaves  with  the  first  swarm. 
If  the  weather  should  be  such  as  to  prevent  the 
new  swarms  from  going  oat  to  collect  hone; 
for  several  days  immediatel;  after  being  hived, 
it  ma;  he  necessary  t«  feed  them. — The  general 
nse  o!  box  and  movable  oomb  hives  makes  it 
nnneceasory  to  kill  hees  to  get  the  honey.  In 
other  hives  the  bees  ma;  be  etupeiied  with 
chloroform,  sulphur,  or  tobacco  smoke.  The 
comb  when  taken  should  be  cnt  ofT  dean  so 
that  the  hone;  ma;  mn  as  little  as  possible 
upon  the  bees.  Polish  apiarians  oat  ont  the 
old  comb  annually  to  lessen  the  tendenc;  to 
swarming,  and  thus  obtwn  the  largest  amount 
of  honey.  The  old  practice  of  deatropng  the 
bees,  except  those  which  are  intended  for 
wintering,  after  the  hives  have  been  filled  and 
the  bone;  season  has  passed,  still  prevails,  and 
La  Grenle  g^ves  many  reasons  proving  this  to 
be  profitable.  The  time  for  taking  up  hives 
depends  somewhat  on  tlie  season  and  the  bee 
pasturage.  The  quantity  of  honey  does  not 
increase  generally  after  Sept.  1.  The  bees  are 
soffocated  b;  burning  sulphur,  are  buried  to 
^vent  resuscitalaon,  and  the  hone;  removed. 
The  bees  are  sometiraes  deprived  of  the  entire 
store  of  comb  and  hone;  in  the  earl;  part  of 
the  season,  generally  after  the  leaving  of  the 
first  swarm,  and  driven  into  a  new  hive. 
When  the  old  hive  is  infested  with  moths, 
or  the  oomb  is  not  good,  and  it  is  desirable 
to  winter  the  beea,  this  operation  ma;  he  ei- 

Gdient.  It  is  performed  by  inverting  the 
ve,  and  putdng  the  other,  into  which  the 
bees  are  to  be  driven,  over  it,  making  the 
Junction  close,  and  tapping  with  the  hand  or 
a  stick  the  sides  of  the  hive ;  the  bees  will 
pass  up  to  the  new  hive,  which  is  to  he  then 
removed  to  the  stand. — Hives  are  sometimes 
attacked  and  robbed,  either  becaose  they  are 
too  weak  or  other  bees  are  attracted  b;  broken 
hone;comb  or  b;  food  put  near  the  hive.  To 
protect  it  after  the  robber;  has  commeoced, 
tiie  hive  should  be  removed  to  the  cellar,  or 
•ome  cool  dark  plaoe,  and  allowed  to  remain 


two  or  three  days.  It  is  sometimes  sQfGcient 
to  close  the  entrance  to  the  hive  so  as  to  admit 
but  one  bee  at  a  time.  It  is  beneficial  to  put 
a  similar  hive  in  the  place  of  the  one  removed, 
and  rub  on  the  bottom  board  wormwood  leaves 
or  the  oil  of  wormwood.  This  is  so  disagree- 
able to  the  hees  tliat  they  speedily  forsake  the 
place.  Breaking  the  comb  in  the  hive  of  the 
robbers  will  generally  make  them  desist. — 
The  quantity  of  hone;  nsually  necessary  for 
wintering  s&Tely  a  swarm  of  bees  is  SOpouods; 
and  it  is  known  that  two  colonies  put  into  one 
hive  will  oonsnine  but  few  more  pounds  than 
one  swairn,  probably  because  of  tne  increiiaed 
warmth  in  the  hive.  Those  that  are  found  in 
the  autumn  to  be  weak  in  numbers  and  with  a 
Boont;  snppl;  of  honey  should  be  nnited  with 
another  weak  colony  to  make  a  new  and 
strong   stock.     Only   the   strong   swarms  are 

Srofitable  to  winter.  Feeding  should  begin  in 
ictober,  BO  that  the  honey  may  be  sealed  up 
before  cold  weather.  Brown  sugar  made  into 
candy  b;  being  dissolved  in  wster,  clarified 
and  boiled  to  evaporate  the  water,  is  a  good 
food  for  bees.  The  simp  should  be  boiled  till 
it  begins  to  be  brittle  when  cooled.  This  or 
common  sugar  candy  ma;  be  fed  to  hees  in  the 
hives,  nnder  them,  or  in  the  boxes.  If  fed  in 
the  liqnid  stat«,  it  may  be  introduced  into  the 
hives  m  dishes,  some  contrivance  being  made 
to  enable  the  bees  to  eat  it  without  getting  into 
it.  Hone;  is  of  course  the  best  food,  and  mov- 
able combs  ma;  easily  be  trMisferred  from 
well  supplied  to  destitute  ooloniee.  The  ob- 
ject in  feeding  bees  in  spring  is  to  induce 
early  swarming.  Feeding  shonld  never  be  at- 
tempted as  a  matter  of  profit  Clover  is  the 
principal  socrce  of  supply  for  the  bees.  Fruit 
tree,  basewood,  locust,  and  maple  blossoms  yield 
abundantly  and  of  fine  qaaiity ;  buckwheat 
furnishes  a  large  quantity,  excellent  for  the 
winter-food  of  bees,  but  inferior  for  the  table. — 
The  bee  moth  is  the  greatest  foe  the  apiarian 
has  to  contend  with.  The  best  safeguard 
against  this  pest  is  to    have  the   hive  well 

Ced  and  painted,  the  entrances  not  too 
,  the  bees  vigorous  and  numerous,  and  to 
examine  the  hive  daily  from  about  Uay  1  till 
September  or  October.  In  the  daytime  the 
moths  remain  in  their  hiding  places,  end  may 
often  be  found  around  the  hive.  They  are  on 
the  wing  in  the  evening,  hovering  around  the 
apiary  or  running  over  the  hives,  endeavoring 
to  enter  and  deposit  their  egg^  Uany  may  be 
destroyed  by  entrapping  them  inshsllow  dishes 
of  sweetened  water  with  a  little  vinegar  added. 
Hollow  sticks,  small  shells,  and  similar  things 
are  often  placed  on  the  bottom  board,  where, 
the  worms  hatched  from  the  eggs  may  take 
refiige  and  be  destroyed.  It  is  necessary  to 
look  often  nnder  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  if 
one  side  is  rused  (as  is  required  for  ventilation 
in  warm  weather),  under  the  blocks  or  shells 
on  which  it  rests.  These  caterpillars  at  first 
are  not  thicker  than  a  thread,  and  are  of  a 
yellowish  while  color  with  a  few  browniah' 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


468 


BEE-KEEPING 


dots.  The;  live  in  the  wax,  eating  it,  and  fill- 
ing the  comh  with  webg.  Thej  protect  them- 
Befvea  from  the  bees  by  a  sort  oi  silken  Back, 
which  they  spin,  and  in  which  thej  lodge. 
When  they  baTO  attained  their  full  size,  which 
reqnirea  abont  three  weeka,  tbej  spin  their 
oocotHis;  in  these  thej  remain  enclosed  some 
lime,  and  change  to  chrjaalids  of  a  light  brown 
color,  with  a  dark  elevated  line  along  the 
back.  A  few  dajs  afterward  they  itre  trons- 
formed  to  winged  motha  and  issue  from  the  co- 
coons. Rats  and  mice  do  not  attack  the  hives 
except  in  winter,  unless  the  oomb  is  unprotect- 
ed bj  i>ee8.  Spiders  sometimes  «>in  their  webs 
upon  and  around  the  hives.  Ijiere  is  a  dis- 
ease called  foul  brood,  which  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  young  bees  in  the  larva  state ;  they 
cUe  in  the  ceils,  and  become  black  and  putrid. 
The  disease  appears  to  be  in  a  measure  infec- 
tions. The  only  remedy  is  to  drive  ont  the 
bees  into  a  new  dean  hive.  It  is  the  practice 
in  some  ports  of  Germany  to  put  the  bees  into  a 
temporary  hive,  and  let  them  remain  24  hours, 
without  food,  in  the  dark,  before  settling  them 
ia  the  new  bive.  The  disease  is  attributed 
cometimes  to  feeding  the  bees  with  foreign 
houey;  the  infection  being  conveyed  by  the 
honey,  which,  to  be  safely  fed,  should  be  previ- 
ously scalded. — In  wintering  bees  it  is  necesBBry 
to  protect  them  especially  from  freezing  and 
starving.  The  latter  happens  when  they  col- 
lect together  closely,  in  the  coldest  weather, 
and  the  comb  becomes  covered  with  frost  and 
ice,  excluding  them  from  the  honey.  This  is 
obviated  by  putting  straw  in  the  cover,  after  the 
removal  of  the  boxes,  to  collect  the  moistare. 
The  entrance  to  the  hive  is  liable  to  be  stopped 
with  ice,  and  the  bees  thns  suffocated.  The 
bee  never  passes  into  the  actually  torpid  state 
in  winter,  like  some  other  insects.     It  re- 

S[uireB  less  food  when  kept  warm  and  com- 
6rtable.  If  the  hives  are  to  be  carried  into  a 
house  or  cellar,  the  place  for  them  should  be 
cool,  dry,  and  dark.  The  best  method  is  to 
house  them,  unless  sufficient  protection  can  be 
given  them  on  the  stands.  Russian  and  Polish 
bee-keepers  winter  their  hives  on  the  stands ; 
but  they  make  them  of  inch  and  a  half  plank, 
and  wind  the  upper  part  with  twisted  straw  or 
cordage.  If  left  on  the  stands,  hiTee  made  of 
common  boards  need  additional  covering;  the 
entrance  should  also  be  narrowed  so  as  to 
leave  only  space  enough  for  a  single  bee  to 
pass.  Light  snow  may  cover  the  hive  with- 
out dangrer. — The  time  for  carrying  bees  out 
ih)m  their  winter  quarters  is  in  March,  except 
in  very  backward  seasons.  A  few  bngbt  cold 
•  days  will  not  be  more  destmctive  to  them  than 
too  long  confinement.  If  new  snow  has  fallen, 
and  the  weather  is  not  sufliciently  warm  for 
them  to  venture  into  the  air  safely,  the 
hive  may  be  shaded  from  the  sun,  or  the 
bees  confined  in  the  hive.  If  they  ore  to 
stand  very  near  each  other,  it  is  not  well  to 
carry  ont  too  many  hives  at  once,  the  bees  at 
first  not  readily  distinguishing  their  own.    The 


hives  should  be  rused  from  the  bottom  board 
only  on  one  ade,  if  at  alt.  Many  prefer,  if  tiie 
beee  ore  not  especially  numerous,  to  let  the 
hive  rest  entirery  on  the  board,  allowing  leas 
room  for  passage,  and  securing  greater  defence 
against  intruders.  More  ventilation  than  this 
affords  may  be  required  in  warm  weather, 
when,  if  liable  to  suffer  from  heat,  the  hive 
may  be  raised  entirely,  proper  means  being 
f^inushed  for  the  bees  to  ascend  ftom  the  hot- 
torn  board.— European  apiarians  have  devised 
means  for  weighing  hives  so  as  to  show  the  In- 
crease in  the  weight  of  honey  from  day  to  day; 
but  the  use  of  glass  boxes  and  movable  frames 
for  combs  permits  inspection  of  the  progrea  of 
the  work  at  any  time  and  renders  weigbii:g  uu- 
necesaary. — Bee-keeping  has  in  soma  instances 
been  made  very  profitable.  It  ia,  however,  un- 
certain. Much  depends  on  the  season  and  on 
the  pasturage.  Mr.  M.  QQimby,  in  "Uysteries 
of  Bee-Keeping  Explwned  "  (New  York,  1666), 
says  that  en  area  of  a  few  square  miles  in  the 
vicinity  of  St.  Johnsville,  N.  Y.,  in  some  favor- 
able seasons  has  fiimished  for  market  more  than 
20,000  lbs.  of  surplus  honey;  and  it  is  estimated 
that  in  good  localities  every  acre  in  the  country 
would  yield  a  pound.  A  single  colony  has  been 
known  to  give  a  profit  of  $86  in  a  season ;  90 
stocks  have  given  $900  profit ;  and  a  New  York 
apiarian  reports  for  130  hives  $1,600  profit  in  a 
single  season.  Owing  to  the  difierenoe  in  the 
seasons,  it  is  impossible  to  know  how  many 
stocks  can  be  kept  in  given  localities  in  the 
United  States.  One  of  the  provinces  in  Hol- 
bnd  has  an  average  of  2,000  hives  to  the  square 
mile.  In  an  area  of  4G  square  miles  in  Attica, 
Greece,  it  was  estimated  in  1866  that  there 
were  20,000  hives.  In  all  ages  the  abundance 
of  flowers  in  Attica  has  made  Hymettns  famons 
for  its  honey;  and  as  long  ago  as  1681,  when 
Sir  George  Wheler  visited  the  monks  of  Men- 
deli,  a  monastery  of  Fenteiicus,  they  had  6,000 
hives. — In  1860  a  few  colonies  of  the  Italian  or 
Ligurian  bee  (apU  liguitica),  which  had  long 
been  a  favorite  with  European  apiarians,  were 
imported  into  the  United  States,  where  they 
are  now  among  the  moet  popular,  prolific,  and 
profitable  bees  kept  in  the  country.    Their  sn- 

[leriority  over  the  native  bee  appears  in  their 
arger  Mze  and  preater  beauty ;  they  are  more 
prolific,  longer-lived,  more  industrious,  leas  sen- 
sitive to  cold,  and  they  swarm  earlier  and  more 
frequently,  and  continue  later  than  common 
bees.  The  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  author  of  a 
well-known  "Practical  Treatise  on  the  Hire 
and  the  Honey  Bee,"  says  his  Italian  colonies 
gathered  more  than  twice  as  much  honey  as  the 
swarms  of  the  common  bee ;  and  Mr.  Quimby,  a 
practical  bee-keeper  of  many  years'  experience, 
says  be  has  not  received  a  single  unfavorable 
report  of  them.  They  are  said  to  be  a  valuable 
acquisition  to  localities  of  high  altitude,  and  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  climate  of  Washing- 
ton, Oregon,  and  the  monntainous  rMfions  of 
California.  The  Introduction  of  these  bees  into 
the  United  States  has  led  to  the  Italianimng  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEELZEBUB 

whole  Sfdarie*,  and  to  the  prodaction  of  na- 
merooB  aod  onperior  hjbrida,  HtHnetimea  b;  de- 
dgD  and  Bgtia  bj  the  proximity  of  Italiui  and 
native  svariDS,  thouKb  spiariouB  coDiuder  pnri- 
tj  in  ewarma  desirable. 

BEOiZEBrB,  or  BccheM,  a  beatben  deity,  to 
whom  the  Jens  in  the  times  of  the  apoatlea 
aaeribed  the  sovereigntj  over  evil  spinta.  It 
is  (apposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Battlzebnb, 
fly  god,  of  the  Ekroaites  (see  Bau),  the  final 
b  being  in  lat«r  times  changed  to  2  in  prononnc- 
ing  the  word.  Others  Gad  in  the  last  element 
the  Hebrew  word  Miu2,  "habitation,"  and  con- 
rider  Beelzebul  to  mean  "  lord  of  the  bonse ; " 
otbera  refer  it  to  tbe  Heb.  tebel,  "dnng,"  and 
render  the  name  "dung  god."  Ung  iageniona- 
Ij  suggests  that  tbe  form  nnder  which  tbe 
Fbiliatme  deity  was  worshipped  was  that  of 
the  tearabau*  pUlulariiu,  tbe  dunghill  beetle, 
in  wbicb  case  Baal-zebnb  or  Beelzebul  wtinld 
be  equally  appropriate.  Tbe  name  appears 
nowhere  in  tbe  rabbinical  writers. 

BEEKBTEK,  the  largest  of  the  pelden  or 
tracts  of  drained  land  of  the  Netherlands, 
about  12  m.  K.  of  Amsterdam;  area,  8,000 
acres.  Tba  district  contains  a  neat  viliage  of 
about  S,600  inhabitants,  chiefly  employed  in 
r^ing  ^eep  and  cattle. 

BEER  (Ger.  Bier),  a  fermented  liquor  made 
from  malted  grain,  in  Europe  most  oommonly 
from  barley,  but  in  this  country  from  wheat  as 
well,  and  in  India  from  rice.  Com,  oata,  peas, 
and  similar  articles  of  food  may  ^so  he  used 
for  its  manufacture.  Hops  and  other  bitter 
substances  are  added  to  miprove  tbe  flavor, 
and  to  impart  their  peculiar  properties  to  the 
liqnor.  Tbe  name  beer  is  also  pven  in  this 
ooontry  and  in  Britun  to  several  partially 
fenneuted  extracts  of  tbe  roots  and  other 
porta  of  plants,  as  epmoe,  sassafras,  ginger, 
&e.,  most  of  which  are  designated  by  the 
term  root  beer;  hnt  as  generally  used  in  Eu- 
rope, it  is  applicable  only  to  liquors  prepared 
br  malting,  and  seasoned  with  hops  or  other 
bitters.  The  driok  in  some  of  its  varieties  ap- 
pears to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  proba- 
bly discovered  by  the  Egyptians.  Tacitus  no- 
tices it  as  being  in  common  use  with  tbe  Ger- 
mans of  his  time.  Pliny  describes  tbe  eelia 
and  e«7-fa,  the  beer  of  the  Bpauiards,  and  the 
eerevitia  of  the  Gauls,  made  from  almost  every 
species  of  grain,  and  evidentiy  named  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  com.  Aristotle  speaks 
of  its  intoxicating  qualities,  and  Tbeophrostus 
very  properly  calls  it  the  wine  of  barley. 
Herodotus  (450  years  B.  C.)  stated  that  tbe 
Egyptians  made  tiieir  wine  of  barley.  An  an- 
cient, description  by  Isidorus  and  Orosius  of  the 
process  in  use  by  the  Britons  and  Celtic  nations 
defines  tbe  liquor  as  not  differing  essentially 
from  that  now  made.  "Tbe  gram  is  steeped 
In  water  and  made  to  germinate,  by  wbiob 
its  spirits  are  excited  and  set  at  liberty ;  it 
is  then  dried  and  ground,  after  which  it  is  in- 
ftased  in  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  which,  be- 
ing fermented,  becomes  a  pleasout,  warming. 


strengtbenbg,  and  iotozicating  liquor."  Beer 
is  a  nourishing  drink  from  the  gum,  sugar, 
and  Btorcb  it  holds  in  solution ;  and  the 
bitter  substances  combined  with  it  impart 
their  tonic  properties.  The  proportion  of  wco- 
bol  is  small.  In  the  Edinburgh  ale  it  has  been 
found  by  tir.  Brande  to  amoant  to  6'20  per 
cent ;  in  brown  stout,  to  6'80 ;  Burton  ale, 
8-e8;  London  porter,  4-20;  small  beer,  1-88. 
Burton,  or  tbe  pale  India  ale,  as  found  by  Hoff- 
manu,  contains,  in  100  parts :  water,  T8-ST ;  ex- 
tract of  malt,  14'9T;  absolute  alcohol,  6-62: 
and  carbonic  acid,  0'04.  Pale  ale  conrista  of 
the  same  ingredients,  in  the  following  propor- 
tions: water,  8B-74;  extract  of  molt,  4'62; 
alcohol,  6'B7;  carbonic  acid,  007.  lActJO 
acid,  aromatic  matters,  and  various  salts  are 
detected  in  the  extract, — Although  tbe  term 
beer  is  generally  applied,  as  above  ststed,  to 
all  kinds  of  fermented  liquors  made  from  malt, 
a  distinction  is  made  between  the  heavier  and 
lighter  kinds.  The  more  spirituous  liquor, 
made  in  England  and  in  this  country,  is  com- 
monly called  ale,  tbe  name  given  to  it  before 
tbe  use  of  bops  (Anglo-Saxon,  aala).  Upon 
the  introduction  of  hope  into  England  the  word 
beer  (Bier)  was  also  imported,  and  was  used  U> 
distinguish  the  liqnor  niade  with  hops  from  tbe 
more  ancient  beverage.  Adistinotionismadeby 
the  German  brewers  between  ale  and  beer  on 
account  of  the  two  different  modes  of  fermen- 
tation which  are  employed ;  ale  being  produc- 
ed by  rapid  fermentation,  in  which  tbe  yeaat 
rises  to  the  surface  {Oltergihrung),  while  beer 
is  fermented  in  cool  cellars  by  a  slow  process 
in  which  the  yeast  settles  to  the  bottom  of  tbe 
vessels  {UntergHhrang).  The  latter  is  tbe  Ba- 
varian method,  which  is  employed  in  brewing 
Lagerbi^,  Sehenibitr,  Ac.  The  term  lager- 
bier  is  indiscriminately  applied  in  this  country 
to  the  light  kinds  of  beer  which  are  prepared 
by  the  slow  process  of  fermentation.  Uuoh 
of  this  beverage,  however,  is  not  genuine  lager- 
bier,  for  it  has  not  lain  a  siifDcient  length  of 
time  in  tbe  cellar  to  acquire  that  titie;  nor 
could  it  have  been  preserved  in  casks  daring 
tbe  time  in  which  lagerbier  is  rii>ening.  It  is 
more  technically  termed,  and  is  known  by 
the  brewers  as  Sehtnkbier  (tehtahen,  to  pour, 
to  retail  drinks),  i.  «.,  draught  beer,  or  beer 
ready  to  be  drawn.  It  contains  less  alcohol 
than  genuine  lager,  and  less  than  the  various 
kinds  of  beer  wbicb  are  brewed  in  Bavaria, 
and  corresponds  to  what  is  known  in  this  coun- 
try as  "  present  use  ale,"  or  the  new  ale  com- 
monly kept  in  the  ale  honses.  It  occupies 
much  leas  time  in  fermenting,  and  has  not  the 
keeping  properties  of  German  lager,  or  of  tbe 
various  kinas  of  Bavarian  beer.  To  Germany 
we  owe  not  only  the  general  introduction  of 
beer,  but  also  most  of  the  improvements  which 
have  been  made  in  its  manufacture.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  beer  brewed  in  Bavaria, 
and  also  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  which 
receive  particular  names,  as  Book,  Beiliger 
Filter,  Augustine  donble,  and  Satvator,  of  Mn- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


170  BEER 

nicli ;  brown  beer  of  Merseburg ;  Beriin  white 
beer,  or  ofaampagne  of  the  north ;  Brojban,  a 
famons  Hanoverian  beer ;  double  beer  of  Grftn- 
thai;  and  white  bitter  beer  of  Erlangea,  Lich- 
tenhain,  and  Upper  Weimar.  All  these  possess 
▼arious  eicellences,  particuhirlj  the  BavariaD 
beers,  most  of  which  are  doe  to  the  peculiar 
mode  of  fermentation.  TTaoaU;,  what  is  colled 
ale  contains  a  emaller  qnantitr  of  hops  than 
beer,  althou^  the  term  bitter  beer  is  oft«n  ap- 

Elied  to  the  East  India  pale  ale,  which,  besides 
eing  very  heavj,  oontains  a  larger  proportion 
of  hops. — Porter  was  first  made  in  England  in 
1780.  Previous  U>  that  time  the  malt  liquors 
in  London  were  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny.  It 
was  customary  to  call  for  half  and  half,  or  for 
three  threads.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  draw- 
ing fWim  two  or  three  casks,  a  brewer  named 
Harwood  produced  a  beverage  which  was  in- 
tended to  embrooe  the  qualities  of  the  three 
liquors.  It  was  called  entire,  or  the  entire 
butt ;  and  being  a  strong,  nourishing  drink, 
suitable  for  laboring  men  and  porters,  it  re- 
ceived at  last  the  name  of  porter.  It  is  made 
tram  malt,  a  portion  of  which  has  been  to  a 
certain  degree  roasted ;  conseijuently  it  has  a 
deeper  color  than  the  other  kinds. — The  fol- 
lowmg  table,  from  Watts's  "Dictionary  of 
Chemistry,"  exhibits  analyses  of  some  cele- 
brated Eoropean  beers,  by  Ealser,  Hoffmann, 
Otto,  and  others : 


..„„™. 

MmU 

.^ 

CM. 

,„. 

8-0 

»■* 

1    !■■* 

(TO 

1    « 

0-1 

i 

6-1 

018 
01* 

i 

BnrtoD  fls/!T 

SS;!.™::::::::::;:: 

Silntor,  Hnmch 

»0« 
90-JO 

WS&i^.l«wnbeer,Berllil. 

M'H) 

gSiiSSS?^^'^"'^:::: 

asiio 

W-IO 

— The  amount  of  fermented  liquors  brewed  in 
the  United  States  during  the  year  ending  June 
80,  1871,  according  to  Hr.  Lonis  Schade,  a 
statistician,  was  7,159,740  bbls.  Of  this 
amount  New  York  produced  2,S06,14B;  Penn- 
sylvania, 913,086;  Ohio,  666,896;  Massacbu- 
setta,  E25.781;  New  Jeraey,  614,189;  and 
North  Carolina,  61  hbls.  The  total  brewers' 
tax  in  1871  was  t7,387,501.  The  number  of 
breweries  in  the  United  States  in  1670  was 
2,862.  Of  the  ale  brewers,  only  one  brewed 
over  100,000  bbls.  Four  breweries  produced 
over  70,000  bbls.  each.    One  lagerbier  brewery 

E reduced  over  40,000  bbls.  The  number  of 
reweries  in  England  In  1870  was  2,671.  The 
ale  and  beer  brewed  amounted  to  60,724,086 
bbla.,  the  dnty  upon  which  was  £6,878,102. 
AUsop  and  Sons  employ  1,800  persons  in  Bar- 
ton, of  whom  100  are  olerlcs.      Their  two 


breweries  are  capable  of  prodncing  16,000  bbls. 
of  ale  per  week.  The  new  brewery  covers  40 
acres,  and  the  ground  is  traversed  by  IS  miles 
of  rtul.  In  Austria  and  Hungary,  in  1871, 
there  were  2,699  hreweriea,  which  produced 
m  Anstria  7,918,488  bbls.,  and  in  Hungary 
630,988  bbls.  of  beer,  of  which  there  were  ex- 
ported 136,886  bbls.  The  German  states,  ex- 
cluding Bavaria,  WOrtemberg,  and  Baden,  pro- 
duced from  January  to  May,  1872,  four  months, 
3,738,769  bbls.  of  beer,  and  during  the  same 
time  there  were  eiported  2,676  bbls.  Bavaria 
produced  in  1871  abont  4,286,000  bbls. 

BEEB>  !•  WUbetB,  a  German  astronomer,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  the  brother  of  Meyerbeer, 
the  great  composer,  bom  in  Berlin,  Feb.  4, 
1797,  died  March  27,  1860.  His  regular  pro- 
fession was  that  of  a  banker,  bnt  be  devoted 
mnch  of  bis  time  to  his  favorite  study  of 
astronomy,  working  in  coi^Junction  with  H&d- 
ler.  Beer  built  an  observatory  in  the  Thier- 
garten  at  Berlin,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  ob- 
servation of  the  planet  Mars  and  the  moon. 
The  crowning  labor  of  the  two  astronomers 
was  a  map  of  the  moon  published  in  1686, 
upon  whidi  the  Lalande  price  was  conferred 
by  the  French  academy.  In  1849  Beer  became 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  diet.     Il>  UAad,  a 


1888.  He-become  known  in  Utersture  by  five 
tragedies,  of  which  his  Strvenut  is  the  best. 
His  complete  works  were  pablisbed  at  Leipao 
and  his  "  Correspondence  "  in  1887. 


'  BEIX4HEB1  (Heh.  Beer  Sheba\  well  of 
■wearing  or  well  of  seven),  an  ancient  town 
on  the  soQthern  border  of  Palestine,  88  m.  S. 
S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  of  which  only  the  rnins 
are  now  visible.  It  took  its  name  from  one  of 
two  wells  still  existing  near  the  site.  Accord- 
ing to  one  Biblical  account  (Gen.  xxi.)  the  more 
ancient  one  was  dug  by  Abraham  and  received 
the  name  from  the  fact  that  he  and  Abime- 
lech,  king  of  the  Philistines,  "  swore  there  "  a 
covenant,  and  ratified  it  by  the  setting  apart 
of  "seven"  ewe  lambs.  Another  accoonl 
(Gen.  xivi,)  conveys  the  impression  that  laaao 
instead  of  Abraham  was  the  digger  of  the  well. 
Of  the  two  principal  wells  at  Beer-sheba,  the 
larger  one  is  12^  tl.  in  diameter  and  about  44 
tt.  deep  to  the  surface  of  the  water ;  the  other, 
100  yards  further  W.,  is  6  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
has  about  the  same  depth.  Both  are  surround- 
ed by  masonry,  the  inner  edge  of  which,  as  in 
other  wells  of  the  country,  is  worn  into  deep 
grooves  by  the  friction  of  the  ropes  used  in 
drawing  op  water.  These  two  wells  lie  near 
the  N.  bank  of  the  Wady  es-Seba,  and  a  shoK 
distance  from  them  is  a  group  of  five  smaller 
ones.  The  nuns  of  the  town,  on  the  slight 
elevation  near  these,  are  unimportant  as  guides 
to  its  history.  It  has  been  littie  visited  by 
strangers,  partly  owing  to  its  distance  from 
otiter  places  of  historical  int«rest^  and  partiy 
because  of  the  inseonrity  of  travel  in  tbat  part 


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of  tbe  cotmtiT.  A  trildeniesa,  still  known  ss 
the  desert  of  Beer-eheba,  stretches  to  the  sooth- 
ward.  The  ScriptnrBl  paMoges  in  which  Beer- 
■heba  is  mentioned  ore  ver;  aumeroas ;  and  the 
position  of  the  town  in  the  extreme  sonth  of 
the  ooontiy  gave  rise  to  the  phra«e  "  from  Den 
to  Beer-ahatM.,"  as  a  means  of  designating  the 
whole  land  of  the  Jews,  Ban  being  on  tbe  N. 
border. 

BEET,  a  plant  of  the  geniiB  beta,  belonging 
to  the  natnra]  order  ekenopodea,  among  which 
it  is  known  bj  its  large  snocnleot  roots  and  a 
green  calyx  nnited  half  way  to  ft  hard  ruffed 
nut.  The  species  are  foond  in  Europe,  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  the  western  parts  of  Asia.  Four 
Bpeeiesof  this  genna  are  cultivated  as  escnlents; 
the  others  are  mere  weeds.  The  oommon  beet 
{S.  vulgarii)  is  fonnd  in  a  wild  state  in  Egypt 
and  along  the  whole  of  the  seacoast  of  the 
Uediterranean.  There  are  several  variet)es,'dif- 
fering  in  the  form,  stie,  color,  and  sweet- 
ness of  their  roots.  'Those  of  a  deep  red  color 
aro  called  blood  beets.    The  "small  red"  and 


the  "long  yellow"  aro  the  most  sweet  and 
delicate,  and  have  the  richest  color  when 
served  at  table.  Beet  roots  can  only  be  ob- 
tained in  perfection  in  a  rich,  light,  sandy  soil, 
through  which  they  can  easily  penetrate.  In 
stony  or  stiff  soils  the  roots  become  parched 
and  lose  their  enccnlence.  Mangel-wurzel 
(£.  altiMima)  is  a  mnch  larger  and  coarser 
plant  than  tbe  common  beet,  fhnn  which  it 
differs  by  its  roots  being  marked  internally 
with  Eoncs  of  red  and  pink  or  white.  Its  na- 
tive conntry  is  unknown.  It  is  extensively 
cnltivated  in  Karope  for  feeding  cattle;  its 
leaves  afford  a  very  nutritions  food  for  all 
kinds  of  live  stock,  and  its  roots,  from  their 
exceeding  sweetnen,  are  considered  one  of  the 
moat  valoable  plants  on  which  cattle  can  be 
fed  in  winter.  Swedish  turnips,  or  rula  haga, 
exceed  them  in  the  quantity  of  noarishment, 
weight  for  wei^t;  but  on  good  light  soils  the 


?roduoe  of  the  beet  per  acre  Is  mnch  greater. 
he  fbllowing  proportional  values  are  given  by 
Einhof  and  Thaer :  18  tons  of  mangel-wnrzel 
are  eqnol  to  IB  tons  of  Swedish  tumi[»,  or  7i 
tons  of  potatoea,  or  8}  tons  of  good  English 
bay,  each  quantity  containing  tbe  same  amount 
of  nourishment;  but  tlie  roots  may  be  grown 
upon  less  than  an  acre  of  groand,  wliile  two  or 
three  acres  of  good  grass  land  are  required  to  - 

Cdace  the  eqnivalent  amomit  of  hay.  The 
t  root  is  also  deemed  the  least  eiliausting 
to  the  land. — The  wiiita  beet  has  been  chiefly 
cultivated  for  the  porpcae  of  extracting  sugar 
from  its  juice.  It  is  smaller  than  the  man- 
gel-wurzd  and  more  compact  The  manofac- 
tore  of  sugar  from  beet  root  was  first  com- 
menced in  France  in  consequence  of  the  em- 
peror Napoleon's  scheme  for  excluding  British 
colonial  produce.  The  process  has  ranee  been 
much  improved,  and  beet-root  sugar  now  com- 
petes on  nearly  eqnal  terms  wiSi  colonial  or 
cane  sugar,  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Most 
of  the  operations  in  mannfactoring  beet-root 
sugar  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  by  which 
the  juice  of  the  sngar  cane  is  prepared  for  ose; 
but  much  greater  skill  and  nicety  are  required 
in  rendering  the  jnice  of  the  beet  root  crystal- 
lizable,  owing  to  its  greater  rawness  and  the 
smaller  relative  proportion  of  sugar  it  contuns. 
When  beet-root  sugar  is  refined,  however,  it  is 
almost  imposdble  to  dist^guish  it  from  the 
other,  either  by  the  taste  or  the  appearance. 
Five  tons  of  dean  roots  produce  about  4^  cwt 
of  coarse  sogar,  which  gives  about  160  lbs. 
of  double-refined  sugar  and  GO  lbs.  of  infe- 
rior lamp  sugar;  the  rest  is  molasses,  from 
which  spirits  are  distilled.— The  chard  beet  {B. 
ej/ela),  inferior  in  the  size  of  its  roots,  is  re- 
markable for  the  thickness  of  the  ribs  of  its 
leaves,  which  are  wiiite,  yellow,  green,  orange- 
colored,  or  deep  crimson,  in  ditferent  varieties. 
It  is  cultivated  like  the  common  beet  in  gar- 
dens, and  forms  one  of  the  principal  vegetables 
nsed  by  agricaltural  laborers  and  small  oc- 
cupiers of  land  in  many  parts  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  Swiss  chard  pro- 
daces  nomerons  large  succulent  leaves,  with  a 


very  solid  rib  running  along  the  middle.  The 
leafy  part  stripped  off  and  boiled  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  greens  and  spinach ;  the  rib  and 
stalk  are  dressed  like  aq)uagus  or  soorzenera. 


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472 


BEETHOVEN 


They  have  a  pkaaant  eweet  taste,  and  are 
deemed  bj  some  persons  more  vboleeome  than 
the  cahbage  tribe ;  but  in  other  Tanetiea  thej 
have  an  earthy  taste  nhicb  is  anpleasant — Sea 
beet  (B.  maritima)  is  a  perennial,  and  one  of 
the  most  valnabte  planta  known  I'or  greene.  It 
thrlTBB  in  gardens  without  any  sort  of  care, 
and  is  increased  by  seeds,  which  it  yields  in 
great  abundance. 
BEETHOTENi     L   Lidwtg  m,   a   mnrician, 

?robably  a  native  of  Maestricht  in  Holland, 
ied  in  Bonn,  Deo.  24,  1773.  He  was  a  baas 
ringer  of  considemble  reputation  in  the  elec- 
toral chapel  at  Bonn,  and  in  opera.  Aboat 
1761  he  was  made  kapellmdeter  by  the  elector 
Maximilian  Frederick,  and  seems  to  have  held 
that  offlae  Qntil  the  appointment  of  Lnccbed 
in  1771.  He  composed  several  operas,  none 
of  which  are  now  preserved.  IL  Lidwlg  nm, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  masical  composers,  son 
of  Johanit  van  Beethoven,  a  tenor  singer  in  the 
electoral  ohapel  at  Boim,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  bom  in  Bonn,  Dec,  1«  or  17,  1770, 
died  in  Vienna,  March  28,  1897.  Before  be  was 
i  years  old  be  was  placed  at  the  harpsichord, 
and  forced  nnrelentingly  to  perform  bis  daily 
task  of  exercises.  He  soon  reqaired  better  in- 
struction than  his  father  conld  ^ve,  and  be- 
came siicoeseively  the  pnpil  of  Pfeiffer,  oboist 
in  the  chapel,  and  of  Van  der  Eder,  coort  or- 
ganist. Id  1T61  Van  der  Eder  was  succeeded 
by  C.  O,  Neefe,  and  the  pupil  was  transferred 
to  him.  In  a  musical  periodical  of  that  day  it 
is  said  that  at  the  age  of  11  years  he  played 
nearly  all  of  Sebastian  Bach's  Wokllemperirtet 
KlavieT,  and  that  Neefe  had  cansed  nine  vari- 
ations by  him  upon  a  march  to  be  engraved. 
Besides  these  variations,  we  possess  a  specimen 
of  his  powers  at  this  early  age  in  three  piano- 
forte sonatas,  dedicated  to  the  elector  and 
Erintcd  at  Spire.  Through  the  inflnence  of 
'oont  Waldstein,  Beetlioven  was  in,  his  ISth 
year  appointed  assistant  court  organist,  and  fa 
his  18th  was  sent  to  Vienna  at  the  elector's 
expenoe,  to  study  with  Moiart  Tlie  illness  of 
his  mother  recalled  him  to  Bonn,  and  her  death 
about  the  end  of  July,  17S7,  doubtless  was  the 
oaose  of  his  remaining  for  the  present  there ; 
for,  owing  to  the  habits  of  his  father,  the  sup- 
port of  his  two  young  brothers  mnst  in  a  great 
measure  have  devolved  upon  him.  In  1792, 
his  brothers  being  ofT  his  hands  (Karl  a  music 
teacher,  and  Jobann  on  apothecary's  boy), 
Beethoven  was  again  in  a  position  to  accept 
the  elector's  liindnese,  and  returned  to  Vienna ; 
which  capital  and  its  environs,  save  upon  a 
single  visit  to  Berlin,  one  or  two  to  Progne, 
and  his  summer  journeys  for  health  to  vanons 
watering  places,  he  never  again  left.  The 
yonng  composer  reoched  Vienna  a  few  weeks 
before  comjileting  his  22d  year,  and,  modestly 
suppressing  all  his  previous  attempts  at  com- 
position, came  before  the  pablje  only  as  a 
pianoforte  virtuoso.  The  first  five  years  of  his 
sojourn  in  Vienna  were  the  happiest  of  the 
composer's  life.    He  mingled  in  the  best  soci- 


ety, was  the  favorite  of  people  of  the  first 
rank,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
feeuon  by  the  best  jodgee.  In  the  mean  time 
he  was  making  himself  master  of  musical  form, 
sCndying  succesnvely  with  Haydn  and  the  re- 
nowned contrapuntist  Albrechtsberger,  kapell- 
meister at  St.  Stephen's.  The  somewhat  dry 
but  thorough  course  of  study  pursued  under  the 
latter  may  be  followed  by  the  musical  student 
in  the  work  known  as  "Beethoven's  Studies," 
which  is  made  np  fh>m  the  lessons,  original 
and  selected,  pven  him  by  his  teacher,  and  is 
often  enriched  by  the  shrewd,  witty,  and 
caustic  remarks  of  the  pupil.  The  first  impor- 
tant works  which  he  sent  to  the  press  were  the 
three  sonatas,  op.  3,  and  the  three  trios,  op.  1, 
but  others  followed  with  a  rapidity  truly  aoton- 
ishing.  It  is  not  possible  to  arrange  the  works 
of  this  master  in  the  order  of  their  compoaition, 
and  to  decide  how  many,  of  his  earlier  produc- 
tions especially,  belong  to  a  given  period.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  before  the  close  of  the 
century  the  list  included  many  variatitou  and 
songs,  more  than  20  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte 
solo,  three  (probably  more)  sonatas  for  the 

fiianoforte  and  violin,  three  for  piano  and  vio- 
□neello,  three  trios  for  piano,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello, that  in  B^  with  clarinet,  the  quartet  for 
piano  and  bowed  instruments,  the  quintet  for 

S'ano  and  wind  instruments,  the  concertos  in 
and  B|,  for  piano  and  orchestra,  five  trios, 
sis  quartets,  the  quintet  in  E^  for  bowed  in- 
struments, the  septet,  the  ballet  "Men  of  Pro- 
metheus," and  the  1st  and  2d  symphonies! 
But  he  was  already  suffering  from  a  calamity 
which  ofterwartl  greatly  limited  his  produc- 
tiveness, but  which  we  may  consider  the  cause 
of  the  profound  depth  of  sentiment,  feeing, 
and  passion,  which  is  the  leading  characteristic 
of  the  music  of  Beethoven.  In  a  letter  to  his 
friend  Dr.  W^eler,  dated  June  2S,  1800,  he 
says :  "  My  hearing  has  been  gradually  bocom- 
ing  weaker  for  three  years  past."  The  original 
cause  of  this  misfortune  was  a  hemorrhoidal 
difficulty,  and  a  consequent  chronic  weakness 
of  the  bowels,  attended  with  violent  colic.  He 
describes  the  symptoms  uf  his  case  and  its 
treatment  by  physicians,  and  adds:  "I  may 
say  that  I  feel  myself  stronger  and  better  in 
consequence,  only  my  ears — they  are  still  ever 
ringing  and  singing  day  and  ni^ht  I  con  tmly 
say  that  I  pass  a  wretched  eiistence ;  for  the 
last  two  years  I  have  almost  entirely  shunned 
society,  because  it  is  impossible  to  tell  people 
I  am  deaf  I "  Again :  "  In  the  theatre  I  am  forced 
to  lean  up  close  to  the  orchestra  to  understand 
the  actors.  The  higher  tones  of  the  voices  and 
instruments,  if  I  am  at  a  tittle  distance,  I  cannot 


mer  of  1602  he  had  a  dangeroua  attack  of  illneiis, 
and  in  the  prospect  of  death  wrote  a  remark- 
able paper,  addressed  to  his  brothersi,  in  which 
he  paints  the  sufferings  which  he  hod  passed 
through  in  very  powerful  language.  We  quote 
a  few  lines:  "Bom  of  an  ardent,  sanguine 


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BEETHOVEN 


473 


tempernment,  uid  peonli&rlj  Basoeptible  to  the 
pleasures  of  sooie^,  yet  at  this  earlj  age  I 
maet  withdraw  ttom  the  world  and  lead  a  soli- 
tary life.  When  I  at  timeB  have  det«rniined 
to  rise  aapeiior  to  all  this,  oh,  how  craellj  have 
I  beea  agaia  caat  dowD  bj  proofs  doabi;  pain- 
ful of  my  defective  hearing;  and  yet  it  has 
been  ntterly  imposnble  for  me  to  say  to  people, 
*  Speak  louder,  scream,  for  I  am  deaf  I '  Ah, 
how  could  I  proclaim  the  weakneas  of  a  sense 
whioh  I  DUgDt  to  possess  in  a  higher  degree 
than  others,  which  once  I  did  possess  in  the 
highest  perfection — a  perfection  equalled  by 
few  of  my  profession?  Alaa,  I  cannot  do  thial 
Forpive  me,  then,  if  I  draw  bock  when  I  woald 
gladly  mingle  with  yon.  My  misfortune  in- 
flicts upon  me  a  double  woe  in  oaasing  me  to 
be  misapprehended.  For  me  there  can  be  no 
recreation  in  social  interconrse,  no  joining  in 
re&ned  and  intelleetnal  conversation,  no  mutnal 
ontpoaringa  of  the  heart  with  others."  Agun: 
"  But  what  humiliation,  when  some  one  stand- 
ing by  me  hears  a  distant  Snte,  end  I  hear 
nothing,  or  listens  to  the  song  of  the  herdsman, 
and  I  hear  no  sound  1  Sach  incidents  hare 
brought  me  to  the  verge  of  despair;  a  little 
more,  and  1  had  pnt  an  end  to  my  life.  One 
thing  only,  art — this  restrained  me.  I  oonld 
not  leave  the  world  nntil  that  was  accomplished 
which  I  felt  was  demanded  of  me."  Upon  his 
recovery  from  his  illness,  though  he  bad  little 
hope  of  ever  recovering  his  hearing,  he  became 
more  patient  and  cheerful,  and  again  wrought 
out  his  rangical  inspirations  with  great  industry. 
Among  the  nnmerous  compositions  of  the  few 
following  years  are  several  of  his  capital  worlcs. 
The  "Heroic  Symphony"  was  produced  in 
1804  i  "  Fidelio ''  in  1805 ;  the  4th,  6th,  and 
6th  symphonies,  and  the  maes  in  C,  during  the 
four  following  years.  It  is  a  common  impres- 
sion that  the  ill  success  of  his  opera  "Fidelio" 
discouraged  Beethoven  ever  afler  from  attempt- 
ing dramatic  composition.  His  negotiations 
with  T&rious  poets,  EOmer,  RelUtab,  Grillpar- 
zer,  Bernard,  for  a  libretto,  even  down  to  the 
close  of  Hfe,  and  especially  a  formal  written 
proposition  dated  in  180T,  and  still  in  existence, 
to  uie  ruanagement  of  the  imperial  theatres  for 
an  engagecnent  as  regnlar  composer,  show  how 
erroneous  is  the  impression.  What  prevented 
the  acceptance  of  Beethoven's  proposition  by 
the  managers  is  not  now  known.  The  mnsic 
to  Kotzebne's,  "Ruins  of  Athens"  was  first 
performed  in  1813;  the  "Battle  of  Vitoria" 
and  the  Tth  symphony  in  the  antumn  of  1813; 
the  cantata,  "Tne  Glorious  Moment,"  at  the 
Vienna  congressinl814;  and  the  8th  symphony 
was  written  aa  early  as  1819.  The  labors  of 
the  summer  of  181S  were  principally  devoted 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  Scottish  songs  for 
George  Thompson  of  Edinburgh.  From  this 
period  the  works  of  Beethoven  followed  each 
other  in  still  less  rapid  succession,  not  only 
from  the  grandenr  and  extent  of  their  designs, 
but  from  the  effects  produced  upon  him  by  a 
legal  process,  which  claimed  mach  of  his  atten- 


tion and  caused  him  the  deepest  sniiety.  The 
last  half  dozen  sonatas,  those  giants  of  piano- 
forte oompowtion ;  the  grand  mass  in  D,  a  three 
years'  tabor;  the  overture  in  C,  op.  116;  the 
9tb  symphony,  withchoms,  completed  in  1824; 
and  the  last  grand  quartets,  were  the  principal 
prodaclions  of  lus  last  10  years.  The  legal 
process  above  mentioned  was  too  important  in 
its  inflnenoe  to  be  passed  over  without  some 
notice.  Hie  brother  Karl  had  been  unfortu- 
nate in  his  marriage,  and  upon  his  death  in 
leiG  had  left  his  son  to  the  special  care  and 
protection  of  the  composer.  The  mother,  al- 
though she  soon  became  the  kept  mititress  of 
a  citizen  of  Vienna,  refiiaed  to  part  with  her 
son,  and  Beethoven  was  forced  to  bring  the 
cose  before  the  courts.  The  will  of  the  mther 
was  not  snfilcient  ground  by  the  laws  of  Aostria 
for  removing  the  child  tram  his  mother,  nor 
for  his  legal  adoption  by  his  nncle.  It  became 
necessary  for  Beethoven  to  prove  the  bad 
character  of  his  sister-in-law,  apd  show  that 
the  moral  welfare  of  the  boy  demanded  his  re- 
moval from  her  influence.  This,  to  a  man  who 
in  the  corrupt  society  of  "Vienna  had  lived  a 
blameless  life,  and  who  had  his  Mends  and  ac- 
quaintances principally  among  princes  and  the 
nobility,  was  in  the  last  degree  mortifjing. 
Its  eflect  npon  him  was  so  great  that  nothing 
bat  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  large  expenses 
entailed  npon  him  by  the  lawsuit,  and  by  his 
adoption  of  the  hoy,  induced  biro  to  meet  the 
demands  of  his  publishers.  Daring  three  years 
not  one  of  his  sreat  works  was  produced.  The 
suit  was  origmally  brought  in  1816,  in  the 
conrt  in  which  the  canses  of  the  nobility  were 
tried,  and  after  two  or  three  years,  daring 
which  the  boy  was  sometimes  in  poaaession  of 
the  mother  and  at  others  of  the  uncle,  was  de- 
dded  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  opposing 
connsel  thereupon  brought  a  technical  objection 
to  tbe  proceedings,  viz.,  that  Beethoven  was 
not  of  noble  birth,  and  could  not  bring  suit  in 
this  conrt;  that  van  in  Holland  was  not  equiv- 
alent to  con  in  Germany.  The  point  waa  sus- 
tained, and  the  suit  was  transferred  to  the 
magistrates'  conrt  of  the  city,  clearly  the  prop- 
er place,  as  Beethoven  had  been  made  a  citizen 
of  Vienna  some  years  before,  as  a  mark  of 
honor.  The  former  deciaon  was  here  reversed, 
and  Beethoven  was  obliged  to  bring  a  new 
action.  It  was  not  nntil  some  time  in  the  year 
1821  that  he  obtained  full  poa'ieseion  of  the 
boy.  In  the  mean  time  the  nephew  had  fallen 
into  habits  of  indolence,  Msehood,  and  extrav- 
agance beyond  the  powerof  hia  uncle  to  reatraia 
or  control.  Johann  van  Beethoven,  the  com- 
poser's younger  brother,  was  mean,  sordid,  and 
vain,  and  married  to  a  woman  who  brought  her 
illegitimate  daught«r  to  his  house,  and  not  sel- 
dom received  her  own  lovers  there.  For  such 
a  man  Beethoven  could  have  little  fraternal 
affection.  The  nephew  became  all  in  all  to 
him.  Upon  him  he  lavished  all  the  rich  affec- 
tions of  hia  great  heart;  no  pains  nor  expense 
was  spared  on  the  young  man's  edocation ;  but 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


474  BEETH 

in  vain.  In  Angost,  1826,  the  yonth,  then 
&bout  20  je&r§  of  age,  unable  to  pass  the  ex- 
sminationB  of  the  school  to  which  he  belonged, 
filled  ap  the  measure  of  his  ingratdtade  by 
shootJng  biiDBelf  in  the  head.  The  woond  was 
not  &tBJ,  and  at  length  he  recovered.  By  the 
laws  of  Austria  be  was  an  offender  agunat 
public  morals  and  the  oharch,  and  for  some 
months  was  deprived  of  liberty.  When  at 
length  restored  to  his  uncle,  it  was  with  the 
order  to  leave  Vienna  in  24  hours.     In  his 


estate  on  the  Danube,  some  80  miles  above 
Vienna,  until  such  time  as  a  place  in  the  army 
could  be  found  for  the  young  man.  The  place 
and  the  eociety  of  his  brotber's  family  soon 
became  insupportable  to  the  composer,  and  he 
determined  to  return  to  the  coital.  This 
journey  of  two  days,  in  cold,  wet  weather,  was 
too  much  for  his  feeble  constitution,  and  he 
reached  Vienna,  Dec.  2, 1B3S,  with  his  nephew, 
Isboriug  under  the  effects  of  a  very  severe  cold. 
Violent  inflammation  of  the  lungs  set  in,  suc- 
ceeded by  dropsy,  under  which  he  sank. — In 
the  catalogne  of  Beethoven's  works,  we  find 
hardly  a  branch  of  the  art  in  which  he  had  not 
wrought,  but  the  preponderance  of  the  instru- 
mental over  the  voc^  music  is  striking.  For 
the  full  orchestra  he  has  left  ns  9  symphonies, 
II  overtures,  the  Egmont music,  the  "Battle  of 
Vitoria,"  and  some  shorter  pieces.  Of  cham- 
ber mnsic  the  compositions — among  them  16 
grand  quartets,  and  4  trios  for  bowed  instru- 
menta,  from  the  grand  concerto  and  septet 
dowD  to  the  romanea  and  sonata — ore  very 
nnmeroQB.  There  are  82  grand  sonatas  for  the 
pianoforte  solos,  and  more  than  100  other  com- 
positions,  varying  from  the  grand  concerto  to 
the  variationB  upon  a  melody  for  that  instmment 
alone  or  combined  with  others.  Two  masses, 
one  sacred  cantata,  and  a  number  of  songs,  be~ 
long  to  the  branch  of  sacred  muuc ;  an  opera, 
and  a  vast  variety  of  songs,  trios,  &o.,  fill  up  the 
catalogne  of  his  vocal  mnsic.  Beethoven's  mis- 
sion, if  we  may  use  the  term,  was  to  perfect  in- 
strumental mnsio  as  the  language  of  feeling  and 
of  the  sentiments.  Under  Bach,  Haydn,  and 
MoEBTt,  thesonataand  the  symphony  hadattain- 
ed  thdr  complete  development  in  form.  Under 
Beethoven,  a  new  soul  was  infused  into  them. 
Bomething  had  already  been  done  in  this  direc- 
tion. We  perceive  traces  of  it  in  Bach  and  in 
Mozart,    dementi  had  written  a  sonata  for  the 

g'anoforte,  entitled  Dido  Abbandonata,  and 
aydn,  in  quartet  and  symphony,  waa  in  tbe 
habit  of  imagining  some  story,  the  situations 
of  which,  in  their  corresponding  emotions,  he 
endeavored  to  depict  Beethoven  went  further. 
He  not  only  painted  character  as  no  other 
master  bad  done  in  mnsio  (see  his  overtures  to 
"Promethens"  and  "Coriolanns"),  but  made 
his  muNC  the  medium  of  commnnicaling  the 
feelings  which  swelled  bis  own  breasL  We 
feel  this  continually  in  his  pianoforto  sonatas, 
nor  is  the  explanation  of  the  &ct  difficult.  The 


nnremitfdng  practice  to  which  he  was  forced 
by  bis  father  during  childhood,  together  with 
the  coarse  of  instruction  then  in  vogue,  which 
aimed  rather  at  making  sound  muacians  than 
mast«rs  of  finger  gymnastics,  gave  him  that 
power  over  the  pianoforte  and  the  organ  with- 
out which  no  one  can  be  said  to  have  a  mas- 
tery over  those  instruments.  Beethoven's 
extemporaneous  performances  were  as  free 
fhnn  false  bumonio  relations  as  the  speak- 
ing of  an  accomplished  orator  from  errors 
in  the  nse  of  arttcnlate  speech.  Upon  his  ar- 
rival in  Vienna  men  who  bad  known  Mozart 
and  inlly  appreciatAd  his  marvellous  powers, 
confessed  their  astonishment  at  the  force,  vigor, 
and  fire  of  the  young  Khinelander  when,  giving 
his  fancy  the  rein,  his  fiying  fingers  inter- 

Ereted  the  current  of  his  musical  thoughts.  In 
is  earliest  published  works  will  Im  found 
much  of  that  pensive  feeling  which  distin- 
guished his  extemporaneous  efiforta,  and  this 
quality  in  bis  sonatas  became  more  marked 
as  he  advanced  in  years.  When  writing  for 
the  orchestra  the  grandeur  of  bis  tbonghts  rose 
with  the  increase  of  means  at  his  command, 
and  he  reached  heights  beyond  all  that  com- 
posers before  him  or  since  have  attained. — 
Justice  has  not  usually  been  done  to  Beethoven 
on  the  score  of  intellect.  His  large  head  was 
in  &ot  filled  with  a  brain  capable  of  intensely 
energetic  and  long-continaed  action.  He  was 
an  insatiable  reader,  especially  of  history,  and 
none  followed  with  a  deeper  interest  the 
rapidly  changing  scenes  of  tliat  great  political 
drsnia  which  began  in  his  19th  year  in  Paris, 
and  ended  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  in  1816. 
Bom  upon  the  Rhine,  reared  under  the  re- 
markably libera!  institutions  of  the  electwate 
of  Cologne,  and  subjected  to  the  direct  infiu- 
ence  of  those  ideas  which  set  France  in  a  blaze, 
he  was  early  and  for  life  a  republican  in  his 
politics.  In  whatever  sjAere  of  mental  ac- 
tivity Beethoven  had  been  placed,  he  would 
have  been  a  man  of  mark.— Great  preparations 
had  been  made  long  in  advance  for  the  cele- 
bration of  Beethoven's  centenary  anniversaiy 
throughout  Germany  in  December,  ISTO;  but 
owing  to  the  Franco-German  war  then  racing 
they  were  only  partially  carried  out,  and  in 
Bonn  the  commemoration  was  held  on  a  large 
scale  in  August,  1871.— There  are  a  number 
of  biographies  of  Beethoven,  the  earliest  being 
that  by  his  friend  A.  Scbindler  (Bioffraphie 
eim  Lvdieig  «an  Btethmtti,  2  vols.  8vo,  MIUl- 
ster,  1S88 ;  2d  ed.,  1860).  On  his  desthbed 
the  composer  expressed  a  wish  that  bis  life 
should  be  written  by  Fr.  Bochlitz,  the  author 
of  the  work  FUr  lYewuU  der  Tanhiaut ;  bnt 
the  state  of  Rochlitz's  health  prevented  his 
undertaking  the  work,  and  it  devolved  upon 
Schindler,  whose  long  and  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  Beethoven  gave  him  many  ad- 
vantages for  performing  the  task.  ScbiiidJcr's 
work  was  translated  into  English  and  edited 
by  Moscheles.  Among  the  other  lives  of  Bee- 
thoven, the  most  voluminous  is  by  Mr.  Alex- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ander  W.  Thayer,  an  American,  who  has  de- 
voted 111BI17  7eara  of  his  life  to  the  minnte 
resesrches  neoewvj  to  make  an  exhaoBtive 
biography  of  the  composer.  The  work  at  the 
present  date  (ISTB)  is  anfinished,  onlr  one 
volame  having  been  published,  and  that  in 
German.  Tlie  other  principal  sonrces  of  in- 
formation npon  this  subject  are  as  follows : 
Wegeler  and  Riea,  Biographuehe  Notiun  6b«r 
L.  v.  Betthoten  {Coblentz,  1888) ;  Dr.  A.  B. 
Harx,  Lfidvtig  can  Beethoteni't  Lebeit  und 
Sehaffen  {2  io\i.,  Berlb,  1869;  2d  ed  1868); 
L.  yiM,  Beethoven'i  Leben  (3  vols.,  Vienna, 
1864-'7) ;  and  Ludviig  van  Beethoven't  Bio- 
graphU  vnd  CAaraetrrittit,  b;  Dr.  Heinrich 
DSring,  prefixed  to  the  WolfenbQttel  edition 
of  the  composer's  pianoforte  sonatas. 

BEETIX)  a  Terjr  nomerons  and  veil  known 
order  of  insects,  constitnting  the  eoUoptera. 
They  have  usa^j  4  win^ :  3  membranons, 
the  organs  of  flight,  fllmy  and  folded  trans- 
Terself ;  and  3,  anterior  and  Boperior  to  tliese, 
of  a  harder  confflsteaoe,  protecting  the  former, 
and  called  tlytra.  They  all  have  mandibles 
and  jaws.  The  head  varies  greatly  both  in 
size  and  form  in  the  different  tribes;  it  pre- 
sents e  anlennre,  of  various  forms,  of  which  the 
joints  are  generally  11  in  nnmber;  the  eyes 
are  2,  and  oomponnd ;  they  have  no  simple 
eves,  according  to  Latreille.  The  month  con- 
Mts  of  a  labrom  ;  3  mandibles,  nsnally  of  a 
homy  consistence;  2  javrs,  each  one  having  1 
or  2  palpi ;  and  a  labmm  of  3  pieces,  accom- 
psnied  by  3  palpi.     The  anterior  segment  of 


1.  DIgviIlT*  uiptmtDi,    !.  Wonlh.    8.  Thorns.    4.  Fors  ler, 
L  Hind  le«.    S.  Nemnu  ^Hwn. 

the  thorax,  or  the  oorslet,  which  is  in  ft^nt  of 
the  wings,  is  larger  than  the  other  two  seg- 
ments, and  is  free  in  its  movomeats;  it  snp- 
port8  only  the  first  pair  of  1^^ ;  the  other  seg- 
ments are  united  together,  and  nearly  im- 
moTable;-tbe  meeothorax  supports  the  second 


rLE  476 

pur  of  legs  and  the  elytra;  the  membranoaa 
wings  and  the  third  pair  of  legs  are  attached 
to  the  third  and  last  segment  The  elytra  and 
wings  originate  ft'om  the  lateral  and  upper 
portions  of  the  segments.  The  former  are  of  a 
firm  consistence,  almost  crustaceous,  and,  in  a 
state  of  rest,  are  applied  horizontally  one 
against  the  other  along  their  internal  edge ; 
they  almost  always  conceal  the  true  winzs, 
and  are  generally  as  long  as  the  body ;  in  the 
act  of  flight  they  are  usaally  extended,  thongh 
in  some  species  destitute  of  true  wings  they  are 
united  on  the  dorsal  suture;  in  the  wingless 
genera  the  elytra  are  always  found.  The  at>- 
domen  is  sessile,  or  united  to  the  chest  by  iti* 
greatest  breadth,  composed  of  S  or  T  rings, 
membranons  above,  where  it  is  protected  by 
the  elytra,  and  of  a  more  homy  conBi8t«nce 
below.  In  the  males  the  anterior  pair  of  legs 
are  often  stronger,  and  the  tarsi  broader,  than 
in  the  females.  All  the  coleoptera  masticate, 
and  are  accordingly  provided  with  instruments 
proper  for  catting  and  triturating  their  food; 
the  salivary  glands  are  quite  rudimentary,  and 
few  in  number;  the  digestive  canal  varies  in 
length  acconling  to  the  habit  of  life,  bnt  it  gen- 
erally is  much  longer  than  the  body.  The  sexes 
are  separate,  and  the  act  of  reprodaction  is  ft 
true  eexaal  connection.  The  organs  of  respira- 
tion are  stigmata  along  the  sides  of  the  body, 
and  traohete  pervading  all  parts  of  the  system. 
The  abdomen  encloses  a  fatty  tissne,  apparently 
connected  with  nutrition,  which  causes  many 
of  these  insects  to  be  eagerly  sought  for  as  food 
by  the  savage  tribes  of  the  old  world.  They 
undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis;  and  the 
larvffi  or  gmbs  are  generally  soft-bodied,  and 
provided  with  6  legs ;  it  is  in  this  state  that 
they  ore  so  destrnctive  to  vegetation.  The 
males  perish  soon  after  tiie  seinal  anion,  and 
the  females  die  shortly  after  the  eggs  have  been 
depoaited.^Tbe  coleoptera  have  been  variously 
divided  by  difi^rent  aathors;  the  divirione  of 
Latreille,  according  to  the  nnmber  of  the  Joints 
in  the  tarsi,  have  been  generally  adopted  by 
nataratiats.  These  divisions  are  the  following: 
I,  ptntamera,  having  G  Joints  oo  each  foot;  S, 
heUrcmera,  having  0  Joints  to  the  anterior  3 
pwrsof  feet,  and  4- joints  to  the  posterior  pi^r; 
8,  Utramera,  having  4  Joints  to  all  the  feet;  4, 
trimera.  having  no  more  than  8  joints  to  the 
feet  Though  this  system  is  artificial,  and  in 
many  points  very  defective,  it  is  still  snfficient 
to  give  a  clear  idea  of  this  very  complex  order. 
Latreille  makes  20  families.  The  penttimera 
include;  1.  The  camitora,  whose  varied  spe- 
cies all  ogree  in  being  exceedingly  voracious; 
they  are  both  terrestrial  and  aquatic;  the  for- 
mer have  been  divided  into  the  tribes  eiein- 
deletm  and  earahtci;  the  latter  constitute  the 
tribe  hydToeanthaTi.  The  cUinde!^  are  very 
beantihily  ornamented,  of  light  and  active 
forms,  quick  in  their  motions,  darting  on  their 
insect  prey,  which  they  devour  alive;  they 
prefer  light  and  sandy  districts  exposed  to  the 
son;  they  are  extensively  distriboted  over  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


476  BEI 

earth ;  the  larvte  are  of  &  forbidding  appear- 
ance and  eztremel;  voracious,  seiziDg  any  in- 
sect wliinh  passes  the  openings  of  their  subter- 
ranean holeti.  All  the  earabiei,  in  Uie  gmb 
and  perfect  state,  feed  on  living  prey ;  thej 
emit  a  fetid  Uqnid  when  poraaed,  and  are  for 
the  most  part  agile  runners;  many  have  no 
trne  wings;  they  conceal  themselves  in  the 
earth  or  under  stones  and  tiie  bark  of  trees. 


BomtwdlH'  Beetle  (BncblDU 


This 


LB  a  very  numerous  tribe,  and  its  stndj  is 
difficult.  Some  of  tbe  moat  intereating  genera 
are  earabui,  learita,  Aarpalui,  braehinvt,  fe- 
ronia,  dsc  AmonK  the  carahida  or  ground 
beetles,  many  of  which  qect  a  fetid  fluid  for 
defennve  purposes,  may  be  mentioned  the 
bombardier  beetle  (bTachinut),  of  which  there 
are  several  species  in  both  hemiBpheres,  Tarr- 
ing in  length  from  one  eighth  to  naif  an  inch. 
Tlie  wing  covers  and  lower  part  of  abdomen 
are  bluish  black ;  the  rest  of  tie  insect,  includ- 
ing the  long  and  narrow  head  and  thorax,  legs, 
and  antennst,  reddish.  Tlie  species  of  hrachi- 
nv(,  and  of  the  allied  genus  aptinvg,  have  re- 
ceived the  above  name  from  their  habit  of 
projecting  from  the  anue,  with  an  explosive 
puff,  a  fine  acid  s^raj,  to  tbe  distance  of  sev- 
eral inches,  so  irritating  to  the  eyea  and 
abraded  skin  as  to  cause  severe  smarting,  and 
discoloring  the  cuticle  as  if  by  an  acid ;  the  fluid 
is  very  volatile,  and  of  a  pungent  odor.  They 
are  carnivorous  in  all  tbeir  etages,  and  not 
injurioua  to  vegetation.  The  larger  tropical 
species  are  the  most  brilliant  The  hydroean- 
tkari,  or  swimming  beetles,  include  the  genera 
dytuev»  and  gyrinvt ;  the  feet  are  adapted  for 
swimming,  being  compressed  and  ciliated ;  they 
live  in  the  fresh  lakes  and  marshes  and  qniet 
etreams  of  alt  countriea,  and  they  pass  their 
first  and  final  stages  in  the  water.  Tbe  dytUei 
can  live  on  the  land  and  also  can  fly;  they 
vary  in  size  from  1^  inch  to  1  of  an  inch  in 
length;  they  are  camivorons  and  voracious, 
and  can  remain  a  long  time  under  water  in 
pnrsnit  of  their  prey;  they  swim  on  tbe  sur- 
face with  great  rapidity.  The  ^yrini  are  ampl- 
er, and  may  be  fonnd  in  troops  on  tbe  surface 
of  still  waters,  darting  about  with  surprising 
af^ity ;  they  can  see  in  the  water  and  in  the 
air  at  the  same  time ;  tbey  can  fly  well,  though 
they  swim  better;  the  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  leaves  of  aqnatic  plimts.     This  family  is 


useful  in  destroying  noxious  and  predaceona  In* 

sects  and  gmbs.  2.  The  braehelytra  have  but 
one  palpus  in  the  jaws,  or  four  in  all ;  the  wing 
cases  are  shorter  than  the  body,  which  is  nar- 
row and  elongated ;  the  head  is  large  and  flat, 
the  mandibles  strong,  the  antennn  short;  tbey 
live  in  moist  earth,  on  dung  and  other  ei- 
crementitious  matters,  and  moat  of  all  in  de- 
caying animal  carcasses ;  tbey  are  courageona 
and  strong,  rnnning  or  flying  with  the  greatest 
facility ;  they  destroy  insects  with  eagerneas. 
This  family  is  composed  entirely  of  the  old  and 
vaguely  determined  Linnsean  genus  tlaphy- 
linut.  The  larvffi  live  in  the  same  situations 
as  the  perfect  insects.  The  family  are  very  nae- 
ful  natural  scavengers.  S.  The  terriVomM  have 
elytra  covering  tbe  abdomen,  and  antennn 
equal  throughout,  dentated,  saw-like  or  fan- 
like.  Among  the  most  interesting  genera  is 
buprtitU,  many  of  whose  species  are  very 
large  and  exceedingly  brilliant;  these  walk 
very  aiowly,  but  are  excellent  flyers;  they  are 
most  nomeroue  in  warm  climates,  and  live  gen- 
erally in  wood.  The  genns  elaUr  is  remark- 
able for  tbe  shortness  of  the  legs,  and  for  tlie 
faculty  it  has  of  changing  from  a  supine  por- 
tion to  its  feet  by  springing  into  the  air  by 
meansof  aBpineonitsprffist«mum;  the  species 
are  found  m  flowers  or  planta,  and  on  the 
gronnd;  some  of  the  American  species,  as  the 
E.  noetilvcv»,  are  phosphoresceut,  and  are 
called  fireflies.  The  genus  himpyrU  also  is 
interesting,  as  containing  the  phosphorescent 
species  whose  females  go  by  the  nante  of  glow- 
worms. The  genua  ielephorvt  is  noted  as  fur- 
nishing the  species  which  are  occasionally  taken 
up  hy  high  winds,  and  deposited  in  distant 
regions,  causing  the  so-colled  insect  showers. 
The  tick  of  the  death-watch  is  produced  by  a 
siiecies  of  anobivm,  living  in  decaying  wood. 
The  larvte  sometimes  cause  greet  destruction 
of  valuable  timber.  4.  Tlie  claticomit  have 
tlie  antennes  thickened  or  knob-shaped  at  the 
end;  they  live  chiefly  on  animal  substences. 
The  genus  hitter  feeds  on  decsying  and  ex- 
crementitioDS  matters.  Tbe  genus  nerroj'horv* 
is  noted  for  its  habit  of  interring  small  animals, 
such  as  mice  and  moles,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
positing its  eggs  in  the  decaying  carcass;  this 
they  do  by  removing  the  earth  beneath  the 
body,  which  falls  into  tlie  hollow;  their  sense 
of  smell  must  be  extremely  acute.  The  genns 
tilpha  also  prefers  putrefying  animal  sub- 
stances. The  genera  dtrmtttet  and  antkramt, 
in  tbeir  larva  state,  are  perfect  peats  to  the 
naturalist,  as  they  devour  every  animal  sub- 
stance accessible  in  his  cabinet;  the  action  of 
heat,  usually  employed  to  destroy  them,  is 
nearly  as  destructive  as  the  insects.  G.  Tlie 
palpieoma  resemble  the  preceding  ftmily  in 
the  shape  of  tlie  antennte,  composed  of  only 
nine  joints,  and  the  feet  in  most  of  the  genera 
are  formed  for  swimming.  The  genns  hydro- 
pkilia  is  carnivorous  and  voraciona,  frequenting 
fresh  water  and  marshes,  swimming  well,  bnt 
not  BO  rapidly  as  dytuevt;  tbeir  larvffi  destroy 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


great  ninnb«n  of  aquatic  insects  and  wat«r 

Boails;  they  paw  the  njmph  etate  in  cavities 
in  the  eartli,  for  about  three  weeks.  Other 
genera  are  ehphorvi  and  tpharidium;  the 
Litter  is  terrestrial.  6.  The  lajnellieom^t  are 
the  last  familj  of  the  pentamera,  includLng 
numeroos  genera,  among  which  are  some  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  the  largest  of  tlie  order ; 
thoae  that  feed  on  vegetable  sobstances  are 
beaatifuUj  colored,  while  dark  tints  prevail 
among  those  which  devotir  decaying  animal 
matters.  The  antennn  are  deeplj  inserted 
under  the  side  of  the  head,  short,  ending  in  a 
knob,  composed  of  plates  or  laminsa.  An  idea 
of  the  form  of  the  larvre,  which  are  often  very 
destructive  to  vegetation,  may  be  formed  from 
the  well  known  white  worm,  the  hirva  of  the 
melolontka.  In  this  family  is  incladed  the 
genu?  tearahau*  of  liniueas,  proper  to  warm 


dare  of  all  kinds ;  the  ateuehut  taeer,  an  object 
of  religions  veneration  among  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  often  represented  on  their  mono- 
mente,  and  found  in  the  sarcophagi,  belongs  to 
this  genus.  Otlier  genera  are  copru,  geotrupea, 
trox,  melolontka,  eetonia,  and  lueaniu  (stag 
beetle).     While  many  of  the  melolonthians  are 


etig  Beatl^ 

dcatmctive,  the  geotrupidm  and  trarabaidm 
are  naefnl  in  remoriiig  carrion  and  filth,— The 
heterom«ra,  the  second  section  of  the  order, 
are  all  vegetable  feeders;  many  of  them  avoid 
the  light.    It  inclndes:   7.  The  family  mela- 


rLE  477 

toma,  of  black  or  ash-colored  species,  for  the 
most  part  apterous,  with  the  elytra  as  it  were 
soldered  together ;  some  of  them  have  a  sali- 
vary apparatus;  they  dwell  on  tiie  gronnd, 
Under  stones,  and  in  dark  sitoations  in  houses, 
quitting  their  retreats  at  night;  they  are  slow 
in  their  movement.  Among  the  genera  are 
pimelia,  hlapi,  and  tenebriu  "(meal  worms). 
They  and   their  larvie  are  useful  scavengers. 

8.  The  (oj^icom*!  have  no  corneous  tooth  oa 
the  inner  aide  of  the  Jaws;  all  are  winged,  and 
the  legs  ore  not  adapted  for  running;  in  the 
moles  the  head  is  sometimes  furnished  with 
hums.  Must  live  on  tree  fun^  or  nnder  the 
bark,  or  under  stones  on  the  ground.  Some 
of  the  genera  are  didperis,  phaleria,  and  ele- 
dona.    These  fuugos-eaters  are  oseful  to  man. 

9.  The  ttenelytra  differ  tnaa  the  preceding 
chiefly  in  the  antennoe;  they  are  very  active, 
concealing  themselves  under  the  bark  or  among 
the  leaves  and  flowers  of  trees;  some  live  in 
fungi,  others  in  old  wood.  To  tliis  belong  tlie 
fcenera  hehrpt,  cUteltt,  direaa,  adetnera,  and 
others  serviceable  to  man.  10.  The  traehe- 
lide*  live  on  plants,  of  which  they  devour  the 
leaves  and  snck  the  juices.  Here  belong  the 
trenera  lagria,  pyrochroa,  mordella,  notoxut, 
horia,  nuifos,  amthari*,  &,c, ;  the  C.  teiica- 
toria,  or  Spanish  fly,  is  well  known  in  medi- 
cine for  its  blistering  properties. — Tiie  tliird 
section,  the  tetramera,  are  vegetable  feeders. 
It  includes:  11.  The  rkynchophora,  a  large 
and  richly  ornamented  family,  living  very 
often  in  Uie  interior  of  fruit  and  seeds,  and 
very  destructive  to  the  products  of  the  form 
and  the  orchard ;  it  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
nrojecting  muzzle.  Among  the  genera  are 
bruekut,  whose  larvte  are  very  liestructive ; 
attelahu*;  hrentut ;  earculut.tbe  greatest  pest 
of  the  horticulturist;  ealandra,  one  of  whose 
species,  the  weevil,  destroys  immense  quantities 
of  grain;  the  larvee  of  tlie  G.  palmarum  are 
coQudered  a  ^at  dainty  by  the  West  Indian 
blacks.  12.  The  tyUmhagi,  in  the  larva  state, 
destroy  or  render  useless  great  numbers  of  for- 
est trees  by  the  channels  which  they  gnaw  in 
various  directions.  Among  the  most  destructive 
is  the  genus  tcolytut;  other  genera  are  lotCri- 
ehui  and  trogotita.  13.  The  platyioma  are 
fonnd  beneath  the  bark  of  trees.  The  principal 
genus  is  euevjuM.  14.  The  lon^oma  have 
filiform  and  very  long  antennce;  their  larvte 
live  in  the  interior  or  beneath  the  bark  of  trees, 
where  they  are  very  destructive.  Some  of 
the  species  are  among  the  largest  of  the  order. 
Among  the  genera  are  parandra,  ctrambyx,  eaU 
lidium,  lamia,  laperda,  and  Uptura.  15.  The 
eupoda  derive  their  name  from  the  largo  size 
of  the  posterior  thighs  in  many  species ;  they 
are  all  winged,  and  occur  on  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  plants,  especially  the  liliaeea.  Among 
the  genera  are  tagra,  erioctrit,  and  donaxia. 
IS.  The  eycliea  are  small,  alow  in  their  move- 
ments, but  often  brilliantly  colored ;  the  females 
are  very  prolific.  Here  are  placed  the  gene- 
ra hitpa,  coMida,  cryptoeepAatui,  chrpiomela  ,• 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


478 


BEFANA 


sumolptu,  one  species  of  whioh,  S.  titU,  in  its 
Isrva  state,  commits  great  ravages  in  wine 
countries;  gaUruca  and  altiea,  possessed  of 
great  jumping  powers;  the  latter  is  often  very 
destructive  to  turnip  crops.  IT.  Tha  clavipalpi 
are  all  gnawers,  and  may  be  distinguished  by 
thdr  antenme  ending  in  a  knob,  and  by  an  in- 
ternal tootb  to  the  Jawa;  the  body  is  naually 
roonded.  Some  of  the  genera  are  ttvtylvi, 
triplax,  aga  thidium,  and  pkalaerut. — The  last 
section,  the  trimera,  have  the  ontennm  ending 
in  a  compressed  olnb  formed  by  the  last  3  of 
the  11  joints;  it  contains:  18.  The/un^olo, 
living  chiefly  in  fungi  and  dead  wood.  The 
piincipal  genus  is  eum&rpkv*.  19.  The  aphido- 
phagi  are  best  represented  by  the  geaos  coeei- 
nelM,  or  lady-hlra;  these  prettj  little  beetles, 
more  especially  in  the  larva  state,  live  almost 
entirely  on  aphides,  or  plant-lice,  and  in  this 
way  are  of  immense  service.  SO.  The  ptela- 
phii  have  short  truncated  elytra ;  the  species 
are  generally  very  small,  and  live  on  the 
ground  in  mi^st  places,  and  under  stones  and 
moss.  The  types  of  this,  the  last  family,  are 
the  genera  pietaphut  and  elaviger. — The  cole- 
optera  are  exceedingly  nmnerons  in  species. 
It  is  by  the  Qocnrrenoe  of  elytra  that  this  order 
may  lie  at  once  recognized ;  these  organs  are 
highly  ornamented,  and  they  serve  not  only  to 
protect  the  membranous  wings,  bnt  to  shield 
the  tx>dy  in  the  dark  and  dangerons  places 
in  which  beetles  delight  to  go ;  and  by  their 
expanded  surfaces  they  assist  the  heavy  spe- 
cies in  their  flight,  acting  both  as  a  sail  and  a 
parachute. 

BEFAKA,  in  Italy,  a  pnppet  or  doll  dressed 
as  a  woman,  and  carried  through  the  streets 
in  procession  on  the  day  of  Epiphany,  and  on 
some  other  feast  days.  The  name  is  probably 
derived  from  Ep\fania,  the  feast  of  the  Epiph- 
any. On  the  day  of  this  feast  presents  are 
given  to  children  in  Italy,  as  they  are  elsewhere 
on  Christmas  or  New  Tear's,  and  the  h^atia 
is  supposed  to  bring  them. 

BEO,  Bey,  and  BcekrlMg,  titles  of  honor  among 
the  Turks.  Beg  means  lord  or  commander; 
the  beglerbeg  is  "  the  lord  of  the  lords."  The 
flons  of  a  pasha  bear  this  title,  and  in  the  army 
an  officer  on  being  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
colonel  obtains  the  title  of  bey.  In  the  African 
provinces,  the  bey  is  the  supreme  officer  of 
Tnnis  and  Tripoli. 


in  Berlin,  Nov.  34,  1854.  He  "studied  first  un- 
der Philippart,  and  in  Paris  under  Gros.  One 
of  his  early  works,  a  copy  of  the  Madonna  ddla 
Bedia,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  king  of 
Pmswa,  who  appointed  him  painter  to  the 
Fmssian  court.  His  productions  comprise  his- 
torical, genre,  and  portrait  pMntings,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  "Henry  IV.  at  the 
Castle  of  Canosea,"  the  "Sermon  on  the 
Mount,"  "Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  the 
Lorelei,  and  the  portraits  of  Humboldt,  Schol- 
ling,  Bitter,  Ranch,  Cornelius,  and  Meyerbeer. 


BEGONIA 


L  The  popular  appellation  of  a 

body  of  religions  peniMnts  of  the  third  order 
of  St.  Francis  of  the  congregation  of  Zeppereo. 
They  were  founded  at  the  convent  of  Zepperen 
in  the  diocese  of  Li£ge  prior  to  1828,  and 
several  other  houses  soon  grew  up.  They  were 
almost  all  lay  brothers,  living  m  community, 
and  carrying  on  some  trade,  as  weaving,  spec- 
tacle-making,  &o.  Having  few  priests  in  the 
orderj  they  were  at  first  all  governed  by  a 
supenor  general,  who  was  a  secular  priest  till 
Pope  Nicholas  V,  directed  that  he  should 
always  be  a  Franciscan.  These  Franciscan  ter- 
tiaries  incorporated  into  their  body  a  com- 
munity founaed  at  Antwerp  in  1228  and  call- 
ed Begbards,  a  name  of  uncertain  derivation. 
The  Franciscan  rule  and  habit  were  adopted, 
and  the  name  Beghards  was  given  to  the 
whole  body.  Difficulties  having  arisen  be- 
tween the  priests  and  lay  brothers,  thej  sep- 
arated for  a  time,  but  were  finally  reunited 
under  one  general.  In  1651  the  whole  body 
was  incorporated  by  Innocent  X.  with  the 
congregation  of  Lomhardy.  There  were  similar 
houses  in  other  parts  of  the  Low  Countries, 
some  of  which  also  took  the  name  of  Beg- 
bards. Ill  A  set  of  fanatics,  also  called  Spirit- 
ualists, who  arose  in  the  13th  century  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  assumed  the  dress  sad 
name  of  the  Franciscan  tertiariea,  but  refused 
to  obey  any  ecclesiastical  authority.  A  number 
of  entiiusiasta  of  both  sexes  joined  them,  and 
adopting  the  reveries  of  Abbot  Joachim,  they 
spread  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  creat- 
ing great  disturbmces.  They  were  also  called 
Beguins  and  Beguincs.  They  were  condemned 
in  ISOO  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  and  by  Clem- 
ent V.  in  the  council  of  Vienne. 

BEtiBlRML    See  Baqhibhi. 

BECONU,  a  genus  of  plants  indigenous  to 


the  East  and  West  Indies  and  South  America 
closely  allied  to  the  euevriiUieem  according  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc, 


BEGSHEHEB 

Ijndle^.  Their  onrioiiBlj  one-uded  leavea,  and 
the  brilliant  oolor»  these  often  exhibit,  make 
the  varioQB  epeoiefl  mnch  sought  bj  florista. 
JJ.  rtee  haa  been  varied  until  the  leaves  not  odIj 
attain  great  size,  but  are  beautifiillf  banded. 
Other  species  are  remarkable  for  the  brilliant 
re<l  of  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  or  the 
sbundanee  and  graoe  and  color  of  their  flowers. 


oulent  petiole  with  a  smaS  disk  of  the  leaf  at- 
tached, the  new  stem  sprinfpng  from  this  on- 
uanal  place. 
BESSHEHEB,  Bcgikehr,  or  Beisbelwr,  a  lake, 

river,  and  town  in  Earsman,  Asia  Minor.  The 
lake,  which  is  2D  m.  long  and  from  6  to  10  m. 
broad,  ia  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Csrallisor 
CaraJitisin  Isauria.  It  contains  a  number  of 
islands.  The  river  b  the  outlet  of  the  lake, 
and  flows  8.  E.  about  2S  m.  into  Lake  Boghla. 
On  the  banks  of  this  river,  near  the  S.  £.  end 
of  the  lake,  stands  the  town  of  the  same  name, 
43  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Konieh.  It  is  bnilt  on  both 
udes  of  the  stream,  the  opposite  qnaii«rB  being 
connected  by  a  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches. 
It  was  tbrmerl;  the  capital  of  a  saqjak. 

BECCAttPS.    See  BBOunra^ 

BEenifES,  a  sisterhood  in  the  Roman  Oath- 
olic  church  peculiar  to  Belgimn  and  Holland. 
Their  name  is  ascribed  bj  some  to  Sunt  Beg- 
ghe,  bj  others  to  their  founder  Lambert,  anr- 
Damed  le  B^gue  or  the  Stammerer,  who  died 
in  1177,  These  B^fni"**  were  associated  at 
first  in  communities,  with  or  without  vows, 
bat  agreeing  to  live  in  ehaatity  and  penance. 
They  now  make  simple  vows  before  the  parish 
priest  to  live  in  obedience  and  chastity  as  long 
as  they  remain  in  the  beguinage.  Their  habit  is 
blaok.  The  beguinages  comprise  several  bouses 
within  the  same  enclosure,  with  a  ohnroh,  fre- 
qaentiy  in  the  centre,  each  house  having  its 
own  prioress.    (See  BaoaABDB). 

BEHUM,  or  Bttiea,  Bartbi,  a  German  naviga- 
tor and  geographer,  bom  in  Nnremberg  about 
1469,  died  in  Lisbon,  July  29,  1G06.  He  went 
in  1477  to  Flanders,  wliere  he  engaged  in 
manufacturing  and  selling  cloth  at  Hechun  and 
at  Antwerp.  The  active  commerce  between 
nanderB  and  Portugal,  and  the  interest  which 
he  took  in  the  great  maritime  undertakings  of 
the  Portugurae,  induced  him'  in  14S0  to  visit 
Lisbon,  where  he  was  well  received  at  the 
conrt  of  John  II.,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the 
learned  Johaun  Mailer,  celebrated  under  the 
name  of  Kegiomontauus.  Here  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  Columbus,  whose  views  of  a  west- 
em  psaaoge  to  India  he  is  said  by  Herrera  to 
have  supported.  In  1483  be  was  sppointed  a 
member  of  the  commission  for  caloidating  an 
astrolabe  and  tables  of  declension;  and  in  re- 
ward for  his  services  he  was  made  a  knight  of 
the  order  of  Christ.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  cosmographer  in  the  expedition  of  Diogo 
Cam,  who  sailed  along  the  W.  coast  of  Africa 
as  far  S.  as  the  month  of  the  Congo.  In  1486 
he  sailed  to  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  where  he 
83  VOL.  n.— 81 


BEHISTDIf 


479 


established  a  flemish  colony^  and  married  the 
daughter  of  its  governor.  Here  he  remained 
till  1490,  when  he  returned  to  Nurembe^, 
where  he  constructed  a  terrestrial  globe,  atuj 
preserved  there,  on  which  historical  notices 
were  written,  and  which  is  a  valuabie  memorial 
of  the  discoveries  and  geographical  knowledge 
of  his  time.  Behaim  snbE«quently  returned  to 
Fayal,  and  was  for  a  time  employed  in  diplo- 
macy by  the  Portuguese  government.  It  has 
been  mwntained  by  some  writers  that  he  visited 
America  before  Cktlumbns ;  and  an  island  which 
he  places  upon  his  globe  far  to  the  west  of  the 
Azores  has  been  thought  to  be  evidence  of  this. 
But  the  existence  of  an  island  somewhere  in 
the  western  waters  was  one  of  the  oarrent  be- 
liefs of  the  time,  and  it  is  probable  that  Be- 
haim hod  no  poutive  evidence  in  assigning  it  a 
locality. 

BEBIM,  B«M  SshiM,  a  Oeraan  painter  and 
en^aver,  bom  hk  Nuremberg  about  ISOO,  died 
in  Frankfort  in  15B0.  He  was  at  first  a  pnpil 
of  bis  nnole  Barthel  Beham,  and  afterward  of 
Albert  DOrer.  Bartsoh  enumerates  480  of  his 
prints,  of  which  171  are  woodcuts.  He  ex- 
celled principally  as  an  engraver  upon  copper, 
and  in  Bmoll  prints,  which  are  much  in  the 
style  of  those  of  Aldogrever,  He  was  notorious 
for  proSigocy,  on  account  of  which  he  was 
thrown  into  the  Main  and  drowned. 

BEHIK,  the  western  portion  of  the  territory 
under  the  rule  of  the  lieutenant  governor  of 
Bengal,  oompriiing  the  commismonersbips  of 
Patna  and  Bhangulpore,  bounded  W.  by  the 
Northwest  Provinces  and  N.  by  Nepaol;  area, 
ezoinsive  of  waste  and  forest  lands  and  areas 
of  great  rivers,  42,417  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
16,736,101,  being  460  to  the  square  mile.  Be- 
hsr  was  a  province  under  the  Mohammedan 

Evemment,  but  was  ceded  to  the  British  East 
dia  company  in  17SS.  It  is  the  most  popa- 
lous  of  the  large  divisions  of  Bengal,  ana  is 
generally  well  watered,  fertile,  and  thoroughly 
oultivated.  The  principal  products  are  opium, 
indigo,  and  rice.  There  is  a  system  of  irriga- 
tion works  8.  of  the  Gauges,  in  the  ba^  of 
the  river  Sone.  Patna  is  the  chief  town.  In 
the  Patna  commissionership  is  the  smaller  ad- 
ministrative district  called  Beliar,  including 
the  town  of  that  name,  in  lat.  29°  19'  N.,  Ion. 
SB"  85',  formerly  a  prominent  city,  but  now 
comparatively  unimportant. 

BEHI81TN,  BIsntu,  or  BagkMs^  a  mined 
town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Irak-^emi, 
in  lat.  84°  18'  N.,  Ion.  47°  80'  E.,  17  m.  E.  of 
Kormansboh.  It  is  noted  for  a  precipitous 
rock,  anciently  known  as  Mount  Bogietsnns, 
which  on  one  side  rises  porpendicntarly  to  the 
height  of  1,700  ft.  Diodoms  relates  that  Semi- 
ramis  encamped  near  this  rock,  and  caused  tbe 
lower  part  to  be  smoothed  away  and  an  in- 
scription engraved  upon  it  in  her  honor.  No 
trace  of  any  such  inscription  now  exists ;  but 
the  rook  contains  cuneiform  inscriptions  en- 
graved upon  it  by  the  Persian  king  Darius 
Hystospis,  about  S18  B.  C.    The  principal  in- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


480  BEHN 

Bcriptton  iH  in  three  langoagea,  P^rdan,  Baby- 
loman,  and  Scythic ;  its  inter^etaUon  has  b«en 
acoomptiahed  b;  Sir  Heniy  Rawlinson.  It  ia 
OQ  the  &ce  of  the  roclc,  at  an  elevation  of  800 
ft  from  the  ground.  Great  labor  waa  required 
to  fit  the  rock  for  the  pnrpoee.  Where  the 
atone  waa  defective  pieces  were  let  in  and 
fastened  with  molten  lead;  bo  carefully  vaa 
this  done  that  the  inserted  pieces  can  now 
be  detected  only  by  careful  aorutiny.  Aft^r 
the  inacrtptiona  had  been  engraved,  a  silidoos 
coating  was  applied  to  preserve  them  from 
the  action  of  tee  elements.  Tbia  coating  ia 
harder  than  the  rock  itself.  In  places  where 
it  has  been  washed  away,  it  lies  in  flakes  at  the 
foot  of  the  precipice.  In  other  places,  where 
the  rock  has  been  honeycombed  beneath,  the 
varnish  stiU  adheres  to  the  broken  surface,  and 
preserves  with  distinctness  the  forma  of  the 
characters.  The  Persian  copy  is  contained  in  five 
main  colomns,  four  of  which  have  each  from  92 
to  90  lines,  the  fifth  3S  lines.  It  sets  forth  the 
hereditary  right  of  Darius  to  the  throne,  tra- 
cing his  genealogy  for  eight  generations;  re- 
counts the  provinoea  of  hia  empire ;  and  tells 
how  he  triumphed  over  various  rebels  who  up- 
rose against  him  during  the  first  four  yeara  of 
hia  reign.  The  monaroh  himself  is  pictorially 
represented,  armed  with  a  bow,  his  foot  upon 
the  prostrate  figure  of  a  man,  while  nine  rebela 
chained  together  hr  the  neck  stand  hambly 
before  him.  The  BehisCun  inscription  is  one 
of  the  most  notable  works  of  the  kind.  (See 
CnNsiFORv  Insokiptions.) 

BEHV,  Ipbara,  or  Iphia,  an  English  dramatiat 
and  novelist,  bom  in  Canterbury  about  IMO, 
died  in  London,  April  16,  1S8B.  She  was  very 
young  when  she  sailed  witli  her  father,  whose 
name  was  Johnson,  for  Surinam,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant  general.  Her  father 
died  on  the  paeaage,  but  ahe  rended  for  aome 
time  in  Surinam,  and  became  intimately  ao- 
qnainted  with  the  native  prince  Oroonoko,  whose 
adventures  and  fate  were  the  theme  of  one  of 
her  own  novels,  and  of  a  tragedy  by  her  friend 
Southern.  Boon  after  her  return  to  England 
ahe  married  Hr.  Behn,  a  London  merchant  of 
Dutch  extraction,  and  was  introduced  to  Charles 
II.,  whom  she  delighted  by  her  vivacity.  This 
monarch  selected  her  as  a  political  spy  on  the 
contJnent  during  the  Dutch  war.  She  took  ap 
her  residence  at  Antwerp,  and  attracted  nu- 
merous lovers  and  admirers,  whom  ahe  man- 
aged so  well  that  in  1666  she  detected  the  pro- 
ject formed  by  Admirals  De  Witt  and  De 
Ruyter  of  burning  the  English  ships  in  the 
Thames.  She  at  once  tranamitted  the  intelli- 
gence to  England,  but  the  court  refused  to  be- 
lieve her,  though  her  report  was  apeedily  proved 
true  by  the  event.  Mortified  at  this,  she  re- 
nonneed  politics.  Embarking  aoon  after  for 
England,  she  narrowly  escaped  death,  being 
saved  in  a  boat  after  the  vessel  had  foundered. 
From  this  time  she  devoted  herself  to  author- 
ship and  to  the  gayest  sodety  of  the  capital. 
Among    her   aoquuntancea  were    Rocheater, 


BEEBINQ  SEA 
Etheridge,  SouCiem,  Criap,  and  Dryden.    Her 


of  short  poems,  and  numerous  letters,  of  which 
those  between  a  "  Nobleman  and  his  Sister-in- 
Law "  (Lady  Henrietta  Berkeley  and  Lord 
Grey)  were  the  moat  famous.  These  produc- 
tions are  remarkable  for  their  grace  and  sprisht- 
Itness,  their  lack  of  moral  principle,  and  their 
entirely  unbounded  license.  She  wrote  under 
the  (dgnature  of  "Astrfea,"  and  Pope  alludes  to 
her  by  that  name.  She  was  buried  in  West- 
minster abbey.  A  fsc-aimile  reprint  of  the 
edition  of  "  The  Plays,  Histories,  and  Nov- 
els of  the  ingeniona  Hrs.  Aphra  Behn  "  of 
1T24~'85  (6  vols.  ISmo)  appeared  in  London 
in  1871. 

BmUNG,  or  Beilig,  TKu,  a  navigator  in  the 
Russian  service,  bom  at  Horeens,  Denmark,  in 
1680,  died  Dec  8,  1741.  He  entered  the  Rus- 
sian naval  service  in  1704,  was  made  captain 
by  Peter  the  Great,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  between  Bnasia  and  Sweden,  and  in 
172G  was  placed  in  command  of  an  expedition 
of  discovery  in  the  arctic  seas.  Retnming  from 
this,  he  was  in  1728  placed  in  command  of  an- 
other expedition,  to  the  seas  bordering  upon 
N.  E.  Siberia.  The  erolorationa  connected 
with  the  expedition  lasted  several  yeara,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  discovered  that  the  conti- 
nents of  Asia  and  America  were  separated  by 
the  narrow  strut  which  bears  his  name.  On 
June  4,  1741,  he  again  set  sail  frffln  Okhotsk, 
in  command  of  two  veesels.  He  sailed  ap- 
parently as  far  as  lat  69°  N.,  hut  stormy  wea- 
ther imd  noknesB  in  his  crews  compeUed  him 
to  retnm.  He  was  wrecked  on  a  desolate 
island  in  lat.  SG"  S3'N.,  Ion.  166° E.,  where  he 
died.  This  island,  and  the  sea  in  which  it  lies, 
still  bear  hia  name.  He  founded  the  Russian 
eettlement  of  Petropavlovsk  in  Eamtchatka, 

BEHRING  ISLUID,  an  island  off  the  E.  coast 
of  the  peninsula  of  Eamtchatka,  in  iat  65°  17' 
N.,  Ion.  165°  46'  E.,  about  90  m.  long.  It  waa 
unmhahited  at  the  time  of  ita  diacovery  by 
Behring  in  1741,  but  has  ance  been  oocupied 
by  fhr-traders,  and  is  a  winter  harbor  for  trad- 
ing vessels.  The  island  is  destitute  of  wood, 
and  the  soil  ia  exceedingly  barren.  It  abounds 
in  springs  of  fresh  water,  and  the  ftirs  of  the 
arctic  animals  foimd  here  are  very  valuable, 
the  principal  being  the  ice  fox  and  sea  otter. 

BEnuxe  SEl,  that  part  of  Uie  Pacific  ocean 
which  lies  immediately  S.  of  Behring  strait, 
and  between  the  continents  of  America  and 
Asia.  Its  southern  limit  is  the  curvilinear  line 
of  the  Aleutian  islands,  which,  together  with 
Behring  island,  stretch  across  the  Pacific  from 
Alaska  to  Eamtchatka.  It  receives  the  Anadyr 
river  in  a  gnlf  of  the  same  name  on  the  Asiatic 
side,  and  tiie  Yukon  from  the  American,  has 
several  islands,  and  is  almost  perpetually  c< 


with  ice  ea  Baffin  bay.    It  t 

by  Behring  in  1728. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEHRDTQ  STBAIT 


B  smrr,  a  obumel  conneoting  the 
North  Pacific  and  Arctic  oceans  between  the 
contiaents  of  Ama  and  America,  discoTered  bf 
BcliriDg  in  1726.  Between  East  cape  in  Aua 
and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  American 
side,  the  strait  ia  onl^  4fi  m.  wide.  The  depth 
of  water  ia  from  SO  to  SO  fathoms.  It  la  com- 
monlj  reckoned  about  400  m.  long.  Capt. 
Coolc  visited  and  described  the  strait  in  1778, 
and  later  Capt.  Beeohey.  Abontinidwayacroea, 
in  the  narrowest  place,  are  three  islands,  called 
Diomedes.  Opposite  the  sonthern  opening  of 
the  strait  stani^  the  large  island  of  St  Law- 
rence. A  cnrrent  sets  throogh  the  strait  from 
S.  to  N.  The  fl4iacent  coasts  are  uninhabited. 
The  diores  are  bold  and  deeply  indented.  The 
strait  is  fi-o£en  over  ererj  winter,  and  large 
qnantities  of  ice  are  constantlj'  blocked  in  nortii 
of  the  capes. 

BEIKA,  or  Btjn,  one  of  the  ms.  former  prov- 
inces of  Portngal,  bounded  N.  by  Minbo  and 
Tras-OB-Montes,  E.  by  Spmn,  8.  by  Estrema- 
dara  and  Alemtejo,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic; 
area,  S,!44  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1SS8,  1,2B8,004. 
The  sorface  is  very  moantainoiiB ;  the  soil  is 
not  fertile,  but  produces  )>arley,  wine,  wheat, 
maize,  olives,  and  frnits.  The  mountains,  in- 
cluding the  Sierra  de  Estrella,  furnish  fine 
pasturage  for  sheep,  and  yield  iron,  marble, 
and  cou.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Donro, 
which  forms  the  northern  boundary,  the  Mon- 
dego,  which  flows  through  the  centre,  and  the 
Tagus,  on  the  8.  E.  border.  The  province  was 
in  1988  divided  Into  Upper  Beira,  capital  Viseo, 
and  Lower  Beira,  capital  Oastello  Branoo.  It 
is  now  divided  into  tbe  administrative  districts 
of  Coimbra,  Oastello  Branco,  Aveiro,  Viseu, 
and  Gnarda. 

BEUn'p    See  Bbtrodt. 

Bil8iH<    Bee  Scithopolib. 


BEJAPOOR 


481 


BUSSB^  J«kani  Ctand,  a  German  relijponist, 
bom  at  Eberbach  in  the  Palatinate  in  IflSO, 
died  atEphrata,  Lancaster  co.,  Penn.,  in  1788. 
He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  bnt  having  joined 
the  Duokers  was  obliged  to  leave  Germany, 
and  in  1720  went  to  Pennsylvania,  where  be 
eventually  established  the  new  seot  of  the  Sev- 
enth-Day Dnnkers,  or  the  Gcnn^  Seventh-Bay 
Baptists,  and  founded  a  monastic  establishment 
at  Ephrata,  over  which  he  prerided  about  80 
years.  Ho  pnblished  hymn  books  in  German 
and  Latin  (176fl-'78),  besides  his  B9  mystical 

BEIT-EUFASIH  (house  of  the  saint),  a  town 
of  Arabia,  40  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Hodeida  on  the 
Bed  sea,  and  8G  m.  N.  of  Mocha;  pop,  about 
8,000.  It  contains  a  nosqne  and  a  strong  cit- 
adel. The  hOQses  are  bnilt  of  brick  and  clay, 
and  roofed  with  date  leaves.  Caravans  from 
all  parta  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt 
resort  hither  with  Indian  and  British  goods, 
spices  and  sagar,  receiving  in  exchange,  coffee, 
wax,  and  variona  game.  Much  of  the  com- 
meroid  importance  of  the  place  is  owing  to  an 
annual  festival  of  three  days  which  is  held  at 
the  tomb  of  a  sheik  near  by.  Another  town 
of  the  same  name,  enmamed  el-Kebir  (the 
Great),  is  N.  E.  of  Hodeida. 

BEJi,  a  city  of  Portngal,  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  sonthern  part  of  the  province  of 
Alemtejo,  Be  m,  8,  8.  W,  of  Evora ;  pop.  7,000. 
It  is  bnUt  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain, 
and  is  snrroonded  by  a  wall,  having  40  towers. 
It  has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral.  Earthenware 
is  manufactored,  and  there  are  several  tanne- 
ries in  the  town. 

BEJIPOM,  or  nrtiHW)  a  mined  city  of  Hin- 
doBtan,  In  the  province  of  Sattara,  presidency 
of  Bombay,  formerly  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  in  lat,  16°  48'  N.,  Ion.  75°  4S''' 


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483 


HEKE 


E.,  126  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Sattaro.     It  was 

onoe  of  great  size,  Btrongl;  forCifled  with  out- 
works of  great  extent,  and,  according  to  the 
tradition  of  the  nativea,  waa  the  largest  oity  of 
the  Eaat.  The  modem  oitj  retains  few  traces 
of  its  former  grandeor.  There  is  a  street  8  m. 
long,  several  magnlEcent  Saraoenio  edifieee 
hallt  in  the  16th  and  17th  centoties,  and  a 
Brahman  temple  of  nnknown  antiqnit;.  This 
last  is  a  remarkable  structure,  consisting  of  a 
radelj  built  roof  of  stone,  supported  b7  pUlare 
each  of  which  is  a  monolith.  Another  note- 
worthy edifice,  partly  in  ruins,  is  the  mosqae 
and  mausoleum  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah.  The 
hujlding  is  400  ft  in  length  and  IfiO  in  width, 
and  is  surmounted  bj  a  dome  of  immense  size. 
—The  city  and  the  prcvince  of  which  it  wan 
the  capital  were  broaght  by  native  wars  soo- 
oeedvely  under  the  dominion  of  the  Bafamenee 
empire  (tjll  14S9),  of  Adil  Shah  and  his  snooes- 
Bora  (till  1689),  of  Aurungzebe  nntil  his  death, 
of  the  Hahrattas,  and  finally  of  the  British, 
who  in  1818  expelled  the  native  ruler,  and 
added  B^apoor  to  the  territory  asdgned  under 
their  protection  to  the  nyah  of  Sattara. 

BEK^  OaitM  nkUM,  an  Eoglish  geographer 
and  explorer,  born  in  London,  Oot.  10,  1800, 
died  Sept.  2.  16T4.  Ue  received  a  commercial 
education,  th«i  studied  law,  and  afterward  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits,  residing  for  sev- 
er^ jears  in  the  island  of  Manritius.  In  1B86- 
'8  he  redded  at  Leipeic,  acting  as  British  oon- 
Bul  for  Saxony,  Considering  AbjBfonia  of  great 
importance  in  oonnectiou  with  the  commerce  of 
central  Africa,  he  set  ont  in  1810  on  a  journey 
of  discovery  in  that  region.  In  1861,  in  com- 
pany with  his  wife,  he  made  a  journey  in  Syria, 
m  the  course  of  which  he  identified  Harran,  near 
Damascus,  as  the  residence  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham.  In  1666  Kr.  and  Mrs.  Beke  left 
England  on  a  fruitless  mission  to  efiect  the  re- 
lease of  the  Abyssinian  captives.  In  1670  he 
received  a  pension  of  £100  in  consideration  of 
his  geographical  researches,  and  especially  of 
the  value  of  his  explorations  in  Abyssinia. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Origines  Biblicfe,  or 
Besearches  in  Primeval  History"  (1834),  for 
which  the  univeniity  of  Tubingen  conferred 
upon  him  the  degree  of  Ph.  D. ;  "  Statement 
of  Facts"  reltt&ig  to  his  journey  to  Abyssinia 
(184S) ;  "  Essay  on  the  Nile  and  its  Tribnta- 
ries  "  (1847) ;  "  The  Sonrces  of  the  Nile  in  the 
Uountains  of  the  Moon  "  (1848) ;  "  Geographi- 
cal Distribation  of  Languages  in  Abyssinia  " 
(1849);  "Sourcosof  the  Nile,  with  the  History 
of  Nilotic  Discovery,"  in  which  are  incorpo- 
rated tlie  results  of  his  previous  labors  (1860) ; 
"Jacob's  Flight,  or  a  Pilgrimage  to  Ilarraii,'' 
writtenin  conjunction  with  hia  wife  (1865);  and 
"The  British  Captives  in  Abyssinia"  (1867). 

BBUS.  I.  A  county  of  S.  E.  Hungary, 
watered  by  the  KOrOs,  an  affluent  of  the  Theias ; 
area,l,S20sq.ra.;  pop. in  1870, 209,728, ofwhom 
about  two  thirds  are  Magyars,  upward  of  one 
fourth  Slavs,  and  the  rest  ohiefly  Germans  and 
KoomauB.    The  county  is  exceedingly  fertile. 


b£la 

bat  exposed  to  innndations.  AgricnHore  and 
the  rising  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  the 
main  occupations.  The  pvMtat  and  studs  of 
B&ka  are  renowned.  Capital,  Gynla.  II.  A 
town  of  the  preceding  county,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  White  and  Black  ECroa,  88 
m.  S.  W.  of  Grosswardein ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,- 
C>47.  It  has  a  con^derable  grain  trade.  It 
was  formerly  strongly  fortified. 

BELK£B,  iHWUad,  a  German  philolc^st, 
bom  in  Berlin,  May  21,  1780,  died  there,  Jnne 
7,  1871.  He  studied  at  Halle  under  F.  A. 
Wolt^  and  aflerward  in  the  royal  library  at 
Paris  (1810-'12),  having  in  the  interval  been 
appointed  professor  of  philology  in  the  newly 
founded  univernty  of  Berlin.  In  181S  be  was 
sent  to  Paris  by  the  Berlin  academy  of  sciencea 
to  collate  the  papers  of  Founnont  for  the  (7or- 
pv»  Iiiteriplvm-um  Oraearutn.  In  1817  the 
academy  sent  him  to  Italy,  in  coiynnctioD  with 
GOschen,  to  edit  the  Instltutea  of  Gains,  the 
maonsoript  of  which  had  been  discovere>d  at 
Verona  by  Niebuhr,  and  to  prepare  an  edition 
of  Aristotle.  He  passed  three  summers  in  Mi- 
lan, Venice,  Florence,  Ravenna,  and  Naplea, 
and  three  winters  in  Bome.  In  1819  he  went 
agun  to  Paria,  and  in  the  year  following  to 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  London,  and  thence  to 
Leyden  and  Heidelben.  Ue  now  resnmed  hia 
duties  as  professor  in  tne  university  of  Berlin, 
and  continued  his  labors  in  philology,  espeoially 
in  the  Greek  language.  He  published  editions, 
with  extensive  critical  notes,  of  tbe  Aitecdota 
dnsco,  Plato,  Theognis,  Thucydidea,  the  Athe- 
nian orators,  Pholius,  Aristophanes,  the  scholia 
upon  the  Iliad,  Aristotle,  Harpooration  and 
Moeris,  and  Pollnx,  the  whole  comprising  43 
volumes.  He  also  furnished  ac^^urate  texts  of 
Apollodoms,  Appion,  Dio  Caasins,  Diodorua, 
Heliodorus,  Herodian,  Herodotus,  Homer,  Jo- 
sephus,  Lucian,  Pausanias,  Plutarch^s  Parallels, 
PolybiuB,  Suidas,  Livy,  and  Tacitus.  His  port 
in  the  Corp-ut  Seriptorum  EUtoria  Byaintinm, 
published  at  Bonn,  fills  24  volumes.  In  addition 
to  these  strictly  classical  labors,  he  busied  him- 
self with  the  remains  of  the  Provencal  roman- 
cers and  song-writers,  the  results  of  his  investi- 
gations appearing  mainly  in  the  periodicals  of 
the  Berlin  academy.  In  the  Hom«ruche  Sldt- 
Ur  (Bonn,  1868)  he  published  German  notes 
upon  Homer.  Heminisoenees  of  Bekker  by  his 
son  were  published  in  the  Previtiche  Jahr- 
6i«!A<7- for  May,  1872. 

BTX,  or  HL    See  Bblus.    * 

sfiU,  tbe  name  of  several  Hungarian  kings 
of  the  lineage  of  Arp&i.— B^  I.  reigned  fWim 
1061  to  1068.  As  prince  he  was  twice  obliged 
to  escape  to  Poland,  on  account  of  domestic 
dissensions  occasioned  by  his  brothers;  bat 
in  1061,  supported  partly  by  Poles,  portly  by 
Magyars,  he  succeeded  in  seizing  the  throne. 
He  subdued  the  remains  of  paganism  and 
strengthened  the  royal  power,  but  hia  reign 
was  t4>o  short  to  carry  out  all  the  reforms 
which  Magyar  annalists  ascribe  to  him. — B^la 
:  U.  reigned  from  1131  to  1141.    In  his  youth 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELBEIS 

he  WM  blinded  b7  bis  own  uncle,  for  which 
he  took  terrible  revenge  on  a  namber  of  his 
enemtee  when  king. — BJIi  IIL  reigned  from 
11T8  to  1196.  He  warred  niccessfuU;  ag&inst 
the  Poles,  Auatrians,  and  Venetiana,  and  reoon- 
qnered  from  the  lost  named  some  citiw  in  Dal- 
matia.  Bewasmarried  to  sister  of  Philip  An- 
gastus,  king  of  France. — M*  IV>  reigned  from 
1286  to  1370.  He  was  son  of  Andrew  II.,  was 
crowned  in  cliildhood,  and  when  his  father 
went  to  Palestine  received  the  title  of  rex 
juntM*,  and  finally  joined  in  the  opposition  of 
the  nobilitj  against  him.  The  greater  part  of 
his  reign  was  storm?  ;  the  nobilitj  continned 
in  its  turbulence,  and  Hnngarr  was  dreadiiillj 
devastated  bj  the  invasion  of  the  Mongols 
(1241),  before  whom  he  had  to  flj  to  Dalma- 
tia.    (See  HmroiBT.) 

■iUQ§,  KUtft,  or  Btltas,  a  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  some  name, 


where  traces  of  the  Pelosian  arm  of  the  Nile 
are  still  visible,  which  prohablj  led  Bishop 
William  of  Tyre  erroneonsly  to  identify  Belt>ei8 
with  Pelnainra.     North  of  the  town  are  the 


)  employed  by  their  Egyptian  task- 
masters. The  crosaders  destroyed  Belbeis, 
which  was  subsequently  rebuilt  and  became  an 
imp<»tant  etatioD  on  the  caravan  road  to  Syria. 
It  nai  not  retained  its  prosperity.  Napoleon  I. 
had  the  fortifications  repaired  in  1796,  but  they 
have  dace  fallen  to  decay. 

IB4)US,  Bir  Edwar^  a  British  naval  officer 
and  explorer,  graodson  of  Chief  Justice  Belcher 
Cft  Kora  Sootia,  born  in  1799,  died  Uorch  18, 
167T.  He  early  entered  the  navy,  and,  after 
taking  part  as  midshipman  in  the  defence  of 
OaeU  and  the  battle  of  Algiers,  was  in  1819 
appointed  to  the  Myrmidon  sloop,  destined  for 
the  African  statJon.  In  162G  he  became  as- 
sistant sarveyor  to  the  Behring  strut  discovery 
expedition  onder  Capt.  Beeohey  in  the  Blossom. 
In  1829  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander, and  served  on  the  coasts  of  Africa 
and  of  Portugal,  rendering  on  the  latter  occa- 
sion valuable  services  to  Uie  British  rendents 
by  protecting  their  property  during  the  politi- 
cal tronbles  m  PortngaJ.  Subsequently  he  ex- 
plored the  Pai^o  in  the  anrveying  vessel  Sul- 
phur, passed  over  to  the  Chinese  waters  in 
1641,  materially  asmsting  in  the  operations  of 
the  British  army  near  Canton,  and  in  acknowl- 
edgment of  these  services  wsa  knighted  and 
appointed  post  o^ttain.  He  published  an  ac- 
count of  this  voywe  in  his  "  Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  Round  the  World  "  (1843).  Afterward 
be  was  employed  on  board  of  the  Samarang 
on  surveying  service  in  the  East  Indies,  and 
was  severely  wonnded  whUe  assisting  the  r^ah 
of  Sarawak,  Sir  James  Brooke,  in  his  efforts  to 
anbdne  the  pirates  of  Borneo.  In  1802  be  was 
eaat  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  with  five 
veaela,  (uid  made  some  important  explorations 


BELEM 


483 


in  the  neighborhood  of  Melville  island.  He 
rescued  McClure  and  his  crew,  who  had  been 
three  years  imprisoned  in  the  ice,  but  was 
obliged  to  abandon  four  of  his  own  vessels, 
and  reached  home  in  18114.  On  his  retnm  to 
England,  he  was  tried  before  a  com!  martial 
for  volmitorilj  abandoning  the  ships.  He  was 
acquitted,  and  his  sword  returned  to  him; 
but  while  some  of  the  Other  officers  were 
commended,  his  name  was  passed  over  in 
rignifioont  sileuoe.  He  was  afterward  com' 
missioned  vice  admiral.  Besides  bis  popular 
"  Narrative,"  he  wrote  "  The  Last  of  the  Arc- 
tic Yoyagea  "  (2  vols.,  1865). 

BEUaia.  I.  JeuOM,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  Jersey,  bom  at  Cambridge 
Mass.,  in  January,  ISSl,  died  at  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.,  Ang.  81,  1757.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1099,  visited  Europe,  and  mode 
aoqaslntanoe  with  the  princess  Sophia  and  her 
son,  afterward  George  I.,  and  subsequently  be- 
came a  merchant  in  Boston.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  conncil,  and  in  1739  went  «• 
agent  of  the  colony  to  England.  At  the  deatb 
of  Gov.  Burnet  in  1730  he  was  appointed  to 
the  government  of  Massaobaaetta  and  New 
Hampshire,  which  station  be  held  11  yesrs, 
and  was  then  superseded.  Repuring  to  Eng- 
land, he  obtained  the  government  of  New 
Jersey,  where  he  arrived  in  1747,  and  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  en- 
larged the  charter  of  Pnnoeton  college,  and 
was  it«  chief  patron  and  benefuitor.  IL  Jfu- 
thai,  chief  justice  of  Nova  Sootia,  second  son 
of  the  preceding,  died  at  Halifox  in  March,  1767. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  collie  in  1728,  stud- 
ied law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  settlers  of  Chibnt^,  afterward 
called  Halifax.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant governor,  and  in  1761  chiei^  justice. 

Ba.CHEB,  Tmi.  an  English  pugilist,  bom  at 
Bristol  in  1783,  died  at  Peckhtun,  Dec.  9, 1S64. 
He  was  the  hero  of  12  prize  fights,  in  eight  of 
which  he  was  the  conqueror,  in  three  he  was 
defeated,  and  the  ISta  was  a  drawn  battle. 
He  was  one  of  the  IB  pugilists  selected  to  act 
as  pages  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV.,  to 
protect  the  access  to  Westminster  abbey. 

BB£D  OlrJ^UD, "  the  land  of  dates,"  a  eter- 
ile  r^on  of  Africa  S.  of  the  Atlas  chi^n,  <m 
the  borders  of  the  great  Sahara,  extending 
from  the  borders  of  Morocco  to  Tripoli.  It 
received  its  name  from  the  nnmerous  date 
palms  found  in  its  oases. 

BELEX,  a  subnrb  of  Lisbon,  Portugal,  on  the 
Tagus,  B.  W.  of  the  city.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  chuvh  of  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem, 
built  here  by  King  Emannel  in  1499,  Ml  the 
retnm  of  Vasco  da  Qamii  from  his  expedition 
to  India  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Thii 
magnificent  strnctnre  was  erected  on  the  site 
of  the  chapel  in  which  Da  Gama  and  his  com* 
panions  passed  the  night  in  prayer  previous  to 
embarkation.  The  stone  is  a  carbonate  of 
lime  obtuned  in  the  vicinity,  and  was  originally 
white^  bat  is  now  of  a  rich  golden  hua    The 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


whole  building  stands  on 

was  formerly  a  separate 

Gothic  church,  in  which  is  the  tomb  of  the 

royal  familj  of  Portngal.    It  haa  also  an  old 


fortree*,  of  Angularly  pictareaqne  appearance, 
colled  Torre  de  Belem,  which  rises  from  the 
bank  of  the  Tagos,  uid  with  its  batteries  com- 
mands that  rirer.  This  qnart«r  of  the  vit; 
contains  a  royal  palace  and  the  residences  of 
many  persons  of  note. 

BEUX  (commonly  called  PakI),  a  city  and 
seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Grao  Parfi,  on  the  bay  of  Gn^ari,  right  bank 
of  the  estnaiT  of  the  Rio  Par&,  76  m.  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  1,600  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro ;  lat.  1°  28'  8.,  Ion.  48"  80"  W. ;  pop.  aboat 
85,000,  of  whom  in  1871  2,600  were  slaves. 
It  was  founded  in  lfll6  by  Francisco  Caldei- 
ra  Castello  Branco,  is  the  fourth  commercial 
city  in  the  empire,  and  one  of  the  best  buill, 
and  remarkable  for  the  number  and  magnifi- 
cence of  its  pablio  ediSces,  especially  the  ca- 
thedral, the  church  of  Sao  Joao  Baptista,  the 
governor's  palace,  and  some  others.  The 
honaea,  mostly  of  stone,  are  very  neat,  and 
many  of  them  even  handsome ;  bnt  the  streets, 
though  regular,  are  with  few  exceptions  badly 
paved.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  parta,  the 
old  and  new,  the  latter  having  long  streets 

Slanted  with  palms  or  mangabeiraa.  From 
uly  to  November  high  winds  prevail,  tinging 
people  and  buildings  with  the  red  dust  from 
the  macadamized  thoroughfares,  and  violent 
thunder  storms  are  of  freauent  occurrence. 
Yet  the  climate  is  not  regarded  as  nnhealthy ; 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  71°  to  80°  F., 
and  the  heat  is  tempered  by  refreshing  aea 
breezes.  The  prevaiting  malatlies  are  intermit- 
tent fevers,  ana  certain  affections  of  the  stom- 
ach and  liver,  produced  by  the  water  used  in 


BELEMNITEB 

the  city  f^om  wells  containing  deleterious  mat- 
ter proceeding  from  animal  and  vegetable  de- 
tritns.  The  meat  and  vegetables  are  also  of 
very  inferior  quality.  The  harbor  is  defended 
by  several  forts;  tiiou^h  capable  of  admitting 
vessela  of  any  draft,  it  la  difficult  of  approach, 
and  the  bed  is  said  to  he  gradually  silting  up. 
The  surrounding  oonutry  is  extremely  fertile, 
yielding  abundant  crops  of  rice,  coffee,  cotton, 
tapioca,  &c.,  which,  with  sarsaparilla,  cacao, 
b^sam-  copaiba  and  other  drugs,  isinglasa, 
Maranhao  chestnuta,  India  rubber,  hides  and 
leather,  form  tlie  principal  exports.  Of  these 
india  rubber  is  by  far  the  most  important.  The 
exports  for  1370  amounted  t«  |7,043,894  60, 
$6,000,000  of  which  were  of  India  rubber 
alone ;  bnt  the  precedence  is  likely  to  be  taken 
before  long  by  cacao.  The  imports  did  not 
exceed  $6,000,000.  Belem  bids  Cur  to  become 
before  many  years  the  chief  commercial  city 
of  northern  Brazil.  Nine  lines  of  steamers 
ply  fortnightly  between  it  and  the  npper  Ama- 
zon and  intermediate  points;  two  lines  of 
ocean  steamers  touch  here  monthly  to  and 
from  Europe,  and  one  to  and  from  New 
York ;  and  there  vt  besides  a  prosperous  coast- 
ing trade.  Belem  has  six  banka,  a  university 
and  lyceum,  many  public  and  private  schools,  a 
scientific  club,  a  public  reading-room,  a  large 
public  library,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  theatre. 
lELElUITES  (Gr.  ^e?j!/ivli^,  from  ^'/j-pmi, 
a  dart  or  arrow),  a  class  of  extinct  moUnscous 
animals,  belon^png  to  the  same  division  as  am- 
monites, termed  cephalopods  from  the  organs 
of  motion  being  arranged  around  the  bead. 
The  fossil  remuns  of  the  animal  are  met  with 
in  the  rocks  of  the  upper  secondary,  and  are 
particularly  abundant  in  the  strata  of  the  green- 
sand  formation  in  New  Jersey.  The  part  pre- 
served, often  detached  from  the  loose  strata,  is 


a  pointed  cone  sometimes  eight  inches  long,  of 
brown  color  and  stony  material,  resembling  in 
shape  the  head  of  a  dart  or  javelin,  whence 
their  name.  The  larger  end  is  hollow,  the 
cavity  being  of  aimitar  shape  to  that  of  the 
whole  specimen.  They  are  fonnd  by  millions 
in  the  formations  to  which  they  buong,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELEMNITES 

lh)ni  80  to  90  epeciea  of  them  have  been  recog- 
nized. The7  earl7  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  tnen  as  well  as  of  the  common  people ; 
and  it  appears  from  the  memoir  of  M.  de  Bltdn- 
rille  that  no  fewer  than  91  authors,  whose 
names  he  gives,  ijeginning  with  Tbeophrastus, 
have  written  on  this  sabject.  The  ancient  in- 
habitants of  Asia  Uinor  are  reprenentcd  bj 
some  writers  to  have  designated  these  fossils 
by  the  term  daetyli  Idai,  fingers  of  Mount 
Ida,  whicb,  however,  according  to  other  au- 
thorities, was  very  differentlj  applied,  some 
describing  these  nokuown  Dactyli  as  divine 


BELFAST 


485 


BclemnlM  mtored,  liter  COrblgtir. 

as  Sophocles,  making  them  to  be  the  inventors 

of  the  msnvfactnre  of  iron.     Popular  modem 

names  far  them  are  thander  Rtones,  devil's 

lingers,  and  spectre  candles.     By 

the   researches  of  Dr.  Buckland 

and  Prof.  Agasaiz  the  true  nature 

of  the  belemnites  has   been  faiiy 

established.     The  hollow  pointed 

body  h  composed  of  carbonate  of 

lime,  part  of  which  was  the  original 

fibrous  shell,  and  the  remainder 

introduced  bj  infiltration.     Thas 

the  fosatl  became  crystalline  and 

nearly  solid.    The  cavity  was  the 

receptacle  of  the  animal,  but,  as 

in  the  genera  iulla  and  lepia,  and 

the  coralline  zoSphytea,  it   by  no 

means  covered  the  fleshy  portions; 

these,  on  the  contrary,  extended 

outside  of  the  shell,  and  enclosed    B»kmniiiia 

it,  very  much  as  a-skeleton  is  en-      [^'^^ 

closed  and  covered  with  the  softer 

portions  of  the  body.    Within  this  cavity  was 

the  apparatus  of  the  air  chambers  and  siphon, 

common  also  to  tlie  ammonite,  nanljlus,  and 

other  chambered  shells,  by  moans  of  which 

the  animal  could  rise  or  sink  at  will.    But 

the  belemnites  also  were  provided  with  the 


ink-bag  apparatus  of  the  modem  sepia;  an 
important  protection  for  their  soft  bodies, 
unguarded  as  they  were  by  any  outer  sheK. 
These  ink  bags  were  noticed  in  a  cominunica- 
tion  by  Dr.  Buckland  to  the  geolo^cal  society 
of  London  in  1829,  as  found  by  him  in  a  fossil 
state,  which  he  supposed,  from  comparison 
with  known  molluscous  animals  tnmished  with 
them,  must  have  belonged  to  dihranchiate  or 
two-gilled  cephalopods  connected  with  belem- 
nites. Subsequently  Prof.  Agasaiz  met  with 
specimens  retaining  the  ink  bag  within  the 
cavity ;  ond  the  &ct  being  thna  established,  the 
name  btlemnoitpia  was  thereupon  given  to  the 
family  in  thecUss  of  cephalopods  comprising 
all  the  species  of  belemnites.  From  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  these  animals,  and  also  of  the 
still  more  abundant  varieties  of  animonit«s, 
which  flourished  darihg  the  periods  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  oolite  and  cretaceous  groups,  Dr. 
Buckland  infers  that  those  extinct  families 
filled  a  larger  space  and  performed  more  im- 
portant functions  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ancient  seas  than  are  assigned  to  tlieir  few 
living  representatives  in  onr  modem  oceans. 

BELESTl,  a  town  of  Franae,  department  of 
Ariige,  17  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Foii;  .pop.  in  1868, 
3,646.  It  is  noted  for  the  intermitting  spring 
of  Fontestorbes,  which  rises  in  a  natural  grotto 
or  cavem,  and  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
river  Lera,  a  feeder  of  the  Garonne.  The 
stream  which  flows  from  the  cavem  is  18  or  20 
ft,  wide  and  a  foot  or  more  deep,  and  runs  very 
rapidly ;  yet  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  and 
whenever  there  is  a  draught,  it  becomes  inter- 
mittent The  intermission  takes  place  at  equal 
intervals  twice  in  the  24  hours. 

IELFA8T,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Waldo  county,  Maine,  situated  on  a 
broad  bay  of  the  same  name,  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  Penobscot  river,  op|iosite  Oastine,  80  m. 
from  the  ocean  and  110  m.  N.  E.  of  Portland  ; 
pop,  in  1870,  6,278.  The  harbor  is  deep  and 
spacious,  and  always  open,  so  that  it  is  the  win- 
tor  port  of  the  Penobscot.  The  Pasaaggaasaa- 
sawakeag  empties  into  the  Penobscot  at  this 
point,  and  furnishes  water  power,  which  is 
□sed  m  the  manufacture  of  lumber.  There  is 
considerable  ship  building  and  commerce.  The 
valuation  of  property  in  1870  was  $2,690,879 ; 
in  1860,  $1,802,807.  During  the  year  ending 
June  80,  1871,  19  Tcsseis  of  9,088  tons  were 
built  here.  There  are  24  public  schools,  G 
churches,  a  well  endowed  academy,  2  evening 
newspapers,  a  national  bank,  a  state  hank,  ana 
a  savings  bonk.  The  Belfast  and  Moosehead 
Lake  railroad  (now  consolidated  with  the  Maine 
Central)  connects  Belfast  with  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral at  Bnmham.  Belfast  was  founded  in  1 770 
by  settlers  from  Londonderry,  N.  H.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1773,  and  in  1797  the  first 
church  was  established.  In  1816  the  town  was 
invested  by  the  British.  The  city  charter  was 
adopted  in  1853. 

BiXFAST,  a  seaport  town  and  pu'liamentary 
borough  of  Ireland,  county  Antrim,  on  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Lagan,  near  its  embon- 
cbare  in  Belfast  ba^, 
88  m.  N.N.  E.  of  Dub- 
lin; pop.  in  1871, 174,- 
894    (aa    increase    of 
nearlj    100,000    since 
1841).   Tlie  site  of  the 
greater    part    of    the 
town  is  low  an6  fial, 
having  been  reclaimed 
from  the  raarsh;  banka 
of  the  Lagan.   The  riv- 
er is  250  yards  wide, 
and  is  crossed  by  tliree  i 
bridges  and  two  ferries.   I 
The  streets  are  regular 
and   spacious,  macad- 
amized,  and  well  light-  | 
ed.    A  conspicuoua  ar-  ' 
chitectnral  ornament  is 


ory  of  the  prince  consort,  and  finished  in  1870. 
It  is  140  ft.  in  height,  and  is  built  in  the  Vene- 
tian Qothic  style,  and  elaborately  ornamented, 
la  a  niche  82  ft.  from  the  ground  stands  a 
statue  of  Prince  Albert ;  above  this  portion  of 
the  tower  is  a  targe  clock,  and  above  this  agdn 


a  belfry.  In  1871  there  were  80  places  of 
worship,  of  which  21  were  Episcopal  (chnrcb 
of  Ireluid),  28  Presbyterian,  IG  Methodist,  and 
5  Koman  Catholio.  At  the  bead  of  its  educa- 
tional instjtntions  is  the  Queen's  college,  boilt  of 
brick  and  stone  at  an  expense  of  over  £2G,000, 
and  opened  in  1840.  It  stands  in  a  conspicaons 
poeibon  in  the  midst  of  large  grounds,  and  near 
the  botanic  garden.  For  tiie  maintenance  of 
the  institution  £7,000  a  year  is  allowed.  The 
"General  Assembly  college"  was  opened  Dec. 
5,  1803,  and  the  Methodist  college,  erected  by 
voluntvy  subscriptions  at  a  cost  of  £24,000, 
Aug.  10, 1868.  There  are  besides  the  royal  aca- 
demical institntJon,  founded  in  1810,  the  Bel- 


BELFORT 

foot  academy,  the  Lanoaaterion  school,  audnn- 
merous  national  schools  and  private  seminariea- 
Belfast  has  many  charitable  and  benevolent 
institutions;  a  natural  history  sooiety;  a  royal 
botanical  and  horticultural  society ;  a  society 
for  the  promotion  of  knowledge ;  a  teachers' 
association ;  a  theatre ;  and  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute.   In  1871  there  were  14  newspapers,  one 
of  which  dates  from  1737.     Belfast  la  the  great 
depot  of  the  linen  trade  of  the  north  of  Ireland, 
and  ia  also  the  chief  seat  of  maDnfactnreB  of 
cotton  and  linen.     There  are  also  distilleries, 
breweries,  fionr  mills,  found eriea,  tan  yarda, 
Titriol  works,  saw  mills,  and  extensive  ship 
aaA  rope  yards.     Steamers  ply  regularly  be- 
tween Bell^t  and  London,  Liverpool,  Fleet- 
wood, Carlisle,  'Whitehaven,  Glasgow,  Green- 
ock, Stranraer,  Ardrossan,  and  Dublin.    Tliree 
railways  diverge  from  it ;  N,  W.,  the  Northern 
Counties  railway;  N.  E.,  the  Ooonty  Down, 
and  8.  W.,  the  Ulster  railway,  in  connection 
with  a  line  to  Dublin.     The  commerce  of  Bel- 
fast is  extensive.  In  1666  the  imports  amounted 
to  £13,447,000,  and  the  exports  to  £11,916,000. 
In  1870  8,308  vessels,  of  1,226,686  tons,  entered 
the  port.    New  docks  were  opened  in  August, 
1872,  one  of  them  being  named  after  Lord 
Dufferin. — Belfast  is  a  comparatively  modem 
town.     It  was  erected 
into  a  mauicipality  and 
parliamentary   borough 
early  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury.   During  the  civil 
war  in  that  century  it 
was  besieged  and  ta^en 
four  times  in  lAx  years. 
In  consequence  of  the 
repeal  of  the  procesnon 
act  by  parliament,  Bel-    ' 
fast   was    in    August, 
1872,  the  scene  of  se- 
rious troubles  between 
the  Orangemen  and  the 
Boman  Gatbolics;    the 
riots  continning  for  sev- 
eral days,  with  consider- 
able loss  of  property  and 
life,  until  they  were  sup- 
pressed by  military  force. 
BEUVIT,  or  B^fwt,  a 
fortilled  town  of  France, 
formerly  in  the  department  of  Hant-Rhin,  on 
the  Savoureuso,  76  m,  S.  8,  W,  of  Straaburg; 
pop.  in  1866,  8,400.     It  has  manufactures  of 
iron,    paper,    bats,   and    printed  calico,    and 
was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  entrepots  of 
the  French  trade  with  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land.    It  is  of  great  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view,  as  it  controls  the   Ttwee  de 


by  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in 
1648,  at  which  time  it  was  a  place  of  little 
strength,  bnt  the  French  made  it  a  fortress 
of  the  second  rank.  The  Germans  besieged 
it  in  November,  1870,  and  it  capitulated  on 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELG^ 

Feb.  16,  1871,  its  garnaon  of  S,000  men  being 
aUoved  free  dapartore.  At  the  conolunoQ  of 
peace  Belfort,  with  its  snrroimding  diBtrict 
(mytm),  was  exempted  th)ni  the  cession  of  Al- 
sace to  Germany ;  bnt  it  is  still  oocnpied  by  a 


BELGIUM 


487 


Oerman  garriMtn  (1878)  pending  the  complete 
payment  of  the  French  indemnity. 

BELGX,  one  of  the  three  peoples  who  divided 
the  poasennion  of  the  whole  of  Gaul  among 
them  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  and  conqnest 
by  JnlioB  Orasar,  the  other  two  being  the  Oeltce, 
in  the  centre,  and  the  Aquitani,  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees.     The  Belgte  occn- 

Sied  the  country  between  the  Rhine,  Seine,  and 
[ame,  embracing  modern  Belgium  and  por- 
tions of  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  (See 
Gaet..)  It  IB  not  settled  among  ethnologists 
how  far  the  Belgte  and  Oeltte  of  Gaul  were  of 
different  or  kindred  races ;  nor  at  what  time, 
whether  previous  or  subseqnent  to  this  period, 
the  intermigrations  with  Britain  occurred.  It 
is  assumed,  however,  from  many  considera- 
tions, that  the  Belgte  had  at  least  a  mixture  of 
Teutonio  blood,  if  tney  were  not  Teutons. 

BEUUBD,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
ofPomerania,  on  the  Persante,  IB  m.  8.  8.  W. 
of  EAslin;  pop.  in  1871,6,303.  Ithasa  castle, 
three  chnrcniM,  and  important  cattle  and  horse 
markets. 

BGLGilH,  &  town  in  the  presidency  of  Bom- 
bay, HmdoBtan,  the  headqaarters  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  the  Bombay  army,  40  m.  N.  W. 
ofDharwar;  pop,  about  8,000.  Its  site  is  ele- 
vated and  healthy,  and  it  is  strongly  fortified. 
The  British  captured  this  place  in  1818,  after 
a  siege  of  21  days. 

BlUilOJOW,  CriMbu,  princess  of,  an  Italian 
patriot  and  writer,  bom  in  Milan,  Jnne  28, 
1808,  died  there,  July  6,  16T1.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  the  marquis  Geronimo  Iridoro 
Trivnlzio,  and  married  on  Sept.  14,  1824,  the 
prince  Emilio  Barbian  e  Belgiqjoso,  who  died 


Feb.  17, 1858.    Their  children  were  a  son,  who 
died  in  1862,  and  a  daughter  who  in  1861  be< 
came  the  wife  of  the  marquis  Trotti-Bentivo- 
glio.    Allied  to  the  most  diatingnished  families 
and  brought  up  under  the  influence  of  Manzoni, 
the  princess  Belgiojoso 
acquired     prominence 
by  her  social  position, 
her  varied  acoomplish- 
menta,  and  her  revo- 
lutionary idea».      Ex- 
Eelled  from  Italy,  her 
ouse  in  Paris  became 
after    1880    a    centre 
for     scholars,     artists, 
and  liberal  politicians. 
Hignet  prevailed  upon 
Lonis  Philippe  to  ob- 
tain from  the  Austrian 
government  the  resto- 
ration of  her  oontisca- 
t«d  property,  and  she 
employed  her  fortune 
in  promoting  the  edu- 
cation and  prosperity  of 
her  tenantry.    She  vol- 
unteered as  the  amanu- 
ensis of  the  historian 
Thierry,  studied  math- 
ematics under  Arago,  was  intimato  with  the 
8L  Simonians,  and  published  an  Euai  tur  la 
formation  du  eulu  dogmatiqw  (Paris,  1846), 
In  1348  she  equipped  volunteers  at  her  own 
expense  in  Lombordy ;  in  Rome  she  shared  in 
the  labors  of  Margaret  Fuller  for  the  relief  of 
the  wounded  patriots;  and  in  1849   she  went 
into  exile  in  Turkey,  while  the  Austrians  again 
confiscated  her  property,  which  was  not  re- 
stored to  her  till  18B6,    She  therenpon  entered 
upon  a  literary  career,  and  some  have  recog- 
nized in  her  the  original  from  whom  Stendhal 
drew  the  duchess  of  8an  Severino,  the  heroine 
of  his  GhartTsvae  de  Parm«.    She  liecame  the 
correspondent  of  several  journals ;  published  in 
1850  her  SoMnenir*  d'exile  in  the  National; 
edited  in  Paris  in  1851  Jfbtiim*  d'hittoire  d 
Vvtage  de»  er\fanU ;  and  her  travels  in  the  East 
led  to  her  publication  of  Emina,  rieita  tureo- 
anatiqua  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1866),  Atie  Mineure 
tt  Syrit  (18&8),  and  SiAm*  d4  la  tie  turgut 
(18S8).     In  1860  appeared  her  HitUnre  d«  la 
mai$on  de  Savoie,  and  in  1889  her  Riflexiont 
rur  Vitat  actual  de  Pltalie  «t  ntr  ton  avenir. 

BELOIIIM  (Fr.  La  Belgiqut),  a  kingdom  of 
Europe,  situated  between  N.  E.  France,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  the  North  aeo,  and  extend- 
ing from  lat.  49°  80'  to  SI"  SO'N.,  and  from  Ion. 
2°  83'  to  6°  6'  E. ;  area,  1 1,872  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1832,  4.064,23Si  in  1849,  4,809,090;  in  1S5S, 
4,529,860;  in  186fl,  4,829,830;  in  1869, by  cal- 
culation, 6,021,386.  Its  greatest  length  from 
8.  G.  to  N.  W.  is  180  English  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth,  from  the  northern  bonndary 
of  Antwerp  to  the  most  southern  part  of  Wei- 
nant,  is  124  miles.  The  kingdom  is  divided  into 
nine  provinces,  as  follows: 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


«„c^     1^ 

Pop.,)». 

hT.,11-. 

IM,..I1- 

feS 

7;Aa(9 
SftSl« 

*T«,1S7 

s 

4?IIS,« 

Sr-^^ 

82R3sT 

ies.7« 

1.7U 
1,«1B 

S^::- 

ToUl 

11.8W   i4^l)S,«»0  !*,81!»^  18,0*1,389 

The  anniml  inoroase  of  the  popntation  irinoe 
18C6  has  been  abont  '962  per  ceat  Id  18flB 
there  were  1S3,61S  births  [of  which  12,106 
were  illegitimate),  36,271  marriages,  60  divor- 
ces, and  116,041  deaths.  The  male  sex  showed 
a  slight  preponderance  over  the  female.  The 
number  of  emigrants  in  1895  was  12,015,  of 
immigrants  0,600.  Of  the  cities  of  Belginn, 
one,  Brussels,  had  in  1869  upward  of  171,000 
(with  8  suburbs,  314,000)  inhabitants;  8,  Ant- 


werp, Ghent,  and  LiSgo,  upward  of  100,000; 
and  5,  Brogee,  Uechlio,  Verviers,  Louvun,  and 
Tonma;,  tVom  S0,000  to  G0,000  inhabitants. 
In  1866  the  kingdom  had  ISl  communes  with 
more  and  2,429  with  less  than  5,000  inhaUtanta. 
The  Bel^an  people  consist  of  two  different  na- 
tjonalities:  the  Flemish,  a  branch  of  the  Ger- 
man race,  and  the  Walloon,  an  offshoot  of  the 
French.  Altboogh  onlj'  42'3  per  cent,  of  the 
total  popnktion  are  pnrelj  Walloon,  and  49'8 
per  cent  Flemings  (the  remunder  speaking 
dther  both  these  or  other  langoages),  the 
Freaob  is  the  predominant  and  the  official 
language.  Of  late,  however,  the  Flemish  ms- 
jonty  have  begun  a  vigorons  struggle  to  secure 
at  least  equal  rights  for  their  langaage;  and 
thoa  the  nationalitj  conflict  has  become  of 
great  political  significance  in  Betginm.  The 
followmg  table  shows  the  numerical  propor- 
liod  which  exiats  between  the  two  principal 
nationalities  in  the  several  provinces  of  the 


nmu 

PMimn} 

RVIISBK  BPUina 

mniBni  sPiAiiaa 

IidoUluU. 

IWct. 

b.l>.UU.b. 

Fsenl. 

bUblUU. 

!>.«. 

4sn.4M 

8S8 

S.S3I 

IK  Am 

,S 

«I,<!7T 

s 

1S.«« 
1.110 

a,40«.«i 

«-B 

ifia.m 

*^ 

Boyisi 

— The  Burfooe  of  Belgium  is  generally  level.  In 
the  southeast  there  are  some  high  and  well 
wooded  lands,  traversed  by  or  connected  with 
the  Ardennes.  South  of  Verviers  there  is  also 
a  wild  tract  of  elevated  country  of  small  ex- 
tent, the  highest  elevation  not  exceeding  2,800 
feet.  Between  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt 
there  is  another  ridge.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Meuse,  the  Scheldt  the  Ourthe,  and 
the  Sambre.  The  Meuse  flows  from  France 
through  the  provinces  of  Namur  and  Li^ge 
into  Holland,  aai  Is  navigable  throughout 
iU  Bel^n  course.  The  Scheldt  enters  Bel- 
gium in  the  province  of  Hainaut,  and  runs 
across  the  Belgian  territory,  receiving  the  Den- 
der,  the  Dyle,  and  other  streams,  and  passing 
into  Holland  below  Antwerp.  It  is  navigable 
throughout  Bel^nm,  but  is  obstructed  by 
banks  at  its  mouth.  The  Ourthe  rises  in  the 
Ardennes,  and  falls  into  the  Meuse  at  Lifige. 
The  Sambre  flows  from  France  into  Belgium, 
and  falls  into  the  Meuse  at  Namur.  The 
northern  part  of  the  country  is  of  tertiary 
formation.  In  the  southeastern  provinces  the 
lower  formations  are  red  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, resting  upon  granite,  quartz,  and  slate. 
Fossil  animus  are  very  numerous;  the  lime- 
stone caverns  through  which  the  river  Lesse 
has  made  its  way  are  remarkable  natural  cu- 
riosities.   East  and  West  Flanders  are  princi- 


pally sand. — After  England,  Belgium  yields 
more  fiiel  than  any  other  country  in  Europe. 
There  were  165  coal  mines  in  operation  in  ' 
1888,  covering  218,645  acres,  and  employing 
66,721  persons,  and  producing  in  1866  12,- 
774,862  tons  (against  6,820,858  in  1860),  of 
the  value  of  161,081,574  francs.  Abont  two 
thirds  of  the  produce  is  consumed  in  the 
country,  and  the  rest  exported  to  Frsnce  and 
Holland.  The  most  extrusive  coal  fields  are 
in  the  province  of  Hainant,  which  alone  in 
1866  produced  9,800,000  tons.  The  production 
of  iron  is  also  large.  The  best  iron  is  found 
in  the  country  between  tLe  Sambre  and  the 
Mense.  Lead,  manganese,  and  other  minerals, 
e^)edally  nnc,  are  found  in  various  parla  of 
the  country.  The  most  celebrated  ^o  mines 
are  between  Li6ge  and  Aix-lo-Cbapelle.  The 
country  abounds  at  the  same  time  m  building, 

eBTLOg,  and  lime  stones,  roofing  slate,  and  mar- 
ie. The  black  marble  of  Dinant  is  renowned 
for  its  beauty.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Belgium 
is,  next  to  agriculture,  the  most  important 
source  of  the  national  prosperity.  The  most 
celebrated  mineral  springs  are  at  the  famous 
wat«ring  place  Bpa,  near  the  frontier  of  libe- 
nish  Prusda. — The  canals,  though  numerous, 
are  not  equal  in  length  to  those  of  HcJland, 
l>eintf  about  800  m.  The  greatest  of  these  is 
the  Brussels  conai,  supplied  by  the  river  Seuie. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


which  was  opened  In  1S60.  Ghent  ia  eonnect- 
ed  with  the  sea  by  a  oaosl  opening  into  the  E. 
Scheldt,  which  admiti  vesBeb  drawing  18  feet 
The  roilwAjra  of  Belgium  were  the  earliest  of 
continental  Enrope,  and  rapidly  foDowed  those 
of  England,  whicl]  they  have  Borpassed  in  onity 
of  design  and  economy  of  constmotjon.  The 
principal  lines  were  built  by  Che  government. 
The  aggregate  length  of  railways  in  1670  was 
1,830  m.  (against  5&0  in  1860),  of  which  1,4S6 
belonged  to  private  companies,  and  604  to  the 
Btate ;  and  830  m,  were  in  the  oonrw  of  oon- 
Btmction.  The  receipts  were  upward  of  40,- 
000,000  franca,  while  the  total  cost  of  perma- 
nent conatmction  had  been  766,464,186  francs. 
Electric  telegraphs  have  been  in  operation 
since  March  16,  1861.  In  1870  the  aggregate 
length  of  the  lines  was  2,606  m.,  and  of  the 
wires,  8,2B8.  The  nnmber  of  telegraph  offices 
in  1869  was  498;  their  a^r^ate  recdpts, 
l,S38,S9a  fr. ;  their  expenditares,  1,298,916  A'.— 
The  agricnltare  of  Bel^nm  is  not  anrpossed 
by  that  of  any  nation.  The  originally  un- 
favorable soil  bas  by  generations  of  carefiil 
CDltnre  been  raised  to  great  prodnoWvenesa. 
Large  farms  are  rare,  the  sabdivl^ons  of  the 
Boil  have  been  cairied  down  to  garden  uze, 
and  less  than  -X,  of  the  whole  area  of  the 
kingdom  ia  nprontable.  Flax  is  an  object  of 
peculiar  onre,  and  the  Belgian  system  of  culti- 
vation is  studied  everywhere.  East  and  West 
Elandors  alone  produce  flax  to  the  value  of 
$8,000,000  annually.  The  artiflcial  grasses  are 
also  generally  prodnctive,  while  the  production 
of  root  crops  by  artificial  manure  is  matter  of 
elaborate  study  and  attention.  Belginm  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  horses,  of  which  it  possesses 
nearly  800,000.  Those  of  the  Ardennes  are 
excellent  cavalry  horses,  and  those  of  Namnr 
are  famous  draught  horses.  The  nnmber  of 
cattle  exceeds  1,200,000,  and  of  sheep  700,000. 
The  government  pays  special  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  horses  and  cattle. — In  com- 
mercial pursuits  and  manufactures  Belginm  has 
long  eiyoyed  the  highest  reputation.  But  the 
fame  of  her  linens  and  woven  goods  had  some- 
what deteriorated  from  the  high  estimation 
they  enjoyed  in  the  14th  century,  until  the 
separation  from  Holland.  The  lace  of  Brussels 
and  Ifechlin,  the  linens  and  damasks  of  Li^ge, 
the  woollens  of  Ypres,  the  cotton  goods,  carpeta, 
and  hoderj  of  the  country,  compete  with 
the  productions  of  the  French  and  English 
looms.  The  machine  factory  of  OockeriU  and 
company,  founded  at  Li6ge  in  1816,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  works  of  the  kind  in  Europe. 
Ii6ge  has  a  cannon  foundery,  and  is  noted  for 
its  manufactories  of  firearms. — The  foreign 
commerce  of  Belgium  during  its  connection 
with  Holland  suffered  for  the  sake  of  Amster- 
dam and  Rotterdam,  and  judicious  plans  of  in- 
ternal improvement  have  Mnce  occupied  the 
national  attention.  The  entries  at  the  Belgian 
porta,  chiefly  Antwerp  and  Ostend,  in  1869, 
were  6,411  vessels,  of  1,470,822  tons,  and  the 
clearances  were  6,326  Teaaels,  of  1,456,965 


tons.  The  merchant  navy  in  18SB  consisted 
of  67  sailing  vessels,  of  23,981  tons,  and  12 
steamers,  of  8,763  tons.  The  number  of  fish- 
ing boats  was  266,  of  9,087  tons.  The  imports 
for  the  same  year  amounted  to  903,600,000  Jr. 
and  the  exports  to  691,600,000  fr.  The  im- 
ports from  the  United  States  from  July  1, 
1869,  to  June  SO,  1870,  amounted  to  $6,600,- 
000,  and  the  exports  to  that  country  $3,140,- 
000.  The  revenue  of  Belginm  for  1870  was 
176,726,000  fr.,  and  the  expenditure  176,612,- 
836  fr.  The  badget  for  1878  estimates  the  re- 
ceipts at  196,708,600  fr,,  and  the  expenditures 
at  192,620,612  fr.,  the  latter  tncludiug  49,693,- 
136  fr.  for  public  debt,  68,203,064  fr.  for  pub- 
lic works,  and  87,126,000  fr.  for  the  army. 
The  publio  debt,  commenced  by  the  assump- 
tion of  220,000,000  franca  of  the  enormous 
debt  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  at 
the  time  of  the  separation,  has  been  constantly 
increased  by  the  construction  (^  railways,  tlie 
fortifications  of  Antwerp,  extra  militery  expen- 
diture in  1870,  &o,,  and  on  May  1,  1870,  con- 
sisted of  706,874,214  fr.  The  aggregate  debts 
of  the  communes  amounted  to  126,319,085  fr.— 
The  military  force  of  the  kingdom,  according 
to  the  law  of  April  G,  1868,  consists  on  the 
war  footing  of  74,000  infantry,  8,630  cavalry, 
14,618  ariiillery,  2,864  engineers,  1,873  gen- 
darmes; total,  96,770.  The  standing  array 
on  the  peace  footing  numbered  88,970  men. 
Annually  10,000  men  are  enrolled  by  conscripi- 
tion,  with  the  right  of  fHimishing  substitutes ; 
the  time  of  military  duty  begins  with  the  19th 
year  and  lasts  eight  years,  abont  one  half  of 
which  is  spent  on  ^rlotigh.  The  principal 
fortresses  of  the  kingdom  are  those  of  Antwerp, 
Charleroi,  Ostend,  Ghent,  and  Namnr.  Besides 
the  standing  army,  there  is,  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  Hay,  1848,  and  Jnly,  1668,  a  na- 
tional guard,  which  oompriBcs  all  citizens  be- 
tween 21  and  40  able  to  bear  arms.  It  num- 
bers 126,000  men  (and  inciuBive  of  the  reserve 
400,000),  but  is  in  active  service  only  in  towns 
having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants.— The 
constitution  of  Belpum  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
with  male  anoceasion,  and  in  default  of  male 
issue  the  king  may  nominate  his  successor 
with  consent  of  the  chambers.  The  legislative 
body  consists  of  a  senate  and  house  of  reore- 
sentatives.  The  elective  franchise  is  vestea  in 
citizens  paying  not  less  than  42  fr.  annually  of 
direct  taxes.  The  house  of  representetives 
consists  of  deputies  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
40,000  of  population.  In  1869  the  number  of 
deputies  was  116,  chosen  from  41  electoral  dis- 
tricts. Citizenship  is  the  sole  qoalification  for 
representatives,  and  they  are  elected  for  four 
years  (except  in  case  of  a  dissolution),  half  re- 
tiring every  two  years.  The  senate  has  half 
the  number  of  the  house,  elected  by  the  citi- 
zens for  eight  years,  half  retiring  every  four 
years.  The  senatorial  qualification  is  citizen- 
ship, domiciliation,  40  years  of  age,  and  pay- 
ment of  direct  taiee  of  at  least  2,000  fr.  annu- 
ally.    The  restriction  created  by  this  lai^ 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


490  BEL< 

proportion  of  tasea  U  mitigated  bj  the  admis- 
Bion  of  tlioBe  oitizens  who  pa;  the  next  largest 
aamB,  so  that  the  iist  shall  always  be  kept  up 
to  the  footing  of  at  least  one  eligible  person  for 
ever;  6,000  inhabitants.  The  representatives 
receive  paj  at  the  rate  of  aboat  ^0  per  week. 
Senators  receive  no  pa;.  Each  house  maj 
originate  laws,  bat  mono;  Inlls  must  oripnate 


November,  The  king  ma;  dissolve  the  cham- 
bers, but  the  act  of  dissointion  must  contain 
B  provision  for  convoking  them  again  within 
two  montliB.  The  execative  government  con- 
sisted in  1871  of  «i  departments,  namel;; 
foreign  affairs,  finance, Justice,  public  works, 
war_,  and  the  interior.  The  minister  of  foreign 
sfituTB  ia  premier.  Besides  the  heads  of  these 
departments  there  are  a  number  of  ministers 
without  portfolio,  who  form  a  privy  oonncil 
called  together  on  special  occasions  b;  the 
sovereign.  Titles  of  nobility  are  allowed  b; 
the  constitntion,  bnt  without  particular  privi- 
leges, all  Belgians  being  eqaal  in  the  e;e  of 
the  law.  Trial  h;  jury  on  criminal  and  po- 
litical charges,  and  offences  of  the  press,  are 
provided  for.  Taxes  and  the  arm;  contin- 
gent must  be  vol«d  annually.  The  law  is 
administered  b;  local  and  provincial  triba- 
nals,  with  oonrta  of  appeal  at  Brussels,  Ghent, 
and  Li£ge. — Various  pernicious  influences  have 
produced  a  vast  amount  of  panperism.  In 
1B67  the  908,000  families  of  the  kingdom  were, 
aooording  to  an  official  report  mode  to  the 
legislatare,  divided  into  89,000  which  were 
wealthy,  STS.OOO  living  m  strutened  circum- 
stances, and  446,000  living  in  a  wretched  con- 
dition. Of  the  latter  class  26S,000  received 
sapport  fh)m  the  state. — The  Roman  Catholic 
reli^onislargelypredominantin Belgium.  The 
number  of  Protestants  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  10,000  to  25,000.     The  Jews  nura- 


At  the  head  of  the  Oatholic  church  are  the 
archbishop  of  Uechlin  and  the  bishops  of  Ghent, 
Bruges,  LiSge,  Namnr,  and  Toumay.  Uonaa- 
tic  institutions  are  very  numerous.  In  18B6 
there  were  2,898  monks  in  178  monasteries, 
and  10,20fi  nnns  in  1,144  convents  and  oommn- 
niliea.  The  "Protestant  Evangelical  Ohnrch," 
to  which  the  m^ority  of  Belgian  Protestants 
belong,  IB  governed  by  a  synod  which  sits  once  a 
year  at  Brnssels,  and  is  composed  of  the  clergy- 
men of  the  bod;  and  a  representative  from  each 
of  the  congregations.— There  are  government 
universities  at  Ghent  and  Li^ge,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic university  at  Lonvain,  and  a  free  nniversit; 
at  Brussels.  There  are  superior  public  schools 
in  moat  of  the  cities,  and  a  great  number  of 
Bchools  have  been  estabhshed  for  instrnction  in 
particular  branches  of  indnstry,  agriccltoral  pro- 
cesses, chemistry,  and  design.  The  conservator; 
of  music  at  Bruasels  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  the  worid.  The  number  of  primary  schools 
in  1664  was  G,6S4  (against  C,S20  in  1861),  of 


which  4,008  were  Qoder  the  control  of  the 
state.  They  were  attended  by  644,761  pnpils; 
and  the  expenditure  incurred  for  their  support 
by  the  state,  the  provinces,  and  the  communes 
was  10,943,000  fr.  About  80  per  cent,  of  the 
adult  population  in  1871  were  unable  to  read 
and  write. — The  history  of  Belgium  as  an  in- 
dependent state  dates  from  1830,  at  which 
time  it  was  separated  from  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands.  Under  the  Komans  the  coun- 
try formed  a  part  of  Gallia  Belgica,  a  name  de- 
rived from  its  original  inhabitants.  (See  Gadi, 
and  BBLa.s.)  After  the  fall  of  the  West  Ro- 
man empire  a  number  of  feudal  lords  achieved 
Kwer  in  the  Belgic  territories,  under  the 
aukish  and  German  monarchs,  among  whom 
the  counts  of  Flanders  rose  to  historicai  dis- 
tinction. From  failure  of  male  heirs  their  poe- 
sesuons  devolved  to  the  house  of  Burgnndy  in 
1884,  which  gradually  extended  its  ioflnence, 
by  conquest  or  treaty,  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  Netheriands.  (See  Brabast,  Boboundt, 
and  Flandebs.)  On  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bold^  his  daughter  Maiy,  the  greatest  h^ress 
of  Eorope,  married  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
afterward  emperor  of  German; ;  and  under  his 
snccesaor  Charles  V.  the  rule  of  the  Low 
Countries  was  joined  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 
Both  Maximilian  and  Charles  respected  in  some 
degree  the  freedom  and  rights  of  their  Ba- 
tavion  and  Belgie  sattjeots.  Bnt  Philip  II. 
drove  them  into  that  revolt  which  ended  in  the 
independenoe  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  yoke  of  Spain  on  the  necks 
of  the  Belgians.  (Bee  Nbthbblandb.)  From 
this  period  Belpnm  followed  the  fortunes  of 
Spain.    In  1698  Philip  bestowed  the  Flemish 

Erovinces  on  his  daughter  Isabella  and  her  hus- 
and  Albert,  during  which  period  something 
was  effect«d  toward  the  settlement  of  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  province.  On  the  death 
of  Isabella  without  issue,  Spain  agun  assumed 
the  government,  and  the  Spanish  Low  Countries 
were  for  the  next  century  the  battlefield  of  Eu- 
rope. The  cities  were  taken  and  retaken,  the 
territory  cut  up,  and  passed  from  one  power 
to  another  by  the  treaties  of  Aii-la-Chapelle 
(1668),  Nimeguen  (1B78),  and  Ryswick  (16S7), 
until  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1716)  gave  the 
country  to  Austria;  and,  as  though  these  in- 
fluences had  not  been  sufficient!;  iijurions  to 
the  countr;,  the  so-called  barrier  treaty  of 
1716  delivered  over  several  of  the  fortreasea  to 
Holland,  in  order  to  create  a  barrier  against 
Preach  ambition.  Holland  closed  the  St^eldt, 
and  so  diverted  the  trade  of  Antwerp,  and 
in  1723  the  riamg  commerce  of  Ostend  was 
sacrificed  to  the  Dutch.  The  empress  Maria 
Tbereea  appointed  Charles,  duke  of  Lornune, 
her  viceroy,  and  under  his  equitable  rule 
the  people  ei^o;ed  an  interval  of  peace.  Jo- 
seph II.  shook  off  the  bonds  of  ute  barrier 
treat;  with  the  Dateh,  and  compelled  Holland 
to  withdraw  her  army  of  occupation,  but 
could  not  sncoeed  in  reopening  the  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt.    He  also  addr^sed  himself  to 


.Google 


tha  reform  of  exiBlJog  abiuea ;  bnt  here,  bs  ia 
other  parta  of  his  empire,  his  precipitation 
plMsd  &  lever  in  the  huidg  of  those  who 
opposed  his  pl&ns,  whiofa  they  ased  anccew- 
fullj  to  excite  popular  disconteDt.  On  Deo. 
11,  1769,  the  oppomtioD,  nhich  had  numifested 
itself  in  a  serioos  revolt,  culminated  in  a  move- 
ment in  BroBsels  against  the  garrison,  which 
was  forced  to  oapitnlsto.  Josenh  and  his  sno- 
censor  Leopold  II.  made  libersj  offers  for  an 
adjustment  of  the  differences  and  fur  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  eonstitntion ;  bnt  the 
liberal  leaders  stood  ont  for  an  independent 
Belgian  repnblio.  Internal  dissensions  soon 
threw  them  into  the  power  of  the  Anatrians 
again,  when  Pichegm  crossed  the  frontier,  nn- 
der  instraotiotisfrom  the  French  convention,  to 
a»^Bt  the  Belgians.  The  Anstrians  were  rap- 
idly driven  back,  and  the  Bet^ans  foand  them- 
selves incorporated  into  the  French  republic, 
and  eventnall;  thej  beoame  a  part  of  the  empire. 
On  Napoleon's  abdication  in  1814,  the  oonntrj' 
was  pnt  under  the  ooatrol  of  an  Anstrian  gov- 
ernor, bot  at  the  final  peace  it  was  united  with 
Bolltutd  nnder  Prince  William  Frederick  of 
Orange-Vassan  as  king  of  the  new  kingdom, 
called  Netherlands,  being  destined  to  form  a 
strong  bnlwark  against  France.  The  inclina- 
tions and  habits  of  the  Belgians,  which  led 
them  to  a  French  alliaaoe,  were  not  oonsolt- 
ed  in  this  settlement,  and  their  dissatisfaction 
was  aggravated  by  the  unwise  policy  of  the 
Hollanders,  and  bj  the  marked  oiflerenoes  in 
national  character,  langnage,reli(pon,  and  pur- 
suits. Inthe  states  general  Holland  with  about 
2,500,000  was  to  have  a  nnmber  of  representa- 
tivos  equal  to  Belgium  with  nearly  4,000,000 
ofpeopJe.  BelgiainhadoDlyadebtof4,000,000 
florins,  Holland  a  debt  of  1,200,000,000;  Uiia 
was  imposed  on  Belgian  industry.  The  eonsti- 
tntion which  oontained  all  these  objectionable 
proviaions  was  passed  by  an  assembly  in  which 
the  dissentient  Belgian  nobility  were  an  actual 
majority,  bnt  the  absent  Belglanawere  reckoned 
as  assenting.  The  nee  of  the  French  language 
in  judicial  and  government  proceedings  was  to 
be  abolished.  In  May,  1830,  disregarding  840 
petitions,  the  government  carried  a  new  law  of 
the  press.  Officials  holding  Belgian  opinions 
were  dismissed.  M.  de  Potter,  the  head  of  the 
Belgian  party,  opened  a  subscription  for  all 
those  who  thus  snlfered  for  their  principles.  De 
Potter  and  his  confidential  friends,  Tielemans, 
Bartels,  and  De  Nfive,  were  arraigned  for  se- 
dition ;  the  charge  was  proved  by  their  private 
correspondeoce  with  each  other,  and  they  were 
beuiished.  The  public  mind  was  in  n  state  of 
excitement,  which  was  raised  to  its  highest 
pitch  of  intensity  by  the  revolution  of  July  in 
Paris.  At  lengUi,  on  Aug.  26,  18B0,  during  a 
psrformance  of  Auber's  "Masaniello"  at  the 
grand  opera  of  Brussels,  the  inanrrectionary 
spirit  was  aroused  into  action  by  the  mnsic. 
The  theatre  was  rapidly  emptied,  the  office  of 
tha  JV(i(i(?7U(2  newspaper,  the  government  organ, 
was  sacked,  the  armorers'  ^ops  were  broken 


open,  and  barricades  were  erected.  The  civic 
guard  restored  order  the  next  day;  bnt  the 
revolntion  had  spread,  and  in  all  the  principal 
cities  the  same  scene  was  refinacted.  On  Ang. 
28  a  congress  of  citizens  assembled  in  the  h6t«l 
de  ville  of  Bmssels;  they  adopted  an  address 
to  the  king,  asking  for  reform  of  the  system  of 
govermncnt,  dismissal  of  the  nnpopnlar  minis- 
ters, and  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  prosecntions 
and  prooeedinsH  Meeting  the  press.  The  king 
received  the  deputies  at  the  Hague,  and  ra- 
flised  to  ple<^  hiinself  to  anything  while  under 
menaces  of  force,  bat  promised  an  early  oon- 
nderation  of  the  matter.  This  answer  gave 
great  dissatisfaction.  Subsequently  the  crown 
prince  was  induced  to  visit  Brussels.  He  held 
a  conference  with  the  leading  men  of  the  city, 
and  appointed  a  ocnnmitl«e  for  redress  of 
grievances.  The  Li£ge  deputation,  however, 
boldly  told  the  prince  that  nothing  short  of 
total  separation  firom  Holland  would  now  pacii|y 
the  people.  The  king  summoned  a  states  gen- 
eral extraordinary  on  Sept.  18,  formed  a  new 
ministry  under  De  Potter  and  De  Stassart,  and 
then  sent  troops  to  Bmssels,  and  called  on  tha 
rebels  to  submit.  On  Sept.  20  the  streets  of 
Brussels  were  rendered  completely  impassable. 
Prince  Frederick  advanced  with  14,000  men, 
and  on  Bept.  38  attacked  the  porte  de  Baar- 
brhck.  After  a  battle  of  six  hours  the  troops 
fought  their  way  through  the  streets  to  the 
palace,  and  for  three  days  there  was  an  inces- 
sant engagement,  during  which  the  Dntch  made 
themselves  masters  of  tlie  principal  part  of  the 
city.  Bnt  the  inanrgenta,  recdvmg  reSnforoe- 
ments  from  LiSge  and  other  towns,  recovered 
strength,  and  Pnnce  Frederick's  portion  soon 
became  hopeless.  He  ordered  a  retreat;  Brus- 
sels was  &«e;  Uons,  Ghent,  Ypres,  and  alt  the 
other  leading  towns,  at  once  declared  in  favor 
of  total  separation,  and  on  OcL  S  the  Dntch 
garrison  of  Li^ge  capitulated.  Antwerp  was 
now  the  only  important  place  which  remuned 
in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  and  even  in  that 
city  their  anthority  was  rapidly  crumbling 
away.  Gen.  Ghass6  had  thrown  himself  into 
the  citadel,  and  the  authorities  agreed  on  an 
armistice.  But  the  insurgent  forces  repudiated 
the  right  of  the  magistrates  to  negotiate  with 
the  enemy,  and  summoned  Chass6  to  surren- 
der. In  reply  ho  opened  his  guns  on  tha 
quarter  of  the  town  in  which  the  revolutionary 
troops  lay,  and  did  much  harm  to  the  city, 
besides  destroying  a  vast  quantity  of  valuable 
merchandise.  A  provisional  government  had 
been  already  formed  in  Brussels,  consisting  of 
Baron  van  Hoogvorat,  Charles  P.ogier,  Jolly, 
Count  F6Hi  de  Merode,  Gendebion,  Van  de 
Weyer,  Potter,  and  some  others.  They  ap- 
pointed the  various  ministers,  summoned  a 
national  congress,  and  settled  the  basis  of  a 
constitution  which  recognized  the  monarchicfl] 
principle.  Secretaries  Nothomb  and  Paul  De- 
vanx  were  directed  to  prepare  a  draft  of  a 
constitution  in  accordance  with  this  baria. 
Fiinoe  Frederick  went  so  far  as  to  consent 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


4S2  BEL< 

to  the  Independence  of  Belgiom  on  condition 
that  he  should  be  made  its  king,  but  this 
was  of  no  aveil.  On  Oct.  26  lie  quitted 
Antwerp,  and  on  the  2Tth  Geo.  Oboase  com- 
menced a  two  dajs'  bombardment  of  the 
town,  hj  which  wanton  act  the  Dutch  party 
ciiisbed  out  nil  chance  of  a  Mendly  settle' 
ment.  On  Not.  10  the  national  congress  was 
opened  and  the  independence  of  Belgium  pro- 
claimed. The  form  of  monarcliioal  govern- 
ment was  adhered  to,  but  the  exclusion  of  the 
honse  of  Orange  for  ever  fl'ora  the  crown  of 
Belgium  was  carried  bj  an  overwhelming  ma- 
jority. King  William  now  turned  to  the  great 
powera  who  nad  given  him  Belgium  and  guar- 
anteed his  quiet  enjoyment  of  his  new  domin- 
ion. At  his  reqneat  a  conference  of  tiie  Euro- 
pean powers  was  held  in  London,  which  or- 
dered  an  annlatdce^  and  the  retirement  of  the 
troops  of  both  parties  within  their  respective 
frontiers.  On  Jan.  20, 1881,  the  independence 
of  Belgium  was  acknowledged  by  the  confer- 
ence, binding  Belgium  to  the  assumption  of  a 
part  of  the  state  debt,  which  entsjled  apon 
her  the  payment  of  14,000,000  florins  annually. 
The  crown  was  offered  to  the  duke  de  Nemours, 
Louis  Philippe's  son,  and  declined,  as  the  Euro- 
pean powers  woald  not  countenance  that  pro- 
ject. The  national  oongreag  now  determmed 
by  a  minority  to  appoint  a  regent  in  place  of 
the  provisional  goTemment,  and  Baron  Surlet 
de  Choquier  was  elected.  He  took  the  reins 
of  government  and  named  a  ministry,  which, 
being  composed  of  incongruous  materials,  soon 
resigned,  and  another  was  appointed.  The 
ohoioe  of  the  miniBtry  and  national  congress 
now  fell  on  Leopold  of  Saie-Ooburg,  who 
accepted  the  crown.  His  relationship  to  the 
roj'al  family  of  England  as  widower  of  the 
princess  Oharlotte  naturally  procured  him  the 
sympathy  of  the  British  government,  and  he 
was  soon  considered  as  a  kind  of  mediator 
between  England  and  France.  Not  long  after 
his  coronation  (July  21,  1B81)  Holland,  in  de- 
fiance of  the  armistice,  sent  an  army  across 
the  frontier,  and  the  new  king  thus  found 
himself  engaged  in  war,  wttb  a  kingdom  dis- 
organized, an  army  hastily  levied,  and  an  nn- 
formed  administration.  Leopold  asked  aid 
ftom  France,  which  was  prompUy  afforded, 
and  Ifarshal  G6rard,  accompanied  by  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  marched  an  army  to  Brussels, 
which  compelled  the  Dntcb  forces  to  retreat 
across  their  IVontier,  William  of  Holland  had 
not,  however,  given  his  consent  to  the  new 
order  of  things  in  Belgium,  seeing  that  as  yet 
the  question  of  the  public  debt  was  not  satis- 
factorily disposed  of.  Accordingly,  the  con- 
ference determined  on  compelling  Holland  to 
pvacnate  the  Belgian  territory,  and  an  Anglo- 
French  fleet  was  to  cooperate  with  the  army 
nnder  G6rard  in  reducing  the  citadel  of  Ant- 
werp and  Forts  LUlo  and  Liefkenshoek.  The 
siege  of  Antwerp  begun  Nov.  29,  18B2,  and 
on  Deo.  28  Gen.  Chased  capitulated.  The 
other  forts  were  not  evacuated,  but  Leopold 


declared  himself  satisfled  to  hold  Limbnrg 
and  Lozembnrg  against  the  strong  places  in 
question,  and  accordingly  the  French  army 
retired.  On  Ang.  S,  1832,  Leopold  married 
the  princess  Louise,  daughter  of  Louia  Phi- 
lippe. The  new  kmg  soon  found  himself 
obliged  to  dissolve  the  chamber  which  bad 
elected  him,  and  to  sommon  a  second.  The 
final  peace  was  concluded  between  Belgium 
and  Holland  April  19,  1839,  at  the  dictation 
of  the  European  powers,  by  which  Lnsem- 
barg  and  Limbnrg  were  divided  between 
the  contending  parties,  Holland  receiving  the 
eastern  dividons  with  the  fortresses  of  Uaea- 
tricht,  Tcnloo,  and  Lniemburg.  The  only 
efiect  upon  Belgium  of  the  revolutionary  ab- 
lation of  Europe  in  1846  was  the  establish- 
ment of  an  electoral  reform  and  the  abolition 
of  the  newspaper  duty.  King  Leopold  ex- 
pressed his  willingness  to  resign  the  crown, 
but  the  suggestion  was  not  entertained.  The 
eovp  d'etat  of  Napoleon  in  1861  caused  freah 
(mbarrasament  to  Belgium  by  the  inf  ux  of 
French  refugees.  The  government  felt  obUged 
to  suppress  the  most  obnoxions  journals,  ex- 
pet  a  few  refngees,  and  pass  a  law  pnnish- 
mg  attempts  ag^nst  the  lives  of  foreign  boy- 
ereiguB.  Xhe  conflict  between  the  two  po- 
litical parties,  the  Catholic  and  the  liberal, 
turned  chiefly  on  home  questions,  especially 
relative  to  tie  influence  of  the  clergy  m  pub- 
lic instruction;  but  by  the  year  1867  tbe  lib- 
erals had  guned  the  upper  hand,  ruling  the 
country  till  1870.  The  principal  reforms  ef-  ' 
fected  during  this  period  were  the  abolition  of 
the  oetrou  commvnaiLt,  or  city  gate  tolls,  and 
the  tax  on  salt ;  the  substitution  of  the  edu- 
cational qualification  for  officeholders  instead 
of  the  tax-paying  qualification;  laws  againat 
election  frauds ;  and  reforms  in  the  penal  code. 
The  difierent  copyright  treatiee  concluded 
with  France  and  otier  powers,  though  strong- 
ly opposed,  proved  beneficial  to  Belgian  litera- 
ture. Commercial  treaties  were  also  concluded 
with  France,  England,  and  the  United  States, 
on  tbe  baMs  of  fr^e  trade^  similar  in  spirit  to 
the  treaty  made  between  France  and  England. 
Leopold  died  Dec  9,  1886,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son,  Leopold  H.  The  question  of 
the  fortification  of  Antwerp,  which  formed  for 
years  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  po- 
litical parties,  was  fin^y  settled  in  favor  of 
Belgium  in  1870.  During  the  Franco- Prussian 
war  of  1870  Belgium  observed  a  ionafide  neu- 
trality, forbidding  even  the  exportation  of 
arms  and  other  war  material ;  yet  her  position 
might  have  been  endangered  had  it  not  been 
for  England,  which  hastened  to  conclude  a 
triple  treaty  with  Prussia  and  France  (Aug. 
9,  1870),  which  guaranteed  tbe  independence 
and  neutrality  of  Belgium  according  to  tlie 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1889.  This  triple 
treaty  was  to  remwn  in  force  for  only  one 
year  after  the  cessation  of  the  war. — See  Lt* 
fonAaUwrt  d»  la  monarchic  beige,  by  Th^ 
dore  juste  (Bnueels,  1865  «l  ttg.). 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELGOROD 

iELG(»OD,  or  Helgmi  (Raw.,  white  citj), 
a  town  of  Great  Rnssia,  oa  the  Doaetz,  in  the 
guvemment  and  BO  in.  S.  of  the  cit;  of  Knrak ; 
pop.  in  1887,  16,200.  The  town  was  originally 
built  bj  the  Tartars  in  the  reign  of  Fedor 
IranoTitcb,  159T,  on  a  chalk  hill,  whence  its 
name.  It  was  afterward  removed  a  mile  lower 
down.  It  ia  divided  into  the  old  and  new  town, 
and  haa  three  suburbs.  The  old  town  ia  sor- 
roimded  by  rampart  and  ditch,  tlie  new  town 
by  palisades  only.  Belgorud  bas  several  fac- 
tories for  refining  wai,  and  for  spinning  and 
weaving;  it  also  carries  on  &  considerable 
trade  in  bemp,  bristles,  honey,  wax,  leather, 
ondaoap.  Three  fairs  are  held  daring  the  year, 
to  which  merchants  from  the  south  of  Russia 
resort  The  environs  are  very  fruitful.  Bel- 
gorod is  the  seat  of  au  archbishop,  and  bas  16 
cborcbes,  2  convents,  and  8  charitable  asylums. 

BELGBIDE  (Serv.  Biilgrad,  white  city ;  anc. 
Siagidvnum)^  the  capital  of  Servia,  with  a 


BELmOR 


498 


BcJgnde. 

convenient  port  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, at  its  jnnotion  with  the  Save,  44  m.  S. 
E.  of  Peterwardein ;  pop.  in  1889,  2B,089. 
The  citadel,  formerly  occupied  by  a  Turkish 
garrison,  ia  on  a  small  strip  of  land  between 
the  two  rivers,  behind  which  is  the  city.  Ita 
parts  are:  the  Turkish  qnarter,  which  slopes 
to  the  Danube,  and,  though  no  longer  inhabited 
by  Moslems,  and  partly  in  ruins,  still  presents 
an  oriental  appearance;  and  the  Servian  quar- 
ter, which  borders  the  Save,  with  a  quay  and 
fine  houses  in  modem  style.  Belgrade  is  grad- 
ually becoming  modernized,  churchee  are  su- 
perseding mosques,  and  new  buildings  are  con- 
structed, chieny  in  the  German  fa-shion.  It 
prodnces  arms,  carpets,  silk  goods,  cutlery,  end 
saddles.  It  is  the  entrepot  of  commerce  be- 
tween Turkey  and  the  Anstro-Hnngarian  em- 
pire, and  the  seat  of  the  highest  authorities  of 
the  principality.  Ita  situation  gives  it  military 
importaaoe,  but  the  fortifications  are  now  rap- 


idly decaying. — Belgrade  was  long  an  object 
of  contention  between  the  ChriiitianB  and  the 
Turks.     It  was  unaucceasftilly  besieged  by  the 
latter  in  1466,  when  John  Hunyady  defended 
it  against  Uohammed  II.,  but  was  taken  by 
Solyman  the  Magnidcent  in  1G21,  and  held  till 
1688,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  elector  of 
Bavaria.     Two  years  later  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Turks.     In  1717  it  was  besieged  by  Prince 
Eugene,  who  was  in  his  turn  surrounded  by  a 
vastly  superior  Turkish  army.    After  a  pro- 
digious defeat  of  the  latter,  the  city  surrendered. 
In  1739  the  Turks  came  into  possession  of  it  by 
treaty,  retaining  it  till  1789,  when  it  was  again 
taken  by  the  Austrians  under  Landon,  who, 
however,  relinqaished  it  to  the  Turks  in  1791. 
It  was  partly  ruined  during  the  Servian  insur- 
rection in  1813.    In  1662  a  difficulty  between 
the  Turks  and  Servians  caused  the  commander 
of  tlie  citadel  to  open  fire  upon  the  city.    In 
1803  all  the  Turkish  inhabitants  of  the  city 
were   forced    to  emi- 
grate.   Inl8fi7tlteBal- 
tan  was  prevailed  upon 
to  withdraw  the  gar- 
rison, and,  though  re- 
serving   the   right  of 
sovereignty,  to  trans- 
fer the  citadel  to  Ser- 
via.    Since  then  Bel- 
grade has  been  making 
rapid  progress  in  every 
respect. 

BEUIL,  a  compound 
Hebrew    word,   which 
the  Vulgate  and   the 
English  version  of  the 
Bible    frequently    bnt 
improperly  render  as  a 
proper  name.   The  ety- 
mology  of   the   word, 
and    conaeqnently    its 
precise  signification,  is 
not  cert^.    The  first 
part  is  undoubtedly  the 
Hebrew  heli,    "  without ; "   the  second   part 
is  by  some  connected  with  the  Hebrew  'ol, 
"yoke,"  when  the  meaning  would  be  "un- 
bridled;" by  othera  with  'alah,  "to  ascend,'' 
and  the  signification  would   be  "ignoble  con- 
dition;" by  others  with   ya'al,   "  usefiilness," 
the  signification  being  "  wortblessness."     The 
last  derivation  haa  the  greater  number  of  sup- 
porters.   It  is  usually  preceded  by  "man  of'' 
or  "son  of."    The  phrase  "man  ofbelial,"or 
"son  of  helial,"  is  thos  equivalent  to  "a  very 
worthless  fellow."    In  the  best  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament  the  word  appears  as  Be- 
liar,  the  6nal  I,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case, 
being  changed  to  r. 

BELIDOR,  Benurd  Fertst  de,  a  French  military 
engineer  and  author,  bom  in  Catalonia  in  1098, 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  8,  1701.  He  waseinjiloyed 
by  Cassini  and  La  Hire  in  their  measurements 
of  an  arc  of  the  meridian;  and  they  recom- 
mended him  to  the  duke  of  Orleaus,  regent  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


494  BELIS 

France,  who  appointed  him  professor  of  the 
newl;  established  artillerj  school  of  La  Fire, 
whidiiDBtitntiDitacqaired  great  celebrity  Dnder 
his  management.  About  1740,  however,  he 
lost  the  position  through  the  jealous]'  of  sn- 
perior  officers,  and  became  aide-de-camp  of 
Get),  de  S^gor  in  Bavaria  and  Bohemia.,  and 
was  captured  at  Linz,  bnt  exchanged  after  two 
months  of  oonflnement,  after  which  he  Joined 
the  staff  of  the  dake  d'Harooort  as  lieat«nant 
coloneL  In  1744  he  aervod  under  the  pnuce 
de  Conti  in  Italy,  where  bis  skill  in  reaoctng 
strongholds  without  risking  an  engagement 
with  the  enemy  was  conspicuous;  and  subse- 
quently be  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture 
of  Oharleroi,  and  was  promoted  to  a  colonelcy. 
In  1768  he  became  director  of  the  arsenal  of 
Paris,  and  afterward  inspector  general  of  engi- 
neering. Among  his  publications  are:  Oour* 
d«  mathematiqua,  comprising  bis  lectures  at 
La  F^e  on  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
military  engineering  (1726;  enlarged  and  re- 
vised ed.  by  Manduit,  17SS);  La  teienee  d«a 
ingitiiftin  omu  la  conduiie  det  tratawB  dsjbr- 
t^jication  et  eCarehitMture  cinilt  (1729  ;  2d  ad., 
Paris,  1749,  and  the  Hague,  1763 ;  new  illus- 
trated and  annotated  edition  by  Naner,  Paris, 
1837)  ;'Z«  bombardier  franpait,  on  mmvelU 
mitkoiUds  Jeter  la  bombe»aveepTScitum(17S\  ; 
Amsterdam,  1TS4};  and  Traiti  d€»  fort^fiea- 
tioti*  (2  vols.,  178B).  The  first  volume  of  a 
new  edition  of  bis  greatest  work,  ArehiUcttire 
hydrauliqut  (4  vols.,  illustrated,  17S7~'CS), 
which  continuas  to  rank  as  a  Kreat  authority, 
was  published  in  1B19  by  Navier,  who  died  in 
1886  without  finishing  the  remtuning  8  volumes. 
A  Germui  translation  appeared  at  Augsburg 

J  I  vols.,  1764-'66).  He  was  among  the  first  to 
emonstrate  the  utility  of  compression  globes, 
two  of  his  memoirs  on  this  subject  having  been 
published  in  the  annals  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences (1766). 

BfUSlUDS  (Slavic  Beli-tzar,  white  prince), 
a  Byzantine  general,  bom  at  Germania  in  Illy- 
ria  aboot  G06,  died  in  Oonatantinople,  Uoroh 
18,  6SG.  While  a  youth  he  served  among  the 
private  gaards  of  Justiniaii,  and  upon  the  ao- 
cesaion  of  that  prince  to  the  throne  in  627 
was  promoted  to  military  command,  and  in 
629  made  gen eral-in -chief  of  the  eastern  army 
of  the  empire,  stationed  at  Dara  in  Meso- 
potamia, near  the  frontier  of  Armenia.  At 
this  town  he  took  into  his  service,  as  private 
secretary,  Procopius  the  historian,  whose  writ- 
'  ings  are  the  principal  antliority  for  the  events 
of  his  life.  In  630,  near  Dara,  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  an  army  of  Persians  nearly 
twice  as  large  as  his  own.  In  the  spring  of  531 
he  marched  from  Dara  to  protect  Syria,  which 
had  been  invaded  from  the  desert.  He  baffled 
the  designs  of  the  Persians  against  Antiocb, 
and  although,  owing  to  the  rashness  of  his 
troopa,  he  was  defeated  in  a  battle  at  Callini- 
cum,  April  19,  he  successfully  defended  the 
eastern  frontier  till  the  end  of  the  war  in  632. 
Betnming  to  Constantinople,  he  married  Anto- 


nina,  a  woman  of  ignoble  birth  and  disaolnte 
chanctet,  who  sometimes  accompanied  him  in 
campaigns,  and  at  other  times  intrigued  with 
the  empress  for  bis  recall.  He  suppressed  an 
insurrection  of  the  party  of  the  greens  in  Con- 
stantinople against  Justinian,  attacking  them 
in  the  race  course  at  the  head  of  his  life  guards. 
In  6SS  be  was  made  commander  of  a  land  and 
naval  force  of  BOO  vessels  and  86,000  men,  with 
which  be  sailed  from  Constantinople  against 
the  Vandals  in  Aftica.  He  took  CarQiage, 
captured  the  Vandal  king  Gelimer,  and  sent 
detachments  which  reduced  Sardinia,  Cornea, 
and  the  Balearic  isles.  For  these  services  he 
was  on  his  return  to  Constantinople  rewarded 
with  the  first  triumph  granted  to  a  subject 
since  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  a  medal  was  stmck 
in  his  honor,  and  in  686  he  was  chosen  sole 
consul  and  awarded  a  second  triumph.  In  the 
same  year  he  commanded  an  eipeditioo  to  re- 
cover Italy  from  the  Ostrogoths.  He  regained 
Bicily,  subdued  a  rebellion  which  had  broken 
oat  in  AfKoa.,  and  returned  to  the  island  and 
quelled  a  matioy  in  his  army.  He  then  cap- 
tured Naples  after  a  «ege  of  20  days,  and  at  the 
endof&SS  was  in  possession  of  Borne.  Here  he 
was  be^eged  in  687  by  an  army  of  160,000 
Goths,  under  Vitiges,  their  newly  elected 
king.  He  maintained  his  position  until  early 
in  688,  when  the  army  of  tne  Gotbs  retired  to 
Ravenna,  whither,  after  repelling  an  inroad  of 
the  Franks,  Belisarins  followed  and  invested 
the  city.  During  the  sitae  Vitigeo  obtained 
terms  from  Justinian  whion  Belisarins  reftased 
to  recognize.  Then  the  Goths  offered  him 
their  support  if  he  would  assume  the  title  of 
emperor  of  the  West.  By  pretended  compli- 
ance be  gtuned  possession  of  Ravenna  for  the 
emperor,  and  afterward  of  all  Italy,  when  he  was 
recalled  by  Justinian.  In  B41,  with  an  unpaid 
and  undisciplined  army,  be  defended  the  east- 
era  frontier  against  llie  PersiBna  under  Ohos- 
roes  Nushirvan.  In  642  or  648  be  was  again 
recalled  by  the  intrigues  of  the  empress  Theo- 
dora and  his  wife  Antonina,  who  sccnsed  him 
of  disloyalty  to  Justinian.  Bis  treasures  were 
attached,  but  he  was  finally  pardoned  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  pay  a  heavy  fine  and  be- 
come reconciled  to  his  wife.  In  644  the  Goths, 
under  Totila,  having  attempted  the  roconquest 
of  Italy,  Belisarios  was  sent  agunst  them,  and 
during  the  year  646  strove  to  prevent  their 
taking  Rome.  Though  nnsucoessfnl  in  this,  be 
saved  it  from  total  destruction,  and  after  ita 
evacuation  by  Totila  entered  and  held  'it 
against  him.  But  no  reEnforoements  being 
sent  him,  he  gave  up  his  command  in  September, 
648,  and  his  rival  Narses  succeeded  bun.  His 
last  victory  was  gained  over  the  Bulgarians, 
who  in  668  invaded  the  empire  and  threatened 
Constantinople.  In  668  he  was  accused  of 
conspiring  against  the  life  of  Justinian,  bis 
property  was  sequestered,  and  "  the  Africanus 
of  new  Rome"  passed  the  ^ater  part  of  tlie 
last  year  of  his  life  in  prison.  Toe  popular 
legend  that  bis  eyes  were  put  out  and  that  ho 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELIZE 

pMsed  hii  last  dajs  a  b^^ar  in  the  street*  of 
Oonstantinople  hue  been  generally  r^eoted  bj 
luodem  historiaoa,  bnt  ia  accepted  bj  Lord 
MfthoD  (Ktu-l  Stanhope)  in  his  "life  of  Beli- 
gariuH"  (London,  18S0). 

BELIZE.    Bee  B&uzs. 

BELKViPi  a  B.  E.  countj  of  New  Hampihire ; 
area,  867  w).  m. ;  pop.  in  18T0,  17,681.  Win- 
nepiseogee  lake  foniiB  itii  N.  E.  bouaduy,  Win- 
nepiseogee  river  flows  for  some  distance  along 
ita  Hoatiiem  border,  and  the  PemigewoaBet 
touches  it  on  the  west  The  surface  is  uneven, 
containing  manj  hills  and  small  lakes,  and  is 

Snerally  fertile.  The  Boston,  Concord,  and 
ontretj,  and  the  Dover  and  Winnepiseogee 
railroads  traverse  the  connty.  The  chief  pro- 
dnctions  in  1870  were  20,874  boshels  of  wheat, 
90,687  of  Indian  corn,  87,887  of  oats,  220,709 
of  potatoes,  86,149  tons  of  haj,  397,086  lbs,  of 
butter,  81,298  of  cheese,  40,0S1  of  maple  angar, 
and  38,649  of  wool.  There  were  S,14a  horses, 
4,640  milch  cows,  10,978  other  cattle,  10,058 
sheep,  and  3,676  swine.    Capital,  Gilford. 

BELEHIP,  Jerear,  C  D.,  an  American  eler- 
gjman  and  historian,  bom  in  Boston,  Jane  4, 
1T44,  died  there,  Jnne  20. 1768.  He  gradoatod 
at  Harvard  college  in  1762,  and,  after  teaching 
school  four  years,  was  ordained  as  pastor  of 
the  ehuroh  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  in  17S7.  where  he 
passed  20  years.  In  1787  he  took  tbe  charge 
of  the  Federal  street  church  in  Boston,  which 
he  held  tilt  his  death.  From  the  age  of  16  he 
kept  notes  and  abstracts  of  his  reading,  and  a 
series  of  interieaved  and  annotated  almanacs, 
of  which  ourions  speoimena  are  preserved.  TTi^ 
"  History  of  New  Hampshire  "  was  commenced 
soon  after  his  residence  at  Bover.  The  1st 
Tolame  appeared  at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  the 
ad  at  Boston  in  1791,  and  the  3d  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Not  paying  tbe  expenses  of  pab- 
licatioD,  the  legislature  of  New  Eampahire 
granted  him  £60  in  iU  dd.  In  1790  he  pro- 
jected the  Uasaachosetta  historical  society,  and 
ID  1792  he  published,  in  successive  numbers  of 
tbe  "Columbian  Uagazine,"  "The  Foresters," 
a  historical  apologoe.  The  next  year  he  pub- 
lished a  life  of  Watts;  in  1794  a  series  of 
American  biographies;  and  in  1796  a  "Col- 
lection of  Paalms  and  nymns,"  for  a  long  time 
in  nse  in  many  of  the  New  England  churches, 
several  of  which  were  written  by  himaelf  He 
was  also  the  anther  of  many  fagitive  pieces, 
contributions  to  magazines,  sermons,  &o.  A 
life  of  Dr.  Belknap,  by  his  granddaughter,  with 
selections  from  his  oorreapondenoe,  was  pub- 
lished in  New  York  in  1847. 

VEUi  (Bason  bellan,  to  make  ahottow  eoond, 
to  bellow),  a  hollow  metallic  vessel,  which,  by 
its  vibrations  when  struck,  gives  forth  sounds 
which  vary  with  its  shape,  size,  and  composi- 
tion. It  is  an  instromeut  of  great  antiquity, 
bein«  spoken  of  by  the  old  Hebrew  writers,  as 
in  Exodus  zxviii.,  in  which  golden  belts  are 

Eresoribed  as  appendages  to  the  dress  of  the 
igb  priest,  that  notice  may  thus  be  given  of 
hia  approach  to  the  sanctuary.    In  very  early 
84  vol.  n.— 83 


BELL 


495 


times  the  Greeks  used  bells  as  signals  in  their 
camps  and  military  stations  j  the  tradespeople, 
according  to  Plutarcti,  rang  tiand  belts  in  the 
Athenian  markets;  and  they  were  also  prob- 
ably used  in  the  household,  in  the  same  way 
that  we  employ  them  to-day.  The  Bomane  at 
all  events  seem  to  have  made  this  use  of  them ; 
and  by  them  they  also  aimounced  the  time  of 
bathing.  In  a  still  older  civilization  the  feast 
of  Osiris  is  said  to  have  been  announced  by 
the  ringing  of  bells.  The  anolents  tiutened 
bells  to  the  ueoka  of  their  cattie,  a  custom 
wtiich  tioa  been  perpetuated]  and  in  several 
less  important  methods  of  use,  in  ornamenta- 
tion, in  the  decoration  of  horses  at  testivals, 
&o.,  they  freqnentiy  employed  them. — Bolls 
are  said  to  have  been  hrst  used  for  churches 
about  A.  D.  400,  by  St.  Paulinos,  bishop  of 
Nolo,  a  town  in  Campania — whence  the  names 
nolo  and  tan^tana  given  them  in  the  monkish 
Latin,  and  still  retained  in  several  Enropefia 
tangnages.  In  England  and  France  they  were 
in  use  as  early  as  the  7th  century,  and  the 
first  parish  churches  appear  to  have  been  fur- 
nished with  their  campanile  or  belt  tower, 
whicli  atilt  continues  to  be  one  of  their  distin- 
guishing features.  Several  were  used  in  a  tin- 
gle church,  as  is  stilt  the  onatom  when  ar- 
ranged in  chimes,  or,  as  in  Koman  Catholic 
countries,  without  regard  to  harmony  of  tones. 
The  church  of  the  abbey  of  Croyland  in  Eng- 
land had  one  great  bell  named  Gnthlac,  pre- 
sented by  the  abtKrt  Turfcetulus,  who  died 
about  the  year  870,  and  subsequently  six  oth- 
ers, presented  by  his  suooeasor,  Egelric,  and 
named  Bartholomew  and  Betelin,  Tnrketnl  and 
Tatwin,  Bega  and  Pega.  When  all  these  were 
mng  hither,  Ingutphus  says,  "fiebat  mira- 
bilii  hamuMia,  nee  erat  twm  tanta  eontoiutrt- 
tia  eampaaarum  in  tola  Artglui."  The  cnsttHn 
of  consecrating  church  bells,  still  universal 
among  Roman  Catholics  and  not  infrequent  in 
Protestant  communities,  dates  back  to  a  very 
early  period.  In  Charlemagne's  capitulary  of 
787  we  find  the  prohibition  "«(  eloeea  lapti- 
tentur;"  and  in  the  old  liturgies  of  the  Catho- 
lic chorch  ia  a  form  of  consecration  directing 
the  priests  to  wash  the  liell  with  water,  anoint 
it  with  oil,  and  mark  it  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  in  ttie  name  of  the  Trinity.  Namea  were 
given  to  liells  as  early  as  the  year  968,  when 
the  great  bell  of  the  Lateran  church  was  named 
by  Jotm  XIII.,  for  himself  John,— The  ancient 
cnstom  of  ringing  tbe  passing  belt,  that  those 
who  heard  it  might  pray  for  the  soul  that  was  . 
leaving  this  world,  endured  for  centuries,  and 
is  not  yet  entirely  abandoned ;  and  the  ring- 
ing of  the  curfew  bell — a  custom  introduced 
into  England  before  the  Norman  conquest,  and 
common  on  the  continent  of  Europe  from  the 
earliest  times— remained  until  the  Iflth  centnry 
a  signal  prescril>ed  by  law,  to  warn  the  citi- 
zens, as  its  name  (from  the  French  Mutre-Zev) 
indicates,  to  put  out  the  fires  which  in  those 
days  threatened  such  danger  to  the  thatched 
and  wooden  villages.     Other  early  and  long 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


493 

endariDg  nsea  of  chnrch  belle  were  to  give  the  | 
alarm  in  case  of  invasion  or  other  pnblio  dan- 
ger, to  peal  in  celebration  of  marriages,  and  to 
toll  during  the  bnrial  of  the  dead-unties 
vhich,  in  modified  form  at  least,  (ire  still  bb- 
ngned  to  them.— The  bells  of  Boesia  are  among 
the  moBt  famous  of  the  world.  In  Moscow 
alone,  before  the  great  tire,  there  were  do  less 
than  1,T0S  large  bfills;  in  a  single  tower  there 
were  ST.  One  called  Bolshoi  (the  Giant),  cast 
in  the  16tL  centnrj,  broken  by  falling  fhnn  its 
support,  and  recast  in  1664,  was  so  large  that 
It  reqoired  24  men  to  ring  it,  and  this  was 
done  bj  simply  pulling  the  clapper ;  its  weight 
was  esUmat«d  at  288,000  lbs.  It  was  sospend- 
ed  from  on  immense  beam  at  the  foot  of  the 
bell  tower,  but  it  again  fell  daring  a  fire  on 
June  19,  1703,  and  was  a  second  time  broken 
ta  fragments.  These  were  nsed  with  addition- 
al matorialB,  in  1733,  in  casting  the  Tsar  Eolo- 
kol  (king  of  bells),  still  to  be  seen  at  Uomow. 


Tur  Koloktd.  Uoacow. 

Some  foiling  timtiera,  in  a  fire  in  1787,  broke 
a  piece  tram  its  ude,  which  has  never  been 
replaced.  This  bell  is  estimated  to  weigh  448,- 
772  Iba  ;  it  is  19  ft.  S  in.  high,  and  measm-ea 
around  its  margin  flO  ft.  9  in.  Tlie  valne  of 
the  metal  alune  in  this  bell  is  esCimatod  to 
amonnt  to  over  $800,000,  Whether  this  bell  was 
ever  hnng  or  not,  authorities  appear  to  ditlor. 
The  fbllowing  notjce  of  the  bells  of  Moscow, 
and  of  tbo  great  bell  in  particniar,  is  from 
Clarke's  "  Travels  " :  "  The  numberless  bells  of 
Moscow  continue  to  ring  during  the  whole  of 
Easter  week,  tinkling  and  tolling  without  har- 
mony or  order.  The  large  bell  near  the  cathe- 
dral is  only  used  upon  important  occasions, 
and  yields  the  finest  and  most  solemn  tone  I 
ever  heard.  When  it  sounds,  a  deep  hollow 
murmur  vibrates  all  over  Moscow,  like  the  full- 
eat  tones  of  a  vast  organ,  or  the  rolling  of  die- 
tant  thunder.  This  bell  is  suspended  m  a 
tower  called  the  belA-y  of  St.  Ivan,  beneath 
others  whicb,  though  of  less  uze,  are  enor- 


mous. It  is  40  ft.  9  in.  in  (uronmference,  ISlin. 
thick,  and  it  weighs  more  than  67  tons.  The 
great  bell  of  Moscow,  known  to  be  the  largest 
ever  founded,  ia  in  a  deep  pit  in  the  midst  of 
the  Kremlin.  .  .  .  The  bell  is  truly  a  mountain 
of  metal.  They  relate  that  it  contains  a  very 
large  proportion  of  gold  and  silver,  for  that 
while  it  was  in  fusion  the  nobles  and  the 
people  cast  in  as  votive  offerings  tlieir  plate 
and  money.  ...  I  endeavored  in  vun  to 
assay  a  small  part.  The  natives  regard  it  with 
superatitiouB  veneration,  and  they  would  not 
allow  even  a  grain  to  be  filed  off;  at  the  soma 
time,  it  may  be  said,  the  componud  bos  a  white 
shining  appearimce,  imlike  bell  metal  in  gen- 
eral, and  perhaps  its  silvery  appearance  has 
strengthened  if  not  given  rise  to  a  conjecture 
reapecting  the  richness  of  its  materials.  On 
festival  days  the  peoaonto  vi«t  the  bell  as  they 
would  a  church,  considering  it  an  act  of  devo- 
tion, and  they  cross  themselve«  as  they  descend 
and  ascend  the  steps  leading  to  the  bell" 
After  Mr.  Clarke's  visit  the  czar  Nicholas,  in 
the  year  1837,  caused  the  great  bell  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  deep  pit  in  which  it  1^,  and  to  be 
placed  upon  a  granite  pedestal.  Upon  its  side 
IS  seen,  over  a  border  of  flowers,  the  ^gure  of 
the  empress  Anne  in  Sowing  robes.  The  bell 
has  been  consecrated  as  a  cb^>«l ;  tbe  door  ia 
in  the  aperture  made  by  tbe  piece  which  fell 
out.  The  room  is  22  ft.  in  diameter  and  31  fl. 
8  in.  high.  The  bells  of  China  rank  next  in 
size  to  those  of  Russia,  but  ore  much  inferior  to 
them  in  form  and  tone.  In  Peking,  it  is  stated 
by  Father  Le  Compte,  there  ore  seven  bells 
each  weighing  120,000  Iba.  One  in  the  sab- 
urbs  of  the  city  is,  according  to  the  testimo- 
ny of  many  travellers,  the  largest  suspended 
bell  in  the  world.  It  is  hung  near  the  ground, 
in  a  large  pavilion,  and  to  ring  it  a  hoge 
beam  is  swung  against  its  side.  A  bell  taken 
from  the  Dagon  pagoda  st  RmgooD  waa 
valued  at  tSO,000.  Among  the  bells  recently 
cost  for  the  new  houses  of  parliament,  the 
lai^t  weighs  14  tons.  The  next  largest  bell 
in  England  was  cast  in  1846  for  York  minster, 
and  weighs  27,000  lbs.,  and  is  7  ft.  T  in.  in  di- 
ameter. The  great  Tom  of  Oxfonl  wei^s 
17,000  lbs.,  and  the  great  Tom  of  Lincoln  13,- 
000  lbs.  The  bell  of  St.  Paul's  In  London  ia  9 
(t.  in  diameter,  and  weighs  11,600  lbs.  One 
placed  in  tbe  cathedral  of  Paris  in  1660  weighs 
88,000  lbs.  One  in  Vienna,  cast  inlTIl,  weighs 
40,000 lbs.;  and  in  Olm&tz  is  another  weighing 
about  the  same.  The  famous  bell  called  Bn- 
sanne  of  Erfort  is  conddered  to  be  of  the  finest 
bell  metal,  containing  the  largest  proportion  of 
silver;  its  weight  is  aboat  80,000  lbs. ;  it  was 
castin  149T.  At  Montreal,  Canada,  is  a  larger 
bell  than  any  in  England,  weighing  29,400  lbs. ; 
it  was  imported  in  1843  for  the  Notre  Borne 
cathedral.  In  the  opporate  tower  of  the  cathe- 
dral is  a  chime  of  10  bells,  the  heavier  of 
which  weighs  6,043  lbs.,  and  their  aggregate 
weight  is  31,800  lbs.— There  are  few  bells  of 
large  size  in  the  Cnit«d  States.    The  heaviest 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ever  made  here  waa  the  alarm  bell  formerly 
OQ  tlie  city  hall  in  New  York.  It  waa  cast  in 
Boeton,  and  weighed  about  33,000  Iba.  Its 
diameter  at  tbe  month  was  aboat  8  fL,  its 
height  about  6  ft.,  and  thickness  at  the  point 
where  the  clapper  etrock  &}-  or  T  in.  The 
vooden  tower  in  which  it  was  hnug  having 


LL  497 

been  bnnied  in  1SS8,  it  was  placed  in  a  sep- 
arate tower  in  the  rear  of  the  haU.  In  18flT 
it  waa  dropped  and  broken  in  the  process 
of  removal,  and  recast  in  smaller  fire  bella. 
Tbe  bell  now  on  Independence  Hall  in  Phila- 
delphia is  celebrated  as  being  connected  with 
the  ever  memorable  4th  of  Jiuy,  1776,  when  it 


A 


Tiwr  Eolokol,  Uouoiir, 


nn 


first  announced  by  its  peel  the  declaration  then 
made,  the  most  important  event  in  the  history 
of  oor  country.     It  was  imported  from  Eng- 
land in  1762,  and,  having  been  cracked  on  trial 
by  a  atrote  of  the  clapper,  was  recast  in  Phila- 
delphia under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Isaac  Nor- 
ris,  to  whom  we  are  probably  indebted  for  the 
following  inscription,  which  sarronnds  the  hell 
near  the  top,  from  Leviticus  xiv.  10:  "Pro- 
claim liberty  thronghout  all  the  land,  onto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof."   Immediately  beneath 
this  is  added :  "  By  or- 
der of  the  assembly  of 
the  province  of  Penn*. 
for   the    State    Houbo 
in  PWIV"    Under  this 
again,  "Pass  &  Stow, 
Phil*.,  MDCCLIII." 
In  17V7,  daring  the  oc- 
cupation  of  Philadel- 
phia by  the  British,  the 
bell  was  removed  to 
I,ancaster.     After  iU  ubeHr  B«ii,  PhibdoipUL 
retam  it  was  nsed  as 

a  state  house  bell  nntil  the  erection  of  the 
present  steeple  with  its  bell  in  1828.  Then 
It  ceased  to  be  nsed  excepting  on  extraor- 
dinary occaaions.  Finally  it  was  removed  to 
its  present  appropriate  resting  place.  Its  last 
ringing,  when  it  was  nnfortnnotcly  cracked, 
was  in  honor  of  a  visit  of  Henry  Clay  to 
Philadelphia.  There  are  no  other  hells  of 
particnlar  interest  in  this  conntry.  Those  nsed 
apon  the  fire  alarm  towers  in  onr  cities  are 
from  10,000  to  11,000  lbs.  in  weight.  They 
are  hung  in  a  fixed  position  and  atmck  by  a 
hammer,  instead  of  tieing  turned  over. — Bells 
have  been  made  of  various  metals.  In  France 
iron  was  formerly  nsed,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  braea  was  a  common  material.  In 
ShefOeld,  England,  the  manufacture  of  cast- steel 
bells  was  introduced  several  years  once.    The 


material  is  said  to  have  the  advantages  over 
the  ordinary  composition  of  greater  strength 
and  less  weight  and  cost.  They  have  l>een 
nsed  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  for 
Rchoota,  monnfactories,  and  steamboats,  and  for 
chnrchea,  ranging  in  weight  from  100  to  over 
6,000  tba.  They  appear  to  have  given  satisfac- 
tion, and  to  possess  the  power  of  sending  their 
tones  to  a  great  distance.  They  are  said  to  be 
well  adapted  for  fog,  fire,  and  alarm  bells. 
The  smaller  steel  bells  do  not  compare  so  fa- 
vorably in  tone  with  bells  made  of  bell  metal  as 
do  those  of  larger  size.  Bteet  bells  are  also 
made  in  Germany.  As  the  swinging  of  heavy 
bells  often  endangers  the  towers  in  which  they 
are  hung,  it  is  of  no  little  consequence  to  re- 
dnce  as  much  as  possible  their  weight.  Steel 
hells  are  cast  by  pouring  the  contents  of  the 
eteet  pots  into  the  bell  mould  instead  of  into 
ordinary  ingot  moulds.  Bell  meta!  is  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin  in  no  fixed  proportion,  but 


soflness,  and  also  lead.  Dr.  Thompson  fonnd 
an  English  bell  metal  to  consist  of  copper  800 
parts,  tin  101,  zinc  56,  and  lead  43.  Cymbals 
and  gongs  contain  81  copper  and  19  tin.  Mr. 
Denison,  of  England,  thinks  the  use  of  silver  b 
entirely  imaginary,  and  that  tliere  is  no  reason 
for  believing  it  conld  be  of  any  service.  He 
condemns  the  nse  of  all  other  materials  but  cop- 
per and  tin,  and  advises  that  contracts  for  bells 
stipulate  that  the  alloy  shall  consist  of  at  least 
20  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  the  remainder  copper. 
Tiree  and  a  half  to  one  is  perhaps  the  oest 
proportion, — The  tone  of  a  bell  depends  upon 
ftsniameter,  height,  and  thickness.  The  Ger- 
man bell  founders  have  a  rule  which  regu- 
lates these  dimen^ons.  The  thickness  of  the 
sound   bow  where  the  clapper  strikes,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


whiob  is  the  thickest  part,  being  equal  to  1, 
the  height  should  be  12,  the  diameter  at  the 
month  16,  the  diameter  of  the  top  Ti,  and  the 
weight  of  clapper  ^  of  that  of  tlie  bell.  The 
tone  ia  regulated  hj  the  thickness,  a  thick 
bell  having  a  higher  aot«  than  one  that  ia 
thin.  As  the  precise  pitoh  cannot  be  attained 
in  casting^  the  bell  is  toned  afterward,  either 
by  reducing  the  thickness  where  the  hammer 
strikes,  to  produce  a  lower  note,  or  bj  chipping 
awaj  the  edge  and  reducing  the  diameter  to 
make  it  more  acute.  In  conformity  to  the 
laws  of  acooatics,  the  nnmber  of  vibrations  of 
a  bell  varies  in  inverse  ratio  with  its  diameter, 
or  the  cube  root  of  its  weight;  so,  for  a  series 
of  bells  forming  a  complete  octave,  the  diam- 
eters should  go  on  increasing  with  the  depth 
of  tone,  as  for  i2o,  1 ;  re,  \;  tm,  } ;  fa,  f ;  »ol, 
f ;  ^  );  ■),  A;  (W,-i.^A  work  on  church 
bells,  by  the  Bev.  W.  0.  Lukig,  appeared  at 
London  in  1867.  The  Rev.  Alfred  Gattj  has 
published  "The  Bell,  its  Earlj  History  and 
Uses"  (London,  new  ed.,  1848),  and  Mr.  E.  B. 
Denison's  "Lectures on  Church  Bailding"  treats 
of  bells. 

BEUi,  a  central  oonnty  of  Texoa,  watered  bj 
Little  river  and  its  head  streams,  the  Leon  and 
Lampasas;  orea,  1,097  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
9,771,  of  whom  1,104  were  colored.  It  has  a 
roUing  surface,  and  a  soil  of  sandy  loam,  well 
adapted  to  pasturage.  Forests  of  cottonwood 
and  live  oak  cover  abont  one  fonrth  of  the 
oonnlj.  Thare  are  several  chalybeate  springs. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  858,860 
bushels  of  Indian  com,  14,298  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 2,803  bales  of  cotton,  and  19,676  lbs.  of 
wool  There  were  7,42G  horses,  4,4S0  milch 
cows,  1,494  working  oxen,  30,976  other  cat- 
tle, 9,T18  sheep,  and  13,487  swine.  Capital, 
Belton. 

BBUa  Jtodnw,  an  English  clergyman,  bora  at 
St  Andrews,  Scotland,  in  1T68,  died  at  Chel- 
tenham, England,  Jan.  27,  1882.  After  study- 
ing in  St  Andrews  university,  he  visited 
America,  and  in  1789  went  to  India,  where  at 
Madras  he  became  chaplun  of  Fort  St.  George. 
He  found  in  the  misaon  schools  of  India  a 
monitorial  system,  which  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  proposed  for  adofition  into  English 
schools.  It  connsbi  in  a  division  of  the  aooool 
into  classes,  and  of  the  classes  into  pairs,  the 
two  members  of  a  pair  being  each  pnpil  and 
tutor  of  the  other.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
an  analogous  system  had  been  introdDced  by 
the  Quaker  Joseph  Lancaster  into  the  schools 
of  the  dissenters,  that  Dr.  Bell  was  antliorized 
by  the  English  chnrch  to  employ  it  in  schools 
tinder  his  charge.  Ho  pablisned  several  works 
upon  educational  sDbiects,  and  left  his  fortune 
ramonntmg  to  more  than  £120,000)  for  the  en- 
dowment of  schools. 

BXU^  Sir  Cbsrks,  a  British  surgeon  and  nnat-  . 
omist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  November,  1774, 
died  at  Hallow  Park,  Worcestershire,  April 
S9, 1842.  He  began  his  education  in  the  high 
•onool  and  university  of  his  native  city,  and  . 


pursued  his  profesdonal  studies  under  his  elder 
brother  John.  He  was  admitted  in  1799  to 
the  college  of  surgeons,  became  at  the  sama 
time  one  of  the  surgeons  to  the  royal  infirmary, 
and  while  still  a  youth  delivered  lectures  be- 
fore 100  pupils  on  the  science  of  anatomy.  He 
removed  in  180Q  to  London,  where  be  imme- 
diately began  a  conrse  of  lectures,  and  rapidly 
rose  to  distinction.  He  now  published  bis 
work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  EipresMon,"  which 
was  designed  to  show  the  rationale  of  those 
muscular  movements  which  follow  and  indicate 
the  excitement  of  the  various  pasnons  and  emo- 
tions. His  "System  of  Operative  Surgery" 
was  published  in  1807.  He  supported  himself 
unconnected  with  any  medical  schools  till  1611, 
when  be  was  invited  to  the  Hunterian  schocd, 
and  three  years  later  be  was  appointed  suMceon 
to  the  Middlesex  hospital,  an  institution  wnich 
during  the  22  years  of  his  connection  with  it 
be  raised  to  tJie  highest  repute  both  by  bts 
striking  manner  of  lecturing  and  his  great  dex- 
terity as  an  op^ator.  He  vidted  the  fields  of 
Oorunna  and  Waterloo  immediately  after  the 
battles,  and  gave  his  services  to  the  wounded. 
In  1831  he  produced  his  ideas  on  the  nervous 
system  in  a  paper  in  the  "  Pbtioeophical  Trans- 
actions." It  immediately  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  anatomists  throughout  Europe,  some 
of  whom  contested  viith  him  the  priority  of 
discovery ;  yet  it  was  fully  proved  that  Dr. 
Bell  bad  taught  the  doctrine  for  many  years 
te  his  pupils,  had  explained  it  in  a  pamphlet,  a 
private  edition  only  of  which  was  printed,  in 
1810,  and  had  clearly  stated  it  in  letters  to  his 
brother  in  1807,  when  all  his  rivals  were  teach- 
ing the  old  theory.  The  principle  of  the  dis- 
covery is  that  there  are  distinct  nerves  of  sen- 
sation and  of  motion  or  volition,  one  set  bear- 
ing messages  from  the  body  to  tbe  brain,  and 
the  other  from  the  brain  or  will  to  the  body. 
It  was  shown  by  Br.  Bell  that  the  brun  and 
spinal  marrow  are  likewise  divided  into  two 
parts,  which  minister  respectively  to  the  ftmc- 
tions  of  motion  and  sensation :  that  those  roots 
which  join  the  back  part  of  the  spinal  marrow 
are  nerves  of  feeling,  messengers  from  the 
sense«,  but  incapable  of  moving  the  muscles, 
while  those  roots  which  have  thar  origin  in 
tbe  front  column  of  the  spinal  marrow  and  tbe 
adjacent  portion  of  brain  are  nerves  of  vol- 
untary motion,  conveying  only  the  mandates 
of  the  vril).  He  showed  that  though  three 
distinct  nerves  may  be  bound  together  in  a  rin- 
gle  sh^th  for  convenience  of  distribution,  they 
yet  perform  different  functions  in  the  phyncal 
economy,  and  have  their  roots  divided  at  the 
junction  witii  the  brain.  The  nervee  of  tbe 
different  senses  are  connected  with  distinct 
portions  of  the  brun.  For  this  discovery  Bell 
received  a  medal  from  the  royal  society  of  Lon- 
don in  1829,  and  upon  the  accession  ofWilliam 
IV,  he  was  invested,  in  company  with  Brews- 
ter, HerscheL  and  others,  with  tbe  honor  of 
knighUiood,  m  the  new  order  then  institated. 
He  was  also  made  senior  lecturer  on  anatomy 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


ud  BOiverj  in  the  London  coD^a  of  phj^- 
oiaas,  where  his  lectures  were  attended  both 
b;  pDpils  and  practitioners,  and  where  he  at- 
tracted crowds  hj  a  aeries  of  disconrses  on  the 
evidence  of  dengn  in  the  anatomy  of  the  hu- 
man bodf.  He  Dablished  about  this  time  two 
essays,  "On  the  Nervous  Circle,"  and  "On  the 
Eje,"  having  reference  to  the  theory  of  a  sixth 
sense,  and  a  treatise  on  "Animal  Mechanics," 
for  the  society  for  the  difibsion  of  useM  knowl- 
edge. Being  invited  to  take  part  in  the  great 
argument  published  hy  the  bequest  of  the  earl 
of  Bridgewater,  he  wrote  tlie  treatise  on  "The 
Hand,"  and  he  soon  after  asnistod  Lord  Brough- 
am  in  illastrating  Paley's  "Natural  Theology." 
In  1838  he  accepted  the  chinr  of  sargery  in 
the  Edinburgh  uuiversity,  and  an«rward  visited 
Italy,  making  observations,  with  which  he  en- 
riched a  new  edition  of  the  "  Anatomy  of  Ex- 
pression." He  died  soon  after  returning  to 
England. 

BEUi,  fi««fge  Jawpfe)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  bom 
at  Fount^nh ridge,  near  Edinburgh,  Usrch  26, 
17T0,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Sept  38,  1843.  His 
first  legal  publication  was  a  treatise  on  the 
laws  of  bankruptcy,  which  in  1810  was  en- 
larged and  published  under  the  title  of  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  Scotland."  His  sub- 
sequent works  on  the  law  of  Scotland  ore 
standard  text  books  in  the  courts  of  that  coun- 
try. He  was  at  the  head  of  two  commissions 
for  improving  the  administration  of  civil  justice 
in  Scotland,  and  from  the  year  1821  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 

BEUi,  BeuT,  a  Scottish  inventor,  bom  at  Tor- 

Shicben,  near  Linlithgow,  April  7,  1767,  died 
[arch  14,  1850.  A  millwright  hy  trade,  he 
went  to  London  when  his  apprenticeship  ex- 
pired, and  while  in  Mr.  Beimie's  service  con- 
oeived  the  idea  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam, 
and  in  1800  and  1803  made  unsucoessM  appli- 
cations to  the  admiralty  for  aa^etance.  He 
then  returned  to  Scotland,  and  in  1811  launch- 
ed a  boat  on  the  Clyde,  making  a  steam  engine 
for  it  with  his  own  hands.  The  first  trial  took 
place  on  the  Clyde  in  January,  1812.  Three- 
Aorse  power  was  succesafiilly  applied  at  first, 
■ubseqnently  increased  to  six.  His  first  boat  is 
preserved  in  the  mnseum  of  Glwgow  nniver- 
rity.  The  city  of  Glasgow  settled  a  small  an- 
nuity on  him,  and  the  British  government  gave 
a  small  pension  to  his  widow.  A  monnment 
to  his  memory  has  been  erected  on  the  rock  of 
Donglass,  a  promontory  on  the  Clyde,  2^  m. 
from  Dnm  barton. 

BDJi,  Jthn,  a  Scottish  physician  and  travel- 
ler, bom  at  Antermony,  m  the  west  of  Scot- 
land, in  1691,  died  July  1,  1780.  At  the  age  of 
23  he  received  the  degree  of  M.  B.,  and  went 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  presented  letters 
to  the  court  physician  of  Peter  the  Great,  Dr. 
AreskiDj  through  whose  inflnence  he  received 
an  appointment  as  snrgeon  to  on  embassy  about 
to  proceed  to  Persia.  Leaving  St.  Petersburg 
in  July,  1715,  he  did  not  reach  Ispahan,  where 
the  shah  held  bis  court,  till  March,  I71T.    He 


returned  to  St.  Petersburg  Dec.  80,  1718.  He 
departed  in  July,  1719,  attached  to  an  embassy 
to  China,  through  Moscow,  Siberia,  and  the 
great  Tartar  deserts,  to  the  great  wall  of  Ohum, 
reaching  Peking  in  November,  1720.  After 
residing  half  a  year  in  Peking,  he  returned  to 
Moscow,  which  he  reached  in  Jannary,  1722. 
The  czar  having  made  him  his  chief  physician, 
in  ptaoe  of  Areskin,  now  deail,  he  joined  in 
the  expedition  headed  by  Peter  himself  to  as- 
sist tlie  shah  of  Persia  in  routing  the  rebel  Af- 
ghans, and  returned  with  him.  Soon  afterward 
he  revifiited  Scotland,  but  was  at  St.  Peters- 
bni^  in  December,  1787,  when,  negotiationa 
for  peace  between  Busaia  and  Tnrkey  having 
failed,  he  was  sent  to  Constontinopie  with  new 

S'Opooals,  and  returned  to  St.  Petcrsbnrg  in 
aj,  17S8.  He  finally  settled  as  a  merchant  in 
Constantinople,  where  he  married  in  1740,  and 
soon  after  returned  to  Scotland,  fixing  his  resi- 
dence on  his  estate  of  Antermouy.  ms  "  Trav- 
els from  St.  Petersburg  in  Busaia  to  Various 
Parts  of  Asia"  appeared  in  1763  (2  vols.  4to). 

BELL,  Jehi,  a  Scottish  surgeon,  bom  in  Ed- 
inburgh, May  12, 17flS,  died  in  Borne,  April  10, 
1830.  He  studied  for  his  profession  at  the 
medical  schools  of  his  native  city,  taught  a  pri- 
vate school  of  anatorn^,  and  gave  lectures  on 
surreal  anatomy.  His  ideas  gave  offenoe  to 
the  established  professors,  but  notwithstanding 
an  active  opposition,  his  merits  seonred  him  a 
large  class  of  pupils.  Eowerer,  his  rivals  man- 
aged to  exclude  him  and  bis  class  fVom  the 
public  infirmary,  in  which  he  had  been  bccub- 
tomed  to  practise  gratnitonsly,  and  then  he 
gave  up  his  lectures,  and  addressed  himself  to 
private  practice  only.  His  works  are:  "Anat- 
omy," afterward  completed  by  his  brother, 
Sir  Obarles  Bell ;  "  Discourses  on  the  Nature 
and  Care  of  Wounds"  (2  vols.  8vo) ;  and  "  The 
Principles  of  Sargery  (3  vols.  4to).  Besides 
these  ne  wrote  letters  on  professional  ednoo- 
tion,  and  a  posthomoua  work  on  Italy. 

BDi^  Jtkm,  an  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, bom  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  18, 1797, 
died  at  Cumberland  Iron  Works,  Tenn.,  Sept. 
10,  1889.  He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  in  mod- 
erate circumstances,  who  gave  him  a  good  ed- 
ucation at  Cumberland  cdlege  (now  Nashville 
university).  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1816,  settled  at  Franklin,  Williamson  county, 
and  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1617, 
when  only  20  years  old.  He  soon  saw  his 
error  in  entering  so  early  into  pabhc  life,  and 
declining  a  reelection,  devoted  itimself  for  the 
next  nine  years  to  his  profession.  In  1836  he 
became  a  candidate  for  congress  ogunst  Felix 
Grundy,  one  of  the  most  popolar  men  in  the 
state,  who  hod  the  powerfol  snpport  of  Andrew 
Jackson,  then  a  candidate  for  the  premdency. 
Mr.  Bell  was  nevertheless  elected  in  1827,  hy 
1,000  m^ority,  and  continued  a  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives  for  14  years.  Though 
at  first  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  doctrine  of 
free  trade,  he  was  led  to  change  his  views,  and 
afterword  was  ever  an  earnest  advocate  of  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


600 


BELL 


proteotire  sTstem.  He  opposed  the  Soath 
Oarolina  doctrine  of  nnUiSoation,  and  was 
chairman  of  the  comniittee  to  consider  qne»- 
tioQS  connected  with  the  aubjeot.  For  lOyears 
he  was  clisirnian  of  the  cominittee  on  Indian 
afSaXTB.  He  waa  in  favor  of  a  United  States 
bank,  thongfa  for  reasons  peculiar  to  the  time 
he  voted  agunst  the  bill  for  its  reciiarter  in 
1833.  Ho  protested  against  the  removal  of  the 
deposits,  and  refused  to  vote  for  a  resolution 
approving  that  measure.  This  refusal  was  one 
of  the  caasea  which  led  to  the  snbseqaent 
breach  between  himself  and  President  Jackson 
and  the  democratic  partj,  and  finallj'  to  his 
ooSperation  with  the  whigs.  This  change  of 
partj  relations  was  marked  bj  his  election  as 
speaker  of  the  hoose  of  representBtiveB  in  18Ai. 
in  oppoution  to  James  E.  Polk.  The  fiual 
separation  between  Mr.  Bell  and  Qen.  Jaok- 
son  took  place  in  18S6,  when  Mr.  Bell  declared 
himself  in  favor  of  Jadge  White  for  the  pred- 
denoy,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Van  Buren,  and 
stronglj  aided  White  in  oarrjing  the  state  of 
Tennunee  for  almost  the  first  time  against  tbe 
democratio  party.  When  the  qaestioo  of  the 
recepljon  of  petititms  for  the  abohtion  of  stave' 
17  in  the  District  of  Colombia  was  agitated  in 
the  honse.  of  representatives  in  1896,  Hr.  Bell 
alone  of  the  Tennessee  delegation  favored  their 
reception,  and,  thoogh  asaiuled  at  home,  was 
sostained  by  the  people.  In  I8S8,  when  Ath- 
erton's  anti-petition  resolutiona  were  intro- 
daced,'he  voted  against  them.  In  1841  Mr. 
Bell  became  secretary  of  war  in  President  Har- 
rison's cabinet.  With  the  rest  of  the  cabinet, 
Mr.  Webster  only  excepted,  he  resigned  ofBoe 
on  the  separation  of  President  Tyler  from  the 
whig  party,  in  the  automn  of  that  year.  Tbe 
whig  majority  in  the  next  Tennessee  legisla- 
ture which  met  after  his  withdrawal  from 
the  cabinet  offered  him  tbe  office  of  United 
States  senator.  This  he  declined,  and  remuned 
in  volantory  retirement  until  he  was  elected 
to  the  state  senate  in  1847.  The  same  year  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  State  senate,  and 
reelected  in  1863.  He  was  especially  promi- 
nent as  an  opponent  of  the  annexation  policy. 
In  1864,  when  the  Nebraska  bill  was  presented 
to  the  senate^  Mr.  Bell  protested  against  its 
passing:  and  m  the  controversy  on  the  admis- 
sion of  Kansas,  in  March,  18G8,  he  took  decided 
gronnd  against  the  so-called  Lecompton  con- 
stitntion,  and  in  an  elaborate  speech  chafed 
that  it  tended  directly  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Union.  In  1860  he  was  nominated  by  the 
"  Constitntional  Union "  party  for  president, 
with  Edward  Everett  for  vice  president,  and 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  Vir^nia,  Ken- 
taoky,  and  Tennessee.  Mr.  Bell  now  retired 
from  active  public  life,  and  darinf;  tbe  civil 
war  took  no  prominent  part  in  politics. 

BEUi,  Jaki,  an  En^tlisb  scolptor  and  anthor, 
bom  in  74'orfolk  in  1800.  His  best  known  ar- 
tistic works  are  "The  Eagle  Sloyer"  (1887), 
"Dorothea"  C1841V  "The Babesinflie Wood," 
and " Andromeda    (18fil).  Forthenewhonses 


BELLADONNA 

of  parliament  be  made  the  statnea  of  Lord  Falk- 
land and  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  for  Gaild- 
hall  the  Wellington  monument.  His  "Onards 
Memorial"  is  in  Waterloo  place.  Pall  Mall, 
London;  his  statue  of  "  Armed  Science "  and 
his  "  Crimean  Artillery  Memorial "  are  at  Wool- 
wich ;  and  for  the  prince  consort's  memorial 
in  Hyde  Park  he  eiecnted  the  group  of  "The 
United  States  directing  the  progress  of  Amer- 
ica." He  originated  the  principle  of  entasis 
and  definite  proportions  applied  to  the  obelisk, 
for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  to  him  by  the 
society  of  arts  in  1859.  Ue  is  noted  for  not 
following  classical  models  and  for  his  realistic 
method.  He  has  published  "Compoeitions  from 
the  Liturgy,"  a  "Free-band  Drawing  Book  for 
tbe  Use  of  Artisans,"  "Primary  Sensatioiu  of 
the  Mind,"  and  "  The  Drama  of  Ivan." 

BHX,  Latbtr  T.  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  American 
physitoan,  »on  of  Gov.  Saranel  Bell  of  New 
Hampshire,  bom  at  Chester,  N.  H.,  Dec.  30, 
leoe,  died  near  Budd's  Ferry,  Md.,  Feb.  11, 
18fl2.  He  entered  Bowdoin  college  at  the  age 
of  12,  and  gradoated  in  1821,  before  he  bad 
completed  bis  16tb  year.  He  received  his 
medical  degree  from  the  Hanover  medical 
school  while  yet  under  SO,  and  commenced 

Eractice  in  New  York,  but  returned  to  New 
Hampshire.  One  of  bis  earlier  operations,  the 
amputation  of  the  femur,  was  snccessfiilly  per- 
formed, in  default  of  any  other  accessible  in- 
stromenta,  with  the  patient's  razor,  a  tenon 
saw,  and  a  darning  needle  for  a  tenaculnm. 
He  was  chosen  snperinteDdent  of  the  McLeao 
msane  asylum  at  Cbarlestown,  Mass.,  entered 
upon  bis  duties  there  in  Jannary,  183T,  and 
continued  to  discharge  them  till  1856,  when  he 
resigned.  In  18G2  he  was  nominated  as  the 
whig  cAndidate  for  congress,  and  received  the 
highest  vote;  but  there  were  three  candi- 
dates, and  a  m^ority  of  the  whole  vote  be- 
ing required,  a  second  trial  was  had,  in  which 
his  opponents  united  upon  one  candidate,  and 
he  was  defeated.  In  1850  he  was  a  member  of 
the  state  council,  and  in  1858  of  the  convention 
for  revisingthe  state  constitution.  In  1856  he 
was  the  whig  candidate  for  governor,  but  was 
defeated.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out  he 
went  as  surgeon  to  a  regiment,  and  was  medi- 
cal director  of  a  division  when  he  died. 

BEUi,  neaaa,  an  English  zoologist,  bom  at 
Poole,  Dorsetshire,  Oct  11,  1792.  He  is  the 
son  of  a  physician,  and  has  been  professor  of 
zoology  at  King's  college,  London,  since  1832, 
and  was  lecturer  at  Guy's  hospital  frem  1816 
to  1860,  prewdent  of  the  Ray  society  frura  its 
foundation  to  18SB,  secretary  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety from  1848  to  1853,  and  president  of  the 
Linnnau  society  from  18.^3  to  1861.  He  has 
published  a  monograph  of  the  Utludinata  (7 
parts,  completed  in  1886),  a  "  History  of  Brit- 
ish Reptiles"  (1889),  a  "History  of  Britiah 
Stalk-eyed  Crustacea"  (1868),  and  "The  Anat- 
omy and  Diseases  of  the  Teeth." 

BEIXADONITA  (Ital.,  literally,  beautiful  ladyX 
a  name  given  to  several  differ^t  plants,  as  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELLADONNA 


It  grows  wild  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
ia  well  known  in  cultivated  gardens  in  England 
and  France.  The  name  is  ^so  in  common  use 
for  the  medi(9nal  extract  of  the  atropa,  and  in 
the  pharraacopceiaa  for  the  root  and  loaves 
of  that  plant,  trom  which  the  extract  h  ob- 
tained. This  is  a  plant  of  the  tolanaeea  fam- 
ily', known  bj  tlie  common  name  of  deadly 
nightshade.  In  England,  Germany,  and  norUi- 
em  France  it  is  met  with  In  shady  places  along 
the  wdea  of  the  walla,  flowering  in  Jnne  and 
Jnly,  and  ripening  its  ^it  in  September.  In 
America  it  is  successfully  cnltivated  in  gardens. 
It  grows  from  three  t«  four  feet  in  height,  with 
straight  and  strong  stems.  The  leaves,  of  oval 
shape  and  pointed,  are  in  pura  of  nneqnal  dze ; 
the  flowers  are  Urge,  hell-shaped,  and  of  a 
doll  violet-brown  color.  The  irait  resembles 
a  cherry,  for  which  it  is  sometinies  mistaken 
by  ohiidien,  with 
fatal  consequences ; 

rom  seeds,  and 
yields  a  violet-col- 
oredjuice  of  sweet- 
ish taste.   All  parts 

of   the    plant    are  I 

highly     poisimons. 
The  leaves  are  most 
nsnally     employed 
for  the  extraction 
of  the  alkaloid  prin- 
ciple,  though    the 
root    and    berries 
also  yield  it  to  al- 
cohol  and    water. 
(SoeATBoPiA.)  Ex- 
tracts and  tinotnrea 
of  belladonna   are 
used  in  medicine,  as 
weU   as  the  alka. 
loid.      The  latter  should  be  nsed  with  great 
cannon,  on  accoont  of  its  extreme  activity; 
bnt  it  is  preferable  to  the  other  preparations 
(which  vary  mat«rially  in  strength),  on  account 
of  the  greater  precision  with  whioh  the  dose 
may  be  determined.   It  is  very  rapidly  absorbed 
either  from  the  stomach  or  when  adjninistered 
subontaneoasly.     It  is  eliminated  by  the  urine. 
One  of  the  most  charact«ristio  effects  of  atropia 
is  the  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  which  may  take 
place  from  -^  of  a  grain  or  a  corresponding 
amonnt  of  extract  of  belladonna.    The  socom- 
modation  of  the  eye  is  also  paralyzed  by  it. 
An  eye  under  its  influence  is  able  to  see  at 
a  digtince  with  perfeot  distinctness,  but  near 
visioD,  like  reading,  for  instance,  is  difficult  or 
impoasible.     A  peculiar  dryness  of  the  fauces 
and  tongue,  and  a  marked  acceleration  of  the 
poise,  result  from  moderate  doses,  ^  to  ,1,^  gr. 
When  larger  doses  are  token,  delirium,  nsnaJIy 
of  a  cheerfnl  or  whimsical  character,  and  some- 
tinies drowsinesa,  are  added.  A  certain  amount 


BELLAMONT 


501 


of  diure^  masked  by  a  temporary  retention 
of  urine,  moisture  of  the  skin,  and  in  rare  coses 
H  Bcftrlet  efflorescence,  are  further  symptoms. 
When  a  poisonous  dose  has  been  given,  these 
symptoms  increase,  and  death  takes  place,  with 
feeble  pulse,  subsultus,  coma  or  delirium,  and 
sometimes  convulsions.  It  is  somewhat  remark- 
able that  rabbits  are  hardly  at  all  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  belladonna.  It  is  sometimes' 
used  medicinally  in  some  spasmodic  nervous 
affections,  as  epilepsy  and  chorea;  for  the  relief 
of  pain  either  of  the  visceral  or  cutanooua 
nerves;  in  cases  of  habitual  constipation  and 
of  incontinence  of  nrine;  and  to  check  certain 
secretions,  especially  of  the  mammary  glands, 
and  to  prevent  suppuration.  Its  power  for  the 
latter   purpose    cannot   be   regarded   as   Mly 

f roved.  As  an  anodyne  it  is  interior  to  opium, 
he  claims  mode  in  its  behalf  as  a  preventive 
of  scarlet  fever  have  not  been  sustained  by 

[iroof.  In  ophthalmic  surgery  it  flnds,  when 
ocoUy  opplied,  extensive  nse  in  dilating  the 
pupil. — In  poisoning  by  belladonna,  after  empty- 
mg  the  stomach,  tannic  acid,  or  iodine  dissolved 
in  water  with  iodide  of  potassium,  may  he  used 
to  render  comparatively  inert  any  remaining 

Sortionof  the  alkaloid.  The  caustic,  alkalies 
ecompose  atropia,  but  only  after  a  few  hours' 
interval;  so  that,  although  they  should  not  be 
prescribed  with  it,  they  cannot  be  relied  upon 
as  antidot«e.  The  antagonism  between  the 
physiolof^oal  effects  of  belladonna  and  opinm 
exists  only  in  regard  to  a  portion  of  the  symp- 
toms, and  those  not  the  most  important;  bnt 
the  question  as  to  the  efficacy  erf'  each  as  an 
antidote  to  the  other  in  coses  of  poisoning  can- 
not be  regarded  as  definitely  settled.  In  the- 
rapeutic doses  belladonna  may  be  used  with 
opinm  to  avoid  some  of  the  unpleasant  after 
effects  of  the  latter  drug. 

BiXUMONT,  or  BdMisM,  Biclurri  CMte,  earl 
of;  royal  governor  of  New  York  and  Mossachn- 
setts,  bom  in  163fl,  died  in  New  York,  Manh 
6,  ITOl.  He  was  the  second  Baron  Goote  in 
the  Irish  peerage,  was  a  member  of  parliament, 
and  one  of  the  first  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
prince  of  Orange.  For  this  he  was  attunted 
in  1689,  but  was  in  the  some  year  made  ead 
of  Bellamont  in  the  Irish  peerage  by  William 
III.,  and  appointed  treasurer  and  receiver  gen- 
eral to  Queen  Mary.  In  Hay,  IflBR,  be  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  York,  but  did  not 
arrive  there  till  May,  1698,  having  meantime 
received  a  commission  also  as  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, to  which  New  Hampshire  was  ad- 
joined in  1699.  He  went  from  New  York  to 
Boston  in  May,  1690,  and  was  received  by  20 
companies  of  soldiers  and  a  vast  concourse  of 

Ceople.  He  took  every  means  to  ingratiate 
imself  with  the  people,  and  obtained  a  larger 
salary  than  any  of  bis  predecessors  hod  been 
able  to  get.  Though  but  14  months  in  the 
colony,  the  grants  made  to  him  were  £1,S75. 
His  administration  was  occupied  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  pirates  who  infested  the  coast,  one  of 
whom,  the  notoriona  Eidd,  he  secnred  and  aent 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


602 


BELLAMY 


1  in  1700.  Hatcliiiigoii  speaks  of 
imont  as  being  a  hypocrite  in  a  pretended 
devotion  to  religion.  It  appears,  however, 
that  while  living  at  Fort  George,  in  New  York, 
he  passed  mach  time  in  moditaUon  and  contri- 
tion for  hia  yonthfnl  excesses.  His  earldom 
expired  with  him,  bat  was  afterward  revived 
ia  his  family,  and  finallj  expired  in  1800. 

BELUHT,  krs.  Gcwp:  !■%  an  English  actress, 
bom  In  London,  April  28,  1788,  died  in  Edin- 
burgh, Feb.  16,  1788.  Her  mother,  who  had 
been  lord  Tyrawley's  mistress,  married  Capt. 
Bellamy,  who  abandoned  her  on  the  birth  <£ 
this  child,  which  was  bom  some  months  too 
soon  to  claim  consangoiDity  to  him.  She  was 
educated  at  a  convent  in  Boulogne  from  the 
age  of  4  to  11,  when  she  retorned  to  England. 
Lord  Tyrawlej,  her  actual  father,  took  notice 
of  her,  gave  her  a  bouse  near  Ixindon,  and  in- 
troduced her  to  his  Mends.  When  he  went 
on  an  embassy  to  Rossia,  he  left  her  under  the 
prot«o1ion  of  a  lady  of  rank,  with  an  annnity 
of  £100  so  long  as  she  held  no  iotercourae 
with  her  mother,  who  had  seriouJy  offended 
him ;  bat  she  preferred  to  reside  with  her 
mother,  and  forfeited  the  money.  Having 
rived  an  inclination  for  the  stage  fronf  her  as- 
•o^tes,  she  was  introduced  to  Mr.  Rich,  mana- 
ger of  Oovent  Qarden  theatre,  who,  on  hear- 
ing her  recite  some  passages  in  "  Othello,"  en- 
gabled  her  as  a  performer.  She  apoeared  as 
Monimift  in  the  tragedy  of  "  The  OrpWn,"  and 
her  performance  during  three  acts  was  dull  and 
spiritless.  In  the  fourth  act  (to  ose  her  own 
words)  she  "blazed  out  at  once  in  meridian 
splendor."  From  that  time  her  professional 
career  was  brilliant  After  many  alterations 
of  fortune,  a  free  benefit,  given  her  by  the 
players  in  178S,  took  her  ont  of  the  debtors' 
prisOD,  to  which  she  was  remanded  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  She  published  an  "Apology  for 
her  Life  "  (8  vols.  12mo,  1786). 

IBilHT,  jMipb,  D.  D.,  an  American  theolo- 
gian, bora  at  North  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  1719, 
died  at  Bethlehem,  Oonn.,  March  6, 1700.  He 
gradnated  at  Tale  college  in  1786,  and  was  or- 
duned  pastor  at  Bethlehem  in  1740.  He  re- 
mained m  stndious  retirement  nntil  the  famous 
revival  of  1743,  when,  leaving  his  chaise,  he  be- 
gan, in  the  manner  of  the  time,  a  oonsttuit  and 
ext«nrive  course  of  preaching.  After  the  re- 
ligious excitoment  had  passed  over,  he  returned 
to  bis  pariah  and  established  a  school  of  theologi- 
cal instraction,  in  which  for  many  years  he  edu- 
cated numbers  of  pnpi Is  for  the  ministry.  Sev- 
eral sermons  and  treatises  were  published  by 
him  from  1760  to  1762,  which  in  1811  were 
collected  in  three  volumea,  with  a  sketch  of 
hia  life,  and  republished  in  1860.  His  eyst«m 
of  ^vinity  coincides  generally  with  that  of 
President  Edwards,  with  whom  he  was  inti- 

BiXLAUmr,  bkert  (RoBEBTo  Bellabmino), 
an  Italian  theologian  and  cardinal,  bom  of  a 
noble  family  at  Monte  Pnloiano,  near  Florence, 
Oct  4,  lS43,died  in  Rome,  Sept  IT,  1621. 


I  Jesuits.  SL  Francis  Borgia,  who  succeeded 
I  Laynez  as  general,  sent  him  to  Loovain,  where 
,  he  became  'a  powerful  controversial  writer. 
'  Sixtus  V.  sent  him  with  his  legate  to  France 
during  the  wars  of  the  leagne,  and  after  his 
recall  he  was  employed  in  different  offices  at 
Rome.  Clement  YIII.  decorated  him  with  the 
Roman  purple  in  1608.  During  bis  whole  ca- 
reer Bdlarmin  lived  a  simple  ascetic  life.  In 
1601  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Capua,  where 
he  resided  and  administered  that  see  till  1606, 
when  Paul  V.  made  him  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can. He  spent  the  last  IG  yearsof  his  life  at 
R<mie,  wholly  devoted  to  his  duties  there,  and 
to  the  study  of  theology.  At  the  conclave 
which  followed  the  deaUi  of  Clement  VIIL,  he 
was  against  his  own  will  made  a  candidate  for 
the  tiara;  and  at  the  eobsequent  conclave  after 
the  short  reign  of  Leo  XL  came  within  a  few 
vot«s  of  the  number  reqoisite  for  an  election. 
He  left  many  theological  worka,  principally  of 
a  controversial  character. 

BEIUKT.  I.  A  district  of  Madras,  British 
India,  ntnated  between  lat.  IS"  40'  and  16° 
58'  N.,  and  Ion.  TO"  44'  and  78°  18'  E. ;  area, 
11,862  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  1,200,000.  It  ia 
noted  for  its  healtny  climate.  It  has  on  an 
average  less  rain  than  any  other  portion  of 
Bonthem  Hindostan,  and  artificial  irrigation 
is  needed  in  eome  districts  to  make  it  hab- 
itable.  IL  A  fortified  town,  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict, in  lat  16°  6'  N.,  Ion.  781  67'  E.,  270  m. 
N.  W.  of  Madras ;  pop.  about  80,000,  besides 
the  garrison.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
the  principal  towns  of  India.  The  fort  is  bnilt 
on  a  granite  hill  2  m.  in  circumference  and 
460  ft  high,  the  summit  of  which  constitutes 
the  upper  fort,  but  without  accommodations 
for  troops.  The  lower  fort  is  half  a  mile  in 
diameter,  and  cont^ns  the  barracks,  arsenal, 
commissariat  stores,  and  a  Protestant  chnrcb. 
The  town  is  well  bnilt,  and  has  many  pagodas, 
several  moequea,  misuonary  establishments, 
schools,  and  a  Bible  society. 

BOUT.  I.  GilflaaBC  da,  seigneur  de  Langey, 
a  French  soldier  and  diplomatist,  bom  near 
Montmirail  in  1491,  died  at  St.  Symphorien, 
Jan.  9,  1643.  He  entered  the  anny  at  an  early 
age,  uid  was  rapidly  promoted,  attracting  the 
attention  and  securing  the  confidenoe  of  Fran- 
cis I.,  who  employedhim  not  only  as  a  soldier — 
showing  such  skill  as  to  be  called  by  a  contem- 
porary tJie  greatest  captain  of  his  time— bat  also 
m  special  diplomatic  missions  to  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  In  1637  he  was  made  viceroy 
of  I^edmont,  and  rnled  over  the  province  till 
the  end  of  1642,  when,  although  very  uck  and 
obliged  to  make  the  Journey  in  a  litt«r,  he  set 
ont  to  carry  some  important  news  to  the  king. 
He  died  on  the  way  at  the  castle  of  8t  Sym- 
phorien, without  delivering  his  message.  His 
Mimoiret  were  published  in  Paris  in  1669.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  art  of  war,  published  in 
1648;  and  also  an  £pitotM  da  rantiguUi  da 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELLAT 

GauUt  (FariH,  1G6S  and  158T),  ia  whiob  he  en- 
deavored to  prove  the  French  deBcended  fh>m 
the  Trojans.  We  owe  to  him  a  descriplaoii  of 
tbe  field  of  the  cloth  of  gold,  where  he  witness- 
ed the  meeting  of  Francis  and  Henry  VIII.  in 
1520.  He  made  concerning  tbe  magnificent 
and  costly  dresses  of  the  coortJers  thare  the 
remark  often  erronaonBly  attribnl«d  to  Henry 
IV.,  that  "many  carried  their  mills,  their  for- 
ests, and  their  meadows  on  their  ahonlders." 

II.  JeaB  da,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  cardinal 
and  diplomatist,  bom  in  1492,  died  in  Rome, 
Feb.  le,  1500.  In  1G27,  behig  then  bishop  of 
Bayonne,  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  England, 
where  Henry  VIII.  had  already  begun  to  show 
lagaa  of  rebellion.  In  15S2  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Paris,  and  in  IGSS  again  sent  to  England,  and 
indnced  Henry  to  agree  that  he  wonid  not  fur- 
ther contend  against  the  ohnroh,  if  time  were 
given  him  to  prepare  a  defence  of  his  previouii 
conduct.  Dn  Bellsy  secnred  these  terms  from 
Pope  Clement  VII.,  but  Henry  did  not  keep 
the  compact,  and  waa  eicommnnicated.     Paul 

III.  mode  him  a  cardinal  in  1G85,  bat  he  con- 
tinned  to  reside  in  Paris,  and  when  Charles  V. 


UDexpected  talent  as  a  military  commander,  in 
puttingtheo!tyintoBBtat«ofdefenoe.  Throagh- 
ont  the  war  he  proved  himself  an  able  officer, 
boldingformostof  theUme  theap^intraent  of 
lieutenant  general.  On  the  accession  of  Henry 
II.,  however,  he  found  hhnself  sopplanted  by 
the  cardinal  de  Lorridne,  and  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  hie  life.  He 
left  several  votomea  of  controversial  writings 
concerning  the  diplomatic  affurs  of  hie  time; 
and  many  letters,  of  which  a  few  have  been 
publiahed  as  historical  documents  in  the  works 
of  other  anthora.  Several  Latin  poems  from 
his  pen  were  also  published  in  Paris  in  IMS, 
under  the  title  of  Paimata  Elegantutima.  IIL 
JmAIh  '■(  a  French  poet,  canon  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Fans,  bom  near  Angera  in  1G24, 
died  Jon.  I,  1660.  He  was  a  lavorite  with 
Frauds  I.,  with  the  queen  of  Navarre,  and  with 
Henry  IL  Though  a  priest,  the  license  of  tbe 
timee  allowed  him  to  devot«  himself  to  a  lady 
named  Viole,  on  whom  he  wrote  a  collection 
of  IIS  sonnets,  which  be  called  his  canticlee. 
They  were  very  soooesBful.  Du  Bellay  was 
called  the  French  Ovid ;  and  when,  after  spend- 
ing thiTde  years  with  his  ancle  the  cardinal  dn 
Bellay  at  Uie  papal  court,  he  pnbliahed  183  son- 
nets entitled  Eegrett,  and  47  on  the  antiqaitiee 
of  Rome,  the  public  admiration  extended  across 
the  ohannel,  and  was  shared  hy  the  English 
Spenser,  who  translated  and  paraphrased  sev- 
eral of  the  poems.  His  contemporary  Ronsard 
being  known  as  lie  prtTiw  d€  Vode,  Du  Bellay 
was  spoken  of  as  the  prince  dit  iimn«t.  Da 
Bellay'e  appointment  as  canon  of  Notre  Dame 
in  ISGO  was  probably  obtdned  throngh  his 
nude's  inflnenoe  at  Rome,  as  he  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  eoaleeiastical  duties.  Dn  Bellay 's  poet- 
ical works  were  voluminous,  including,  b^des 


BELLE-ISLE  503 

those  already  named,  a  Duamn  de  la  poSaie,  a 
metrical  tranatation  of  the  4th  and  Gtu  books 
of  the  .iSneid,  and  nnmeroua  odea,  ele^es,  and 
minor  poems.  He  also  wrote  in  prose  a  cele- 
brated Difenee  et  illiatrativn  de  la  langue 
Jratifoue.  All  these  are  found  in  his  collected 
works  (Paris,  2  vols.  8vo,  1S67) ;  and  the  last 
named  was  pnbtished  in  1849.  t 

BELLE,  Jeaa  Fraaf^  JMcph  de,  a  French  gen- 
eral, bom  at  Voreppe,  in  Dauphiny,  Hay  27, 
17Q7,  died  in  Santo  Domingo  in  June,  1602.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1789,  and  earned  rapid 
promotion;  distinguishing  himself  before  D&s- 
seldorf^  he  was  made  general  in  176S.     He  was 


tlie  French  array  was  forced  to  retreat,  be 
directed  the  artillery.  In  1801  he  was  in  the 
army  which  sailed  under  command  of  Leolerc 
to  reduce  Santo  Domingo ;  he  participated  in  the 
action  which  compelled  Maurepas  to  capitulate, 
and  soon  after  attacked  tbe  army  of  Dessalines, 
forced  him  to  retreat,  and  pursued  the  fugitives 
into  the  fort  of  Or6te-4- Pierrot.  De  Belle  him- 
self, while  advanciiw  at  the  headof  biscolumn, 
was  severely  wounded,  carried  from  the  field 
of  battle,  and  soon  died. 

BELLGCE186E,  on  £.  county  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  Canada,  bordering  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence opponte  the  island  of  Orleans,  and  sepa- 
rated from  Maine  by  the  S.  W.  branch  of  the 
8t.  John ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  I8T1, 
6,620.  It  is  traversed  by  several  small  rivers 
and  by  the  Orand  Tmnk  railway.  Chief  town, 
St.  Michael. 


fMi,  duke  de,  a  French  soldier  and  statesmra, 
bom  at  Villefrancbe,  in  Rouergne,  Sept  22, 
1684,  died  Jan.  26,  1761.  He  was  at  the  siege 
of  Lille  in  1708,  and  at  the  conference  of  Rw- 
Udt  in  1714.  In  178S  he  became  lieutenant 
general,  was  the  chief  negotiator  of  the  treaty 
of  1736,  by  which  France  acquired  Lorraine, 
and  was  afterward  governor  of  Metz  and  the 
three  Lorrtune  bishoprioa.  Cardinal  Flenry  in 
1741  appointed  him  marshal  and  plenipotenti- 
ary in  Germany,  where  he  asddnooaly  worked 
to  put  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Frankfort,  on  the  Qerraan  throne  as 
the  emperor  Charles  VII.  Soblosser  says  that 
"  he  and  his  brother  conducted  the  whole  affairs 
of  Germany,  as  it  seemed  most  agreeable  to  the 
ambition  of  tbe  one  and  to  the  vanity  and  the 
pride  of  the  other,  bat  by  no  means  to  the  true 
advantage  of  their  oountry."  In  the  war 
against  Maria  Theresa  and  ber  allies,  be  took 
Prague,  Oct.  26,  1741,  hut  finally  barely  ea- 
capied,  amid  great  disasters,  to  Eger,  Dec.  17, 
1743.  In  December,  1744,  while  proceeding 
to  Berlin,  he  was  arrested  by  the  English  at 
Hanover  and  detained  in  Windsor  castle  from 
Feb.  19  to  Aug.  12,  1746,  when  he  was  ex- 
changed. In  1746,  as  general-in-chief^  he 
operat«d  sucoesshlly  against  the  enemy  on  the 
FVenoh-Sordinian  frontier,  but  his  invasion  of 
Savoy  in  1747  ended  fatally.    He  was  never- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


604 


BELLE-ISLE 


BELLEVILLE 


tlieleaa  promoted  from  the  rank  of  coant  to  that 
of  dnke  and  peer  (1T48),  became  a  member  of 
the  scademy  (1749),  and  BnbBequetitJj  minUter 
of  war,  and  was  to  itie  laet  one  of  the  most  am- 
bitiooa,  brilliant,  and  inSuential  of  the  nnscrn- 
pnlons  ministers  of  Lonis  XV,  His  raemoire 
were  pnbliBhed  in  London  io  1T60.  II>  LnU 
CharlM  Intnd  Faa^Ht,  chevalier  de,  brother  of 
the  preceding  and  associated  with  him  in  diplo- 
matio  and  military  life,  born  in  1888,  killed  in 
battle,  Jul  J 16, 1 747.  He  waa  a  daahing  soldier, 
ambitioua  iotrigner,  and  dissolute  oaralier.  At 
Eiilies,  Savoy,  at  the  head  of  SO  battalions  of 
his  brother's  division,  he  attempted  against  the 
advice  of  bis  most  experienced  officers  to  storm 
the  inaccessible  rocks  and  forts  behind  which 
the  £1edmont«se,  though  numbering  only  21 
battalions,  were  impregnably  intrenched.  He 
perished  with  almost  all  his  officers  and  many 
of  the  men. 

BOLE  ISLE.  L  Hwth,  an  island  at  the  month 
of  the  strait  of  tlie  same  name,  between  Labra- 
dor and  the  extremity  of  Newfoundluid,  16  m. 
distant  from  the  nearest  part  of  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  in  lat.  62"  N.,  Ion.  CB"  20'  W.  Its 
droumference  is  aboat  81  m.  On  the  N.  W. 
aide  is  a  harbor  for  small  fishing  vessels,  and  a 
cove  on  the  E.  aide  affords  shelter  for  shalloM. 
II.  iMlk,  an  island  off  the  E.  coast  of  the  N.  W. 
peninsDla  of  Newfoundland,  of  aboat  the  same 
nze  as  the  preceding,  16  m,  E.  of  Oanary  or 
Canada  bay;  Ut  Bl"  K,  Ion.  65°  86'  W. 

BELLE  m£,  Btratt  sf,  an  outlet  of  the  gtilf  of 
Bt  Lawrence,  between  Labrador  and  the  N. 
W.  peninsula  of  Newfoundland;  length,  abont 
60  m. ;  breadth,  12  m.  Its  navigation  is  con' 
sidered  to  be  hazardous.     The  Labrador  side 


The  opposite  coast  is  devoid  of  indentations. 

BELLE-ISLE-EN-HEB,  an  island  in  the  bay  of 
Biscay  on  the  W.  coast  of  France,  a  little  N. 
W.  of  the  month  of  the  Loire,  department  of 
Morbihan,  and  B  m.  8.  of  Quiberon  point ;  pop. 
abont  10,000.  It  is  of  an  oblong  form;  leogtli, 
abont  11  m. ;  breadth,  6  m.  Its  surface  is 
abont  160  fL  above  the  sea,  and  treeless,  The 
island  is  noted  for  its  fine  breed  of  dranght 
horses.  It  has  several  dmidicol  monnments. 
The  chief  place  is  Le  Palais,  on  the  N.  E.  coast 

(pop.  4,eoo). 

BEUENDER,  WDBih,  a  Scottish  writer  of  the 
earlv  part  of  the  17th  centnry,  the  time  of  whose 
birth  and  death  is  nnoertain.    He  is  famons  for 

Eare  Latinlty,  and  was  educated  at  Paris,  where 
e  became  professor  of  belles-lettres,  and  con- 
tinued to  reside,  thongh  he  waa  invited  to  Scot- 
land by  James  I.  before  the  latter  succeeded  to 
the  En^sh  crown.  He  ooilected  in  161B  three 
freatisM,  which  he  had  published  before  sep- 
arately, under  the  title  of  Belleadenut  de  Statu. 
This  work  waa  repoblished  in  1787  by  Dr.  Parr, 
who  prefixed  to  it  a  long  introdnction.  He 
also  WTot«  Dt  tr3nu  Lumin&vt  Bomanot^m, 
which  Dr.  Middleton,  in  his  "life  of  CSoero," 
was  oocnaed  of  borrowing  from. 


,  hero  of  Grecian  m  jtholog]rt 
whose  real  name  was  Hippoaous,  was  a  son  of 
Glaacue,  king  of  Corinth,  and  Eorymede,  and 
a  grandson  of  Sisyphus.  He  was  called  Belle- 
rophon  in  consequence  of  having  slain  a  Corin- 
thian enpatrid  named  Belleros.  After  this 
crime  he  fled  to  Prostos,  king  of  Argos,  whose 
wife  l)eoame  enamored  of  him.  Bclleropbon 
received  tier  advances  coldly,  and  she  accused 
him  of  having  made  inscitiiig  offers  to  her,  in- 
sisting that  he  ahonid  be  pat  to  death.  Prce- 
tus,  not  wishing  to  violate  the  laws  of  hospital- 
ity by  slaying  a  man  who  was  his  gnest,  des- 
Estohed  him  with  a  letter  to  lobales,  king  of 
ycia,  in  which  that  pot«ntate  was  chafed 
to  have  Bellerophon  killed.  lobates  hereupon 
sent  him  to  combat  the  monster  Chimtcra. 
Bellerophon  first  can^t  the  winged  horae  Peg- 


him,  soared  into  the  air  and  s 

from  on  high.  lobates  next  sent  him  to  e 
counter  the  Solymi  and  the  Amazons,  but  the 
hero  still  proved  victorious.  Lastly,  lobatea 
placed  a  band  of  the  bravest  Lycians  in  ambush 
to  attack  him  on  his  retnm.  This  device,  how- 
ever, was  fmitlees,  for  Bellerophon  slew  them 
alL  The  Lycian  monarch,  now  perceiving  that 
he  was  invincible,  revealed  to  hmi  the  contents 
of  the  letter  which  he  had  brought  from  Prce- 
tns,  gave  him  his  daughter  Cassandra  in  mar- 
riage, and  made  him  iieir  to  the  throne  of  hia 
kingdom.  The  latter  days  of  Bellerophon  w«7e 
unfortunate.  As  he  att^pted  to  soar  to  heav- 
en on  the  back  of  Pegasns,  Zens  Bent  a  gad- 
fly which  so  etnng  his  winged  at«ed  that  he  cost 
his  rider  to  the  earth,  where,  lam*  and  blhid, 
he  wandered  lonely  in  the  Alelan  fields. 


Montpellier  in  1628.  Henry  IV.,  tearoing  that 
the  medical  stndents  of  France  were  accos- 
tomed  to  complete  their  education  in  th«  nni- 
versities  of  Italy,  where  the  professors  had 
botanical  gardens  under  their  diarge,  founded 
by  royal  edict  in  159S  a  botanical  garden  at 
HontpeUier,  in  which  he  appoint«d  Belleval  a 

Sirofessor.  Belleval  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
onnders  of  strictly  soientifio  botany,  sinoe  he 
was  among  the  first  to  consider  plukts  acced- 
ing to  their  general  characteristics,  without  re- 
gard to  their  medicinal  proportiee.  fie  had 
400  plates  engraved,  which  were  prused  bj 
Toumefort  and  Idnnnns,  hut  have  been  neariy 
all  lost 

BEUJmU,  a  city  and  the  oq>ital  ol  St 
Clair  oo.,  niinoia,  85  m.  8.  of  Springfield  and 
14  m.  S.  E.  of  St  Lonis;  pop.  in  I860,  7,680 ; 
1870,  8,146.  It  is  pleasantly  sitaated  on  high 
groond.  The  sorroanding  country  is  prodno- 
tive  and  populous,  and  contains  beds  of  coaL 
The  city  is  actively  engaged  in  trade  and  mon- 
ufactures,  aud  contains  several  churches  and 
banks,  a  handsome  court  house,  and  27  publie 
schools  (including  a  hi^  school),  attended  in 
1871  by  1,G00  pnpik.  There  is  ^so  a  Botnan 
Cathdlc  ^iademy,  with  IS  iDstruotora  and  160 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELLEVILLE 

male  and  S60  fem&Ie  papils.  A  dail7  news' 
paper  (Qennan),  and  five  weeklies,  of  which 
two  are  in  Qermao,  are  published.  The  St. 
Louis,  Alton,  and  Terre  Haate  (Bellerille  and 
Southern  lilinoia  division),  and  the  St.  Louia 
and  Sontl)eaat«m  railroads  intereeot  here. 

BELLEVlIi.f^  chief  town  of  the  tMwtj  of 
Hastjngs,  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  sitnated 
about  SO  m.  W.  of  KingBton,  on  both  Hides  of 
the  rirer  Moira,  which  here  debonobes  into  the 
bay  of  Quints ;  pop.  abont  S,000.  It  is  a  port 
of  entry,  and  does  oonuderable  bnnnesa  in  im- 
porta,  and  also  in  the  export  of  lumber,  flour, 
and  other  agrioultnral  produce.  In  the  vicinity 
are  iron  works  and  quarries  of  valuable  marble. 
The  town  is  on  the  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway,  and  steamers  ply  regularly  between 
this  point  and  Kingston  and  Montreal. 

BBLLET  (anc.  Belliea),  a  town  of  Burgundy, 
France,  in  the  department  of  Ain,  88  m.  8.  W. 
of  Geneva,  agreeably  situated  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley near  the  RhAne,  which  is  here  crossed  1^ 
a  suspension  bridge;  pop.  in  1966,  4,6S4.  It 
was  a  place  of  note  in  the  time  of  Joliae  Cnsar. 
It  was  homed  by  Alario,  was  possessed  by  the 
dnkas  of  Savoy  daring  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
ceded  to  France  in  IflOl.  The  bishopric  of 
which  it  is  sUll  the  seat  was  founded  in  412. 
lithographio  stones  are  obtained  from  neigh- 
boring quarries. 

BHiJlRD,  i^nOa  DaiUc),  ooont,  a  French 
soldier,  born  at  Fontenay-le-Oomte,  Poitoo, 
March  2G,  ITOB,  died  in  Brussels,  Jan.  28,  16SS. 
He  entered  the  army  with  a  oi^itain's  oommis- 
sion,  and  being  oa«hiered  for  having  served 
with  Damonrioz,  under  whom  ho  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Belgiuiu,  especially  at 
Jemappes,  he  reSnt«red  as  a  private,  fought 
under  Hoohe  in  La  Vendue,  and  in  Italy  ander 
Bonaparte,  acquiring  the  rank  of  general  on 
the  battlefield  of  Aroole.  He  was  prominent 
hi  the  Egyptian  campaign,  and  though  obliged 
to  capitulate  at  Oairo,  he  was  promoted  in 
1801  to  the  command  of  a  division,  and  in  1806 
to  tlutt  of  Marat's  staff.  After  udin^  in  the 
oocnpation  of  Madrid,  he  remiuned  id  com- 
mand there  troia  1808  till  the  Busman  cam- 
paign of  1813,  in  whiob  he  covered  himself 
with  glory,  especially  at  the  battle  of  the 
Moskva.  Thoagh  severely  wonnded,  he  was 
active  in  reorganizing  the  French  cavalry  after 
ita  return  to  Germany,  and  lost  an  arm  at 
Leipsic.  Winning  new  honors  at  Oraonne,  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  cavalry,  and 
received  from  the  emperor,  April  8,  ISH,  the 

frand  cordon  of  the  le^on  of  honor.  Lonis 
;VIII.  raised  hjin  to  the  peerage,  June  4,  and 
to  the  rank  of  m^jor  general ;  but  having  dar- 
ing the  hundred  days  served  again  under 
Napoleon,  he  was  after  the  second  restoration 
kept  in  restraint  till  June  3, 1816,  and  deprived 
of  his  peerage  till  March  5,  1819.  In  March, 
1881,  Louis  Philippe  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Brussels,  where  he  mode  himself  very  oseM  to 
the  canae  of  Belgian  independence.  His  towns- 
men honored  hun  with  a  monument,  and  Yi- 


net  published  his  autobiography  [Mimoint  du 
general  £elliard,  ieriUpar  lui-mime,  S  vols., 
Paris,  1834). 

BELLUe,  WUbctai  BcbadUa  von,  a  Prussian 
soldier,  boni  Feb.  IS,  1T19,  died  at  Stoipe, 
Pomerania,  Nov.  38,  1T7P.  In  ITse  he  was  a 
cornet,  in  1758  commander  of  a  regiment  of 
hussars,  and  having  been  successful  in  many 
campaigns,  especially  in  grappling  at  the  head 
of  a  small  force  with  the  whole  Swedish  army, 
he  was  made  mi^or  general  in  1763,  lieuten- 
ant general  in  17T6,  and  received  in  1778  the 
order  of  the  Black  Eagle.  He  was  the  most 
Comons  hussar  offiaer  of  the  seven  years'  war. 
His  small  Hze  and  that  of  his  horse  made  him 
a  target  for  the  enemy;  bat  his  contempt  for 
danger  and  his  lively  manners  made  him  a 
special  favorit«  with  Frederick  the  Great, 

BELLUGHAn,  Ikkar^  colonial  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  bom  in  1602,  died  Dec.  7,  1(173. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  and  one  of  the  original 
patentees  of  the  colony,  to  which  he  removed 
m  1684.  In  163G  he  was  made  deputy  gov- 
ernor, and  in  1S41  was  elected  governor  hi 
opposition  to  Wintbrop  by  a  m^ority  of  six 
votes.  He  was  re€leotfld  in  1654,  and  after  the 
death  of  Endioott  was  chosen  again  in  May. 
lH6fl,  and  continued  in  the  executive  chwr  till 
his  death,  having  been  depnty  governor  IS  and 
governor  10  years.  He  was  chosen  m^jor 
general  in  1634,  in  which  year  the  king  sent 
fonr  commissioners  to  Inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  colony,  whan,  according  to  Hutchinson, 
Bellingham  and  others  oboosioos  to  James  II, 
were  required  to  go  to  England  to  account  for 
their  coudoot,  bat  refused,  the  king  being  ap- 

Kased  by  the  present  of  a  shipload  of  masts. 
s  wife  having  died,  in  1641  he  married  a 
second  time;  an  event  of  which  h  contempo- 
rary speaks  thus;  "A  young  gentleman  was 
about  to  be  contracted  to  a  Mend  of  his,  when 
on  a  sudden  the  governor  treated  with  ber, 
and  obtained  her  for  himselfl"  The  banos  were 
not  properly  published,  and  he  performed  the 
marriage  ceremony  himself.  He  was  prose- 
cuted for  a  violation  of  the  law,  but  at  the 
trial  he  refused  to  leave  the  bench,  and  sat  and 
tried  himself,  thus  escaping  punishment.  In 
bis  last  will  be  provided  that  after  the  deceaae 
of  bis  wife  and  of  hia  sou  by  a  former  wife,  and 
his  granddaughter,  the  bulk  of  his  estate  should 
be  spent  for  the  yearly  muntenance  "  of  goodly 
ministers  and  preachers  "  of  the  true  church, 
which  he  cou^dered  to  be  that  of  the  Oongre- 
gationolista.  This  will  the  general  court  set 
aside  on  the  ground  that  it  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  his  family.  One  of  his  sisters,  Mrs. 
Anne  Hibbens,  was  executed  in  June,  16C6, 
for  witchcraft. 

BiUDfL  1.  Jacapa,  an  early  painter  of  tlie 
Venetian  school,  bom  in  Venice  about  1406, 
died  in  14T0.  He  was  a  pupil  of  QentUe  da 
Fabriano,  and  Is  said  to  have  been  taught  oil 
painting,  which  was  then  a  secret,  bj  Andrea 
del  Castagno,  and  in  turn  taught  it  to  his  sons, 
Gentile  and  Giovaniu.    Almoat  all  hia  works 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


606 


BELUNI 


have  perished;  one  anpposed  to  be  antbentic 
is  in  tie  Manfrini  palace  at  Venice,  and  repre- 
sents the  portraits  of  Petrarch  and  Laura. 
!■•  GcatUe,  BOD  of  the  preceding,  born  in  14S1, 
died  in  1507.  He  was  employed  bj  the  Vene- 
tian government  on  an  equal  footing  with  his 
brother  in  decorating  the  hall  of  the  grand 
coancil  in  the  dt^'s  palaoe,  and  was  also  cele-i 
brated  for  hia  portraita.  His  fame  attracted 
the  notice  of  Mohammed  II.,  conqaeror  of 
CoDatantinople,  and  Bellini  visited  the  grand 
seignior.  He  painted  a  namber  of  pictures  for 
Uohammed,  and  also  strnck  a  medal  for  him, 
the  Bultan  presenting  him  with  a  gold  chain 
and  S,000  ducats.  lU.  GImul,  second  son  of 
Jacopo^nd  generally  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  Venetian  school,  bom  in  1436,  died  in 
16IS  (acoordiug  io  some,  a  few  years  ear- 
lier). Some  of  his  earliest  works  were  por- 
traits, among  them  that  of  the  doge  I^re- 
dano.  He  was  employed  by  the  repnblio  to 
decorate  the  great  nail  of  the  council  with  a 
.series  of  historical  p^ntinga,  covering  the 
entire  walla.  These  were  desb'oyed  by  fire  in 
1077.  He  also  painted  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
Uar;  surrounded  by  saints,  for  the  church  of 
Ban  Zacc&ria  in  Venice.  One  of  his  last  works 
was  a  Bacchanal;  this  he  left  incomplete,  and 
it  WBB  finished  by  Titian. 

BOi^DII,  Lawcada,  an  Italian  anatomist,  bom 
in  Florence,  Sept.  3,  1643,  died  Jan.  8,  1704. 
He  was  instmcted  in  mechanics  b;  Borelli, 
and  at  the  age  of  22  attained  the  chair  of  phi- 
losophy and  theoretical  medicine,  and  coittin- 
ned  a  brilliant  career  in  this  position  for  nearly 
80  years.  When  60  years  of  age  he  abandoned 
his  professorship,  and  returned  to  Florence. 

BELLDH,  Vliwua,  an  Italian  composer,  bom 
in  Oatania,  Sicily,  Nov.  1  or  8,  1802,  died  at 
Pnteanx,  near  Paris,  Sept  24,  18a5.  His 
father  and  grandfather  were  musioians  of  in- 
different reputation,  and  he  was  educated  in 
the  conservatory  of  Naples  at  the  expense  of 
his  native  town.  An  opera  entitled  Bianea  e 
Fernando,  produced  before  he  was  24  years 
old,  became  so  fashionable,  thanks  to  the  favor 
of  the  court,  that  he  was  immediately  engaged 
to  write  another  for  La  Scala  at  Milan.  This 
was//  Pirabi(lB27},  the  extraordinary  sucoese 
of  which  was  owing  in  part  to  the  singing  of 
Bnbini.  La  Straniera  tollo-woA  in  1828,  with 
Tamhurini  and  Madame  M^ric-Lalande,  and  / 
CimaleH  ed  i  MonteecM  in  1880;  both  were 
welt  received,  hut  it  became  customary  to  sub- 
stitute for  the  third  act  of  the  latter  work  an 
act  from  Vacoai'a  more  vigorous  Romeo  e  Qiu- 
lietta.  The  next  productions  of  Bellini,  La 
Sonnamhida  and  Norma,  both  brought  out  at 
Milan  in  1681,  showed  a  decided  advance. 
Tbe^  were  written  for  Madame  Pasta,  but 
Malibrau  probably  did  more  for  Norma  than 
any  other  artist.  Beatrice  di  Tenda  (Venice, 
1633)  was  too  tragic  for  the  genins  of  Bellini, 
though  it  contwns  some  admirable  numbers. 
The  composer  now  visited  England  to  superin- 
tend tlia  production  of  one  of  his  works,  and 


BELLMAN 

thence  went  to  Paris,  where  he  had  been  enga^ 
ed  to  write  an  opera  for  the  ThMtre  Italien, 
The  fruit  of  this  contract  was  his  last  and  best 
work,  I  Puritani,  produced  with  Griw,  Kubi- 
ni,  Tamhurini,  and  Lablache  in  the  cast,  and 
received  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  He  had 
made  an  agreement  for  another  work  for 
Paris,  when  ne  died  after  a  few  days'  sickness. 
BeUini  had  alight  knowledge  of  counterpoint; 
his  scores  are  weak,  and  his  accompanimenta 
commonplace;  but  he  excelled  aa  a  fresh, 
graceful,  and  fertile  melodist,  and  snrpassed  all 
other  Italian  composers  in  the  sympathetic 
character  of  his  music.  In  private  life  he  was 
estimable,  refined,  and  agreeable. 

BELUNZOirt  (Ger.  Bellem),  a  town  of  Switz- 
erland, capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
and  alternately  with  Lugano  and  Locamo  die 
capital  of  the  canton  of  Ticino,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ticino,  50  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Milan ; 
pop.  about  2,200;  of  the  district,  12,000.  It 
IB  situated  between  two  rocky  heights  on  the 
Italian  slope  of  the  Alps,  at  the  union  of  the 
roads  from  the  St.  Gotharil  and  San  Bernardino, 
and  Lakes  Maggiore  and  Lugano.  The  Ticino 
is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  14  arches  and 
restruned  by  a  long  stone  dara.  It  is  the  key 
of  the  Italian-German  boundary,  and  the  partlj 
ruined  castles  on  the  Oiori  rocks,  Castello  di 
Mezzo  and  Oaatello  Corbario,  which  overhang 
the  town,  have  been  strengtliened  by  additional 
fortifications.  On  an  isolated  rook  stands  a 
third  castle,  the  Castello  Grande,  which  is 
used  as  an  arsenal  and  prison.  The  church  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Stephen,  with  11  marble 
altars  and  a  high  cupola,  is  the  finest  in  tbe 
canton.  The  convent  of  the  AagustinianB  u 
nsed  as  a  government  house.  The  inhabitants 
are  farmers  and  cattle  drivers,  and  many  of 
them  seek  employment  in  neighboring  Italian 
towns,  leaving  the  women  at  home  to  till  the 
land.  There  is  an  active  transit  trade.  The 
town  long  belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Milan,  and 
has  been  olten  a  bone  of  contention,  chiefly 
between  Swiss,  Italians,  and  Germans;  the 
Swiss  ruling  it  almost  uninterruptedly  since 
the  end  of  the  IBtb  oentnrj.  Tne  language 
spoken  is  an  Italian  dialect. 

BEUJUN,  Kari  Mickd,  a  Swediah  poet,  called 
tbe  Anacreon  of  Sweden,  born  at  Stockholm, 
Feb.  16, 1740,  died  Feb.  II,  1796.  He  publish- 
ed religions  poems  and  a  b-analation  of  the  fa- 
bles of  Oellert,  but  acquired  renown  only  b* 
the  ■  .        .  .    .        - 


which  be  was  acoustomed  to  ii 


I  at  banquet  tables.  His  songs  and  ioyls, 
which  he  poolisbed  under  the  title  of  "  Lettera 
of  Fredman^  are  peculiarly  naive,  tender,  and 
charming.  His  longest  poem,  "  The  Temple  of 
Bacchus, "  is  of  an  elegiac  character,  and  mark- 
ed by  depth  and  brilliancy  of  thought  hi 
1829  a  monument  was  erected  at  Stockholm 
in  bis  honor,  and  a  society  named  after 
him,  the  "Bellman,"  celebrates  there  an  an- 
nual festival  in  his  memory.  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Gothenbni^  in  6 
vols,,  ie36-'8. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BELLONA 

BELLONl,  the  Roman  goddeM  of  wv.  She 
is  gometimea  etjled  the  cuUeagae,  sonietimea 
the  sister,  sometimes  the  wife  of  Mars.  Her 
temple  stood  id  the  Campos  Hartius,  near  the 
cirona  of  Flamieius.  The  piieata  of  Bellona 
were  called  Bellonarii,  and  oriKiaaUj  as  oReii 
ae  they  sacrificed  to  their  goddess  they  were 
obliged  to  lacerate  their  arms  or  legs,  that  they 
might  be  able  to  offer  upon  her  altar  a  portion 
of  their  own  blood.  The  24th  of  March  in 
every  year  was  the  principal  day  of  ber  wor- 
ship, and  that  day  was  distingnished  in  the  Ro- 
man Fasti  by  the  title  of  die*  lan^inu. 

8EU.0T,  jMcpk  Eat,  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  in  Paris  in  March,  1826,  lost  off  Cape 
Bowden,  Ang.  18,  1868.  lie  was  a  midship- 
man in  the  siege  of  Vera  Oruz  in  1838,  and  a 
lieutenant  in  1851,  and  in  IS52  obtained  per- 
miaaion  to  serve  as  a  volunteer  in  the  English 
expedition  sent  out  in  search  of  Sir  J  obn  Frank- 
lin, and  commanded  by  Captain  Beloher.  On 
one  occasion  he  offered  to  carry  despatches  by 
a  journey  over  the  ioe.  Being  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  the  ice  on  which  he  was,  with  two  of 
}ii8  oompanions,  was  severed  from  the  land. 
Ue  went  to  the  other  side  of  a  hammock  to 
reconnoitre,  and  was  never  seen  again.  Ilis 
own  diary,  which  was  published  in  18G6,  fur- 
nishes the  best  narrative  of  his  adventures. 

BELLOWS,  an  instrument  contrived  for  pro- 
pelling air  tnrough  a  pipe,  employed  for  blow- 
ing fires,  supplying  air  to  ventilate  mines,  fill- 
ing the  pipes  of  an  organ  with  wind,  and  other 
purposes.  The  use  of  this  apparatus  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  very  early  period.  It  is  spoken 
of  by  Jeremiah  (vi.  30),  and  alluded  to  by  Eze- 
kiel  (ixii.  20).  When  Homer  describes  the  forg- 
ing of  the  iron  shield  of  Aobilles,  he  speaks 
of  the  furnace  into  which  the  materials  were 
thrown  being  blown  by  30  pairs  of  bellows 
(Miaai).  From  the  remarks  of  Plantna  in  his 
jF^agmenla,  and  of  Virgil  in  the  Qeor^cs,  it 
would  appear  that  the  bellows  of  the  ancients 
were  made  wholly  of  leather.  The  first  ac- 
oount  we  have  of  wooden  bellows  is  by  Henry 
bishop  of  Bamberg,  in  IB20,  when  one  named 
Ffaunenscbmidt  (bellows  smith)  commenced 
the  manufacture  of  them  in  the  Hartz  forest, 
and  by  his  snccese  excited  the  jealousy  of  those 
of  the  same  trade  in  the  place.  Hia  art  was 
disclosed  only  to  his  son,  and  the  monopoly  of 
the  forest  remained  in  the  bands  of  his  descen- 
dants to  this  century.  Hans  Losinger,  an  or- 
ganist of  Naremborg,  is  by  some  suppooed  to 
have  invented  the  wooden  bellows  in  1600. 
Among  many  primitive  nations  of  Asia  and 
Africa  this  machine  is  still  employed  in  its 
Mmplest  form  for  blowing  by  hand  the  fires  of 
rudely  constructed  furnaces,  probably  of  the 
same  form  as  those  in  use  in  tne  times  of  Ho- 
mer and  of  the  Jewish  prophets. — As  ordina- 
rily constructed,  the  instroment  consists  of  two 
wmilat  plates  of  wood  connected  by  a  strip 
of  leather  fastened  around  their  edges,  which 
with  the  platee  completely  encloses  a  chamber 
for  ur,  and  is  so  made  that  the  plates  may  be 


BELLOWS 


607 


made  to  approach  and  recede  by  folding  and 
unfolding  the  leather.  In  the  lower  plate  la 
fixed  a  valve  opening  inward,  through  which 
the  air  ent«rs  as  the  platee  are  separated,  and 
which  closes  OS  they  are  brouglit  together, 
forcing  the  air  to  seek  some  other  outlet.  This 
is  provided  in  a  tube  of  small  area  compared  (O 
that  of  the  valve,  so  that  the  air  is  made  to 
rush  outward  with  great  velocity.  As  the  ac- 
tion of  this  machine  is  to  give  an  intermittent 
blast,  it  bos  been  improved  by  introducing  a 
third  plate,  attached  to  the  lower  one  as  this 
was  to  the  npper,  thns  making  a  double  bel- 
lows. The  two  lower  platea  have  valves  open- 
ing npward,  and  the  pipe  or  nozzle  for  the  exit 
of  the  sir  is  in  the  upper  of  the  two  chambers. 
The  middle  plate  is  worked  up  and  down  by  a 
lever  arm,  and  weights  are  placed  apon  the  top 
of  the  bellows  to  force  out  the  air  continoous- 
ly,  and  others  are  suspended  from  the  bottom 
board  to  keep  the  lower  obamber  distended 
with  air.  A  circolar  form  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  plates  or  boards,  and  the  air  chamber 
surrounded  by  the  leather  is  cylindrical.  When 
shut  together  it  is  very  compact  and  portable, 
which  renders  it  a  convenient  form  for  porta- 
ble forges.  The  inhabitants  of  lUndoston  make 
use  of  such  bellows  for  blowing  their  small  iron 
furnaces.  A  man  sits  down  between  two  of 
them,  and  with  one  hand  upon  each  works 
them  alternately  up  and  down,  producing  a 
tolerably  continuous  blast,  but  of  small  capaci- 
ty and  force. — The  bellows  used  by  the  Chmese 
is  a  simple  contrivance  for  forcing  air  with  any 
desired  pressure,  and  is  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple with  the  large  blowing  machines  now 
in  general  use.  It  is  a  square  wooden  box 
or  pipe,  with  a  piston  rod  working  in  one  end, 
ana  carrying  a  closely  fitting  pistop,  by  the 
movement  of  which  the  air  is  pushed  through 
a  smaller  pipe  in  the  other  end.  On  the  re- 
veree  motion  the  air  enters  through  valves  and 
refills  the  box. — Bellowsore  used  for  obtuning  a 
very  hot  flame  with  illnminating  gas.  The  blast 
of  air  is  directed  through  the  centre  of  the  yel- 
low gas  flame,  which  immediately  assumes  a  pale 
blue  color  and  a  long  pointed  form.  By  losing 
its  illnminating  power  the  available  heat  is  very 
much  increased.  Such  a  flame  is  made  nee  of 
by  the  chemist  in  trying  experiments  which 
require  an  intense  heat  on  a  small  scale,  and  by 
the  glass  blower  in  making  the  melted  glass 
assume  the  desired  form.  A  very  good  form 
of  bellows  for  the  glass  blower,  wbi^  until  re- 
cently was  only  made  in  Paris,  is  now  manu- 
factured in  this  country.  It  consists  eaeentially 
of  a  cylinder  8  inches  in  diameter  and  14  inches 
high,  made  of  leather  or  india  rubber,  which 
has  three  horizontal  wooden  disks  or  dia- 
phracmH,  one  at  the  top,  one  a  little  below  the 
middle,  and  one  at  the  bottom;  thus  dividing 
the  cylinder  into  two  compartments,  of  which 
the  lower  one  is  the  force  pump,  while  the  up- 
per is  the  reservoir  which  retMns  the  air  and 
equalizes  the  blast.  The  details  are  as  follows : 
The  middle  disk  alone  ia  fixed  permanently  to 


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508 


BELLOWS 


Qi*  elasa  blower's  table.  In  the  lower  disk  a 
ohe^  valve  is  placed,  which  allows  the  air  fo 
enter  bat  not  to  leave  the  lower  compartment. 
The  Motre  disk  has  a  valve  similarly  arranged, 
with  referenne  to  the  npper  compartment.  The 
lower  disk  can  be  forced  upward  by  means  of 
a  lever  connected  with  a,  treadle,  thereby  forc- 
ing the  contained  air  into  the  npper  compart- 
ment The  npper  disk  is  continnaliy  pressed 
downward  by  a  spiral  spring  which  compresses 
the  enclosed  air,  and  yields  in  consequence  a 
steady  and  powerful  blast  through  a  tube 
which  for  conveuienoe  is  placed  on  the  upper 
Borface  of  the  middle  disk. — The  nsefal  effect  of 
the  bellows  is  in  exciting  combustion,  by  furnish- 
ing a  continnous  stream  of  oxygen  in  the  fresh 
supplies  of  air,  and  in  removing  by  the  force  of 
the  bls«t  those  products  of  combustion  which 
ordinarily  exclude  the  approach  of  the  air  and 
impede  the  continuation  of  the  process.  Its 
power  of  rapidly  exciting  vivid  combustion  and 


r  other  objects  not  reijuiring 
large  volume  or  great  pressure  of  air,  the  an- 
cient bellows  is  now  for  the  most  part  replaced 
by  more  efficient  apparatus,  as  the  so-called 
blowing machinesand  fan-blowers,  descriptions 
of  which  will  be  found  under  Blowiso  M*- 

BELLOWS,  Hnft  WUtney,  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  bom  in  Boston,  June  11,  1814.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  college  and  the  divin- 
ity school  in  Oambridge,  where  he  completed 
his  course  in  1387.  On  Jan.  2,  183S,  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  first  Congregational 
chnrch  in  New  York,  afterward  called  All 
Bonis'  charch,  in  which  relation  he  still  re- 
mains (187S).  He  was  the  chief  originator  of 
the  "Christian  Inquirer,"  a  Unitarian  newapa- 

Kr  of  New  York,  in  the  year  1646.    Id  1864 
received  the  degree  of  D.  D,  from  Harvard 
nniveraity.     Of  his  numerons   pamphlets  and 

Eablishod  discourses,  the  most  conspicuous  are 
is  "  Phi  Beta  Eappa  Oration,"  18S8,  and  his 
noted  defence  of  the  drama,  16ST.  His  ooca- 
eional  oontrihutiona  to  the  reviews,  and  espe- 
cially the  "Christian  Examiner,"  are  marked 
by  independence  of  thought  and  boldness  of  ex- 
pression. In  leCT  he  delivered  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  tbe  "  Treatment  of  Social  Diseases" 
before  the  Lowell  institute  in  Boston,  attract- 
ing much  attention  by  his  vigorous  remarks  on 
many  subjects  of  deep  interest.  In  18flO  he 
published  in  New  York  a  volume  of  sermons 
on  "Christian  Doctrine,"  and  in  18fi8-'9  the 
account  of  an  eitendf^l  European  journey, 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Old  World  in  its  New 
Face  "  (2  vols.  12mo).  Daring  the  civil  war 
he  was  tbe  prendent  of  the  United  States  sani- 
tary oommisfflon. 

BflXOWS  FiUa,  a  village  of  Rockingham 
township,  Windham  «ounty,  Vt.,  on  tbe  Con- 
necticut riTer,  68  m.  by  rail  8.  8.  E.  of  Rnt- 
laud ;  pop.  in  1B70,  697.    Tbe  river  is  here  in- 


BELLOY 

termpted  by  several  rapids  and  falls,  the  whole 
descent  bein^  abont  44  feet.  These  are  the 
falls  concemmg  which  Peters,  in  his  history, 
relates  that  the  water  becomes  so  hardened  by 
pressure  between  the  rocks  that  it  is  impoa- 
Bible  to  penetrate  it  with  an  iron  bar.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge,  312  feet  long, 
built  in  1812.  The  village  contains  several 
railla  and  manufactories,  and  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  being  the  point  of  junction  of 
the  Vermont  Central,  Rutland  and  Burlington, 
and  Cheshire  railroads. 

lELLOWS  FISH  (called  also  trarapet  fish  and 
sea  snipe),  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  lopbo- 
branchiate  or  tufted-gilled  order,  and  genus 
eentritetu  (Linn.).  In  tfais  genus  the  snout  is 
tubular,  with  a  very  small  mouth  at  the  end, 
without  teeth ;  the  body  oval  and  compressed, 
with  small  hard  scales  trenchant  on  tbe  abdo- 
men ;  a  spinous  dorsal  fin  very  far  back,  with 
a  strong  first  spine  and  a  soft  dorsal  behind  it; 
ventrals  united.  The  G.  leolopax  (Linn.)  is 
common  in  the  Mediterranean ;  it  is  about  five 
inchee  long,  reddish  on  the  back  and  sides, 


and  silvery  on  the  belly,  aometimee  with  a 
golden  tinge ;  fins  grayish  whit«.  The  food 
consists  chiefiy  of  minute  crastacea,  which  are 
drawn  up  the  cylindrical  beak  as  wet«r  is 
drawn  up  the  pipe  of  a  syringe,  or  air  up  tb« 
tube  of  a  bellows,  the  suction  power  depend- 
ing on  the  dilatation  of  the  throat.  Its  flesh 
is  conudered  good.  It  prefers  muddy  bottoms, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  seaweeds,  in  moderate- 
ly deep  water. 

BELLOY,  PlHre  Untat  Bmljelle  M,  a  French 
dramatist,  bom  at  St  Flour,  in  Auvergne, 
Nov.  17,  1727,  died  in  Paris,  March  E,  177fi. 
He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  became  an 
actor  at  8t.  Petersburg  and  other  places. 
His  first  tragedy,  Titut  {Paris,  17S9),  (ailed, 
and  his  Zelmire  (1769)  was  redeemed  only  by 
the  acting  of  Mile.  Clairon ;  but  his  SUge  d« 
Galau  (176G)  was  successful,  b^ng  the  firat 
attempt  to  dramatiw  French  history.  Voltaire 
joined  in  the  applause  of  the  court  and  the 
people,  but  became  an  adverse  critic  alter  the 
author's  death.  His  subsequent  plays  were 
not  equally  successful,  although  his  Oaitim  el 
Bayard  (1771)  procured  for  him  a  seat  in  the 


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BELLUNO 

academy.    The  oold  reoeptioD  of  his  Pierre  U 

Cruel  (ITT2)  gave  a  shook  to  bis  health  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  He  was  in  great 
pecnniar;  distress  toward  the  close  of  his  life, 
and  Louis  XVI.  sent  1,000  francs  for  his  relief. 
A  oomplete  edition  of  his  works  was  published 
in  6  vols.  (Paris,  l779-'8!p,  and  a  selected  edi- 
tion In  2  vols.,  with  a  biographical  nodce  by 
L.S.  Anger  (1811). 

BEUnrO.  L  Aprovinoe  of  Yenetia,  Italy, 
bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Tyrol,  E.  by  the  prov- 
ince of  Udine,  and  S.  by  Treviso  and  Yicenza ; 
area,  1,368  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  176,870.  It 
is  ■itiiat«d  amid  the  ragged  ramifications  of  the 
Trentine  and  Camio  Alps.  The  principal  river, 
the  Piave,  is  onited  by  a  caiul  with  the  Taglia- 
mento.  The  pasturage  on  the  mountains,  the 
eitenmve  foresta,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
aheep,  and  to  some  ext«nt  the  production  of 
wine,  are  the  main  sources  of  prosperity.  The 
grain  crops  are  limited,  and  the  mineral  wealth, 
though  extensive,  is  not  safSoiently  developed. 
The  chief  article  of  export  is  timber.  The  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Pieve  di  Ca- 
dore,  Agordo,  Aaronio,  Bellnno,  Feltre,  Fon- 
zaso,  and  Longarone.  ■■•  A  walled  city  (anc. 
Bellunwm  or  &iunum),  capital  of  the  province, 
at  the  jonotioQ  of  the  Ardo  with  the  Piave,  48 
m.  N.  of  Venice;  pop.  abont  14,000,  The  city 
is  huilt  on  a  promontory  and  flanked  by  a  pre- 
cipitous bill,  the  scenery  being  remarkably 
fine.  The  cathedral,  built  by  Palladio,  contains 
a  bnst  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  who  was  bom 
here,  and  pictures  by  Bassano  and  other  artists. 
In  front  of  the  Gothic  church  of  Bt  Stephen 
is  a  Boman  sarcophagus  of  the  4th  century. 
There  are  12  other  churches,  two  convents,  an 
academy  of  science  and  ar^  a  superior  gym- 
nomom,  a  chamber  for  commerce  and  industry, 
a  fine  theatre,  and  an  aqneduct  6  m.  long.  A 
bishop,  formerly  called  count  of  Belluno,  re- 
sides nere,  and  the  episcopal  chapter  or  oounctl 
goasesB  an  excellent  library.  A  road  leads 
'om  the  oity  to  the  Agordo  copper  mines. 
There  is  an  active  trade  in  timber,  and  silk 
and  other  articles  are  manufactured  here.  The 
title  ofdnke  of  Belluno,  conferred  on  Che  French 
marshal  Victor,  is  derived  from  this  town. 

BiX-BEBODlCE.    Bee  Mbbodaoh. 

•EUMHTT,  an  E.  county  of  Ohio,  separated 
from  West  Virginia  by  the  Ohio  river,  several 
affluents  of  wUch  drain  it;  area,  520  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  39,714.  The  surface  is  uneven 
and  hilly,  and  the  soil  excellent.  Coal  is  found 
in  large  quandties.  The  Central  Ohio  division 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  and  the 
Cleveland  and  Pittsbm^h  railroad  traverse  the 
connty.  The  chief  productions  in  1670  were 
805,206  bushels  of  wheat,  1,181,615  of  Indian 
corn,  481,808  of  oats,  48,768  of  barley,  142,5B8 
of  potatoes,  1,480,478  lbs.  of  tobacco,  674,178 
of  wool,  830,eoe  of  butter,  and  66,885  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses;  value  of  orchard  prod- 
nets,  $129,682.  There  were  9,207  horses,  7,716 
milch  cows,  11,888  other  cattle,  162,787  sheep, 
and  22,991  swine.    Capital,  St.  OtairsviUe. 


BELOE 


village  of  8.  E.  Uiesoori,  in  Ifia- 
siasippi  county,  on  the  Uissiadppi  river,  oppo- 
site Columbus,  Ky.  A  battle  was  fought  here, 
Nov.  7,  1861,  between  the  Union  forces  under 
Gen.  Grant,  and  the  confederates  under  Gen. 
Pillow.  Columbns  was  occupied  by  a  strong 
oon&derate  force  under  Gen.  Polk.  On  the 
6th  Gen.  Grant  with  2,800  men  dropped  down 
the  river  from  Cairo  to  make  a  reconnoissunce 
toward  Columbus.  He  landed  near  Belmont, 
which  was  occupied  by  a  small  hodv  of  con- 
federates, who  were  soon  driven  from  their 
position.  Oen.  Polk  sent  Gen.  Pillow  with  riz 
regiments  across  the  river,  and  with  two  others 
himself  undertook  to  out  Grant  off  from  his 
transports.  Belmont,  being  commanded  by 
the  guns  at  Columbua,  was  untenable,  and 
Grant,  being  greatly  outnumbered,  fell  back 
toward  his  transports,  repelling  several  vigor- 
ous attacks,  and  reSmbarked,  leaving  the  ene- 
my in  posseadon  of  the  field.  The  Union  loM 
was  84  killed,  388  wounded,  and  236  miss- 
ing. The  total  confederate  loss  is  not  ofiScially 
stated ;  in  four  r^meute,  out  of  the  At  actnal- 
ly  engaged,  it  was  66  killed,  187  wounded,  and 
108  missing. 

BELHONTiT,  ImIs,  a  French  poet,  bom  at 
Montauban,  Uarch  26,  17SQ.  He  is  the  son  of 
a  Sardinian  soldier  who  gallicized  his  name  of 
Belmonte  and  settled  in  soathem  France.  He 
early  glorified  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  and  his 
ode  on  the  funeral  of  Napoleon  I.  (18S1) 
passed  through  several  editions.  In  Paris  he 
acquired  prominence  among  the  followers  of 
Victor  Dago  by  his  poems  Let  tri*te»  (1824), 
Le  s&uper  iAvgvtte  (1828),  and  by  his  tragedy, 
in  conjunction  with  Alexandre  Soumet,  Une 
fiU  de  Niron  (1839),  which  met  with  great 
Buccesa  and  was  reproduced  in  16G1.  For  a 
time  he  supported  hmiself  as  a  teacher  in  Paris, 
and  though  he  opposed  Louis  Philipp«,  and 
continued  to  worship  the  Napoleons,  especially 
in  an  ode  L'Eiwereur  n'eit  pa*  mart  (1841),  he 
accepted  an  olfice  from  the  sing,  and  in  1846  a 
decoration  for  his  ybmbret  cCor  (2d  ed.,  1866), 
a  didactic  poem.  From  1862  to  1870  he  was  a 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies.  He  has 
written  biographies  of  Louis  NI^loleon  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  edited  the  memoirs  of 
Queen  Hortense,  and  has  composed  over  30 
odes  in  honor  of  imperialism  and  its  achieve- 
ments. His  other  prodnctdons  include  Le  liase 
de»  femmet  et  la  jeunette  de  Vepogue  (1868), 
Lumiira  de  la  vie  (1861),  and  Tornet  det 
larmea  (1865). 

BELOE,  WlObui,  an  English  clergyman  and 
Buthof,  bom  at  Norwich  iu  1766,  died  April 
11,  1817.  He  studied  under  Dr.  Parr  and  at 
Cambridge  university,  for  a  time  assisted  Dr, 
Parr  in  a  school  at  Norwich,  and  was  after* 
word  curate  and  vicar  of  Eltham.  finding  his 
income  insufficient,  he  removed  to  London,  and 
for  several  years  occupied  himself  by  writing 
for  periodicals.  During  the  American  revolu- 
tion he  advocated  with  his  pen  the  cause  of 
the  ooloniea,  but  when  the  Frendi  revolution 


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510 


BELOIT 


broke  oat  he  took  the  coDservat^ve  ride;  and 
in  company  with  Archdeacon  Nares  he  com~ 
mencea  in  1T[>3  the  publication  of  the  "British 
Critic,"  which  strongly  supported  tor j  views. 
In  1804  he  became  asuBtaat  librarian  of  the 
British  muaeunj,  but  was  soon  dismissed  on 
account  of  a  loss  rastuned  hy  the  institntion 
through  his  mistaken  kindness  to  an  unworthy 
applicant.  He  made  a  translation  of  Herodo- 
toB  (4  vols.  Svo,  17S1)  which  had  for  a  time  a 
high  reputation,  but  has  been  superseded  by 
more  occnratd  vertnons.  Besides  many  other 
translations,  he  published  "  Anecdotes  of  Liter- 
atore  and  Scarce  Books"  (6  vols.  Svo,  180ft- 
'12),  and  other  works;  and  after  his  death  ap- 

E eared  "The  BexHgenarian,  or  Memoirs  of  a 
iterary  Life"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1817). 
BELOIT,  a  city  of  Rock  county,  Wis.,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  Rock  river,  at  the  mouth  of 
Turtle  creek,  near  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  state,  OS  m.  S.  W.  of  Hilwankee ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,S96,  It  is  built  on  a  beautiful  plain, 
from  which  the  ground  rises  abruptly  to  a 
height  of  GO  or  60  feet,  affording  excellent  sites 
for  re^dences.  It  is  the  seat  of  Beloit  college, 
founded  in  184T,  which  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Gongregationalists,  and  in  1871  had  9 
instructors,  IBS  students  in  the  preparatory 
and  64  in  the  academic  department,  and  a  li- 
brary of  7,200  volumes.  The  city  is  noted  for 
its  broad,  handsome  streets,  and  for  its  fine 
churches;  the  Congregational  church,  con- 
structed of  gray  limestone,  isoonsidered  one  of 
the  most  beauldful  in  the  state.  Beloit  is  well 
supplied  with  water  power,  has  a  flourishing 
trade,  and  contains  several  manufactories  of 
woollen  goods,  of  reapers  and  fanning  mills, 
of  scales,  of  carriages,  an  iron  foundery  and 
machine  shop,  several  fionnng  mills,  2  news- 
paper offices,  several  hotels,  a  bank,  a  high 
school,  and  4  grammar  and  8  primary  srhoole. 
It  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  and  the  Western  Union  raol- 
roada.  A  fertile  prairie,  the  lai^^t  in  the  state, 
lies  on  the  E.  side  of  Kook  river.  Beloit  was 
settled  about  1887,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1866. 

BELOV,  PtNTS,  a  French  naturalist,  bom  at 
Soulletidre,  in  the  province  of  Maine,  about 
1617,  asBBsrinated  in  Paris  in  April,  1604.  His 
early  studies  in  natural  history  were  facilitated 
by  the  bishop  of  Mans,  and  be  graduated  as 
doctor  of  medicine  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
acqumnted  with  Ronsard  and  other  learned 
men.  On  his  return  from  Oormany,  where  he 
had  travelled  with  the  botanist  Cordus,  he 
was  arrested  for  alleged  conversion  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther.  He  made  three  journeys  to 
the  East  and  other  countries  (lG46-'9),  and  a 
pension  was  conferred  on  hira  hy  Henry  II., 
and  a  residence  in  the  chAteau  de  Madrid,  in 
■  the  Bois  de  Boult^e,  by  Charles  IX.  Late 
one  evening  he  was  found  dead  in  the  wood, 
having  probably  been  killed  by  robbers.  He 
is  conridered  as  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  comparative  anatomy.    His  principal  work, 


BELOOOHISTAN 

Oht&ntationt  At  plTuievn  tingvlarittt  et  chotet 
m«morablet,  troutiu  en  Oriee,  AHt^  Judit, 
Bffifpte,  Arahie  et  autre*  payt  estroTiget  (in  8 
parts,  Paris,  16SG),  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions, and  was  translated  into  Latin  and  Ger- 
man. Among  bis  other  writings  are ;  RuUtira 
natwelU  de»  eitranget  poiuoru  marint  (lfi61), 
ffietoire  de  la  nature  ae»  oyteaaz  (165S),  and 
Le»  remofutrancet  tur  le  d^ault  dv  labour  et 
eultitTe  da  plantet,  &c.  (16G8). 

BiXOOCHIffTlN,  or  Bda^t^n,  a  country  of 
Asia,  between  lat  24°  60'  and  30°  20'  N.  and 
Ion.  67°  40'  and  69°  18'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Af- 
ghanistan, E.  by  Sinde,  S.  by  the  Indian  ocean, 
and  W.  by  Persia;  area,  about  166,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  2,600,000.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  country  is  mountunous;  but  toward  tlie 
shore  <^  the  Arabian  sea  on  the  south,  and 
toward  Persia  on  the  west,  there  are  extensive 
barren  plains.  The  Hala  mountains  on  the 
east  ana  northeast,  running  from  the  months 
of  the  Indus  to  the  Solyman  mountain^  include 
a  quantity  of  comparatively  fertile  land,  of  val- 
ley and  upland  pl«n,  in  which  the  inhabitants 
ruse  tropical  grains  and  fruits.  A  strip  of  ter- 
ritory to  the  east  of  the  Hala  chun,  which,  al- 
though within  the  Indus  valley,  belongs  to  B«- 
loochiatan,'is  very  fertile,  producing  oe  reals  and 
rich  crops  of  jowarree  (a  grain  mudi  in  demand 
in  northern  India),  and  various  tropical  produc- 
tions. But  the  land  here  is  low  and  swampy, 
to  which  indeedit  owes  its  fertility,  and,  though 
more  nnmeroasly  inhabited  than  the  other  re- 
giouB,  is  the  most  unhealthy  of  the  whole.  The 
remainder  of  the  country  is  a  barren  wilderness. 
On  the  N.  E.  boundary  are  situated  the  famous 
mountain  passes,  the  Bolan  and  Oundawa. 
These  form  the  direct  road  to  Eclat,  the  capital, 
and  the  only  means  of  communicating  with  the 
interior  of  the  country,  from  the  plains  of  N. 
W.  India.  There  are  no  rivers  worthy  the 
name;  a  few  mountain  brooks  attain  connder- 
able  aze  in  the  spring,  but  do  not  endure ;  and 
the  streams  emptying  from  the  southern  coast 
into  the  sea  are  insignificanl  The  northeast- 
ern and  eastern  provinces  or  districts  ore  Bs- 
rawan,  Kelat,  Cutch-Qundava,  and  Jhalawsn. 
On  the  south  along  the  seashore  are  the  dis- 
trict of  Loos  and  Mekran,  the  ancient  GedroaiA. 
In  the  northwest  are  Eohistan  and  Kalpoora- 
kan. — The  inhabitants  of  Beloochistan  consist 
of  two  great  varieties,  the  Belooches  and  the 
Brahooees,  which  are  subdivided  into  othei 
tribes,  and  these  again  into  fiimilies.  Theii 
origin  is  uncertain,  but  they  are  probably  a 
race  of  mixed  Tartar  and  Persian  descent. 
They  themselves  cl^m  to  belong  to  the  earliest 
Mohammedan  conquerors  of  central  Asia,  and 
are  zealous  Sunnis,  tolerating  an  unbeliever  ra- 
ther than  a  Shiab.  Polygamy  is  allowed.  In 
their  nomadic  habits  they  resemble  Tartars  or 
Bedouins,  living  in  tents  of  felt  or  canvas,  and 
wearing  a  woollen  cloth  on  their  beads,  with 
woollen  or  linen  outer  coats.  They  are  of 
slight  but  active  forms,  and  practise  arms  and 
warlike  exercises  for  amusement.    Their  wo- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BELPEB 

men  eqJ07  con^derable  freedom.  Tlie  Bn- 
hooees  apeak  a  dialect  reaenibliDg  those  of  the 
Paqjanb,  and  are  shorter  and  Btont«r  than  the 
Belooches.  The;  are  somewhat  leae  addieted 
to  rapine  and  plunder  than  the  others,  and  are 
said  to  he  hospitable  and  ohaerrant  of  prom- 
ises. The  goTenunent  is  under  various  heads, 
of  whom  the  khan  of  Kelat  is  leader  in  time 
of  war,  and  a  kind  of  fendal  chief  in  peace. — 
Beloochistaa  waa  formerly  snbject  to  Persia 
and  afterward  to  Afghanistan,  bnt  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  the  tribes  shook  off 
their  dependence  on  ttio  Afghans.  At  the 
time  of  the  Britdah  eipeditioQ  into  Afghanis- 
tan the  British  forced  the  Bolan  pass.  The 
Belooches  harassed  the  troops  considerablj ; 
and  in  I&40  an  expedition  was  sent  against 
Kelat  to  chastise  them,  which  was  done  effect- 
oalty,  bnt  no  permanent  occupation  was  made. 

lELPER  (formerly  Beaupoire),  a  town  of 
Derbyshire,  England,  on  the  Berwent  and  the 
Midland  r^lway,  T  m.  N.  of  Derby;  pop.  in 
len,  11,138.  It  is  well  built,  and  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  towns  of  Derbyshire.  The 
Strutt  cotton  works  employ  over  3,000  persons, 
and  there  are  also  manufactories  of  silk  and 
cotton  ho^ry,  nails,  and  brown  earthenware. 

MBSHiM,  L  nMis,  an  English'  Unitarian 
divine  and  author,  born  at  Bedford  in  April, 
1750,  died  at  Eampstead,  Not.  11,  IS29.  He 
was  educated  at  the  dissenters'  academy  at 
Daventry,  of  which  he  was  principal  from 
1781  to  1789,  also  preaching  at  Daventry.  In 
1789  be  embraced  Unitarianism,  and  after 
■pending  nearly  11  years  as  pastor  of  the 
Gravel  Pit  congregation,  he  was  called  to  the 
metropoiis,  and  settled  in  1805  as  pastor  of 
Essex  street  chapel,  London,  where  the  re- 
maining- 34  years  of  his  life  were  spent.  Hr. 
Belsham  wrote  a  great  deal  in  assertion  and 
vindication  of  Unitarianism,  including  "Evi- 
dences of  tbe  Christian  Revelation,"  a  "  Trans- 
lation of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle, 
with  an  Exposition  and  Notes,"  and  a  reply  to 
ifr.  Wilberforce's  "Practical  View."  Among 
hia  contribntions  to  general  literature,  his 
"  Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind  and  of  Moral  Philosophy "  (London, 
1801),  in  which,  with  David  Hartley,  he  re- 
solves all  mental  phenomena  into  the  associs' 
tion  of  ideas,  is  oest  known.  II>  WUllaa,  a 
historical  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  at  Hammersmith  in  1752,  died  Nov.  17, 
1837.  He  was  a  whig  in  politics,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  leaders  of  that  party.  In 
1 789  he  commenoed  his  literary  course  by  pub- 
lishing "Essays,  Historical,  PoUtioal,  and  Lit- 
erary (3  vols.).  To  these  succeeded  essays 
on  various  subjects,  chiefly  political,  and  sev- 
eral works  which  appeared  between  1793  and 
1801,  and  were  finally  reproduced  in  a  col- 
lective edition  as  a  "  History  of  Great  Britwn 
to  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Amiens  "  (12 
vols.  8vo,  1806). 

BEL8HAZZU(CbaL.SeIt&atttsar).    SeeB^s- 

TlO». 

85  VOL.  II.— 38 


BELTEAMI 


511 


mSimCE,  or  Betaum,  Heul  Fmfria  Xavler 

it,  a  French  Jesnit,  bom  at  Pdrigord,  Dec.  4, 
1671,  died  in  MarseUles,  Jnne  4,  1T5S.  At'  an 
early  age  he  became  a  Jesuit,  was  made  grand 
vicar  of  Agen,  and  in  1709  bisliop  of  Marseilles. 
Dnring  the  pestilence  which  devastated  his  see 
in  1720-'31,  Belsunce  displayed  charity  and 
unselfishness  to  a  degree  tliat  drew  upon  him 
the  encomiums  of  all  Europe.  He  is  especially 
referred  to  in  Pope's  "Essay  on  Man."  In 
consideration  of  his  services  at  this  period,  he 
was  ofiered  the  bishopric  of  Laon,  and  also  the 
archbishopric  of  Bordeaux,  bnt  refnsed  both. 
He  was,  however,  the  recipient  of  many  hon- 
ors, both  from  the  pope  and  the  king.  In  hia 
later  years  he  became  involved  in  disputes 
with  the  Jansenists,  whom  he  attacked  with 
much  zeal  in  various  writing.  He  founded 
a  Jesuit  college  which  bears  his  name. 

■ELT,  Gnat  and  UUe,  the  name  given  to 
two  of  the  three  channels  which  connect  the 
Baltic  with  the  Cattegat,  and  through  it  with 
the  North  sea.  The  Great  Belt  is  abont  50 
m.  long,  18  m.  in  medium  width,  and  from 
6  to  36  fathoms  deep.  ,It  lies  between  the 
islands  of  Seeland  and  Fdnen,  the  shores  of 
which  present  no  striking  features,  bnt  are 
lined  with  safe  harbors.  Navigation  is  diffi- 
cult at  all  seasons  on  account  of  many  danger- 
ous shoals  and  sand  banks,  and  in  winter  it  is 
stiU  further  ohstrnot^d  by  floating  ice,  though 
the  swiftness  of  the  current  prevents  tixe  ttrmt 
from  being  often  frozen  over.  Li^thouses 
have  been  erected  on  the  shores ;  and  on  tho 
small  island  of  Sprogd,  which  lies  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  channel,  and  which  the  action  of  tlie 
waves  is  gradually  wearing  away,  there  is,  be- 
sides a  light,  a  wnall  building  for  the  shelter  of 
crews  of  such  small  vessels  as  may  be  ice- 
bound in  the  attempt  to  pass  thronf^  the 
strait. — The  Little  Belt  separates  Fdnen  from 
Schleswig  and  Jutland.  It  is  also  abont  CO  m, 
long,  from  1,000  yards  to  13  m.  wide,  and  from 
5  to  80  fathoms  deep.  The  shores  are  low  and 
regular,  and  the  current  rapid.  It  is  frozen 
over  from  December  to  April,  and  navigation 
at  other  seasons  is  attended  with  tbe  same  dan- 
gers as  in  the  Great  Belt.  Large  vessels  usu- 
ally pass  through  the  Sound,  which  is  the  only 
channel  except  the  Belts  between  tbe  Gatt«- 
gat  and  tbe  Baltic. 

■H.T1NE,  or  Belleta,  a  kind  of  festival,  still 
celebrated  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  on 
the  1st  of  May,  and  supposed  to  he  as  old  as 
the  remotest  period  of  druidical  supremacy. 
Tbe  name  signifies  the  Are  of  Bel  or  Baal,  and 
the  custom  was  probably  an  offshoot  and  rem- 
nant of  oriental  worship.  To  tbe  Beltane  may 
be  raierrad  the  practice  of  lighting  fires  on 
midsummer  eve  m  England,  in  honor  of  tbe 
summer  solstice. 

KELT1S,  or  BUIt,  a  goddess  of  the  Babylo- 
nians.   See  Mtlitta. 

BELTBUn,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Minnesota: 
pop.  in  18T0,  80.  Red  lake  in  the  N.  W.  part 
discharges  into  the  Red  river  of  the  North,  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


512 


BELITR  TAGH 


Mverol  l&kei  ia  the  west  discharge  into  Wild 

Kice  river,  which  flows  into  the  Red.  Itasca 
lake,  about  1,600  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
in  the  S.  part  of  the  county,  is  the  source  of  the 
Uiwiasippi  river,  which  in  ita  course  through 
the  cuuDtj'  forms  several  Ulies,  the  largest  being 
Cass  lake,  oa  the  S.  E.  border.  Leech  lake,  a 
large  bod/  of  water  touching  the  S.  E,  comer, 
also  flows  into  the  Mississippi. 

■EUB  TIGH.     See  Bolob  Taoh. 

BEUB  (Heb.  Bel;  Gr.  B^;U>c),  the  Grtecized 
form  of  the  Chaldee  Bel,  as  given  in  the  Ue- 
brew  Scriptures,  or  Bil,  as  read  in  the  inscrip- 
tions, the  name  or  title  of  one  of  the  principal 
Bab/lonian  divinities.  The  name  Bel  is  sup- 
posed to  be  contracted  from  Betl,  a  Chaldee 
equivalent  of  the  Fhceaician  and  Hebrew  Baal 
(the  Lord).  (See  Bail,  Babtlohia,  and  Ms- 
BODAOH.)  The  attending  female  divini^  was 
Bilit  or  Mjlitta.  (See  Miliita.)  The  Greeks 
adopted  Belus  among  their  divinities,  making 
him  the  son  of  Neptune,  and  the  ancestral  hero 
and  national  divinity  of  several  eastern  nations. 

BEU8,  T«Mpk  tl.     Bee  Babki^  and  Bahilok. 

BiLZOm,  GkTinal  BittUi,  an  Italian  travel- 
ler and  explorer,  the  bod  of  a  barber,  bom  in 
Padua  aboat  17T8,  died  in  Africa,  Dec.  3,  1928. 
He  was  educated  for  monastic  life  \  but  the 
French  revolution  broke  np  this  design,  and 
after  wandering  for  some  time  atK)ut  the  con- 
tinent, he  went  to  England  in  IBOS.  Here 
he  at  first  gained  a  preoarions  subsistence  by 
exhibiting  as  an  athlete  at  Astley's  circus, 
being  endowed  with  prodigions  strength.  To 
these  feats  were  added  scientific  experiments, 
as  he  had  paid  much  attention  to  natural  phi- 
losophy, particnlarly  to  hydraulics.  He  mar- 
ried in  England,  and  after  residing  there  for 
nine  jears  visited  Portugal,  Spun,  and  Malta. 
Conceiving  the  idea  of  offering  his  services 
to  the  pasha  of  Egypt  in  conatracting  water 
wheels  to  irrigate  the  fields  contiguous  to  the 
Nile,  he  arrived  in  Egypt  June  9,  1616.  He 
first  constructed  for  the  pasha  one  of  his  hy- 
draulic machiuea,  at  the  gardens  of  Subra, 
three  miles  from  Curo.  Mehemet  Ali  himself 
appears  to  have  been  satisfied  with  it,  but  the 
cnftjvators  re^rded  it  as  an  innovation,  and 
their  pr^udices  obliged  Belzoni  to  abandon 
his  scheme  withoat  even  being  rewarded  by 
the  pasha.  His  ourioaity  being  now  strongly 
excited  on  the  subject  of  ^jptian  uitiquitiea, 
at  the  recommendation  of  Barckhardt  be  was 
employed  by  Mr.  Salt,  the  English  consul,  to 
remove  the  colossal  head,  generally  but  Incor- 
rectly styled  the  yonng  Memnon.  This  Bel- 
zoni  Buoceasfully  accomplished,  in  the  face  of 
great  difficulties,  transportingit  to  Alexandria,. 
and  thence  shipping  it  for  England.  In  the 
mean  time  be  made  excursions  to  the  mountdn 
of  Gornoo,  to  Asswan  and  Philte,  and  at  Ip- 
sambul  he  was  the  first  to  open  the  fna,t 
temple  which  had  been  discovered  by  Bnrck- 
hanlt.  In  1817  he  made  a  second  Journey  to 
Upper  Egypt,  and  became  involved  in  a  quarrel 
wita  Drovetti,  the  French  consul,  and  hie  co- 


adjutor the  coant  da  Forbb.  Ue  visited  th« 
necropolis  of  Thebes,  and  made  excavations  at 
Kamak.  BeUoni  also  discovered  another  co- 
losaal  head  of  granite,  which  is  now  in  the 
British  mnseum,  and,  in  the  valley  of  Bibaa- 
ul-Moluk,  the  most  perfect  of  known  Egyptian 
tombs,  a  model  of  which,  exhibited  by  him  in 
London  in  1821,  attracted  crowds  of  visitors. 
Before  leaving  Egypt  he  succeeded  in  181B, 
after  much  trouble,  in  exploring  the  second  of 
the  great  pyramids  of  Gizeh,  that  of  Chephren 
or  Sephres.  This,  ever  since  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus, was  believed  to  be  witliont  internal 
chambers.  After  80  days  of  persevering  labor, 
Belzoni  found  the  entrance,  and  penetrated 
to  the  central  ohamber.  He  also  visited  tlie 
district  of  Fayoom,  the  oads  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon,  and  Lake  Msris,  and  discovered  the 
ruins  of  Berenice.  He  left  Egypt  in  Septem- 
ber, ISie,  and  fitted  his  native  city  of  Padua, 
where  a  medal  was  struck  in  his  honor ;  and  on 
his  retum  to  England  he  published  a  "  Nar- 
rative of  the  Operations  and  recent  Discoveriee 
within  the  Pyramids,  Temples,  Tomba,  and  Ex- 
cavations in  Egypt  and  Nubia"  (3d  ed.,  2  vols. 
Svo,  London,  1823).  In  1828  he  formed  the 
design  of  penetrating  to  Timbuctoo  in  Africa, 
and  bad  reached  the  bight  of  Benin,  but  was 
attacked  with  dysentery,  of  which  he  died  at 
a  small  place  in  Benin. 

BEH,  Jfaef,  a  Polish  general,  bom  at  Tar- 
now,  Galicia,  in  1766,  died  at  iJeppo,  Dec.  10, 
1860.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  corps 
of  cadets  at  Warsaw,  and  received  his  military 
training  at  the  artillery  schciol  directed  by  Gen. 
Pelletier.  On  leaving  this  school  he  was  ap- 
pointed Ueuteuant  of  the  horse  artillery,  served 
lu  that  capacity  under  Davoust  and  Uacdon- 
ald  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  won  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honor  by  his  cooperation  in  the 
defence  of  Dantzic,  and  after  the  onrrender  of 
that  fortress  returned  to  Poland.  As  the  czar 
Alexander  now  affected  a  great  predilection  fbr 
the  Polish  nation,  exA  reorganized  the  Polidi 
army,  Bem  entered  the  latter  in  1816  as  an 
officer  of  artillery,  but  was  soon  dismissed  for 
fighting  a  duel  with  a  auperior ;  but  he  was 
subsequently  appointed  military  teacher  at  the 
artillery  school  of  Warsaw  and  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  captain.  He  now  introduced  the 
use  of  the  Congreve  rocket  into  the  Polish 
army,  reoordim;  the  experiments  made  in  a 
volume  originally  published  in  French.  He 
was  insubordinatej  and  &om  18S0  to  1826  was 
several  times  arraigned  before  courts  martial, 
punished  with  imprisonment,  and  at  last  sMit 
to  Eook  under  strict  police  surveitlance.  He 
did  not  obtain  his  discharge  Jrom  the  Polish  ar- 
my until  the  death  of  Alexander  and  the  Peters- 
burg insurrection  made  Constantine  lose  oght 
of  him.  Leaving  Kussiaii  Poland,  he  now 
retired  to  Leraberg,  where  be  became  an  over- 
seer in  a  large  distillery,  and  wrote  a  book  oa 
steam  applied  to  the  distillation  of  alcohtd. 
When  the  Warsaw  insarreotion  of  IBSO  broke 
out  he  joined  it,  after  a  few  months  was  made 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEMBO 


513 


a  maioT  of  uiiilery,  and  in  Jnne,  18S1,  took 

part  in  the  battle  of  OBtrolenlLa,  where  he  wan 
noticed  for  the  akill  and  peraeverance  with 
which  he  fought  ag^nEt  the  vaatlj  superior  Rub- 
Eiaa  batteries.  WneD  the  Polish  annj  had  been 
finallj  repulsed  in  its  attacks  against  the  Bna- 
nsns  who  had  passed  the  Narew,  he  covered 
the  retreat  b?  a  bold  advance.  He  waa  now 
created  colonel,  aoon  after  general,  and  called 
to  the  oommaud'in-ohief  of  the  Polish  artillery. 
After  the  fall  of  Warsaw,  in  the  defence  of 
which  he  took  part,  he  crossed  the  Prussian 
frontier  with  the  rest  of  the  army,  bat  urged 
the  men  not  to  laj  down  their  arms  before  ttie 
Praasions,  and  thus  provoked  a  blood)'  ooUiaion, 
called  at  that  time  the  battle  of  Fischao.  He 
then  atmndoned  the  army  and  organized  in  Ger- 
many committees  for  the  support  of  Polish 
emigrants,  alter  which  he  went  to  Paris. 
Travels  throogh  Fortngal,  Spain,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, and  France  absorbed  his  time  during  the 
period  &om  1834  to  184S.  On  the  first  ap- 
pearance in  March,  1848,  of  revolutionary 
symptoms  in  Austrian  Poland,  he  hastened  to 
Lemberg,  and  thence,  on  Oct,  14,  to  Vienna, 
which  had  risen  in  insurrection  on  the  6th. 
But  he  in  vain  exerted  all  his  energy  in  organ- 
mag  the  insurgents.  After  a  remarkable  de- 
fence, Oct  26,  1848,  of  the  great  barricade 
erected  in  the  JSgemzeile,  and  after  the  open- 
ing of  negotiations  between  the  Vienna  magis- 
trates and  Prince  Windischgrfitz,  he  disappear- 
ed, secretly  escaping  to  Pesth.  The  revolu- 
tionary Knngarian  government  gave  him  com- 
mand of  Transylvania.  Opening  the  first  cam- 
paign toward  the  end  of  December,  1848,  with 
a  force  of  about  8,000  ill-organized  and  badly 
armed  men,  he  finished  it  in  atwnt  three  months, 
having  vanquished  Pnchner  with  an  Austrian 
army  of  20,000,  EngeUiardt  with  an  auxiliary 
force  of  6,000  Russians,  and  Urban  with  his 
freebooters.  But  during  the  next  summer  the 
war  was  renewed  by  the  Rnssians,  and,  after 
desperate  fighting  on  the  part  of  Bern  and  his 
army,  was  lermmated  disastrously  for  them 
by  the  deciuve  battles  of  SohSssburg  (July 
81,  1B49)  and  TemesvSr  (Aug.  9),  which  were 
speedily  followed  by  the  surrender  of  G6rgey. 
Aft«r  ft  Twn  attempt  to  make  a  last  stand 
at  Logos  and  in  Transylvania,  he  was  com- 
peUed  to  take  refuge  in  the  Turkish  territory. 
mth  the  purpose  of  opening  to  himself  a  new 
field  of  activity  against  Russia,  Bern  embraced 
the  Hussnlman  futh,  and  was  raised  by  the 
sultan  to  the  dignity  of  a  pasha,  tinder  the 
nam«  of  Amurath,  with  a  command  in  the 
Tnrkiah  army ;  but,  on  the  remonstrances  of 
the  Enropean  powers,  he  was  relegated  to 
Aleppo.  Having  there  succeeded  in  repressing 
some  sanguinary  exces.«es  committed  in  No- 
Temt>er,  18&0,  on  the  Christian  residents  by 
the  UuBsnlmsn  populace,  be  died  about  a 
month  later,  of  a  violent  fever,  for  which  he 
wonld  allow  no  medical  aid. — His  publications 
include  Ei^ii  geniral  de  la  mithods  tnnemo- 
niqtu  potonaiie.  Ax.  (Paris  and  Leipsic,  1839), 


part  of  which  work  served  as  a  basis  for  the 
"  Polish- American  System  of  Ohronolt^y,"  by 
Miss  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody  (New  York,  18B2). 

BEHAN,  iratkaaSd  &  &,  an  American  clergy- 
man, bom  at  Now  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in  1786, 
died  at  Carbondale,  111.,  Aug.  8, 1871.  He  grad- 
nated  at  Middlebury  college  in  180T,  studied 
theology,  and  about  1810  was  ordained  pastor 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Portland,  Me. 
Two  or  three  years  later  he  went  as  a  miamon- 
ary  to  Georgia,  where  he  devoted  himself  es- 
pecially to  the  work  of  establishing  educational 
institutions.  In  1822  he  became  pastor  of  the 
first  (and  at  that  time  the  only)  Presbyterian 
church  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  He  retained  the  charge 
of  this  church  more  than  40  years,  and  became 
a  leading  member  of  his  denomination,  entering 
warmly  into  the  temperance,  moral  reform, 
revival,  and  anti-slavery  movements  of  his 
time.  In  1881  he  was  moderator  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church ; 
and  daring  the  discussions  which  in  1887  led 
to  the  dismptioQ  of  that  church  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  New  SchodI  branch.  In  1BS3  he 
resigned  the  pastoral  office,  and  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  resided  in  Troy  or  with  his 
daughter  in  Illinois.  Dr.  Beman  was  among 
the  most  cultivated  scholars  and  eloquent 
preachers  of  the  American  church.  Many  of 
his  sermons,  addresses,  and  essays  have  been 
separately  printed ;  he  also  published  a  vol- 
ume contjiixiing  "  Four  Sermons  on  the  Atone- 
ment," and  was,  by  appointment  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly,  one  of  the  compilers  of  the 
hymn  book  adopted  by  the  New  School  branch 
of  the  Presbyterian  church. 

BEHBO.  I.  BwObito,  an  Italian  painter,  bom 
at  Valdarno,  was  emnloyed  by  the  court  of 
Milan  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 
He  assisted  in  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral 
of  Cremona,  where  lie  painted  the  "Purifica- 
tion" and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  His 
works  are  esteemed  for  their  brilliant  coloring, 
bold  attitudes,  and  splendid  drapery.  IL  (&•• 
vuil  FruccM*,  brother  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding, a  painter  of  the  Cremonese  school,  who 
of  ail  his  contemporaries  deported  furthest 
from  the  antique  manner,  and  resembles  Fra 
Bartoiommeo  in  coloring. 

lEHBO,  Pletrs,  on  Italian  cardinal  and  an- 
thor,  bom  in  Venice,  May  20,  1470,  died  in 
Rome,  Jan.  16,  1G4T.  He  was  of  a  noble  fam- 
ily, and  at  an  early  age  studied  at  Florence, 
whither  his  father  was  sent  as  ambassador, 
and  afterward  at  Messina,  whence  he  returned 
in  14S4  to  his  native  city.  Soon  after  he  wrote 
a  treatise  upon  Mount  Etna,  which  was  his  first 
publication.  He  then  froqnent«d  the  courts 
of  Ferrara  and  Urbino,  pursuing  philosophical 
and  literary  studies,  and  admired  for  his  wit 
and  graceful  manners.  Learning  and  letters 
were  then  in  the  highest  esteem  in  the  noble 
families  of  Italy,  and  Bembo  had  many  power- 
fol  patrons,  received  favors  from  Pope  Julius  II., 
ana  accompanied  his  friend  Giovanni  de'  Medici 
on  his  way  to  Rome  to  be  crowned  pope  as  Leo 


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511 


BEIT 


X.  Ha  was  made  sacretary  to  the  aew  pope, 
eiyojed  the  actjoaiatuice  of  many  distiugmshea 
men,  and  btmed  himself  with  composition. 
The  beaatifal  Moronna,  whom  he  loved,  and 
who  bore  liim  three  children,  peratiaded  him 
npon  the  death  of  Leo  X.  in  1521  to  retire 
mim  public  affairs,  and  to  spend  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  literary  elegoooe  at  Padua.  Here  he 
formed  an  extensive  library  and  collection  of 
medals,  and  eqjoyed  the  society  of  hie  teamed 
friends.  He  sometimes  visited  Rome,  and  hav- 
ing become  a  cardinal  after  the  accession  of 
Paul  III.,  he  determined  to  embrace  another 
manner  of  life.  He  resoanced  profane  letters, 
studied  the  fathers  and  theolo^ans,  was  ad- 
vanced to  several  bishoprics,  and  died  in  senti- 
menta  worthy  of  s  prince  of  tbe  church.  His 
writings,  conssting  of  letters,  poems,  dialogues, 
criticisms,  fragments,  and  e.  history  of  Venice, 
are  distinguishad  for  elegance  and  gracefulness 
of  style. 

lEH,  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  word  for  son, 
often  used  in  forming  complements  of  names; 
thus:  Sbelomeh  ben  David  (Solomon  eon  of 
David),  Moaheh  ben  Uumon  (Moses  At^moni- 
des),  Ali  ben  Hassan.  In  Arabic,  and  after  it 
In  medieval  Hebrew,  the  fprm  iin  is  used  in 
the  same  way,  being  in  rabbinical  names  often 
changed  into  aien.  The  qualifying  names  with 
the  prefixed  ben,  &o.,  are  also  nsed  independent- 
It,  uiua :  Ibn  Batuta,  Ibn  Ezra,  Ben  Gabirol, 
Bendavid ;  like  the  simitar  modem  names  Ja- 
oobson,  Mendelssohn,  and  Davison. 

BENILCIZAB,  Srbastlu  it,  the  first  conqueror 
of  Popayan,  New  Granada,  bom  about  the  end 
of  the  16th  century  at  Benalcni,  in  Estrema- 
dnra,  Bpain,  died  in  1550.  He  set  out  as  a 
common  eidlor  in  the  train  of  Fedrariaa,  the 
newly  appointed  governor  of  Darien,  in  1514. 
His  ability  and  daring  gained  for  him  the  con- 
fidence of  Fizarro,  who  sent  bim  against  the 
Indian  leader  Ruminahui.  At  the  moment  of 
engagement  the  volcano  of  Cochabambn  suf- 
fered an  eruption,  at  which  the  Peruvian  army 
was  more  frightened  than  the  Spaniarda,  and 
fled  to  Quito,  Sebastian  then  poBsessed  him- 
self of  the  smoking  ruins  of  this  city.  Thence 
be  passed  northward  and  overcame  Popayan, 
a  chief  whose  name  he  transferred  to  the  con- 
quered territory.  InSamed  by  the  qieeches 
of  an  Indian  captive,  who  spoke  of  a  chief  fiir- 
tiier  north  who  was  anointed  with  gold  pow- 
der, Benalcazar  and  his  band  determined  to 
visit  and  conquer  this  el  dorado,  or  "golden 
one."  After  traversing  vast  forests,  he  arrived 
in  1534  in  the  country  afterward  called  New 
Granada,  but  found  himself  forestalled  by  two 
other  Bpanish  adventurers.  He  returned  to 
Popayan,  and  was  mode  governor  of  that  prov- 
ince by  a  decree  dated  163S,  But  when  La 
Gaaca  succeeded  in  supplanting  Diego  Pizarro, 
he  deprived  Benalcazar  of  his  governorship, 
and  the  chagrin  ha  f^lt  at  this  slight  is  sud  to 
have  caused  his  death. 

BraAKiS,  a  city  of  British  India,  celebrated 
as  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  the  Hindoos, 


BENAItES 

ntnated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  GangM,  8(H> 
m.  N.  W.  ofCalcntta,  and  7fim.E.  of  Allaha- 
bad, in  lat  26°  19'  N".,  Ion.  82°  65'  E. ;  pop. 
about  200,000.  It  is  the  metropolis  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  which  forms  a  part  of 
the  Northwest  Provinces.  Although  so  far 
inland,  the  altitude  of  Benares  above  the  eea 
level  is  only  about  800  ft.  The  city  extends 
over  three  miles  along  the  Ganges,  and  one 
mile  from  it.  A  bridge  of  boats  crosses  the 
river  to  the  railway  station  on  the  oppoNt« 
bank.  The  width  of  the  Ganges  here  variea 
with  the  season,  sometimes  exceeding  half  a 
mile.  The  ascent  from  the  river  margin  to  the 
city  is  very  steep,  and  is  for  the  most  part  oc- 
cupied by  long  and  handsome  flights  of  broad 
stone  steps,  called  gbants.  These  terraces  are 
the  fiivorite  resort  of  the  Hindoos  in  all  their 
outdoor  pursuits.  Above  tbem  rise  the  pal- 
aces, mosques,  towers,  and  temples  of  the 
city,  which  as  seen  from  the  Ganges,  in  their 
massive  and  gorgeous  architecture,  present  ft 
striking  and  impressive  picture  of  oriental 
grandeur.  The  interior  of  Benares,  however, 
is  by  no  means  so  attractive,  the  houses  being 
high  and  closely  built,  with  no  streets  wide 
enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  carriages.  The 
loftier  and  better  class  of  dwellings  are  built 
of  brick,  and  have  an  interior  courtyard ;  but 
many  of  the  houses  are  rimply  cabins  of  dried 
mad  roofed  with  tiles.  Benares  has  been  ap- 
propriately termed  the  Mecca  of  the  Hindoos, 
A  txue  Brahman  regards  it  as  the  holirat  spot 
on  earth,  and  believes  that  fbture  bleesedneea 
is  secure  to  the  worst  of  men  who  is  fortunate 
enough  to  die  within  its  precincts.  Hundreds 
of  invalids  ore  brought  here  to  be  sanctified  by 
so  enviable  a  death.  Even  the  water  of  the 
sacred  Ganges  is  holier  here  than  elsewhere, 
and  quantities  of  it  are  taken  from  the  ghauts 
and  conveyed  by  pious  pilgrime  to  every  part 
of  India.  Along  the  terraced  riverside  firea 
are  continually  burning,  on  which  emonlder  the 
bodies  of  the  recent  dead.  The  sacred  Brali- 
man  bulls  roam  in  large  numbers  through  the 
□arrow  streets  at  will,  frequently  dispnting 
the  right  of  way  with  foot  passengers.  There 
are  not  fewer  than  1,000  Hindoo  temples  in 
the  city.  The  golden  temple  of  Shiva,  the 
reigning  deity  of  Benares,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated,  but  is  neither  very  beaatifal  nor 
attractive.  The  Doorgha  Eond,  the  famous 
temple  of  the  sacred  monkeys,  although  os- 
tensibly devoted  to  the  worship  of  ibe  goddesa 
Doorgha,  is  in  reality  the  dwelling  of  swarms 
of  large  yellow  monkeys,  who  overrun  a  quar- 
ter of  tbe  city.  They  are  maintained  and 
carefully  t^ided  by  the  Brahmons,  who  imagine 
them  to  possess  certain  holy  attributes.  The 
temple  overlooks  one  of  the  finest  tanks  in  India. 
The  Hindoos  are  the  dominant  race  in  Benares, 
constituting  nine  tenths  of  the  entire  popnlation. 
On  important  rali^ous  occasions  throngs  of 
pilgrims,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  100,000, 
come  from  all  parts  of  Hindostan  to  visit  the 
h<dy  city.    The  Mohammedan  mosques  in  Be- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BENABE8 

nares  namber  more  than  800,  that  built  by 
Annmgiebe  in  the  ITth  centur/  being  the 
most  prominent  It  occupies  th«  site  of  au 
ancient  Bindoo  temple  in  the  centre  of  the 
city.  Its  28  minarets  rise  ench  232  ft.  above 
the  snrface  of  the  Ganges,  the  fonndatioua  ex- 
tending to  the  water's  edge.  The  architecture 
of  the  building  ia  variously  described  as  bean- 
tifnl  and  unattractive.  The  observatorj  of  Jai 
Singh,  established  during  the  Uogul  supremacy, 
is  a  massive  Htractnre,  furnished  with  cnrious 
astronomical  instruments  and  ancient  oriental 
drawings  of  the  celestial  heavens.  A  Hindoo 
Sanskrit  college  was  fonnded  in  IT02,  to  which 
an  English  department  was  added  in  I8S2, 
providing  inatmction  in  mathematics,  history, 
belles-lettres,  and  ptolitical  eoonomj.  There 
are  other  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  schools, 
and  several  foreign  Ohristian 


BENBOW 


515 


court  of  civil  and  criminal  justice  is  maintained 
by  the  British  government.  8ecrole,  the  Eng- 
lish settlement  containing  t)ie  official  ren- 
dences  and  cantonments,  lies  between  2  and  8 
m.  W.  of  the  native  town.  It  i^  an  unhealthy 
station  and  much  dreaded  by  European  troo]>9. 
The  manufactures  of  Benares  comprise  cottons, 
woollens,  silks,  and,  magnificent  gold  brocades. 
The  city  ia  the  centre  of  a  large  provincial 
trade  in  fine  shawls,  muslins,  and  diamonds, 
which  articles,  in  addition  to  its  own  manu- 
factures, form  the  principal  exports.  It  is  also 
a  great  mart  of  distribution  for  European 
goods.— ^The  modem  city  of  Benares  dates  from 
the  period  of  Mohammedan  ascendancy  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  but  the  rains 
found  va  the  vicinity  indicate  a  much  earlier 
origin.  The  Hindoos  believe  Benares  to  have 
been  founded  at  the  creation  of  the  world.    It 


is  noteworthy  that  three  great  reltgions  have 
flonriahed  there:  Buddhism,  the  founders  of 
which  there  began  to  propagate  their  iaith; 
Mohammedanism,  which  was  temporarily  dom- 
inant ;  and  Brahmanism,  which  has  regained  its 
snpremaoy. — The  district  of  Benares  has  an 
area  of  about  1,000  sq,  m.  and  a  population  of 
about  800,000.  It  is  abundantly  watered  by  the 
O-aoges,  Goomtee,  and  many  smaller  streams. 
The  climate  is  characterized  by  violent  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  with  a  meau  of  77°  F., 
and  an  annual  rainfall  of  more  tlian  30  inches. 
The  country  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  pro-« 
dacing  abnndant  crops  of  sui^r,  opinm,  and 
indigo.  It  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany in  1775  by  the  king  or  nawanb  of  Oude, 
who  acquired  it  after  the  destruction  of  the 
jlognl  empire.  On  an  agreement  providing  for 
the  payment  of  certain  tribute,  the  East  India 


company  in  1776  granted  the  district  to  B^Jali 
Cheyt  Singh.  Tliia  agreement  was  broken  by 
Warren  Hastings  as  governor  general,  and  ita 
violation  was  the  subject  of  one  of  the  charges 
on  which  he  was  subsequently  impeached. 

BENBOW,  J*hi,  an  English  admiral,  bom  at 
Newport  in  1650,  died  in  Jamaica,  Nov.  4, 
1702.  He  was  reared  in  the  merohant  service, 
and  in  a  trip  to  the  Mediterranean  in  168S  he 
fought  BO  desperately  agiunst  an  African  cor- 
sair, that  he  was  invited  to  the  Spanish  court 
by  Charles  II,,  who  recommended  him  to 
James  II.  of  England.  The  latter  pave  him 
the  command  of  a  ship  of  war  to  protect  Brit- 
ish interests  in  the  English  channel,  and  subse- 
quently he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear 
admiral,  and  employed  in  blockading  and  bom- 
barding the  Frendi  ports.  In  1701,  with  a 
squadron  under  his  command,  he  sdled  to  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


616 


BENCOOLEN 


West  Todies.  Hia  Baccess  yraa  commended  b7 
the  hoaseof  commonB,  and  in  170S,  on  a  second 
expedition,  he  encoantered  the  French  fleet 
under  Ducasse,  and  for  Bve  days  maiuttuned  a 
running  flght  with  them.  He  sacceeded  ia 
brining  tEe  enemy's  aternmost  ship  to  close 
qnartera,  bat  his  chief  officers  refused  to  »econd 
bis  efforts.  Here  he  lost  a  leg  bj  a  chain-ahot, 
an  event  which,  though  it  did  not  abate  bis  ar- 
dor, gave  occasion  for  some  of  his  captains  t« 
agree  "thatnothingmore  wastobedone."  On 
his  return  to  Jam»ca  he  brought  the  delin- 
qaents  before  a  court  martial,  which  convict- 
ed them  of  disobedience  and  cowardice,  and 
caused  them  to  be  shot.  His  wound,  and  the 
emotion  caused  by  these  events,  concurred  with 
a  pnlmonar^  disease  to  hast«n  liis  death. 

BENCOOLEN  (Malay,  Bangka  Ulu,  rolling  op- 
lauds).  ■■  A  Dutch  re8iden(^  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  Sumatra ;  area,  including  the  island  of 
Engano,8,T36ftq.m.;  pop.abont  100,000.  The 
surface  is  hillj  and  undulating.  The  soil  is  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  iaUnd ; 
it  b  for  the  most  part  a  stiff  red  claj,  burnt 
nearly  to  the  state  of  a  brick  where  it  is  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  The  chief  culture  was  pepper 
during  the  first  interconrse  of  Europeans  with 
this  country.  In  1799  the  clove  and  nutmeg 
were  introduced  from  the  Moluccas ;  but  the  lat- 
ter alone  has  succeeded,  and  that  only  by  ma- 
nuring and  much  labor  and  care.  Some  of  the 
forests  abound  in  guttapercha  and  gjitta  taban 
trees,  which  produce  a  gnm  of  excellent  qual- 
ity. Coffee  ia  cultivated  to  considerable  ex- 
tent. The  ttyrax  heiuoin  tree,  from  which  the 
gum  beiyfiniin  of  commerce  is  obtained,  is 
grown  in  plantations.  The  bnffolo  and  goat 
are  the  only  large  animals  domesticated.  Ti- 
gers are  very  numerous,  and  materially  impede 
the  prosperity  of  the  country.  The  R^anga, 
one  of  ine  most  civilized  races  of  Sumatra, 
compose  the  greater  portion  of  the  population 
of  this  territory.  11.  The  chief  town  of  the 
readeney,  in  lat  8"  47'  S.,  Ion.  108°  19'  E. ; 
pop.  about  10,000.  The  British  East  India 
company  established  a  factory  at  this  point 
for  the  pepper  trade  in  1SS5.  In  1714  Fort 
Marlborough  was  founded,  3  m.  distant.  In 
1760  the  French  under  Count  d'Estaing  cap- 
tared  and  took  possession  of  the  fort  and  fac- 
tory; but  they  were  restored  to  the  company 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763.  By  the  treaty 
of  London  in  1824,  the  English  government 
ceded  the  fort  and  factory,  and  establishments 
dependent  on  them,  which  then  embraced  a 
territory  of  about  12  sq.  m.,  to  the  Dutch,  in 
exchange  for  Malacca  and  its  territory,  and  a 
small  post  near  Madras.  Bencoolen  was  an  un- 
profitable dependency  of  the  Bengal  prewdency, 
and  cost  the  East  India  company,  on  an  aver- 
age, about  )60,000  per  annum  during  the  whole 
period  of  its  posMssion ;  it  was  maintained 
partly  from  a  point  of  honor,  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  an  over-estimate  of  the  advantages 
expected  to  grow  out  of  the  pepper  trade. 
During  the  English  possession  tlie  town  con- 


BENDEMANN 

tained  20,000  inhabitants,  bnt  haa  nowdwindled 
to  one  half  that  number,  composed  of  R^angs, 
Malaya,  Bughis,  and  a  large  numtier  of  Arabs 
and  Chinese.  A  Dutch  asfflstant  resident  is 
stationed  there. 

BENDl.  [•  Fnu,  a  German  violinist,  bom 
at  Old  Benatek,  in  Bohemia,  in  170S,  died  at 
Potsdam  in  I7S8.  He  acquired  an  extraordi- 
nary mastery  of  the  violin,  receiving  his  first 
lessons  from  a  blind  musician  in  a  band  of 
strolling  players.  In  1783  be  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Frederick  the  Great,  then  prince  royal, 
with  whom  he  remained  the  rest  of  his  long 
life.  Ue  founded  a  school  of  violinists,  whose 
method  of  playing  was  original  and  effective. 
He  also  published  some  excellent  solos  for  the 
violin.    IL  Ge«rg,  a  composer,  brother  of  the 

£  receding,  bom  in  Bohemia  in  1721,  died  at 
!0stritzin  ITSG.  He  passed  many  yearsof  lus 
life  OS  a  musician  in  the  sen-ice  of  the  conrta 
of  Prussia  and  Gotha,  and  improved  his  style 
by  a  visit  to  Italy.  Ho  composed  a  number  of 
comic  operas,  and  two  of  a  serious  character  en> 
titled  "  Ariadne  in  Naxos  "  and  "  Medea, "  which 
are  written  with  much  feeling  and  taste.  Be- 
sides his  operas,  Benda  wrote  some  excellent 
sonatas  for  the  harpsichord. 

BENDIVID,  I^nns,  a  German  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  of  Jewish  parentage,  bom 
in  BerUn,  Oct  18, 1763,  died  there,  March  2i 
1883.  A  glass-cutter  by  trade,  he  atttunea 
great  proficiency  in  mathematics,  and  the 
highest  praise  was  awarded  by  XWner  to  hia 
first  published  disquisition  in  178C,  Theoriedrr 
FaralUlm,  followed  in  178B  by  Viu  siatAema- 
tUeAe  Unendliekii.  Alter  lecturing  in  Berlin 
and  studying  in  GOttingen,  he  delivered  in  Vi- 
enna for  about  four  years  lectures  on  Kantian 
philosophy  and  ssthetics  which  be  afterward 
published.  Persecnted  in  Vienna,  he  retnmed 
to  Berlin  in  1797,  and  ^nt  the  rest  of  hia  life 
there,  engaged  in  lecturing  and  literary  labors, 
and  in  presiding  over  the  Jewish  free  school, 
which  under  his  direction  rose  to  great  excel- 
lence. His  works  include  Vorluvngen  ^btr 
die  Kritik  der  reinen  Vmfur^ft  (Vienna, 
I7eC;  2d  ed.,  Beriin,  1802);  Vermeh  iber 
dot  VergnOgen  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1794);  Ver- 
tveh  finer  Oachmaeitlehre  (Berlin,  1798); 
Venueh  einer  ReehUUhrt  (1802) ;  Ueber  den 
Urtpruag  vnierer  ErlenntniMt  (a  miie  essay, 
1803) ;  Ueber  die  Religion  der  Ehrder  tor 
JfoM*  (1812);  and  Zur  Bertehnung  dtM  jidi- 
tehen  Kalendert  (1817). 

Bi3(BEMUffl,  Ediard,  a  German  p^ter,  of 
the  DOsseldorf  school,  bom  in  Beriin,  Dec  8, 
1811.  He  ia  the  son  of  a  Jewish  banker,  and 
was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  who  had  a  very  great 
influence  upon  his  style,  and  led  him  to  ado^ 
many  characteristics  exhibited  in  nearly  all  hia 
'paintings.  Bendemann  was  only  21  years  of 
age  when  his  first  great  picture,  "  The  Moummg 
Jews,"  aoqaired  for  him  a  lasting  celebrity- 
In  1888  he  was  made  professor  at  the  academy 
of  art  in  Dresden.  He  was  also  chosen  to  dec- 
orate with  frescoes  the  principal  rooms  of  tbo 


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BENDER 

lojal  palace  there ;  and  the  paintings  be  exe- 
ODted  are  amcHU  the  best  of  his  works.  In 
1860  be  was  made  director  of  the  academy  at 
Doaaeldorf;  which  poeition  he  etill  holds  (1678). 
He  has  produced  a  very  great  nnmber  of  re- 
marluble  and  celebrated  works,  bewdes  the 
frtsooes  with  which  he  has  decorated  pabUo 
bniidings  in  Germanj. 

BEMDIS  ^Rasa.  Bendarp),  a  fortified  town  <^ 
Roana,  capital  of  a  district  in  tbe  province  of 
Bessarabia,  on  the  right  bank  and  about  AS  m. 
from  the  month  of  tbe  Dniester,  S6  ra.  S.  £.  of 
Eisfaenev ;  pop.  in  1869,  S4,448,  inclnding  Jews, 
Bosaians,  Tartars,  Armenians,  and  Moldavians. 
The  town  is  partly  bnilt  in  the  shape  of  a  cres- 
cent, and  is  separated  from  the  strong  oitadel, 
which  stands  on  an  emioence,  bj  a  large  space 
with  a  monnd,  called  after  Snvaroff,  There  are 
seven  gates  and  several  snbnrbs,  and  the  small 
bouses  and  nnmerons  hovels  extend  far  into 
the  surrounding  steppe.  The  streets  are  dirty 
and  gloom;,  and  the  town  generally  has  an 
oriental  aspect,  enhanced  by  many  mosques, 
which  with  one  exception  are  now  appropriated 
to  seonlar  pnrposeB.  The  naUvas  are  moatiy 
occupied  in  ^rionltare  and  grazing.  Salt- 
petre, leather,  and  paper  are  manafactnred 
to  some  extent.  The  Busnana  are  the  moet 
indoatrions.  The  chief  lacgriage  Is  Bonma- 
nian.  The  transit  business  with  Odessa,  Jas- 
sy,  and  other  places  is  very  active,  the  prin- 
cipal trade  being  in  grain,  wine,  wool,  cat- 
tle, tallow,  and  timber. — The  Genoese  had  a 
settlement  here  as  early  as  the  12th  centary, 
bat  the  town  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
thoroDghlj  Mtablished  till  the  14th  centary. 
la  tbe  16th  it  passed  with  Uoldavia  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  who  built  the  fortiGcatioDB. 
After  the  battle  of  Poltava  (July  8,  170») 
Oharles  XII.  escaped  to  Bender,  and  was  per- 
mitted b^  the  Turkish  authorities  U>  reside  for 
several  years  in  the  neighboring  village  of 
Vamitza.  The  Rassisns  under  Panin  stormed 
and  bnmed  the  town  Sept  26,  ITTO,  and  mas- 
sacred the  garrisoD  and  the  inhabitants,  killing 
aboat  80,000.  The  tr«aty  of  peace  of  1771 
restored  the  town  to  Turkey.  It  waa  again 
taken  by  the  Russians  under  Potemkin,  Nov. 
10,  1780;  bat  the  Turks  were  once  more  re- 
instated till  I80fl,  when  Meyendorff  retook  the 
place,  and  hi  1812  it  was  by  the  treaty  of 
Bucharest  united  to  Rnsua  bother  with  the 
re«t  of  Bessarabia. 

mnHSH,  KrUget,  the  eranddanghter  of  Oli- 
ver Oromwell  of  England,  and  the  daughter  of 
Gen.  Ireton,  born  about  IftSO,  die<l  in  1737. 
In  her  early  years  she  lived  at  Cromwell's 
court,  and  was  present  at  the  andieaceshegave 
to  foreign  ambassadors.  8be  iwre  awonderfal 
resemblance  to  the  protector,  physically  and 
morally;  her  energy  was  immense ;  she  would 
work  for  days  together  without  sleeping;  had 
OQOommon  conversational  powers;  was  liable 
to  periodic  attacks  of  religions  ecstasy ;  and 
managed  her  salt  works  at  Southtown,  in  Nor- 
folk, with  great  exactness.    She  could  never 


presence  he  waa ;  she  jumped  out 
at  the  next  stage,  snatched  a  sword  from 
another  fellow  passenger,  and  cliallenged  the 
royalist  gentleman  to  a  dnel.  She  would  some- 
times drive  hor  carriage  into  Yarmouth,  and 
sp^nd  an  evening  at  the  assembly  rooms  in  that 
city,  where  her  princely  manners,  venerable 
aspect,  and  imposing  energy  of  voice  and  man- 
ner recalled  the  protector.  A  memoir  of  her 
by  a  local  physician  has  been  preserved,  and 
translated  into  French  by  Ouizot, 

BENEDEK,  Lidwlg  vsa,  an  Austrian  soldier, 
born  at  Oedenburg,  W.  Hnngary,  in  1804.  He 
is  the  son  of  a  phyidcian,  studied  at  the  milita- 
ry academy  of  Neustailt,  near  Vienna,  entered 
the  army  as  a  cornet  in  1822,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  colonel  in  184S.  He  fought 
agunat  the  insurants  in  Galicia  in  1846,  agunst 
the  Italians  in  1848,  and  in  1859  commanded  at 
Solferino  the  left  wing  of  the  Austrian  army, 
which  was  the  last  to  leave  the  field.  In  18S0 
be  became  field  marshal  and  governor  general 
of  Hnngary,  inNovemberof  tbe  same  year  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Italy,  and  in  1866  in  the  war 
with  the  PriiBsiana,  by  whom  he  waa  cmsh- 
ingly  defeated  at  Sadowa,  July  8.  He  was 
superseded  by  the  archduke  Albert,  nnder 
whom  he  served  till  October,  when  he  was  jiut 
on  the  retired  list,  his  disastrous  generalsnip 
against  the  Prnssiana  destroying  hb  reputation. 

BGNEDEm,  VlMCBt,  count,  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Corsica  about  181C.  He  is  of 
Greek  oripn,  and  the  husband  of  a  wealthy 
Greek  lady,  was  French  consul  in  Curo  and 
Palermi^'  secretary  of  l«fation  in  Constanti- 
nople, director  of  the  political  department  in 
tbe  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  secrotaiy 
during  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1856).  His  acquaintance  with  Count  Cavoar 
led  to  his  being  sent  in  1860  to  Turin  to  ne- 
gotiate the  flntd  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France;  andhewasainbaBsadorthereinl861-'S. 
In  1864  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Ber- 
lin, and  was  made  a  conut  in  1869.  In  1870 
be  was  ordered  to  protest  a^nst  the  condi- 
datnre  of  Prince  Ltwpoldof  Hohenzollem  for 
the  throne  of  Spain.  The  Prussian  cabinet 
T^eot«d  this  protest  July  4,  upon  which  Ben- 
edetti  appealed  in  person  to  the  king  of  Pruswa 
at  Ems  on  Jnly  9,  end  agtun  on  July  11,  bnt 
the  king  declined  to  interfere.  The  prince  of 
Hohenzollem  voluntarily  withdrew  from  the 
candidature  July  12.  Benedetti  was  neverthe- 
less instructed  to  insist  upon  King  William's 
apologizing  to  Napoleon  III.  for  having  sanc- 
tioned it,  and  upon  his  pledging  himself  agiunst 
its  renewal;  and  although  Count  Bismarck  de- 
clined to  entertain  this  demand,  tlie  French 
envoy  importuned  the  king  personally  in  the 
public  walks  at  Ems  July  IS,  in  a  manner  so 
displeasing  that  he  was  informed  that  no  further 
interviews  would  be  granted  to  him.  He  there- 
upon left  Ems  (July  14)  for  Paris,  and  war 


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518  BEN1 

against  Pnuua  waa  virtnallf  declftred  on  the 
following  day  bj  a  resolution  of  the  corps 
l^Kislati^  and  formaltj  hy  the  government  on 
July  19.  Besedetti  having  accnsed  Bismarcti 
at  that  period  of  having  originated  in  166S  on 
alleged  Franco-Pmssian  treaty  ftir  ai  mntnal 
cession  of  territory,  the  latter  had  documentarT' 
evidence  pahlished  Aug.  10,  18T0,  showing  tliat 
the  French  ambassador  initiated  theite  negotia- 
tions on  Aug.  5,  1866,  by  the  direction  of  Na- 
poleon 111.  Benedetti  published  in  1871  Ma 
mimon  en  PrvMe  (3d  ed.,  1872),  disavowing 
any  intentional  rudeness  toward  the  king,  and 
maintaining  that  he  act«d  throughout  in  um- 
ple  obedience  to  his  instmctions. 

BEHBHCr,  the  name  of  several  popes  of  the 
Soman  Catholio  church.  L  BuedM  IL,  elect- 
ed in  6S1,  died  in  SSS.  He  was  a  Roman, 
remarkable  for  Scriptural  science,  pie^,  and 
kindness  to  the  poor.  He  caused  the  decrees 
of  the  sixth  general  conncil  (against  the  Uono- 
thelites)  to  be  accepted  by  the  Spanish  bishops, 
and  induced  the  Greek  emperor  to  give  up  the 
usurped  right  of  confirming  the  election  of 
the  pope.  Il>  BCM4lct  m.,  a  Roman,  elected 
in  666,  died  April  8,  868.  He  is  praised  for 
meekness  and  benevolence,  built  and  beauti- 
fied churchea  in  Borne,  and  in  concert  with 
Ethelwolf,  king  of  the  Anglo-Baxons,  establish- 
ed an  English  college  in  Rome.  He  confirmed 
the  depoatioD  of  Gregory,  the  unworthy  bishop 
of  Syracuse,  pronounced  by  Ignatius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  which  was  tbe  occasion  of 
the  ^bsequent  deposition  of  Ignatiua  and  in- 
trusion of  Photina  in  his  place,  and  of  the  Gredc 
schism,  m.  Bcudht  VIU.,  aon  of  the  count 
of  Tnsoalnni,  and  cardinal  bishop  of  Porto, 
elected  June  17,  1012  died  in  1024.  The  Ger- 
man emperor  Henry  II.  and  his  wife  St.  Cune- 
gcnda  were  crowned  by  him.  He  made  two 
visits  to  Germany,  durmg  the  latter  of  which 
he  received  the  city  of  Bamberg  aa  a  present, 
aflerward  exchanged  for  Benevento.  During 
his  reign  the  Saracens  attacked  the  pontifio^ 
territory,  but  were  defeated  and  driven  away 
by  the  troops  of  Benedict,  after  a  bloody  and 
obstinate  battle  of  three  days.  The  Greeks 
afterward  invaded  Apulia,  but  were  driven  out 
by  the  ud  of  the  emperor  Henry.  Pope  Bene- 
dict introduced  the  custom  at  Rome  of  anging 
the  Nicene  creed  during  mass.  He  renewed  the 
ordinancea  of  the  council  of  Nice  relative  to 
sacerdotal  celibacy.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  under  the  name  of  John  XIX.  I¥> 
BsMdM  II.  (NiooLft  BoocASiin),  bom  in  Traviso 
in  1240,  died  in  Perugia,  July  S,  ISOl.  He  was 
general  of  the  Dominicans  when  Boniface  VIII. 
made  him  cardinal,  and  afterward  bishop  of 
Ostia  and  Viterbo,  and  employed  him  in  many 
important  affairs.  He  waa  a  devoted  partisan 
of  Boniface,  and  remained  with  him  at  Anagni 
after  all  the  other  cardinals  had  fied.  Suc- 
ceeding Boniface  in  1S03,  he  composed  the 
difficulties  with  Franc«  and  Sicily,  both  of 
which  kingdoms  had  bwn  Itud  under  an  int«r- 
dict.    He  was  remorkSbie  for  humility.    On 


one  occasion,  when  his  mother  presented  her- 
self at  his  court  splendidly  attired,  he  refused 
to  reco^ze  her  until  she  had  resumed  the 
dress  suitable  to  her  humble  state  of  life.  He 
died  by  poison,  and  was  beatified  by  Benedict 
XIV.  He  wrote  conunentaries  on  Job,  the 
Psalms,  the  Apocalypse,  and  St.  Matthew.  >?• 
BeselM  XIL  (Jacocbb  db  Notellib  or  FouB- 
nieb),  horn  at  Saverdun,  France,  died  April 
25,  1342.  He  was  a  Ciatercian,  and  a  nephew 
of  John  XXII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  13S4  at 
Avignon.  He  waa  an  eminent  canonist  and 
tbeolt^an,  and  a  severe  reformer.  He  defined 
the  doctrine  that  the  beatitude  of  the  just  and 
the  punishment  of  the  wicked  commence  be- 
fore the  final  judgment  VL  BcMdct  Xni.,  of 
the  princely  house  of  Ornni,  bom  in  Uie  king- 
dom of  Naples  in  1649,  died  Feb.  21, 1780.  He 
became  a  Dominican  at  an  early  age.  Having 
with  great  reluctance  accepted  the  dignities  dl 
bishop  and  cardinal,  he  oontinned  to  live  bs  a 
rample  monli.  and  devoted  all  his  leisure  hoars 
to  study  and  prayer.  As  a  bishop  he  was  de- 
vot«d  to  his  pastoral  duties,  and  miiversally 
loved ;  and  as  cardinal  he  led  what  was  called 
the  party  of  the  Zeloati,  who  were  pledged  to 
-voie  at  the  conclave  for  the  candidate  deemed 
by  the  college  of  cardinals  the  most  worthy, 
without  regard  to  any  worldly  or  political  inter- 
est He  was  choeen  to  ancceed  Innocent  XIII. 
in  1724,  and  accepted  the  papal  dignity  mider 
obedieuoe  to  the  command  of  the  general  of 
his  Older,  with  many  tears.  His  principal 
efiTorts  were  directed  to  restore  and  uphold  ec- 
clesiastical discipline.  He  wrote  homiliee  im 
the  book  of  Exodus.  TU.  BneiM  XUL,  anti- 
pope.  See  LiiNA,  PsDBO  se.  VIII.  BMe<M 
XIV.  (Fbospebo  Lobhnio  Lakbbbtuti),  bom 
of  an  ancient  family  at  Bologna  in  16T6,  died 
May  8,  17B8.  From  his  yonth  he  devoted  him- 
self to  study  and  science,  espedally  to  canon 
law  and  theolc^.  After  a  long  and  laborious 
career  in  different  offices  of  the  Roman  pre- 
Uture,  he  was  in  17S8  made  cardinal  priest 
and  archbishop  of  Ancona  by  Benedict  Alll. 
In  1781  Clement  XII.  transferred  him  to  Bo- 
logna, where  he  remained  until  his  election  to 
the  papacy,  which  took  place,  most  unex- 
pectedly, Aug.  17, 1740.  He  was  then  65  yews 
of  age,  and  he  reigned  18  years.  During  tlie 
intervELla  of  public  buunesa  be  contrived  to  ap- 
ply himself  to  his  favorite  studies,  and  miin- 
t^ned  a  correspond enoe  with  all  the  most 
eminent  writers  of  the  day.  He  was  a  great 
patron  of  science,  learning,  the  fine  arts,  and 
charitable  institntiona.  The  complete  collec- 
tion of  his  works  fills  16  folio  volumes,  and  in- 
cludes treatises  on  the  beatification  and  can- 
onization of  saints,  on  the  mass,  on  the  chnrch 
festivals,  and  on  canonical  and  moral  questions, 
besides  his  Inttitutionet  EecUtiattica,  and  sev- 
eral volujnes  of  Miteellanea.  Many  of  these 
works  were  originally  written  in  Italian. 

BEHTEDICT,  Bumamed  Biacop,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic aaint,  bom  in  England  in  628,  died  Jan.  12, 
690.    At  the  age  of  26  he  quitted  the  court  of 


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BENEDICT 

fiiDg  Oswin,  at  which  he  held  a  distia^ished 
position,  and  devoted  himgelf  to  the  Btadj  of 
theology  and  monastio  discipline.  For  this 
pnrpose  he  made  three  journeys  to  Rome,  aod 
then  founded  the  monasteries  qT  Weannoath 
and  Yarrow,  of  which  he  retained  the  direc- 
tion. He  enooaraged  the  monks  in  the  acqui- 
tiitian  of  learning,  eBpecially  with  a  collection 
of  Greek  and  Roman  authore  which  be  had 
made  npon  his  travelB,  and  in  chantiing,  intro- 
dncing  the  Gregorian  chant  into  England.  He 
also  boilt  a  stone  chnroh  at  Wearmooth  in  the 
Italian  style,  and  fomiBhed  its  windows  witii 
glass  bronght  from  France.  Among  his  wri- 
tbgs  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Celebration  of  Feasts  " 
is  still  eitant.  His  life  was  written  by  the 
Venerable  Bede,  who  was  one  of  hia  disciples. 

BEMeDlCr,  abbot  of  Peterborough,  an  Eng- 
lish monk  and  hiatoriui,  died  in  11S3.  He 
■tadied  at  Oxford,  became  prior  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Christ  Ohnroh  in  Canterbnry,  shared 
the  friendship  both  of  Becket  and  King  Henry, 
as8bt«d  at  the  coronatdon  of  Richard  I.,  under 
whom  be  was  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and 
wrote  a  hiatorj  of  the  two  kings  and  a  life  of 
the  prelate,  which  are  still  extant. 

IHIEDICT,  Sir  JiHh,  a  German  compoeer, 
bom  in  Stuttgart,  Not.  27,  1804.  Having 
early  dereloped  a  talent  for  music,  he  was 
placed  by  bis  father,  a  rich  Jewish  banker,  un- 
der the  instmction  of  Lonis  Abeille,  concert 
master  to  the  king  of  Wtlrtemberg.  At  the 
age  of  12  he  had  made  aitonisbing  progress 
npon  the  pianoforte,  bat  his  father  insisted 
that  his  musical  pursuits  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  interfere  with  hia  literary  studies. 
These  latter  t>eing  couclnded  in  1819,  Benedict 
was  sent  to  Weimar  and  placed  under  thft  di- 
rection of  Hummel.  In  1820  he  went  to  Dres- 
den to  receive  lessons  from  Weber,  then  en- 
gaged in  the  composition  of  his  Earyantht. 
With  this  composer  Benedict  formed  an  inti- 
mate friendship,  aoeompanying  him  to  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  other  cities  where  Weber's  operas 
were  produced.  In  1824  Benedict  was  np- 
pointea  director  of  the  German  opera  at  Vi- 
enna. He  went  to  Naples  in  1826,  and  directed 
muMD  at  one  of  the  theatres  in  that  oity  forf 
eral  years,  producing  his  first  opera,  Giaeinta 
ed  EmtMto,  there  in  1827.  In  1630  he  went  to 
Paris  for  a  short  time,  and  finally  in  18S5  to 
London,  which  oity  thenceforth  became  his 
home.  He  was  soon  very  popular  there  as  a 
pianoforte  instructor,  and  held  successively 
and  for  short  periods  the  position  of  masical 
director  at  the  lyceum  and  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1838  he  produced  his  first  English  opera,  "The 
Gypsy's  Warning,"  which  was  succeeded  by 
"  The  Brides  of  Venice  "  and  "  The  Cruaadera," 
all  of  which  were  well  received  and  kept  the 
stage  for  long  periods.  In  1860  Benedict  accom- 
panied Jenny  Lind  as  accompanist  and  director 
of  the  orchestra  on  her  tour  in  the  United 
States.  Returning  to  Europe  in  1851,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  lose  both  hia  wife  and  his 
eldest  child  in  the  same  year,  while  on  a 


BENM>IOTDrES 


519 


to  Italy.  Resuming  his  musical  labors  in  Lon- 
don in  1862,  he  devoted  himself  in  great  part  to 
oomposition,  producing  many  works  for  piano- 
forte, for  stringed  instruments,  and  for  orches- 
tra, and  acting  as  conductor  at  the  Italian 
opera  in  Loudon  and  at  many  of  the  great 
Ei^lish  feativala.  In  1800  his  cantata  "Un- 
dine "  was  produced  at  the  Norwich  festival. 
His  "Lily  of  Killamey"  was  brought  out  in 
18S2,  his  cantata  "Richard  Cceur  de  Lion"  in 
18BS,  and  his  operetta  "The Bride  of  Song"  in 
1864.  Among  his  later  works  are  a  concerto 
for  the  pianoforte,  his  "Legend  of  St.  Cecilia," 
and  his  oratorio  of  "  St.  Petor,"  which  latter 
was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  festival  of 
1870.    In  18T1  he  was  knighted. 

BESEDICr,  Sidat,  bom  at  Nnrsia  in  TTmbria 
in  480,  died  March  21,  648.  His  parents  sent 
him  to  Rome  to  stndy,  but,  disgnsted  with  the 
vices  and  temptations  he  found  there,  he  fled 
to  the  desert  of  Subiaco,  between  Tivoli  and 
Bora.  After  a  time  he  could  no  longer  con- 
ceal himself  and  finally  built  a  monastery  on 
Honte  Casino,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  and  presided  as  abbot 
during  14  years. 

BBKranCr  OF  INIINE,  a  Roman  Catholic  s^t, 
bom  in  Languedoo  about  750,  died  near  Aix- 
la-Ohapelle,  Feb.  11,831.  Having  forsaken  the 
conrii  of  Charlemagne,  he  established  himself 
in  a  hermitage  upon  the  bank  of  tbe  Aniane  in 
Languedoo.  Snch  was  the  austerity  of  Ms  life 
that  disciples  gathered  around  him,  and  in  782 
he  constructed  a  monaster;  for  their  reception. 
Here  he  instituted  a  reform  in  monastic  disci- 
pline which  was  extensively  adopted  in  other 
convents,  and  afterward  was  introduced  into 
all  the  monasteries  of  Aquitaine  in  pursuance  of 
authority  received  from  Louis  le  Dfibonnaire. 
He  finally  assumed  the  direction  of  a  monastery 
which  was  built  eipresaly  for  him  near  Aijt-la- 
Chapelle,  and  there  patised  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  induced  the  monies  who  were  un- 
der his  control  to  copy  the  works  of  the  best 
authors,  and  thus  rendered  an  important  ser- 
vice to  the  oanse  of  civilization.  Hia  code  of 
rules  was  published  at  Paris  in  1638. 

BBIEDICTHES,  an  order  of  monks  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  mles  drawn  up 
by  St.  Benedict  gradually  superseded  those  of 
8L  Columban  and  others  which  had  previously 
prevailed.  His  order,  foanded  early  in  the 
6th  century,  spread  rapidly  and  widely.  Its 
monks  planted  Christianity  in  Saxon  England, 
Friesland,  and  Germany,  and  Father  Boil,  a 
Benedictine,  was  sent  out  with  Colambna  on 
his  second  voyage  as  vicar  apostoho  of  the  new 
world.  The  order  duma  24  popes,  16,000 
bishops,  and  40,000  beatified  or  canonized 
saints.  The  rnlea  were  fav  and  simple.  The 
Benedictines  were  at  first  laics,  and  employed 
chiefiy  in  manual  labor;  hut  gradually  the 
order  became  a  body  of  learned  priests.  During 
the  middle  ages  they  were  the  great  preservers 
of  ancient  learning  and  assiduous  cultivators  of 
science  and  art,  copying  and  preserving  the 


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520  BENEDICTINES 

clasacB,  the  Scriptures,  and  writiags  of  the 
earlj  fatliers.  For  centnries  they  were  the 
principal  teachers  of  youth  in  all  branches  in 
their  colleges  and  schools.  As  aacetics  the 
Benedictines  were  less  studied  and  formal  than 
the  later  schools.  Down  to  the  establishment 
of  the  mendicant  orders  all  the  monastic  bodies 
in  the  West  based  their  mles  on  that  of  St. 
Benedict,  such  as  those  of  Cluny  and  Clteaux, 
with  the  Bernardines,  Feuillanta,  and  Trap- 
pista,  in  France ;  Carthusians,  Camatdolen- 
sians,  Vallombrosians,  &c.  Besides  these  sep- 
arate orders,  reforms  were  made  from  time  to 
time  in  the  Benedictine  order  to  revive  the 
ancient  discipline.  The  order  of  St.  Benedict 
is  divided  into  congregations,  and  has  no  gen- 
eral superior.  Of  tliase  congregations,  that  of 
Bt.  Maur,  dispersed  by  the  French  revolution, 
is  well  known  for  its  learned  works,  inclading 


BcDcdlctlas  Uonk. 

the  besteditionsof  thefathers.  ThoeeinSpun, 
long  reduced  to  the  single  monastery  at  Mont- 
serrat,  are  now  suppressed.  In  Italy,  previons 
to  the  conquests  of  Victor  Eraannel,  the  con- 
gregation of  Monte  Casino  was  very  flourish- 
ing, embracing  the  provinces  of  Rome,  Etraria, 
Ijombardy,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Snbiaco.  The 
Bavarian  congregation  comprises  five  monas- 
teries, tlie  Austrian  three,  the  Brazilian  seven, 
the  Mechitariat  two  provinces  with  several  mo- 
nasteries at  Venice  and  in  tlie  East,  the  French 
three  monasteries.  The  English  congregation, 
famous  for  its  ascetical  writers,  was  restored  in 
IflOS,  and  now  compriites  fonr  monasteries,  and 
the  body  is  well  represented  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  of  England.  The  Bene- 
dictines were  introduced  into  the  United  States 
by  the  Rev,  Boniface  Wimmer,  who  established 
a  house  at  Carrolltown,  Penn.,  in  October, 
1M6.  wliioh  is  now  St.  Vinoent's  abbey,  he 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 

being  mitred  abbot.  The  order  spread  rapidlj', 
and  now  forms  the  American  Casinensian  con- 
gregation, comprising  two  mitred  abbots,  three 
monasteries,  six  priories  depending  on  abbeys, 
and  more  than  100  monks.  There  is  also  at 
St.  Meinrad's,  Indiana,  an  abbey  of  the  Hel- 
veto-American  congregation,  a  hliation  of  Ein- 
siedeln,  founded  in  1853,  and  erected  into  an 
abbey  and  congregation  in  1870.  The  order 
includes  a  number  of  independent  houses, 
some  of  them  very  large  and  flourisidng.  Of 
these  the  most  famous  ore  Onr  Lady  of  Her- 
mits at  Einsiedein  in  Switzerland,  and  St. 
Feter  and  Paid  near  Helk  in  Austria.  The 
number  of  Benedictines  was  estimated  in  \96ii 
at  2,089.— Bewdldtae  HiH.  St.  Scholsstica, 
sister  of  St.  Benedict,  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  foundress  of  the  Benedictine  nuns.  They 
took  part  in  the  conversion  of  Germany,  and 
St.  Walpurga  is  looked  upon  as  the  foundress 
of  all  the  convents  there.  Convents  of  this 
rule  exist  in  almost  all  parts  where  monks  are 
established.  There  are  in  the  United  States  12 
convents  of  Benedictine  nnna,  devoted  to  edu- 
cation, in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  Ne- 
braska. The  oldest  is  tliat  of  St  Mary's, 
Pennsylvania,  a  filiation  of  St  Walpurga's  at 
EichsUdt,  Germany,  established  in  18&8. 

■ENEDIX,  JillH  KwkrMi,  a  German  draina- 
tnst,  bom  in  Leipsic.  Jan.  21, 1811,  died  in  Co- 
logne, Sept  26,  1873.  He  was  an  actor  and 
singer  in  early  life,  and  in  1841,  while  manager 
of  the  Wesel  theatre,  he  produced  a  highly  sao- 
cessfn]  comedy.  Da*  hemootle  ffaupt  ("The 
Old  Fogy"),  which  was  followed  by  about  80 
popular  plays,  several  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  foreign  languages.  A  complete 
edition  of  bis  dramatic  works  has  been  pnb* 
lishsd  at  Leipsio  (22  vols.,  1846-'6&).  He  also 
edited  a  literary  journal,  published  popular 
works  on  German  l^ends  (6  vols.,  1889-'40) 
and  the  German  war  of  independence  (1841) ; 
a  novel  entitled  "  Hotnres  from  the  Lite  of  Ac- 
tors ; "  and  works  on  elocution  and  German 
rhythm.  He  was  manager  of  the  theatres  of 
Elberfeld  (1844-'5),  Cologne  (1847-'8),  and 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  (1855-'9);  and  from 
1869  he  lived  in  Cologne  and  Leipsio. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLEBGT,  in  English  criminal 
law,  the  privileffiutn  elericaU,  exemption  of 
the  dergy  from  penalties  imposed  by  law  for 
certun  crimes.  This  privilege  was  for  many 
centuries  an  important  element  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  criminal  law.  It  had  its  origin  in 
the  claim  made  by  the  ecclesiastics  for  the  en- 
tire exemption  of  their  order  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  common  law  courts.  Before  the 
Norman  conquest  the  greater  part  of  the  civil 
business  of  the  kingdom  was  transacted  in  the 
county  courts,  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
presided  in  them  with  the  sheriff  of  the  coun- 
ty ;  and  these  courts  thus  possessed  both  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  Bnt  the  foreign 
clergy  who  came  over  with  the  Kormans  ob- 
tained from  William  the  Conqueror  a  sepanf 


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BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 

tion  of  the  eocleBiMtical  from  the  civil  coarte. 
Is  the  reign  of  Stepheo  sole  juriHdiction  was 
pren  to  the  hiahop  over  eccleeitutical  persons 
nod  caDsea.  This  gave  rise  to  a  contest  be- 
tween the  spiritual  and  temporal  courts.  The 
claim  of  eicIOMve  jarisdiction  was  not  EOCceHB- 
fnlly  maintained,  except  in  respect  to  eoclesias- 
tioai  caoses,  but  the  persons  of  the  cler^ 
were  exempted  from  penalties  for  certiun 
crimes  in  cases  specifically  provided  for  b; 
common  law  or  statute.  The  exemption  was 
not  allowed  in  high  treason,  nor  in  petit  lar- 
ceny, nor  anj  mere  misdemeanor  (bj  which 
was  meant  petty  crimes  less  than  felony),  and 
was  as  a  genornl  role  allowable  only  in  capital 
felonies,  but  not  in  all  even  of  that  class.  The 
exemption  was  mainly  fonnded  on  the  statnta 
S5  Edward  III.,  by  wbidi  it  was  provided  that 
clerks  convicted  of  treason  or  felonies  tonch- 
ing  other  persons  than  the  king  himself  shontd 
have  the  privilege  of  holy  charch.  By  the 
common  law,  benefit  of  clergy  was  denied  in 
three  kinds  of  felony,  vii. :  lying  in  w«t  for 
one  on  the  highway  {iiuidiaCio  viaram),  rav- 
aging a  country  {depopulatio  agronan),  and 
burning  of  hoasas  {eombiatio  domorum) ;  and 
in  all  these  cases,  even  after  the  statute  above 
mentioned,  the  privilege  continued  to  be  de- 
nied. It  was  enacted  afterward,  in  varioaa 
BtatutAS,  that  certain  crimes  should  be  without 
benefit  of  clergy,  as  murder,  rape,  burglary, 
larceny  ihim  ttie  person,  or  from  a  dwelling 
house,  any  one  being  therein,  and  many  other 
offences.  As  to  the  persons  entitled  to  ben- 
efit of  clergy,  it  was  originally  limited  to  such 
as  had  the  habitus  et  totuura  eUrUalit,  that 
is,  the  regular  clergy ;  but  the  claim  being 
made  in  behalf  of  the  retainers  of  ecclesiastics, 
and  other  laymen,  who  were  not  entitled  to  i^ 
only  such  as  could  read  were  at  last  allowed 
the  privilege.  But  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YII. 
it  was  found  that  there  were  as  many  laymen 
OS  divines  who  had  an  exemption  by  this  test, 
and  a  law  was  then  passed  making  a  distinction 
between  lay  Bcholars  and  soch  as  were  in  or- 
ders. Lay  Boholars  were  not  allowed  to  take 
the  benefit  of  clergy  bnt  once,  and  npon  being 
admitted  to  the  privilege  were  burned  in  the  ' 
hand,  probably  in  order  that  they  misht  not 
set  up  a  claim  to  it  again.  The  distinction  was 
abolished  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  but  re- 
vived again  by  the  statute  1  Edward  VI.  It 
was  also  enacted  by  this  statute  that  peers 
hftfing  a  place  in  parliament  should  have  the 
benefit  of  peerage,  equivalent  to  that  of  clergy, 
for  the  first  offence,  although  they  could  not 
read,  and  without  being  burnt  in  the  hand,  for 
all  offences  then  clergyable  to  commoners,  and 
also  for  the  crimes  of  house-breaking,  high- 
way robbery,  horse-stealing,  and  robbing  of 
churches — a  significant  indication  of  the  state 
of  morals  and  education  among  the  highest  no- 
bility in  that  era.  In  the  duchess  of  Kingston's 
case,  it  was  held  that  peeresses  were  entitled  to 
the  benefit  of  the  statute.  All  these  provisions 
required,  as  the  condition  of  exemption,  that 


BENEVENTO 


fi21 


tbe  person  claiming  exemption  should  be  able 
to  read,  so  that  those  who  could  not  read  (ex- 
cept peers)  were  hanged.  To  remedy  this  un- 
equal severity,  it  was  enacted  by  B  Anne  that 
the  benefit  of  clergy  should  be  granted  to  all 
who  were  entitled  to  it  without  requiring  them 
to  read.  Finally,  by  statutes  7  and  8  George 
IV.,  the  benefit  of  clergy  was  entirely  abolish- 
ed.—In  the  United  States  this  privilege  has 
never  been  recognized  as  existing.  There  is, 
however,  a  statute  (act  of  congress,  April  80, 
1T90)  in  which  it  is  provided  that  benefit  of 
clergy  shall  not  be  allowed  for  any  offenoei 
punishable  by  death. 

BENEKE,  FrMrlth  Edur4,  a  Oemuui  phUoso- 
pher,  bom  in  Berlin,  Feb.  IT,  1T1I8,  disappear- 
ed March  1,  1854,  his  body  being  found  more 
than  two  years  afterward  in  a  ounal  at  Char- 
lottenburg.  After  serving  as  a  volunteer  in 
tbe  camoaign  of  1816,  he  studied  theology  and 
philosophy.  In  1820  he  lectured  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Berlin  as  a  private  teacher,  but  the 
continuance  of  his  lectures  was  forbidden  in 
1 822,  on  account  of  his  departure  ftata  the  phil- 
osophical principles  of  Hegel.  He  then  taught 
for  a  few  years  m  Gottingen,  but,  npon  return- 
ing to  Berlin  in  16S7,  he  received  permisMon 
'    lecture  in  the  university  agun,  and  was  elect- 


labored  with  marked  success  till  lSo8,  when 
he  began  to  suffer  severely  from  physical  dis- 
orders. He  taught  that  philosophy  must  be 
founded  upon  a  strict  and  careful  examination 
of  the  phenomena  of  consciousness.  Among  his 
principal  works  are :  E^rtiehungi-  tind  Unter- 
riehttUhre  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1830-'6 ;  ad  ed.,  by 
Dressier) ;  Qrundlinun  da  natHrlichtn  Syg- 
Urmt  derprakluehm  PMlotophU  (3  vols.,  1837 
-'41);  System  der  Zogit  alt  KunHlehre  da 
Denken*  (i  vols.,  1842);  PragmatUeAt  Piy- 
ehologie,  oder  Seelenlehre  tn  der  Anieeadang 
a^f  da*  L^en.  (2  vols.,  1950). 

BENEVENTE,  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
province  of  Espiritn  Santo,  at  the  month  of  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  forming  a  good  harbor, 
47  m.  8.  of  Victoria ;  pop.  of  me  town  and  \to 
district  about  4,000.  The  port  is  one  of  the 
most  frequented  in  the  province,  and  many 
ships  are  built  there.  Agriculture  and  the 
coasting  trade  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
district: 

BENETENTO.  1.  A  province  of  Italy,  traversed 
by  the  W.  ridges  of  the  Neapolitan  Apeninnes 
and  the  river  Galore ;  area,  67B  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  281,878.  The  former  papal  delegation 
of  Benevento  contained  only  an  area  of  barely 
100  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  little  over  20,- 
000 ;  but  when  it  became  a  province  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy  it  was  considerably  enlarged  by 
the  addition  of  territory  formerly  belonging  to 
the  Neapolitan  kingdom.  Benevento  now  com- 
prises three  districts,  one  of  its  own  name  con- 
taining nearly  half  of  the  total  population  of  tbe 
province,  and  those  of  Cerreto  Sannita  and  Bar- 
tolommeo  in  Galdo.    Cereals,  A-nits,  wine,  oil, 


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522 


BENEVENTO 


and  game  abound,  and  are  eit«n^vely  exported. 
!!•  A  city  (one.  Benmentutn),  capital  of  the 
province,  at  the  junctioD  of  the  Galore  and 
Sabbato  rivera,  and  on  the  railway  from  Naples 
to  Fof^a,  82  m,  N.  E.  of  Naples ;  pop.  in  1872, 
20,18S.  The  Porta  An rea,  one  of  the  gates  of 
the  city,  which  once  spanned  the  Appian  Way 
and  now  leads  to  Fot^gio,  is  formed  by  the  fa- 
mous arch  of  Trujan,  with  basB  reliefe  repre- 
senting his  exploits,  and  one  of  the  finest  and 
best  preserved  monamenU  of  the  kind  in  Italy. 
The  Corso  extends  along  the  ridge  on  which 
the  city  is  built,  from  the  cathedral  to  the  castle. 
In  the  piazza  Orsini  is  a  fountain  with  a  statue 
of  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  Most  of  the  streets, 
thougn  narrow  and  steep,  contain  mansions  of 
old  &milie8  and  other  one  residences.  There 
are  many  convents  and  churches.  The  vast 
and  interesting  cathedral  bad  its  interior  com- 
pletely restored  in  the  17th  century.  In  the 
episcopal  palace  are  varioua  antiqnitjes  and 


Bnenntn,  luir. 

two  fragments  of  Egyptian  obelisks  in  hiero- 

Slyphica.  The  castle  is  ased  as  the  official  resi- 
enoe  of  the  local  authorities,  and  Latin  in- 
scriptions abound  all  over  the  city,  as  well  as 
bass  reliefs  and  esteemed  fragments  of  ancient 
statuary.  Among  other  relics  are  the  remains 
of  an  amphitheatre,  portions  of  the  lioinan 
walls,  and  an  ancient  bridge  over  the  Galore. 
Few  Italian  cities  present  greater  archreologi- 
cat  and  historical  interest  than  Benevento. 
Traditions  of  a  mysterious  walnut  tree,  where 
the  ttrtghe  di  Brnevento,  ea  the  witches  of  B. 
Italy  were  popularly  called,  met  at  night,  still 
linger  among  the  people.  Gold  and  silver 
ware,  leather,  and  parchment  are  manufactured, 
and  the  com  trade  is  considerable. — The  origin 
of  the  city  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  I)io- 
raedee  and  to  Auson,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe. 
It  first  appears  in  history  as  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Samnium,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans  in  the  8d  century  B.  C,  when  Pyr- 


BENEZET 

rbns  was  defeated  here  (2T6);  and  abont  the 
same  period  the  name  of  Beneventum   was 
adopted  in  place  of  the  previous  appellation  of 
Maleventum.    Under  the  Romans  Beneventnm 
retained  great  importance  till  the  foil  of  the 
empire,  on   account  of  its  wealth   and   pros- 
perity and  its  position  on   the   Appian   Way. 
Under  tlie  Lombards  it  became  the  cajiital  of 
a  duchy,  inclnding  many  of  their  conquests  in 
S.  Italy,  and  afterward  of  a  principality  with 
extended    dominion,    which    passed    through 
many  vicissitudes,  and  became  extinct  in  1077 
with  the  death  of  Landulph  VI.    The  Normans 
then  seized  the  territory,  while  the  city  came 
under  the  sway  of  the  pope.     Four  councils 
were  held  here  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries. 
On  Feb.  26,  12Se,  Manfred  of  Naples  was  de- 
feated here  by  Charles  of  Aujou  in  a  celebrated 
battle,whichhasbeen  commemorated  by  Dante. 
Early  in  the  ICth  century  the  city  was  for  a 
Ume  nnder  Neapolitan  rule,  till  Ferdinand  I. 
returned  it  to  the  pope. 
In  1B88  it  was  devas- 
tated by  an  earthquake, 
and  its  restoration  was 
dne  to  the  archbishop 
of    Benevento,    after- 
ward   Pope    Benedict 
XI 11.    The  papal  pow- 
er was  almost  nninter- 
mptedly  sustained  till 
1798,  when  the  French 
took  the  place  and  sold 
it  to  Naples.    Cardinal 
Ruffo  ronted  here  in 
1790  a  body  of  French 
troops.    In  1806  Bpn&- 
vento  was  made  a  prin- 
cipality by  Nnpoleon  I. 
for  the  benefit  of  Tal- 
leyrand, but  it  was  re- 
stored to  the  pope  in 
1B16.    An  insurrection 
in  1820  was  speedly  pat 
down;  and  Benevento 
had  no  share  in  the  revolutionary  outbreak  of 
184S-'9.    In  1830  it  was  nnited  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  together  with  Naples. 

■EAin'OLENCE,  in  England,  first  a  voluntary 
gratuity  voted  to  Edward  IV.  by  his  subjects. 
It  was  afterward  a  species  of  forced  loan  levied 
hy  the  kings  in  violation  of  Magna  Cbarta. 
The  exaction  aronsed  great  indignation,  and 
led  to  the  insertion  of  an  article  in  the  petition 
of  rights,  3  Charles  I.,  by  which  it  was  provi- 
ded  that  no  man  should  be  compelled  to  yield 
any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such  like 
charge,  without  common   consent  by  act  of 

Sarliament.  By  the  statute  1  William  and 
lary,  it  is  declared  that  levying  money  for 
or  to  the  use  of  the  crown,  by  pretence  of  pre- 
rogative, withont  grant  of  parliament,  or  lor 
longer  time  or  in  other  manner  than  the  same 
is  or  shall  be  so  granted,  is  illegal. 

BENEZET,  IfllbMy,  an  Amencan  philanthro- 
pist, bom  at  St  QuentJn,  France,  Jan.  31, 17IS, 


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BENFET 

died  in  Philadelphia,  MayE,  1784.  Hiflfatber'a 
familj,  who  were  ProteBtants,  removed  in  1715 
to  London,  where  the^  became  Qnaken,  and 
in  1T31  to  Philadelphia.  In  1742  Anthotrr 
rave  np  the  mercantile  basinesa  for  which  he 
had  been  educated,  and  became  instractor  of 
the  Frienda'  Engliah  school.  Ue  published 
(ITS3-'7j  tracts  in  opposition  to  the  slave  trade, 
and  carried  on  an  extensive  corroBpondence  for 
ii\e  purpose  of  bringing  about  its  abolition. 
He  foQoded  a  »ohool  for  the  instraction  of  per- 
sona of  African  deecenl,  and  devised  his  property 
for  ita  benefit  after  the  death  of  his  wife.  His 
funeral  was  attended  by  a  large  namber  of  per- 
sona of  all  religious  denomiaations,  among 
whom  were  several  hundred  negroes. 

BENTET,  lleadN-,  a  German  philologist  and 
orientalist,  bom  at  NCrten,  near  OOttingen, 
Jan.  38,  1809.  He  stndied  in  GSttingen  and 
Heidelberg,  and  baa  been  since  1834  proMasor  of 
Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  in  the  nai- 
verdty  of  Gdttingen.  He  translated  the  come- 
dies of  Terence  into  German  (1837),  and  re- 
ceived the  Yoine;  prize  from  the  academy  of 
Berlin  fur  hia  OrUeAtMehei  WurMlleiihon  (2 
vols.,  1830-'42).  Among  his  chief  publications 
are:  Pie  perauehen  Keilimekriften  (Leipsio, 
1847);  Die  Hytanen  de*  iSamaveda,  with  a 
translatiuD  and  notes  (1 848) ;  VolUtdndigt 
CframmatikderSaiittnt^trachedlSG^);  Chra- 
tomathU  (2  vols.,  lS5B-'4) ;  £\irte  Qrammatit 
der  Sanakrit^iraehe  (1856),  an  EngiLsh  edition 
of  which  was  published  in  Berlin  in  1863  under 
the  title  of  "  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  San- 
skrit Language ;  "  a  translation  of  the  PanUha- 
tantra  (2  vols.,  1856),  upon  which  he  has  since 

Siblished  a  commentary,  as  well  as  npoo  other 
indoo  poetry,  in  various  periodicals,  and  in 
his  collection  entitled  Orient  und  Oneidmit  (2 
vols.,  Gottingen,  1863-'4) ;  a  Sanskrit-English 
dictionary  (Loudon,  18B6);  and  Oetehiekte  der 
SpraehieitienteJu^  und  orientali»ehtn  Philolo- 
gie  in  De'attchland  tail  der/i  At^fange  da  IB. 
•TaArftuniert*  (Munich,  18Q.). 

BENCH,  a  provinoe  of  British  India,  often 
enoneouaty  termed  a  presidency.  It  formerly 
comprised  only  the  level  region  watered  by  the 
Ganges  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  which 
is  now  known  as  Bengal  proper.  No  such 
territorial  division  as  the  preudency  of  Bengal 
has  ever  in  fact  existed.  The  application  of 
that  title  to  the  region  appears  to  have  origi- 
nated, by  some  mistake,  from  the  eartj  acts 
of  the  British  parliament  concerning  India,  in 
which  "  the  presidency  of  Fort  William  in 
Bengal "  ia  spoken  of.  At  firat  this  term  was 
evidently  intended  to  describe  a  district  more 
limited  than  Bengal  itself,  and  included  within 
(t,  but  it  was  snbseqnentiy  applied  to  a  much 
jn'eater  extent  of  territory.  In  1688  the  pre«- 
idency  of  Port  William,  thus  enlarged,  was  di- 
vided for  administrative  pumoees  into  two 
parts,  one  of  which  was  placed  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  officer  luiown  aa  the  lieuten- 
lint  governor  of  Bengal,  and  forms  the  subject 
of  this  article.    It  constitntea  one  of  the  ten 


BENGAL 


523 


great  political  provinces  of  India,  and  lies  be- 
tween lat.  19°  and  29°  N.  and  Ion.  82°  and  07° 
E.,  bounded  N.  by  Nepaul  and  Bootan,  £.  by 
Burmah,  &.  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  W.  by 
the  Northwestern  and  Central  Provinces.  It 
is  divided  into  regulation  and  non-regulation 
districts.  The  regulation  districts  extend  over 
the  low,  fertile,  and  densely  populated  basin 
of  the  Ganges,  and  are  subject  to  a  strict  and 
systematic  ofGcial  administration;  they  include 
Bengal  proper,  the  native  province  of  Bchar, 
and  the  maritime  distriota  of  Orissa.  The 
wilder  outiying  countries  are  comprised  in  the 
non-regulation  districts,  which  embrace  the 
hill  region  of  Orissa,  the  territory  8.  of  Behar 
called  the  Southwest  Frontier,  and  the  great 
country  of  Assam,  througii  which  flow  the 
Brahmapootra  and  its  tributaries.  Here  civil- 
ization IS  far  less  advanced  than  in  the  regula- 
tion districts,  and  the  government  is  compara- 
tively informal.  Pour  native  states  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Bengal  government;  1, 
a  country  on  the  S.  W.  frontier,  inhabited  by 
aborigin^  tribes  and  little  known ;  -2,  the  Gar- 
row  and  Cossyah  or  Ehasia  hills,  mountainous 
districts  which  rise  to  a  height  of  from  5,000 
to  6,000  ft,  between  Assam  and  Bengal  profier; 
3,  Tipperah,  and  4,  Monepoor,  two  eitonaive 
tracts  uordering  upon  Burmah.  The  area  and 
population  of  Bengal,  according  to  the  official 
returns  for  187S,  are  as  follows: 


„„ 

Imlaiq.iii., 

•itLKri.m. 

(..pikJ-m. 

a3.iBD 

M,9U1 

Bs.w.'ras 

8.8»>I1 

ss,sofl.s<w 

— Bengal,  forming  the  N.  E.  comer  of  Hindo- 
stan,  consists  mainly  of  a  level  plain  of  vast 
extent  and  little  elevation,  intersected  by  the 
Ganges,  the  Brahmapootra,  and  their  tributa- 
riea.  The  two  main  streams  flow  across  it  to- 
ward the  bay  of  Bengal  and  each  other,  the 
Ganges  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  the  Brahmapootra 
fkim  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  Their  waters  partially 
mingle  before  reaching  the  coast,  as  the  mwn 
trunk  of  the  Brahmapootra  unites  with  an  arm 
of  the  Qanges  at  a  point  abont  80  m.  inland; 
bat  they  enter  the  sea  by  different  mouths, 
though  not  more  than  two  miles  apart  at  Borne 

E>ints  in  their  course.  According  to  Sir  Charles 
yell,  the  area  of  the  delta  of  the  combined 
rivers  is  considerably  more  than  double  tliat 
of  the  Nile.  The  head  of  the  delta,  or  point 
where  the  first  arm  is  given  off,  is  in  the  case 
of  each  river  about  200  m.  from  the  sea. 
Along  the  coast  of  the  bay  of  Bengal  for  a  dis- 
tance of  180  m.  is  a  perfect  labyrinth  of  streams 
and  inlets  surrounding  the  extensive  tract  of 
islands  denominated  the  Sunderhnnds,  a  wilder- 
ness equal  in  area  to  Wales,  overspread  with 
jungle  and  infested  by  wild  beasts.    Here  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


6U 

water  is  rait,  but  it  la  ft-eah  in  the  Hooglj,  the 
msia  outlet  of  the  Gbckcs,  on  which  Calcutta 
isffltuated.  This  channel,  the  Hauriogottaimn, 
and  that  which  bears  the  name  of  the  river 
itself  ore  all  narigable.  The  annaal  innnda- 
tiuns  in  Bcn^ftl  cover  an  immense  region,  and 
not  unfreqnentlj  atttun  the  dimensions  of  dis- 
astrous floods,  oocaeioDinf;  great  loss  of  life 
and  destruction  of  property.  Enormous  dikes 
are  constructed  to  restrain  the  rising  waters. 
It  is  eaid  that  every  year,  from  the  Ifith  of 
June  to  the  15th  of  September,  the  plains  of 
Tipper  Assam  are  completely  overspread  by  the 
floods.  Among  the  most  destructive  of  the 
inundations  are  those  which  sometimes  occur 
when  a  high  spring  tide  in  the  bay  of  Bengal 
combines  with  a  heavy  gale  of  wind  to  check 
the  descending  outflow  of  the  rivers. — There 
are  but  few  lakes  in  Bengal,  the  most  impor- 
tant being  the  Chilka  lake -in  Orisss,  a  very 
curions  body  of  water  which  forms  the  soathem 
boundary  of  that  subdivirion  of  the  present 
province,  formerly  a  province  itself  it  is  a 
shallow  inland  sea  fixim  S  tA  5  ft.  in  depth,  44 
m.  long,  and  varying  in  width  from  0  t«  20 
m.,  separated  from  the  ocean  only  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  sand  ocarceij  exceeding  200  yards  in 
breadth,  throngh  which  the  eeaforoes  its  way,  at 


tributed  to  the  never-ceaung  adverse  action 
going  on  between  the  rivers  and  the  sea.  The 
water  of  t)ie  lake  is  salt  or  brackish  except  in 
the  rainy  season,  when  it  becomes  temporarily 
fresh. — The  extreme  heat  of  the  climate  of 
Bengal  renders  it  very  unhealthy  to  Enropeana. 
There  are  three  seasons:  the  cold  season,  from 
November  to  February,  with  an  average  tem- 
perature of  about  88°  F.,  and  prevailing  north- 
erly winds ;  the  hot  seaiwn,  beginning  in  March 
and  lasting  tjll  the  end  of  May,  during  which 
the  terrific  heat,  sometimes  lOO'^and  110°F.in 
the  shade,  is  occasionally  mitigated  by  tremen- 
dous tiiunder  sturms  of  rain  and  hail;  and  the 
rtUuy  season,  which  sets  in  with  the  commence- 
ment of  the  8.  W.  monaoon,  early  in  June,  and 
lasts  mi  October.  The  average  annual  fait  of 
rain  at  Calcutta  is  &4  inches,  and  at  Cntt«ck, 
on  the  N.  W,  coast  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  only 
DO  inches;  while  it  rises  to  SO  inches  at  Oo- 
wabatty  in  Assam,  and  600  inches  among 
the  Coasyah  hills.  During  the  cold  season 
the  climate  is  comparatively  pleasant ;  bnt 
the  continual  rain  and  constantly  recurring 
fogs  which  prevail  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
wet  season  make  it  very  disagreeable.  The 
nights  are  the  only  comfortable  portion  of  the 
warmer  months.  The  higher  ofBcials,  and  such 
other  residents  of  Calcutta  as  are  able  to  do 
go,  annually  resort  during  this  period  to  the 
attractive  Hanatorinms  which  the  government 
has  established  among  the  hill  regions  of  the 
northern  provinces. — The  soil  of  tiie  country 
is  alluvial,  and  consists  of  a  rich  black  mould 
resting  upon  a  sandy  clay.  There  is  no  snb- 
atanoe  so  coarse  as  gravel  to  be  found  in  the 


great  delta,  or  indeed  within  400  m.  of  the 
coast.  Qeolo^cal  borings  at  Calcutta  have 
atforded  strong  evidence  that  what  was  (mce  a 
forest-covered  land  occupying  the  present  del- 
taic area  has  in  process  of  time  sub^ded  to  a 
depth  of  SOO  ft. ;  terrestrial  organic  remains, 
animal  and  vegetable,  having  been  found  at 
even  a  greater  distance  below  the  surface. 
The  valley  of  the  Ganges  is  famed  for  its  fer. 
tility,  and  the  productive  power  of  its  lands 
is  renewed  without  expense  to  the  cnltivator 
by  the  annual  river  deposits.  Rice  is  the  lead- 
ing cereal  production  and  an  important  article 
of  export  'Wheat  and  barley  are  raised,  but 
only  in  the  higher  districts,  where  millet  and 
maize  are  also  raised  for  the  food  of  the  poorer 
classes.  Peas  and  beans  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  growth 
of  grains  which  yield  oil,  as  mustard,  seeamnm, 
and  linseed.  The  principal  vegetable  produc- 
tions, commercially  speaking,  in  addition  to 
rice,  are  cotton,  indigo,  opium,  sugar,  and  to- 
bacco. The  civil  war  is  America  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  Bengal, 
and  the  quantity  exported  in  1808-'4  was  vaJ- 
ued  at  £8,074,408,  against  an  export  value  of 
£78,688  In  18S0-'61.  The  indigo  fiimished  by 
Bengal  alone  amounts  to  five  sixths  of  the  en- 
tire quantity  which  the  world  produces.  The 
best  qnality  IB  grown  between  lat  23°  and  27°  N. 
and  Ion.  84°  and  90°  £.,  the  crop  elsewhere  be- 
inginferior.  About  l,2C0,000acresare devoted 
to  indigo  cultivation,  yielding  about  60,000,000 
lbs.,  at  a  gross  profit  of  40  per  cent.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  poppy  is  carried  on  principally 
in  Behar,  the  opium  being  manufactured  at 
Fatna,  and  known  in  commerce  as  Patna  opium. 
No  one  is  permitted  to  engage  in  it  except  on 
account  of  the  government,  which  makes  ad- 
vances to  the  cultivators  and  purchases  tho 
whole  crop  from  them  at  an  established  pries 
(in  1889  about  St.  M.  per  lb.),  and  sells  it,  for 
exportation  from  Calcutta  to  China,  at  an  enor- 
mous profit  The  growth  of  cofi^  has  been 
socoessAilly  introdnced,  and  large  tracts  in  As- 
sam are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  tea 
plant  Fmits  are  nnmerons,  and  compriae  the 
orange,  pomegranate,  pineapple,  banana,  lime, 
and  cocoanut  The  gigantic  banian  is  the  moat 
remarkable  tree  of  the  dense  forests  which 
cover  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
country.  The  methods  of  agriculture  are  ex- 
ceedingly primitive,  the  implements  being  of 
the  simplest  and  rudest  sort,  and  the  na- 
tives knowing  almost  nothing  about  econom- 
ical husbandry.  Each  ryot,  or  native  cnlti- 
vator of  the  soil,  usually  occupies  about  6 
acres  of  land,  and  seldom  more  than  24  acres. 
There  are  two  harvests :  one,  of  rice  only, 
known  as  the  great  harvest ;  and  tlie  little 
harvest,  when  the  less  important  grains  are 
garnered.  Fences  are  entirely  wanting,  and 
the  crops  are  therefore  grown  without  enclo- 
sures.— Among  the  wild  animals,  the  Bengal 
tiger  is  the  most  formidable,  and  the  largest 
specimens  are  believed  to  attiiin  a  stature  con- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BJderably  exceeding  that  of  the  lArgent  Hon*. 
It  ia  much  dreaded  bj  the  natives,  and  tjger 

hnnting  coOBtitutes  a  fovorite  sport  among  the 
British  arm?  ofBcera  and  resJdeDta.  The  pan- 
ther, striped  hjsna.  Jackal,  and  tme  civet  cats 
are  also  found.  One  Bpecies  of  the  rhinocerOB 
(R.  Indicia)  is  met  with  in  the  vallej  of  the 
Brahmapootra.  The  Bengal  elephant  (elep/uu 
Indieus),  which  occurs  in  great  nmnbers,  is 
eztensivel;  domesticated  and  employed  as  a 
beast  of  burden  for  military  and  other  pur- 
poses. Bears,  fozes,  antelopes,  Indian  buffaloes, 
and  monkeys  abonnd.  Four  species  of  the 
crocodile  are  found  in  the  Ganges  and  oontigu- 
OQS  streams,  one  of  which,  the  gavial,  lives 
only  in  fresh  water  and  preys  eiclusively  on 
fish;  the  others,  however,  frequent  the  Sun- 
derbnnd  region,  and  attack  bathers,  and  cattle 
when  they  come  down  to  drink.  The  number 
of  venomous  snakes  is  proportionately  small  as 
compared  with  the  entire  number  of  serpents; 
but  the  terrible  cobra  de  capello  is  among  them. 
Birds  of  beaatiful  plumsge  are  abundant,  and 
crows,  storks,  t^e  common  domestic  fowl  of  En- 
rope,  and  monyvarietieB  of  game  birds  are  found 
everywhere.  As  a  rnle,  the  native  horses,  oat- 
tie,  and  swine  are  of  inferior  breeds  and  poor; 
their  sheep  and  goats  are  rather  finer  animals. — 
Tho  administration  of  the  province  is  intrnsted 
to  a  lieutenant  governor,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  governor  general  of  India  sabjeot  to  the 
approval  of  the  crown.  The  loctu  divi^ons, 
each  presided  over  by  a  commissioner  (hence 
called  oommissioDerships),  with  their  respec- 
tive districts,  eaoh  under  an  officer  denomi- 
nated magistrate  and  collector,  are  as  follows : 
The  Presidency — Oalcntta,  the  24  Per^nnahs, 
Nnddeo,  Jessore,  the  Bmiderbunds.  Burdwan 
— Burdwan,  Beerhhoom,  Boncoorah,  Hoogly, 
Howr^  Hidnapore.  R^jshahye — Maldoh,  IK- 
nagepore,  Kongpore,  Bograh,  R^shahye,  Pub- 
na.  Voorshedabad — Bbangnlpore,  Moorsheda- 
bad,  Monghyr,  Pnrneah,  the  Sonthal  Pergan- 
naUs.  Patna— Patua,  Sbahabad,  Behar,  Sa- 
mn.  Ohnraparnm,  Tirhoot.  Gnttock — Oat- 
tack,  Pooree,  Batasore,  the  Tributary  Mehals. 
Dooca — Dacca,  Mymensing,  Sylhet,  Oaohar, 
Furreedpore,  Backergnnge.  Chittagong — 
Chittagong,  Chittagong  Hul  Tracts,  Tipperah, 
"ulloah.    Assam — Kamroop,  Dummg,  Now- 


gong;  Seebsasar,  Lnckimpore,  Naga  Hills, 
Oossyab  and  Jyiitea]i  Hills.  Chots  Nagpore — 
Lohardngga,  Hazareebangb,  Singhhoom,  Hi 


bhoom,  the  Tributary  States.  Coooh  Behar — 
Gowalpnrrah  (with  the  Eastern  Dooara),  the 
Western  Dooars,  the  Garrow  Hills,  Darjeeling, 
the  native  state  of  Oooch  Behar.  The  pub- 
lic revenue  is  mainly  derived  iVom  the  land 
tax,  which  differs  in  Bengal  fi'om  that  im- 
posed in  other  parta  of  India.  It  wob  insti- 
tuted by  Lord  Comwallis,  then  governor  gen- 
eral, in  1793,  by  a  permanent  settlement  with 
the  principal  landowners,  colled  zemindars,  by 
which  they  agreed  to  pay  to  the  government  a 
snm  abont  equal  to  one  half  of  that  which  they 
receivoasrentfromtheirowntentuiU.  Another 


prindpal  sooroe  of  revenue  is  the  government 
monopoly  in  the  growth  and  manufacture  of 
opium.  The  amount  exported  in  1864-'5  was 
valued  at  £4,724,800.— The  commerce  of  Ben- 


factnred  ulk  goods  of  Bengu  being  surpassed 
by  those  of  China.  Muslins  are  eiteusively 
mannfoctnred  in  the  province.  The  imports 
into  Bengal  for  the  year  ending  Uarch  81, 
1870,  repreBent«d  a  value  of  £19,406,082,  and 
the  exports  for  the  same  year  a  value  of  £20,- 
971,121,  against  £13,S66,506  in  IBSl.  Com- 
mercial intercourse  was  formerly  carried  on 
almost  eiclusively  by  water,  the  roads  being 
very  poor,  and  the  fine  causeways  construct- 
ed by  the  old  native  rulers  having  fallen  into 
ruins.  The  introduction  of  railways,  however, 
has  somewhat  changed  the  lines  of  internal 
trade,  as  well  as  given  it  a  vast  impetus.  In 
1BB8  there  were  only  142  m.  of  railway  in 
Bengal ;  1,610  m.  were  open  for  traflio  there  in 
1870.  The  East  Indian  line,  which  is  the 
grand  trunk  route  to  Delhi  and  the  highlands 
of  northern  India,  traverses  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges  from  O^cntta  upward. — Calcutta,  the 
provincial  capital  and  seat  of  ^vemment  of 
the  British  It^ast  Indian  empire,  is  the  most  im- 
portant city  in  Bengal.  According  to  the  last 
official  enumeration,  which  was  made  in  1S6S, 
the  population  is  877,924.  The  cities  next  in 
rank  are  Patna  (284,000),  Hoorshedabad  (147,- 
000),  Dacca  (67,000),  and  Burdwan  (64,000). 
Theae  figures,  being  merely  estimates,  are  only 
approximations  to  the  true  number  of  inhabit-' 
ante.  The  population  is  made  up  principally 
of  native  Hindoos  and  the  Mohammedan  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Mogul  or  Mongol  in- 
vaders, in  the  proportion  of  abont  four  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter.  The  Mohamme- 
dans, who  abhor  the  religions  rites  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Hindoos,  are  most  numerous  in  the 
eastern  districts.  On  the  whole  the  Bengalese 
have  generally  been  regarded  as  a  weak, 
treaoherous,  and  intriguing  people. — In  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  when  the  East 
India  company  of  England  established  their 
first  trading  foctoriea  in  Bengal,  the  country 
was  under  the  sway  of  a  viceroy  of  the  Mogul 
emperor  of  Hindoston.  Their  settlements  wero 
small,  and  they  occupied  their  limited  territory 
as  tenants  holdbg  under  the  native  rulers.  In 
1746,  however,  the  war  between  England  and 
France  extended  to  southern  India,  and  during 
the  succeeding  ten  years  there  was  a  constant 
increase  of  British  military  power  in  that  re- 

S'on;  so  that  when  in  1TS6  news  reached 
adras  that  the  company's  settlers  on  the 
Hoogly  had  been  attacked  by  the  nawaub 
Nadm.  the  reigning  viceroy,  and  that  146  of 
them  had  been  thrust  into  the  block  hole  at 
Oalcntta,  where  128  died.  Lord  Clive  was  at 
once  despatched  with  on  adequate  force  to 
their  relief.     He  landed  in  Bengal  in  Febru- 


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526 


BENGAL 


arj  of  the  foUowing  jear,  and  on  Jane  2S  de- 
feated the  nanaiib  in  the  famouB  battle  of 
Plaasef,  which  estabhahed  Enj^liBh  aBceadenoy 
ID  India.  The  historj  of  Bengal  siaoe  tliat 
data  will  be  found  under  the  title  Imsia. 

BENfiAL,  Bit  of  (Lat.  Gangetioui  Simi),  a 
gnlf  ot  the  Indian  ocean,  embraced  between 
the  peninsula  of  nindostan  on  the  west  and  the 
coast  of  Lower  Siam,  Tenassehm,  Pegu,  and 
Aracanon  the  east.  With  the  eiceptioo  of  the 
Arabian  eea,  it  ia  the  krgeat  indentation  on 
the  aoothem  coast  of  A^ia,  its  width  at  the 
broadest  part,  from  Cape  Gomorin  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Bindostan  to  the  same  latitude 
OQ  the  coast  of  Siam,  being  1,400  m.  From 
this  point  it  continues  of  nearlj  nnifonn  wJdth 
to  the  parallel  of  Cape  Negrais,  lat.  1B°  1'  N,, 
whence  it  contracts  until  tbe  opposite  coasts 
are  bnt  260  in.  apart,  and  terminates  in  an  inlet 
or  indentation  of  its  N.  shore,  about  60  m.  wide, 
and  thickly  studded  with  islands.  All  that  part 
of  the  bay  lying  S.  of  the  parallel  of  Cape  Ne- 
grais is  distingaished  by  some  bydrographers 
as  the  sea  of  Bengal.  The  hay  (in  its  wider 
meaning)  receives  the  waters  of  many  im- 
portaot  rivers,  among  which  are  the  Ganges, 
Brahmapootra,  Hoogly,  Irrawaddy,  Godavery, 
and  Kistnah.  The  tide  in  some  places  rises 
at  times  70  or  80  feet.  On  the  W.  coast 
there  are  no  good  harbors,  and  no  soundings 
at  the  distance  of  80  m.  from  land ;  bat  on 
tbe  £.  side  there  are  several  safe  ports,  and 
eonndings  within  2  m.  of  the  shore.  -The  S.  W. 
monsoon  be^ns  to  blow  on  the  W.  or  Ooro- 
niandel  coast  about  the  end  of  Horch  or  early 
in  April.  In  June  it  acquirer  its  greatest 
strength  and  regularity ;  in  September  it  sab- 
side:'  ;  and  in  Ootober  the  N.  E.  monsoon  com- 
mences,  from  which  tJme  till  Deo.  I  navigation 
in  the  gulf  is  fraught  with  great  danger.  Dar- 
ing the  prevalence  of  both  these  winds  a  heavy 
surf  rolls  along  the  entire  W.  coast,  rendering 
aocess  to  the  rivers  extremely  difficult. 

BENGEL,  Jthaia  llkredt,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, bom  at  Winneuden,  WQrtemberg,  June 
21,  1687,  died  December  2,  1T62.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  TQbingeo  as  a  Greek  schol- 
ar, early  exhibited  a  predilection  for  critical 
atudy,  and  was  the  author  of  several  important 
works ;  bat  that  on  which  fais  hme  as  a  scholar 
principatly  depends  is  bis  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  which  was  published  in  1784. 
It  was  severely  criticised  by  many  eminent 
scholars,  such  as  Miohaelis,  Baumgarten,  and 
others;  but  the  aouteness,  patience,  and  judg- 
ment with  which  he  compared  the  ancient 
copies  of  the  New  Testament  writings,  aided 
materially  in  the  groaping  of  the  original  man- 
uscripts into  families  which  was  afterward 
carried  out.  His  short  notes  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament, pablisbed  in  the  Qnomon  Not*  Tetta- 
mmUi,  have  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  are  still  held  in  great  esteem.  They 
form  the  basis  of  John  Wesley's  "  Notes  on  the 
New  Testament,"  which  is  one  of  the  standard 
books  of  Wesieyan  Uethodisin.    Bengel  also 


BENGUELA 

wrote  a  work  on  tlie  Apocalypse.  He  oon^- 
ered  the  Apocalypse  as  the  key  to  all, prophecy, 
and  believed  that  any  right  exposition  of  it 
would  unseal  tbe  entire  future  history  of  tbe 
world  up  to  the  end  of  time.  He  thought  he 
discovered  in  the  mystical  fignres  of  the  seer 
of  PalmOS  that  the  world  would  end  in  1SS6. 

BENGm,  EHaMb  Ogilry,  an  English  author- 
ess, born  in  Wells  in  1778.  died  Jan.  9,  13S7. 
She  wrote  poetry,  dramaa,  and  fiction,  but  her 
reputation  was  due  mainly  to  works  of  a 
historical  and  biographical  character.  She 
wrote  memoirs  of  Mrs.  E:  Hamilton,  of  John 
Tobin  tbe  dramatist,  of  Klopstock  and  his 
friends,  of  Anne  Boleyn,  of  Mary,  qneen  of 
Scots,  and  of  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia; 
and  when  she  died  she  had  made  some  prog- 
ress in  memoirs  of  Henry  lY.  of  France. 

BEKKHAZI  (auo.  BetperU,  afterward  Bef*- 
jjiee),  a  town  of  Barca,  Africa  (the  Cyrenaica  of 
the  Greeks),  the  seat  of  a  bey,  on  the  E.  shore 
of  the  Greater  Syrtis  or  gulf  of  Sidra,  in  laL 
82°  7'  N.,  !on.  20^  8'E.;  pop.,  including  neigh- 
boring localities,  about  7,000,  many  of  whom 
are  Jew^  and  negro  slaves.  It  stands  on  th« 
verge  of  a  large  plain,  sandy  and  barren  for 
nearly  half  a  mile  from  the  saore,  hut  beyond 
having  a  fertile  but  rocky  soil  to  the  foot  of  the 
Oyrenaio  mountains,  14  m.  S.  E.,  where  cattle 
alMtuud.  The  port,  formerly  capaoious,  is  now 
accessible  only  to  small  craft,  being  filled  np 
with  sand  washed  into  it  by  the  annual  rains, 
from  January  till  Uarcli.  At  the  entranoe  is 
a  lante  but  dilapidated  castle.  The  principal 
building  is  the  new  Franciscan  convent  with  a 
Roman  Catholic  church.  Tbe  miserable  houses 
are  built  of  very  small  stones  cemented  with 
mud,  and  are  generally  washed  away  duriug 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  streets  are  con- 
verted into  rivers,  and  tlioasands  of  sheep  and 
goats  perish.  Drinking  water  has  to  be  brought 
from  a  neighboring  village,  annoying  insects 
abound,  and  severe  diseases  prevail.  Ancient 
reservoirs  may  be  traced,  with  stone  conduits; 
and  besides  vestiges  of  deep  quarries,  there  are 
remarkable  ohssms  with  luxuriant  vegetation, 
so  beautifully  ntuated  that  many  of  the  ancient 
writers  placed  here  the  gardens  of  the  Bea- 
perides.  Some  of  these  chasms  have  become 
deep  lakes,  and  there  are  several  caves,  one  of 
which  is  said  to  contain  a  large  body  of  fresh 
water  at  a  depth  of  80  feet.  The  latter  is  iden- 
tified by  some  writers  with  the  Lathon  river 
of  antiquity,  and  the  large  salt-water  lake  S.  of 
the  town  with  the  Tritonis  of  Strabo.  Owing 
to  the  condition  of  the  harbor,  commeroe  has 
declined,  and  the  inhabitants  support  them- 
selves mainly  by  agriculture  and  cattle  rusing. 
Large  quantities  of  dates  are  produced.  Mo- 
madio  Arab  tribes  wander  over  the  territories 
8.  and  E.  of  Benghazi.  Interesting  antdquitiea 
are  found  upon  excavation.    (See  Bbbkkiob.) 

BEReCEU.  L  A  country  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  the  possession  of  which  is  claimed  by 
Portugal.  (See  Angola.)  Its  limits  are  not 
weQ  deOned,  hat  It  is  commonly  described  ss 


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BENI 

lying  bet veen  lat  9°  and  16°  S.  and  Ion.  12°  and 
17°  B.,  and  extending  from  the  rirer  Coanu 
OD  the  north  to  near  Oape  Negro  on  the  sooth. 
The  land  along  Che  coast  ia  ]ow  and  flat,  bnt  it 
rises  in  a  aeries  of  terraces  toward  the  inte- 
rior, and  furtlier  back  into  mountains  of  con- 
riderable  height.  The  low  ground  near  the 
coast,  especially  daring  the  runj  season,  ia 
extremely  unwholesome.  On  tbe  high  gronad 
and  among  the  monntains  the  air  ia  pure  and 
healthful.  Numerons  rivers  descend  from  the 
mountuns;  of  these  the  Copororo  or  Kio  Ban 
Francisco,  the  Guvo;  and  the  Longa  are  the 
most  important  Sulphur,  copper,  and  petro- 
leum are  found  in  the  mountains,  and  also  gold 
and  silver  in  small  quantities.  Vegetation  is 
luxuriant,  and  hath  tropical  fruits  and  Ku- 
ropean  vegetables  grow  well.  Hyeenas  and 
lions  venture  down  to  the  city  of  Bengnela. 
Elephants,  buffaloes,  zebras,  antelopes,  and 
other  animals  are  found.  Cattle  are  not  raised 
to  any  ^reat  extent.  The  inhabitants  belong 
to  tbe  Congo  race,  and  use  the  Bnnda  lan- 
guage. They  are  natnrally  harmless,  but  have 
become  brotalized  where  thej  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  Portuguese  slave  traders. 
Their  religion  is  a  form  of  fetishism.  The  chief 
towns  are  Benguela,  Caconda  (in  the  interior), 
Novo  Redondo,  and  Hossamedes.  Hossamedea 
is  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  South  Ben- 
guela,  and  was  founded  in  1840.  It  is  favor- 
ably situated  and  proaperona.  IL  8ia  StUrt  it 
Be^Kla,  the  Portngnese  capital  of  the  conntry, 
is  sitnated  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Catnmbela,  in  laL  12°  88'  S.,  Ion.  18°  2fi' 
£.;  pop.  3,000.  It  ia  so  nnhealthfu]  that  no 
Earopeans  can  withstand  the  climate.  It  is 
especially  fatal  to  women.  The  most  nnwhole- 
Bome  months  are  March  and  April,  tbe  rainy 
months,  and  next  to  them  Jannary  and  May. 
The  harbor  is  commodious  and  safe,  bnt  diffl- 
cnlt  of  access.  Ivory,  panther  skins,  and  the 
other  prodnctions  of  the  country  are  brought 
into  the  city,  and  it  is  visited  occasionally  by 
Furtugnese  and  Brazilian  b'adinK  vessels.  The 
city  was  formerly  the  principal  slave  market 
for  tbe  trade  with  Brazil.  It  is  under  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  governor  general  of  Angola, 
who  resides  at  St  Paul  de  Loanda. 

BEHI,  or  Veal,  a  department  of  Bolivia,  trav- 
ersed by  the  river  Beni,  and  embracing  the 
lofty  monntoina  and  immense  wooded  plains 
which  cover  the  northern  portion  of  the  re- 
public. These  plains  are  watered  by  large 
rivets,  which  during  the  floods  overflon  their 
banks,  inundating  and  fertilizing  tbe  enrrouod- 
ing  regions.  Its  capital  is  Trinidad,  and  it  is 
divided  into  tbe  three  provinces  of  Moiosi  Yura- 
carea,  and  Caupolicnn.  The  probable  area  is 
150,000  »q.  m.,  with  perhaps  64,000  inhabit- 
ants of  European  origin,  besides  some  10,000 
Indians,  but  few  of  whom  ore  ciiilized..  CJoId 
is  foand  in  some  parts  along  the  hanks  of  the 
Beni.  Large  quontitiea  of  coca  are  produced, 
and  some  a!  tne  European  grains  and  fruits,. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  in  winter  even  cold. 


BENIN 


527 


BENI,  ?«■!,  or  Par*,  a  river  of  Bolivia,  formed 
by  a  number  of  bead  streams  rising  in  the 
Andes,  N.  W.  of  Oochabamba.  Alter  flowing 
N.  W.  800  m.,  and  receiving  the  waters  of  the 
Qneloto,  TIpnani,  Mapuri,  and  other  large 
rivers,  it  bends,  and  holds  a  N.  E.  course  to 
the  frontier  of  Brazil,  where  it  swells  the 
nnited  streams  of  tbe  MamorS  and  It^nez  to 
form  the  Madeira,  the  principal  tributary  of 
tbe  Amazon.  Tbe  whole  valley  of  the  Beni 
not  having  been  yet  explored,  littie  else  ia 
known  than   that   the  river  waters  extensive 

K'  ins  of  great  fertility  in  the  departments  of 
Paz  and  Beni. 

B^ICiBLO,  a  t«wn  of  Spain,  in  tbe  provinco 
of  OaBlelloQ,  on  tbe  Mediterranean,  80  m.  N. 
E.  of  Valencia,  on  the  railroad  to  Barcelcma; 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  snrronnded  bj  walls, 
and  has  a  ruined  oastle,  a  fishing  port,  and  a 
chnrch  with  an  octangular  tower.  It  is  an  ill- 
built  and  dirty  town,  chiefly  noted  for  the  red 
and  full-flavored  wine  produced  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, which  is  largely  exported  to  Bor- 
deaux, to  enrich  fioor  clarets  for  tbo  English 
and  American  market. 

BENICUj  a  town,  capital  of  Solano  cc,  Cali- 
fornia, and  formerly  of  the  state,  on  the  strait 
of  Carquinez,  which  connecta  Ban  Pablo  and 
Suisun  bays,  30  ni.  £.  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco; 
pop.  in  1870, 1,GG6.  The  land  for  about  a  mile 
from  the  town  is  level  or  gently  undulating. 
The  valleys  are  capable  of  cultivation,  but  in 
and  aronnd  tbe  town  there  is  not  a  tree  to  be 
seen.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  andnrasent  a 
neat  and  respectable  appearance.  The  harbo^ 
is  capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  ships. 
It  is  connected  with  Baa  Francisco  by  regular 
lines  of  steamers.  Arrangements  have  oeeit 
made  (1872)  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad 
from  Benioia  np  the  Sacramento  river  to 
Red  Blnff,  with  a  branch  to  Sacramento.  It 
has  extensive  cement  works,  tanneries,  and  a 
large  flonring  mill.  Tbe  place  contains  the 
govemmeot  depot  of  arms  and  supplies  for  the 
military  stations  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  has 
ezt«nsive  barracks,  storehouaes,  magazines,  and 
shops  for  the  manufacture  and  repair  of  army 
material.  It  has  also  a  law  school,  a  collegiate 
institnte,  St.  Aognstine's  theological  aohool 
(Episcopal),  with  S  professors  and  7  stndenta, 
a  convent,  a  female  seminary  with  8  instractors 
and  46  students,  and  a  Catholic  and  an  Episco- 
pal church. 

BENIN.  I.  A  kingdom  of  Africa,  on  the 
Guinea  coast,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Yornba,  W, 
by  Egba,  E,  and  S.  E.  by  the  Niger  and  its 
E,  branch,  the  Bonny.  The  name  was  for- 
merly applied  to  the  whole  of  the  const  of  the 
gulf  of  Goinea,  and  tbe  kingdom  was  supposed 
to  be  very  lai^e  and  powerful.  Tbe  coast  is^ 
low,  swampy,  and  cut  up  by  numerous  arms  of 
the  Niger.  The  soil  is  fruitful,  yielding  rice, 
yams,  sugar,  and  in  general  all  the  products  of 
Guinea.  Palm  trees  grow  luxuriantly.  The 
popnlatiim  is  dense.  The  king  is  worehipped 
as  fetish.    The  chief  towns  aca  Benin  and  w  ari 


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528  BENIOWSKY 

or  Warrah,  ritoated  110  m.  Airther  S.  upon  an 

arm  of  the  Niger.  Wari  seems  to  be  the  chief 
city  of  a  aenro  kingdom  which  is  sabject  to 
the  king  of  Benin.  No  European  settlementa 
are  now  found  upon  the  coast  of  Benin.  Even 
the  port  of  tiato  (Agathon),  vhich  was  utuated 
45  in.  beluw  Benin  on  the  Formosa,  and  once 
liad  a  nnmber  of  European  factories,  has  dis- 
ii])peared  from  the  map.  Benin  was  discovered 
by  the  Portugnese  Diogo  Cam  in  1464,  and 
wasvisited  in  1486  by  Alfonso  Aveiro.  In  1786 
the  French  made  aettlements  at  the  mouth  of 
tlie  river,  which  were  destroyed  by  the  Eng- 
hsh  in  1792.  II.  A  town,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  situated  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the 
westernmost  arm  of  the  Niger,  formerly  sup~ 
posed  to  be  an  independent  stream  and  called 
the  Benin  or  Formosa  river;  pop.  15,000.  The 
town  oocnpies  a  large  surface,  and  has  an 
active  trade,  thongh  nnce  the  breaking  np  of 
the  Guinea  slave  trade  it  has  been  anrpaaaed  in 
commercial  prosperity  by  Bonny,  at  the  E. 
moath  of  the  delta.  III.  BIgkt  tt,  the  N.  part 
of  the  gnlf  of  Guinea,  W,  of  the  delta  of  the 
Niger,  on  the  Slave  CoasL 

IKHOffSKV,  ■•rib  lifMt,  connt,  a  Hnngorian 
soldier  and  adventurer,  bom  at  Verb6  in  the 
county  of  Nentra,  in  1741,  died  May  28,  1766. 
Ha  was  the  son  of  an  Austrian  general,  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  seven  years'  war,  and  after- 
ward studied  navigation  at  Ilainburg,  Amster- 
dam, and  Plymouth.  Having  joined  the  Poles 
In  the  war  against  Russia,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  exiled  to  Kamtchatka  in  17T0.  On  his 
voyage  thither  he  saved  the  vessel  from  de- 
stmction  bj  storm,  and  this  service,  with  his 
skill  in  chess,  procured  for  him  a  kind  recep- 
tion from  the  governor  of  Kamtchatka,  who 
appointed  him  Instructor  of  his  children  tn 
French  and  German.  Haring  promised  to 
colonize  the  southern  extremity  of  Kamtchatka 
with  his  countrymen,  he  received  in  marriage 
the  hand  of  Aphanasia,  the  governor's  daugh- 
ter, thongh  he  had  aaother  wife  in  Europe. 
With  her  assistance  he  made  his  escape  in 
1771,  with  a  number  of  companions,  first  de- 
feating a  detachment  of  Russians  and  captur- 
ing a  fbrtress  with  a  large  treasure.  He  first 
went  to  Formosa  and  then  to  Macao,  where 
many  of  his  i-ompany  died,  and  Anong  them 
Aphaaama.  He  tuen  took  pa.>ffiage  for  France, 
entered  the  army,  obtained  the  command  of  a 
regiment  of'infantry,  and  afterward  received  a 
commission  lo  plant  a  colony  in  Madagascar, 
where,  having  ingratiatad  himself  with  the  na- 
tives, he  wa«  made  king  of  one  of  the  tribes  in 
1776.  Inordertoobtainsssistanoeforhiscolony 
he  returned  to  France,  bat  was  treated  with  so 
mnch  severity  by  the  French  ministry  that  he 
went  into  tlie  service  of  Austria,  and  was  in  the 
engagement  between  the  Austrians  and  Prus- 
wans  at  Habelschwerdt  in  1778.  In  1783  he 
)xpedition  for  Madsgascar,«btain- 
e  of  the  funds  which  he  needed  from 
private  individuals  in  London,  but  the  larger 
part  from  &  mercantile  house  of  Baltimore.  He 


BENJAMIN 

set  sail  with  his  expedition  in  October,  1764. 
In  Madagascar  he  provoked  hostilities  with  Uie 
French,  and  finally  lost  hie  life  in  a  fight  with 
French  troops,  whicli  were  sent  against  him 
from  the  Isle  of  France.  Translations  of  his 
autobiography,  which  was  written  in  French, 
were  published  by  Nicholson  in  England  (2 
vols.,  1790),  and  by  Forst«r  and  Ebcling  in 
Germany.  Kotzebne's  play,  "  The  Conspiracy 
of  Kamtchatka,"  and  an  opera  of  Boieldien, 
ware  founded  upon  the  events  of  his  life. 

BESJUIIH,  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  the  yomigest 
son  of  Jacob,  full  brother  of  Joseph,  these  b«ng 
the  only  children  by  Kachel.  His  mother,  dying 
in  childbed,  called  him  Ben-tmi,  meaning  "son 
of  my  torment"  (cause  of  my  misfortune),  or 
"son  of  my  wealth"  (my  treasure);  bat  his 
&ther  changed  the  name  to  Sen-yamin,  "son 
of  the  right  hand  "  (my  support,  or  perhaps  in 
reference  to  Rachel).  The  bamaritan  code  baa 
Ben-yamim,  "  son  of  days,"  that  is,  "  son  of  old 
age."  Bei^arain  was  an  infant  at  the  time  of 
the  abduction  of  his  brother  Joseph,  and  as  he 
grew  np  became  the  favorite  son  of  his  aged 
father.  Jacob,  in  his  dying  address  to  hia  chil- 
dren, says  that  "  Benjamin  will  ravin  as  a  wolf, 
devouring  prey  in  the  morning,  and  dividing 
spoil  at  night;"  aliaslons  to  a  Serce  and  un- 
governable disposition,  a  characteristic  which 
his  tribe  seems  to  have  maniteeted  dnring  ita 
whole  existence.  The  sons  of  Benjamin  out- 
numbered those  of  any  of  his  brothers ;  but  at 
the  exodus  the  tribe  was  the  nnallest  of  all 
except  that  of  Levi.  The  territory  in  Canaan 
aasigned  to  the  tribe  of  Be^famin,  between 
Judati  and  Ephraim,  and  Dan  and  the  Jordan, 
was  comparatively  small,  hut  in  ancient  times 
not«d  for  fertility.  It  included  tlie  stronghold 
of  Jebns,  afterward  Jerusalem,  Jericlio,  Bethel, 
Gibeah,  Rameb,  and  Mizpeh.  The  Beqjamitea 
became  noted  for  their  expertness  in  the  use  of 
arms,  especially  of  the  sling.  During  the  period 
of  the  judges  the  tribe  was  almost  eitermmated 
in  a  reckless  straggle  with  the  others;  but  in 
time  it  recovered  from  the  blow.  Sanl,  the  first 
king  of  Israel,  was  a  Benjamite ;  and  after  hia 
death  the  tribe  adhered  to  his  son  Ishbosheth  in 
oppontion  to  David,  who  had  become  king  of 
Judah.  Theassassinationof  AbnerbyJoab,  and 
David's  public  disclaimerof  all  part  in  it,  decided 
the  Beqjamites  in  his  favor,  and  they  thence- 
forward entered  into  the  closest  relations  with 
Judah ;  and  when  the  disruption  of  the  king- 
dom took  place,  Benjamin  and  Judah  alone 
adhered  to  the  house  of  David,  the  other  ten 
tribes  going  off  with  Jeroboam.  From  this 
time  the  general  history  of  the  tribe  becomes 
merged  in  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
although  it  appears  that  some  sort  of  tribal 
organization  was  ever  maintained,  for  the  tribe 
is  separately  mentioned  wherever  the  statistics 
of  the  kingdom  are  given,  down  to  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

BEHJUnN,  Jidak  nHlpi,  an  American  lawyer 
and  senator,  born  in  Santo  Domingo  in  1819, 
of  Jewish  parents,  who  emigrated  to  Savannah 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BENJAMIN 

in  1816.  He  entered  Yale  coHe^in  lB3S,bDt 
left  withont  gnduating.  In  1631  he  went  to 
New  Orleans,  studied  law,  sopporting  hiniBelf 
by  teaching,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1634, 
and  rose  rapidly  to  a  bigh  portion  in  the  pra- 
fesaion.  lie  also  became  prominent  as  a  poli- 
tician, attaching  himself  to  the  wliig  party.  In 
1852  he  was  cboBen  to  the  senate  of  the  United 
States,  where  he  soon  allied  himself  with  the 
deraooratio  party,  in  consequence  of  the  action 
of  the  two  parties  on  the  slavery  question.  In 
1659  ha  was  reflected  to  the  senate,  his  col- 
league being  John  Slidell.  On  Deo.  81,  I860, 
in  a  speech  in  the  senate,  lie  avowed  his  ad- 
hesion to  the  sonthem  cause;  and  on  Feb.  4 
he  vithdrew  from  the  senate,  and  was  at  once 
appointed  attorney  general  in  the  provisional 
government  of  the  soathem  confaderacj.  In 
Anguat  he  was  appointed  acting  secretary  of 
war,  but  resigned  in  Febraary,  1662,  on  ao- 
oonnt  of  having  been  censured  by  a  oongre*- 
sional  committoe.  He  however  stood  high  in 
the  confidence  of  Jefferson  Davis,  and  was  ap- 

Eointed  secretory  of  state,  which  podtion  he 
eld  nntiL  the  downfall  of  the  confederacy.  He 
then  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  where 
he  entered  sncceasfully  into  the  practice  of  the 
legal  profesnon,  and  in  1886  published  "ATrea- 
tise  on  tlie  Law  of  Sale  of  Personal  Property." 
BEHJlMDf,  Pvk,  an  American  poet  and 
Jonmalist,  bom  in  Demerara,  British  Guiana, 
Aug.  14,  1809,  died  in  New  York,  Sept.  13, 
1884.  His  fkther  was  of  Welsh  descent,  bnt 
was  bom  in  Oonnaoticnt,  whence  he  removed 
to  Demerara  and  carried  on  business  there. 
Pa^  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  his  father's 
home  is  New  England  for  medical  advice  and 
to  be  edaoated.  He  studied  two  years  at  Har- 
vard college,  graduated  at  Trinity  college, 
Hartford,  in  1629,  began  to  practise  law  in 
Beaton  in  1832,  and  was  one  of  the  originat 
editors  of  the  "New  England  Mwozine."  In 
1887  he  removed  to  New  York,  edited  in  con- 
nection with  C,  F.  Hoflinan  the  "  American 
Monthly  Magazine,"  and  sabsequently  was  as- 
sociated wlu  Horace  Greeley  in  editing  the 
"New  Yorker."  He  was  soon  after  employed 
In  connection  with  Epes  Sargent  and  RuAis  W. 
Griswold  as  editor  of  the  "New  World,"  a 
weekly  literary  journal.  In  1644  he  withdrew 
fh>m  this  publication,  and  doringthe  rest  of  his 
life  resided  in  New  York,  devoted  to  literary 
porenits.  Heoontributed  both  in  proae  and  verse 
to  various  periodicals,  and  delivered  lectures 
and  read  poems  in  public.  Mr.  Beniamin  was 
in  person  a  man  of  full  chest  and  powerful 
anus,  but,  either  in  consequence  of  an  illness 
in  childhood  or  tram  birth,  was  completely 
lame  below  the  hips.  No  collected  edition  of 
his  writings  haa  been  published. 

BENJAMLV  OF  TDDOJ,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  noted 
in  history  as  the  first  western  traveller  who 
penetrated  into  the  remoter  regions  of  Ibe 
East,  bom  at  Tudela  in  Navarre,  died  about 
1178,  Ho  made  a  journey  from  Saragossa  by 
way  of  Italy,  Greece,  Palestine,  and  Persia,  to 


BENNET 


529 


the  confines  of  China,  and  retnmed  home  by 
way  of  Egypt  and  Sicily.  Many  of  his  descrip- 
tions of  places  seem  however  to  have  been 
derived  from  other  sources  than  personal  travel 
and  observation.  The  specific  object  of  his 
journey  was  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  state 
of  his  brethren  in  the  East  His  "Itinerary," 
though  marred  by  many  errors  of  fact,  and  be- 
traying in  general  a  lack  of  critical  inquiry, 
contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information. 
It  was  first  written  in  Hebrew,  but  has  been 
published  also  in  Latin,  French,  Dutch,  Ger- 
man, and  English.  The  first  Hebrew  edition 
was  published  in  1543,  at  Constantinople;  the 
best  is  that  of  Asher  (2  vols.,  London,  1841), 
embracing  an  English  translation  and  exten^ve 
critical  notes. 

BEN  LONOND,  B  mountsin  of  Scotland,  in 
the  N.  W.  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the  E.  side  of 
Loch  Lomond.  It  forms  the  8.  extremity  of 
the  Grampians  or  central  Scottish  highlands, 
rises  to  a  height  of  8,193  ft.,  and  is  covered 
with  vegetation  to  the  summit.  On  the  N.  nde 
it  terminates  by  an  abrupt  precipice  8,000  ft. 
high,  while  the  S.  E.  side  is  a  gentle  declivity. 
The  view  fivm  the  summit  is  nnsurpaased. 

BEIHET,  Heary,  earl  of  Arlington,  an  Eng- 
glish  statesman,  bom  at  Arlington,  in  Middle- 
sex, in  1618,  died  July  28,  1680.  Devoting 
himself  to  the  cause  of  Charlce  I.,  he  was  ap- 
pointed under-sec  retary  of  state,  fought  m 
several  battles,  and  was  wounded  at  Andover. 
After  the  battle  of  Worcester  he  retired  to 
Spain.  Cpon  the  restoration  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  rewarded  for  bis  services  by 
being  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  se^,  and 
shorUy  rflerward  secretary  of  state.  In  1664 
he  was  oreat«d  Baron  Arlington,  and  in  1672 
earl  of  Arlington.  He  was  one  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries sent  to  Utrecht  to  negotiate  a 
peace  between  Austria  and  France.  This  mis- 
sion not  being  successful,  an  endeavor  woo 
made  by  his  colleagues  to  cast  the  odium  of 
the  failure  upon  Arlington ;  he,  however,  de- 
fended himself  before  the  house  of  commons,  . 
and  was  acquitted.  The  war  with  Holland, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  tho 
machinations  of  the  "cabal"  of  which  he  was 
a  member,  lost  to  Arlington  the  favor  of  the 
king  and  people ;  but  he  received  the  office 
of  chamberlain.  In  1679  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council,  and  retained  liis  office  of 
chamberlain  on  the  accession  of  James  IL 

BENNET,  IttBas,  an  Anglican  thetdiwian 
and  controvermalist,  bom  in  Salisbury,  Kay 
7,  1673,  died  Oct.  9,  1728.  He  was  exten- 
sively acquainted  with  the  Greek,  Latin,  and 
oriental  literatures,  and  composed  verses  in  He- 
brew. In  1700  he  became  rector  of  St.  James's, 
Colchester,  which  position  he  held  till  1714, 
when  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  re- 
moved to  London,  where  he  was  presented  to 
the  vicarage  of  St.  Giles's,  Cripplegate.  Be- 
sides his  works  in  confutation  of  popery, 
schism,  Quakerism,  and  the  principles  of  the 
noignrors,  be  wrote  tracts  on  baptism,  litur- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


pes,  and  clerical  rights,  and  an  examination  of 

Clark's  "  Scriptore  Doctrine  of  tlie  Trinity." 

BENHETT,  JuMS  CerdM,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, foander  aad  proprietor  of  the  "Kew 
York  Herald,"  boi-n  at  New  Mill,  ]ieith,  in 
BflD^hire,  Scotland,  Sept.  1,  1TB5,  died  in  New 
York,  June  1,  1872.  He  remained  al  school 
in  his  native  place  till  he  was  14  or  !5  years  of 
Ofre,  when  he  went  to  a  Roman  Catholio  semi- 
nary in  Aberdeen,  with  u  view  to  preparing 
tor  hoi;  orders  in  that  charcb,  of  wliich  his 
parents  were  members^  At  this  institution  he 
pursued  the  canal  rontine  of  academic  life  for 
two  or  three  years,  when  lie  abandoned  the 
intention  of  entering  npon  an  ecclesiastical 
career,  and  soon  after  determined  to  emigrate 
to  America.  He  embarked  with  a  yonthful  com- 
panion in  April,  1S19,  and  arriving  in  Halifax 
with  but  scanty  pecuDiary  resources,  took  up  the 
occupation  of  teaching.  He  was  led  to  this  em- 
ployment bj  necessity  rattier  than  inclination, 
and  after  a  brief  experience  of  its  annoyances 
lell  Halifax  for  Portland,  and  thence  made  hie 
way  to  Boston  in  the  antumn  of  1819,  and  ob- 
tained the  situation  of  »  proof-reader  in  the 
Eublishing  honse  of  Wells  and  Lilly.  During 
Is  residence  in  Boston  he  published  several 
poetical  compositions.  In  1622  he  went  to 
New  York,  and  soon  accepted  the  offer  of  Mr. 
Wlllingt<«i,  the  proprietor  of  the  "  Charleston 
Courier,"  to  employ  him  oa  a  translator  from 
the  Spanish-American  papers.  He  also  pre- 
pared ori^nal  artiolea  for  the  "Courier." 
After  a  few  months  he  returned  to  New  York, 
and  issued  proposals  for  the  establiiihment  of 
a  commercial  school.  This  plan  was  not  car- 
ried into  effect,  and  his  next  step  was  the  de- 
livery of  a  course  of  lectures  on  political  econ- 
omy. In  the  vestry  of  the  old  Dutch  church  in 
Ann  street  In  1626  Hr.  Bennett  first  became 
tlie  proprietor  of  a  public  journal,  having  pnr- 
chaaed  a  Sunday  newspaper  called  the  "  New 
York  Courier."  The  enteri'rise  was  not  suo- 
eesaful,  and  he  obtuned  employment  as  a 
writer  and  reporter  for  several  jonmals  of  the 
city.  In  1826  he  became  connected  with  the 
"  National  Advocate,"  a  democratic  newspaper 
published  by  Mr.  Snowden.  After  the  state 
election  of  that  year  he  began  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics,  vehemently  opposing  tlie  tariff, 
and  discussing  banks  and  banking.  In  Uie 
spring  of  1627  he  discontinued  his  connection 
with  the  "National  Advocate,"  which,  after 
having  changed  proprietors,  espoused  the 
cause  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  while  Mr.  Ben- 
nett was  a  warm  partisan  of  Martin  Van 
Buren,  then  in  the  eenate  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  next  engaged  with  Mordecai  M.  Noah 
as  associate  editor  of  the  "Enquirer,"  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Tammany  society. 
During  the  presidential  canvass  of  1828  he  was 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  Gen.  Jnckson,  re- 
siding at  Washington  as  correspondent  of  the 
"  Enquirer."  After  the  ftision  of  that  journal 
with  the  "Courier,"  in  1829,  he  continued  to 
write   in    the    editorial    department    of   the 


"  Conrier  and  !Enqnirer,"  and  in  the  autumn  of 
the  some  year  became  an  associate  editor.  In 
1831  he  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  tlie  bank- 
ing system  of  the  United  States,  and  coop- 
erated with  Gen.  Jaokaon  and  the  democratic 
partv  in  their  opjiosition  to  the  recharter  of 
the  United  Stated  hank.  In  1832,  the  senior 
editor,  J,  W.  Webb,  having  determined  to 
support  the  United  States  bank,  Mr.  Bennett 
withdrew  ft'om  the  paper,  and  in  October  of 
the  same  year  issued  the  first  number  of  a  new 
journal  called  the  "New  York  Globe."  This 
was  published  precisely  one  month,  during 
which  time  it  was  strenuously  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren.  Mr-  Ben- 
nett then  purchased  a  share  in  the  "  Pennayl- 
yaniao,"a  daily  ^oamal  of  Philadelphia,  and 
became  its  principal  editor.  In  1884  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  and  in  May,  1836,  issued 
the  first  number  of  the  "New  York  Herald." 
Mr.  Bennett  began  the  enterprise  with  a  cap- 
ital of  ^00,  and  was  once  robbed  and  twice 
burned  out  within  the  first  15  months,  but 
at  the  end  of  that  time  found  himself  worth 
nearly  $6,000.  As  his  capital  increased  he 
spent  money  freely  in  promoting  the  interests 
of  his  paper,  which  by  this  means  and  through 
Mr.  Bennett's  wit,  ori^ality,  and  induatij 
speedily  became  celebrated  and  achieved  great 
success.  Fonr  months  after  the  fire  which  de- 
stroyed his  office  there  was  a  great  fire  in  Wall 
street  and  its  neighborhood.  The  "Herald" 
largely  increased  its  prosperity  by  publishing 
full  accounts  of  it,  iUu«trated  with  a  map  of  the 
burnt  district  and  a  woodcut  of  the  exchange 
on  fire.  It  was  the  first  newspaper  that  pub- 
lished a  daily  money  article  and  the  stock  lists. 
In  1887  it  set  up  a  ship  news  establishment, 
cousisting  of  a  row  boat,  manned  by  a  captain 
and  two  men,  which  intercepted  ships  as  the^ 
arrived  and  got  from  them  tneir  news  and  the 
passenger  lists.  In  183S  steam  oommnnioatioa 
with  Europe  was  opened  by  the  arrival  of  the 
Sirins  and  Great  Western.  Mr.  Bennett  sailed 
in  the  Sirins  on  its  return  trip,  and  made  ar- 
rangements for  correspondence  from  oil  pans 
of  Europe.  The  first  speech  ever  reported  in 
full  by  tel^raph,  that  of  Mr.  Calhoun  on  the 
Mexican  war,  was  transmitted  to  the  "Herald." 
That  journal  was  independent  in  politics,  bat 
generally  aunported  the  democratic  party,  and 
advocated  tiie  compromise  of  I8S0  and  the 
fugitive  slave  law.  But  it  adhered  to  Fre- 
mont and  the  republican  party  in  1866,  pub- 
lishing articles  against  the  extension  of  sla- 
very, and  supported  the  government  durbg 
the  civil  war.  In  1871  an  expedition  tosearch 
for  Dr.  Livingstone  in  Afrie*  was  sent  out  by 
the  "Herald;"  and  Mr.  Stanley,  its  head,  ar- 
rived in  England  the  following  year,  report- 
ing that  he  had  succeeded.  (See  Living- 
stone,) The  profits  of  the  "  Herald"  at  the 
time  of  Mr.  Bennett's  death  were  estimated 
as  being  from  one  half  to  three  quarters  of 
a  million  dollars  per  annum.  Mr.  Bennett  was 
married  in  1810.    He  died  in  the  Roman  Catli- 


□IgitizedbyGoOglc 


BENNINGSEN 


531 


olio  faith,  rec«i7ittgthe  laat  Bacrament  from 
Arolibiahop  UcCloakcy.  He  bequeathed  tbe 
''  Herald  "  to  bis  onlj  son,  Jaubs  Gohdok  Bbn- 
HBTT,  jr.,  who  is  DOW  its  editor  and  proprietor. 


surgery  under  Wiiliam  Sedgwick  and  medicme 
ID  rti©  Doiveraitj  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  tool; 
hia  degree  in  1337,  receiving  a  medal  for  the 
best  Burgicai  report,  while  Sir  Charles  Bell 
high];  commended  bis  the»9  on  the  "  Phy si- 
ologj  and  Pathology  of  the  Brain."  He  after- 
ward studied  two  jears  at  Paria  and  two  years 
inGermany.  In  1848he wasappointedpathol- 
ogist  to  the  royal  iaflrmiLry,  Edinburgh  ;  and 
in  1848  he  succeeded  Dr.  Allen  Thomson  aa  pro- 
fessor of  the  inatitutes  of  medicine  in  Edinburgh 
Dniver^ity.  He  waa  (ISll)  the  first  in  Great 
Britain  to  advocate  the  use  of  cod-liver  oil  for 
the  onre  of  consumption,  scrofula,  and  kindred 
diseases,  and  to  deliver  lectures  on  histology. 
He  discovered  a  disease  of  the  blood  which  he 
called  leucocythiemia  or  white-ceil  blood.  He 
also  proved  tlmt  the  hemlock  of  the  present 
day  is  the  same  drag  by  which  Socrates  was 
poisoned.  His  publications  include  "Inflam- 
mation of  the  Nervous  Centres,"  "Treatise 
on  Indammation,"  "  Canoerous  and  Cancroid 
Growths,"  "  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Mo- 
lecular Conanmjition,"  "Treatment  of  Pulmo- 
nary Consaroption,"  "  I^ectares  on  Molecular 
Phyaolo^,  Pathology,  and  Therapeutics,'' 
"Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  and 
"Pneumonia."  His  moat  important  work, 
"On  Clinical  Medicine"  (ISoS),  haa  passed 
through  many  editions  in  both  hemispheres, 
and  has  been  translated  into  many  languages. 

BEKMnr,  Sir  Wllllui  Stenda)*,  an  English 
composer,  horn  in  Sheffield,  April  IB,  1816, 
died  in  London,  Feb.  1,  1875.  His  father  was 
for  many  years  organiat  of  the  parish  chnrch  at 
Sheffield.  At  the  age  of  eight  he  entered  as 
chorister  King's  college,  Cambridge,  where  bis 
maternal  grondfutber,  James  Bonn,  was  cura- 
tor of  the  royal  botanical  garden,  and  two  years 
later  commenced  bis  mosical  studies  at  the  royal 
academy  of  music.  He  at  first  chose  the  violin 
as  his  instrument,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for 
the  piano.  His  studies  in  composition  were 
begun  early  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Orotoh ; 
and  while  still  at  the  academy  his  first  sym- 


.  dily  Ibllowed  by  his  pianoforte 

At  the  academy  Lis  master  m  pianoforte 

struction  was  Cipriani  Pott«r,  bat  after  leav- 
ing it  he  became  the  pupil  of  Moscheles.  In 
London  he  met  Mendelssohn,  to  whom  he  be- 
came ardently  attached,  and  whose  influence 
nponhismethodof  composition  is  very  marked. 
Under  Mendelssohn's  advice  he  determined  to 
continue  his  mnsical  studiesin  Germany,  where 
he  could  have  the  benefit  of  the  counsel  and 
iostmctlon  of  that  celebrated  composer ;  and 
the  years  1836-'8  were  passed  at  Leipsio.  At 
the  Gewandbaus  concerts  in  that  city  his  over- 
tare  to  the  Naiad^  his  concerto  in  C  minor. 


and  other  works  were  performed  under  the 
personal  direction  of  Mendelssohn,  lletamiug 
to  London,  liennett  commenced  his  career  as 
musical  instructor,  director  of  concerts,  and 
composer.  In  18o6  he  was  appointed  jirofes- 
sor  of  music  at  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
ond  received  the  degree  of  Mus.  Doc.  the  same 
year.  In  1869  he  received  the  degree  of  M.  A,, 
and  in  1870  ho  was  created  D.  C.  L.  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  From  1856  to  1888  he  con- 
ducted the  philbarmonic  concerts,  and  in  tlie  lat- 
ter year  was  made  principal  of  the  royal  acad- 
emy of  music.  In  1871  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood was  conferred  upon  him.  The  principal 
works  of  this  composer  are  his  operas,  "The 
Wood  Nymphs  "  and  "  Parisina ;"  iiis  cantatas, 
"The  May  Queen"  and  "The  Woman  of  Sa- 
maria ;"  and  several  concertos  for  piano  and 
orolicstra.  He  composed  many  minor  works 
for  the  pianoforte  in  connection  with  stringed 
instruments,  and  a  large  nnmber  for  that  in- 
stmment  alone;  alsoanumber  of  gongs;  and 
he  wrote  a  treatise  on  harmony,  and  one 
entitled  "Classical  Praotioe  for  Pianoforte 
Students." 

BEff  HEVIS,  a  monntain  of  Inverness- shire, 
ScoUand,  the  highest  sammit  in  Great  Britain. 
It  rises  abruptly  from  the  narrow  plain  which 
separatee  it  from  Loch  Eil  to  a  height  of  4,406 
ft.  Its  ontjineis  welldefined;  itscircomference 
at  the  hose  exceeds  24  m.  The  lower  portion 
consista  of  granite,  and  is  usually  covered  with 
rich  grass;  while  the  upper  part  is  a  mass  of 
porphyry.  In  places  near  me  summit  snow 
lies  the  year  round.  When  the  atmosphere 
is  clear  the  summit  commands  a  view  of  2S  m. 
in  every  direction,  extending  from  sea  to  sea. 

BENNINGSEN.  I.  LctIi  Aigwt  TbeophU,  count, 
a  Russian  general,  bom  in  Brunswick,  Feb.  10, 
174A,  where  his  father  served  as  colonel  in  the 
guards,  died  Oct.  8,  1626.  He  was  a  page  at 
the  Hanoverian  court  of  George  II.,  and  after- 
ward a  captain  in  the  Hanoverian  army,  re- 
signing his  commission  to  marry  the  daughter 
of  the  Austrian  ambassador  at  Hanover.  Hav- 
ing squandered  his  fortune  and  lost  his  wife,  he 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  under  Catha- 
rine II.  distinguished  himself  as  a  cavalry 
officer,  and  was  richly  rewarded.  Disgraced 
by  Paul  I.,  he  entered  into  Count  Pahlen's  con- 
spiracy, and  led  the  way  when  the  assassins 
broke  into  the  czar's  bedchamber.  Paul  hid 
himself  in  the  chimney.  Benningsen  draped 
him  down,  and  when  the  conspirators  hesitated 
untied  his  own  sash,  rushed  upon  the  czar,  and 
with  the  help  of  the  others  succeeded  in  stran- 
gling him.  Beaningson  expedited  the  murder 
by  striking  Paul  on  the  head  with  u  heavy  sil- 
ver suuif  box.  From  Alexander  I,  Benningsen 
received  an  important  military  command.  Tn 
the  warof  Ruasio,  Austria,  and  England  against 
France  in  1806,  he  repulsed  Lannes  and  Berna- 
dott«  at  Pultusk,  and  extricated  the  Russians 
fh)m  a  critical  position  into  which  they  had 
been  brought  by  Marshal  Kamensky.  Soon 
after  he  was  mode  commander-in-chief  of  the 


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«33 


BENNINGTON 


armj  then  in  the  field  against  Napoleon,  and 
fought  the  French  at  Eylau,  Feb.  T-8, 180T,  but 
on  June  14  he  was  beaten  at  FrieiUand.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Borodino  (1S12) 
as  aid  to  Gen.  Kntuiolf.  On  Oct.  18  of  tlie, 
aome  jeai  he  gained  a  brillioat  advantage  hy 
aarprise  over  Murat  at  Tarutino,  He  left  the 
service  on  account  of  difficulties  with  EutuzoS^ 
but  reEntered  it  on  Kotuzoff's  death.  lie  had 
an  important  part  at  the  talcing  of  Leipwc,  and 
was  in  command  of  the  armj  which  wu  be- 
sieging Hamburg  when  Napoleon  was  over- 
thrown in  1814.  After  the  peace  of  ISId  the 
command  of  the  second  armj,  which  was  nta- 
tioned  in  the  south  of  Kussia,  was  given  to 
blm.  lie  redgned  in  1818,  and  died  poor  and 
blind.  II.  Akuaitir  Levli,  count,  a  Hanovetion 
Statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Zakret, 
near  Wilna,  Jaly  SI,  1809.  He  occupied  the 
highest  portions  in  the  cabinet  and  the  cham- 
bers from  1841  to  18&tt,  when  Hanover  was 
annexed  to  Prnssia.  III>  Kidelf  Ten,  a  Hano- 
verian statesman,  belon^ng  to  ajonior  branch 
of  the  same  family,  bom  in  LOneburg,  Julj  SO, 
1824.  Alter  many  able  but  ineffectual  attempts, 
aa  a  member  of  the  chambers  and  in  otoer 
capacities,  to  protect  Hanover  agwnst  the  fata) 
course  of  George  V.,  he  was  elected  in  1866, 
after  the  annexation  of  his  country  to  Proseia, 
to  the  North  German  diet  and  the  Pmssian 
assembly  of  delegates,  and  became  vice  presi- 
dent of  these  bodies  and  a  statesmsnlike  leader 
of  the  liberal  national  party,  lie  has  presided 
since  the  close  of  1868  over  the  local  adminis- 
tration of  the  province  of  Hanover,  and  at- 
tended the  conferences  at  Vers^les  in  I>ecem- 
her,  18T0,  in  respect  to  the  formation  of  the 
new  German  empire. 

BEMIflNGTOIi,  a  B.  W.  county  of  Vermont, 
bordering  on  New  York  and  Massachusetts; 
area,  aboot  TOD  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  Sl,825. 
It  is  skirted  by  tlie  Green  mountains  on  the 
'east,  and  watered  by  the  Battenkill,  lloosicli, 
and  srnalier  streams.  In  the  N,  part  of  the 
county,  especially  in  Dorset  township,  large 
qnantities  of  marble  are  quarried,  some  varie- 
ties of  which  are  very  white  and  fine,  and  take 
a  high  polish.  The  ooonty  is  crossed  by  the 
Harlem  Extension,  Troy  and  Boston,  and 
Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  railroads.    The  chief 

frodactiona  in  1870  were  108,G37  bushels  of 
adian  com,  161,ST6  of  oats,  196.791  of  pota- 
toes, 8S,642  tons  of  hay,  416,6Gfi  lbs.  of  cheese, 
412,092  of  butter,  146,419  of  wool,  and  170,- 
268  of  maple  sugar.  There  were  2,529  horses, 
6.650  milch  cows,  4,543  other  cattle,  82,068 
sheen,  and  2,093  swine.  Capitols,  Bennington 
and  Manciieeter. 

BENNnrerON,  a  township  in  the  S.  W.  part 
of  Bennington  co.,  Vt.,  102  m.  S.  by  W.  of 
Montpelier ;  pop.  in  1870,  0,760.  It  is  on  the 
Harlem  Extennon  and  Troy  and  Boston  rail- 
roads, and  includes  the  villages  of  Bennington, 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  county,  Bennington 
Centre  or  Old  Bennington,  North  Bennington, 
and  Bennington  Iron  Works.    It  has  impoi^ 


tant  manofiaotories  of  fine  porceldn  and  Parian 

ware,  material  in  abundance  and  of  excellent 
qnality  being  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town. 
—On  Aug.  18,  1777,  Gen.  Stark,  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  New  Hampshire  militia,  defeated 
in  Bennington  a  detachment  of  Burgoyne's 
army  under  Col.  Baam.  Shortly  after  the  re- 
treat of  the  latter  the  battle  was  renewed  by 
a  British  reenforoement,  which  in  turn  retreat- 
ed on  tlie  approach  of  darkness.  The  British 
lost  200  killed,  600  prisoners,  and  1,000  stand 
of  arms ;  the  Americans,  14  killed  and  43 
wounded.  No  trace  now  remains  to  indicate 
the  precise  locality  of  the  engagement 

BEKHO,  Salit,  bishop  of  Meissen,  bom  at 
HildeshdmabontlOlO,  died  June  19,1107.  He 
was  a  Benedictine  of  Hildesheim  when  in 
lOSl  he  was  appointed  canon  of  the  chnrcb 
in  Goslar,  whenoe  he  was  promoted  by  Henry 
IV.  to  the  bisboprio  of  Meissen.  In  the  war 
between  that  emperor  and  Pope  Gregory  VII^ 
he  ultimately  declared  for  the  pope,  and  was 
several  times  made  a  prisoner.  When  in  lOSS 
he  supported  in  a  conncil  the  eicommnnica- 
tion  pronounced  against  the  emperor,  the  latter 
took  from  him  bis  bishopric,  which  was  after- 
ward restored  by  the  antipope  Clement  III. 
In  the  IGth  century  pilgrimages  were  made  to 
bis  tomb,  and  in  1623  he  was  canonized. 

BENOOWE,  Bfaie,  or  Bliae  (tlie  mother  of 
waters),  a  river  of  central  Africa,  the  main 
tribntay  of  the  Quorra  or  Niger,  formerly 
known  as  the  Chadda,  Tcbaddo,  or  Tsadda, 
because  it  was  supposed  to  be  an  outlet  of 
Lake  Tchad  ;  but  there  is  probably  no  connec- 
tion between  it  and  that  lake.  It  rises  in  an 
unexplored  region  in  the  interior  of  Soodan, 
flows  W.  through  Adamawa  or  Fnmbina,  receiv- 
ing its  three  principal  branches,  the  Kebbi  and 
the  Gongola  from  the  north  and  the  Faro  from 
the  south,  turns  S.  W.  and  Joins  the  Niger 
just  above  the  town  of  Igbebe,  260  m.  from 
the  sea.  The  Benoowe  is  more  than  700  m. 
long.  It  was  seen  by  the  Lander  brothers  in 
1880,  and. explored  for  104  m.  by  Brchard  Lan- 
der, Allen,  and  Oldfield  in  1838.  Dr.  Barth. 
while  travelling  in  Adamawa  in  1851,  came 
upon  the  river  at  the  mouth  of  tiie  Fnro,  as- 
certained its  tme  name,  and  says  it  was  800 
feet  wide  at  that  point  In  consequence  of 
his  reports,  an  expedition  under  Br.  liaikie, 
-fitted  out  at  the  jomt  expense  of  Mr.  Macsre- 
gor  Laird  and  the  Engli^  government,  sailed 
up  the  Benoowe  in  a  steamer  in  1854,  to  a 
point  about  400  m.  from  the  Niger  and  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Faro.  Dr.  Baikio  mode  a 
second  expedition  In  1807,  but  added  little 
to  the  stock  of  knowledge.  During  Angnst 
aod  September,  the  voluQje  of  water  poured 
by  the  Benoowe  into  the  Niger  is  enormous. 
The  right  bank  of  Che  river  and  part  of  the  left 
is  in  the  power  of  the  Fellatahs. 

BEHSON,  Edward  Wkll*.    See  supplement. 

BENSON,  Getrge,  an  English  dissenting  clergy- 
man and  author,  bom  in  Great  Salkeld  in 
1699,  died  in  1768.    From  1731  to  1763  he 


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■*■'  BENSOH" 

held  pastoral  charge*  first  at  Abingdon,  Berk- 
shire, next  at  Soutbwork,  and  finally  as  col- 
!e»gno  of  Dr.  Lardner  in  the  congregation  of 
Crntched  FriarB.  Among  bis  works  are:  "A 
Treatise  on  Prayer"  (1781),  "Comments  on 
some  of  the  Epistles,"  "  History  of  the  first 
Planting  of  Christianity"  (LT35),  "  Reasono- 
hleneas  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  "  History  of 
the  Life  of  Christ,"  and  "  An  Account  of  the 
Burning  of  Serretns,  and  of  the  concern  of 
Calvin  in  it."  In  hia  early  ministerial  career 
he  vasCalviaiatio  intbooiogy ;  later  lie  became 
an  Arian,  and  endeavored  to  sapprees  some  of 
his  former  publications. 

BENSON,  Jaseph,  an  English  clergyman,  bom 
at  Melmerhy,  Cumberland,  Jan.  25,  1748,  died 
Feb.  16,  1831.  He  was  educated  for  the  es- 
tablished church,  but  at  the  age  of  18  was  con- 
verted under  the  influence  of  the  Uethodlata, 
and  Boon  after  joined  their  denomination. 
Snch  was  his  proficiency  in  the  ancient  lan- 
gnages  that  at  the  age  of  18  Wesley  appointed 
him  elasdcal  master  at  Eingswood  school.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  a  student  at  St.  Ed- 
mund's Hall,  Oxford.  In  1769  he  was  called 
to  the  head  mastership  of  Lady  Huntingdon's 
theological  school  at  Treveoca,  but  was  soon 
dismissed  because  he  could  not  agree  with  the 
Oatvinistio  views  of  the  founder.  His  appli- 
cation to  eater  orders  in  the  eatablishod, 
ohuroh  having  been  r^eoted,  lie  was  admitted 
in  1771  into  the  Methodist  conference,  and  for 
many  years  occupied  the  roost  important  sta- 
tions of  the  chnroh.  After  the  death  of  Wes- 
ley he  was  chosen  preudent  of  the  conference. 
While  in  this  office  his  congregations  some- 
times numbered  20,000.  For  many  years  ha 
was  editor  of  the  "  Weslyan  Uagoziiie,"  the 
chief  organ  of  the  Methodist  church  in  Eng' 
land,  conducting  it  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  chief  writhigs  are :  "  A  Defence  of  the 
Methodists"  (1TB3),  "A  Further  Defence  of 
the  Methodists  "  (1794),  "  Vindication  of  the 
Methodists"  (1800),  "Apoltwy  for  the  Method- 
ists "  (1801),  "  Sermons  on  Various  Ocoaaions " 
ra  vols.),  "Life  of  John  Fletcher,"  and  "A 
Commeittary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  "  (6  vols. 
4to.).  See  Maodonoid's  "Life  of  Benson," 
and  Trefry's  "Memoirs  of  Rev.  Joseph  Ben- 

BEHT,  a  S.  E.  ooanty  of  Colorado,  bordering 
on  Kansas;  area,  about  2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
18T0,  593.     The  Arkansas    river  forms  the 

Cter  part  of  its  S.  boundary,  and  one  of  its 
ches,  the  Big  Sandy,  crosses  the  E.  end. 
BEKTOIH,  JercMj,  an  English  juridical  phi- 
losopher, bom  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1748,  died 
in  Qneeu-sqnare  place,  Westminster,  hia  resi- 
dence for  40  years  previonsly,  June  0,  18S2. 
His  great-grandfather,  a  pro^rona  London 
pawnbroker  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  had  ac< 
quired  some  landed  property,  which  remained 
in  the  &mily.  His  grandfather  was  a  London 
attorney ;  his  father,  who  followed  the  same 
profession,  was  a  shrewd  man  of  bnidness,  and 
added  considerably  to  liis  patrimony,  prinoi- 


pallj 
These 


BENTHAM  533 

ly  by  fortunate  purchases  of  land  and  leases, 
'hese  London  Benthams  were  probably  an  olf- 
shoot  from  an  ancient  Yorkshire  family  of  the 
same  name,  which  boasted  a  bishop  among  its 
members;  but  Jeremy  did  not  trouble  himself 
much  to  trace  his  genealogy  beyond  the  pawn- 
broker. His  mother,  Alicia  tirove,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  retired  Andover  shopkeeper. 
Jeremy  Bentham,  the  eldest  and  for  nine 
years  the  only  child  of  this  marriage,  was  for 
the  first  IS  years  of  bis  life  exceedingly  puny, 
small,  and  feeble.  At  the  same  time  he  eihib~ 
ited  a  remarkable  precocity,  which  greatiy 
stimolatad  the  pride  as  well  as  alTeotion  of  his 
father.  He  had  a  decided  taste  for  music,  and 
at  five  years  of  age  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
musical  notes  and  learned  to  play  the  violin. 
At  four  or  earlier,  having  previously  learned 
to  write,  he  was  initiated  into  Latin  grammar, 
and  in  his  seventh  year  entered  Westminster 
school.  Meanwhile  he  was  taught  French  by 
a  private  master  at  home,  and  at  seven  read 
TBlimtuue,  a  book  which  strongly  impressed 
him.  Learning  to  dance  was  a  much  more  se- 
rious undertaking ;  he  was  so  weak  Id  the  legs 
as  to  make  it  laborious  and  painful.  Yonog  aa 
he  was,  he  acquired  distinction  at  Westminster 
as  a  fabricator  of  Latin  and  Greek  verses,  the 
great  end  and  aim  of  the  iustruotion  given 
there.  When  32  years  old  he  was  entered  as 
a  commoner  at  Queen's  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  spent  the  aeit  three  years.  The  young 
Bentham  had  not  been  happy  at  schotd.  lie 
had  suffered  fi-om  the  tyrMmy  of  the  elder 
boys,  though  he  escaped  the  discipUue  of  cor- 
poral punishment,  and  was  but  onoe  forced  into 
a  boxiug  match.  Neither  was  be  happy  at  Ox- 
ford. Though  regarded  by  othets  and  taught 
from  infancy  to  regard  himself  as  a  prodigy,  he 
was  yet  exceedingly  diffident,  and  to  the  high- 
est degree  sensitive  of  any  slight  or  neglect — 
peculiarities  which,  as  well  aa  his  high  estimate 
of  himself  clung  to  him  through  life.  His  tutor 
was  morose,  the  college  dull,  while  his  senutive 
pride  feufiered  much  from  the  mingled  penurioua- 
neas  and  meddlesomenesa  of  hia  father,  who  kept 
him  on  very  short  allowance,  and  who,  in  spite 
of  all  hia  affection  for  his  son,  of  whose  nitimate 
distinction  he  had  formed  the  highest  hopes, 
fiuled  entirely  to  oomprehend  the  boy's  delicacy 
and  diffidence,  and  never  guned  either  his  con- 
fidence or  his  love.  His  mother  hod  died  two 
years  before  he  entered  the  nniversity,  leaving 
him  an  only  brother,  afterword  Sir  Samuel  Ben- 
tham. Several  years  after  his  father  married 
for  a  second  wife  the  widow  of  a  clergyman, 
already  the  mother  of  two  boys,  of  whom  the 
eldest,  Charles  Abbott,  was  afterward  speaker 
of  the  honse  of  commons,  and  finally  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Colchester.  There  were 
nS  children  by  this  second  marriage,  yet  it  was 
a  source  of  great  vexation  to  Bmttham,  to  whom 
his  stepmother  was  far  from  being  agreea- 
ble. Though  very  uncomfortable  aC  Oxford, 
Bentham  went  throogh  tbe  exercises  of  the 
college  with  credit  and  even  with  some  dis- 


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534  BEN! 

tJnctioQ.  Some  Lntio  verses  of  hia  on  the  oo- 
ceasion  of  George  III.  sttracted  considerable  at- 
tention as  the  production  of  one  eo  joung.  Into 
tbe  disputations  wliich  formed  a  part  of  the 
college  exercises  be  entered  with  much  satisfac- 
tion ;  bnt  he  never  felt  at  borne  in  the  miiTer- 
sity,  of  which  lie  retained  the  most  nnfavorable 
recollection.  In  Lis  old  age  he  seldom  spoke 
either  of  Westminster  school  or  Oxford  but 
with  asperity  and  disgnsL  In  1TG3,  white  not 
yet  16,  he  took  his  degree  of  A.  B.  Shortly 
after  he  commenced  eating  his  commons  in  Lin- 
ooln's  Inn,  bnt  went  back  to  Oxford  to  hear 
Blockstone's  lectures.  To  these  lectures  he 
listened  without  the  presumption,  at  that  time, 
to  set  himself  up  as  a  critic,  yet  not  without 
some  occasional  feelings  of  protest.  Returning 
to  London,  he  attended  as  a  stndent  the  court 
of  king's  bench,  then  presided  over  by  Lord 
UansGeld,  of  whom  he  continued  for  some 
years  not  only  a  great  admirer,  but  a  profound 
worshipper.  Among  the  advocates,  Dunning's 
clearness,  directness,  and  precision  most  im- 
pressed him.  He  took  his  degree  of  A.  M.  at 
the  age  of  IS,  the  youngest  graduate,  so  says 
Dr.  Bouthwood  Smith,  that  had  been  known  at 
either  of  the  oniversitiea ;  and  in  1773  he  was 
called  to  the  bar.  Benthsm's  grandfather  had 
been  a  Jacobite;  bis  father,  educated  in  the 
aame  opinions,  had,  like  others  of  that  party, 
transferred  his  sentiments  of  loyalty  to  the 
reigning  family.  The  yoang  Bentham  had 
breathed  from  infancy,  at  home,  at  school,  at 
college,  and  in  the  courts,  an  atmosphere  con- 
servative and  submissive  to  authority.  Yet  in 
the  progress  of  hia  law  atodiea,  beginning  t« 
contrast  the  law  as  it  was  with  law  such  as  he 
conceived  it  might  be  and  ought  to  be,  he  came 
^adnallr  to  abandon  the  position  of  a  aubmis- 
uve  and  admiring  student,  anxious  only  to 
make  of  the  law  a  ladder  by  which  to  rise  to 
wealth  and  eminence,  for  that  of  a  sharp  critic, 
an  indignant  denouncer,  a  would-he  reformer. 
His  father,  who  fondly  hoped  to  see  him  lord 
chancellor,  had  some  cases  in  nurse  for  him  on 
his  admission  to  the  bar,  and  took  every  paina 
to  push  him  forward.  But  it  was  all  to  no  pur- 
pose. Bis  temperament,  no  less  than  his  moral 
and  intellectual  oonatitntion,  wholly  disquali- 
fied him  for  success  as  a  practising  lawyer.  He 
soon  abandoned  with  disgust,  to  the  infinite  dis- 
appointment of  bis  father,  all  attempts  in  that 
line.  With  a  feeling  in  the  highest  degree  dis- 
tressing of  having  failed  to  fulfil  the  great  expec- 
tations formed  (^  him  by  his  friends,  and  enter- 
tained by  himself,  lie  continued  for  years,  to 
borrow  his  own  words,  "  to  pine  in  solitude  and 
penury  in  his  Lincoln's  Inn  garret,"  living  on  a 
very  narrow  income,  drawn  partly  from  some 
legacies,  and  partly  from  a  small  property  coq- 
veyed  to  him  by  his  father  at  the  tmie  of  hia 
second  marriage.  Btill,  howercr,  he  continued 
a  diligent  student  and  serious  thinker,  amusing 
himself  with  cliemiatry,  then  a  new  science, 
though  munly  devoted  to  jurisprudence,  but 
rather  as  it  should  be  than  as  it  was.    The  writ- 


ings of  Hume  and  Helv£tius  had  led  him  to 
adopt  utility  as  the  basis  of  morals,  and  espe- 
cially of  legislation ;  and  already  lie  began  to 
write  down  hia  ideas  on  this  subject — the  com- 
mencement of  a  collection  of  materials  for  and 
frafi^ents  of  a  projected  but  never  completed 
code,  which,  for  tlie  whole  remainder  of  his 
long  life,  furnished  him  with  regular  and  almost 
daily  employment  In  the  controvert  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  her  American  col- 
onies, which  became  at  this  time  a  leading 
topic  of  public  discussion,  Bentham  did  not 
take  any  great  interest.  His  tory  education, 
and  his  idea  of  the  law  as  it  was,  led  him,  un- 
warped,  as  he  says,  by  connection  or  hopes,  to 
favor  the  government  mde.  In  the  argumeuis 
on  behalf  of  the  colonies,  used  on  either  side 
of  the  water,  he  saw  nothing  to  change  his 
mind.  "The  whole  of  the  case,"  to  borrow 
his  own  statement,  "was  founded  on  the  as- 
snmptJon  of  natural  rights,  clumed  without  the 
slightest  evidence  of  their  existence,  and  aup- 
ported  by  vague  and  declamatory  generalities." 
Had  the  argument  been  placed  on  the  ground 
of  the  impossibility  of  good  government  at 
such  a  distance,  and  the  benefits  that  wonld 
accrue  to  both  parties  f^om  a  separation — 
grounds  more  in  accordance  with  his  ideas  of 
the  true  basis  of  laws — it  wonld  then  have 
attracted  his  attention.  As  it  was,  he  had  some 
hand,  though  small,  in  a  book,  "  Review  of  the 
Acts  of  the  ISth  Parliament,"  published  in 
1776,  by  a  friend  of  his,  one  John  Lind,  in 
defence  of  Lord  North's  policy.  The  next  year 
he  ventured  to  print  a  hook  of  his  own,  under 
the  title  of  "A  Fragment  on  GovemmenL" 
He  had  contemplated  a  critical  commentary  on 
the  commentaries  of  Blnckatone,  then  lately 
published:  butin  this  piece  be  confined  himself 
to  what  Blackatone  Bays  of  the  origin  of  gov- 
ernment. Ejecting  the  fiction  of  an  oriranal 
contract,  suggested  by  Locke  and  adopted  by 
Blackatone,  be  found  government  sujficientij 
warTanl«d  and  justified  by  its  utility;  while  in 
place  of  conformity  to  the  laws  of  God  and 
nature,  which  appeared  to  him  to  rest  too  much 
in  vague  assertion  and  opinion,  he  suggested 
"the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  nnm- 
ber  "  as  a  precise  end  practicable  teat  t^  ^IS^^ 
and  wrong,  both  in  morals  and  laws.  This 
pamphlet,  for  it  was  scarcely  more,  appeared 
anonymously,  and  attracted  at  first  some  at- 
tention. It  was  even  ascribed  to  Mansfield, 
to  Camden,  and  to  Bunning.    The  impatient 

Eride  of  Bentham's  father  having  led  him  to 
etray  the  secret  of  its  authordiip,  the  pnh- 
lic  curiosity,  which  had  been  aroused  hy  the 
work,  not  in  its  character  of  a  philosoph- 
ical treatise  bnt  of  a  personol  attack,  speed- 
ily subsided.  A  second  pamphlet,  published 
in  1776,  a  critimsm,  though  on  the  whide  a 
friendly  one,  on  some  amendments  to  the  law 
of  prison  discipline,  prepared  in  the  form  ot  a 
printe<l  bill,  with  a  preface  hy  Mr.  Eden  (after- 
ward Lord  Auckland),  asdsted  by  Blaokstone, 
did  not  attract  much  more  attention.    He  was 


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ftlso  disappointed  In  an  attempt  which  he  made 
at  this  time  to  be  appointed  secretarj  of  the 
commisKon  sent  oat  bj  Lord  North  to  pro- 
pose terms  to  the  revolted  American  colonies. 
Meanwhile  his  writinjps  though  neglected  at 
home,  ;et  served  to  make  him  known  at  Paris, 
whence  he  received  letters  addressed  to  him  in 
the  character  of  a  ]ihiloHopher  and  reformer 
fr(Mn  D'Alembert,  Morellet,  Chastellai,  Bris- 
Bot,  and  others.  The;  also  gained  for  him  the 
acquaintance  and  friendaliip  of  I^ord  She!- 
bmiie,  who  in  1781  paid  him  a  visit  in  his 
Lincoln's  Inn  garret.  After  much  urging, 
Bhelburne  at  length  prevailed  npon  him  to 
become  a  viutor  at  his  conntry  seat  of  Bo- 
wood.  The  ice  once  broken,  Bentham  be- 
came a  frequent  inmate  there,  and  a  groat 
favorite,  especially  with  Lady  Shelbume,  He 
was  indeed  more  noticed  by  the  ladies,  whoae 
moaical  performances  he  accompanied  on  the 
violin,  than  by  Camden,  Barri,  and  other  great 
men  of  the  day  whom  he  met  there.  Still  this 
introdnotton  to  Bowood  woe  a  great  thing  for 
Bentham.  It  raised  him,  as  he  himeelf  eipress- 
ed  it,  from  the  "bottomless  pit  of  humiliation" 
into  which  he  was  fast  sinking,  and  inspired 
him  with  new  confldenoe  in  himself  and  new 
zeal  for  his  favorite  studies,  lie  had  also  the 
additional  excitement  of  falling  in  lore.  A  very 
young  lady  whom  he  met  there,  whose  frank 
simpUcity  was  in  aCrong  contrast  with  the  stilf- 
neas  and  pmdery  which  was  the  prevailing  style 
at  Bowood,  made  an  impression  on  his  heart, 
which,  though  it  did  not  result  in  marriage, 
yet  tasted  through  life.  Already  before  his 
aoqiuuntanoe  with  Lord  Shelbume  he  had 
printed  part  of  an  introduotion  to  a  penal  code 
which  he  hod  nndertaken  to  construct ;  but 
the  unfavorable  or  lukewarm  opinion  of  hia  un- 
dertaking expressed  by  Camden  and  Dunning, 
to  whom  Shelbume  hod  shown  the  sheets,  and 
by  soma  other  friends  whom  he  consulted, 
joined  to  his  ill  success  in  Ruishiug  the  work  to 
his  mind,  long  kept  this  printed  fragment  nn- 
pnblished.— In  178B  he  left  England  on  a  visit 
to  his  younger  brother,  then  employed,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  Russian  army,  in 
tha  service  of  Prince  Potemkin,  in  an  abortive 
scheme,  of  which  Krikov  on  the  Don  was  the 
seat,  for  introducing  English  methods  in  mann- 
fkotarea  and  agricalture  into  that  barbarons 
region.  Fnmi^ed  with  funds  by  a  maternal 
nncle,  Bentham  proceeded  by  way  of  Paria,  his 
third  visit  thither,  across  the  Alps  to  Leghorn. 
There  he  embarked  in  an  English  ship  for 
Smyrna,  and  from  Smyrna  smied  in  a  Turkish 
vessel  to  Constantinople.  After  passing  sev- 
eral weeks  in  that  city,  he  travelled  by  land 
through  Bulgaria,  Wallaehia,  Moldavia,  and  the 
Ukraine,  to  his  destination  in  White  Russia. 
Here  he  spent  a  year  and  a  half,  living  most 
of  the  time  a  very  solitery  life,  occupied  amid 
many  annoyances  and  privations,  among  which 
was  want  of  books,  with  his  &vorite  studies. 
Tired  out  at  last,  in  the  absence  of  his  brother, 
detained  at  Kherson  by  an  expected  attack 


HAM  535 

from  the  Tnrks,  ho  started  for  home  by  way  of 
Poland,  Germany,  and  Holland,  and  reached 
England  In  the  spring  of  1T88.  While  resid- 
ing at  Krikov  he  had  written  his  "Letters  on 
Usury, "  occasioned  by  the  report  that  the  legal 
rate  of  interest  was  to  be  lowered.  He  seat 
the  manuscript  te  England ;  his  father  caused 
it  to  be  printed  while  he  still  remained  absent, 
and  it  proved  with  the  English  public  the  most 
successful  of  his  works.  Renewmg  his  vials  to 
Bowood,  he  there  met  Romilly,  whom  he  had 
known  slightly  before,  and  with  whom  he  now 
formed  on  intimacy  which  lasted  as  long  as 
Romilly  lived.    Be  now  also  first  formed  the  ac- 

Juaintance  of  the  Swiss  Dumont,  who  bad  been 
omestlcated  at  Lord  Shelbume's  during  hia 
absence.     Bentham  had  become  so  much  dis- 

C'  sd  at  his  failure  to  attract  attention  in  Eng- 
that  he  had  adopted  the  idea  of  publishing 
in  French,  and  had  made  some  essays  in  that 
language.  Romilly  had  shown  some  of  these 
French  sketehes  to  Dumont,  who,  very  muoh 
impressed  by  them,  offered  his  services  M  cor- 
rect and  rewrite  them  with  a  view  to  publica- 
tion. Another  friend  of  Bentham 'a,  with  whom 
he  had  kept  up  a  correspondence  while  absent 
in  Russia,  had  written  to  him  of  Paley's  success 
in  applying  the  principle  of  ntility  to  morals, 
and  had  urged  him  to  set  to  work  to  complete 
some  of  his  own  treatises,  or  at  least  to  publish 
the  already  printed  part  of  his  introduction  to 
his  unfinished  penal  code.  These  sheets,  after 
lyinginhsndfor  eight  years,  were  now  at  length 
published  under  the  title  of  "An  Introduction 
to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation," 
but  they  attracted  very  little  attention.  Do- 
mont,  however,  who  about  this  time  went  to 
Paris  and  became  connected  with  Mirabean, 
aided  to  spread  Bentham's  reputation,  and  in 
the  Covrrierde  ProveTiee,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  editors,  gave  publicity  to  some  of  his 
manuscripts.  Meanwhile  Bentham,  with  the 
idea  of  uding  the  deliberations  of  the  states 
general,  then  about  to  meet,  drew  up  and  print- 
ed, but  did  not  publish,  his  "  Parliamentary 
Tactics,"  and  with  the  same  ol(|ect  in  view  pre- 

Sared  and  printed  a  "  Draft  of  a  Code  for  the 
irganization  of  the  Jndicial  Esteblishment  in 
France;  "  services  which  the  national  assembly 
recognized,  by  conferring  on  him  the  citizen- 
ship of  France,  in  a  decree  (Aug.  2S,  1792)  in 
which  his  name  was  included  with  those  of 
Priestley,  Paine,  Wilberforce,  Clarkson,  Mackin- 
tosh, Anocharsis  Clootz,  Festal  ozzi,  Washington, 
Klopstock,  Kosciuszko,  and  several  others.  In 
this  character  of  French  citizen  Bentham  next 
year  addressed  to  the  national  convention  a 
new  pamphlet,  "  Emancipate  your  Colonies," 
the  first  work  which  laid  down  the  principle  of 
ranking  colonies  as  integral  parte  of  the  mother 
country. — While  residing  at  Krikov,  Bentham's 
attention  had  been  attracted  by  an  arcliitectural 
idea  of  his  brother's,  who  was  a  person  of  great 
mechanical  genius,  Uiongh  like  himself  given  to 
running  from  one  thing  to  another  without  stop- 
ping to  finish  anything.    This  idea  was  that  of 


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a  circular  building  bo  oonstmotdd  as  that  from 
tlie  ccDtre  all  the  iomates  conld  be  overlooked. 
The  foimger  Bentham  had  attempted  to  realize 
it  with  a  TJew  to  the  over^ght  of  his  RnsBian 
workmen.  The  elder  brother  seized  upon  it,  in 
connection  with  his  stadj  of  penal  legialation, 
se  applicable  to  prison  discipline.  He  gave  to 
this  building  the  name  of  panopticon,  and  while 
still  in  Russia  wrote  a  eeries  of  letters  in  expla- 
nation of  ita  constraction  and  its  usea.  Theae 
letters,  after  his  retnm,  were  printed  at  Dublin 
bj  the  Irish  parliament,  the  adoption  of  his 
prison  discipline  scheme  having  been  proposed 
there.  In  1701  they  were  brought  out  at  Lon- 
don, with  additions,  under  the  title  of  "Pan- 
opticon, or  the  Inspection  House."  In  1792 
BMitham'a  father  died,  leaving  him  the  family 
mansion  in  Queen's-sqiiare  place,  Westminster, 
where  he  chiefly  resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  a  Ireehold  and  leasehold  property  of  be- 
tween £500  and  £600  a  year.  He  left  abont 
an  equal  antonnt  to  the  yoonger  brother,  who 
by  this  time  had  retnmed  irom  Russia,  end 
had  zealoaslj  entered  with  his  elder  brother 
into  the  perfecting  of  the  panopticon,  with  a 
view  to  applying  it  to  prison  discipline.  Being 
DOW  possessed  of  means,  Bentham,  in  coiynno- 
tion  with  his  brother,  snbmitted  plans  to  Mr. 
Pitt  for  taking  charge  of  1,000  conricta,  in  a 
boiiding  to  be  erected  for  that  purpose  at  the 
expense  of  the  government,  bnt^-upon  certain 
conditions,  and  at  a  certfun  rate  of  pay  for  each 
convict — to  be  nnder  the  entire  control  of  the 
Benthams  for  their  joint  lives.  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Bnndas,  Mr.  Rose,  and  others,  entered  with 
much  enthosiasro  into  the  idea,  and  in  1T94  an 
act  of  parliament  authorized  the  contract.  The 
Bentbams  obtained  an  advance  from  the  treas- 
nry,  and  spent  several  thoneand  pounds  of  bor- 
rowed money  ou  the  strength  of  this  arrange- 
ment, involving  themselves  thereby  in  great 
embarrassments,  but  from  some  myaterioos 
cause  could  not  get  any  father  advances,  nor 
a  signature  of  tbe  contract.  The  ministera 
however,  continued  favorable,  and  made  use  of 
a  parliamentary  committee  in  1T0T  to  urge  the 
completion  of  the  contract,  when  at  length  the 
hithertomysterionadelay  was  explained,  and  the 
affair  again  brought  to  a  standstill,  by  the  refusal 
of  the  king  to  sign  a  treasury  warrant  for  a  sum 
*  of  money  needed  ti>  perfect  the  title  to  the  land 
on  which  the  building  was  to  be  erected,  and 
for  which  considerable  expenditures  had  already 
been  made.  George  III.  had  taken  an  antip- 
athy to  Bentham,  partly,  as  Bentham  believed, 
from  having  looked  into  his  treatise  on  the  or- 
gaiuzation  of  the  French  judiciary,  and  partly 
because  he  had  discovered  him  to  be  the  author 
of  two  newspaper  articles  signed  "  Anti-MacM- 
ftvel,"  and  published  in  1767,  attacking  the 

Klicy  of  a  war  with  Russia,  which  tbe  king 
d  ranch  at  heart  Thirteen  years  more  were 
spent  in  vain  solicitations,  till  finally,  in  ISll, 
an  act  of  parliament  annulled  the  contract, 
and  provided  for  tbe  erection  of  a  prison  on  a 
different  plan,  and  at  mooh  greater  expense  to 


the  public.  In  order  to  get  a  conveyance  of 
the  land,  the  imperfect  title  of  which  stood  im 
Bentham's  name,  this  act  provided  for  an 
award  on  the  question  of  damages,  nnder  which 
the  Benthams  three  years  after  received  the 
sum  of  £32,000.  It  may  well  be  supposed  that 
Bentham's  experience  in  this  matter  could  not 
but  embitter  him  against  the  existing  manage- 
ment of  pubUc  concerns. — Uean while  Damon t, 
having  returned  to  England,  had  obtained  from 
Bentham  all  his  manuscripts,  and  had  appUed 
himself  with  zeal  to  the  task  of  extracting 
from  them  and  his  printed  works  a  vivid  and 
popular  statement,  m  French,  of  Bentham's 
system  and  ideas.  This  labor  of  love  Domont 
performed  with  remarkable  success;  snd  the 
tirst  fruits  of  it,  published  at  Paris  in  1802, 
during  the  peace  of  Amiens,  nnder  the  title  of 
Traita  de  legUl^^Uon  eiviU  et  pinaU — a  pub- 
lication in  which  Talleyrand  took  a  great  inter- 
eat,  offering  himself  if  neceaaary,  to  bear  the 
whole  expense — speedily  made  Bentliam  known 
and  famous  thronghout  the  continent  of  Europe 
as  the  philosopher  of  jorisprndence.  In  Eng- 
land, too,  he  acquired  some  new  disciples  and 
coflperators.  Brougham  joined  Romilly  in  ac- 
knowledging his  genius,  and  accepting  many  of 
his  ideas.  In  1S08  he  formed  the  acquaintance 
of  James  Hill,  who,  next  to  Bumout,  did  most 
to  diffuse  his  doctrines.  Mill  lived  for  several 
years,  a  large  part  of  the  time,  in  Bentham's 
house,  who  etiU  labored  away  some  six  or 
eight  hours  daily  on  his  codes,  atopning,  how- 
ever, as  occasion  offered,  to  launch  for£  vehe- 
ment attacks  on  the  English  system  of  juris- 
prudence. Such  were  his  ''  Bcotch  Reform 
compared  with  EnKliah  Non-Reform,"  pub- 
lished in  1808,  and  his  "  Elements  of  the  Art 
of  Packing  as  applied  to  Special  Juries,"  print- 
ed in  1808,  but  which  he  was  dissuaded  by 
Romilly  from  publishing,  lest  it  night  expose 
him  to  a  prosecution  for  libel.  8ome  difficulty 
was  even  met  with  in  finding  a  publisher  for 
the  "  Rationale  of  Judicial  Evidence,"  edited 
by  Mill  from  Bentham's  mannseriptB,  lest  that, 
too,  especially  the  part  of  it  assailing  tbe  whole 
technical  method  of  English  judicial  procedure, 
might  be  regarded  as  a  libel  on  the  administra- 
tion of  Justice.  This  work,  indeed,  did  not 
appear  till  1827,  when  it  was  published  in  5 
vols.  Svo.  Confirmed,  meanwhile,  by  his  grow- 
ing reputation,  in  his  always  strong  interior 
faith  in  himself,  Bentham  became  anxious  to 
bring  out,  not  as  a  mere  draft,  but  as  an  actual 
body  of  law,  his  ideal  code,  on  which  he  had 
been  laboring  all  his  life,  but  whicli  yet  existed 
only  in  his  brain  and  in  an  immense  mass  of 
fragmentary  monnscripts.  Ho  had  hoped,  on 
the  strength  of  promises  from  Miranda,  to  be- 
come tbe  legislator  of  Veneznela,  to  which 
country  he  had  even  thoughts  of  removing. 
But  Hiranda'a  project  failed.  In  1811 — Domont 
having  in  that  year  brought  out  a  new  French 
work,  edited  from  his  manuscripts,  Thiorit 
dtt  peine*  et  dei  reeompente* — he  addressed  an 
elahorate  letter  to  Prewdent  Madison,  offering 


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upon  the  receipt  of  a  letter  importing  the 
prewdent'a  approbation,  and,  as  far  as  de- 
pended upon  him,  acceptance  of  his  proposi- 
tion, to  forthwith  set  aboat  drawing  np  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States,  or  snch  of  them  as 
might  accept  it,  "  a  complete  body  of  Jaw ;  in 
one  word,  a  pannomioD,  or  bb  much  of  it  as 
the  life  and  health  of  a  man,  whose  age  wanted 
little  of  four  and  airtj,  might  allow  of,"  asking 
and  expecting  no  reward  bejond  the  emploj- 
ment  and  the  honor  of  it.  This  letter,  bendes 
a  sltetch  of  his  plan,  which  embraced  not  mere- 
ly the  test  of  a  code,  bnt  a  perpetual  running 
commentary  of  reasons,  included  also  a  vig- 
orous attack  npon  the  existing  system  of  Eng- 
lish and  Amerioan  jurisprudence,  and  an  answer 
to  certain  anticipated  olgections,  both  to  the 
planand  to  himself  as  le^siator.  Mr.  Brougham 
wrote  at  the  same  time  to  some  American 
friends,  expressing  his  opinion  that  no  person 
in  Europe  was  so  capable  as  Bentham  of  such 
a  task.  No  answer  had  been  received  to  this 
tetter  when,  in  1814,  Mr.  Q-allatin  was  a  little 
white  in  England,  in  his  capacity  of  oommis- 
sioner,  to  treat  for  peace.  Not  only  had  Gal- 
latin received  from  Dmnont,  who  was  hia 
conntryman,  a  presentation  copy  of  the  Trailii 
da  Ugitlation,  but  he  had,  as  he  told  Bentham, 
who  had  on  interview  with  him,  been  his  dis- 
ciple for  29  years,  in  conseqnenoe  of  having 
read,  soon  after  its  pubtioation,  a  copy  of  the 
"Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legialation,"  put  into  his  hands  by  Col.  Burr. 
We  may  mention  by  the  way  tltat  Burr  him- 
self when  in  England  ax  years  before,  had  ob- 
tained an  introduction  to  Beutbam  from  Du- 
mont,  and  had  even  passed  a  considerable  time 
under  his  roof — one  ottjeot  of  Bentham  doubt- 
less being  to  avail  himself  of  Burr's  knowledge 
of  American  affairs.  In  oonsequence  of  this 
interview  with  Gallatin,  Bentham  was  led,  in 
a  letter  to  Governor  Snyder  of  Pennsytvauia, 
enclosing  a  printed  copy  of  his  letter  to  Madi- 
son and  a  letter  of  introduction  ttata  Gallatin, 
to  renew  his  ofibr  of  himself  as  a  oodifier.  At 
length,  in  1316,  Madison  returned  a  courteous 
reply  to  Bentham's  letter  of  ISll,  referring  to 
the  intervening  war  as  an  apology  for  bis  long 
silence,  stating  that  a  compliance  with  Ben- 
tham's proposals  was  "not  within  the  scope 
of  his  proper  functions."  suggesting  some  ob- 
stacles to  the  proposed  codification,  and  ob- 
jections to  it,  but  fully  admitting  the  desirabil- 
ity of  such  a  reform.  This  letter  was  conveyed 
to  London  by  J.  Q.  Adams,  appointed  American 
minister  to  Eugland,  and  who  became  during 
hia  residence  there  intimate  with  Bentham. 
When  Adams  returned  home  in  1817,  to  assume 
the  office  of  secretary  of  stat«,  he  Iwcame  the 
bearer  of  a  circular  letter,  addressed  by  Ben- 
tham to  the  governors  of  the  states,  accom- 
panied by  copies  of  the  letter  to  Madison,  and 
a  renewed  of  hia  offer  of  himself  as  legislator. 
Bentham's  proposals,  which  he  followed  up  by 
a  series  of  short  tetters  on  the  same  subject, 
addressed  to  the  people  of  the  stately  were  bid 


HAH  58T 

before  the  legpalatnree  of  Pouisylvania  and  Naff 
Hampshire.  He  received  approoiative  letters 
from  Govemora  Snyder  and  Plumer  of  those 
states,  bnt  notiiing  further  resulted.  Several 
years  later,  Edwara  Livingston  sent  him  a  copy 
of  bis  draft  of  a  penal  code  for  Louisiana,  with 
strong  expres^ons  of  admiration  for  his  genius, 
and  acknowledgments  of  the  Instruction  re- 
ceived from  the  stndy  of  his  works.  Mean- 
while, in  1814,  Bentbam  had  made  an  offer  of 
his  legislative  dd  to  the  emperor  of  Rosua,  in 
the  langnage  of  which  country  two  traoalationa 
had  appeared  of  the  Traitit  d»  ligitlatvm, 
one  of  them,  it  was  s^d,  by  the  special  pro- 
curement of  the  government.  The  emperor 
replied  in  a  letter  written  by  hia  own  hand,  in 
which  he  promised  to  submit  Bentham's  pro- 
posal to  the  commission  st  work  on  a  code  for 
the  empire.  He  sent  at  the  same  time  a  vaju- 
able  ring,  which  Bentliam  returned,  sending 
with  it  a  second  letter,  in  which  he  gave  reasons 
why  nothing  could  be  expected  to  coma  of  the 
reference  of  his  propoeals  to  a  commissicm 
which,  in  one  shape  or  another,  had  been  in 
session  for  more  tnan  a  century  without  any 
result.  In  the  expectation  that  Prince  Adam 
Czartoryski,  who  was  one  of  his  disciples, 
woidd  be  appointed  regent  of  Poland,  he  had 
hopes  of  legislating  for  that  country ;  hut  an- 
other person  was  appointed,  and  this  hope 
fuled.  The  revtdntions  in  1820,  which  estab- 
liahed  liberal  governments  in  the  Spanish  pen- 
insula, gave  Bentham  new  and  stronger  hopes. 
Dnmont's  compilations  bad  been  translated  in- 
to Spanish,  and  were  well  known  to  the  lead- 
ing liberola  of  Spun  and  Spanish  America. 
The  Portegnese  cortes  caused  them  to  he 
translated  into  Portuguese.  In  1823  be  pab- 
lished  also  his  "Codification  Prouosnl,"  ad- 
dressed to  all  nations  profesnng  liDcral  opin- 
ions, tendering  his  services  as  legislator,  and 
arguing  in  favor  of  a  code  emanating  ftom  a 
single  mind.  He  was  consulted  on  the  Spanish 
penal  code,  on  which  in  1822  he  published 
some  letters  addressed  to  the  oondedeToreflo; 
and  similar  applications  were  made  to  him 
from  Spanish  America.  But  the  downfall  of 
liberalism  in  the  peninsula,  and  the  protracted 
civil  wars  in  the  late  Spanish  colonies,  dis^i- 
pointed  his  expectations  in  that  quartor. — 
While  thus  seeking  the  office  of  legislator,  an- 
other idea  had  engrossed  much  c^  his  atten- 
tion. He  hod  taken  a  great  ii^terest  in  tha 
educational  system  of  Bell  and  Lancaster,  and 
in  1817  he  had  published,  under  the  titie  of 
"  Chrestomathia,"  a  proposal  to  apply  this 
system  to  the  higher  branches  of  euncation. 
There  was  even  a  scheme  for  erecting  a  build- 
ing in  his  garden  on  tiie  panopticon  system, 
in  which  the  experiment  was  to  he  tried; 
but,  like  m  many  other  of  his  plana,  it  did 
not  go  on. — Thongh  Bentham  bad  always 
boasted  of  being  a  man  of  no  party,  as  well 
as  of  all  oountries,  he  had  come  at  length  to 
occupy  at  home  the  pontion  of  a  party  chief. 
He  wpoQsed  with  characteristic  seal  and  en- 


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thasiasm  the  ideas  of  the  radiciJs,  who  now 
first  appeared  aa  a  political  partj'.  He  went 
indeed  the  fall  lengtli,  not  merely  of  repnb- 
liconiBm,  but  on  miuij'  points  of  democracy. 
He  wrote  pamphlets  and  drew  up  plans  in  be- 
half of  parliamentitry  reform  ana  other  move- 
ments of  the  radicals,  and  became  a  aort  of 
Bpiritual  head  of  the  ]iarty.  It  was  he  who 
famished  the  money  to  set  up  the  "  Westmin- 
ster Review,"  established  in  1823  as  the  organ 
of  the  radicals.  The  political  editor  was  iir. 
Bowrinf;  (afterward  Sir  John  Bowring),  with 
whom  Bentham  had  formed  an  actjaaintance 
throDKh  their  mntual  interest  in  the  Spanish 
liberal  movement  That  acqaaintance  speedily 
ripened  into  a  very  close  intimacy  and  friend- 
ship, which  lasted  to  the  ead  of  Bentbam's  life. 
Uia  connection  with  the  radicals,  and  his  ve- 
hement attackson  law  abuses  and  the  lawyers, 
had  rather  cooled  off  Lord  Broagham,  but  in 
his  place  Bentham  acqnirud  a  new  disciple  and 

fnpil  in  the  person  of  Daniel  O'Connell.  Mr, 
eel,  in  his  movements  in  the  bouse  of  com- 
mons for  the  amendment  of  the  criminal  law, 
seemed  to  be  starting  in  Bentham's  direction. 
Bentham  even  entertained  the  hope  that  he 
might  persnode  the  dake  of  Wellington,  with 
whom  tie  corresponded,  to  undertake,  in  addi- 
tion to  Catholic  emancipation,  those  reforms 
in  the  administration  of  justice  which  Crom- 
well had  attempted,  but  in  which  the  lawyers 
bad  bafSed  him. — The  acknowledgment  of  his 
cenias  by  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  times, 
his  world-wide  repatation,  and  the  share  he 
was  now  taking  in  the  actual  movement  of 
affairs,  more  than  made  up  for  the  sneers,  to 
which,  indeed,  he  paid  no  attention,  cast  at 
him  as  a  visionary  schemer;  and  the  satisfac- 
tion and  even  gayety  of  the  latter  port  of  his 
life  formed  a  strong  contrast  with  the  ^loom 
of  hia  yonth  and  early  manhood.  In  his  lost 
ten  years  ha  seldom  left  his  own  home,  taking 
exercise  in  his  garden.  He  retained  to  the 
last  his  love  of  mnsic,  of  pet  animals,  cats  par- 
ticularly, and  of  flowers,  but  spent  regularly 
six  or  more  honrs  a  day  in  composition,  em- 
ploying generally  two  secretaries.  He  saw  no 
company  except  at  dinner.  His  hour  of  dining 
was  7;  his  table  was  delicately  spread,  bnt  ad- 
mission to  it,  though  he  generally  had.  two  or 
three  guests,  was  only  obtained  as  a  particular 
favor.  Dinner  was  followed  by  music  og  the 
organ.  He  vas  of  a  gay  and  lively  temper, 
hopeAil,  enthusiastic,  and  in  spirit  young  to 
the  last.  His  last  published  work  was  bis 
"  Constitational  Code,"  of  which  a  volume  ap- 
peared in  ISSO.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  engaged  with  Bowring  in  an  attempt  to 
present  his  fundamental  ideas  in  a  more  popu- 
lar form.  This  work  was  published  in  1S34, 
after  his  deatli,  nnder  the  title  of  "  Deontology." 
Bentham  gave  a  practical  exemplification  of 
his  principles  by  bequeathing  his  body  to  his 
friend  Dr.  Sontbworth  Smith,  for  the  pnrpoee 
of  dissection.  A  collection  of  his  works,  in  11 
Tola.  8vo,  published  at  Edinbn^h  nnder  the 


supervision  of  Bowring,  bis  e: 
picted  in  1848.  It  includes,  at  the  end,  a  me- 
moir made  up  principally  of  letters  and  of  Ben- 
tham's reminiscences,  as  noted  down  by  Bow- 
ring, very  badly  put  together,  but  containing 
I  a  great  deal  of  interesting  matter.  Dumont, 
[  just  before  his  own  death,  edited  and  published, 
at  Brussels,  in  182S,  a  complete  collection  of  bis 
compilations  from  Bentham  in  6  double  vol- 
umes, demi-octavo.  A  translation  into  English 
by  Richard  Hildrelh  of  the  Trailit  de  ligUla- 
tion  was  published  at  Boston  in  1840,  under 
the  title  of  "  Theory  of  Legislation."  it  is  from 
this  work  (a  translation  of  which,  with  some 
additionsfrom  Bentham's  manuscripts,  is  includ- 
ed in  Bowring's  edition  of  Bentham's  works) 
that  the  general  reader  will  best  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  Bentham's  system. — In  his  earlier 
writings,  and  in  mony  of  his  pamphlets,  Ben- 
tham expresses  himself  with  great  terseness 
and  enei-gy,  bnt  in  his  didactic  works  he  often 
loses  himself  in  parentbeses,  and  protracts  hia 
sentences  to  a  tedious  length.  In  his  later 
writings  he  sacrificed  everything  to  precision, 
for  which  purpose  he  employed  many  new 
words,  some  of  which,  sncn  as  international, 
codify,  codification,  maximize,  mininiiie,  &c., 
have  become  permanent  additions  to  the  lan- 
guage. His  analysis  of  human  nature,  on 
which  he  based  bis  system,  can  hardly  rank 
him  high  OS  a  metaphysician;  bis  employment 
of  the  exhaustive  method  of  reasoning  frequent- 
ly led  him  into  useless  subdivisions  and  un- 
necessary refinements ;  but  ho  had  a  very  acute 
intellect,  a  thorough  devotion  to  tmtb,  and  a 
strong  spirit  of  benevolence,  unwarped  by  any 
selfish  or  party  views.  Unawed  by  anthoritj, 
he  appealed  to  reason  alone,  and,  having  devo- 
ted his  whole  life  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence, 
his  works  abound  with  su^restious  and  ideae  Bs 
novel  as  they  are  just.  "Nobody  lias  been  so 
much  plundered  as  Bentham,"  said  some  one 
to  Talleyrand.  "  True,"  he  replied ;  "  yet  how 
rich  be  still  is."  In  the  improvements  intro- 
duced of  late  years  into  the  adrainistralion  of 
the  law,  both  in  England  and  America,  many 
of  bis  snggestions  have  been  followed,  often 
without  arknowledgment,  or  even  knowledge 

ferhaps,  of  the  source  whence  they  originated. 
here  are  many  more  of  his  ideas  that  may  yet 
be  put  to  use,  The  4th  part  of  bis  treatise  on 
the  penal  code,  as  published  by  Dumont,  of 
whicn  the  subject  is  the  indirect  means  of  pre- 
venting offences,  contains  a  mine  of  wisdom, 
which  le^slative  bodies  might  explore  with 
advantage. 

BENTHiS,  Th«Mis,  an  English  bish<ni,  bom 
in  Sherbum,  Yorkshire,  in  1513,  died  in  1678. 
lie  waa  deprivcl  of  a  i'eltowshtp  at  Hagdalen 
college,  Oxford,  in  1.563.  for  knocking  the  cen- 
ser out  of  the  hands  of  the  officiating  priest  at 
mass,  "  in  order  to  prevent  incense  being  offer- 
ed to  idols,"  He  then  travelled  on  the  conti- 
nent, preached  at  Basel  to  the  English  exiles, 
end  returning  to  England  before  the  close  of 
Mary's  reign,  ministwed  privately  to  a  Prote»- 


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tant  congregation  in  London,  where  he  nearlj 
involved  himself  in  frenh  difficulties  by  his 
boldness  of  speech.  On  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth he  was  appointed  to  the  pulnit  of  Paul's 
Cross,  and  in  1959  to  the  see  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventrj.  Ho  published  an  exposition  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  translated  into  Eng- 
lish some  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

lENTINVIL,  an  English  noble  family,  with 
extensive  connectiona  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
— WiLLiAU,  son  of  the  lord  of  Diepenlieim,  in 
Overyiael,  Holland,  waa  page  anil  afterward 
confidential  adviser  to  William  of  Ornnee,  who 
in  1689,  on  becoming  king  of  England,  made 
him  earl  of  Portland.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
battle  cf  the  Boyne  and  in  the  peace  of  Kys- 
wick,  and  died  Nov.  SS,  1T09. — His  son  Hehbi 
waa  in  ITIO  made  dnke  of  Portland,  and  died 
in  Janiaioa,  of  which  he  was  governor  and 
captain  general,  July  4,  1T36. — William,  sec- 
ond dnke,  born  in  1708,  married  Margaret 
Oavendish,  only  daughter  and  heir  of  the  seo- 
ond  eari  of  Oxford,  and  died  May  1,  1782.— 
WiLUAU  Uehbt  Cavbxdish,  third  duke,  bom 
April  14,  173S,  died  Oct.  SO,  ISOS.  He  was 
twice  prime  minister  under  George  TIT.  (ITSS 
and  1807~'9),  and  viceroy  of  Ireland  for  a  short 
time  in  17S2, — Williaic  Chablbs  Cavendish, 
second  son  of  the  precedmg,  bom  Sept.  14, 
ITTi,  died  in  Paris,  June  17,  183H.  Entering 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  he  served  in  Flanders 
with  the  duke  of  York,  and  waa  colonel  be- 
fore he  was  21.  In  179B  he  Joined  the  Russian 
army  under  Suvaroff  in  Italy,  where  he  con- 
tinued in  active  service  till  1801 ;  went  out  to 
India  as  governor  of  Madras  in  180S;  waa 
made  nu^or  general  onhis  return  in  1805;  waa 
sent  on  a  mis«on  to  the  Spanish  court  in  1608, 
relative  to  the  French  invawon  of  Spain ;  com- 
manded a  brigade  under  Sir  John  Moore  at 
Oomnna,  in  January,  1809 ;  went  to  Sicily  in 
1610  as  plenipotentiary  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  IJie  English  troops  there ;  bestowed  a 
constitution  on  that  i^and  in  1812 ;  coudncted 
the  expeditioa  from  Sicily  to  Catalonia  in  161S, 
to  operate  in  the  rear  of  the  French  armies, 
bat  was  compelled  to  make  a  hasty  retreat; 
took  possession  of  Genoa  in  1814,  when  the 
inhabitanta  revolted  from  the  French,  and 
threw  up  his  commission  in  disgust  when  the 
Genoese  (who  claimed  the  reeatablishment  of 
their  repnblio  under  England,  onder  the  con- 
vention which  had  been  made)  were  given 
over  to  Redmont.  By  this  time  he  was  lien- 
tenant  generaL  Returning  to  England,  he  was 
elected  member  of  parliament  for  Nottingham, 
and  voted  with  the  liberal  party.  He  was 
subsequently  raised  to  the  rank  of  full  general, 
and  waa  in  1627,  under  the  government  of  Mr. 
Canning  (a  family  connection  by  marriage), 
sent  to  India  as  governor  general,  in  which 
capacity  he  continued  mi  1635,  when  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  resign.  The  results  of  his 
Indian  rule  were ;  the  redaction  of  the  batla 
(allowances  made  to  the  troops  on  the  march), 
maob  t«  the  discontent  of  the  army ;  the  aboli- 


tion of  flogging  among  the  native  troops,  Brit- 


buming  alive  of  the  widow  on  the  funeral 
pile  of  her  husband  ;  the  granting  Englishmen 
leave  to  settle  in  India,  though  not  belonging 
to  the  military  or  civil  service;  the  upholaing 
of  the  native  population  as  far  as  possible ;  and 
the  protection  of  the  liberty  of  the  press.  Borne 
of  ttiese  alterations  were  made  by  order  of  the 
East  India  directors  in  England,  and  some  were 
carried  out  contrary  to  the  wish  of  the  direc- 
tors. In  1634  he  made  war  on  the  rf^ah  of 
Coorg,  annexed  hia  territory,  and  pensioned 
him  c^.  When  he  quitted  India,  the  natives, 
who  had  looked  upon  him  as  the  best  friend 
they  had  had  since  the  time  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings, expressed  their  regret  at  a  public  meet- 
ing in  Calcutta,  and  testified  tneir  respect 
by  erecting  an  equestrian  statne  of  him.  He 
reentered  the  house  of  commons  in  1886, 
for  the  city  of  Glasgow.^-GaoBOB  Fbbdeeiok 
Cavesdisb,  known  as  Lord  George  Bentinck, 
third  son  of  the  fourth  duke  of  Portland, 
bom  Feb.  37,  ISOS,  died  unmarried  Sept.  21, 
1846.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  m  the 
army,  became  private  secretary  of  Canning, 
who  had  married  his  aunt,  and  waa  member 
of  parliament  for  King's  Lynn  from  1627  till 
his  death.  He  voted  in  favor  of  the  Catiiolic 
relief  hill  of  1829,  supported  Lord  Grey'a  re- 
form bills,  and  denounced  the  alliance  between 
O'Oounell  and  the  whigs,  which  he  termed  the 
Liohfleld  house  compact,  and  which  drove  from 
office  Sir  Robert  Feel,  whom  he  had  zealously 
supported.  In  1846,  when  that  statesman  an- 
nounced his  intention  to  favor  the  repeal  of  the 
corn  laws.  Lord  George,  who  had  always  been 
r^arded  as  a  silent  member,  made  a  powerfHil 
speech  which  placed  him  at  once  at  the  head 
of  the  protectionists,  and  he  was  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  the  first  man  on  the  opposition  side 
in  the  commons.  Mr.  Disraeli  was  his  disciple, 
and  afterward  became  his  biographer  (18B1). 
Lord  George  was  a  famous  patron  of  the  turf. 
— The  still  eiisting  junior  branch  of  the  Ben- 
tinck family  was  founded  by  Wiluaih  (1701- 
'73),  the  eldest  son  of  William  Bentinck,  the 
first  earl  of  Portland,  by  the  &tber's  second 
marriage  with  I.ady  Berkeley.  He  became 
lord  q£  Rhoon  and  Pendrecht,  president  of  the 
states  of  Holland  and  West  Friealand,  waa 
raised  to  the  rank  of  count  of  tlie  empire,  and 
by  his  marriage  with  Oarlotta  Sophia,  only 
daughter  and  heir  of  Antliony  II.,  the  lost 
count  of  Aldenburg,  ho  came  into  possession  of 
the  latt«r'9  extensive  entails,  including  those  in 
Oldenbnrg.  By  his  descendants  this  youngei 
Dutch  branch  of  the  Bcntincks  was  split  inta 
various  branches  on  the  continent  and  one  in 
England.  Count  Williau  CnaisTiAN  Fbeo- 
EBicE  (1787-1856)  was  chamberlain  to  the 
king  of  Holland.  His  brother  Orableb  As- 
THONT  Fbbdikand  (1792-1864)  acquired  dis- 
tinction aa  lientenant  general  in  the  English 
army,  and  Sir  Ubhky  Jobn  William,  another 


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640 


BENTIVOGLIO 


brother  (born  Sept.  8,  1796,  died  Sept,  29, 
1878),  aa  general  in  the  Crimea. 

BENT1V06UO,  the  name  of  an  Italian  family 
<H10e  sovereign  in  Bologna,  and  claiming  de- 
Bcent  from  a  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frede- 
rick II.  Giovanni  was  proclaimed  lord  of  Bo- 
logna in  1401,  bnt  waa  expelled  and  killed  the 
next  jear.  Annitiale,  his  grandson,  was  placed 
at  the  bead  of  the  government  there  in  1488, 
and  was  murdered  hj  a  rival  faction  in  1446. 
Giovanni,  his  eon,  was  for  44  years  at  the  head 
of  the  commonwealth,  adorned  Boiogna  with 
several  fine  buildings,  and  collected  many 
manuscriptB,  paintings,  and  atatnos.  In  150Q 
he  fled  with  his  family  to  the  Milanese  ter- 
ritory to  escape  the  army  of  Pope  Julius  II., 
and  died  in  1608.  The  French  placed  his  two 
sons  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  1511,  but  in  1&12 
Bolo^a  again  surrendered  to  the  pope,  and  the 
Bentivoglios  emigrated  to  Ferrara.  Several 
members  of  the  family  afterward  attained  dis- 
tinction, h  Atale,  grandson  of  Giovanni,  brnn 
in  Bologna  in  1G06,  died  inYenice.  Nov.  6, 167S. 
He  lived  in  Ferrara,  and  was  employed  in  diplo- 
matic affairs  by  the  princes  of  Este.  He  wrote 
several  satires  and  comedies,  and  was  distin- 
guished aa  a  lyrio  poet.  Uia  poetical  works 
were  published  in  Paris  in  1T19.  II.  Gilria, 
born  Id  Ferrara  in  1579,  died  Sept  7,  1644. 
In  1621  he  was  created  cardinal,  was  nancioto 
Fraoce,  and  after  his  return  was  intrusted  by 
Louis  XIII.  with  the  care  of  French  affairs  in 
Borne.  Hewasthechief  adviser  of  Pope  Urban 
VIII.,  whose  snooesBor  it  was  generally  believed 
he  would  be ;  but  he  died  at  the  opening  of 
the  eonolave.  He  left  several  works,  of  which 
a  complete  edition  was  published  in  Venice  in 
1668;  among  them  were  letters  and  memoirs, 
"  A  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  Flanders,"  and 
"An Accoantof  Flanders."  III.  C«neHo,bom 
in  Ferrara  in  1668,  died  in  Borne,  Dec.  80, 17S2. 
tinder  Clement  Xi.  be  was  archbishop  of  Car- 
tilage and  nuncio  at  Paris,  where  he  showed 
great  lesl  in  behalf  of  the  bull  Unigmitu*,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  received  many  &vors 
from  Louis  XIV.  He  was  created  cardinal  in 
1719,  and  was  afterward  nuncio  in  Spain.  He 
WHS  a  patron  of  literature,  and  was  learned  in 
the  law  and  sciences,  as  well  as  in  theology. 

BENTLET,  Kkhard,  an  English  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Oiilton,nearWakel)eld,  Jan.  27, 
1662,  died  July  14, 1742.  Hewas  entered  as  a 
sizar  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  at  the 
age  of  14,  graduated  with  honors  corresponding 
to  those  of  third  wrangler  in  the  present  sys- 
tem, and  in  1663  was  appointed  by  his  college 
to  Uie  head  mastership  of  Spalding  grammar 
school,  which  he  qnitted  after  a  year  for  the 
aitaation  of  domestic  tutor  to  the  eon  of  Dr. 
Stillingfleet,  then  dean  of  St.  Panl's.  He  ac- 
companied his  pupil  to  Oxford  in  1689,  and 
there  pursued  his  own  studies  in  the  Bodleian 
library,  especially  in  the  oriental  langnages. 
His  first  publication,  in  1691,  a  Latin  epistle  to 
Dr.  John  Hill  on  an  edition  of  the  "  Chronicle  " 
of  John  Malala,  at  once  established  hia  repota- 


BENTLEY 

tion  as  a  scholar  imd  a  critic.    He  took  holy 

orders  in  1690,  and  in  1692  obtained  the  first 
nomination  to  the  lectureship  jost  founded 
under  the  will  of  Robert  Boyle,  in  defence  of 
religion  agamst  infidels.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  he  waa  appointed  a  prebendary  at 
Worcester;  in  April,  1694,  keeper  of  all  the 
king's  libraries,  and  Boyle  lectnrer  for  a  second 
time;  in  1696  one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordinary 
to  WUllam  III. ;  and  inl696  be  took  thed^ree 
of  D.  D.  at  Cambridge,  and  assiated  his  friend 
Grsvina  in  preparing  an  edition  of  Callimachns. 
Charles  Boyle  (aflerward  earl  of  Orrery)  pab- 
liahed  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Epistles  of  Pha- 
laria"  early  in  1696,  and  complained  in  his  pre- 
face of  some  alleged  want  of  courtesy  on  the 
part  of  Bentley  respecting  the  loan  of  a  manu- 
script in  the  king's  libraiy.  Bentley  courte- 
ously assured  Boyle  that  his  statement  waa 
erroneous,  and  expected  the  complaint  to  be 
withdrawn ;  bnt  this  was  not  done,  and  he  took 
his  revenge  two  years  later,  when,  in  an  appen- 
dix to  the  second  edition  of  Wotton's  "  Reflec- 
tions upon  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning,"  he 
published  his  "  Dissertation  npon  the  Epistles 
of  Fhalaris,  Themiatoclea,  Socrates,  Enriptdee, 
and  others,  and  the  Fables  of  j£sop,"  demoa- 
StratJng  the  apariouanesa  of  all  these  prodno- 
tions,  and  dissecting  Mr.  Boyle's  labors  with 
contemptuous  seventy.  The  leading  scholars 
of  Oxford,  headed  by  Atterbury,  nnited  in  a 
reply  to  Bentley,  which  was  published  in  1698, 
with  the  name  of  Charles  Boyle  on  the  title 
page.  Pope,  Swift,  and  Gay  joined  in  the  oon- 
troversy.  General  opinion  set  strongly  against 
Bentley,  who  was  disliked  for  bis  arrc^ance ; 
bnt  in  1699  Bentley  issned  that  immortal  di»- 
sertation,  as  it  was  called  by  Porson,  in  which 
he  disposed  of  the  queation  at  once  and  for  ever, 
with  a  splendid  display  of  learning,  skill  in 
argument  and  no  slight  wit  To  thia  diaserta- 
tion  a  rqoinder  was  promised,  bnt  never  afK 
peared.  Early  in  1700,  at  the  age  of  88,  Dr. 
Bentley  was  mode  master  of  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  an  office  of  large  emoliunent  and 
vast  responsibility.  In  January,  ITOl,  be 
married  Joann^  daughter  of  Sir  John  Bernard, 
a  baronet  in  Huntingdonshire.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Ely.  Aa 
actual  head  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  he 
introduced  many  necessary  reforms,  put  the 
university  press  on  a  better  footing  than  be- 
fore, encouraged  scholars  and  scholarship,  im- 
proved the  discipline  of  his  college  and  the 
modes  of  examination  for  scholarships  and  fel- 
lowships, and  extended  the  college  library. 
Many  abuses  which  he  reformed  were  sup- 
ported by  the  fellows  of  hia  college,  from  whose 
society  he  kept  aloof,  and  his  general  conduct, 
even  when  morally  and  legally  correct,  waa 
arbitrary.  In  1709  the  vice  master  of  Trinity 
and  some  of  the  senior  fellows  accused  him  of 
malappropriation  of  the  college  fhnda.  Got  of 
this  arose  a  long  litigation,  in  which  Bentley, 
snpported  aomewhat  by  the  junior  fellow^  bnt 
more  strongly  by  his  own  detennination,  bold- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BENTON 


541 


office  after  Benteuce  of  deprivation  had 
pronounced  against  him,  and  retained  it  nutil 
his  death.  In  1T17  the  regius  profeaBOrship  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  by  far  the  richest  in 
Europe,  became  TBOant.  Bentley,  notwith- 
standing the  doabt  whether,  as  master  of 
Trinity,  he  oonld  also  hold  that  office,  proonred 
himself  to  be  elected.  His  opening  lectnre 
treated  of  the  text  (1  John  v.  7)  on  the  three 
heavenly  witnesses.  lie  maintained  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  bnt  decidedly  rejected  the 
veree,  of  which  he  gave  the  history.  When 
George  I.  visited  Cambridge,  and  several  per- 
sons were  nominated  to  the  degree  of  D.  D., 
fientley  exacted  fonr  gnineaa  from  eaoh  candi- 
date in  addition  to  the  nsusl  fees.  For  this  he 
was  tried  in  the  court  of  the  vice  chancellor  of 
the  university,  degraded,  and  deprived  of  alt 
his  degrees,  in  October,  1T18.  lie  appealed  to 
the  law,  and  after  more  than  five  years'  litiga- 
tion the  coart  of  king's  bench  issued  a  man- 
damne  compelling  the  university  to  reinstate 
him. — Amia  all  these  litigious  and  troublesome 
years  Bentley  pnrsoed  his  scholastic  labors  as 
eagerly  as  if  nothing  else  had  been  on  his  mind. 
After  publishing  the  appendix  to  the  Chronicle 
of  Malala  he  began  to  prepare  editions  of  Phi- 
loetratns,  of  Hesychins,  and  of  the  Latin  poet 
Manilins;  bnt  the  Philostratus,  though  ready 
for  the  press,  never  appeared,  nor  is  it  known 
what  has  become  of  it.  In  1696  he  assisted 
Evelyn  in  the  revision  of  his  Numitmata.  In 
109S  he  wrote  the  notes  and  made  the  emenda- 
tions of  the  text  of  Callimachus.  He  wrote  in 
1708tfaree  critical  episti es on  the  "Plutus"  and 
the  "Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  to  assist  his 
friend  Ludolf  Kfkster  in  his  edition  of  that  poeL 
In  1710  he  prepared  emendations  on  3S3  pas- 
HSges  in  the  "Fragments  of  Menander  and 
Philemon,"  which  had  been  edited,  but  with 

r It  ignorance  of  Greek,  by  Le  Clero.  InlTll 
completed  his  edition  of  Horace,  the  most 
popular  of  all  hie  publications.  In  1718  here- 
plied  to  Anthony  GoUins's  "  Discourse  on  Free 
Thinking."  In  1716  be  proposed,  in  a  letter  to 
Archbishop  Wake,  to  restore  the  original  text 
of  the  New  Testament,  exaotiy  as  it  was  at  the 
time  of  the  eonneil  of  Nice,  neing  the  Vulgate 
to  correct  the  Greek  text.  The  project,  which 
was  severely  attacked  by  Dr.  Oonyers  Middle- 
ton,  was  never  proceeded  with.  In  1726  he 
Published  annotated  and  revised  editions  of 
erenoe  and  PhEedms.  Toward  the  close  of 
1731  he  undertook  his  edition  of  "  Paradise 
Lost,"  and  pnblished  it,  with  notes  and  correc- 
tions of  the  text,  in  January,  1732.  It  has 
some  marks  of  ability,  bnt,  as  a,  whole,  is  not 
worthy  of  his  pen.  In  1726  he  had  noted  and 
corrected  the  whole  of  Homer,  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  the  restoration  of  the  digamma  to  Its 

tlaoo  and  functions  in  the  metre.  In  1782 
e  seriously  applied  himself  to  complete  this 
edition.  It  was  never  published,  but  the  MS. 
wss  finally  transmitted  to  G&ttingen  by  Trinity 
college,  for  the  use  of  Hejne,  who  in  his  own 


edition  of  HcHner  acknowledged  the  profonnd- 

eat  obligations  to  it,  and  made  the  world  cir- 
cumstantially acquainted  with  its  merits.  Four- 
teen years  after  Bentiey'ii  death  Horace  Wat- 
pole  published  at  his  private  press  an  edition 
of  Luoan,  illustrated  by  the  notes  of  Bentley, 
combined  with  those  of  Grotius.  The  sugges- 
tions oontained  in  it  for  the  emendation  of  the 
text  are  excellent. ^Bentley  had  an  overween- 
ing opinion  of  his  own  dignity  and  rights,  and 
a  determination  in  upholding  l)otb,  which  op- 
position only  increased.  In  private,  tliough  hia 
manner  was  stately,  if  not  severe,  he  is  repre- 
sented oa  having  been  amiable.  He  was  perhaps 
the  t>eet  classical  scholar  England  has  ever  pro- 
duced. By  the  close  attention  to  verbal  details, 
of  which  he  set  an  example,  tiie  facts  have  been 
collected  upon  which  the  modem  science  of 
comparative  philology  is  founded.  His  life, 
by  Dr.  J.  H.  Monk,  first  bishop  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol  (4to,  1S30),  is  an  elaborate  pro- 
duction, leamng  rather  against  fientley. 

BEini<ET,  lafeetlj  an  English  botanist,  t>om 
at  Hitehin,  Herts,  m  1623.  He  early  l>ecama 
a  memt>er  of  the  royal  college  of  aurgeoua,  and 
sutMequently  professor  of  botany  in  King's  col- 
lege, London,  as  well  as  of  materia  medica 
and  botany  to  the  pharmaceutical  society  of 
Great  Britwn,  dean  of  the  medical  faculty,  and 
president  of  the  British  pharmooeutical  con- 
gress in  1866  and  1867.  Me  applies  botany  to 
medicine,  was  one  of  the  editors  of  Pereirs's 
"  Mannal  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapentics," 
and  has  published  a  "  Manual  of  Botany,"  which 
recently  reached  a  second  edition. 

BENTON,  the  name  of  counties  in  eight  of  the 
United  States.  LAW.  central  county  of  Mis- 
nssippi,  bordering  on  Tennessee,  bounded  8. 
W,  by  the  Tollahatehae  river,  and  watered  by 
Tippah  creek  and  Wolf  river ;  oi^nized  since 
the  census  of  1870.  According  to  state  re- 
ports, the  county  in  1870  produced  9,080  bales 
of  cotton.  Tlie  Mississippi  Central  railroad 
passes  throogh  the  N.  W.  comer,  il.  The  N. 
W.  county  of  Arkansas,  lionnded  N.  by  Mia- 
sonri  and  W.  by  the  Indian  territory;  area, 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,881,  of  whom  183 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  the  White  and 
Illinois  rivers  and  affluents  of  the  Neosho  and 
Elk.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  84,- 
779  bushels  of  wheat,  840,046  of  Indian  com, 
40,669  of  oats,  86,380  lbs.  of  tobacco,  18,740 
of  wool,  and  20,182  gallons  of  sorghum  molas' 
ses.  There  were  4,336  horses,  839  mules  and 
asses,  8,887  miloh  cows,  640  working  oxen, 
2,978  other  cattle,  7,987  sheep,  and  24,303 
swine.  Capital,  Bentonville.  in.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Tennessee,  boundedE.  by  the  Tennes- 
see river  and  N.  W.  by  the  Big  Snndy ;  area, 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,234.  of  whom  453 
were  colored.  The  Nashville  and  Xorthwest- 
em  railroad  passes  through  the  county,  and 
the  N.  W.  comer  is  crossed  by  the  Memphis 
and  Louisville  railroad.  The  soil  is  good.  The 
chief  prodnctions  in  1870  were  25,763  bushels 
of  wheat,  857,408  of  Indian  com,  412,485  lbs. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


549  BEi: 

of  tobaooo,  10,388  of  wool,  25,692  galloDS  of 
Borghnm  molasses,  and  6S6  balee  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,T4T  horses,  8111  muleB  and  assee, 
2,02B  milch  cows,  1,076  working  ozen,  2,719 
other  cattle,  7,790  sheep,  and  20,016  swine. 
Capital,  Oamdeo.  IV.  A  W.  coanty  of  Indiana, 
bordering  on  Illinois,  watered  by  Pine  and 
Sugar  creeks;  area,  414  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T0, 
6,615.  The  sarfaoe  ia  mostly  fertile  prairie, 
and  about  one  Sfth  of  it  ia  covered  witli  forests 
of  oak,  ash,  sngar  maple,  and  walnut  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  60,C13  bnshels 
of  wbeat,  468,867  of  Indian  com,  121,S42  of 
oats,  fl,ed9  tons  of  hay,  and  20,097  lbs.  of  wool. 
There  were  S,1I6  horses,  814  mutes  and  asses, 
1,906  milch  cows,  8,348  other  cattle,  6,148 
sheep,  and  8,606  swine.  Capital,  Oxford.  V. 
An  E.  central  county  of  Mmoesoto,  bonnded 
W.  by  the  Mississippi  river ;  area,  400  sq.  m.  ■ 
pop.  in  1870,  1,688.  Little  Rook,  Elk,  and  8t 
Francis  riTera,  and  a  branch  of  Rum  river 
drain  the  county.  A  branch  line  of  the  SL 
Fanl  and  Pacific  rdlrood  passes  through  the 
8.  W.  corner,  and  a  line  is  in  progress  from 
Sank  Rapids  running  N.  throagh  the  county  to 
connect  with  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,641 
bushels  of  wheat,  6,086  of  Indian  com,  7,672 
of  oats,  and  1,B85  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
99  horses,  217  milch  cows,  881  other  cattle,  261 
abeep,  and  168  swine.  Capital,  Sauk  Rapids. 
VI*  An  E.  central  county  of  Iowa,  drained 
by  Cedar  and  Iowa  rivers ;  area,  730  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  22,454.  The  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  the  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids, 
and  Minnesota  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  surface  is  nndulating  and  occupied  by 
pr»riea  and  woodlands.  Fine  bnilding  stone 
abonnds.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,264,947  bnsiiels  of  wheat,  1,616,420  of  Indian 
com,  468,643  of  oats,  68,103  of  barley,  98,138 
of  potatoes,  82,47S  tone  of  hoy,  13,674  Tbs.  of 
wool,  and  670,126  of  butter.  There  were  8,878 
horses,  894  mules  and  oases,  8,000  milch  cows, 
10,168  other  cattle,  6,127  sheep,  and  21,921 
swine.  Capital,  Vinton.  VII.  A  W.  central 
county  of  Missouri,  intersectad  by  the  Osage 
and  its  branches,  the  Pomme  de  Terre  and 
Grand  rivers;  area,  770  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1670, 
11,322,  of  whom  820  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face, which  is  somewhat  uneven,  is  occupied 
by  alternate  tracts  of  fertile  prairie  and  wood- 
land. Lead  is  the  most  important  mineral. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  122,862 
bushels  of  wheat,  368,969  of  Indian  com,  180,- 
918  of  oats,  86,238  lbs.  of  tobacco,  S0,2S8  of 
wool,  and  26,896  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  6,826  horses,  1,035  males  end  asses, 
4,780  milch  cows,  955  working  oxen,  7,928 
other  cattle,  15,685  sheep,  and  17,991  swine. 
Coital,  Warsaw.  VIH.  A  W.  county  of  Ore- 
gon, bordering  on  the  Pacific,  and  bounded  E. 
ty  the  Willamette  river ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,584.  The  surface  is  mountain- 
ono,  and  the  soil  fertile  and  suited  to  ogricol- 
ture  and  grazing.     The  cliief  productions  in 


1870  were  196,598  bnshels  of  wheat,  2,34S  of 

Indian  com,  140,235  of  oats,  8,124  of  flaxseed, 
and  68,970  lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  2,S6S 
horses,  2,666  milch  cows,  3,564  other  cattle, 
12,967  sheep,  and  8,081  swine.  Capital,  Cor- 
vollis. 

BENTON,  a  post  village  of  Lafayette  county, 
Wisoonrin,  18  m.  N.  of  Galena,  III.,  in  a  re^on 
abounding  in  lead  mines,  whioh  are  extensive- 
ly  worked;  pop.  in  1870,  1,723.  It  contwns 
smelting  furnaces  and  several  churches. 

BEXTOJf,  nwua  Hart,  an  American  states- 
man, bom  near  Hillsborough,  Orange  oo.,  N. 
C,  March  14,  1782,  died  in  Washington,  April 
10,  1858.  His  father  died  when  he  was  eight 
years  old,  and  be  enjoyed  few  advantages 
of  education.  His  mother  having  removed 
to  Tennessee,  be  studied  law  there,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislatnre,  where  be  obtuned 
the  passage  of  a  law  for  the  reform  of  the  judi- 
cial system  of  the  state,  and  another  by  wtuch 
the  right  of  trial  by  jury  was  given  to  ataves. 
In  the  war  of  1813  he  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Gen.  Jackson,  and  also  raised  a  regiment  c^ 
volunteero,  by  which  he  acquired  the  title  of 
colonel.  His  IHendly  relations  with  Gen.  Jack- 
son were  broken  otf  by  a  quarrel  and  a  per- 
sonal conflict,  and  they  remained  enemies  for 
many  years.  When  peace  was  declared  in 
1616  Col.  Denton  took  up  his  residence  in  St. 
Louis,  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law,  and 
soon  afterward  established  the  "Uissonri  In- 
quirer," by  which  he  involved  himself  in  seve- 
ral duels,  in  one  of  which  be  killed  hia  oppo- 
nent, Mr.  Lucas,  The  "  Inquirer"  urged  the 
admission  of  Missouri  with  a  slavery  constitn- 
tion,  and  after  the  establishment  of  the  stM* 
government  Col.  Benton  was  chosen  Unit«d 
States  senator  in  1620.  In  1824, 1826,  and  1838 
he  advocated  the  granting  of  preemptive  rights 
to  actual  settlers,  a  periodic  reduction  in  the 
price  of  public  land  proportioned  to  the  time 
that  it  hod  been  in  the  market,  and  a  donation 
of  homesteads  tocertain  persons.  He  present«d 
a  bill  embracing  these  features,  and  renewed  it 
every  year,  until  it  took  bold  upou  the  pnbUc 
mind,  and  was  at  length  substantially  embodied 
in  one  of  Gen.  Jackson's  messages,  which  se- 
cured its  fnol  adoption.  Col.  Benton  also 
caused  the  adoption  of  a  bill  throwing  the 
saline  and  mineral  lands  of  Missouri  which  be- 
longed to  the  United  States  open  for  occupancy. 
In  the  session  of  1629-'S0  he  delivered  an  elab- 
orate argument  against  the  salt  tax,  and  fol- 
lowed it  up  with  such  success  that  the  tax  was 
repealed.  lie  waa  one  of  the  earliest  advO' 
cates  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  He  favored 
the  opening  of  trade  with  New  Mexico,  the 
establishment  of  military  stations  in  Missouri 
and  throughout  the  interior,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  amicable  relations  with  the  Indiana. 
When  the  charter  of  the  United  States  bank 
expired,  Col.  llenton  urged  the  adoption  of  a 
gold  and  silver  currency  as  the  true  remedy 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BENTON 

BpeechBs  ou  this  topic  that  he  obtained  the  so- 
briquet of  "  old  Bullion."  lie  was  the  mover 
of  the  famous  "  eipouging  reBolnlionB,"  by 
which,  aftor  a  great  straggle,  the  minute  of 
the  vote  oensnring  Gen.  Jackson  was  eipttnged 
ttara  the  jonmals  of  the  senate  (1887).  During 
Afr.  Van  Buren's  administration  Ool.  Benton 
defended  the  new  financial  policj  then  just  in- 
troduced. From  I8il  to  1862,  onder  the  ad- 
ministratioDS  of  Tyler,  Polk,  and  Taylor,  he 
participated  in  the  discusnons  that  arose  is 
r^ai^  to  the  Oregon  bonndarj,  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  and  other  important  sut^ecta. 
The  democratic  administration  of  Mr.  Folk  woa 
in  favor  of  lat.  64°  40'  N.  as  the  boundary  of 
Oregon,  but  was  opposed  with  so  mach  force 
bf  Col,  Benton,  that  Mr.  Polk  acqoiescedin  his 
views  and  accepted  lat.  49°  N.  as  the  line. 
Dnring  the  Mexican  war  the  policy  of  a  "  mas- 
terly inactivity,"  at  first  determined  upon  by 
the  president,  wasabandoued  npon  the  recom- 
mendation of  Ool.  Benton,  and  that  of  a  vigor- 
ous prosecntion  of  the  war  adopted  in  its 
stud.  At  one  time  it  was  proposed  by  Presi- 
dent Polk  to  confer  upon  him  the  title  of  lien- 
tenant  general  with  full  command  of  the  war, 
in  order  that  he  might  carry  ont  hia  oonoep- 
tiona  in  person.  Qoestions  in  regard  to  slavery 
were  bronght  on  by  the  acqni^tion  of  Uexican 
torritory.  These  were  a^josted  by  the  com- 
promise acta  of  1860,  which  were  introdooed 
by  Mr.  Olay.  They  were  opposed  by  Ool. 
Benton  and  defeated  as  a  whole,  bat  passed 
separately.  In  the  oontroversy  and  quarrel 
between  Oen.  Jactuon  and  Mr.  Calbonn,  Ool. 
Benton  had  been  npon  Oen.  Jackson's  side. 
Mr.  Calhoun  having  propoonded  the  doctrine 
of  nnllifloation.  Col.  Benton  became  his  moat 
formidable  demooratio  opponent  in  the  senate. 
They  became  bitter  enemies,  and  their  hostility 


the  abolition  petitions  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentative! in  1S36.  It  was  deflnltejy  presented 
in  the  session  of  184S-'7.  On  Feb.  IB,  184T, 
Mr.  Oalhonn,  in  answer  to  the  "Wilmot  Pro- 
Tiao,"  which  eioluded  slavery  ftwn  all  territory 
Bnbseqnently  to  be  acquired,  introdncad  reso- 
lationB  which  embodied  his  doctrine  as  to  state 
ri^ta.  GoL  Benton  denounced  them  as  "  fire- 
brand resolations."  Theynevercame  to  a  vote 
in  congress,  but  were  adopted  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  some  of  the  slave  states  and  made  the 
ba«s  of  political  action ;  and  the  t^islature  of 
Missouri  made  them  the  basis  of  instractions 
to  the  senators  of  the  state.  When  the  inatruo- 
tions  were  received  by  Ool.  Benton  he  de- 
nonnced  them  as  cont^ning  disunion  doctrines 
and  as  not  expressing  the  troe  sense  of  the  peo- 
ple. Upon  the  a^ournment  of  congress  he  im- 
mediately returned  to  Missouri  and  canvassed 
every  section  of  the  state  in  a  series  of  speeches 
famous  for  their  bitterness  of  dennnciation, 
strength  of  exposition,  and  caustic  wit.  The 
le^atnre  of  1649-60  was  largely  deraooratio, 
bat  OoL  Benton,  as  a  candidate  for  senator,  was 
87  VOL.  II.— 35 


BENZIE 


543 


defeated  by  a  coalition  between  his  democratic 
opponents  (known  as  "  antics  ">  and  the  whiga. 
At  the  close  of  his  term  he  therefore  re- 
tired from  the  senate,  aA«r  las  successive  elec- 
tions and  SO  years'  continoous  service,  during 
oU  of  which  time  he  had  been  one  of  the 
most  prominent  and  active  members.  In 
1832  he  was  elect«d  to  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, where  he  at  first  sustained  the  ad- 
ministration of  President  Pierce ;  bat  when 
the  Oalhomi  party  obtained  the  ascendancy  he 
withdrew  his  support  He  made  a  memorable 
speech  in  opposition  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  but  the  bill  wsb  passed,  and  at  the  next 
election  he  lost  his  seat  in  congress.  He  then 
devoted  two  years  to  study  and  literary  pur- 
sniis,  and  in  1656  canvassed  the  state  as  a  can- 
didate for  governor.  He  was  received  with 
great  popular  enthnmasm,  but  a  third  ticket, 
nommated  by  the  "  Native  Americans,"  drew 
off  so  many  votes  from  him  that  Mr.  Tmstea 
Polk  (national  democrat)  was  elected  by  a 
small  plorabty.  In  the  presidential  election  of 
the  same  year  Ool.  Benton  supported  Mr.  Bu- 
chanan in  opposition  to  his  own  son-in-law,  Cot. 
Fremont — After  Col.  Benton's  defeat  he  re- 
sumed his  literary  pursuits.  The  first  volume  of 
his  "  Thirty  Years'  View  "  of  the  working  of  our 
government  had  been  pnbUshed  in  1864.  The 
second  and  lost  appeared  in  1866.  He  then 
undertook  the  task  of  condendng,  revising,  and 
abrid^ng  the  debates  of  congress  from  the 
foundation  of  the  government  Although  at 
the  advanced  age  of  76,  he  labored  at  this  task 
daily.  He  lived  long  enough  to  bring  the 
work  down  to  the  conclnmon  of  the  great  oom- 
promiae  debate  of  1850,  in  which,  with  Olay, 
Oalhonn,  Webster,  and  Seward,  he  had  himself 
home  a  conspicuous  part,  the  last  pages  being 
diotat«i^  in  whispers  after  he  had  loet  the 
power  C'f  speaking  aloud.  It  waa  published 
under  the  titie  of  "  An  Abridgment  of  the  De- 
bates of  Congress  "  (15  vols.,  New  York). 

BCNTOSf  ILLE.     See  sopplement 

BENIZEL^IESIID,  Ghrtatlaa  ErMt,  coTm\  a 
German  author  and  statesman,  bom  at  Uenti^ 
April  e,  1767,  died  in  Switzeriand,  Aug.  IS, 
1660.  He  entered  public  life  in  1791  as  coon- 
cillor  of  the  electorate  of  Mentz  at  Erfiirt,  and 
in  1812  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and 
finance  of  the  recently  established  grand  duohy 
of  Frankfort.  When  this  was  abolished  in  1814 
he  retired  to  Switzerland,  and  resided  there  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the 
privileges  of  the  clergy  and  hereditary  nobles, 
and  became  a  Protestant  in  1827.  He  wrote  a 
great  number  of  romances,  some  poetry,  and  a 
few  plays,  and  was  editor  of  the  Jatoa  from 
1808  to  1811.  The  first  ofhis  romances  which 
attracted  attention  was  Dai  goldene  Kalh  (4 
vols.,  Gotbo,  1802-'4).  Among  the  most  noted 
of  his  other  novels  were  D»r  iteineme  Cfatt  (4 
vols.,  1808)  and  Ber  alU  Adam  (4  vols.,  1813- 
'20).    His  novels  are  satirical  and  humorous. 

BHIZIE,  a  N.  W.  connty  of  Michigan,  on 
Lake  Michigan ;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  m  1870, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


644 


BENZINE 


8,184.  Orystal  lake,  a  large  body  of  water,  ia 
Bitaated  in  the  W.  part.  The  chief  prod  Dotioaa 
in  18T0  were  8,906  bnabela  of  wheat,  1S,079 
of  Indian  corn,  48,263  of  potatoes,  05B  tone 
of  hay,  and  40,508  Iba.  of  maple  aagar.  Capital, 
Benzonia. 

BENZINE,  or  Bmum,  a  light  oil  of  petroleem. 
Uitsoherlich  in  183S  obtained  an  oil  b;  the  dis- 
tillation of  benzoic  acid  witb  an  eicesB  of  caus- 
tic lime,  to  which  be  applied  the  name  of  ben- 
zine. The  same  bodj  had  been  discovered  by 
Faraday  in  1825,  and  named  by  bim-  bicarbn- 
retted  bydrogen.  Licbig,  in  reprinting  Hit- 
aoherlich'a  article  in  bia  Anttalea,  olgected  to 
the  termination  in,  and  changed  it  into  o^and 
thna  introduced  tbe  new  name  benzol.  For  a 
long  time  therefore  benzin  and  benzol  were 
used  aynonymooaly  by  difiercot  authors — the 
French  adhering  to  Mitaoberlich  and  catling 
the  aubatance  benzine,  while  tbe  Engliah  called 
it  benzole.  After  tbe  diacovery  of  petroleum 
the  word  benzole  or  beosioe  was  applied  to  a 
liquid  of  a  totally  different  chemical  oooatita- 
tion,  tlioa^  analc^ona  in  some  of  its  proper- 
tiea.  As  Boon  as  it  wa«  oacertaJned  by  carefal 
chemical  analy»a  that  the  series  of  hydrocar- 
bona  derived  from  petroleum  were  different  CWim 
those  obtuned  from  coal  tar,  scientific  men  and 
oil  refinera  becan  to  recc^nize  a  distinction 
between  benzole  and  beneine,  and  by  general 
agreement  the  tatter  word  waa  applied  to  tbe 
light  oils  of  petroleum,  while  benzole  was  re- 
served to  designate  tbe  original  oil  discoTered 
by  Faraday,  and  now  made  in  enormons  qnan- 
tities  fhmi  coal  tar  to  be  used  in  the  mannfac- 
tare  of  aniline  colors.  Commercial  benzine  is 
a  mutare  of  various  hydrocarbons,  and  it  is 
impoaaible  to  aasgn  a  conatant  composition  or 
chemical  formnla  t«  the  article  sold  under  this 
name.  The  following  table  will  exhibit  aome 
of  the  products  derived  from  petroleom : 


RbtgoNne,  tpedlk  gimT,  i 
6u>diM.      '        ^       I 


(WB-Xm 


Above  400"  F.,  mineral  sperm  and  paraifine  oil, 
with  specific  gravity  7S  to8S,  are  produced.  In 
the  Cnited  Stalaa  me  petroleum  refiners  apjily 
the  trade  name  benzine  to  tbe  naphtha  that 
comes  over  at  800°  F.,  and  has  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  0-78  to  0-87=00  to  70°  Baum6.  In  Eng- 
land tbe  term  "  benzene  "  ia  sometimes  applied 
to  tbe  volatile  naphtha  obtained  in  tbe  rectifica- 
tion of  coal  tar,  and  also  to  petroleum  ether. — 
Benzine  is  a  colorless,  ethereal  llqmd,  volatile  at 
ordinary  temperatnres,  so  that  its  vapor  takes 
fire  at  a  distance,  the  asme  ss  that  of  ether; 
ita  specific  gravity  is  0-70;  it  boils  at  140°  F. 
(benzole,  176°  F.) ;  it  bsa  never  been  frozen 
(benzole  freezes  at  ST°  F.).  It  increases  the 
illuminating  power  of  gasea,  bnt  is  inferior  to 
benzole  in  this  reapect ;  it  burns  with  a  smoky 
flame.  It  doea  not  mis  with  water  or  methylic 
alcohol,  bnt  does  so  readily  when  warmed  with 
absolute  alcohol,  fatty  and  essential  oils,  and 


BENZOIC  ACm 

bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  dissolves  fata,  wax, 
andparaffine;  India  rubtHrawellaap  and  finally 
goes  into  solution ;  maatio,  damar,  colophonimn, 
and  pitch  are  with  difficulty  attacked  by  it,  and 
amber,  copal,  and  shell  lac  acarcely  at  all.  If 
asphaltum  or  pitch  be  covered  in  a  teat  tube 
with  benzole,  it  ia  rapidly  diasolved  into  a  tarry 
liquid;  whereas  benane  is  after  the  lapse  of  a 
few  hours  acarcely  colored  by  tiie  pitch.  Fine 
benzole  can  in  this  way  be  distinguished  from 
benzine.^Beazine  is  nsed  in  tbe  manufacture 
of  vomiahes  and  paints:  to  remove  grease 
spots;  to  extract  oils  and  essential  principles 
from  seeds  and  plants;  to  make  w^r-proof 
leather ;  to  cartmnize  illnminBting  gas  in  the 
mannfacture  of  air  gas ;  to  preserve  anatomical 
i^ecimens ;  as  a  anbstitote  for  turpentine  in 
paints;  in  the  manufacture  of  lampblack ;  and 
as  a  highly  explosive  aod  dangerous  homing 
fluid.  It  has  been  used  to  adulterate  kerosene, 
and  this  abuse  of  the  article  has  cost  hundreds 
of  Uvea.  The  wholesale  price  of  benzine  in  the 
United  States  in  1870,  according  to  the  report 
of  Dr.  Chandler  to  tbe  board  of  health  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  was  from  12  to  16  cents  a 
gallon.  Benzole  coat  at  the  aame  time  about 
|l  a  gallon. — Benzine  is  not  acted  npon  by 
nitric  acid,  and  hence  cannot  be  employed  is 
the  manafacture  of  aniline  colore.  Chlorine, 
bromine,  and  iodine  also  prodnce  no  particular 
compounds  with  it.  On  comparison  of  benzole 
wilb  benzine,  it  will  thus  be  found  that  tbey 
difi'er  widely  from  each  other  in  boiling  and 
freezing  point,  in  molecular  composition,  in 
chemical  reactions,  in  solvent  properties,  in 
specific  gravity,  and  in  their  origin  and  nsea 

BENZOIC  Itm  (H,  CtH.O,),  an  soid  which 
is  abundant  in  the  t)alBamiferous  planta,  and  is 

Crodnced  artificially  fr«m  bitter-almcind  wl, 
ippurio  acid,  and  naphthaline.  Onm  benzcnn, 
the  product  of  the  Hyraa  benMnn  of  the  Aaiatio 
archipelago,  is  the  principal  source  of  the  sup- 
ply of  benzoic  acid.  Common  benzoin  occurs 
m  reddish  Imnps,  which  sometimes  have  a  la- 
mellated  fracture,  and  certain  wbitiah  opaqne 
masses.  When  recent  it  emits  an  odor  of  bitter 
ahnonda.  Gum  benzoin  appearsto  be  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  three  varieties  of  renn,  with 
benzole  add  and  a  small  quantity  of  a  fracrant 
essential  oiL  Only  one  of  the  resins  is  soluble 
in  ether ;  a  second  is  soluble  in  alcohol  only. 
The  white  opaqne  maaaea  appear  to  consist  of 
tbe  resin  which  is  soluble  in  ether ;  they  yield 
less  benzoio  acid  tban  the  brown  portions. — 
Benzoic  acid  may  be  extracted  from  powdered 
t)enzoin  by  boiling  it  for  some  boura  with  milk 
of  lime,  filtering  the  solution  of  benzoate  of  tune 
from  the  inaolnole  compound  of  resin  and  lime, 
and,  alter  concentrating  thefiltrate,  adding  hy- 
drochloric acid.  Benzoic  acid  is  thus  precipita- 
ted, and  may  be  purified  by  sublimation.  The 
acidia,  however,  generally  extracted  by  tbelees 
economical  but  simpler  process  of  direct  sabli- 
matlon  from  gum  benzoin,  which  oontains  14 
or  15  per  cent  of  tbe  acid.  If  tbe  resiu  bo 
coarsely  powdered  and  exposed  to  a  tempera- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


tnre  of  About  80S°  F.,  th«  add  which  ejMa 
readj  formed  in  it  is  expelled,  and  maj  be  cod- 
densed  io  guitaljle  receivers.  Mohr's  plan  of 
oondacting  the  sublimation  is  tbe  simplest  and 
best  His  method  is  to  place  the  ^m  in  a 
shallow  iron  pan,  which  is  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  filtering  paper,  over  which  a  cone  or 
hat  of  writing  paper  is  fastened;  on  applyiiig  a 
regulated  sand  heat,  the  acid  is  decomposed, 
and  the  benzoic  acid  is  converted  into  vapors; 
it  passes  throQgh  the  bibaluus  paper,  and  rises 
into  the  chamber  formed  by  the  paper  cone, 
where  it  is  condensed,  and  is  preveoted  from 
falling  back  into  the  pan  beneath  by  the  inter- 
posed sheet  of  Sltering  paper.  This  method  of 
anblimation  is  applicable  in  many  other  oases 
of  a  similar  kind,  as  for  example  in  the  moon- 
Eaotnre  of  pjrogallio  acid.  The  resins  of  toln 
and  benzoin,  when  treated  with  boiling  nitric 
acid,  jield  sa  amorphous  form  of  benzwc  aoid, 
colored  yellow  with  a  reslnons  matter  which 
accompanies  it  into  its  salts,  and  hinders  them 
from  crystallizing.  Balsam  of  toln  often  yields 
nearly  half  its  weight  of  thia  acid.  This  res- 
inoos  acid  ia  completely  soloble  in  boiling 
water.  When  this  form  of  the  acid  is  exposed 
to  the  snn's  ra;s,  it  becomes  covered  with 
white  crrstalfi  of  pore  benzoic  acid ;  and  when 
snblimed,  the  ordinary  crystalline  acid  is  ob- 
tained. Benzoic  acid  is  now  prepared  arti- 
ficially on  a  large  scale  from  naphthaline  and 
from  hippnrio  acid,  and  ia  employed  in  the 
treatment  of  tobacco,  as  a  mordant  in  calico 
printing,  and  especially  in  the  prodaction  of 
aniline  colors. — ^Benzoio  acid  assumes  the  form 
of  white,  glistening,  extremely  light,  flexible 
needles,  which  usa^y  have  an  agreeable  aro- 
matio  odor  and  a  hot  bitterish  taste.  The 
odor,  however,  ia  not  due  to  the  acid,  bat  to 
the  preewoe  of  a  traoe  of  essential  oil  which 
accompanies  the  aoid  dnring  the  sublimation. 
Benzoic  aoid  melu  at  248°  F,  (120°  0.) ;  it  anV 
limes  at  ZSS"  F.  (146°  0.),  and  boils  at  4fiS°  F. 
(289'  C),  Its  vapors  are  acrid  and  irritating ; 
when  kindled  in  the  open  air,  they  bom  with 
a  smoky  flame.  The  acid  reqnires  about  200 
parts  of  cold  water,  and  35  of  boiling  water, 
for  ite  solntitni ;  but  it  is  readily  dissolved  by 
alcohol  and  by  ether.  Benzoic  acid  yields  a 
series  of  salts  called  benzoatea,  mostly  solnble 
in  water.  The  benzoato  of  ammonia  is  tonto- 
times  used  as  a  means  of  separating  iron  trom 
nickel  and  oobalt — When  prepared  in  the  usual 
way  by  snbhmation,  benzoic  aoid  contains  a 
portion  of  the  volatile  oil.  It  is  used  in  a  few 
officinal  preparations,  especially  in  campho- 
rated tincture  of  opium.  When  given  inter- 
nally, it  is  excreted  by  the  nrine,  which  it  ren- 
ders odd,  in  the  form  of  hippuric  acid.  It  has 
been  employed  as  a  local  htemostatic,  though 
without  proved  utility. 

BEMZOM  (Uatay,  Icaminian),  the  gum  benja- 
min of  commerce,  an  odorons  resin  extracted 
from  the  ttyrax:  hemoiii,  a  tree  which  attains  a 
oonsidersble  height,  and  is  the  peculiar  pro- 
duct of  Bencoojen,  Batak,  and  Falembang  tor- 


:oiK  MB 

ritortes,  in  Snmatra,  and  BnmM  territory  in 
Borneo.  The  tree  is  cultivated  and  raised  from 
the  small  brown  nut  which  it  produces.  When 
the  plant  has  attained  its  fonrth  year  and  its 
stem  has  a  diameter  of  eight  inches  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Sumatra,  and  stx  years  and  ten  inches 
diameter  <hi  the  W.  coast,  it  begins  to  yield  its 
best  sap,  which  flows  from  the  bark,  and  which 
is  obtained  by  making  an  incision  therein  near 
the  groond.    That  obtained  during  the  first 
two  years  after  tapping  is  of  a  creamy  or  light 
saffron  tint,  and  is  solt  and  fragrant ;  for  two 
or  three  years  more  it  produces  on  inferior 
quality,  of  reddish  hue,  and  harder  than  the 
tiest ;  after  this  time  the  sap  ceases  to  flow,  the 
tree  is  cat  down,  and  a  very  inferior  reun  is 
obtained  by  scraping  the  inner  sorfaoe  of  the 
bark  and  the  stem.   From  the  Batak  oonntry  it 
is  bronght  to  the  markets  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Sumatra  in  cakes  called  tampan^,  of  different 
weights,    and  these 
cakes  constitute  the 
chief  correnoy  of  the 
Bataka,  who  do  not 
make  use  of  coined 
money.      The    ben- 
zoin obtained  in  Fa- 
lembang territory  ia 
mainly  collected  by 
wild   tribes  in    the 
lowest  state  of  civi- 
lization, the  Eubu  in 
the  Bawaa  and  Ba- 
tang-  Lekoh  diatricta, 

(and  the  Enmring  fur- 
ther south.  The  Fa- 
lembang resin  is  gen- 
erally of  an  inferior 
i^^gKi  quality,  beingmoaUy 

7  spontaneous   exnd&- 

Btyru  tHuuoLn.  ^0118  of  wild  treea, 

collected  by  thesp 
wild  tribes.  The  resin  is  nsed  as  an  incense  in 
Greek  and  Bomau  Catholic  oburchea.  It  is 
sometimes  employed  in  medicine,  being  consid- 
ered a  valuable  expectorant  and  stimulant,  and 
still  more  in  perfmnery.  The  odor  of  the  best 
resin  aomcwnat  resembles  that  of  the  vanilla 
bean.  Beingsolublein  spirits,  and  not  in  water, 
it  is  erroneonsly  called  a  gum.  Ite  density  vartee 
according  to  quaUty,  from  1-OSS  to  1-093.  Be- 
rides  benzoic  and  cinnamio  acid  and  a  small 
quantity  of  essential  oil,  it  contuns  three  differ- 
ent kinds  of  resins,  which  have  not  yet  been 
employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  need  in  several 
kinds  of  fine  varnishes  and  lacquer  work,  on 
canes  and  snuff-boxes,  which  emit  a  &int 
vanilla  odor  when  wanned  with  the  hand. — 
Benzoin  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  the 
malabatkruin  of  the  ancienta.  Pliny  and  Dios- 
oorides  describe  it  very  accurately;  and  men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Periplus  of  the  Erythrean 
sea  of  malabathmm,  on  article  of  commerce  on 
the  Malabar  coast,  s^d  to  be  brought  from  a 
conntry  further  east.  Importations  into  the 
edited  States  are  prohibited  unless  the  drag 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


646 


BENZOLE 


yields  60  per  cent,  of  resin,  or  20  per  cent  of 
benzoic  acid. 

BEHZOLE,  8  peculiar  prodact  of  cool  tar,  im- 
portant in  the  manufactare  of  aniline  colors. 
(See  Bbnzike.)  Ita  chemical  formula  is  0,, 
H,  (old),  or  C,H,  (new).  Its  Bynonymea  are 
benzol,  benzin,  benzene,  bicarbaretted  hydro- 
gen, and  hydrite  of  phenyl  (Fr.  pAine).  There 
are  namerooa  methods  for  the  preparation  of 
benzole,  bat  the  only  one  of  practical  valne, 
invented  by  UaHBdeld  in  1S4T,  la  founded  npon 
the  distillation  of  ooal  tar.  The  crude  tar,  aa 
it  oomee  from  the  gea  worka,  ia  first  subjected 
to  regulated  diatillatioD,  eo  aa  to  obtain  sep- 
arately naphtha  or  light  oil  (oily  liqnid  lighter 
than  water) ;  secondly,  after  dl  the  naphtha 
has  passed,  dead  oil  or  heavy  oil  (oily  liqnid 
ainktng  in  water);  and  thirdly,  pitch,  which 
remains  behind  in  the  retort.  From  the  light 
oil  the  benzole  ia  separated  by  further  frac- 
tional dislsllation.  The  reonlting  product,  which 
Ib  far  from  being  absolutely  pure,  is  the  well 
known  preparation  for  removing  grease  stains 
from  articles  of  dreaa.  It  ia  also  extensively 
aged  aa  a  solvent  of  caoutchoao  and  resins. 
When  required  for  the  production  of  aniline,  it 
most  be  rectified  by  anbjocting  it  to  further 
operations.  The  boUing  point  of  pare  benzole 
is  80°  0.  (176°  F.),  whereas  commercial  benzole 
boils  from  80°  to  130°  C,  and  is  therefore  a 
mixture  of  several  compounds.  The  transfor- 
mation of  benKote  into  nitro-henzole  is  accom- 
plished by  dissolving  benzole  in  tnming  nitric 
Boid  and  mixing  the  clear  liqnid  with  water, 
when  the  nitro-benzole  is  precipitated  as  a 
dense  yellow  liquid,  Mtro-benzole  baa  for 
some  years  be«i  sold  under  the  trade  name  of 
tttenee  dt  mirba'ae,  at  artidcial  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds. Nitro-benzole  when  submitted  to  the 
aotiun  of  redacing  egeola  is  converted  into 
AniHne.  The  successive  changes  of  benzole  are 
thus  expressed  in  chemical  symbols ; 

Flrft  diftnga,  truafbcTutlon  of  bensi^  LdCo  idtro-benola : 
C,H,    +    «I0,    a     C,R,EIO,       +    H,0, 
BcDKilB.    mUould.    Httn'buuole.         Wster. 

Beoond  «hu£«,  tnulbniulhin  oTDHro-buiiala  Iota  uiniiM : 

C,H,NO,     +     8n,B    =    C.H.N    +    »I|0    *    89. 
Ultn-banBle.  StUpfanntlsd   Anlilw.      Witar.   Sntpbnr. 
hydragm. 

On  the  large  scale,  instead  of  snlphnretted  hy- 
drogen, nascent  hydrogen  prodnced  from  iron 
turnings  and  acetia  acid  is  employed  as  the  re- 
ducing agent.  The  inhalation  of  nitro-benzole 
prodoces  insensibility  t«  pain,  bat  fl-om  some 
slight  irritation  it  was  found  to  ocoa^on  when 
tbe  experiments  were  made,  it  has  not  come 
into  general  nse  as  an  aniesthetio.^At  ordinary 
temperatarea  benzole  is  a  limpid,  colorlees, 
strongly  refracting  oil,  of  specific  gravity  0-85 
at  15-5*  C.  Wlien  cooled  to  +&°  C.  it  solidi- 
Bes  into  fern-like  tufts  or  into  masses  like  cam- 
phor, which  melt  at  6'6°  C,  expanding  one 
eighth  of  their  volume,  and  freedng  again  at 
Q^G.  Prof.  Hoffinatm  takes  advantage  of  the 
freezing  of  benzole  to  obtain  it  pure.  For  this 
pnrpose  the  impure  article  is  placed  in  a  tin  or 


brass  vesseL  in  which  an  ii 

tacbed  a  close-fitting  (>iaton  per 

namerous  small  holes,  is  made  to  play.    On 


rad,  having  at- 
close-fitting  (>iaton  perforated,  with 


forcing  down  the  plunger  the  liqnid  portion 
ascend  and  can  be  drawn  off,  and  on  melting 
the  frozen  l^enzole  it  will  be  found  to  be  near- 
ly pure.  Cooled  to  — 18°  C.,  benzoic  becomes 
so  hard  and  brittle  that  it  can  be  pulverized  in 
a  mortar.  It  boils  at  80°  0.,  sud  volatilizes 
undecomposed.  The  oil  has  a  pleasant  ethereal 
smell,  and  when  breathed  produces  insensi- 
bility attended  by  convclsions;  internally  it 
acts  as  a  violent  poison.  The  denuty  of  its  va- 
por is  3-75  (calcniated  2-704).  It  ia  not  soluble 
m  water,  although  it  imparts  a  color  and  odor 
to  that  liqnid.  Alcohol,  wood  spirit,  acebnie, 
and  ether  are  good  solvents  of  benzole.  It  di»- 
solvea  fata,  the  fixed  and  essential  oilsj  cam- 
phor, wax,  india  rubber,  gntta  percha,  re«na, 
asphaltum,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine,  and 
picric  acid;  gum  lac,  copid,  acim^,  and  gam- 
boge In  small  quantity ;  quinine,  eomewbat 
readily ;  strychnine  and  morphine  in  small 
qnantity;  cinchonine,  not  at  all.  It  is  inflam- 
mable, and  bums  with  a  bright  smoky  flame; 
and  when  its  vapor  is  added  to  illuminating 
gaa,  it  materially  contributes  to  the  illuminating 
power;  hence  it  finds  extensive  application  in 
carburetting  or  carbonizing  poor  goa,  and  in 
themannfactureof  "air  (MS."  The  name sft^rM 
was  proposed  for  it  by  Laurent  in  allusion  to 
its  high  value  as  an  iUnminating  agent,  from 
^Ivtcv,  to  emit  light.  It  is  now  nearly  super- 
seded for  this  pnrpom  by  petroleum  benzine, 
on  account  of  tne  comparatively  great  expense 
of  benzole.  A  miitare  of  one  volume  of^  ben- 
zole with  two  volumes  of  alcohol  forms  a  very 
good  lamp  oil;  more  benzole  gives  rise  to  a 
smoky  flame.  When  benzole  Is  passed  through 
a  red-hot  tulje,  it  is  decomposed  mto  solid 
carbon  and  a  gaaeoua  hydrocarbon.  Under 
favorable  circumstances  100  Iba.  of  coal  will 
yield  10}  lbs.  tar,  8^  oz.  tar  naphtha,  8  oz.  ben- 
zole, 41  oz.  nitro-benzole,  and  Sf  oz.  aniline. 
Benzole  haa  been  found  ready  formed  in  the 
native  petroleara  of  Rangoon,  and  has  been 
made  synthetically  by  Prof.  Schulze  by  the 
direct  oxidation  of  carbon  by  means  of  per- 
manganate of  potash.  As  benzoic  acid,  from 
whion  benzole  was  originally  distitled  by  Hit- 
scherlioh,  has  also  been  made  artificially,  it  ia 
not  impossible  that  a  synthetical  method  for 
the  manufactare  of  benzole  may  eventnally  be 
<Uscovered. 
BEOWULF,  TU«  af.  See  Anolo-Bakons,  Lar- 

OVAOB    AMD  XintRATnBK  OF  THB,  VOl.  1.,  p.  601. 

^KINGES,  Plem  Jnu  it,  a  French  lyric 

Soet,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  19,  1780,  died  there^ 
uly  16,  1867.  His  father  was  bookkeeper  to 
a  grocer,  and  married  a  milliner,  the  danght«r 
of  a  tailor  of  the  name  of  Champy,  who  kept 
a  small  shop  in  the  rue  Montorgueil.  Here  the 
fhture  bard  came  into  the  world,  which  fact  be 
commemorated  in  one  of  bis  most  sprigfatly 
songs,  Le  tailUur  et  la  fit.  lie  sprang  thus 
from  the  people,  and  in  spite  of  the  particle  At, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


which,  owing  to  his  fatber'a  pr^D^ce,  r«- 
muDed  prefixed  to  hia  patronTmio,  he  never 
miBsed  &n  opportunity  of  proclaiming  his  ple- 
beian birth.  Je  8UM  nt^in,  et  Vrit  cilatn,  is 
the  harden  of  one  of  his  earliest  songs.  In 
1T89  he  was  sent  to  a  school  in  the  faubourg 
St.  Antoine:  and  from  the  roof  of  the  house 
he  witnessed  the  taking  of  the  Bastile  b^  the 

Cple,  which  made  a  deep  impreidon  npon 
mind,  as  appears  from  a  song,  Le  yuatone 
juilleL,  written  40  jears  later.  liis  father,  nn- 
abte  to  pSkj  his  board  at  school,  sent  him,  with- 
oat  previous  notice,  to  a  sister,  a  widow  with- 
oat  children,  who  kept  a  small  inn  near  F6- 
roone,  in  Pioardv.  Under  the  guidance  of  this 
wbrtbr  woman,  Pierre  received  lessons  intended 
to  make  him  a  good  man  and  a  thorough  re- 
pDblioan.  His  republicanism  was  also  devel- 
oped bj  the  training  to  which  he  was  submitted 
at  a  school  established  by  M.  Ballne  de  Bel- 
langliae,  who  had  been  formerly  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly,  and  who  was,  accord- 
JTig  to  Beranger  himself,  a  sort  of  republican 
Ffinelon,  and  a  trae  philanthropist.  In  this 
school  the  boys  wore  formed  into  a  kind  of 
democratic  association,  and  elected  officers, 
each  as  mayor,  conncillors,  and  jastices  of  the 
peace.  They  debated  political  questions;  on 
important  occasions  speeches  were  publicly 
dehvered  by  the  young  politicians,  and  more 
than  once  they  seat  up  addresses  to  the  con- 
vention and  to  Bobeepierre.  BSranger  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  clear  and  cogent  spealcer. 
Patriotism,  which,  as  be  says,  was  the  great  if 
nbt  the  only  passion  of  his  life,  was  already 
burning  in  the  heart  of  the  boy,  and  he  feel- 
ingly narrates  his  emotions  when  he  heard  of 
the  victories  or  the  reverses  of  the  French 
armies.  When  the  time  came  for  him  to  learn 
a  trade,  he  entered  the  printing  office  of  Lunez, 
a  bookseller,  and  was  treated  with  great  kind- 
nees  by  him.  B^ranger  did  not  acquire  marked 
proficiency  as  a  printer,  bat  showed  an  inoli- 
nation  to  poetry,  and  made  at  that  time  some 
rough  attempts  at  rhyme.  Toward  the  end  of 
1796  he  was  called  back  to  Paris  by  his  father, 
who  was  then  engaged  in  atookjobbing  and 
financiering  speculations,  as  well  as  in  Bourbon 
conspiracies,  and  was  known  as  the  "banker 
of  ute  royalists."  Toung  Stranger  became 
the  assistant  of  his  father,  and  evinced  much 
tact  and  ability  in  the  husinese.  Bat  in  1T98 
the  firm  failed,  and  the  young  man  found  him- 
self in  very  straitened  circumstances.  "My 
poverty,"  be  says,  "was  not  barren  of  plea- 
anre.  I  lived  in  an  attic  on  the  boulevard  St. 
Martin,  and  the  most  magnificent  sight  opened 
before  my  eyes.  I  had  no  money,  no  hope,  no 
prospect  of  fortone,  it  is  true;  bat  I  was  free 
irom  all  the  trouble  and  disgust  connected 
with  the  basinesB  in  which  I  had  been  engaged 
against  my  taste  and  feelings.  To  live  alone 
uid  make  verses  at  my  ease,  I  considered  to 
be  tme  happiness."  Friendship  and  love  con- 
bibated  to  embellish  his  life ;  and,  as  &r  as  his 
slender  means  would  allow,  he  heartily  joined 


JGEE  547 

In  popular  amusements.  OraoeM  remem- 
brances of  that  time  are  to  be  traced  in  several 
of  his  pieces,  snch  as  Ls  grenier  and  Moa  haHL 
This  careless  life  lasted  several  years,  during 
which  he  sketched  the  projects  of  many  great 
works,  and  wrote  some  poems  and  several  com- 
edies, two  of  which  were  flve-act  plays.  At 
the  end  of  1803  starvation  stared  him  in  the 
face;  his  wateh  and  other  valuobles  hod  been 
pawned  lon^  ago;  his  clothing  was  in  the 
poorest  condition,  and  none  of  his  friends  were 
well  enough  off  to  ofier  him  relief.  In  this  ex- 
tremity he  wrote  a  letter  to  Lncien  Bonaparte, 
brother  of  the  first  consul,  sending  him,  as 
specimens  of  his  literary  attfunments,  two 
poems,  La  TttahliMtament  du  eulte  and  Le 
diluge.  It  was  the  only  instance  of  solicitation 
in  a  long  life  of  independence.  Lncien  an- 
swered him  kindly,  invited  him  to  an  inter- 
view, and  when  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
France  authorized  the  yonng  poet  to  receive 
his  pension  as  a  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute, amounting  to  nearly  $200.  The  next 
year,  180G,  B^ranger  was  engaged  by  the 
painter  Landon  to  write  the  notices  for  the 
AnnaUi  du  mtuie,  an  illnstrated  pnbltoation, 
giving  outline  engravings  of  the  great  paintings 
in  the  Louvre  gallery.     This  added   for  two 

fears  (3G0  to  his  annnal  income,  and  enabled 
im  to  help  his  father  and  contribute  to  the 
oomforC  of  his  grandmother,  who  had  been  en- 
tirely ruined.  In  1809,  being  introduced  to 
Fontanes,  the  grand  master  of  the  imperial 
university,  by  his  friend  Arnault,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  an  offioe  worth  about  $200,  which 
salary  was  gradually  increased  to  $400.  B6- 
ranger's  life  now  began  to  take  a  more  regular 
shape,  and  his  talent  to  flow  in  its  proper 
channel.  He  had  occasionally  written  songs, 
mostly  of  a  gay  tarn,  as  they  were  designed  to 
enliven  his  joyous  meetings  with  his  friends 
whom  he  visited  at  PSronne  ;  bat  he  was  not 
conscious  that  the  writing  of  songs  was  his  tme 
calling,  and  would  nltimately  secure  him  dura- 
ble fame.  At  this  time,  however,  be  began  to 
pay  more  attention  to  lyrical  poetry,  and  to  feel 
that  it  might  he  made  to  take  rank  as  one  of 
the  higher  branches  of  literatnre.  Some  of  the 
pieces  which  he  wrote  during  the  following 
years,  being  ciroalated  ih  manuscript,  created 
s  sensation — Le  liaateur,  Le  petit  hitmnie  grii. 
Lei  gtieux,  L«  rot  d'  Ytetot,  among  the  num- 
ber. This  success  procured  for  him  the  oo- 
quuntance  of  Disangiers,  the  well  known 
song  writer  of  the  time,  and  a  very  kind-heart- 
ed nian.  D^sau^ers  took  a  deoiaed  fancy  for 
his  yonng  competitor,  and  prevuled  upon  him 
to  become  a  member  of  the  celebrated  clnh 
Lt  eaveau,  which  bad  been  reestablished  about 
1811.  The  disasters  of  1S14  and  1815,  and  tbe 
two  invasions  of  France  by  Enropean  armie^ 
caused  a  bitter  pang  to  the  patriotic  heart  of 
Bfiranger,  and  contributed  to  give  a  new  and 
higher  direction  to  his  poetical  vein.  He  be- 
came the  popular,  or  rauier  the  truly  national 
bard  oT  France.  His  shafta  were  chiefly  directed 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


M8 


bEranger 


against  the  Bourbons,  and  be  was  not  o<«ispi&- 
none  for  bis  opposition  to  the  Napoleonic  dj- 
nsat;.  The  first  volnine  of  B^rmiger's  songs 
was  published  in  181Q.  It  contained  few  polit- 
ical pieces,  bnt  its  popDlarit;  exoited  suspicion 
in  the  administrative  department  in  which 
B6ranger  was  employed,  and  a  recommendation 
to  stop  sunh  pnblioations  for  the  lutnre  was 
addressed  to  him  bj  big  chief.  But  B^ranger 
was  now  foirlj  launched  on  his  new  course 
and  paid  no  attention  to  this  notice.  He  went 
on  to  prodnce  new  pieces,  which,  like  their 
predeoeeeorsj  were  at  first  estensively  ciron- 
lated  by  singing.  They  were  pablished  in  book 
form  in  1821,  B^ranger  having  resigned  his 
office  before  issuing  the  volnme.  The  sale  was 
immeDse,  and  the  songs  resonnded  all  over  the 
oonntry.  J  adicial  proceedings  directed  agunst 
the  poet  only  added  to  his  popidarity  and 
promoted  the  difitasion  of  the  volume.  Broogfat 
before  the  coorta,  he  was  sentenced  to  three 
>nth8'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  600  francs. 


peated  f^om  one  end  of  France  to  the  other. 
Stranger  bad  become  a  political  power.  A 
third  Tolome,  which  appeared  in  1826,  tbongh 
scarcely  leae  bold  than  Ibe  preceding,  was 
treated  with  more  forbearance  by  the  govern- 
ment; bnt  the  fonrtb,  published  in  1828,  waa 
severely  dealt  with,  the  author  being  impris- 
oned nine  months  and  fined  10,000  francs. 
This  was  the  most  brilliant  period  of  his  career. 
B£ranger  had  secnred  great  infinence  among 
the  chiefs  of  the  opposition  party;  bisadvioe 
was  sought  for  and  respected  ;  bis  known  dis- 
interestedness, his  freedom  of  speech,  which 
was  always  united  with  the  utmost  oonrtesy, 
bis  want  of  personal  ambition,  his  generous 
di^jKwition,  and  his  marked  sympathy  for  young 
men,  endeared  him  to  all,  and  pecnliarly  to 
the  Inferior  classes.  He  aided,  through  his 
songs,  in  bringing  about  the  revolution  of  ISSO, 
and  took  an  active  part  with  his  friends  Lafitte 
and  Lafayette  in  piacmg  Louie  Philippe  upon 
the  throne,  but  reflised  all  the  appointments 

Sroffered  by  the  king  and  his  ministers.  He 
erired  to  live  as  a  philosopher,  contented  with 
the  little  income  eeoared  by  the  sate  of  his 
songs,  and  preserving  his  personal  indepen- 
dence. His  fifth  volume  was  published  in  1888, 
Although  he  acted  as  if  willing  to  be  forgotten, 
there  was  no  abatement  in  his  popularity  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Lonis  Philippe ;  and  when  the 
revolution  of  February,  1848,  broke  out,  the 
name  of  B6ranger  was  still  among  the  bri^test 
in  the  eyes  of  Uie  people.  He  was  retnmed  by 
the  votes  of  more  than  200,000  electors  to  the 
oouatitaent  assembly.  In  acknowledgment  of 
the  honor,  he  took  his  seat,  and  then  sent  in 
his  resignation.  His  last  years  were  passed  in 
retirement,  amid  bis  intimate  friends ;  but  the 
admiration  which  he  inspired  drew  around  htm 
numerous  visitors,  whom  he  tried  to  avoid  by 
living  as  privately  as  posdble  in  various  vil- 
lages or  provincial  towns.    On  the  news  of  his 


BEBABD 

last  illness,  the  street  in  which  he  lived,  at 
Passy,  was  filled  by  a  multitude  of  persons 
aniions  to  show  their  sympathy  for  him.  His 
death  threw  a  veil  of  sorrow  not  only  over 
Paris,  but  over  all  France;  and  his  funeral 
was  attended  by  a  host  of  monmers.  His 
songs  have  been  reprinted  nnder  every  po^ble 
form,  and  millions  of  copies  have  been  circu- 
lated among  all  classes  of  Frenchmen.  They 
are  familiar  even  to  those  who  are  unable  to 
read.  Besides  the  songs  published  by  Biran- 
ger  himself^  he  left  92  songs  written  from  1884 
to  1851,  and  a  memoir  of  himself,  which  were 
published  a  few  months  after  bis  death.  The 
autobiography  is  admirable,  and  fnmishes  con- 
vincing evidence  that  in  him  simplicity,  hon- 
esty, and  goodness  of  heart  were  united  to 
Knios. — See  Beranger  et  ton  tempi,  by  Jules 
nin  (Paris,  18S6). 

BEBIB,  or  HtgHre,  one  of  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  British  India,  boundedN.  by  theNer- 
bndda  territory,  E.  by  tiie  presidency  cS  Ua- 
dras,  and  8,  and  W.  by  the  dominions  of  the 
Nizun,  extending  ftom  lat.  17°  48'  to  22°  48' 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  76°  24'  to  83°  48'  E. ;  area, 
76,474,  sq.  m. ;  pop.  4,860,000,  of  whom  4,000,- 
OOO  are  Brabmanical  Hindoos,  100,000  Ifo- 
hsmmedans,  and  560,000  Gondees.  It  oonasti 
mainly  of  an  elevated  tract,  adjoining  the  Vin- 
dhya  and  San^oora  ranges.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Wurda,  Wynegnnga,  Ebahan,  Taptee,  and 
Mahanaddy.  The  soil  of  the  eitenuve  tract 
along  the  left  bank  of  the  Wurda  is  very  fertile 
and  well  suited  to  grain,  tobacco,  sugar,  and 
especially  cotton,  of  which  it  sent  288,000  bafta 
to  England  In  1869.  The  wheat  is  conridered 
the  best  in  India. — The  ancient  country  of 
Berar  was  one  of  the  five  original  independent 
kingdoms  of  the  Deccan.    In  the  17th  centnir 


was  par 

It  of  that 


rattas  and  divided  between  the  Peishwa  and 
the  rt^ah  of  Nagpore.  The  latter  prinoe,  hav- 
ing joined  with  Dowlat  Row  Sindia  against  the 
British  in  1808,  was  forced  to  cede  to  them  the 
province  of  Cuttaok,  together  with  Bnmbnl- 
poor  and  Patna,  and  to  toe  Nizam  some  prov- 
Uioes  on  the  fhmtier  of  Hyderabad.  On  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  cS  sucoeasion  in 
186S,  the  country  was  seized  by  the  British  and 
placed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  gover- 
nor general  until  the  organization  of  the  Cen- 
tral R'ovinces  in  1881.    Chief  oity,  Nagpore. 

BfiUBD.  L  Jaaspb  FrUiite,  a  French  phy- 
dcian,  bom  in  Montpellier,  Nov.  8,  178fi,  died 
there,  April  16,  I8SS.  He  was  educated  at 
Montpellier,  and  distingnished  himself  as  a 
champion  of  the  theories  of  the  medical  school 
of  that  oit;  ag^st  the  materialism  of  the  school 
of  Paris.  He  spent  some  years  at  the  capital, 
where  be  aaeisted  in  editing  the  IHetionnaire 
dM  miancet  midifaUt,  analyzed  the  experiments 
of  Le  Gali<^s  on  the  vital  prinoiple,  and  op- 
posed the  phrenolopcal  theories  of  Gall.  Re- 
turning to  Uontpellier,  he  became  professor  of 
therapeutics  there,  and  afterward  of  hypene. 


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BERAT 

Be  pnblisbed  an  Euai  tar  U»  anomalie*  dt  la 
tarioU  et  d»  la  variedU  (1818);  a  treatise  on 
Q»J)oetrinemidieaU  de  I'ieole  de  Montpellier 
(1819);  with  Rouiet,  a  commentary  on  the 
Maladia  ehroMqve*  of  Damae  (S  vols.,  182S)  \ 
and  Doetrine  da  rapports  du  pkj/tiqvt  et  au 
moral  (1828),  in  which  be  fallj  exposes  his 
philosophical  aysteia  and  combats  the  doctrines 
of  Cabanis.  IL  Plene  Utserf,  aFrench  snrgeon, 
bornatljchtenbergin  n»7,  diedin  1858.  He 
was  elected  professor  of  phjaiology  to  the  fac- 
ility of  medicine  of  Paris  in  1831,  became 
dean  of  that  faoultf  in  1848,  and  in  1862  was 
apptnnted  by  the  president  of  the  republic  in- 
spector general  of  the  medical  schools,  and 
entered  into  the  new  npper  council  of  pablio 
instruction.  He  pablished  a  Coun  dt  pKyno- 
logia  (4  vols.,  Pans,  1S48~'64),  edited  fbaNmt- 
vtawt  ilimeaU  de  phytiologie  of  Rioherand 
(1832),  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  sickness 
and  death  of  Onvier.  Ul.  AiKMte,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  a  French  surgeon,  bom  at  Yar- 
rains,  near  Sanmar,  Aug.  2, 1802,  died  in  Paris, 
Oct  16,  1646.  He  stndied  at  Paris  nnder  his 
brother,  became  protessor  of  clinical  surgery 
to  the  faoolty  of  Paris,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  society  of  snrMry.  He  wrote 
8iiT  le  diafpuntie  ekinayieat  (1830),  Strue- 
tare  da  powaon  (188S),  and  varions  other 
treatises,  and  began  with  Denonvilliera  the 
elaborate  Compendium  de  ehirurgU  pratigve, 
oontinned  after  his  death  by  DenonTilliers  and 
Gosselin. 

BiaUT,  or  Irwtat  BcHgnul,  a  town  of  Albania, 
European  Tnrhey,  in  the  eyalet  and  88  m. 
N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Janina,  on  the  river 
Usmni ;  pop.  abont  10,000,  of  whom  two  thirds 
are  GreeEs  and  the  rest  Turks.  It  is  the  reai- 
denoe  of  an  archbishop  and  of  a  pasha,  who  is 
lientenant  governor  of  central  Albania.  Mt. 
Tomor  towers  above  it.  The  upper  town 
eontains  the  virier's  palace,  several  Greek 
ohorciies,  and  about  2G0  honaes.  The  lower 
town  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Tnrks,  and  has 
nnmeroDB  mosques  and  a  good  bazaar. 

BEKBEI  (Bbbbeb  bl-Mubhxbbif  or  ei^Ub- 
KBKHi),  a  town  of  Nubia,  capital  of  a  district  of 
Uie  same  name  belonging  to  Egypt,  on  the  £. 
bank  of  the  NUe,  in  lat  17°  59'  M.,  Ion.  88°  6§' 
E.,  2S  m.  N.  of  the  month  of  the  Atbara,  and 
190  m.  N.  of  Khartoom ;  pop.  about  8,000.  The 
Streets  are  nnpaved  and  airty,  and  the  flat- 
roofed  honsea  are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks. 
The  town  is  subject  to  sudden  and  destructive 
whirlwinds.  It  usually  contains  a  garrison  of 
abont  l,fi00  men.  It  carries  on  ooumderable 
traffic  with  Egypt  and  the  interior  of  Africa 
in  epioea,  ivory,  leather,  tobaoco,  liquors,  and 
European  mannfactures. 

lEXREU  (anc  Mala),  a  trading  place  of 
Afiica,  on  the  S.  shore  (^  the  gulf  cf  Aden,  in 
the  territory  of  the  Somauli,  and  directly  S.  of 
Aden.  In  summer  it  is  a  spot  of  barren  sand. 
In  winter  a  market  is  held  there,  and  it  be- 
comes a  oommercial  city  of  more  than  20,000 
inhabitaiit^  dwelling  in  tents.    Tha  market 


549 


commences  about  'Sov.  I,  increases  in  activity 
till  March,  and  closes  in  May.  The  eiport  is 
mostly  of  cattle,  sheep,  gold  dust,  hides,  colTee, 
myrrh,  benzoin,  ostrich  feathers,  elephants' 
tusks,  and  gum  arable,  which  are  sent  to  Uer- 
bera  Irom  the  interior.  Vessels  bring  to  it 
cotton  and  eilk  goods,  beads,  wire,  sugar,  rice, 
copper,  iron,  and  zinc,  from  Arabia  and  other 
parts  of  Aua.  The  climate  is  wholesome,  the 
water  good,  and  the  harbor  excellent. 

■EBBEUNA,  an  alkaloid  which  receives  its 
name  from  having  been  found  in  the  berberit 
mtlgarii  or  common  barberry,  but  which  has 
been  obtained  from  many  other  plants,  among 
which  are  the  columbo  root,  false  columbo 
(Meeiniiim),  gold  thread  {eoptit),  yellow  root 
(^xanthorrkaa),  yellow  pnccoon  (hydratlu)^  and 
probably  the  prickly  asn  (xanthirylum').  Some 
of  these  vegetables,  all  of  which  have  yellow 
root  wood,  were  used  by  the  Indians  for  dye- 
ing. The  alkaloid,  having  the  formula  CielliT 
NO.,  occurs  in  the  form  of  minnto  yellow 
crystals,  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  forms  difficultly 
soluble  salts  with  hydrochloric  and  snlphurio 
aoids,  and  a  readily  soluble  acetate.  The  im- 
pure muriate  is  used  by  tha  eclectic  practitioners 
nnder  the  name  of  hydraatin,  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  colorless  alkaloid  hydras- 
tia,  also  found  in  the  hydratti*  Ganaderuit. 
The  effects  of  l>erberina  are  probably  those  of  a 
pure  bitter,  though  it  is  less  employed  in  medi- 
cine, except  in  the  form  of  the  impme  muriate 
inst  mentioned,  than  the  drugs,  especiollT  co- 
lumbo, which  contain  iL 

BEBBBtS,  the  race  which  ori^nally  peopled 
the  whole  northern  part  of  Afrioa,  embra- 
cing the  nations  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  aa  Mauri,  Gcetuli,  Numidians,  Nasa- 
mones,  Fhazanians,  and  Libyans.  The  Bar- 
bary  states  derive  their  name  from  them.  Borne 
writers  have  derived  the  name  &om  the  Arabian 
word  bar,  desert;  others  iWim  h^erat,  mur- 
muring, as  descriptive  of  the  sound  of  the 
North  African  language ;  others  from  Ber,  the 
son  of  one  of  the  shepherd  kings  of  Egypt.  The 
Berbers  call  themselves  Amazirghs,  nther  from 
their  prt^enitor  or  as  a  generic  name  Mgnifying 
noble  or  freemen.  They  have  been  conquered 
in  succession  by  the  Phcenicians,  Romans,  Van- 
dals, and  Arabs.  The  Arabs  in  the  7tb  century, 
like  the  former  oonqnerors,  took  chiefly  posses- 
sion of  the  northern  portions  of  their  territory, 
and  dispersed  them  over  the  interior,  lietween 
Egypt  and  the  Atlantia  The  principal  rem- 
nants of  the  race  consist  of  three  groups:  the 
Shelloohs,  found  in  Morocco,  the  Eabylea  in 
Algeria,  and  the  Tnariks  in  the  desert.  Their 
lai^age  is  classed  by  modem  philologists 
among  the  Eamitio  tongues.  By  some  it  is 
specifically  designated  as  Libyan.  Their  num- 
ber is  estimate<l  at  between  8,000,000  and 
4,000,000,  They  are  light  brown  in  com- 
plexion, of  middle  stature,  and  sparely  but 
strongly  bnilt.  They  have  dark  hair,  little 
beard,  dark  and  piercing  eyes,  and  are  proud, 
suspicious,  impla<^ble,  and  generally  at  war. 


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650 


BEBBICE 


!•  A  river  of  British  Gai&Ilt^ 
which  rises  abont  lat.  8°  80'  N.  and  ion.  57° 
80'  W.,  and  flows  general]/  N.  to  New  Am- 
sterdam, where  it  falls  into  the  Atlantic  tlirough 
an  estaorj  3}  m.  wide,  crossed  b;  a  bar  having 
but  T  it.  of  water  at  low  tide.  The  month  is 
divided  by  Crab  island  into  two  chaimels, 
both  prettv  deep.  The  river  is  navigable  bv 
vessels  drawing  12  ft.  for  16S  ni.,  where  the 
inQuenoe  of  the  tide  ceases,  and  above  which 

C'  it  numerous  cataracts  impede  aavigation. 
ger  vesseb  can  reach  Fort  Naasau,  45  m, 
from  the  SCO.  At  new  moon  shipping  is  im- 
perilled by  a  fonnidable  bore.  The  river  is 
studded  with  bowlders  and  abonnds  in  cay- 
mans, and  its  banks  are  generally  low  and  cov- 
ered with  InsDrisiit  vegetation.  In  a  basin  of 
this  river  Schomborgk  in  1837  discovered  the 
magnificent  water  lily,  the  VietaTia  regia.  II. 
The  eastern  of  the  two  counties  into  which 
British  Guiana  is  now  divided,  bounded  E.  by 
Dutch  Guiana,  and  having  a  coast  line  on  the 
Atlantio  of  about  160  m. ;  area,  about  21,000 
aq.  m. ;  pop.  about  60,000.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Berbice  and  several  smaller  rivers.  The 
interior  is  principally  inhabited  by  aborigines, 
numbering  about  80,000.  The  surfoce  b  nioet- 
t;  covered  with  water  during  the  rainy  seasons 
(April  to  July,  and  December  and  January), 
and  the  cultivated  portions  are  narrow  strips 
along  tbe  coast  and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  for 
some  distance  inland.  Sugar,  coffee,  cacao, 
and  cotton  are  tbe  staple  productions ;  rum  and 
molasses  are  exported  in  large  quantities;  and 
dye  and  other  vaioable  woods,  Bpices,  and  firaits 
are  plentiful.  Travelling  is  chiefly  done  by 
boats  on  the  rivers.  Berbice  was  first  settled 
by  the  Dutch,  but  was  several  times  seized 
upon  (last  in  1803)  by  the  British,  to  whom  it 
was  finally  ceded  in  1814.  It  was  united  with 
Eseequibo  and  Demerara  under  one  govern- 
ment in  18S1.     Capital,  New  Amsterdam. 

BEBGHTESfilDEN.  I.  A  principality  of  S.  E. 
Bavaria,  in  the  circle  of  Upper  Bavaria,  between 
the  valleys  of  the  Salzach  and  the  SaaJach,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  but  the  N.  W.  by  the  Aus- 
trian duchy  of  Salzburg;  area,  166  eq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  Q,600.  Only  a  small  portion  is  fit 
for  cultivation.  Cattle  are  fed  on  the  Alpine 
meadows,  and  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  all  rock, 
forest,  and  mountain,  comprivng  the  W.  half 
of  the  Salzburg  Alps,  and  in  it  Mount  Watz- 
mann,  above  9,000  ii  high.  The  mountain  sce- 
nery tmd  that  of  the  KOnigs  or  Bartholomftus 
lake  rival  Switzerland  in  pictaresqueness.  The 
lake  is  walled  on  almost  all  sides  by  moun- 
tams,  and  on  its  shores  is  St.  BartholomS 
with  a  chapel  for  pilgrims  and  a  royal  hunting 
box.  Chamois  are  sometimes  driven  by  peas- 
ants into  the  lake,  when  they  are  shot  Arom 
boats.  In  tliis  locality  is  an  ice  chapel,  a 
drifted  heap  of  snow  which  remains  unmelted 
even  in  snmmer.  Enormous  fishes  have  been 
at  tjmes  caught  in  the  lake,  which  chiefly 
abonnds  in  the  char(n/2ma  Alpinm).  Besides 
salt  the  jffoducts  are  marble,  gypsum,  lead, 


BERDITCHEV 

and  other  minerals.  The  inhabitants  are  noteA 
for  tlieir  quaint  manners  and  costniues,  and  /«■ 
their  skill  in  manufacturing  103*3  of  wood,  bone, 
and  ivory,  and  other  handiwork,  known  as 
Berchtesgaden  ware.  The  former  eccleaas- 
tical  territory  of  Berchtesgaden  was  secular- 
ized in  1803  as  a  principality  of  the  electorate 
of  Salzburg.  In  1805  it  came  into  the  ponee- 
sion  of  the  Austrian  crown,  and  in  1810  into 
that  of  Bavaria.  II>  A  small  town  in  the 
district  of  Traunstoin,  capital  of  the  prind- 
pality,  12  m.  8.  of  Salzbui^,  on  the  Ache  or 
Alhe,  an  affluent  of  the  Konigs  or  Barthoto- 
mfins  lake,  which  is  8  m.  distant ;  pop.  about 
1,800.  The  former  cimvent,  a  stately  building 
on  a  rocky  elevation,  has  become  a  royu 
chAteaa  The  lat«  king  MaximiUan  had  a 
hunting  villa  built  here  in  1862.  A<^oining 
the  town  are  the  eiten»ve  SudMvter  or  boil- 
ing houses,  which  produce  annually  over  160,- 
000  quintals  of  various  kinds  of  salt  The  salt 
mine  is  about  1  m.  below  Berchtesgaden,  and 
the  deposit  is  supposed  to  be  a  contjnnation 
of  the  celebrated  fiallein  mine  near  Salzburg, 
though  rock  salt  is  here  found  in  larger  masses. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  wood,  most  of  the 
brine  is  conveyed  in  pipes  to  Beichenhall,  11 
m.  distant  The  superfluons  brine  is  raised  by 
an  ingenious  system  of  pumps  over  mountains 
nearly  2,000  ft  high.  The  total  length  of  the 
brine  conduit  or  aqueduct  from  Berchtesgaden 
and  Reichenfaall  to  Trannstein  is  nearly  80  m. 
The  salt  manufacture  has  been  in  active  opera- 
tion since  the  end  of  the  ISth  century. 

BERCT,  formerly  a  French  village,  forming 
since  1860  part  of  Paris,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Seine;  pop.  about  14,000.  There  is  s  large 
trade  in  wine,  brandy,  oil,  and  vinegar,  con- 
ducted  by  more  than  1,000  wholesale  dealers; 
and  there  are  also  sugar  refineries,  lumber 
yards,  and  tanneries. 

BiXDIlHSK,  a  seaport  town  of  Busma,  In 
the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the  N.  shcre 
of  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  on  the  cap«  of  Ber- 
diansk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Berda,  160 
m.  N.  E.  of  Simferopol ;  pop.  in  1667,  ia,4«6. 
It  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  sea  of  Azov,  and 
carries  on  a  large  trade  with  Eertch.  There 
are  several  tallow  factories  and  brick  kilns,  a 
custom  house,  and  a  theatre.  Near  the  town 
are  valuable  coal  mines  and  two  salt  lakes 
from  which  large  quantities  of  salt  are  made. 
The  exports  are  grun,  linseed,  rape  seed, 
hemp,  butter,  tallow,  hides,  and  wool ;  the  Im- 
ports, coffee,  oil,  olives,  pepper,  and  friiits.  In 
the  vicimty  are  large  colonies  of  Uennonites, 
Berdiansk  in  182S  was  an  insignificant  village, 
and  owes  its  development  to  Prince  Voron- 
tzoff.  In  186B  the  English  and  French  fleets 
destroyed  the  Bussion  vessels  in  the  port  and 
burned  the  suburbs. 

BERDITCHEV  (Pol.  Berdyctae),  a  city  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  govemmeut  and  about  86  m.  W.  g. 
W.  of  Kiev ;  pop.  in  1867,  68,787,  mostly  Polish 
Jews.  It  is  the  centre  of  trade  between  south- 
em  Bossia  cmd  Germany.     Five  annoal  fairs 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEREG 

are  held  in  the  cit;,  the  greatest  of  whioh  are 
those  in  Jane  and  AoguBt.  Large  herds  of 
horses  and  horned  cattle  are  brought  thither 
bf  Rossians,  Tartars,  and  Kirghizes,  besides 
furs,  nlka,  fancy  stntfs,  gloss,  wood,  and  iron 
ware,  sal^  fish,  corn,  and  beet  sugar,  bj  mer- 
chants from  different  parts  of  the  country  and 
irom  Poland.  Berditcnev  has  wide  streets  with 
large  sqnarea,  well  bailt  houses,  on  exchange, 
many  wareiionses,  10  tobacco  factories,  and 
factories  for  silk,  perfames,  tallow  candles,  oil, 
was,  and  leather.  Many  pilgrims  are  attracted 
bj  a  miraouloiis  ima^  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
Carmelite  convent.  In  1765  King  Stanislas 
Aogastns  of  Poland,  to  which  country  the 
town  then  belonged,  established  10  markets  in 
Berditchev,  since  which  time  the  city  has  been 
growing  in  commercial  importance. 

BEBEG,  a  eoanty  of  (f.  E.  Hangary,  bonnded 
N,  E.  by  the  Carpathians  and  9.  W.  by  the 
Theiss;  area,  1,439  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  18T0, 
189,223,  over  half  of  whom  ore  Ruthenians, 
5,000  Jews,  2,800  Germans,  ftOO  Slovaks,  and 
the  rest  Magyars,  The  N,  part  is  monntainons 
and  rather  barren,  but  the  county  is  fertile  in 
fruits,  especially  in  the  sooth,  which  produces 
wine  little  inferior  to  Tokay.  The  forests 
abonnd  with  game  and  cattle,  and  the  nnmer- 
oas  streams,  all  tributaries  of  the  Thaiss,  with 
fish  and  water  fowl.  Gold  is  no  longer  found, 
but  there  is  ahnndance  of  iron  ore,  porcelain 
clay,  and  alum,  the  last  of  which  is  extensively 
refined.  The  principal  towns  are  Mankaos, 
and  Beregaz&sz,  the  capital  (pop.  in  18T0, 
6,272). 

BEKENGiSirS  (Bsksxsbb),  ea  eocIewasUo 
who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury as  on  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of  transab- 
stantiation,  supposed  to  have  been  bom  at 
Toars  in  998,  and  to  have  died  there  in  1088. 
He  resided  at  Tours  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  life,  and  held  a  oononry  in  the  cbarch  of 
St.  tfartin,  though  he  was  at  the  same  time 
arohdeacon  of  Anffers.  His  opponents,  Guit- 
mnnd  and  Berthold,  describe  him  as  a  man 
of  shallow  intellect  and  little  erndition,  whose 
chief  dialectic  weapons  were  the  use  of  terms 
in  a  novel  signification,  and  the  employment 
of  opprobrious  epithets.  It  is  diiBcult  to  dis- 
cover precisely  what  was  his  doctrine  of  the 
eucharist,  although  it  is  certain  that  be  denied 
transnbstontiation.  He  commenced  his  attack 
on  this  dogma  in  104fi,  and  was  supported  at  first 
by  several  bishops,  the  chief  of  whom  were 
Bishop  Bruno  of  Angers  and  Bishop  Proliant 
of  Senlis,  as  well  as  by  a  still  larger  nninber 
of  the  inferior  clergy  and  students.  Philip  I., 
king  of  France,  countenanced  him  for  a  time, 
from  political  reasons.  The  bishops  aban- 
doned him,  however,  at  a  later  period,  and  all 
Political  countenance  was  withdrawn  from  him. 
he  opinion  of  Berengarius,  together  with  that 
of  John  Scotus  Erigena,  whom  he  professed  to 
follow,  was  first  condemned  by  a  conncil  at 
Rome.  A  public  dispute  whioh  he  held  with 
two  monks  of  Boc,  before  William  of  Normon- 


BEBENGEB 


551 


dy,  ended  also  nnfovorably  for  him.  Soon 
after  (1060)  two  synods  were  held,  the  first  at 
Ve««lli,  the  second  at  Paris,  to  both  of  which 

he  was  invited,  and  where,  on  his  failing  to 
appear,  his  doctrine  was  condemned.     In  1064 


Berengarius  retracted  his  doctrine,  and  sipped 
the  formula  of  faith  presented  to  him,  without 
any  attempt  to  defend  himself.  As  he  contin- 
ued, however,  to  preach  and  propagate  his 
doctrine,  it  was  condemned  again  by  Victor  II. 
in  10G6;  by  Nicholas  11.  and  a  synod  of  118 
bishops  at  Rome  in  1069,  where  Berengarius 
made  a  new  retraction ;  by  the  French  synods 
of  Angers,  Rouen,  St,  Maiient,  and  Poitiers, 
between  1063  and  1076;  by  two  synods  at 
Rome  in  1078  and  1079;  and  finally  by  the 
synod  of  Bordeani  in  1080.  At  these  last 
iJiree  synods  Berengarius  renewed  his  recanta- 
tion in  the  most  precise  language,  but  after 
each  on^  except  the  last,  continued  to  teach 
his  doctrine  as  before.  After  the  last  recanta- 
tion he  certainly  abstained  from  attacking  the 
dootrine  of  the  Roman  ohurch,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  died  in  her  communion.  The  remains 
of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections 
of  D'Aohfiry  and  MartSne,  and  m  a  more  re- 
cent publication  by  Viscber  (Berlin,  1334). 

BEBEHfia  L,  king  of  Italy  from  888  to  924. 
His  lather  was  Eberhard,  duke  of  Frinli ;  his 
mother  a  daughter  of  l<ouis  le  D^bonnaire  of 
France.  Upon  the  deposition  of  Charles  the 
Fat,  Berenger  was  recognized  as  king  of  Italy 
by  one  assembly  of  the  stetes,  and  Guido,  dnke 
la  Spoleto,  by  another.  Civil  war  ensued,  but 
Guido,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  king  and 
emperor,  died  in  604,  and  his  son  Lambert, 
who  also  ossmned  these  titles,  died  in  898. 
Another  oompetitor  for  the  throne  arose  in 
Araulph,  king  of  Germany;  but  he  died  in 
890.  The  nobles  theu  oalled  in  Louis,  son  of 
Boson,  king  of  Provence,  who  marched  into 
Italy ;  but  Berenger  surrounded  him  and  forced 
him  to  take  on  oath  never  to  reenter  Italy,  He 
violated  his  oath,  returned,  and  was  crowned. 
Berenger  surprised  him  near  Verona,  took  him 
prisoner,  caused  him  to  be  blinded,  and  sent 
him  back  to  Provence.  Berenger  was  now 
crowned  by  Pope  John  X.  as  king  and  em- 
peror, and  gained  considerable  sncceBses  over 
the  Saracena  and  Hun^rions,  who  had  in- 
vaded his  dominions.  The  nobles,  jealous  of 
his  growing  power,  set  up  another  competi' 
tor,  Rudolph,  king  of  Burgundy,  who  invaded 
Italy  in  021.  A  decisive  battie  took  place  at 
Firenzuola,  July  29,  928.  At  the  moment 
when  the  army  of  Rudolph  was  on  the  point 
of  rout,  his  brother-in-law  brought  up  large 
reinforcements;  and  Berenger,  in  turn  de- 
feated, was  forced  to  take  refii^e  in  Verona, 
where  he  was  assassinated,  In  March,  024,  by 
a  man  named  Lambert,  to  whose  son  he  was 

■  godfather.— Bereager  n,,  king  of  Italy  from 
950t«961,  sonof  Gisela,  daughter  of  Berenger 

I  L,  and  of  Adalbert,  marquis  of  Ivrea.    His 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


6S2  BEBI 

■tepmotlier,  ErroengardA,  bad  placed  upon  the 
throDS  her  brother  Hugh,  count  of  Provence, 
who  at  length  ordered  Berenger  to  be  seized 
and  blinded.  He  escaped,  and  took  refoge 
in  Germany  with  Otho  the  Great,  and  in  948 
began  to  excite  the  Italians  against  Hugh,  and 
in  940  entered  Italy  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
upon  the  invitation  of  the  nobles  and  bishops. 
Hugh  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  eon  Lothaire, 
who  received  the  title  of  king,  bat  Berenger 
exercised  the  real  anthority.  Lothaire  died,  it 
is  SQpposed  by  poison,  in  GGO.  Berenger  was 
now  crowned  together  with  hb  son  Adal- 
bert, h>  whom  he  wished  to  marry  Adelaide, 
the  widow  of  Lothaire.  She  sought  the  pro- 
tectioa  of  Otho,  who  b  9dl  marobed  uto 
Italy,  penetrated  without  opposition  to  Pavia, 
the  capital  of  Berenger,  ana  married  Addaide. 
The  next  year  Otho  returned  to  Oermosy, 
whither  he  waa  followed  by  Berenger,  who 
besought  him  to  restore  to  him  the  crown 
upon  any  conditions,  and  whom  he  finally  re- 
eetablished  as  a  feudatory  of  the  German  em- 
pire. But,  scarcely  on  his  throne  again,  Beren- 
ger undertook  to  punish  those  of  his  sntjeota 
who  had  taken  part  with  Otho.  The  German 
emperor  thereupon  sent  an  army  under  his 
eon  Ludolph,  who  speedily  overran  nearly  all 
Italy,  bnt  died  the  next  year.  In  961  Otho 
himself  took  the  field.  Berenger  shut  himself 
up  in  the  fortress  of  Bt.  Leo,  where  he  stood  a 
long  siege^  but  was  starved  out  in  964,  and 
forced  to  surrender.  He  and  his  wife  were 
imprisoned  at  Bamberg,  where  he  died  in  B6B. 
His  eon  Adalbert  troubled  the  Germans  for  a 
while,  but  waa  at  last  forced  to  flee  and  take 
refuge  in  Oonstantinople. 

BERENICE,  the  name  of  several  Egyptian  and 
Syrian  queens  and  princesses.  L  Daughter  of 
La^s  and  Antigone,  went  to  Egypt  in  the 
tram  of  Eurydice,  second  wife  of  IHotemy  I. 

SBoter),  became  herself  his  third  wife,  and  in- 
uced  him  to  make  her  son,  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phos,  his  saooeieor  in  preference  to  an  elder 
son  by  Eurydice.  Her  wisdom  and  virtue 
were  celebrated  by  Plutarch  and  Theooritns, 
and  after  her  death  divine  honors  were  decreed 
to  her.  IL  Baughter  of  Ptolemy  II.  (Phila- 
delpbus),  and  wife  of  Antiochus  II.  (Theos), 
king  of  Syria.  Antiochua  entered  into  a  treaty 
in  240  B,  0.,  by  which  be  agreed  to  pnt  away 
hia  wife  Laodice  and  marry  Berenice ;  but 
upon  the  death  of  Philadetphns,  two  years 
afterward,  Antiochua  took  Laodice  back  and 

Sut  Berenice  away  in  turn.  Lnodice,  however, 
istrosted  Antioohns  and  cansed  htm  to  be 
poisoned.  Berenice  fled  to  Daphne,  where  she 
was  mnrdered  together  with  her  son  and  at-, 
tandants  by  Laodioe's  partisana  III.  Grand- 
daughter of  Berenice  I.,  daughter  of  Magaa, 
king  of  Cyrene,  and  wife  of  Ptolemy  III. 
(Euergetes)  of  Egypt,  ller  father  promised 
her  in  marriage  to  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  and  soon 
ftft«rward  died.  Her  mother,  Armno6,  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  match,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  it  offered  her  in  marriage 


to  Demetrius  the  Delicate,  son  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  But  npon  the  arrival  of  Demetrius 
in  Cyrene  to  recdveher,  Arnnoe  herself  fell  in 
love  with  him,  and  Berenice,  indignant  tbat 
her  mother  was  preferred  by  Demetriua,  caused 
him  to  be  mnrdered  in  the  arms  of  the  qaeen. 
She  then  went  to  Egypt  and  married  Euer- 
getes, to  whom  she  had  been  originally  be- 
trothed. Upon  the  return  of  her  hnsband 
ftom  an  expedition  into  Syria,  in  fulfilment  of 
a  vow,  she  offered  up  her  hair  to  Venus.  The 
hair  was  said  to  have  been  changed  into  the 
seven  stars  of  the  conatellatioD  Leo,  known  aa 
the  Coma  or  Crinia  Berenices.  She  was  put 
to  death  by  order  of  her  son  Ptolemy  IV. 
(Pfailopatw)  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
ir.  Also  called  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy VIII.  (Lathyrus)  of  Egypt,  and  wife  ot 
Alexander  IL  (IHolemy  X.).  She  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  by  the  Alexandrians  after  the 
death  of  her  fiither  ^Sl  B.  C.) ;  and  Alexander, 
who  had  been  appomted  king  by  Sulla,  agreed 
to  marry  her  and  share  the  sovereignty.  He 
performed  his  agreement,  bnt  caused  her  to  be 
assassinated  19  days  after  their  marriaga, 
whereupon,  it  is  said,  the  Alexandrians  rose 

Tiinst  nim  and  put  him  to  death.  T.  Daughter 
Ptolemy  XI.  (Anletes)  and  eldest  sister  of 
the  celebrated  Cleopatra.  She  was  proclmmed 
queen  npon  the  deposition  of  her  father,  68  B, 
C.,  and  wishing  to  marry  a  prince  of  royal 
blood,  she  sent  to  Syria  for  OBleoous  Oybio- 
sactes,  who  pretended  to  be  of  the  royal  raca 
of  the  Seleucidai.  Finding  him  to  be  a  man 
of  mean  character,  she  caused  him  to  be  stran- 
gled a  few  days  afterward.  She  then  married 
Arcbelaua  of  Comana,  who  claimed  to  be  a 
son  of  Uithridates  Eupator.  Aulus  Gabinna, 
having  nndertaken  to  restore  Auletes  to  the 
throne,  defeated  her  and  her  husband  in  three 
suocesuve  battles,  dfi  B.  C,  and  Archelaua 
was  slun.  One  of  the  first  acta  of  Anletes 
after  his  restoration  was  to  cause  his  daughter 
to  be  put  to  death.  TI.  Daughter  of  Costoba- 
ms  and  Salome,  sister  of  Herod  the  Great^ 
kiuag  of  Jadea,  married  her  coudn  Aristobnlos. 
The  latter  reproached  her  with  the  inferiority 
of  her  birth,  and  her  oomplunts  of  this  to  her 
mother  increased  the  hostility  against  her  hus- 
band. After  his  execution  (S  B.  G.)  she  mar- 
ried Theudion,  the  maternal  nude  of  Antipater, 
the  eldest  son  of  Herod.  After  the  detfb  of 
Thendion  she  went  to  Rome  with  her  mother 
and  remained  till  her  death.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Agrippa  L  TIL  The  eldest  daughter 
of  Agrippa  I.,  married  her  nncle  Herod,  king 
of  Ohalcis,  and  had  two  sons  by  him.  Upon 
his  death  in  A.  D.  48  she  lived  with  her 
brother  Agrippa  fbr  some  time,  and  theni  mar- 
ried Polemon,  king  of  Cilioia.  She  left  him, 
and  was  again  living  with  her  brother  when 
Paul  pleaded  before  him  at  Cteearea.  Titos 
was  captivated  bj;  her  beanty  at  the  riege  of  Je- 
rusalem and  carried  her  to  Rome.  He  demred 
to  marry  her,  but  was  compelled  by  the  pnblio 
sentiment  at  Rome  to  aend  ber  back  to  J*de«, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERENICE 

ajsJnst  her  wiAes  as  weQ  aa  hie  own.  Their 
parting  luu  been  made  the  subject  of  a  tra- 
gedj  bf  Raoine. 

KREHIGE.  L  An  ancient  citj  of  Egjpt, 
on  a  gulf  on  the  W.  ride  of  the  Red  sea,  an- 
ciently celled  Smns  Immmidus,  in  lat  38*  66' 
N.,  Ion.  So"  84'  E.,  IH  m.  E.  by  8.  of  Syene 
(Aaawftn).  Tbecity  stood  npcm  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  between  the  shore  and  a  range  of  liilis. 
It  was  probably  fonnded  by  Ptolemy  JI.,  and 
being  the  terminas  of  a  great  road  from  Coptos 
on  the  Nile,  SIO  m,  distant,  became  the  eiQi>o- 
riuBj  of  commerce  between  Ethiopia  and  Egjiit 
on  the  one  hand  and  Byria  and  India  on  the 
other,  and  so  continned  under  the  Romans.  The 
popnlation  was  about  10,000.  Some  ancient 
remains  exist  !!■  An  ancient  city  of  Oyrenaica, 
wtnated  npon  the  protnontory  of  Fsendopenias, 
at  the  month  of  the  small  stream  Lathon,  near 
the  E.  extremity  of  the  Great  Syrtis.  It  was 
originally  called  Eeeperis  because  the  garden 
of  the  Hesperides  was  snppoeed  to  be  in  its 
neighborhood.  It  aoqnired  importance  nnder 
the  Ptolemies,  and  was  named  Berenice  from 
the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Energetes.  Many  of  its 
inhabitante  were  Jews,  Its  prosperity  received 
a  blow  from  the  insarreetion  of  the  Jews  dnring 
the  reign  of  Trqjan,  from  which  it  never  re- 
covered. Under  Justinian  it  was  fortified  and 
adorned  with  baths.  Benghazi  now  ooonpiee 
its  rite. 

t,  an  English  anthor,  bom 


tember,  1S40.  He  was  edneated 
and  became  rector  of  Kibworth,  Leicester- 
shire. He  was  the  author  of  varioos  indepen- 
dent worlcs  and  of  oontribntions  to  the  "  Look- 
er-on," a  periodical  published  in  17B2-'S.  His 
most  noted  work  was  "The  Mseries  of  Homan 
Life,"  a  prose  satire  often  reprinted. 

BEUSFOBD,  WlBbua  Carr,  visconnt,  a  British 
general,  bom  in  Ireland,  Oct  2,  1T68,  died  in 
Kent.  Jon.  6,  1854.  He  was  the  illegitimate 
etm  of  the  first  marquis  of  Waterford,  and  en- 
tered the  army  at  an  early  age.  While  in 
Nora  Scotia  he  lost  an  eye.  He  served  at  Ton- 
Ion,  in  Corsica,  the  West  and  East  Indies,  and 
in  Ireland,  and  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Thence  he  was  detach- 
ed in  1808  in  command  of  the  land  forces  of 
an  expedition  against  Bnenos  Ayres,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  took  the  place, 
bnt  was  obliged  to  surrender  it  with  his  corps, 
and  soon  Eulerward  made  his  escape.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  force  which  captured 
Madeira  in  1607  and  took  poesesrion  of  the 
island.  In  1808  he  was  sent  to  Portugal  with 
the  rank  of  mtyor  general  and  intrusted  with 
the  organization  of  the  Portnguese  army.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  npon  the  a^ust- 
ment  of  the  terms  of  the  convention  of  Ointra. 
He  accompanied  Sir  John  Moore  into  Spain, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Conmna,  and  cov- 
ered the  embarkation  of  the  troops.  In  180S 
he  was  appointed  marshal  and  generalissimo  of 
the  Portugneee  army,  which  he  renganized  and 


BERESINA 


558 


brought  into  a  state  of  great  efBctency.  He 
supported  Wellington  thronghont  the  peninsu- 
lar wai^  and  took  part  in  all  the  principal  bat- 
tles. On  May  4, 1811,  he  invested  the  fortress 
of  Badqjoz,  bnt  conridered  it  advisable  to  raise 
the  sie^  and  on  the  10th  defeated  Soult  at  the 
battle  of  Albnera,  rather,  however,  through  the 
courage  of  his  soldiers  than  through  his  own 
generalship.  He  took  part  in  the  victories  of 
Salamanca,  Vitoria,  Bayonne,  Orthez,  and  Tou- 
lonse,  and  was  created  field  marshal  of  Portn- 
gal,  daks  of  Elvaa,  and  marquis  of  Santo  Cam- 
po.  In  1810  he  was  chosen  member  of  parlia- 
ment, bat  never  took  his  seat.  In  1814  he  vraa 
created  Baron  Bereeford  of  Albnera  and  Dan- 
^tnnon,  and  went  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Braril ;  and  in  1817he  suppressed  an  insurrec- 
tion in  Brazil,  on  behalf  of  the  Portuguese 
government.  After  Ids  return  to  England  he 
was  made  viscount  (1828)  and  general  of  the 
army  (ISBS).  From  1828  to  1880  he  was  mas- 
ter general  of  the  ordnance.  Having  assisted 
forwarding  English  troops  to  Dom  Mignel, 


he  was  a  decided  tory.  He  married  in  1682  his 
coudn  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  archbishop  of 
Tuam  and  widow  of  Thomas  Hope,  but  died 
without  children,  hia  titles  beoomii^  extinct. 

BEBHniU.or  BereilBi,  a  river  of  Russia,  gov- 
ernment of  Minsk,  rises  in  lat.  56°  10'  N.,  Ion. 
S?"  60'  E.,  and  fiows  B.  E.  through  a  level 
country,  and  empties  into  the  Dnieper  above 
Retchitza.  By  the  oanat  which  connects  it 
with  the  DOua  the  Baltic  commnnioates  with 
the  Black  sea.  The  river  is  memorable  for  the 
battle  fought  npon  its  banks  in  November, 
1812.  The  army  of  Napoleon  on  its  retreat 
fr^HQ  Moscow,  hard  pressed  by  Kutuzoff  and 
Wittgenstein,  was  about  to  cross  the  river  hy 
the  bridge  at  Borisov,  but  found  that  it  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  Russians  under  Tchitcha- 
goff.  Napoleon  then  constructed  two  bridges 
at  Stndienka,  a  small  village  N.  W.  of  Borisov. 
In  the  afternoon  of  the  26th  the  passage  was 
commenced,  and  continued  through  the  27th 
undisturbed  by  the  enemy.  On  the  morning 
of  the  38th  the  Rusaans  attacked  the  French 
in  force.  The  remnants  of  the  corps  command- 
ed by  Oudinot,  Ney,  and  Davonst  fought  with 
desperation,  and  gradually  made  their  way 
across,  but  the  Russians  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing a  battery  of  12  guns  which  commanded 
the  bridge.  Very  great  confiision  and  loss  of 
life  was  caused  among  the  French,  especially  in 
the  unfortunate  rear  guard  commanded  hy  Vic- 
tor. Many  sick  and  wonnded  soldiers  anJd 
stragglers  remained  upon  the  left  bank,  but  on 
the  morning  of  the  29th  preparations  were 
made  by  the  French  to  bum  the  bridge.  After 
it  had  been  set  on  fire,  those  who  remained  be- 
hind mshed  upon  it  and  perished  in  the  fiames 
or  in  the  river.  It  is  said  that  when  the  ice 
broke  up  in  the  spring  12,000  bodies  of  the 
French  were  found  upon  the  hanks.  The 
Rnsidans  took  about  10,000  prisoners. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


551 


BEBEZOV 


BQIEZOT.    L  Also  called  Scrcnnk,  «  village 

of  Russia,  in  the  ^vemment  of  Perm,  on  tLe 
E.  slope  of  the  l.ral  moimtainB,  about  10  nu 
N.  £.  of  Yekat«riiibnrg,  noted  for  its  gold 
mine,  whicli  employs  S,000  men;  pop.  in  1B8T, 
I,GBT.  II-  A  amall  town  of  Siberia,  in  the 
gOTerninent  of  Tobolsk,  on  the  lett  bonk  erf  the 
Sosra,  a  branch  of  the  Obi,  in  lat  84°  3'  N.,  Ion. 
66°  E. ;  pop-  about  1,G00.  It  ia  the  sole  station 
for  traffic  in  furs  in  a  vast  extent  of  territorj, 
and  the  annual  fur  held  here  is  well  attended. 
BerezoT  is  noted  in  Bnsaian  hiatorj  as  a  place 
of  exile. 

BEBfi,  an  ancient  dDch7  of  German/,  on  the 
lower  Rhine.  In  1108  Adolph  andEbrard,  the 
two  counts  of  Teist«Tband,  were  created  by  the 
emperor  Henry  V.  counts  of  Berg  and  Altena. 
One  of  their  descendante  dividsa  hia  territory 
between  his  two  sods,  and  made  one  count  a! 
Berg  and  the  other  of  Altena.  It  was  subse- 
qnentlj  connected  with  Limba^,  and  stiU 
later  with  Cleves  and  JUlich.  In  1666,  after 
long  disputes,  Cleves  was  given  to  Branden- 
boi^,  and  jQlich-Berg  to  the  Palatinate.  Alter 
niany  new  changes  Jfllich  was  annexed  to 
France  by  the  wars  of  the  revolution,  and 
Berg  to  Pmssia.  In  1806  Berg  teo  was  ceded 
toFraaoe.  In  1808  it  was  enWged  and  erected 
inte  a  grand  dachy  by  Napoleon,  and  given  first 
to  Mnrat  and  afterward  to  the  eldest  son  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  king  of  Holland.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  181Q  with  Prussia  nnder  the 
treaty  of  Vienna,  and  is  now  included  in  the 
three  districts  of  Amsberg,  Dfisseidor^  and 
Cologne. 

BQUi,  FrfeMth  nm,  count,  a  Rnanan  general, 
bom  Hay  26,  1790.     When  a  young  man  he 

Eahlished  aa  aecoant  of  his  travels  In  soothem 
lUrope  and  Turkey,  which  led  to  his  being  sent 
by  Capo  d'lstria,  minister  of  foreign  affwrg,  to 
Naples  in  a  diplomatic  oapaeity,  but  for  the 

to^ose  in  reality  of  observing  the  carbonari, 
is  aoconnts  of  whom  attracted  much  attention. 
As  colonel  in  the  anny  he  took  part  in  expedi- 
tions against  tlie  Kirghizes  (1822-'4),  and  also 
in  one  to  the  Aral  sea  (1826),  which  hod  im- 
portant scientiQo  resnlte.  In  1830  he  married 
in  Italy  the  countess  Cicogna.  He  served  for 
IS  years  under  Prince  Paskoviteh  In  Poland, 
and  wee  employed  upon  diplomatic  misdons 
and  in  military  topography.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  general  of  m&ntry  and  quarter- 
master general  on  the  imperial  staff,  and  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Petersburg.  When  Austria  in 
1646  requested  the  assistance  of  Russia  against 
Hungary,  Berg  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to 
Vienna,  and  nsed  all  his  influence  with  Prince 
Paskevitoh  to  prevent  a  breach  between  him 
and  Haynan.  On  his  return  to  vSt.  Petersburg 
he  eng^^  in  topographical  works  of  magni- 
tude. Having  been  sent  as  governor  to  Fin- 
land, he  was  recalled  in  1861  on  account  of 
his  unpopularity.  He  was  next  employed,  in 
1863-'4,  in  pnttiug  down  the  insurrection  in 
Poland,  at  first  as  adviser  of  the  grand  duke 
OoDStantiue,  and  afterward  as  commander-in- 


BER6AM0 

chief  and  governor  of  that  province,  an  office 
which  be  still  holds  (1878).  He  was  created 
field  marshal  in  ise?. 

BEieUU,  a  town  of  Asiatio  Turkey,  60  m. 
N.  of  Smyrna,  built  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Pergamus;  pop.  about  12,000.  The  remains 
of  several  temples,  of  aprjtaneum,  gynmanum, 
amphitheatre,  and  other  public  bnUdings,  bear 
witness  to  the  magnifioence  of  the  ancient  city. 

BEBGIMI,  BuMmmm,  courier  of  Caroline, 
queen  of  England,  said  to  have  been  the  ion 
of  a  village  apothecary.  Originally  a  conuDon 
soldier  in  the  Italian  army,  he  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  quartermaster.  In  1614  at  Milan  he 
was  recommended  to  Qneen  Caroline  by  the 
marquis  of  Ghisheri  as  a  man  of  character  and 
attainments.  He  was  singularly  good-looking, 
and  was  taken  into  her  service  as  courier. 
He  nearly  lost  his  life  by  drinking  through 
mistake  a  glass  of  poisoned  wine  that  had  been 
intended  for  the  queen.  He  accompanied  her 
upon  her  travels  through  Germany,  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Syria,  and  was  treated  with  gr«^ 
favor,  promoted  to  the  position  of  chamberlain 
and  master  of  the  horse,  admitted  to  the  l«ble 
of  her  m^eety,  and  presented  with  a  handsome 
estate  near  Milan.  At  Palermo  the  queeu  ob- 
tained for  him  the  title  of  baron.  His  sister 
the  Gounteea  of  Oldi  was  made  lady  in  waiting 
and  one  of  his  brothers  steward  and  the  other 
treasurer.  Upon  the  return  of  the  queen  to 
England  proceedings  were  instituted  against 
her  which  were  founded  principally  upon  the 
charge  that  she  had  been  gnil^  of  improper 
intimacy  with  Bergami  upon  her  travels.  The 
public  sentiment  in  England,  however,  waa 
upon  the  queen's  side,  and  the  proceedings 
were  discontinued.  After  the  queen's  return 
to  England  Bergami  continued  to  reside  in 
Italy  in  the  eqjoyment  of  the  wealth  received 
ftom  her. 

BEBCIUO.  I.  A  province  of  N.  Italy,  a  part 
of  Lombardy,  bounded  N.  by  Sondrio,  E.  by 
Brescia,  S.  by  Cremona,  and  W.  by  Uilan  and 
Como:  area,  1,027  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1973,  868,- 
IIS.    It  comprises  the  three  dis^cts  of  Ber- 


gamo and  Clusone,  which  are  well  wooded. 
The  sontbern  district,  Treviglio,  ia  part  of  the 
^eat  Lombard  plain,  and  is  rich  and  fertile. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Adda,  its  tribnta- 
ries  the  Brembo  and  Serio,  and  the  Oglio,  an 
affluent  of  the  Po,  which  flows  thronirh  Lake 
Iseo.  The  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  walnut  are 
cultivated,  and  there  ore  large  plantatioDS  of 
mulberry  trees.  The  province  has  valnable 
iron  mines,  large  iron  works,  and  several 
woollen  and  silk  factories.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  beantifol  scenery.  The  inhabitants  are 
clownish  and  awkward  in  appearance,  but 
shrewd.  Their  dialect  is  peculiar.  The  har- 
lequins of  the  Italian  stage  have  imitated  their 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


betireen  the  Serio  and  Brembo,  28  m.  N.  E.  I  in  Angriit,  which  ia  sud  to  have  been  held 

ofMUaa;  pop.  in   18T2,  ST,368.     It  connBta    ever  sinoe  the  10th  centnr;.    The  bnildingwas 

of  an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  half  a  mile  |  erected  in  1740.     Tlie  commoditieB  aold  are 

silks,     cloths,     wools, 
iron,  &c. 

BESeUIOT,  a  kind 
of  green-colored  citron 
or  small  orange,  of  tine 
flavor  and  take,  of 
roand  form,  the  Anit 
of  the  eitrui  matyarita 
(bergamia  of  Risso  and 
De  Oandolle).  The 
rind  IbmiBheB  bj  distil- 
lation an  essence  or  oil 
trhich  is  mnch  ased  in 
perfnmerj,  and  to  some 
extent  in  medicine. 
The  bergamot  tree  is  a 
native  of  the  Booth  of 
Europe,  and  is  partiou- 
larl;  abnndaut  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Nice. 
To  obtain  2}  ounces  of 
oil,  100  bergamots  are 
Hiihiihi,  consamed.    This  oil  or 

essence    baa     a    ver^ 

distant  from  each  other.    The  former,  called    agreeable,  sweetish  odor,  and  a  bitter,  aromatic 

the  Citti  (one.  Bergomwm),  is   situated  apon    taste.     Its  specific  gravity  is  0-886.     In  com- 

a  steep  and  loft.v  hill,  one  of  the  last  spurs    podtion  it  is  not  to  be  distinguished  from  oil 

of  the  Alps.    It  was  stronglj  fortified  bj  Ihe 

Venetians,  and  its  dismantled  walls  now  form 

beantiful  bonlevarda.      The  chnrch  of  Santa 

Maria  Mag^ore  was  began  in  1184,  but  not 

cranpleted  until  long  ailerward.    The  northern 

part,  erected  in  1860,  is  of  black  and  white 

marble.    The  interior  is  rich  in  stucco  decora- 
tions and  paintings,  among  which  are  remans 

of  old  frescoes,  some  of  wliich  are  supposed  to 

belong  to  the  14th  centmr.     The  stalls  of  the 

choir  and  screen  are  among  the  finest  specimens 

of  wood  carving  in  Italy.    The  campanile,  more 

than  300  tl.  high,  appears  conspicnoasl;  in  the 

view.     The  sacriBty,  erected  in  1480,  is  among 

the  earliest  examples  of  the  introdaction  of  the 

Roman  style  in  connection  with  the  Gothic. 

Adjoining  the  church  is  the  Bepalohral  chapel 

of  Bartotommeo  CoUeoni,  a  famous  oondot- 

tiereof  thelSthoentory;  the  facade,  which  baa 

lately  been  restored,  is  very  fine,  ornamented 

with  difie rent-colored  marbles.   The  daomo,  or 

cathedral,  has  a  fine  capola,  which  forms  a  con- 

spioDOOS  ol^eot.     Before  the  Palazzo  Vecchio, 

or  Broletto,  which  contains  a  pnblio  library  of 

70,000  volumes,  stands  the  statue  of  Torqnato 

Taseo,  whose  father  was  a  native  of  the  town. 

In  the  Carrara  academy  lectures  are  given  on 

art.     There  is  also  an  academy  of  music,  in 

which  Donisettt  was  taught,   a  theatre,  and 

other  pubUc  buildings.    The  lower  town,  called 

the  Borgo  or  suburb  of  San  I^onardo,  is  the 

seat  of  basiness.     It  is  noted  for  La  Fiera  di 

Saut'  Alessandro,  a  large  square  building  of 

■tone,  within  which  are  streets,  600  shops,  and 

an  open  space  in  the  centre  adorned  with  a 

fountain.     A  great  annual  fair  commences  here 


Brar^uaot  (CItriu  nuj^iHU). 

of  lemons.  Alcohol  is  ased  to  adnlterate  it, 
and  is  not  readily  detected  when  added  only 
to  the  extent  of  8  per  cent. —Bergamot  is  also 
the  name  of  a  variety  of  pears,  which,  like  the 
citron  tree  of  the  same  name,  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  Bergamo,  Italy. — The  word  is 
also  used  to  designate  a  coarse  tapestry,  sap- 
posed  to  have  been  invented  at  Bei^amo. 

BERGEN,  a  N.  %  county  of  New  Jersey,  bor- 
dering on  New  York  and  bounded  E.  by  the 
Hudson  river ;  area,  860  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1 870, 
80,122.    On  theW.bankof  thenndson,  with- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


556 


BERGEN 


in  the  limits  of  this  conntj,  are  the  Paliaades,  a 
range  of  trap  rock  which  Tinea  perpendioolarlT 
from  the  river  to  a  height  of  600  ft.  The 
coimt}r  is  intereected  by  Ramapo,  Hackensack, 
and  Saddle  rivers,  has  an  oneren  and  in  t}ie 
western  part  mouDtainoos  surface,  and  a  pro- 
ductive BoiL  It  contains  limestone  and  mag- 
netic iron  ore.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Erie 
railway,  the  llockeDsack  branch^and  the  North- 
em  rwlway  of  New  Jersey,  The  chief  pro- 
dactiOQB  in  1870  were  8,763  bushels  of  wheat, 
81,T1»  of  rye,  14a,  140  of  Indian  com,  4S,533 
of  oats,  S4,00S  of  buckwheat,  200,162  of  pota- 
toes, 18,20S  tons  of  hay,  and  828,919  lbs.  of 
butter.  There  wer«  8,036  horses,  4,0TS  milch 
OOWB,  1,661  other  catUe,  478  eheep,  and  2,9G9 
■wine.  Value  of  prodaoe  of  market  gardens, 
{240,463.    Capital,  Hackensack. 

BIXfiEir.  L  A  province  (*ti/t  or  diocese)  of 
Norway,  comprising  most  of  the  W.  part  of 
the  oonntry,  tDclnding  the  munland  and  man; 


inhabited  and  desert  islands  along  the  coast, 
bounded  N,  by  Trond^jem,  E.  by  Hamar  and 
Cbristiania,  S.  by  Christiansand,  andW.  by  the 
ocean;  area,  14,869  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1806,267,- 
S64,  exclusive  of  the  city  of  Bergen,  which  has 
a  separate  administrative  organization.  It  con- 
sists of  the  districts  (amU)  of  S<indre  and  Nor- 
dre  (south  and  nnrtli)  Ber^nhnns  and  of  part 
of  the  district  of  Romsdal.  Among  the  lai^st 
Knl&  is  the  Hardanger  or  Bommelfjord,  88  m. 
long.  The  principal  river,  the  Leerdala,  rises  in 
the  Fille  mountains  and  joins  a  branch  of  the 
Bognef  Enlf.  There  is  good  pasturage  between 
the  high  moantains  which  extend  over  nearly 
the  whole  province  and  aronnd  the  gulft;  and 
cattle  breeding  and  fisheries,  chiefly  of  herrings, 
are  the  principal  indnetries.  Agricnltnre  has 
been  lately  somewhat  improved,  thongh  com 
must  still  be  imported  in  a  few  parishes.  Uar- 
ble  is  fonnd  to  some  extent.  Copper  and  iron 
ore,  thongh  abundant,  are  not  much  worked 


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM 

owing  to  their  rather  inaccessible  sitnaUon  and 
to  the  scarcity  of  wood.     Rain  is  singularly 
frequent,  and  the  inhabitants  suffer  mnch  fit>m 
diseases  of  the  skin.     11.  A  city  and  seaport, 
capital  of  the  province,  in  the  bailiwick  of 
Scndre  Bei^nhuos,  on  the  W.  coast,  160  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Christiania ;  pop.  in  1866,  39,194. 
An    island   called  AakS,  opposite   the    town 
and  S  m.  distant,  encloses  a  bay  called  Bye- 
f  jorden,  which  divides  into  two  branches  called 
Vaagen  and  Pudefjorden.    The  town  is  built 
upon  the  promontory  between  these  two  parts 
of  the  bay,  and  extends  in  a  semicircle  around 
the  Vaagea.    Behind  the  town  on  the  land 
side  are  high  monntaina.    It  was  formerly  the 
first  commercial  city  of  Norway,  and  is  now 
the  second  in  importance.    The  harbor  is  ex- 
cellent, but  difficult  of  access.     It  is  defended 
by  the  castle  of  Bergenbuus  and  rix  smaller 
forts.   The  Nordlandmen  come  to  the  city  twice 
a  year  with  fi*b,  skin,  and  feathers.     In  March 
and  April  600  or  700 
vessels   may  be    seen 
in  the  harbor  at  one 
time.     About  |2,000,- 
000  worth  of  fish  areex- 
ported  annually.    The 
city  was   founded    in 
1070    by    King    Olaf 
Eyrre,  who  bmlt  the 
castle  and  some  of  the 
ohurchee.    It  was  aev- 
erol  tunes  deTastat«d 
by  the  black  plague. 
The  first  foreign  treaty 
made  by  the  Engiiah 
was  mode  in  this  dty 
in    1217.      The    mer. 
chants  of  the  Hanseat- 
ic  league  afterward  ob- 
tained a  foothold  here, 
and  in  1446  established 
a     Hanseatic    trading 
factory.    Their  cleru 
and  agents  were  sub- 
ject exclusively  to  the  government  of  the 
Ilanse  towns.     Marriage  was  not  permitted 
to  them.      Id  September,  1466,  they  caused 
to  be  put  to  death  Governor  Olaf  Nielsen, 
Bishop  Torlief;  and  60  other  persons.     Final- 
ly Frederick    II.  of  Denmark  on  July  86, 
16S0,  issued  a  decree,  called    the   "Odense 
Recesa,"   for    the  determination  of  dilutes 
between  the  citizens  and  the  snbjeota  of  the 
league,  which  broke  up  its  supremacy.    Mer- 
chants from  other  countries  began  to  ehare  in 
the  business,  and  in  1768  the  last  bonse  be- 
longing  to  the  Hansa  became  the  property  rf  a 
citizen  of  Bergen. 

BEBDEN-OP-ZOOa,  or  Bcfg-Hi-ZMK,  a  fortified 
town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
North  Brabant,  on  the  river  Zoom,  near  its  en- 
trance into  the  East  Scheldt,  19  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERQENROTB 

noir  used  for  bBireckg,  two  arsenals,  several 
powder  magaziDes,  and  a  number  of  earthen- 
ware and  other  mannfaotoriea  of  small  impor- 
tanoe.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  sardines. 
The  place  was  one  of  the  BtrongholdB  of  ttie 
Netherlands  in  their  stmmle  with  the  Span- 
iards, and  was  repeatedly  besieged  by  the  lat- 
ter without  success.  The  fortifications  are  pro- 
tected by  a  morass,  and  after  the  Spanish  wars 
were  mnch  strengthened  by  the  engineer  Coe- 
hom.  They  were  taken  however  by  the  French 
in  1747  nnder  Count  Ldwendal.  The  towu 
having  been  restored  to  the  Batch  upon  the 
decUration  of  peace,  it  again  surrendered  to 
tlie  French  under  Picbegni  in  17B5.  The  £ng- 
n  1814  without  success. 


BER6HEU 


857 


in  Febnmry,  1869.  He  was  assessor  to  the 
higlt  ooort  of  Berlin  fVom  184S  to  184S,  when 
he  joined  the  extreme  liberals.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  went  to  lihe  United 
States,  wrote  an  account  of  a  vigilance  com- 
mittee to  which  he  belonged  in  California  in 
1850,  and  after  several  voyages  across  the  At- 
loiitio  settled  in  Sngland  in  1856,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  collecting  fram  the  record  office  mate- 
riala  ft*  the  history  of  the  Tudors,  The  master 
of  the  rolls  commisdoned  him  to  report  on  the 
important  discoveries  in  the  archives  of  Bimaa- 
cas,  and  he  pnrsned  his  task  amid  great  diffi- 
cnlties  at  Simancas  and  in  London,  Brussels, 
and  Madrid.  He  edited  several  volumes  in  the 
"  Calendar  of  the  'State  Papers "  (London, 
1B70-'71),  under  the  direction  of  the  master 
of  the  roils,  and  was  still  prosecuting  his  re- 
searches when  he  died.  He  also  wrote  an  es- 
say on  Wat  Tyler,  the  story  of  Queen  Joanna 
for  the  supplementary  volume  of  tlie  "  Calen- 
dar of  SpsJiish  Papers,"  and  the  abstract  of 
D'Avila's  account  of  the  murder  of  Don  Carlos 
by  Philip  IL  Mr.  W.  0.  Oartwright  published 
in  1870  a  "Memorial  Sketch  of  Bergenroth," 

BEKGUAC,  a  town  of  Franoe,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Dordogne,  on  the  ^bt  bank  of  the 
river  Dordogne,  2JS  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  F^rigneux; 
]>op.  in  1866,  13,116.  It  is  ill  built,  but  finely 
situated,  and  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of 
which  is  called  St.  Martin  de  Bergerao  and  the 
other  Madeleine.  The  town  grew  out  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Martin,  founded  in  lOBO.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1S4S,  who  were  not 
tinatly  dispossessed  till  1450.  It  was  a  atrong- 
hold  of  the  Oalvinista,  and  suffered  mnch  dur- 
ing the  religious  wars.  Its  fortifications  were 
demolished  by  Richelieu  in  1631 ;  and  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (1 685)  destroyed 
ita  prosperity.  There  are  iron  founderies  and 
smelting  furnaces  in  the  vicinity  and  the  town 
has  a  trade  in  P£rigord  tmffies,  and  in  wine, 
brandy,  and  liqaeors.  The  Bergerac  red  and 
white  wine,  oflen  called  jwti^  cAampn^nf.  is  pro- 
duced on  the  Dordogne  and  Gironde,  tue  best 
being  the  Montbazillac,  BL  Nezans,  and  Sanc6. 

BESeERlC,  SaTlilea  Cjna*  *,  a  French  author 
&nd  dueUiat,  bom  at  Bergerac  in  1620,  died  in 


Paris  in  1655.  He  was  compelled  by  serions 
wounds  to  retire  from  the  military  service,  ia 
which  he  had  distinguished  himself  by  his  reck- 
less courage,  and  took  up  his  reddence  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  notorious  duellist.  He 
was  never  at  a  loss  for  quarrels.  When  the 
sight  of  his  long  nose,  which  was  covered  with 
scars,  provoked  a  smile,  &  dnel  was  tiie  result. 
He  ordered  the  actor  Montfienry  not  to  play 
for  a  month,  and  he  was  compelled  to  obey 
him.  Bergerao's  pen  was  no  less  formidable  a 
weapon  than  his  sword.  He  had  controversiea 
with  Loret,  Scarron,  Montfienry,  and  others. 
He  studied  philosophy  nnder  Gaasendi,  and 
mastered  the  principles  of  Descartes.  His  best 
works  are  Le  pedant  joui,  a  comedy  written 
when  he  was  at  college,  and  Agrijniiiu,  a  tra- 
gedy. Carneille  and  MoliSre  fonnd  in  liis  wri- 
tings snggeetions  for  some  of  their  happiest 
efforts;  and  Swift  is  snpposed  by  some  critics 
to  have  been  indebted  to  his  Eittoirt  eemtgut 
da  itatt  at  «mpirr»  de  la  innt  and  BitUnn 
eomiqae  dtt  goleil  tot  incidents  of  his  "  Oalli- 
ver's  Travels."  The  worlu  of  Bergerao  were 
published  at  Paris  in  1677  and  1741. 

BEBflH,  HMrT<    See  supplement. 

BiZeHlGS,  Bctarick,  a  German  geographer, 
bom  at  Cleves,  May  S,  1797.  In  1815  he 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  German  anny 
under  Gen.  Tauenzien  in  France,  and  made 
use  of  his  observations  daring  the  campaign 
in  the  preparation  of  his  map  <^  France  (1824), 
the  best  up  to  that  time.  From  1816  to  1821 
he  was  employed  upon  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  Prusma  under  the  war  department.  He 
also  uded  in  the  preparation  of  Weiland's  map 
of  the  Netherlands  and  Reymann'a  map  of  Ger- 
many. In  1824  be  was  appointed  professor 
of  applied  mathematics  in  tne  Berlin  academy 
of  architecture,  and  held  that  office  till  18B5, 
Besides  contributing  to  various  periodicals,  he 
has  published  a  map  of  Asia  in  18  sheets;  s 
physical  atlas,  the  basis  of  that  published  by 
A.  Keith  Johnston ;  and  a  coUeetion  of  hydro- 
graphical  maps  for  the  Prusdan  navy.  He  ed- 
ited the  Sertha  (I835~'9)  and  several  other 
geographioal  periodicals  ■  and  his  works  include 
AUeg«m»vne  LAnder-  vnd  Vdlterkunde(fi  toia., 
Stuttgart,  18ST-'41);  J)U  Talker  de»  £rdbalU 
(2  vols.,  Sd  ed.,  Brussels  and  Leipsio,  165S) ; 
Orundliniea  def  phytikalueken  Erdbeaehrti- 
hung  (3d  ed.,  Stuttmrt,  1856);  Qrundlini^ 
d&r  EthMffTophie  (2d  ed.,  1856) ;  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Catlin's  worlcs  on  the  Nortii  American 
Indians  (1848), 

BEBGHEK,  mkebss,  a  Dutch  painter,  bom 
in  Haarlem  in  1624,  died  Feb.  18,  1683.  He 
was  tlie  son  of  the  painter  Peter  Kloas  vaa 
Haarlem,  and  studied  nnder  his  father,  Van 
Qoyen,  Weenii,  and  others.  It  is  said  that 
one  day  when  pursued  by  his  father  into  Van 
Goyen's  studio,  Van  Qoyen  exclaimed  to  the 
other  pupils  £trg  Awn,  "Hide  him;"  and 
Urns  he  reoeived  his  name.  His  paintings  were 
early  in  great  demand.  He  was  extremely  in- 
dostrious,  and  his  works,  most  of  which  are 


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558 


BEBGMAIT 


landBoiQiea  with  gronpa  of  fignres  and  cattle, 
are  CBreM  in  fioish,  effective  in  compOBition, 
and  hannoniooH  in  coloring.  The  atmospheric 
effects  ore  admirable.  There  are  11  of  his  pio- 
tnres  in  the  Loovre,  18  in  the  mnBenni  of  the 
Hennitage  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  others  in 
England,  at  Amsterdam,  Vienna,  and  else- 
vhere.  Eeleflagreat  namberof  pictoresand 
A  namber  of  eiqaisite  drawings  and  etchings. 
His  works  bring  high  prices. 

BEKGMiVj  Twrktum  m^t,  a  Bwadieh  chemist 
and  natnralist,  bom  at  Katarinaberg,  in  West 
Gothland,  in  March,  1T3S,  died  at  Medevi,  Jolj 
8,  1784.  Intended  bj  his  father  for  the  law  or 
the  charch,  he  was  sent  to  the  unirersitj  of 
ITpsaL,  where  be  injured  his  health  by  exces- 
sive stndj,  and  applied  himself  by  vaj  of 
recreation  to  botany  and  entomologj.  He  sent 
to  Linnsna  several  insects  prerionsly  nnknowa 
in  Sweden,  and  devised  a  new  method  for  their 
clasaiGcation  fonnded  npon  the  characteristics 
of  the  larv».  His  first  paper,  pablished  in 
the  memoirs  of  the  academy  of  Stockholm  in 
17S6,  narrated  the  disoovery  that  leeches  are 
oviparous,  and  that  the  substance  called  eceev* 
aguatieia  is  the  ovom  of  a  speoiea  of  leech 
containing  several  of  the  yonng  animals.  Lin- 
menH  wrote  npon  the  memoir  as  he  gave  it  hia 
sanction,  Vidi,  et  cbatupui.  Bergman  devoted 
himself  from  this  time  to  almost  every  branch 
of  science.  He  presented  memoirs  to  the 
academy  upon  attraction,  electricity,  twilight, 
the  rainlww,  and  the  aurora  boreolis ;  became 
in  1T6I  a^nnct  professor  of  phyuos  and  math- 
ematics at  Upsal,  and  was  appointed  in  the 
same  year  one  of  the  astronomers  to  oiiserve 
the  first  transit  of  the  jtlanet  Venus  over  the 
son.  In  1T58  an  association  of  savants  was 
formed  for  the  pnrpose  of  advancing  knowl- 
edge of  the  eart.b  ;  to  eaoh  of  the  members  a 
particular  portion  of  the  subject  was  assigned, 
and  Bergman  received  tlie  department  of  phys- 
ios. The  report  which  he  made  after  eight 
years  of  study  was  rapidly  sold  and  translated 
into  foreign  languages.  In  1766  he  was  ap- 
p<rfDted  to  the  chemical  chair  of  the  nniversity, 
and  immediately  silenced  the  murmurs  of  his 
opponents  by  publishing  a  cnrioos  and  original 
memoir  on  the  manofactnre  of  alum.  From 
this  time  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the 
study  of  chemistry,  and  determined  to  banish 
from  chemical  science  sll  preconceptions,  and 
to  proceed  only  by  observation  of  facts.  He 
published  in  17T4  a  paper  "  On  the  Aerial 
Acid,"  snbseqnentiy  called  carbonic  acid,  and 
proved  that  it  was  a  new  and  distinct  acid. 
By  boiling  nitric  acid  with  iragar,  gum,  and 
other  Tegetable  substances,  he  prodaced  oxalic 
acid.  He  succeeded  in  analynng  minersl  wa- 
ters, and  formed  factitious  mineral  waters  by 
combinations  of  their  elements.  In  his  re- 
searches on  this  topic  he  adopted  the  opinion 
that  caloric  is  a  fluid,  and  was  the  first  discov- 
erer of  snlphnretted  hydrogen,  which  he  called 
the  hepatic  gas.  He  was  the  first  to  employ 
the  hamid  method  in  the  eiamiuation  of  min- 


BEEGONZI 

erols,  and  by  combining  it  with  the  dry  method 
he  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  principal  ele- 
ments of  the  emerald,  topaz,  sapphire,  and 
other  precioDB  stones.  He  was  the  first  also  10 
derive  important  results  in  chemistry  from  the 
ose  of  the  blowpipe.  All  of  his  labors  led  him 
to  a  chemical  classification  of  the  minerals,  ac- 
cording to  which  tiie  genera  were  determined 
by  the  principal  integrant  elements,  the  species 
by  the  different  degrees  in  which  they  were 
combined,  and  the  varieties  by  the  external 
form.  Applying  geometry  to  the  forms  of 
crystals,  he  laid  the  foundation  for  the  theory 
of  crystallization  afterward  developed  by  HaOy. 
He  demonstrated  that  the  superiority  of  cer- 
tain kinds  of  steel  was  due  to  the  presence  of 
manganese,  and  that  the  brittteness  of  steel  in 
extreme  cold  was  caused  by  siderite,  a  sub- 
stance which  he  thought  a  new  inetal,  al- 
though it  has  since  been  recognized  as  the 
phosphoret  of  iron.     The  theory  of  affinitiM, 

Sroposed  by  Geoffroy  In  1718,  had  been  the 
rst  step  toward  giving  a  philosophical  founda- 
tion to  the  science  of  chemistrr.  Bergraan, 
seizing  upon  this  idea,  made  it  umost  bis  own 
by  an  immense  namber  of  new  experiments, 
and  presented  chemical  phenomena  as  only 
modifications  of  the  great  law  which  rules  the 
universe.  To  the  curious  operations  of  the  ele- 
ments when  placed  in  juitapoaition — two  united 
elements  bemg  separated  by  the  approach  of 
a  third  with  which  one  of  them  combinea,  and 
two  compounds  as  they  meet  each  other  inter- 
exchanging  some  of  their  elements  and  thus 
forming  two  new  compounds — to  these  ele- 
mentary movements  he  assigned  the  name 
elective,  and  introduced  the  term  elective 
affinities.  His  mathematical  training  is  seen 
in  the  simple  formulas  by  which  he  described 
chemioal  operations.  He  adopted  the  errone- 
ous though  ingenious  ideas  of  Scheele  concern- 
ing phlogiston,  and  in  general  his  discoveries 
of  facts  were  of  much  more  value  than  hia 
theoretical  explanations.  His  labors  distiD- 
gnished  him  throughout  Europe;  ho  cor- 
responded with  the  principal  contemporary 
chemists  and  physical  phUosophera,  was  a 
member  of  numerous  learned  societies,  and 
received  tram  the  king  of  Sweden  the  order  of 
Vass.  He  remained  at  Upsal,  though  invited 
to  Berlin  by  Frederick  the  Great,  till  the  state 
of  his  health,  broken  by  his  immense  labors, 
obliged  him  to  repair  to  the  mineral  springs 
where  he  died.  Hia  "Physical  and  ChMucal 
Essays  "  were  translated  into  English  by  Dr, 
Edmund  Oullen  (2  vols.,  1788;  Sd  vol.,  179J>. 
BEBfiONZl,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Italian 
stringed  instrument  makers.  !•  Oarla,  Ixim  and 
died  at  Cremona.  He  was  a  popil  of  Stradi- 
varius,  and  was  actively  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  violins,  violas,  and  violoncellos  from 
1T16  to  17G6.  He  often  imitated  his  master's 
style,  especially  in  thf  porfling  and  the  form  of 
the  aound  hole.  He  had  al><o  the  secret  of  the 
varnish  whioh  lent  so  much  beauty  to  the  rio- 
lius  of  that  maker.    He  was  ohielVy  renowned 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEEGUES 

for  Qte  excellenca  of  his  violonoellos.  Hit  in- 
stmineDti  &re  quite  rare  and  7017  valuable,  as 
he  ranked  probablj  third  in  merit  among  the 
Cremona  makers,  that  is,  next  after  Guar' 
nerioH,  StradivartoB  holding  nndonbtedlj  the 
first  poHtJon.  II.  HhM  iafH»,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  sJao  a  violin  maker,  bnt  greatl; 
inferior  to  his  father  in  workmanship  and 
flntah,  OH  also  in  vunish.  His  instrmnents 
hear  date  from  17SQ  to  IT80.  III.  KkM,  son 
of  Miohael  Angalo,  bom  in  1TS8,  died  in  1838. 
The  earliest  of  his  known  instruments,  a  viola, 
is  dated  1780.  He  formed  the  oonnecting  link 
between  the  da^s  of  Stradivarius  and  onr  own, 
remembering  and  pointing  out  the  bouse  where 
the  great  violin  maker  lived. 

BB6DES,  or  BwgMS-St-Wlaw,  a  fortified 
town  of  France,  department  of  Nord,  5  m. 
S.  8.  E.  of  Bonkirk,  on  the  rulwaj  fi'om  that 
place  to  HAsebrouck,  and  at  the  junction  of 
several  oanals,  by  one  of  which  vessels  of  SOO 
tons  reach  tlie  town  from  the  sea;  pop.  in 
1801,  fi,T8B.  It  is  wen  bnilt  The  finest 
buildings  are  the  town  honse,  an  ancient  clock 
tower  160  feet  ^b,  and  the  two  towere  of 
the  abbej  of  St.  Winoo.  It  has  manufactories 
of  soap,  howery,  cotton  yam,  sugar,  salt,  dis- 
tilled spirits,  leather,  Ac,  and  has  a  con«der- 
sble  trade  in  com,  cheese,  hotter,  wine,  and 
cattle.  It  was  fortified  by  Vaohan,  and  be- 
sieged by  the  English  in  1793  without  success. 

BEBDIGTON,  JMspk)  &n  English  author,  bom 
in  Shropshire  in  1744,  died  at  Buokland  in 
Berkshire,  Deo.  I,  1827.  He  belonged  to  a 
Roman  Oatholic  family,  was  educated  at  Bt. 
Omer,  and  after  80  years'  ministry  as  a  priest 
in  France  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  chapel  at 
Buckland  near  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  controversial  works ;'  a  valuable  "  History 
of  the  Lives  of  Abelard  and  Ileloisa  "  (London, 
17S4};  "Account  of  the  Present  Stato  of 
Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain"  (1787); 
''  History  of  the  Reig^  of  Henry  II.  and  of 
Richard  and  John,"  especially  with  reference 
to  the  life  of  Thomas  k  Becket  (Birmingham, 
171)0) ;  "  Memoirs  of  Gregorio  Panzani,  giv- 
ing an  AooooDt  of  his  Apenoy  in  England  in 
1684^'5-'e"  (London,  1793),  a  translation  from 
the  Italian,  which  gave  great  offence  to  the 
Catholics;  "Examination  of  Events  termed 
Mirsoulons"  (17B6),  in  which  he  disputed  the 
authenticity  of  certain  accounts  of  wonderful 
events  in  Italy;  "The  Faith  of  Catholics," 
with  Dr.  Kirk  (181S) ;  and  a  "  Literary  His- 
tory of  the  Middle  Ages  "  (1814). 

BEBIOT,  Gkaiks  Aiguts  de,  a  Belgian  violinist 
and  composer,  bom  in  Lonvain,  Feb.  20,  1602, 
died  in  Brussels  April  10,  1870.  At  the  age 
of  nine  he  was  able  to  perform  difficult  con- 
certos for  the  violin.  In  1821  he  became  a 
pupil  in  the  Paris  conservatoire,  but  soon  found 
that  his  style  was  already  too  absolutely  formed 
to  admit  of  much  modification.  He  commenced 
giving  concerts,  and  mode  himself  famous  in 
England,  France,  Austria,  and  other  European 
countries;,  bdug  distinguished  for  the  purity 


six  months,  and  Be  B^riot  was  not  again  heard 
in  public  for  several  years.  In  1842  he  was 
appointod  professor  of  the  violin  at  the  con- 
servative of  Brussels,  which  position  he  re- 
signed in  18fi2  in  consequence  of  almost  total 
blindness  occasioned  by  paralysis  of  the  optic 
nerve.  Among  his  pupils  were  Yieuit«mp8, 
Ghys,  Pmme,  and  Eoiuky.  He  was  succeed- 
ed in  the  professorship  by  Leonard,  also  one 
of  his  best  pupils.  De  B6riot'B  compositions 
are  numerous,  and  have  been  in  constant  use 
by  violinists.  His  most  valuable  production  is 
a  very  complete  manual  iu  three  parts  entitled 
Mithode  de  violoa, 

BiXKlI.ET,  a  N.  E.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
separated  on  the  N.  E.  from  Maryland  by  the 
Potomac,  bounded  S.  E.  by  a  branch  of  that 
river,  and  N.  W.  by  the  Shenandoah  moun- 
tains; area,  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1B70,  14,900, 
of  whom  3,672  were  colored.  Its  surface  is 
aneven  and  broken,  and  its  soil  stubborn  and 
underlaid  with  limestone  and  slate,  through 
which  permeate  numerous  sulphur  and  chalyb- 
eate springs.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
road passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  296,975  bushels  of  wheat,  297,689 
of  Indian  com,  107,688  of  oats,  8,G29  tone  of 
hay,  839,498  lbs.  of  buttor,  and  41,147  of  wool. 
There  were  8,808  horses,  8,050  milch  cows, 
4,015  other  catUe,  9,218  sheep,  and  8,892 
swine.     Capital,  ifartinsburg. 

BKKHiET,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Gloacestorshire,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Little  Avon,  1^  m.  from  the  Severn,  3  m. 
from  the  Bristol  and  Birmingham  railway,  and 
15  m.  8.  W.  of  Gloncestor ;  pop.  of  the  parish 
in  1871,  6,523.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley 
ship  canal  extends  from  Sharpness  Point  near 
Berkeley  to  Gloucester.  The  town  is  situated 
npon  a  gentle  eminence  in  what  is  known  as 
the  vale  of  Berkeley,  long  famous  for  its  butter 
and  cheese,  the  cheese  called  double  Gloucester 
being  made  only  here.  At  the  8.  E.  end  of 
the  town  stands  Berkeley  castle,  built  before 
the  time  of  Henry  II.,  and  still  inhabited  by  a 
descendant  of  its  founders.  Earl  Fitzhardinge. 
In  one  of  its  dungeons  Edward  II,  was  mnr- 
dered  in  1S27.  The  gate  house,  hall,  chapel, 
tower,  and  keep  are  all  in  perfect  preservation. 

BEKI£LET,  Gewge,  an  Irish  prelate  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Kilcrtn,  county  Kilkenny, 
March  12,  1684.  died  in  Oxford,  Jan.  14,  176S. 
His  father,  William  Berkeley,  came  of  a  family 
noted  for  its  loyalty  to  Charles  I.,  and  was  col- 
lector of  Belf^.  The  son  received  his  early 
education  at  Kilkenny  school,  and  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in 
1707.  About  the  same  time  he  published  a 
mathematica!  tract  which  attracted  some  no- 
tice, and  this  was  followed  in  1709  by  "An 
Essay  toward  a  new  Theory  of  Vision."  In 
this  he  mtdnteined  that  the  eye  has  no  natural 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


perception  of  space,  and  Out  all  its  peroepdons 

of  distance,  size,  and  poHJtion  are  derived  from 
the  aense  of  tonch.  This  theor;  has  been  very 
eenerally  adopted,  although  c^ueationed  by  Sir 
IJavid  Brewster.  Berkeley  himself  vindicated 
it  in  a  pamphlet  24  years  afterward,  hnt  this 
tract  is  not  included  in  hia  published  works. 
In  ITIO  appeared  hia  "Treatise  concerning  the 
Principles  of  Human.  Knowledge,"  and  in  1718 
his  "  Dialogues  between  Hylas  and  Philonons." 
In  these  famous  works  Berkeley  denies  the 
existence  of  matter,  and  argues  that  it  is  not 
without  the  mind,  bnt  witliin  it,  and  that  that 
which  ie  generally  called  matter  is  only  an  im- 
preaaion  prodaced  by  diriiie  power  on  the  mind, 
by  means  of  invariable  mles  atyled  the  laws  of 
nature.  His  professed  object  in  maintaining 
this  theory  was  to  defend  revealed  religion  from 
the  attacks  of  skeptics,  and  he  always  insisted 
that  his  views,  if  acoeptod,  would  place  Chris- 
tianity on  an  impr^nable  bams.  Some  writ«rs, 
however,  inset  that  they  oontun  the  strongest 
arguments  against  revelation.  Beattie's  opinion 
is  that  they  have  a  skeptical  tendency,  and 
Ilume  ezpresaes  himself  even  more  plainly,  re- 
garding them  as  the  best  weapons  ofskepticism 
to  be  loimd  in  any  author,  ancient  or  modern. 
His  writings  brought  him  to  t^e  notice  of  the 
diatingnished  men  of  hie  time,  and  being  inti- 
mate with  Swift,  he  formed  tlie  acquaintance  of 
Pope,  Arbnthnot,  Prior,  and  otiiers.  In  1718  he 
accompanied  the  earl  of  Peterborough  to  Italy, 
as  chMlain  and  secretary  of  legation.  He  re- 
turned next  year  to  England,  bnt  soon  again 
set  oat  with  a  Mr.  Aahe,  and  on  this  tour  pdd 
hia  celebrated  visit  to  Malebrancbe,  the  French 
philosopher,  who  became  so  exoited  in  a  dis- 
cussion with  Berkeley  on  the  recent  theory  of 
the  non-existence  of  matter,  that,  being  ill  at  the 
time,  he  died  a  few  days  afterward.  Berkeley 
remained  four  years  abroad  with  his  pupil ;  he 
devoted  much  time  to  Sicily,  and  collected 
materials  for  an  account  of  its  natural  his- 
tory, which  were  lost  at  seal  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  oordially  received  in  learned 
cirdes,  but  was  entirely  dependent  on  his  fel- 
lowship in  Trinity  college,  until  Uiss  Vanhom- 
rigb  (Swift's  Vaneses)  twqaesthed  him  £4,000. 
In  1724  he  was  made  dean  of  Berry,  the  value 
of  the  living  being  £1,100  per  annnm.  But 
worldly  wealth  had  little  v^iie  in  Berkeley's 
estimation ;  and  having  formed  the  plan  of 
establishinf;  a  college  at  the  Bermodas,  for  llie 
purpose  of  truning  pastors  for  the  colonial 
churches  and  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  he 
took  a  letter  from  Swift  to  Lord  Carteret,  who 
after  long  delays  promised  the  aid  of  the  gov- 
ernment. It  was  in  anticipation  of  the  happy 
results  of  hia  scheme  that  Berkeley  wrote  his 
well  known  stanxas  "  On  the  Prospect  of 
Planting  Arts  and  learning  in  America,"  in 
which  ocenrs  the  oft  quoted  verse : 


Vntmrd  llw  com 

A  fltth  ihsn  clone  I 

"niot^  noblMt  onpring  lA  tb<  ]mM- 


ipln  tkkoB  1U  mj ; 


In  August,  1728,  he  married  the  danghter  of 
the  Bight  Eon.  John  Forster,  speaker  of  the 
Iriah  house  of  commons,  and  in  tne  next  month 
set  sail  for  Rhode  Island,  where  he  arrived,  in 
Newport  harbor,  after  a  tedious  passage  of  five 
months,  Jan.  28,  173B.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
he  bought  a  form  about  three  miles  from  New- 
pori;,  and  erected  a  house  which  is  still  stond- 
mg ;  and  many  interesting  reminiscences  exist 
of  his  sojourn  in  the  island.  Not  far  from  hia 
house,  and  adjacent  to  the  aeo,  lie  the  hanginp' 
rocks  {so  called),  where  at  their  most  elevated 
point  Berkeley  fonn4  a  natural  alcove,  roofed 
and  open  to  the  south,  commanding  «  wide  ex- 

Canse  of  the  ocean,  and  in  it,  tradition  relatea, 
e  meditated  and  composed  his  "  Aloiphron,  or 
the  Hinute  Philosopher,"  a  defence  of  religion 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  But  the  scheme  for 
the  college  failed,  the  government  aid  promiaed 
by  Carteret  was  never  granted,  ani£  after  a 
reddence  in  Newport  of  2|  yean,  Berkelejr 
returned  to  Fngl«id,  giving  to  Tale  coUege  a 
library  of  660  volumes,  aa  well  as  his  estate  in 
Rhode  Island,  called  Whitehall.  In  1734  he 
received,  aa  a  special  mark  of  favor  frcan  Qneen 
Caroline,  the  bishopric  of  Cloyne.  This  plac« 
he  held  for  nearly  20  years,  dividing  his  time 
between  the  dutiee  of  his  diocese,  which  he  ful- 
filled in  the  most  exemplary  manner,  and  his 
literary  labors.  In  the  latter  years  of  hia  life 
be  became  rather  sol^ect  to  hypochondria,  and 
in  hopes  of  benefiting  himself  hod  recourse  to 
tar  water,  which  he  was  constantiy  drinking 
and  recommending  to  his  friends,  even  writing 
two  treatises  on  its  virtnes.  His  works  written 
at  this  period  are  "  The  Analyst,"  directed  prin- 
cipally against Halley  and  the  othermathemati- 
cal  skeptics;  "  Queries  proposed  for  the  Good 
of  Ireland ;  "  a  letter  'to  the  Roman  Catholioe 
during  the  rebellion  of  1746;  another  to  the 
Cathdio  clergy  entitied  "A  Word  to  the 
Wise;"  "Siris,  a  Chun  of  Fbiloeophicsl  Re- 
fiections  and  Inquiriee  concerning  tne  Virtues 
of  Tar  Water,"  and  "  Further  Thoughts  on  Tw 
Water."  In  1761,  feeling  himself  infirm,  and 
desiring  to  be  near  his  eon,  who  was  about  to  ' 
enter  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he  wished  to  re- 
aign  his  bishopric,  which  the  king  wonid  not 
permit,  bnt  gave  him  leave  to  reside  where  he 
pleased.  He  removed  to  Oxford  in  July,  ITtiS. 
Pope  ascribed  to  him  "  every  virtue  under 
heaven  "  ;  and  Atterbury  wrote  of  him :  "  So 
much  understanding,  lutowledge,  innocence, 
and  humility,  I  shoDld  have  thought  confined  to 
angels,  had  I  never  seen  this  gentleman."  A 
collection  of  his  works,  with  on  account  of  hia 
life  and  many  of  his  letters,  was  pablished  by 
Prior  (S  vols.  4to,  1784),  and  there  is  an  edition 
by  the  Rev.  G.  N.  Wright  (2  vole.  8vo,  1848). 
A  new  e^tion  by  A.  0.  Froser  was  pnbliahed 
in  1871  (4  vols.  3vo,  London). 

BfKUXEl,  Ge«ge  Ourks  Grafler  Rti'Bn- 
diage,  an  English  sportsman  and  author,  bom 
Feb.  10, 1600.  He  is  a  son  of  the  late  eari  (tf 
Berkeley,  and  younger  brother  of  the  present 
de  jura  earl,  who  does  not  assume  the  title. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


H»  was  aliberal  member  of  parliament  for  West 
GloQoestersbire  for  nearly  20  jears.  Ilia  novel 
"Berkelej'  Castle"  (1B8S)  being  Mverelj  re- 
viewed in  "Fraser's  Hagaane,  be  assaulted 
Mr.  Fraaer,  the  publisher,  for  vrbich  he  wae 
proeecated  and  compelled  to  paj  £100  damages 
and  Costa,  and  wounded  in  a  dne]  Dr.  Maginn, 
the  writer  of  the  article.  He  has  written  manj 
hooka  on  spiHliDg  in  England,  France,  and  the 
United  States.  Among  bis  beet  known  pub- 
lications to  "The  Upper  T«n  Thousand  at 
Home  and  Abroad;  "and  his  more  recent  works 
inclnde  "Ky  Life  and  Reoollectiona "  (1864), 
and  "Tales  of  Life  and  Death"  (3  vols., 
1869).'^HiB  brother,  Sir  Madriob  Fudesioe 
Fm-HAsnmiaE,  bom  Nov.  16,  1936,  was  a 
naval  commander,  reaohing  the  rank  of  ad- 
miral of  the  blae,  and  represented  Glonoester 
in  paiiiament  for  many  years.  In  1861  he  was 
ratoed  to  ^le  peerage  as  Boron  Fitz-Eardinge, 
and  died  Oot.  IT,  1867. 

BEBKSLET,  Sir  WOtaM,  royal  governor  of 
Virginia,  bom  near  London,  died  at  Twicken- 
ham, Jnlj  IS,  1677.  He  was  ednoated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  went  to  Virginia  as  Governor  in  1641. 
Daring  the  civil  war  he  sided  with  the  king, 
and  the  colony  long  remained  loyal  to  him; 
bat  in  1661  a  sqnadron  was  detached  from  the 
fleet  seat  to  Barbadoes,  and  upon  its  arrival  in 
Virginia  it  compelled  Berkelej  and  bis  friends 
to  submit  to  the  protector.  Biohard  Bennet 
WB»  made  governor  in  Berkeley's  place,  but 
the  latter  continned  to  reside  in  Virginia  nn- 
motested.    In  1660,  after  Biohard  Cromwell' 


resignation,  Berkeley  was  elected  governor  by 
the  Virginia  assembly,  and  received  a  oommia- 
1   for  the  office  from  Charles   II.     Subse- 


qnently  he  rendered  himself  very  nnpopnlar  by 
his  foiinre  to  protect  the  settlers  from  Indian 
nuda,  and  a  rebellion  broke  oat  onder  Nathaniel 
Baoon,  against  which  the  governor  was  for  a 
long  time  powerless.  After  the  death  of  Bacon 
Berkeley  treated  the  rebels  with  eitreme  sever- 
ity, and  a  royal  commission  sent  out  to  inves- 
tigate the  affair  and  restore  order  disapproved 
of  bis  condnoL  He  was  recalled  in  I97T,  and 
is  said  to  have  died  of  chagrin.  He  published 
"TheLoBtLady,"adraraa(168B),  and"ADis- 
oonrse  and  View  of  Virginia  "  (166S). 

BfaULKLEI  SPRINGS,  or  Balk,  a  town  and  the 
capital  of  Mo>f;an  county.  West  Virginia,  about 
8  JO.  from  the  Potomac  river  and  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  77  m.  N.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  pop.  in  1870,  407.  The  place 
is  mnob  visited  by  invslids,  the  water  of  the 
springs  being  deemed  efBcaoions  in  cases  of 
neuralgia,  dyspepsia,  and  ctironio  rheumatism ; 
its  temperature  u  74°  F. 

lEUHET,  Jaa  Leflwet  nn,  a  Dntoh  natu- 
ralist and  poet,  born  Jan.  23,  1729,  died  in 
Leyden  in  March,  1812,  He  was  the  author 
of  various  works  npon  the  natural  sdeneeg, 
of  which  the  best  was  the  "Natural  History 
of  Holland"  (Amsterdam,  176S),  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  natural  histfiry  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden  in  1778.    As  a  member  of 


561 

the  Orange  party  he  was  afterward  subjected  to 

great  persecution,  and  in  bis  old  age  was  reduced 
to  poverty,  and  obliged  to  sell  his  fine  scientiflo 
collections  and  to  depend  npon  his  relations. 
He  published  several  volumes  of  poetry. 

BIXKS,  a  S.  E.  connty  of  Pennsylvania,  in- 
tersected by  SchnjlkiU  river,  and  drained  by 
Tulpehooken,  Maiden,  Manatawny,  and  Little 
Swatara  creeks ;  area,  920  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1 870, 
106,701.  On  ita  N.  W.  boundary  is  the  Kitts^ 
tinny  range  or  Blue  moonttuns;  another  chain, 
called  here  South  mountain,  but  known  in  Vir- 
ginia as  the  Blue  Ridge,  traverses  the  8.  E. 
central  part;  and  between  these  two  ranges 
lies  the  extensive  and  fertile  Eittalinny  valley, 
oompriung  the  greater  part  of  the  county.  The 
soil  here  is  of  limestone  formation,  and  is  care- 
fully cultivated.  There  are  rich  iron  mines,  in 
which  conper  is  found  in  small  qnantitiea.  The 
Schuylkill  and  Union  canals,  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading,  the  Beading  and  Colnmbia, 
the  Lebanon  Valley,  the  East  Penn^lvania, 
and  several  branch  railroads,  past  through  Hm 
connty.  Berks  was  settled  by  Oeroians  in  1784, 
and  German  is  still  commonly  qwken.  The 
chief  prodootions  in  1870  were  980,608  bnsh- 
els  of  wheat,  281,867  of  rye,  1,267,194  of  In- 
dian com,  1,435,1(57  of  oata,  400,846  of  pota- 
toes, 114,691  tons  of  hay,  and  2,658,081  lbs.  of 
hotter.  There  were  16,788  horses,  82,118 
milch  cows,  19,'21S  other  cattle,  66,110  sheep, 
and  87,668  ewine.     Oapital,  Reading. 

BEUBHIU,  a  connty  of  Mawaohnaetts, 
formii^  the  W.  extremity  of  the  state,  extend- 
ing across  it  from  Vermont  on  the  N.  to  Con- 
neotacnt  on  the  8.,  and  bounded  W.  by  New 
York;  area,  abont  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
64,837.  It  embraces  a  great  variety  of  pio- 
turesqne  scenery.  The  surface  is  diversitied 
by  moontains,  hills,  valleys,  and  rolling  land. 
In  the  N.  part  is  Saddle  mountun,  the  highest 
point  in  the  state,  and  in  the  N.  W.  is  the 
Hoosac  tnunel,  through  the  mountain  of  the 
same  name.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  well  water- 
ed by  the  Housatonic,  Deerfleld,  Farmington, 
Hoosac,  and  several  smaller  rivers.  Most  of 
the  land  is  devoted  to  grazing.  Marble,  iron, 
and  limestone  are  the  principal  minerals.  The 
Boston  and  Albany,  the  Hassachnsetts  and 
Vermont,  the  Troy  and  Boston,  the  Housa- 
tonic, and  the  Rttsneld  and  North  Adams  rail- 
roads traverM  the  county.  Maouftoturing  Is 
extensively  carried  on.  There  are  IS  cotton 
mills, '3  calico  print  works,  41  paper  mills,  27 
flour  mills,  16  tanneries,  10  planing  and  tnm- 
ing  mills,  164  saw  mills,  and  a  great  number 
of  other  manufactories.  The  chifff  productions 
in  1870  were  2,838  bushels  of  wheat,  86,903 
of  rye,  166,381  of  Indian  com,  218,643  of  oats, 
16,667  of  bariey,  81,901  of  buckwheat,  865,670 
of  poUtoes,  S4,7e0  tons  of  hay,  1,114,848  lbs. 
of  cheese,  1,038,761  of  butter,  134,892  of  maple 
sugar,  119,574  of  wool,  and  32,810  of  tobacco. 
There  were  6,028  horses,  15,884  milch  cows, 
14,153  other  cattle,  27,196  sheep,  and  4,374 
swine.    Capital,  PittaSeld. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


i,  or  Berts,  a  Monty  of  England, 
Id  the  midlaod  district,  lying  in  the  basin  of  the 
Thames;  area,  T05  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  196,- 
446.  It  is  well  watered  bj  the  Tliames,  the 
Eennet,  the  Loddou,  the  Ock,  and  the  Aobom, 
with  otJier  Kualler  streams  and  rivulets.  The 
anrfaoe  is  nndnlsting  snd  well  wooded.  The 
climate  is  one  of  the  healthiest  in  England. 
The  soil  is  ohalk  and  stiff  clay,  with  a  fine  rioh 
loam  in  the  valleys.  Berkshire  is  essentially 
an  agrionltoral  coimty,  and  the  owners  of  the 
model  farms  establi^ed  under  the  aaspices 
of  Prinee  Albert,  as  well  as  those  of  the  nn- 
merous  large  eBtates,  hare  introduced  many 
improvements.  Moreover,  the  farms  are  mostly 
large;  dnJnage  is  geoer^;  artificial  manores 
are  employed  extensively,  as  well  as  improved 
ploughs  and  drills,  and  st«am  threshing  ma- 
chines. Some  of  the  best  com-prodnolng 
lands  in  England  are  in  this  connty,  especially 
in  the  Tale  of  the  White  Horse,  watered  by  the 
Ock.  The  total  area  under  cultivation  in 
18flT  indnded  144,448  acres  in  com,  56,412  in 
green  crops,  40,813  in  clover  and  grasses  nnder 
rotation,  and  109,377  in  permanent  pasture. 
The  cattle  nnmbered  at  the  same  period  nearly 
80,000,  the  sheep  over  840,000,  and  the  pigs, 
the  best  breed  in  England,  50,000.  The  main 
line  of  the  Great  Western  and  a  branch  of  the 
Bottlhwestem  railway  pass  through  Berkshire, 
as  well  as  the  navigable  Wilts  and  Berks  and 
Eennet  and  Avon  canals.  The  county  is  not 
affected  by  the  reform  act  of  18ST,  and  con- 
tiuaes  to  return  three  members  to  parliament; 
but  its  four  boroughs,  Reading  (the  shire  town), 
Abingdon,  Wallingford,  and  Windsor,  return 
since  1869  only  five  instead  of  six  members  as 
formerly.— The  traces  of  ancient  roads  and 
other  antiquities  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
Roman  period,  and  there  are  variona  remuns  of 
Roman  or  British  camps.  Many  barrows  are 
found,  incladlng  one  N.  of  Lambonm  to  which 
a  Danish  or  British  origin  is  variously  assigned, 
though  it  is  popularly  known  as  Wayland 
Smith's  cave,  owing  to  a  tradition,  introduced 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  '■  Kenilworth,"  of  an 
invisible  smith  having  once  plied  his  trade 
here,  this  tradition  being  identified  by  some 
authorities  with  that  of  the  mythical  Norse 
hero  Weland  or  Valnnde.  The  White  Horse 
is  a  monument  of  Saxon  or  Danish,  or  pos- 
siblj  of  Celtic  origin,  representing  a  horse  cut 
in  the  turf,  the  figure  bemg  over  870  feet  long. 
It  has  given  the  jiame  to  the  hill  on  which  it 
stands,  and  to  the  vnle.  The  peasantry  pe- 
riodically clear  away  the  turf,  which  they  call 
"  scouring  the  horse ; "  and  on  this  occasion 
a  rural  festival  takes  place,  and  they  are  enter- 
tuned  by  the  lord  of  the  manor.  On  the  sum- 
mit of  the  same  hill  is  an  ancient  earthwork, 
known  as  TTfiington  csatle ;  and  the  principal 
Berkshire  antiquities  in  thia  vicinity  include 
Hordwellcamp,  Alfred's  castle.  Dragon  Hill,  and 
the  Seven  Barrows.  Berkshire  was  devastated 
in  the  wars  with  the  Danes  early  in  the  11th 
century,  and  again  became  a  battleground  in 


BEBUOHDTOEX 

the  following  century  during  the  dvU  war  con- 
sequent upon  the  usurpation  of  Stephen.  Of 
the  famous  ancient  castles  only  Windsor  castle 
remans,  and  small  fragments  of  those  of  Wall- 
ingford  and  Donnington.  In  the  17th  century 
Berkshire  became  the  scene  of  remarkable 
contests  between  the  royal  and  parliamentary 
forces,  especially  at  the  first  battle  of  New- 
bury, in  which  Falkland  fell  (Sept.  20,  IMS). 

BEUJCHDieEir,  eWi  or  (Mtfrted  vn,  one  of 
the  last  of  the  feudal  knights  of  Germany,  bom 
at  Jaxtfaausen,  in  Wtlrtembei^,  in  1480,  died 
July  28,  1663.  He  was  educated  under  the 
chai^  of  his  uncle  Eonrad,  a  knight  of  the  old 
feudal  type,  under  whose  guidance  he  attained 
remarkable  skill  in  all  warlike  exercises.  His 
first  military  experience  was  g^oed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  elector  Frederick  of  Brandenbni^; 
hut  on  the  breaking  oat  of  the  war  of  ancoea- 
sion  between  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate  and 
Albert  of  Bavaria,  he  espoused  the  cauae  at 
the  latter,  and  distinguished  himself  by  reckless 
bravery  in  the  campaigns  which  followed.  At 
the  siege  of  l-andsnut  he  lost  his  right  hand.' 
It  was  replaced  by  one  of  iron,  still  shown  in  tho 
castle  where  he  was  bom ;  and  thns  he  acquired 
the  name  of  GotE  with  the  Iron  Hand.  After 
the  war  he  spent  much  of  his  time  in  feuds 
with  his  neighbors  and  petty  confiicts,  oflen 
o^turing  and  plundering  merchania,  but  ac- 
companymg  his  exploits  with  many  exhibitions 
of  chivalrous  generosity.  In  1619  he  assisted 
Duke  Ulrich  of  WOrtemberg  against  his  Swa- 
biau  enemies,  and  defended  MOckmChl  againat 
an  overwhelming  force,  surrendering  on  con- 
dition of  his  being  allowed  to  withdraw  with- 
out molestation.  This  agreement  was  treaoher- 
onsly  broken,  and  the  knight  was  kept  tor  three 
years  and  a  half  a  captive  at  Heilbronn,  only 
obttuning  his  release  by  the  payment  of  a  large 
ransom.  In  the  peasantu'  war  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  as  a  leader  of  the  people,  whose  ex- 
cesses, however,  he  controlled.  At  the  close  of 
this  he  was  again  treacherously  captured  and 
obliged  to  swear  that  he  would  appear  when 
summoned  before  the  leaders  of  the  Swahian 
confederation.  He  kept  his  oath,  and  was  sen- 
tenced by  them,  after  a  two  years' imprisMunent, 
to  give  bonds  and  en  oath  that  he  would  keep  the 
following  conditions :  he  must  take  up  his  resi- 
dence in  the  castle  of  Ilorabei^,  and  promise 
not  to  spend  a  single  night  away  tVom  it;  even 
in  the  day  he  must  not  pass  certun  designated 
boundaries;  he  must  not  mount  a  horse;  he 
most  not  himself  take  revenge  on  any  one  of 
those  now  sentencing  him,  nor  must  he  employ 
any  of  his  friends  to  do  so.  If  he  violated  these 
conditions,  be  must  pay  25,000  florins.  He 
mnst  also  pay  an  indemnity  for  the  damage  ho 
had  done  the  cities  of  Mentz  and  Worzburg. 
Von  Berlichingen  kept  this  agreement  for  11 
years,  and  was  at  last  released  from  it  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Swabian  confederacy.  In 
1641  he  fought  nnder  Charles  V.  ag^nst  tho 
Turks,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  picked  meiL  In 
1644  he  took  port  in  the  campaign  against 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Frands  I.,  and  penetrated  tato  France  as  far 
M  CtiAtean-Tfaierry.    After  the  declaratdon  <^ 

peace  he  retired  again  ta  his  castle,  Mombere, 
and  there  lived  qnietly  nntil  his  death.  He 
was  buried  in  the  cloister  of  Schdntbal,  vhere 
his  moDnmeDt  is  etill  shown.  He  wrote  the 
history  of  iiis  own  life,  which  waa  first  pub- 
lished at  Nuremberg  in  ITSl,  and  gives  an  ad- 
mirable desori^ition  of  tbe  life  of  his  time. 
Ooethe  made  htm  the  sabjeot  of  the  first  of  his 
dramas. 

BEILIir,  the  capital  of  PrasDia  and  of  the 
German  empire,  in  the  proviace  of  Branden- 
borg,  in  lat.  53°  30'  N.,  Ion.  18°  24'  E.,  on  tbe 
Spree,  an  affluent  of  the  Elbe,  830  m.  S.  K 
W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1871,  825,889 ;  in  1867, 
702,187,  of  whom  42,420  were  Boman  'Cath- 
olics and  27,607  Jews.  In  the  latter  ^ear 
there  were  88,SS3  buildings,  of  which  700  were 


public.  The  oit7  stands  on  a  drearr  plain  of 
sand,  on  a  deep  and  still  growing  deposit  of 
infnsoria,  180  feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea. 
Tbe  walls,  now  parttj  torn  down,  are  abont  12 
m.  in  circuit  and  pierced  with  Dnmercios  gal«B, 
of  which  the  Brandenbnrg  gate  is  the  most  cele- 
brated, its  architectare  being  modelled  after 
that  of  the  Prop;lffia  in  the  acropolis  of  Athens, 
Tbe  citj  comprises  the  two  former  towns  of 
Berlin  and  Eolln,  and  was  in  1872  divided  into 
16  precincts,  viz. :  Old  BerUn,  Old  and  New 
EOlln  (on  an  island  of  the  Spree),  Lnisenstadt 
(on  the  left  bank),  Friedrichsstadt,  Friedricbs- 
werder,  Dorotheenstadt,  Friedrich-Wilhebn- 
stadt,  Spandaner  Revier  and  Stralaner  Vier- 
tel,  EOnigsstodt,  and  the  suburbs  of  Wedding 
(Orauienburger  Vorstadt),  Moabit  (Yoigtland), 
Aeossere  Friedrichsstadt,  Aeusseres  Spandaner 
Bevier,  SohOneberger  Revier,  and  Tempelhc^er 


0«unl  view  of  BaUiL 


Revier.  The  villas  S.  W.  of  Charlottenhurg 
near  tbe  chAtean  of  Gronewald,  partly  boilt  and 

Partly  in  conrse  of  constmction,  are  called  the 
Test-end ;  and  Oharlottenbnrg  promises  to  be- 
come part  of  Berlin,  the  city  being  constantly 
eitenaed  westward,  while  ite  central  part  is  in- 
tended to  be  in  fntore  for  Berlin  what  the 
City  ia  for  tbe  British  metropolis. — With  the 
exception  of  the  most  ancient  districts,  Ber- 
lin is  remarkable  for  the  general  beauty  of 
its  atreeta  and  bnildings.  The  excessive  reg- 
nlarity  and  capaciousness  of  many  streets, 
and  the  mnltiplicity  of  palatial  baiidinga  and 
institutions,  produce  a  grand  though  rather 
monotonons  impression.  Unter  den  Linden, 
however,  is  a  lirel?,  imposing,  and  elegant 
thoroughfare,  tall  of  palaces  and  fine  man- 
aiona,  inferior  to  the  Iwnlevards  of  Paris  in 
brilliancy,  bat  superior  to  the  Regent  street 
of  London  in  stateliness  and  in  the  fine  ap- 


pearance of  the  trees  from  which  the  street 
derives  its  name.  This  is  the  fashionable 
city  promenade.  Tbe  Friedrichsstrasse  is  the 
longest,  the  Leipsiger  Strasse  the  most  ani- 
mated ;  tbe  KOnigsstrosse,  in  the  centre  of 
the  city,  the  moat  crowded  basinese  street; 
the  Wilhelmsstrasse  contains  many  palaces  and 
pohlio  bnildings;  the  Lnisenstrasse  has  numer- 
OQS  elegant  mansions;  and  in  the  Oranienbnr- 
ger  Strasse  resided  Alexander  von  Humboldt 
Prominent  among  the  newer  atreeta  are  those 
stretchingfkim  the  Potsdam  gate  to  the  Thier- 
garten.  The  a^regate  length  of  all  the  streets 
of  Berlin  is  over  160  m.  The  largest  square  ia 
the  Oensdarmenmarkt  in  the  Friedrichsstadt, 
with  the  principal  theatre  and  two  churches. 
Other  fine  squares  are  the  Lnstgarten  and  the 
Schlossplatz,  divided  by  the  royal  palace ;  the 
WiUielms,  Opemhans,  DOnhofs,  Alexander, 
and  Pariser  sqaares  (the  last  named  at  tbe 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


at  the  Halle  g&te,  with  the  FriedenMenk-  in  1866  after  a  design  b;  SoUer,  in  the  Bo- 
mal  or  Peace  moDameiit.  There  are  over  manesqne  gtjle,  ia  the  finest  in  Berlin.  Other 
40  bridges,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  |  renowned  r^iipous  boildings  are  the  temple  of 

the  Jewish  refbrqiera 
in  the  Johannesetrawe, 
bnilt  in  18CS  after  de- 
wgns  bj  Staler,  and 
the  new  Bjungogne 
in  the  Oranienbnrffer 
Strasae,  erected  t>j 
Knoblauch  in  the  ori- 
ental st7le.  The  old 
royal  palace  contains 
600  halls  and  apart- 
menta,  inolndiiig  a  ptc- 
tnre  gallerj  and  a  fa- 
rootiB  chapel.   The  ca- 


BUtna  of  FniaUk  Ibe  Gnat,  Uols  d€D  linden. 


Two  bronze 
representing 


are  the  Schloss,  EnrfBrsten,  Friedrichs,  Uar- 
sohalls,  and  EOnigs  bridges.  There  are  over 
60  places  of  worship.  The  oldest  is  the  Niko- 
laikircbe,  datmg  from  the  be^^nning,  and  the 
Harienkirche  and  Elosterkirohe,  from  the  olose 
of  the  ISth  ceDtnrf;  the  last  named  was  re- 
stored in  1844.  The  most  recent  are  the  Petri 
(1846-'64),  MarkuB  (1848-'66),  Andreas  (1864- 
'6),  Bartbolomftns  (18S4-'B),  and  the  new  Doro- 
theenstidtisohe  (1861-8)  churches.  The  most 
celebrated  for  their  architecture  are  the  Ro- 
man Catholio  Hedwigskirche,  in  the  rear  of 


the  opera  honse,  opened  in  1T73.  and  built 
after  the  Pantheon  in  Rome ;  the  Werder'sche 
Eirohe,  a  Gotbio  building,  designed  bj  Schin- 
kel  (lS24-'80)i  and  the  Roman  Catholio  Mi- 


In  1864. 
gronpa 

"The  Horso'Tamere*' 
adorn  the  chief  en- 
trance. The  palace 
now  occupied  b^  the 
emperor  and  empress 
ia  nearly  opposite  the 
nniversity.  The  pal- 
ace of  the  crown  prince  was  restorea  in 
1867.  The  royal  p^ace  of  Bellevne,  with  floe 
modem  German  puntings,  is  about  one  mile 
beyond  the  Brandenbni^  gate.  The  EOnigs- 
wache,  in  the  form  of  a  Roman  ea$trum,  bnilt 
bySchinkel  in  1818,  the  new  observatory,  the 
military  schools,  the  ministries  of  war  and  of 
conunerce,  and  especially  the  arsenal  with  vaet 
collections  of  trophies  of  war  and  arms,  are  all 
coDspicnoDH  edifices.  The  new  town  ball  was 
completed  in  1871.  The  most  celebrated  pub- 
lic bnilding  designed  by  Schinkel  is  the  old 
mnseam,  opposite  the  Lustgart«n,  bnilt  on 
tboQsanas  of  piles,  on  a  spot  once  covered  by  a 
branch  of  the  Spree.  Under  the  porticos,  the 
principal  of  which  is  formed  by  18  Ionic  col- 
nmna,  are  atatnes  of  Raucb,  Schinkel,  Winckcl- 
mann,  and  Scbadow.  At  the  right  idde  of  the 
Bturcase  is  the  fiunous  bronze  gninp  by  Kira 
representins  the  fight  of  an  Amazon  with  a 
tiger;  on  the  left  that  of  a  horseman  with 
a  lion,  by  A.  Wolff.  On  the  waDs  of  the 
colonnade  are  frescoes  from  the  deigns  of 
Schinkel,  executed  under  the  direction  of  Cor- 
nelias. On  the  ground  floor  is  the  antigHO- 
rittm,  with  antique  vases,  bronzes,  gema,  coins, 
and  raediravel  relics.  On  the  first  floor  is  the 
Bonlptnre  gallery,  with  the  "Boy  Praying" 
among  its  finest  antiqaes,  and  Canova's  "Hebe" 
among  the  best  modem  works.  The  pictnre 
gallery  on  the  upper  floor,  though  inferior  to 
the  collections  in  Dresden  and  Munich,  con- 
tains many  fine  paintings.  This  gallery  is 
divided  into  87  compartments.  Among  its 
most  renowned  pictures  are  those  by  Correg- 
gio  of  "  Leda  and  the  Swan  "  and  "  lo  and  the 
Clond;"  Titian's  portrait  of  bis  daughter  La- 
vinia;  Murillo's  "St.  Antliony  of  Padua  «m- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


braoing  the  In&nt  Obriat; "  and  Niooltw  Poiu- 
sio's  "Landscape,  with  the  Stor?  of  Judo  and 
Argna."  In  the  rear  of  the  old  mnseam,  and 
coQDOotod  with. it  b;  an  arched  passage,  is 
the  new  masenm  designed  b7  SKtler,  with 
coigeoDB  internal  decorations.  On  the  ground 
floor  ore  the  northern,  and  on  the  right  side 
of  the  ^eat  sturoase  the  Egjptian  antiqnities. 
The  former  include  an  extenHive  ethDologieal 
collection,  with  relics  of  almost  all  ciTilized  and 
barbarous  nations ;  and  the  Utter,  comprising 
tlie  Egjptcilogical  collection  of  Lepsius,  is  ar- 
ranged in  its  inner  court  after  the  model  of  an 
Egyptian  temple,  the  entrance,  with  16  large 
oMored  pillars,  being  an  imitation  of  the  temple 
of  Kamak,  and  the  chamber  of  tombs  of  part  of 
the  necropolis  of  Memphis.  The  extent  of  this 
Egyptological  collection  is  m  remarkable  as  its 
admirable  arrangement.  In  the  centre  of  the 
new  building  is  a  lofty  hall  decorBt«d  with 
paintings  by  pupils  of  Eaulbach  after  that  ar- 
tist's designs.  On  the  first  floor  are  oasts  of 
atatnary  &om  the  earliest  Greek  masters  down 
to  Thorwaldsen.  Ealf  of  the  upper  floor  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  cabinet  of  drawings  and  engrav- 
ings inclnding  the  original  outline  for  the  ca- 
thedral of  Cologne ;  and  the  other  half  is  used 
for  the  chamber  of  art  (Kwuttammer),  with 
historical  and  other  art  collections,  chronologi- 
cally arranged.  It  is  especially  rich  in  na- 
tional relics,  and  also  oontains  works  by  Albert 
jytTW,  an  ivory  omciflx  asoribed  to  Michel 
Angelo,  and  many  flne  old  ivoriea,  enamelled 
reliqQariea,  and  curious  minerals.  The  royal 
theatre  (K^igiiehti  Sehavtpitlhaut),  for  the 


Tha  Bofil  ThMln. 

performance  of  German  and  French  plays, 
situated  between  two  churches  on  the  Gen- 
darmes square,  has  the  stage  on  the  second 
floor  and  a  concert  room  accommodating  over 
1,200  persons;  it  was  built  by  Schinkel  in 
1819,  and  is  decorated  with  mytbolofrical  stat- 
nary  by  Kaach  and  Tieok.  The  subscription 
balls  which  take  place  here  in  winter  are 
great  events  for  the  fashionable  world.  The 
Italian  opera  house,  rebnilt  since  1S4C  after  the 
destruction  of  the  old  building  by  lire,  holds 
about  2,000  persons,  and  is  a  splendid  stmo- 


ture  near  ttie  Linden.  The  Wallner  thea- 
tre is  popular  among  the  educated  classes  for 
barleeque  and  farces;  and  the  Friedrich-Wil- 
helmst&dtiaches  theatre,  for  low  comedy,  has 
less  select  audiences.  Tie  architectural  acad- 
emy (BaiuehuU),  south  of  the  ScblossbrQcke, 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  ori^nal  mas- 
terworke  of  Schinkel,  and  oontuns  some  of 
that  artist's  paintings  and  statnary.  The  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts,  in  the  Lmden,  is  the  seat  of 
the  new  national  gallery  of  paintings  and  of 
annual  exhibitions  of  modem  paintings.  Count 
Raczynskj's  gallery,  on  the  Exeroierplatz,  ont- 
ride  the  Brandenburg  gat«,  contains  many  fine 
modem  Qerman  paintings;  and  in  the  Ravenfi 
cabinet,  in  the  Neue  GrQnstrasse,  is  an  excellent 
small  collection  of  both  French  and  German 
modem  works.  The  academy  of  mnsio  is  fa- 
mous for  annnal  concerts  given  in  the  Grecian 
wing  of  the  buildin2,  and  especially  for  the 
performance  of  sacred  vocal  mnsic. — The  Thier- 
garten,  extending  from  the  Brandenbarg  gate 
almost  to  Charlottenbai^,  is  a  fine  park  with 
delightful  pleasure  gronnds,  and  a  celebrated 
place  of  recreation.  Among  tho  other  most 
popular  resorts  are  Erotl's  gardens.  Similar 
establishments  are  the  Odeon,  the  Ho^&ger, 
the  Moritzhof,  and  Albreohtahof;  B.  of  the 
Potsdam  gate.  N.  E,  of  the  city  ia  the  new 
Friedrichshain.  All  these  and  many  oUier 
establishments  are  famous  for  their  mnsio  and 
sooiability.  The  less  prosperous  classes  fre- 
quent the  Hasenheide  on  tne  south  and  Mo- 
abit  on  the  west  of  Berlin.  On  the  one  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt's birth,  SepL  14,  16fl9,  the  comer  stone 
of  a  monument  to  his  memory  was  laid  in  a 
new  park  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  to  be 
called  "Humboldt  Grove."  On  the  left  of 
the  New  Park,  outside  the  King's  gate,  is  one 
of  the  moat  beautiful  cemeteries.  Among  the 
others  are  the  old  Dorotheenatadt,  with  the 
(rravee  of  Ficbte  and  Hegel ;  the  old  Dreifal- 
tigkeits-Kirchhof,  with  &at  of  Mendclssohn- 
Bartholdy ;  the  new  Dreifaltigkeita-Kirchhof, 
with  those  of  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  Lud- 
wick  Tieck,  and  Vamhagen  von  Ense ;  and 
the  Invalid  en -Eirchhof,  where  Sohamhorst  and 
other  military  men  are  buried.  Berlin  abounds 
with  monuments  in  honor  of  Prussian  kings 
and  soldiers.  The  most  celebrated  of  them  is 
the  eqneatrian  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  by  Ranch,  on  a  granite  pedestal  S5 
feet  high,  erected  in  1851  in  the  Lmden  oppo- 
ute  the  nniveraity.  The  Friedensdenkmat  by 
Ranch,  ia  near  the  Ilalle  gate ;  and  the  Yolks- 
denkmai  or  People's  monument  is  beyond  that 
gate  on  the  Krcuzberg,  so  called  from  a 
Gotliic  cross  of  cast  iron  on  its  summit,  which 
ia  almost  the  only  eminence  near  the  city. 
The  national  monument  in  honor  of  those  who 
fell  in  1848-'9,  in  the  Invalidenpark,  was  un- 
veiled in  1864,  and  the  Schitter  monument  in 
1871. — Numerous  scientific,  artistic,  literary, 
and  educational  institutions  attest  the  intellect- 
ual activity  of  Berlin.    The  renowned  nniversi- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


566  BE] 

t7,  ID  the  Linden,  associated  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguiahed  philosophers,  divines,  scholars,  and 
savants  of  Germany,  holds  a  coninianding  in- 
flnence.  The  number  of  professors  and  teach- 
ers in  1870  was  175.  The  attendanoe  of  stu- 
dents waa  8,714  during  the  winter  term  of 
1869-'70,  and  8,816  dnring  the  anramer  term 
of  1870.  It  oontaina  musenms  of  natural  his- 
torj  and  of  anatomy,  remarkable  zoological 
and  mineralogical  collections,  and  a  library  of 
nearly  180,000  volumes.  The  botaoioal  gar- 
den of  the  university  is  ontiude  of  the  dty, 
and    includes    extensive    conservatories  and 

Ealm  houses.  The  zoological  gardens,  resem- 
ling  those  of  Regent's  park,  London,  contain 
a  fine  menagerie,  and  the  new  aquarium  is  the 
largest  and  most  celebrated  in  continental  Eu- 
rope. In  1670  there  were  10  gymnasia,  fi4 
Sealsehulen  or  high  schools,  89  middle  and 
elementary  schools,  86  achoola  under  the  direc- 
tion of  societies,  churches,  and  corporations,  11 
schools  attended  by  both  boys  and  girls,  and  2 
Hebrew  schools;  alti^ther  115  public  and  96 
private  institutions,  besides  13  private  Kinder- 
girten  and  19  established  on  the  principle  of 
asso<^tion,  and  employing  C9  female  feach- 
ers.  Besides  the  Oev>eTb»eh'nU,  or  school  for 
trades,  there  are  institutions  established  by  the 
rlty  for  higher  cnltnre  {For(bildMng*an»talt«Ji). 
There  ore  10  libraries  for  the  people,  with  an 
aggregateof  60,000  volumes,  and  many  turners' 
ossociatioDH,  which  chiefly  promote  physical 
and  incidentally  also  mental  development 
Among  the  Jewa  of  Berlin,  68  out  of  100  boys 
and  66  out  of  100  girls  receive  a  superior  edu- 
cation; while  among  the  Christian  denomina- 
tions the  proportion  is  respectively  20  and  16 
per  cent  The  Jews  of  Berlin  are  among  the 
richest  and  most  cultivated  of  Germany,  and 
many  of  them  stand  high  in  finance,  commerce, 
politics,  literature,  and  journalism.    The  royal 


Tlis  Bofsl  Lllniy. 

library  contains  about  700,000  volumes,  besides 
over  16,000  MSS. ;  and  there  are  extensive  col- 
lections of  books  in  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  in  almost  all  the  other  institutions.  The 
annual  number  of  books  published  is  about 
1,500,  or  over  one  third  of  the  total  publica- 


tions of  Pmsua;  and  the  number  of  Journals 
in  1871  was  175. — The  principal  savings  bank 
has  a  capital  of  2,560,000  thalers  and  76,000 
depositors.  There  are  31  industrial  mutual  aid 
associations  after  the  system  of  Schulze-De- 
litzsch,  and  the  number  of  mechanics'  and 
monnfacturers'  unions  is  nearly  100,  with  about 
80,000  members,  and  with  annual  contribntJCHis 
of  over  300,000  tbalere,  about  16  per  cent. 
by  the  employera,  and  the  rest  by  the  men. 
Berlin  is  rich  in  associations  which  contribute 
not  only  to  the  mat«rial  but  also  to  the  mental 
and  moral  improvement  of  the  laboring  classea. 
But  over  100,000  of  the  poorer  people  are 
crowded  together  in  about  15,000  houses,  and 
over  60,000  live  in  cellars.  Houses  five  stories 
and  more  in  height  have  increased  since  1864 
in  the  proportion  of  48  percent,  the  four-story 
houses  11  per  cent,  the  two  and  three-story 
booses  ^  per  cent,  and  the  one-story  honsee 
8  per  cent  Half  of  the  total  number  of  honsea 
contain  only  one  room  which  can  be  heated, 
and  nearly  8,800  houses  cannot  be  warmed 
at  all.  This  state  of  things  is  creating  much 
discontent  among  the  working  classes.  The 
increase  of  illegitimat«  children  amounted  to 
nearly  16  per  cent,  of  the  annual  births.  In 
1872  the  proportion  of  unmarried  men  over  33 
was  3,709  in  10,000,  and  of  unmarried  WCHuen 
over  IS,  8,642  in  10,000.  Le^slative  measures 
have  been  lately  proposed  for  improving  the 


have  too  much  private  service  to  do  to  attend 
to  the  security  of  the  streets.  The  number 
of  arrests  in  1869  was  over  27,000,  including 
4,000  dissotnte  women  and  1,600  drunkards; 
7,000  of  them  remained  in  jail,  and  20,000  wer« 
discharged.  About  4,000  thefts  were  com- 
mitted in  that  year,  or  nearly  II  daily.  The 
records  of  the  morgue  for  1869  included  209 
men,  67  women,  and  104  children  (16  still- 
bom).  Abont  2,000,000  tholert  are  annually 
disbursed  in  charity,  one  half  of  it  by  public 
institutions,  and  the  rest  by  private  agencies. 
Over  8,000  adults  and  4,000  cliildren  received 
ahna  to  the  extent  of  400,000  thalers  in  1870, 
and  the  capital  invested  in  the  municipal  in- 
stitutions for  charitable  pnrposei  amounts  to 
1,600,000  thalers.  In  1870,  44,000  thalers  were 
spent  by  the  city  in  affording  relief  to  48,000 
indigent  patients  in  their  homes,  and  168,000 
thalers  to  14,000  in  the  hospitals.  Nearly 
400,000  thalers  are  spent  for  the  cultivation 
of  potatoes  for  the  i>oor,  for  sonp  houses, 
and  for  other  benevolent  purposes;  J30,00C 
thalers  for  orphans,  deaf-mutes,  and  the  blind, 
Ac;  and  78,000  thalers  for  the  workhouse, 
which  accommodates  2,500  delinquents  and 
1,600  vagrants.  The  medical  officers  employed 
in  the  municipal  sanitary  institutions  include 
700  physicians,  60  surgeons,  68  dentists,  76  vete- 
rinary doctors,  60  druggists,  and  200  midwive& 
Besides  a  trades  union  for  sick  mechanics, 
there  are  nine  sanitary  unions,  affording  relief 
in  consideration  of  small  fees  by  the  members. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEItUN 

and  four  ramikr  institations  obiefiy  for  soldiers. 
Vacoination  u  obligatorj ;  hydrophobia  and 
cattle  diseases  are  guarded  against  bj  public 
enactmeaU;  and  meaaares  are  in  progress  for 
the  establishment  of  canals  and  for  protection 
ag^nst  malaria  arising  from  the  defective 
drainage.  Prostitution  prevails  estensivelj, 
over  15,000  femalua  being  partly  under  medi- 
cal control  and  under  surveillance  of  the  Sit- 
Unpolieei  (administration  relating  to  public 
morality). — More  than  half  of  the  population 
are  engaged  in  various  manafaotnres,  indnding 
iron  and  steel  ware,  maobines,  and  mAny  other 
articles.  Of  printeid  cotton  goods  the  annual 
production  is  valued  at  nearly  9,000,000  tha- 
lers.  The  export  of  manufactured  articles  to 
the  United  States  alone  amounta  to  4.000,000 
thalera.  The  SeehaTuUung  is  one  of  tne  most 
celebrated  commercial  establisbmento.  The 
commerce  in  wool  and  com  is  very  ezt«ndve, 
and  there  are  over  8,000  commercial  honses, 
inoln'ding  many  joint  stock  companies.  The 
excbange  of  Berlin,  a  &ae  building  near  the 
post  office  on  the  KOnigsstrasse,  ia  one  of  the 


BEBinrOHIESI 


567 


to  6,000,  rose  by  the  influx  of  French  ref- 
ugees under  tbe  great  elector  to  20,000 ;  in 
1740  it  was  90,000,  and  it  was  doubled 
alxint  the  end  of  the  century.  In  1831  it 
was  over  200,000;  in  1841,  over  800,000; 
in  1831,  over  400,000;  in  1861,  over  flOO.OOO; 
in  1867,  over  700,000;  and  in  1873  it  is  over 
800,000, — According  to  recent  investigations, 
the  original  fishing  village  of  Efilln,  the  primi- 
tive site  of  part  of  the  present  city,  waa  sur- 
ronnded  by  a  heath  for  geese  which  was  called 
Berlin;  and  hence  this  name  was  afterward 
applied  to  the  whole  city,  especially  as  it  was 
necessary  to  distinguish  it  from  Cologne  (E6In). 
Under  tbe  margrave  Albert  II.  {1308-'2O} 
the  villages  of  Eolln  and  Berlin,  as  they  were 
then  called,  rose  from  tbeir  insigiufioance.  The 
elector  Frederick  II.  (with  the  Iron  Teeth)  boUt 
in  1442  a  castJe  at  KSlIn,  on  the  Spree ;  and 
John  Oieero  chose  it  ea  his  permanent  res- 
idence. The  rise  of  Berlin  after  the  calami- 
ties of  the  thirty  years'  war  waa  mainly  dne  to 
Frederick  WiUiam,  the  great  elector,  who  also 
built  fortifications,  Frederick,  tbe  first  king 
of  Prussia,  built  the  palace  and  the  arsenal, 
and  tbe  enlargement  of  the  city  under  his 
reign  was  carried  on  by  hia  successors.  Under 
Frederick  the  Great  Berlin  rose  to  intellectual 
and  commercial  prominence,  and  was  enriched 
with  additional  palaces.  Daring  the  seven 
years'  war  Berlin  waa  occupied  by  tbe  Aus- 
trians  and  Russians,  and  subjected  to  great 
vicissitudes.  Frederick  William  III.  did  more 
than  any  of  his  dynasty  for  the  embellishment 
and  improvement  of  the  city,  especially  after 
the  trials  of  Berlin  during  the  war  with  Na- 
poleon I.,  when  Bcbinkel  gave  a  new  splendor 
to  ita  architecture,  while  the  literary  and  acien- 
titic  prestige  of  the  oapital  was  increased  by 
tbe  influence  of  the  university  and  that  of  a 
host  of  scholars  and  savants  of  the  highest 


moat  important  financial  centres  of  tbe  con- 
tinent Its  transactions  in  1869  were  estimated 
at  fiB,000,000  thalers  for  railways,  6,000,000 
for  industrial  enterprises,  18,000,000  for  bank- 
ing enterprise,  and  2,000,000  for  loans.  The 
total  value  of  real  estate  and  personal  property 
in  Berlin  ia  estimated  at  700,000,000  thaters. 
The  city  consumes  annually  200,000  quintals 
of  butter,  120,000  of  coffee,  40,000  of  rice, 
and  4,000,000  tons  of  coal.  In  1869  nearly 
200,000  quintals  of  wool  and  over  400,000 
head  of  cattle  arrived  from  the  interior. 
There  are  over  00  breweries,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  beer  is  inorea^ng.  Nearly  18,- 
000,000  letters  annually  reach  the  post  ofBce, 
about  one  half  of  them  city  letters.  Over 
S0,O0O  persona  arrive  and  depart  from  Berlin 
daily,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  interior  of  Prus- 
sia- Over  3,000  conveyances,  including  19 
horse  cars  and  180  stages,  circulated  in  the 
city  in  1870;  nearly  60  railway  trains  arrive 
and  depart  daily,  and  there  is  a  large  traffic 
carried  on  by  the  roads  and  canals. — The 
population,  reduced  by  the  thirty  years'  war 


rank.  Frederick  William  IV.  paid  much  at- 
tention to  churches,  while  under  his  reign  the 
city  was  enlaced  by  new  suburbs ;  and  the 
cultivation  of  new  territories  and  improve- 
menta  and  extensions  are  going  on  steadily  in 
almost  all  directions.  The  triumphal  entry  of 
the  German  army  after  tbe  Franco-German 
WOT  took  place  here  on  June  16,  1871;  and 
the  emperora  of  Bnssia  and  of  Austria  were  in 
Berlin  on  a  visit  to  the  emperor  of  Germany 
in  September,  1872. — See  Btreokftisa,  Berlin 
>eit  bOa  Jahren  (\%tA),  and  Berlin  und  teine 
Entaiekeluitg  (an  annual  publication  of  the 
statistical  burean). 

BEEUNCHIERl,  indrea  Tmm,  an  Italian  sur- 
geon, bom  in  Pisa  in  1772,  died  there,  i^ept.  6, 
1826.  He  studied  anatomy  at  Paris,  under 
Deaanlt,  and  in  England,  under  Hunter  and 
Bell,  and  on  his  return  to  Pisa  jiublisbed  some 
observations  on  Bell's  system  of  surgery.  In 
1799  he  waa  appointed  to  assist  his  father,  who 
was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  university  of 
Pisa,  and  three  years  later  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  school  of  clinical  surgery,  which 
was  then  founded.    He  invented  uaefiu  instru' 


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568 


BEBUOZ 


menta  for  performing  the  operations  of  OTstot- 
omj  and  cesophagotomy,  and  for  the  treatment 
of  trichiasis,  the  laohrTma)  fistnla,  and  the 
fraotare  of  the  femtir  bone.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  manj  other  snrgical  inBtrninents  and 
processes,  and  was  the  author  of  nmnerons 
treatises  on  professional  topics. 

BmiOZ,  UttUx,  a  Frenah  composer,  horn  at 
Cdte  Saint  Andre,  in  the  department  of  Is^re, 
Dec.  II,  1808,  died  in  Pam,  Uaroh  8,  1889. 
His  father,  a  ph^r^cian,  sent  him  in  earlj  life 
to  study  medicine ;  but  his  love  of  music  soon 
led  him  to  abandon  that  profession  and  to  ent«r 
the  eottteifiaioire  de  miuiqve.  His  father  now 
cast  him  off,  and  he  sapported  himself  as  a 
chorns  singer  at  the  gymnate  dramaUqvs,  and 
studied  composition.  In  1880,  with  his  cantata 
SardanapaU,  he  took  the  first  prize  at  the  con- 
serratoire,  entitling  him  to  pursue  his  stndiesin 
Ital;  for  18  months  at  the  public  e^ense. 
Betuming  to  Paris,  he  prodnoed  rapidly  a 
number  of  orchestral  works  intended  to  iUus- 
trate  his  proposition  tiat  every  mnsicfll  oom- 
position  should  be  the  expresdon  of  some  defi- 
nite thought  and  have  a  distinotly  marked  ob- 
ject. To  this  kind  of  composition  the  name  of 
programme  mnsio  was  given.  Berlioz  found 
enemies  to  hia  system  on  eveifr  hand,  and  de- 
fended himself  agEunst  their  attacks  through 
the  Journal  det  Debatt,  by  which  he  was  for 
many  years  employed  as  musical  critic.  Be 
oomposed  several  opera^  but  they  were  one 
after  another  condemned  almost  at  the  first 
hearing.  His  talents,  however,  were  not  with- 
out recognition,  for  he  was  not  only  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  but  also  librarian 
of  the  conservatoire,  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  the  recipient  of  a  number  of  for- 
eign orders.  He  songht  to  promulgate  his 
▼lews  of  composition  not  only  in  his  own  but 
also  in  other  countries,  and  for  that  purpose  at 
various  IJmee  visited  England,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, and  Russia,  but  without  any  other  than  a 
transient  effect  He  published  a  treatise  on 
instrumentation  which  is  held  in  esteem.  His 
principal  instmmeutal  works  are  the  overtures 
to  "Waverley,"  "King  Lear,"  Le  Carnival 
rotaain,  and  Le*  franei  jrigo,  and  the  sympho- 
niee  entitled  Epitod«  ae  la  tU  d'un  artiiU, 
Sarold  en  ItalU,  and  SymphonU  fanihre  et 
triomphale.  Among  his  operas,  those  most 
worthy  of  mention  are  Bennmiito  Oellini  and 
Let  Troyeju,  In  1838  he  married  Miss  Harriet 
Smithgon,  an  English  actress,  who  died  in  Paris 
in  1854.  His  life  was  passed  in  a  constant 
struggle,  through  his  musical  composiUons  and 
his  writings,  to  impress  his  theories  upon  the 

BEBHEJO,  or  TenH^Jat  a  large  river  of  South 
America,  rises  in  the  Tar^a  mountains  in  Bo- 
livia, fiowB  8.  E.  through  the  Argentine  prov- 
inces of  Jajuy  and  Salts,  meandering  through 
the  dense  forests  and  sandy  plains  of  the  Gran 
Chaco,  where  it  receives  the  waters  of  some 
lakes  and  forms  a  large  number  of  others,  and 
falls  into  the  Paraguay  near  the  fortress  of 


BEBUHDAS 

Homaft^  BO  m.  above  the  conSnence  of  that 
river  with  the  Paran&.  Its  chief  affluents  are 
the  Tar^a  and  the  Lahayen  or  Rio  Grande  de 
Jqjuy.  It  is  extremely  tortuous,  and  its  entire 
length  is  1,800  m.,  although  less  than  600  m. 
in  a  strught  line.  Its  course  generally  varies 
five  or  HI  tunes  in  a  league.  Joe6  Hana  Aroe, 
who  descended  it  in  1BS8  in  vessels  drawing 
but  ST  inches  of  water,  and  with  150  tons  of 
cargo,  fkim  Oran  in  Jqjuy  to  Corrientes,  found 
the  river  nowhere  less  than  five  feet  deep ;  but 
sunken  trees  frequently  obstructed  navi^tion. 

BKHOIIDfiEY,  a  snbnrban  parish  of  London, 
on  the  Surrey  ^de  of  the  Thames,  situated  be- 
tween Bonthwark  and  Rotherhithe,  and  form- 
ing part  of  the  former  borough ;  pop.  in  1871, 
80,413,  an  increase  of  Sa,068  since  1861.  It  is 
the  great  seat  of  tanning.    (Bee  Lo?n>ov.) 

BEKMIIDlfi,  or  Bitn  Uanis,  a  group  of  smaB 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  aaiA  to  ba 
865  in  number,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  680  m. 
8.  S.  E.  of  Cape  Hatteraa,  between  lat  SS" 
W  and  89°  Sfi'  N.,  and  Ion.  64°  88'  and  64° 
B2'  W.  The  group  is  formed  upon  a  coral  ree^ 
and  is  16  m.  In  length  and  6  in  greatest 
breadth;  area,  24sq.m.;  pop.  in  1871,12,181, 
including  about  6,000  whites.  The  land  is 
low,  the  greatest  elevation  being  that  of  Qibba 
Hill,  ]80  feet  high,  on  which  ^ere  is  a  light- 
house. Uost  of  the  islands  are  mere  rocks, 
and  only  13  or  15  are  inhabited.  Bermuda,  or 
Long  Island,  is  16  m.  I<H]g  and  about  Ifm. 
wide.  The  other  principal  islands  are  SL 
Qeot^'s,  Ireland,  Somerset,  and  St  David's. 
Dangerous  and  eit«nmve  coral  reefs,  mostly 
under  water,  enclose  them  on  the  north,  west, 
and  sonth,  and  the  channels  of  approach  are 
very  intricate.  They  have  some  excellent  har- 
bors, however,  that  of  St  George's,  the  eaat- 
eminoBt  island,  having  been  formed  at  great 
cost  by  blasting  sway  the  reefe  and  construct- 
ing a  breakwater  on  the  point  of  the  adjacent 
island  of  Ireland.  St.  George  is  now  an  im- 
portant naval  station,  and  is  strongly  fortified. 
The  climate  is  damp,  but  mild.  Violent  gales 
are  frequent  during  the  winter.  Vegetation 
is  green  throughout  the  year,  and  the  islaztds 
yield  abondance  of  garden  vegetahles,  pota- 
toee,  fruit,  and  excellent  arrowroot.  Grain, 
flour,  rice,  and  hve  stock  are  imported  from 
the  ITnited  States.  The  soil,  a  thin  layerof 
mould  upon  a  rocky  foundation,  is  still  fertile, 
though  much  overworked.  A  good  quaUty  of 
cedar  grows  on  the  islands,  and  is  extensively 
used  for  building  small  and  swift  vessels.  There 
are  no  ft-esh-water  streams  nor  good  wells ; 
rain  water  is  collected  in  tanks.  The  fisheries 
are  valuable.  limestone  and  sandstone  are 
abunduit  The  only  towns  are  Hamilton,  the 
capital,  on  Bermuda  island,  and  St.  George, 
on  the  island  of  that  name,  the  latter  being  tbe 
larger  of  the  two.  The  ^vemment  conasts 
of  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by  the 
crown,  and  an  assembly  of  36  members  elect- 
ed by  tbe  people.  The  revenue  in  1869  was 
£80,040;  expenditure,  £32,040;  public  debt, 


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£8,000;  imports  froiD  the  United  EiDg<]oin  ta 
1870,  £64,033;  exports  to  tlie  United  Kidk- 
dom,  £e,S3S.  A  penal  colonj  has  been  estab- 
lished on  the  islands,  and  tlie  convicts  are 
employed  on  tlie  public  works.  There  is  an 
admiralty  school  on  Ireland  island,  aod  private 
and  free  schools,  churches,  and  chapels  are  nn- 
merouB. — In  1623  Joan  Uermndez,  a  Spaniard, 
was  wrecked  npon  these  islands  while  on  a 
voyage  from  Spain  to  Onba  with  a  cargo  of 
hogs.  Sir  George  Somers  was  wrecked  apon 
themin  1609  on  his  way  to  Vir^nia.  In  1611 
the  islands  were  settled  under  a  charter  from 
James  I.,  and  in  1640  a  regular  government 
was  established.  The  islands  prospered,  and 
during  the  civil  wars  many  persons  of  position 
and  wealth  took  refnge  on  them.  Among  them 
was  the  poet  Waller,  who  sang  their  beanties  in 
the  "  Battle  of  the  Summer  leland,"  They  are 
called  in  Shakespeare's  "Tempest"  the  "still 
vexed  Bermoothes." 

BERNIJDEZ,  GctmIho,  a  Spanish  poet,  bom 
in  Galicia  about  1630,  died  about  1689.  He 
belonged  to  the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  was 

firufesBor  of  theology  at  Salamanca.  He  pub- 
ishcd  at  Madrid  iu  16TT,  under  the  name  of 
Ant«nia  de  Silvs,  two  tragedies  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  Inez  de  Castro,  Nite  Lastimota  and 
Ni»6  LaiiTBoda.  The  former  is  much  the 
finer  poem,  and  has  passages  of  great  poetical 
merit  He  also  published  a  poem  ori^nally 
written  in  Latin,  and  transUitea  by  himself  into 
Spanish,  entitled  La  JIaperoida,  of  which  the 
duke  of  Alva  was  the  hero. 

BERN,  orBtne.  1.  A  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Franco  and  the  German 
province  of  Aisace,  N.  E.  and  N,  by  Basel 
and  Solothnrn,  E.  by  Aargau,  Lucerne,  Unter- 
wolden,  and  Uri,  S.  by  Valais,  and  W.  by  Vaud, 


Fribourg,  and  NeufchAtel ;  area,  2,630  sq.  m, ; 
pop.  in  18T0,  606,661,  of  whom  about  five 
dxtbs  are  Germans  and  the  rest  French.  The 
ranges  of  the  Jura  extend  throu)^  the  north- 
em  part  of  the  canton,  and  the  Bernese  Alps 
are  m  the  south.  Among  these  in  the  S.  E. 
oomer  rises  the  river  Aar,  which,  after  passing 
through  Lakes  Brienz  and  Thnn,  flows  N.  W. 
through  the  centre  of  the  canton.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributaries  in  Bern  are  the  Simmen,  the 
Soane,  the  Thiele  from  Lake  Bienne,  and  the 
Emmen.  Along  the  lower  Aar  and  Emmen  the 
country  is  level  with  undulations.  Deep  valleys 
are  found  between  the  ranges  of  tlie  Jnra  and 
amid  the  Alps.  Those  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  canton,  which  is  called  the  Oberlond, 
are  particularly  celebrated  for  their  beauty ; 
tlje  most  famous  are  those  of  Hasli,  Grindel- 
wald,  Lanterbrunnen,  that  of  the  Simmen, 
and  the  plain  of  Interlaken.  The  highest  points 
of  the  Bernese  Alps  are  the  Finsteraarhom,  the 
Jungfrau,  the  MOnch,  the  Sohreckhom,  the  £i 
ger,  and  the  Wetterhom,  from  12,000  to  14,000 
ft.  high.  Many  strangers  are  attracted  to  the 
canton  by  its  wild  and  romantic  scenery. 
The  climate  is  healthful,  bat  in  temperature 
varies  with  the  elevation.  There  is  a  corre- 
sponding variation  in  the  soil.  The  valley  of 
the  Emraon  is  extremely  fertile.  The  valleys 
of  the  Oberland  are  less  so.  On  the  aides  of 
the  mountains  excellent  pastures  are  found. 
These  change  higher  up  into  barren  rocks,  and 
at  a  still  greater  elevation  into  glaciers.  In  the 
Jnra  iron  and  copper  are  mined,  and  watchea 
and  wood  carvings  are  made.  The  canton  ex- 
ports cheese,  but  is  sometimes  obliged  to  im- 
port potatoes  and  grain.  A  railway  crosses 
the  northern  part,  and  several  railways  centre 
in  the  city  of  Bern.    The  canton  is  divided 


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670  BE 

into  SO  diBtriots,  Among  the  more  important 
oommones  &re  Brieoz,  Unterseeii,  Than,  Lang- 
naa,  Arberg,  Bienne,  and  Porrentrn^.  Be- 
ucleB  the  nuivemtj  of  Bern,  the  canton  has 
8  gTmna^a  and  6  schools  preparatory  for 
them,  29  Sealtchultn  and  eeconaary  scoools, 
1,412  primarr  Bchoola  opon  which  attend- 
ance is  compolsorj,  and  0  normal  schools. — 
In  1191  Berchtold  V.,  doke  of  Z^ringen, 
fortified  his  castle  of  Njdeck,  opon  the  pro- 
montory where  the  city  of  Bern  now  ataDds, 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  lesser  noblee,  and 
gave  a  charter  to  the  city.  The  canton  was 
formed  out  of  the  territory  which  was  from 
time  to  time  acqnired  by  the  city,  and  in  1858 
joined  the  Swias  oonfoderation.  In  1528  it 
placed  itself  npon  the  side  of  the  reformation, 
and  haTJDg  in  1686  conqaered  the  Pays  de 
Vand  from  SaToy,  its  territory  for  nearly  three 


centnries  extended  from  the  lake  of  Geneva  to 
the  Khine.  DnrinffthiB  period  ita  government 
from  being  democratic  became  aristocratic  and 
oligarchical.  The  armies  of  the  French  repnb- 
lio  invaded  the  cnnton  in  1798,  took  the  city 
of  Bern,  and  aeized  ita  treaanrr,  containing 
30,000,000  francs.  In  180S,  by  Aapoleon's  act 
of  mediation,  Aargan  and  Vand  were  separated 
from  Bern.  In  1815,  to  compensate  for  the 
loea  of  Aargan  and  Vand,  the  territories  of 
the  biahop  of  Basel  were  taken  from  France 
and  added  to  Bern,  and  an  aristocratic  tone 
was  given  to  the  inatitntions  of  this  "  Venice 
of  the  Alps,"  as  the  canton  has  sometimes  beea 
oolled.  In  1881  a  more  democratic  constitution 
was  adopted,  and  still  another  in  1846.  Under 
this  the  government  is  vested  in  a  grand  coon- 
oil,  which  del^fates  its  power  to  a  smaller  body 
called  the  conncil  of  administration.    The  chief 


B«n, 

Judicial  power  is  given  to  a  snpreine  oourt 
of  15  members  with  4  substitutes.  Under  the 
constitution  of  Switzerland  which  waa  promul- 
gated Sept.  12, 1848,  the  canton  sends  23  mem- 
bers to  the  Natianalrath  or  lower  house  of 
the  Swiss  diet  Id  18T0  the  r^trendum  was 
introduced,  wbioh  provides  that  every  law 
adopted  by  the  legislature  mast  be  ratified  by 
the  people  before  it  can  become  valid.  The 
revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  canton  in  1670 
amounted  to  about  6,200,000  fr. ;  public  debt, 
20,000,000  It.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  canton 
and  of  Switzerland,  sitoated  npon  a  promon- 
tory of  sandatone  around  which  flows  the 
Aor  with  stoep  and  precipitons  banks,  48  m. 
8.  of  Boael;  pop,  in  1870,  86,003,  of  whom 
2,644  were  Boman  Catholics,  808  Jews,  and 
the  remainder  Proteatanta.  The  lofty  Nydeck 
bridge  by  which  it  may  be  entered  from  the 


east  is  one  of  the  most  pgaotic  stmotnree  of 
Switzerland.  Theoityishandaomely built, with 
broad  strught  streets,  many  of  the  houses  rest- 
ing upon  arcades.  By  means  of  the  Gaael,  a 
brook  introduced  into  the  city  in  1868,  fonn- 
tatna  ore  aupplied  and  rilla  made  to  flow 
through  many  of  the  streets.  The  capitol  of 
the  confederation  was  completed  here  in  186T, 
and  cost  2,145,471  fr.  The  high  clock  tower, 
built  by  Berchtold  of  Zahringen  in  1191,  is 
near  the  middle  of  the  city.  Every  hour  its 
works  set  in  motion  pnppota  which  represent  ■ 
cock,  a  procesnon  Gf  bt^ra,  and  a  bearded  old 
man  with  an  hoar  glass,  who  strikes  a  bell.  The 
cathedral  facesa  terrace  108  feet  above  the  Aar, 
from  which  a  fine  view  may  be  had  of  the  Ober- 
land  Alps.  It  was  begnn  in  1421  under  the 
supervision  of  Matthias  Heinx,  son  of  one  of 
the  architects  of  Strasborg  cathedral,  to  which 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERNADOTTE 


fin 


it  1«  equal  in  some  of  Its  detallo.  The  other 
most  noted  bnUdings  are  the  obarohea,  the 
librarjrond  mDsemn,  the  mint,  the  orphan  aaj- 
Inin,  the  hospital,  the  arsenaJ,  the  nniversitj 
baildiDgB,  Ac.  The  nnivermty  was  fonnded  in 
1834,  and  in  1871  had  73  profesaors  and  819 
students.  A  school  of  arts  wbs  founded  in 
1971.  The  mannfactures  are  cloth,  printed 
linen,  silk  and  ootton  bbrica,  and  straw  hata. 
The  corporation  of  the  citj  is  so  rich  that  it 
fiimishea  the  citizens  with  fuel  gratis,  and  has 
a  sarplos.  The  scenerj  is  of  tie  most  plctn- 
resqDo  character,  and  the  cit;^  is  maoh  fi«- 
qnented  by  stran);er8.  The  wall  ditches  are 
renowned  for  bears,  the  bear  being  the  heral- 
dic animal  of  Bern,  which  derives  its  name 
from  it  The  armory,  the  richest  in  Switzer- 
land, is  full  of  ancient  weapons  and  cnrio^tiea. 
BEENIDOTTE,  JMx  BiptteU  JaMc,  inarsbal  of 
the  French  empire  and  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  bom  at  Pan,  Jan.  26,  1764,  died  in 
Stockholm,  Uarcb  8,  1844,  He  waa  the  son 
of  a  lawyer,  aqd  was  educated  for  that  pro- 
fession, bat  enlisted  in  1780  in  the  royal  ma- 
rines. When  the  French  revolution  broke  ont 
bis  advancement  became  rapid.  In  17B2  be 
served  as  colonel  in  Cnstine'a  army  ;  command- 
ed a  demi-brisade  in  1793 ;  was  in  the  same 
year,  throush  Kl^ber's  patronage,  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general ;  and  contributed, 
as  general  of  division  in  the  army  of  the  Sam- 
bre  and  Hense,  onder  Kl£ber  and  Jonrdan,  to 
the  victory  of  Fleurus,  June  26,  17B4,  the  suc- 
cess at  jQlicb,  and  the  capitalatioa  of  Maes- 
trieht.  He  also  did  good  service  in  tlie  oam- 
pai^  of  1795-'6  against  the  Austrian  generals 
Clairfait,  Kray,  and  the  arobdoke  Charles. 
At  the  beginning  of  1797  he  was  ordered  by 
the  directory  to  march  with  20,000  men  as  re- 
enforcements  to  the  Italian  army,  and  it  was 
upon  his  arrival  in  Italy  that  bis  first  interview 
with  Bonaparte  took  place.  During  the  inva- 
sion of  Friuli  and  Istria  Bernadotte  distingnish- 
ed  himself  at  the  passage  of  the  Tagliamento, 
where  he  led  the  vanguard,  and  at  the  cap- 
tnre  of  the  fortress  of  Gradisoa,  March  19, 1797. 
After  the  18th  Frnctidor,  Bonaparte  ordered 
his  generals  to  collect  from  their  respective  di- 
visions addressee  in  favor  of  the  eovp  d'etat  of 
that  day;  but  Bernadotte  sent  an  address  to 
the  directory  different  from  that  which  Bona- 
parte wished  for  and  without  conveying  it 
throiTgh  Bonaparte's  bands.  After  the  treaty 
of  Oampo  Formic  Bonaparte  made  Bernadotte  a 
friendly  visit  at  bis  headquarters  at  Ddine,  but 
immediately  after  deprived  him  of  half  bis  di- 
vision of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  command- 
ed him  to  march  the  other  half  back  to  France. 
Bernadotte  was  mnch  dissatisfied,  bnt  finally 
accepted  the  embassy  to  Vienna.  Having  been 
reprimanded  by  the  directory  because  he  had 
not  placed  the  emblem  of  the  republic  npon 
the  onteide  of  his  hotel,  Bernadotte  hoisted  the 
tri-eolorod  flag  with  the  inseription  "  Liberty, 
eqoality,  ft'atemity."  This  was  done  npon  a 
day  on  -which  a  pnblic  anniversary  was  cele- 


brated at  Vienna,  April  18,  1798.  His  hot«l 
was  stormed  by  a  moo,  his  flag  bnmt,  and  his 
life  endangered.  Satis&otion  naving  been  re- 
fused, Bernadotte  withdrew  to  Rastadt  with  oil 
his  l^^tion.  The  directory,  however,  on  the 
advioe  of  Bonaparte,  waived  the  claim  for  sat- 
isfaction and  recalled  Bernadotte  to  Paris.  He 
married  in  August,  1798,  Mile.  Dfiairfie  Clary, 
the  daughter  of  a  Marseilles  merchant  and  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte's  sister-in-law.  In  November 
of  the  same  year  he  was  made  commander  of 
the  army  of  observation  on  the  upper  Rhine, 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  80tb  Prairial,  1799, 
he  was  mode  minister  of  war,  and  in  thai 
office  rendered  valoable  services.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  Sept.  IS  he  found  his  resignation  tu- 
nonnoed  in  the  Menit«w  before  be  was  aware 
that  be  bad  tendered  it.  This  was  a  trick 
played  npon  him  by  Sievte  and  R<^r  Duces, 
the  directors  allied  to  Bonaparte.  Altboogh 
solicited  to  do  so  by  Bonaparte,  Bernadotte  re- 
fiised  to  take  part  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Bnimaire  (Nov.  8,  1799),  by  which  the  direc- 
tory was  abolished  and  supreme  power  con- 
ferred on  Napoleon.  Placed  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  west,  he  restored  tranquillity 
to  La  Vendue.  After  the  proclamation  d 
the  empire  in  1804  he  was  made  a  marshd, 
and  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
army  of  Hanover.  In  this  capacity,  as  well 
OS  during  his  later  command  of  the  army  of 
northern  Germany,  he  created  for  himself  a 
reputation  for  independence,  moderation,  and 
administrative  ability.  At  the  head  of  the 
corps  stationed  in  Hanover,  which  formed  the 
first  corps  of  the  grand  army,  he  participated 
in  the  campaign  of  1805  against  the  Anstrians 
and  Russians.  In  the  battle  of  Aueterlitz  he 
was  posted  with  bis  corps  in  Ibe  centre  be- 
tween Sonlt  and  Lannes,  and  contributed  to 
baffle  the  attempt  of  the  right  wing  of  the  al- 
lies to  ontflonk  the  French  army.  On  June  S, 
1806,  he  was  created  prince  of  Ponte-Oorvo,  a 
district  of  Naples  formerly  snbject  to  the  pope. 
During  the  campaign  of  lS06-'7  against  Prus- 
sia he  commanded  the  first  corps  d'arm6e. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena,  Oct.  14,  1806,  Ber- 
nadotte defeated  the  Prcsiians  at  Halle,  Oct. 
17,  pursued  coi^ointly  with  Soult  and  Murat 
the  Pmssian  general  BlQcber  to  Ldbeck,  and 
aided  in  forcing  Lis  cepitnlation  at  Radkow, 
Nov.  7.  He  also  defeated  the  Snsdans  at 
Mqfirungen,  Jan.  26,  1807.  After  the  peace  (tf 
Tilsit,  according  to  the  alliance  conclnded  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Napoleon,  French  troops 
were  to  oocupy  the  Danish  islands,  thence  to  act 
against  Sweden.  Accordingly,  in  1808,  while 
Russia  invaded  Finland,  Bernadotte  was  com- 
manded to  move  upon  SeeUnd  in  order  to  pien- 
etrate  with  the  Banes  into  Sweden  to  dethrone 
its  king,  and  to  partition  the  country  between 
Denmark  and  Russia.  He  passed  the  Belt  and 
arrived  in  Seeland  at  the  head  of  80,000 
Frenchmen,  Dutch,  and  Spaniards;  most  of 
the  latter,  however,  by  the  assistance  of  the 
English  fleet,  decamped  nnder  Oen.  de  la  Ro- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


572  BERNADOTTE 

mona.  Being  recalled  to  Qenoenr  to  aaAet  in 
the  new  war  between  Fr&noe  and  Aaatria,  he 
received  the  oommand  of  the  flth  corps,  wliich 
was  mainl;  composed  of  Saxons.  At  the  bat- 
tle of  WograiD  be  connoanded  this  coips,  of 
which  tiie  dirinon  of  Gen.  Dnpas  fonnea  part. 
lUviug  resisted  on  the  left  wing  for  a  long 
time  an  attack  from  a  Bapeiior  force,  he  order- 
ed Dnpas  forward  to  his  rapport;  tlie  latter 
replied  that  he  had  orders  from  the  emperor 
to  remain  where  he  was.  After  the  battle 
Beraadotte  complained  to  Napoleon  for  having 
Id  violation  of  all  military  roles  ordered  Gen. 
Dnpas  to  act  independently  of  his  oommand, 
and  for  having  thereby  caased  great  toes  of 
life  to  the  Saxons,  and  tendered  his  rengno- 
tioD;  and  Napoleon  accepted  it  after  he  had 
become  aware  of  an  order  t^  the  da;  issued 
by  Bemadotte  in  which  he  gave  the  fisxofu 
credit  for  their  coara^  in  t«rmB  inconsistent 
with  the  emperor's  official  bulletin.  Bemadotte 
having  retnrned  to  Paris,  the  Waloheren  ex- 
pedition TJnly,  1809),  caused  the  French  min- 
istry in  tJie  aluence  of  the  emperor  to  intrust 
him  with  the    defence    of  Antwerp.      In  a 

Eroclamstion  issued  to  his  troops  at  Antwerp 
e  made  a  cha^e  agunst  Napoleon  of  having 
neglected  to  prepare  the  proper  means  of  defence 
for  the  Belgian  coast  Be  was  deprived  of  his 
command,  and  ordered  on  his  retam  to  Paris 
to  leave  it  for  his  princedom  of  Ponte-Oorvo. 
fiefnsing  to  comply  with  the  order,  he  was 
summoned  to  Vienna,  and  after  an  int«rview 
with  Napoleon  at  SchCnbrnnn  accepted  the 
general  ^vemment  of  the  Roman  states.  Be 
was  malnng  his  preparations  to  enter  upon  this 
office  when  the  Swedish  diet  elected  him  crown 
prince  of  Sweden,  Aug.  21,  1810.  The  king, 
Charles  XIII.,  who  in  180»  had  succeeded  the 
dethroned  GustavusIV.,  adopted  him  as  bis  son 
under  the  name  of  Charies  John.  Before  freeing 
Bemadotte  from  his  allegiance  to  France,  Na- 
poleon asked  him  to  agree  never  to  take  up  arms 
agwnst  France.  Bemadotte  having  refused  to 
make  any  snch  agreement,  upon  the  ground 
that  his  obligationH  to  Sweden  would  not  allow 
it,  Napoleon  mgned  the  act  of  emancipaUon 
unconditionally.  Landing  at  Belnngborg,  Ber- 
nadotte  there  abjured  the  Catholic  religion,  and 
entered  Stockholm  Nov.  1.  During  t£e  king's 
noknese,  in  the  following  year,  Bemadotte  act- 
ed as  regent  Napoleon  compelled  him  to  ac- 
cede to  the  continental  system  and  declare  ifar 
Bgainst  England ;  but  the  declaratioD  was  treat- 
ed by  both  England  and  Sweden  as  being  mere- 
ly nominal.  Napoleon  snppressed  the  crown 
prince's  revenues  as  a  French  prince,  declined 
to  receive  hia  despatches,  and  sent  back  the 
order  of  the  Seraphim  bestowed  by  him  upon 
the  new-bom  king  of  Rome.  Finally  French 
troops  in  January,  1812,  invaded  Swedish  Po- 
merania  and  the  island  of  Rtlgen ;  whereupon 
Sweden  concluded  an  offennve  alliance  against 
France  with  Russia.  In  this  treaty  the  annex- 
ation of  Norway  to  Sweden  whs  8tipn1at«d. 
When  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Russia, 


BEBNABD 

Bemadotte  was  for  a  time  the  arbiter  c^  the 

deetinieeof  Europe.  Napoleon  offered  him,  on 
the  condition  of  his  attacldng  Russia  with 
40,000  Swedo^  Finland,  Mecklenburg,  Stettin, 
and  all  the  territory  between  Stettin  and  Vol- 
gast  But  Beroadotte  remained  upon  the  aide 
of  Rnsaia.  Be  mediated  the  peace  of  Orebro, 
concluded  about  the  same  time  between  Eng- 
land on  the  one  side  and  Rassia  aod  Sweden 
on  the  other.  After  the  French  retreat  trtaa 
Moscow,  when  England  guaranteed  him  Ncv- 
way,  he  entered  the  coalition.  He  assisted 
the  emperor  Alexander  and  the  king  of  Prusm* 
in  the  lormation  of  their  plans  for  the  campaign 
of  I61S,  in  which  as  orown  prince  of  Sweden 
he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north.  In  this  oampugn,  after  having  defeated 
Oudinot  at  Groesbeeren,  he  gained  a  victory 
(8«pt  6)  over  Nej  at  Deanewite,  and  joined 
in  the  battle  of  Leipsio  in  time  to  contribute 
materially  to  the  victory  of  the  alliea.  After 
that  battle  he  marched  upon  Denmark  by  way 
of  Hanover;   and  he  forced  Frederick  VI,  to 


entered  France  the  crown  prince  followed 
slowly,  and  stopped  on  the  frontier.  After 
Napoleon's  abdication  he  repaired  personally 
to  Paris,  where  his  reception  by  the  allies  waa 
not  particularly  cordial ;  but  on  his  return  to 
Sweden  the  treaty  of  Kiel  waa  guaranteed  by 
the  five  great  powers.  The  representativee  of 
Norway,  assembling  at  Eidwold,  ad^ted  the 
constitutioD  which  is  stUl  in  force.  This  con- 
stitution Bemadotte  agreed  to  accept,  and  ob- 
tained the  assent  to  it  of  the  Swedish  assem- 
bly (lUrrthinff).  Charles  XIII.  eipired  Feb. 
0,  1818,  and  Bemadotte  was  acknowledged 
throna^out  Europe  as  king  both  of  Sweden 
and  Norway  under  the  name  of  Charles  XIV. 
John.  Although  ignorant  of  the  language  of 
the  countries  over  which  he  reigned,  Bema- 
dotte as  Idng  succeeded  in  overcoming  all 
the  difficulties  which  arose  in  either  country. 
During  his  long  reign  of  28  years  education  waa 
promoted,  agriculture,  commerce,  and  mana- 
factures  prospered,  and  the  means  of  internal 
communication  were  increased.  (See  Swedbx.) 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son,  Oscar. 

BEUriLOULO,  an  E.  central  county  of  New 
Mexico,  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  S. 
projection  of  Ban  Miguel  county,  the  £.  por- 
tion bordering  on  Texas;  area,  about  3,000 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  7,691.  The  W.  portion 
is  intersected  by  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and 
Rio  Puerco,  and  is  skirted  by  the  Rio  de  San 
Jos£.  In  this  portion  are  the  Sandia  and  other 
monntaiua  Tlie  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  18,800  bushels  of  wheat,  S1,S0S  of  Indian 
com,  14,060  gallons  of  wine,  and  lB6,9601b*. 
of  wool.  There  were  873  horses,  COB  moles 
and  asaea,  623  milch  cows,  2,016  other  cattle, 
126,010  sheep,  and  446  swine.  Capital,  Albu- 
querque. 

BERNIBD,  a  sunt  aod  doctor  of  the  Latin 
church,  bom  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy,  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


1091,  died  In  the  abbe^  of  ClairraQz,  Ang.  20, 
lies.  Hia  fother,  Teaoelin,  wu  a  knight  of  the 
hoiue  of  OhAtilloD,  and  hig  mother,  Aleth,  was 
a  daughter  of  Ooiiiit  Bernard  of  Montbard. 
Bernard  was  the  third  of  a  famil;  of  Mven 
children,  from  the  beginning  he  was  destined 
to  a  clerical  life,  and  he  oatonwhed  his  nuutors 
by  his  rapid  progress  in  learning.  After  the 
death  of  hiH  mother,  when  he  was  10  jears  old, 
be  resolved  to  enter  the  cloister,  and  to  per- 
soade  his  brothers  to  join  him.  Andrew  and 
Bartholomew,  jonnger  brothers,  were  easilj 
won.  Gny,  the  eldest,  was  for  a  time  retuned 
by  his  wife,  bat  she  at  last  consented  to  go  to 
a  nnnnery.  A  rich  and  warlike  ancle  was  the 
neit  proeetyte.  Q^rard,  the  seoond  brother, 
was  more  insensible,  bnt  his  obstinacy  was 
diHtnned  by  a  vision.  The  role  chosen  by  tho 
br«thren  was  the  new  CSsteroiau  rule.  Ber- 
nard's diBcipiine  was  rigorons  in  the  extreme. 
His  labors  were  severe,  liis  fastings  protracted ; 
bis  sensibilities  were  blunted  by  varions  ex- 
posure, till  he  lost  almost  all  sense  of  ontward 
impressions.  Hia  meagre  and  haggard  frame 
was  a  feart^il  witness  of  the  stmggles  of  the 
soul  in  its  contest  with  the  body.  His  novi- 
tiate year  bronght  nnmerons  oonverte,  inolading 
Nirard,  Bemud's  yoongest  brother.  The  year 
of  novitiate  was  passed  by  the  brethren  in  the 
convent  of  Ctteaax.  In  this  time  several  new 
convents  had  been  fomided  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. In  lllG  Bernard,  with  12  monks,  among 
whom  were  his  brothers,  was  seat  ont  to  find 
in  the  province  of  Champagne  a  suitable  place 
for  a  Cistercian  community.  He  chose  a  wild 
gorge  in  the  diocese  of  Langres,  noted  as  a 
Haunt  of  robbers,  the  name  <a  which  was  the 
"Valley  of  Wormwood."  He  changed  the 
name  to  Clairvaux,  or  "  Beantiful  Valley."  The 
numbers  of  the  brotherhood  rapidly  midtiplied. 
Their  charities  were  the  praise  of  all  the 
repon.  Hen  came  to  Clairvaux  to  be  healed 
of  their  infirmities  by  one  whom  siokneas  bad 
rednoed  almost  to  spiritual  proportions.  Com- 
peUed  by  superior  authority  to  submit  himself 
to  a  physician,  Bernard,  against  his  vrill,  recov- 
ered.   Henceforth,  recognizing  his  own  weok- 


were  devoted  to  the  reform  aod  direction  of  the 
convents  already  established,  or  suggestions 
concerning  new  establishments.  His  corre- 
spondence was  vast,  and  he  gave  audience  t^ 
great  nombers  who  came  to  consult  him.  His 
studies  were  not  less  vigorously  prosecuted,  both 
in  Scriptural  and  patristic  lore.  Aognatine's 
theology  and  the  Canticles  of  Solomon  were 
his  favorite  themes.  In  1124  Hnmbeline,  his 
only  faster,  and  the  last  of  his  family,  took  the 
veil  in  one  of  the  convents  of  his  foundation. 
Bernard  was  repentedlf  called  abroad  to  recon- 
cile diapntea  between  bishops  and  their  dio- 
ceses, between  the  church  and  the  nobles.  He 
persuaded  Abbot  Soger,  prime  minister  of  Louis 
the  Fat,  to  relinquish  his  secular  station  and 
confine  himself  at  SL  Denis  to  lus  religious 


AED  673 

charge.  He  mpported  Henry,  archbishop  of 
Sens,  and  Stephen  of  Paris,  in  their  appeal  to 
Rome  against  the  king.  At  the  council  of 
Troyea,  in  1I2&  he  vindicated  the  canons  of 
the  church,  and  took  part  in  those  stormy  de- 
bates about  the  excesses  of  the  Templar  knights. 
At  the  council  of  Ch&lona,  11S9,  he  aasisted  to 
depose  the  bishop  of  Verdun.  Repeated  offers  of 
lucrative  sees  were  steadily  refused  by  bim.  In 
1180  a  schism  was  oansed  by  the  pretensions  of 
the  oardinal  of  Leon,  who  claimed  the  papacy, 
under  the  title  of  Anaoletns,  in  opposition  to  In- 
nocent II.  At  the  council  of  £tampes  Bernard 
gave  his  support  to  Innocent,  procnred  a  decree 
infavor  of  tlie  exUe,  and  then  visited  the  prin- 
cipal oonrts  of  Europe  to  plead  Iimooent's  cause. 
He  secured  the  countenance  of  England,  ac- 
companied Insooent  to  Oermaoy,  and  with 
some  difficulty  induced  the  emperor  Xothaire 
not  only  to  acknowledge  him  as  pope,  but  to 
renounce  the  privilege  of  investiture.  In  I1S2 
Bernard  aooompanied  Innocent  into  Italy.  The 
division  between  its  various  states  tended  to 
hinder  the  rcetoration  of  CathoUo  unity.  Ge- 
noa, whose  Jealousy  of  Pisa  was  obstinate  and 
deep-rooted,  was  subdued  by  the  preaching  of 
the  ablH>t,  until  the  people  almost  forced  him  to 
stay  as  their  chief  bishop.  Pisa  in  turn  yielded 
to  bis  eloquence.  In  Milan  he  found  a  harder 
task;  but  here,  too,  he  succeeded,  and  the 
Milanese  also  demanded  him  for  their  bishop. 
Returning  after  fire  years  of  conflict  to  Clair- 
vaux, he  found  its  affairs  peaceful  and  prospe- 
rous. Count  William  of  Aquitune,  the  most 
violent  of  the  adherents  of  Anacletus,  kindled 
a  fresh  schism  and  deposed  bishops  who  sup- 
ported Innocent.  Failing  in  bis  argument  with 
this  man,  Bernard  tried  an  experiment,  such 
as  Ambrose  had  tried  with  Theodosius.  After 
the  consecration  at  mass,  he  went  toward  the 
coqnt  with  the  wafer  and  paten  in  his  hands, 
and  threatened  him  with  the  judgment  of  the 
Lord  unless  he  deneted  from  the  persecution 
of  the  church.  The  count  fell  prostrate  and 
penitent  at  his  feet,  and  two  years  later  died 
on  a  pilgrimage.  In  IIGT  Bernard  was  sum- 
moned from  bis  convent  to  plead  the  canse  of 
Innocent  before  Emg  Roger  of  Bicily,  who  had 
possessed  himself  of  Borne.  The  necessity  of 
nnil^  in  the  church,  and  the  right  of  majorities 
to  decide  disputed  questions,  were  arguments 
which  Boger  and  his  partisans  could  not  well 
reust  The  death  of  Anacletus  weakened  the 
schism  still  further;  an'd,  although  the  form  of 
electing  his  successor  was  tried,  the  party  were 
forced  to  confess  themselves  vanc|nished,  and 
the  abbot  received  the  testimonies  pf  their 
final  submisnon.  Innocent  was  installed  at 
Rome,  and  Bernard  was  able  to  see  the  fruit 
of  his  eight  years  of  toil  and  contest  A  visit 
to  the  convent  of  the  Paraclete,  of  which  H6- 
lolse  was  abbess,  had  acquainted  Bernard  with 
theviewsand  prind^lesof  Abfilard.  Through 
Bernard's  influence,  m  the  year  1140,  a  council 
was  held  at  Sens  to  con»der  those  opinions. 
From  a  conviction  that  his  cause  was  hopelees) 


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574  BER] 

or  from  fear  as  some  say,  AMicird  did  not  jna- 
titj  himself  before  the  coiincil,'and  his  de&ult 
was  procionnc^d,  with  bia  seoteiioe  as  a  heretic. 
His  death,  during  the  Jonmo;  which  he  was 
making  to  Rome,  saved  big  adversarj  Jrom 
the  annoyance  of  nirther  controversy.  In  this 
and  subsequent  years  Beroard'g  life  was  em- 
bittered by  misunderstandings  with  the  pope, 
who  preferred  the  good  will  of  the  secular 
powers  to  the  friendship  of  the  monk  who  had 
placed  him  on  the  papal  throne.  His  influence 
at  Borne,  however,  was  soon  regained.  After 
the  short  reigns  of  Celestine  II.  and  Lacius  II., 
one  of  his  own  apiritnal  children,  another  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaui,  was  called  to  the  chur  of 
8l  Peter  as  Engeniua  III.  The  new  pope  soon 
intrusted  to  Bernard  the  duty  of  preaching  a 
fresh  crusade.  Bernard  passed  through  France 
and  Germany,  urouBing  indifference,  inflaming 
piety,  openiug  the  cofl'ers  of  the  rich,  and  call- 
ing all  to  the  holy  war.  His  success  was 
instant  and  wonderjnl.  Uore  than  once  his 
robe  was  torn  to  shreds  in  furnishing  crosses 
to  the  eager  volnnteera.  He  writes  Co  Euge- 
ninsthat  the  cities  and  castles  are  deserted,  that, 
the  wives  are  becoming  widows,  and  that  there 
is  hardly  one  man  to  seven  women.  Soon  he 
had  to  moderate  the  excitement  and  check  the 
excesses  of  the  host  which  he  had  gathered. 
He  strove  especially  to  prevent  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jews,  which  was  the  first  sign  of 
the  new  Christian  fury.  In  1147  the  two  great 
expeditions  set  out.  Confusion  marked  their 
way,  and  disaster  followed  them.  The  Greek 
emperor  suffered  the  German  forces  to  be  cut 
to  pieces  by  the  Moslems.  The  French  expe- 
dition was  equally  unfortunate,  and,  tliongh  a 
fragment  reached  Syria  and  laid  uege  to  Da- 
mascus, the  climate  and  vices  of  that  region 
finished  the  destroctioa  which  the  fortones  of 
war  had  begun.  The  weight  of  the  blame  was 
thrown  upon  the  advisers  of  the  expedition,  and 
Bernard,  who  had  protested  against  the  blun- 
ders of  the  campaign,  was  cnreed  for  its  fatal 
result.  His  fame,  however  tarnished  by  this 
disaster  abroad,  was  retrieved  by  his  succesafid 
warfare  with  new  heresy  at  home.  He  cleansed 
Langaedoo  from  the  scandal  which  Henry  of 
Lausanne  and  Peter  de  Bmis,  the  Cathari  or 


the  Sabellian  bishop,  Gilbert  of  Poitiers.  It 
was  proposed  to  engage  him  in  a  new  crusade, 
bathe  refiised.  His  last  Sve  years  were  passed 
in  comparative  retirement,  varied  only  by  liter- 
ary ocoupstiouB  and  the  visits  of  distingnished 
friends.  Gurnard,  king  of  Sardinia,  and  Pope 
Eugeniua,  wore  at  different  times  his  guests. 
The  ''  hnrning  and  shining  light  of  the  Irish 
church,"  Malachi,  saint  and  bishop,  died  on  a 
visit  to  ClairvBux,  and  Bernard  wrote  his  life. 
The  abbess  Ilildegard  found  in  Bernard  a 
ftiend  who  TindicRted  her  at  Rome,  and  be- 
lieved that  ber  gift  of  prophecy  was  real.  In 
these  last  years  the  most  remarkable  of  Ber- 
nard's compodtions  were  written.     His  body 


was  buried  in  the  church  at  Clairvanr,  sod  in 
1105  his  name  was  set  in  the  calendar  of  the 
church  by  Pope  Alexander,  though  it  was  not 
openly  proclaimed  among  the  saints  till  11T4. 
Hemara  founded  S5  monasteries  in  France,  II 
in  Spain,  10  in  En^and  and  Ireland,  6  in  Flan- 
ders, 4  in  Italy,  3  in  Germany,  S  in  Sweden,  1 
in  Hongary,  and  1  in  Denmark.  At  Clairvanz 
at  the  time  of  his  death  there  were  700  breth- 
ren. His  treatisea,  authoritative  as  they  still 
are,  have  been  superseded  by  the  works  of 
Aquinas  and  Bellsrmin,  and  his  sermons  do  not 
justify  his  singnlar  fame  for  pnlpit  eloquence. 
It  needs  nice  discrimination  to  separate  hia 
geonine  writings  from  those  which  nave  been 
falsely  attributed  to  him.  The  former  comprise 
epistles,  sermons,  sod  moral  and  theological 
treatises.  Of  the  epiaties  480  are  contained  in 
the  collections  of  Uabillon  end  Harttee,  48&  of 
which  were  the  work  of  Bernard  bimaelf,  the 
remunder  being  either  addressed  to  him  or 
drawn  up  by  his  secretary.  The  general  char- 
acteristics of  his  letters  are  earnestnecs,  energy, 
clearness  of  expresidou,  and  a  fierce  sincerity. 
The  style  ia  unequal,  in  most  instances  rngged 
and  harsh.  The  sermons  mclude  86  on  the 
Canticles  of  Solomon,  B6  on  the  events  of  the 
ecclesiastical  yesT,  48  on  the  saints  and  the 
Virgin,  and  126  miscellaneona  They  are  cold. 
ethical,  sometimes  even  obscore.  The  other 
works  of  BL  Bernard  include  treatiacs  on 
"  The  Love  of  God ;  "  "  Grace  and  Free  Will ;  " 
"  Twelve  Degrees  of  Humility  and  Pride ;  " 
baptism  end  the  incarnation,  in  a  letter  to  Huso 
of  St.  Victor:  "  Conversion,"  addressed  to  the 
clergy;  an  "Apology"  for  his  order,  in  reply 
to  til e  censure  of  certain  BeDedictines ;  "Ex- 
hortations to  the  Knights  Templar;"  "Errors 
of  Abtlard  ; "  '.'  Precepta  and  bispensatione ;" 
and  a  work  on  "  Consideration,"  su^estcd  by 
the  viut  of  Pope  Eugenius  to  his  monastery, 
end  dedicated  to  that  pontiff.  The  standard 
edition  of  his  writings  is  that  of  Mabillon  (9 
vols,  fol.,  1690).  This  contains  valuable  notea, 
in  addition  to  the  edition  of  166T.  A  new  edi- 
tion appeared  in  1710  and  in  1T26.  Another 
less  valuable  but  more  convenient  edition,  by 
the  same  famoua  Benedictine,  is  in  9  vola  8vo. 
The  most  accessible  biographies  are  those  of 
Keander  (Berlin,  1841),  Montalembert,  Dannon 
in  vol.  xiii.  of  "  French  Literary  History,"  Abel 
De^anJins  {Duou,  IMS),  the  abb6  Ratisboona 
(2  vola,  Paris,  1846),  and  J.  0.  Uorison  (Lon- 
don. 1868). 

BGRNAID,  Oiafc,  a  French  phyuologiat,  bom 
at  Saint  Jnlien,  department  of  the  Rhine,  Jnly 
n,  lUia,  died  Feb.  10,  187S.  He  etadied  in 
Paris,  and  became  in  1854  iuonmbent  of  the 
newly  established  ohur  of  general  physiology  in 
the  faculty  ol' sciences,  and  member  of  the  acad- 
emy, in  185G  profeasor  of  experimental  phyri- 
ology  at  the  coli^e  de  France,  and  in  1868  of 
general  phy^ology  at  the  musenm.  He  estab- 
lisheil  his  reputation  by  his  Rtehtrehti  *ur  let 
tuagadupanerias,  to  which  the  academy  award- 
ed a  priu  in  1849,  and  which  was  published 


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BERNAKD 

in  the  academical  annals.  His  other  works  {□- 
olode  Lajimctitni  glyeoginiqvedufoie  (1649); 
Reeherehe*  mperimvaUue*  nir  le  graad  tympa- 
tAtfUtf  «t  tur  rinftvenea  que  la  leetion  da  ee 
narfexeree  tur  la  ehaltur  ammaU(^lB54);  Le- 
foru  d«  phytiologU  ezpirimentale  appH^nia  A 
la  midecin^  (3  vols.,  IS&S-'B);  L«poni  tur  Ut 
propriitit  phyiiologiqvt*  et  la  atUratiimi  pa- 
thoUffi^ua  det  dwirenU  liquidft  de  Vmya- 
nujne(2  vols.,  18C9);  Lefmu et  f^crieneft phy- 
liologiquet  tvr  lanutritum  et  le  dieehppement 
nseO);  and  Z>e  laphyiielegU  ginerale  (1872). 
The  last  named  work  received  a  Talaable  prize 
from  the  aosdemj.  His  most  important  dis- 
coveries relate  to  the  Awctiona  of  uie  liver. 

■BEIUBD,  Sir  Fnadi,  oolooial  governor  of 
Hew  Jersej  and  MossacnosettB,  bom  in  Nettle- 
ham,  Engluid,  in  1714.  died  in  London,  June 
16,  1779.  He  was  a  lawfer,  was  appointed 
Eovemor  of  New  Jersey  in  1758,  and  trans- 
ferred in  1700  to  Hassachnsetts,  where  he  fa- 
vored all  the  pretensiouB  of  the  orown,  hroDght 
troops  into  Boston,  and  proroKaed  the  ^neral 
conit  when  it  refused  to  make  provision  for 
their  anpport.  That  bodj  before  it  dispersed 
nnanimoualy  voted  a  petiKon  to  the  ting  hnm- 
h\j  entreating  that  Bernard  might  be  removed 
for  ever  from  the  government  of  the  province. 
He  was  recalled  in  1760,  and  as  he  departed 
from  Boston  the  bells  were  nmg,  cannoa  flred 
after  him  from  the  wharves,  and  the  liberty 
tree  hang  with  flags.  Tbe  Eoglisb  government 
manifested  its  approbation  i^  his  oourse  bj' 
creating  him  a  baronet  He  was  a  man  of  eru' 
dition  and  a  patron  of  Harvard  college. 

BEBXUD,  JacfMa,  a  French  writer,  bom  at 
Nyons,  Sept  1,  1638,  died  April  27,  1718.  In 
1679  he  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed  chnroh 
at  Yinsobres.     Dnring  the  persecntions  that 

E receded  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
is  chnroh  was  destroyed  and  he  fled  to  Switz- 
erland, where  he  gave  lesaODB  in  mathematics 
and  French.  He  afterward  went  to  the  Hagne 
and  opened  a  school  for  belles-lettrex,  philoso- 

6 by,  and  mathematics.  He  oontinned  the  pub- 
cation  of  tbe  Bihliothiqiie  itnivenelle  wnich 
had  been  undertaken  by  Leclerc,  and  in  1693 
succeeded  Bajle  as  editor  of  tbe  .^ouv«I{e>  cb 
la  ripubliqva  de*  lettret,  and,  although  very 
inferior  to  bis  predecesaor,  continued  to  con- 
daot  it  till  bis  death,  with  the  eicoption  of  the 
interval  from  1710  to  1716.  He  published  sev- 
eral historical  and  religions  works,  including 
a  history  of  Europe  in  6  vols.,  of  the  peace  of 
Ryawick  in  6  vols.,  and  a  collection  of  trea- 
tises since  tbe  time  of  Charlemagne  in  i  vols. 

BEIXiKD*  L  JrtRj  an  English  comedian, 
bom  in  Portsmonth  m  1766,  died  in  London, 
Nov,  29,  1928,  His  first  appearance  in  Lon- 
don was  in  1787  at  Oovent  Gflrdea  theatre,  as 
Archer  in  "The  Beaux  Stratagem,"  and  was 
very  sucoesefrd.  He  was  secretarf  for  nine 
years  of  the  celebrated  Beefsteak  dab.  In 
1797  be  appeared  for  tbe  first  time  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  at  Bbkett's  circns  (then  fitted  up  as  a 
theatre),  Greenwich  street,  New  York,  as  Gold- 
69  VOL.  II.— 87 


BERNABDIN  OF  SIENA        576 

flnch  in  the  "Road  to  Ruin."  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  Boston  tlieatre  for  several 
years,  and  finally  returned  to  England  in  1818. 
Hie  " Recollections  of  the  Stage"  relates  his 
adventures  up  to  the  period  (June,  1797)  when 
he  went  to  America,  or  during  one  half  of  his 
theatrical  career.  The  book  was  not  popnlar, 
and  the  second  part  never  apiwored.  IL  WU> 
UaH  Bajle,  an  English  dramatist,  son  of  the  pre- 
oeding,  bom  in  Boston,  Hasa,,  Jan.  1,  1808, 
died  in  London  in  August,  187S.  He  prepared 
his  father's  "  Reoollections  of  the  Btage,''  and 
wrote  "The  Nervous  Uan  and  the  Man  of 
Nerve,"  "The Irish  Attorney,"  "ThoMnmmy," 
"His  Last  Le^"  "Dumb  Belle,"  "A  Practical 
Man,"  "The  Middy  Ashore,"  "The  Boarding 
School,"  "The  Roond  of  Wrong,"  "A  Splen- 
did Investment,"  and  "A  Life's  Trial." 
BEBNiBD,  Stew,  a  French  general  and  eo- 

S'neer,  bom  at  Dole,  April  28,  1779,  died  in 
aria,  Nov.  6,  1889.  He  was  educated  at  the 
polytechnic  school,  led  the  assault  upon  Ivrea 
in  1800,  served  in  varioos  snbseonent  cam- 
paigns, was  mode  aide-de-camp  to  tne  emperor 
in  1818,  and  throwing  himself  mtoTorgan  with 
8,000  men  superintended  tbe  defence  of  that 
place  for  three  months  dmiag  a  terrible  si(^. 
In  1814  he  gave  in  bis  adherence  to  Louis 
XYIII.  and  was  appointed  brigadier  general,  in 
IBIS  again  fought  on  tbe  side  of  Napoleon  at 
Waterloo,  and  once  more  entered  the  service 
of  Louis  XVITI. ;  but  having  been  ordered  to 
leave  Paris  for  DOle,  be  obtained  permission 
from  tbe  king  to  go  to  the  United  States.  He 
there  entered  the  service  of  tbe  government, 
devised  a  system  of  canals  and  roads  ioi  con- 
necting the  great  lakes  and  navigable  river^ 
and  a  scheme  for  the  defence  of  the  coast,  and 
constracted  Fortress  Monroe,  some  of  the  de- 
fences of  Hew  York,  and  other  works.  Upon 
the  revolution  of  1880  he  returned  to  France, 
and  was  intrusted  by  Lonis  Philippe  with  the 

f reparation  of  plans  for  the  fortification  of 
'aris.  He  was  strongly  in  favor  of  the  system 
of  detached  forte  which  was  afterward  carried 
out  In  1884  be  was  for  a  short  time  minister 
of  war,  and  ad  interim  of  foreign  aff^ra.  In 
1886  he  was  made  minister  of  war  a  second 
time,  and  held  that  office  till  1889. 

BERIfiRD,  SolBt,  GTMt  and  UUe.  See  Saint 
Bbbhabd. 

BEINASD  OF  IKETISO,  an  Italian  alchemist, 
bom  at  Padua  in  1406,  died  in  1490.  He  as- 
sumed tbe  tilie  of  count  of  tbe  March  of  Tre- 
viso,  devoted  bis  life  and  a  large  fortune  to  ex- 
periments and  travels  in  search  of  tbe  philoso- 
pher's stone,  and  afl«r  much  observation  and 
study  arrived  at  the  principle,  "  To  moke  gold, 
gold  is  needed."  In  one  of  Iris  many  works 
he  describes  tlie  trials  and  disappointments  of 
an  alchemist's  life;  and  in  his  b'eatise  De  Jli- 
raeulo  Chemieo  he  develops  a  curious  theory  in 
regard  to  tbe  origin  of  heat 

BEINIHDIN  OF  SIENA,  Balil,  bom  at  Masao, 
Italy,  Sept.  8,  1380,  died  at  Aquila,  May  20, 
1444.    He  showed  remarkable  courage  and  de- 


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676     BERNARDIN  DE  ST.  PIERRE 

Totion  daring  a  pestilence  which  ravaged  Siena 
in  1400,  Having  joined  the  order  of  tit.  Fran- 
oia,  he  was  sent  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  aiter 
his  return  pre&ched  14  jOBia  with  great  sno- 
ceae.  He  refused  the  bishoprics  of  Siena,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Urbino,  bnt  accepted  the  office  of 
vicar  general  of  the  Franciscans,  in  order  to 
restore  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  orisinal 
discipline.  He  founded  800  monasteries.  Those 
who  embraced  his  reform  constituted  the  branch 
of  the  Observantinee.  His  eloquence  was  ex- 
erted with  great  effect  for  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellinea.  In  1400  he 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  His  works 
appeared  in  Venice  m  15fil  in  4  vols.  4to,  and 
at  Paris  in  1686  in  2  vols,  folio.  They  coiwst 
of  eaaaya  on  reli^oua  subjects,  aermons,  and  a 
oommentary  on  ttie  book  of  Revelation. 

BEtNUDtl  DE  BT.  PIUBK     See  Suht- 

FlKBBB. 

BiZirUDIIffiS,  a  name  given  in  France  and 

Spain  to  some  of  the  Cisterdan  monka  and 
nuns.    See  CieTEsoiASs. 

BEBNAKDO  DO.  CASFIO,  a  Spanish  warrior 
of  the  9th  centnry,  probably  bom  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Carpio,  Valencia.  He  was  the  offspring 
of  a  secret  marriage  between  Don  Sancbo  de 
Baldafla  and  Ximeno,  aster  of  Alfonso  II., 
the  Chaste,  of  Leon.  The  king  on  the  dis- 
covery of  the  marriage  had  Saldafia  imprisoned 
and  blinded,  and  Ximena  sent  to  a  convent. 
Bernardo  was  brought  up  at  court,  and  ac- 

5 aired  renown  in  the  war&re  against  the 
[oorSj  which  he  continned  even  after  he  had 
left  his  ancle's  service  in  oonseqnence  of  the 
fkilmv  of  repeated  efforts  to  obtain  his  fatlier's 
release.  Finally  in  his  exasperation  be  joined 
the  Hoors,  and  took  ap  his  headquarters  at  the 
castle  of  Carpio,  upon  which  Alfonso  promised 
to  relent  on  condition  of  the  surrender  of  that 
Btronghold.  But  Saldafia  was  not  set  free,  and 
according  to  some  authorities  he  was  pat  to 
death  either  by  Alfonso,  who  died  in  842,  or 
by  his  successor  Alfonso  the  Great,  while  Ber- 
nardo was  reported  to  have  left  Spain  and 
to  have  acquired  additional  fame  as  a  kui^t 
errant  in  France.  The  narrative  of  his  exploits 
is  associated  with  many  romantic  traditions, 
and  there  are  different  versions  of  his  life,  ac- 
cording to  one  of  which  he  was  kept  for  a  long 
time  in  ignorance  of  his  parentage,  and  on  dis- 
covering it  defied  Alfonso,  after  taking  posses- 
aion  of  the  castle  in  which  his  father  waa  con- 
fined. He  fignres  in  many  old  Spanish  chron- 
icles and  ballads,  and  in  several  plays  by  Lope 
de  Vega,  as  a  national  hero  and  as  the  sac- 
cessfnl  antagonist  of  Roland  at  Roncesvalles. 
An  epic  poem,  £1  Bernardo,  was  published 
by  Bernardo  de  Balbuena  in  Madrid  in  1624 
(new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1608;  abridged  in  Pael^a* 
tehetat  etutcllanai,  by  Quintana,  1883). 

BmiAV,  a  town  of  Prusma,  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  18  m.  N.  E.  of  Berlin ;  pop. 
in  1871,  5,466.  The  town  hall  contains  many 
interesting  Hussite  antiquities  troia  the  year 
1482,  when  the  Hussites  bedeged  the  place. 


BBNiflB,  AgMS,  the  beantifal  daughter  of  a 

bath-keeper  of  Angsburg,  drowned  Oct  IS, 
148G.  Albert,  son  of  Ernest,  dake  of  Bavaria, 
fell  in  love  with  her  at  a  tonmament,  married 
her,  and  lived  with  ber  some  time  in  happiness, 
despite  the  anger  and  persecution  of  his  jatfaer. 
At  last  the  dake,  in  Albert's  absence,  caused 
her  to  he  arreaCed,  tried,  and  found  guilty  of 
witchcraft.  She  was  thrown  into  the  Danube 
before  a  vaat  concourse  of  people,  and  when 
she  swam  or  floated  to  the  bank  the  execution- 
er with  a  pole  held  her  bead  beneath  the  water 
by  her  golden  hair  nntil  she  drowned.  All>ert 
rose  in  arms  against  his  father  and  laid  wast« 
his  territory.  But  the  emperor  Sigismund  re- 
qnired  him  after  a  time  to  make  peace,  and  he 
married  Anna  of  Branawick.  His  father  erect- 
ed achapeloverthegraveofAgnee,  and  Albert 
made  a  foundation  for  the  celebration  of  a  daily- 
mass  for  her.  Several  tragedies  and  poems 
have  been  fonnded  upon  the  story. 

BEBNiT,  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  de- 
partment of  Eure,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cha- 
rentonne,  a  branch  of  the  Rille,  and  upon  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Cherbourg,  35  m.  W.  N. 
W.  of  Evrenx  ;  pop.  in  1366,  7,G10.  A  horae 
fiiir  held  bere  every  year  is  the  largest  in 
France,  and  aometimes  draws  together  40,000 
persons.  The  manufactures  are  of  woollen 
cloth,  linen,  fionnel,  leather,  and  cotton  yam. 
Jnditji,  wife  of  Richard  II.,  dnke  of  Normandy, 
founded  here  an  abbey  in  102T.  Its  chapel, 
one  of  the  oldest  examples  of  tlie  Romane^ne 
style  of  architectore  in  Normandy,  is  now  used 
for  a  market  ball.  Nearthe  city  is  an  ancient 
Gothic  church  to  which  pilgrimages  are  made. 
The  city  waa  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Paya 
d'Oncbe,  the  level  district  that  lies  between 
the  Gharen tonne  and  the  Kille. 

BONBDBG,  a  town  of  Anhalt,  Germany,  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  its  name,  and  formerly  ol 


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BERNI 


577 


garden,  theatre,  Ac,  a^ioining,  s  town  hall,  faoa- 
pitals,  and  achoob  of  different  grades.  Sug&r, 
paper,  and  iron  castingB  are  mannfaotarBd, 

BEBNEU,  or  Barnes,  Lad;  JalUuu,  an  Eugliah 
author,  bom  at  Sodnej  Beraers,  Esaez,  about 
1388,  died  aft«r  1460.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
a  ladj  of  rank  and  of  great  spirit  and  beantj, 
and  was  the  prioresH  of  the  Sopewell  nnnnery 
near  St.  Albana,  upon  the  abbej  of  which  place 
the  nDDDerj  was  dependent.  A  celebrated 
book  on  hawking,  banting,  fishing,  and  coat 
armor  is  attribnt«d  to  her.  According  to  some 
accounts,  the  first  edi^on  of  thia  book  was 
printed  at  St  Albans  in  1481.  In  the  earliest 
extant  edition,  dated  1486,  the  work  is  entttlud 
"  The  Bokjs  of  Hawking  and  Hunting,  and  also 
of  Cootarnmries."  In  SMne  editions  it  is  enti- 
tled "The  Boke  of  St  Albans."  It  continned 
to  be  the  moat  popular  mannal  of  field  sports 
ontil  the  I8th  ceoturj.  A  folio  edition  was 
printed  bj  Wrnkin  de  Worde  in  14Sfl,  in 
which  first  appeared  the  part  on  fishing.  A 
facsimile  of  thia  was  printed  in  1610  by  Eazle- 
wood,  who  sabseanently  investigated  the  claims 
of  the  anthor  to  oe  considered  the  first  female 
writer  in  the  Enghsh  language.  An  edition 
of  the  "Treatise  of  Fj'ashjnge"  waa  printed 
bjBaskenillein]e27. 

MEBStMS,  JokB  ItBrdiCT,  baron,  an  English 
statesman,  bom  in  1474,  died  in  1532.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Humphrey  Bourohier,  and 
was  descended  from  the  duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  youngest  child  of  Edward  III.  He  was  a 
member  of  parliament  from  1495  to  1699,  took 
an  active  part  in  putting  down  the  insurrection 
in  Cornwall  in  1497,  was  appointed  by  Henry 
VIII.  chancellor  of  Uie  exchequer  in  1G16,  and 
in  1S16  was  auociated  with  John  Eito,  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  in  an  embaasj  to  Spain. 


He  wrote  a  translation  of  Froissart'e  Chronicles 
by  the  king's  command ;  the  first  Tolnme  was 
published  in  1638  and  the  second  in  1636.  He 
also  translated  other  works  from  the  French 
and  Bpanish,  and  wrote  &  comedy  entitled  Ite 
in  Vintam  meam,  which  was  usually  acted  in 
tbe  great  church  at  Calais  after  veapers. 

BSflEi'ii,  T^HM,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
statesman,  bom  in  Fermo,  Dec  39,  1T7S,  died 
ther^  March  21,  1862.  In  1808  he  followed 
Cardinal  Brancadoro  to  France,  and  in  1810  to 
his  exile  at  Kheims,  whither  Brancadoro  was 
sent  OS  one  of  the  13  "black  cardinals"  who 
refused  to  assist  at  the  marriage  of  Napoleon 
and  Maria  Louisa.  In  1814  be  returned  to 
Kome  with  Fins  YIL,  and  was  appointed  as- 
sessor of  the  committee  of  war,  intrusted  with 
the  reorganization  of  the  militaiy  service.  Af- 
terward he  waa  sent  as  ambassador  to  St. 
Petersbnrg  (1826),  and  as  legate  to  Ravenna 
and  Bologna.  In  1627  he  became  a  cardinal, 
and  in  1836  was  made  secretary  of  state.  Af- 
ter the  accession  of  Gregory  XVI.  be  under- 


took to  create  a  militia  which  might  obviata 
the  necessity  of  employing  Austrian  troops. 
This  led  to  remonstrances  from  the  Austrian 
government,  and  to  bis  being  deprived  of  his 
office  in  16S6.  He  was  then  made  vice  chan- 
cellor of  the  Roman  chnroh.  When  Pies  IX. 
left  Rome  in  1848  Bemetti  Joined  him  at  Ga> 
eta,  and  fh>m  that  place  went  to  Fermo. 

BEKRUBD,  duke  of  Saie-Weimor,  bom  in 
Weimar,  Aug.  6,  1S04,  died  in  Nenbui^  on 
the  Rhine,  July  8,  1SS9.  He  Joined  Gnstavns 
Adolphns  in  1681,  and  after  Uie  king's  death 
in  the  battle  of  Ldtzen  took  the  command  and 
secured  the  victory.  In  1638  he  was  made 
commander  of  half  the  Swedish  amiy  and  in- 
vested with  the  dukedom  of  Fronconia,  which 
he  lost  the  next  year  in  consequence  of  hia 
great  defeat  by  the  imperialists  at  NOrdlingen. 
Not  receiving,  as  he  thought,  proper  support 
fh)m  Sweden,  he  formed  a  separate  treaty 
with  France  at  8t  Germwn-en-Laye,  Oct 
17,  1SS6.  In  1636,  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  French  auiiUariea  and  German  troops, 
he  achieved  many  victories  in  Lomdue,  Bnr- 
gundy,  and  Alsace,  and  in  Jnne,  1687,  de- 
tested  the  emperor's  troops  under  Charles, 
duke  of  Lorraine.  In  1636,  outting[  loose  from 
the  French  alliance,  he  took  Breisach,  ^t^ 
having  defeated  three  armies  sent  to  its  relief, 
and  against  the  wishes  of  Richelieu  ooouniad  it 
with  German  troops.  With  a  view  to  tne  es- 
tablishment of  an  independent  principality  in 
Germany,  he  had  entered  into  negotiations  for 
a  marriage  between  himself  and  Amelia,  land- 
gravine of  Hesse,  had  continned  bis  couquesta 
in  Burgundy,  and  was  prqjecting  the  invasion 
of  Bavaria,  when  he  woe  seiced  with  the  dis- 
ease which  pnt  a  sudden  end  to  his  career,  and 
which  he  attributed  to  poison  administered  by 
a  hireling  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  Upon  hia 
death  Breisach  passed  with  Alaaoe  into  th« 
bands  of  tbe  French. 

BOKBiRD,  Kart,  the  peeudonyme  of  a  Da- 
nish novelist  named  Saint  Aubiit,  horn  in  Co- 
penhagen, Nov.  18,  17B8,  died  Nov.  26,  1865. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Pictures  of  Life  in 
Denmark,"  "Christian  VII.  and  his  Court," 
"  OhrisCiau  11.  and  his  Times,"  and  "  Chronicle* 
of  tbe  Time  of  King  Eric  of  Pomerania."  He 
excelled  in  sketches  of  domestic  life  and  of  Da- 
nish society.  Two  editions  of  his  works  have 
been  published  in  German  at  Leipsic 

BfXNHABDT,  Sarab.    Bee  supplement 

BEKNl,  FraacMte,  an  Italian  poet,  bom  at 
Lamporecchio  in  Tuscany  about  1490,  died  July 
26,  1686.  At  the  age  of  19  he  went  to  Rom« 
and  entered  tiie  service  of  Cardinal  Bibiena, 
and  sabsequeutly  obtained  the  «tnation  of  pri- 
vate secretary  to  Giberti,  bishop  of  Verona. 
He  assnmcd  also  the  habit  of  an  ecclesiastic, 
but  the  austerity  of  the  bishop's  household  was 
not  to  his  taste,  and  be  sought  the  society  of 
some  young  ecclesiastics  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  wine,  pleasure,  and  poetry.  His  prin- 
dpal  worke  are  the  Bime  btirletehe  and  a  new 
version  of  the  Orlando  lananwrato  of  Boiardo, 


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678 


BERNIES 


with  additional  verses  of  his  own.  At  the  eaek 
of  Rome  in  1S27  he  lost  all  that  he  poassBaed 
and  retired  to  Florence,  where  he  lived  as 
canon,  eitjo;ing  the  favor  of  the  Mediel. 

BEKNIEB,  FiUftb,  a  French  traveller  and 
philosopher,  horn  in  A^jon  ahoat  1626,  died 
in  Paris,  Sept.  22, 16S8.  He  first  studied  med- 
icine, but  fiifi  tasts  for  traTelling  led  him  to 
Syria,  to  Egypt,  and  afterward  to  India,  where 
he  redded  for  twelve  jeara,  during  eight  of 
which  he  was  phyuoian  to  the  emperor  A nrang- 
zebe.  Under  the  protection,  of  tnis  prinoe  and 
hia  ministers  he  was  enabled  to  viut  eonntriea 
hitherto  inaoceamble  to  Earopeans.  Upon  bU 
return  from  his  travels  hia  aoclety  was  much 
courted  at  Paria,  and  he  was  called,  on  account 
of  the  elegance  of  his  person  and  of  hia  man- 
ners, the  joli  phUotophe.  He  published  sev- 
eral volnm  as  describing  hia  trarela,  which  have 
frequently  been  reprinted  nnder  the  general 
title  of  Voyage»  de  Bej-nier,  amtenant  la  ds- 
toriptuM  det  £tal4  dv  Grand  Mogol,  and  were 
translated  into  English  (London,  IflTl-'S).  He 
wrote  an  Abrigi  de  la  PhilotopMe  de  ffattendi 
(8  vola,,  Lyona,  16T9),  and  uded  Boilean  in 
the  composition  of  the  ArrSt  burletaite,  which 
saved  the  works  of  Aristotle  from  being  con- 
demned by  the  parliament  of  Paria. 

BWfUl,  a  peak  of  the  Rhatian  Alp^  in  the 
canton  of  Grisona,  Switzerland,  S6  m.  8.  E.  of 
Chur,  ie,294  feet  in  height.  It  gives  its  name 
to  the  range  of  raonntaina  that  separate  the 
valleys  of  the  Engadine  and  Br^^lia  from 
the  VBlteline.  The  Benuna  pass,  7,872  feet 
above  the  sea,  connects  the  Vitelline  with  the 
upper  Engadine  valley. 

B^LKINI,  (avraail  Lartue,  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  architect,  bom  in  Faplea  in  1698,  died  in 
Rome,  Nov.  28,  1680.  Having  been  presented 
by  his  father  at  an  early  age  to  Paul  V.,  he 
drew  the  head  of  St.  Paul  in  a  manner  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  pope,  and  he 
recommended  him  to  Cardinal  Barberini.  At 
the  age  of  18  he  made  a  ^np  of  "Apollo 
and  Daphne,"  which  may  atill  he  seen  at  the 
villa  Borgheae.  After  Barberini  became  pope 
under  the  name  of  Urban  YIIT.  (1623)  Bernini 
was  employed  for  nine  years  upon  the  bronze 
oanopj'  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter.  He  then 
built  the  niches  in  the  fonr  pillars  that  snp- 

Krt  the  dome,  and  executed  the  atatue  of  St. 
nginns  that  stands  in  one  of  them.  He 
afterward  built  the  palazzo  Barberini  and  exe- 
cuted the  group  of  St,  Theresa  with  the  angel. 
Under  Innocent  X.  he  constructed  the  foun- 
tain in  the  piazza  Navona  and  the  palace  of 
Monte  Citono.  Among  tlie  many  worka  he 
executed  for  Alexander  VII.  was  the  colon- 
nade in  front  of  St.  Peter's.  His  fame  spread 
throughout  Europe.  Louis  XIV.  in  an  auto- 
graph letter  (April  1],  16B6)  invited  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  completion  of  the  Louvre. 
His  journey  to  France  was  a  triumphal  proces- 
sion; but  his  plans  involved  the  destruction 
of  all  of  the  Louvre  that  had  already  been 
built,  and  were  never  carried  out.    He  re- 


BERNOULLI 

turned  to  Italy  in  the  spring  of  1666  loaded 
with  honors  and  with  gifts.  Upon  his  death 
at  the  age  of  82  be  left  a  large  fortune. 

BmriB,  Fnafrii  JaaAlH  d«  Phnts  ^  a  French 
cardinal  and  statesman,  bom  May  22,  171S,  at 
St  Marcel,  department  of  Ard^he,  died  in 
Rome,  Nov.  1,  17B4.  He  was  of  a  noble  and 
ancient,  but  not  wealthy  family,  and  was  des- 
tined from  childhood  for  the  church.  He  went 
to  Paris,  and  after  pasong  several  years  at  the 
seminarj  of  St  Sulpice  entered  society  with 
the  title  of  abb£,  and  by  his  personal  i4>pear- 
anoe,  graeeM  mannera,  and  talent  for  making 
verses  made  a  favorable  impression.  He  was 
received  into  the  French  academy  in  1744. 
Cardinal  Flenry,  a  friend  of  his  father,  dis- 
approved of  his  gay  life;  hut  after  the  death 
of  the  cardinal,  through  the  favor  of  Madame 
Pompadour,  he  waa  appconted  minister  to 
Venice.  While  in  that  city  (1761-'6),  a  differ- 
ence having  arisen  between  the  republic  and 
the  pope,  the  abbi  Bemia  mediate  between 
them.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was 
made  minister  of  foreign  atfain  and  cardinal. 
As  minister  he  negotiated,  at  the  opening  of  the 
seven  years'  war,  the  alliance  between  Austria 
and  France  against  England  and  Pmseia.  Tb« 
war  having  led  to  the  diaaatrona  defeat  of  Rosa- 
bach,  Cardinal  de  Bemis  was  compelled  to  send 
in  his  resignation  aa  mintater,  and  was  exiled 
in  17S8  to  Soiasons,  where  he  remained  till 
17S4j  when  he  was  recalled  and  made  arch- 
biabop  of  Albi.  Five  years  afterward  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Borne  with  instructions 
to  labor  for  the  suppresaon  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits.  At  Rome  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  conclaves  of  1768  and  1774.  He  lived 
there  in  great  magnificence  until  the  French 
revolution  deprived  him  of  his  revenaea,  after 
which  he  received  till  bis  death  an  allowance 
from  the  court  of  Spun.  His  letters  to  PAris- 
Duvemay  and  a  small  volume  of  (Evrre*  miliea 
en  prote  et  en  vert  have  been  published. 

BiaLNOUUJ,  or  BerMiiai,  a  celebrated  &mily 
of  matbematlciana  and  aavanta,  originally  of 
Antwerp,  driven  thence  by  Alva,  settled  first 
in  Frankfort,  and  in  1622  in  Baael,  Switzer- 
land. 1.  JiHss,  bom  in  Basel,  Dec.  26,  1664, 
died  there,  Aug.  IS,  1706.  He  was  destined 
by  his  father  for  the  ministry,  bnt  accident 
having  thrown  some  geometrical  books  in  his 
way,  be  took  for  hia  device  Phaetbon  driving 
the  chariot  of  the  sun,  with  the  motto,  Ineito 
patre,  tidera  rerio,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  mathematics.  In  1676  be  visit«d 
Geneva,  where  be  taught  a  blind  ^1  to  write, 
and  thence  travelled  into  France,  where  he 
constructed  gnomical  tablea,  and  returned 
home  in  1680.  The  appearance  of  a  comet  in 
that  year  led  to  his  publishing  an  essay  en~ 
titied  Conamen  noti  Sgitematu  Cfftnetamm, 
in  which  he  contended  that  the  orbits  of  cometa 
might  be  calculated.  He  again  travelled  in 
various  countries,  and  at  London  made  the  ac- 
quwntance  of  Bayle.  After  his  return  to  Basel 
in  1682  he  tried  experimenta  in  physical  and 


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meohanioftl  ectence  which  attracted  much  at- 
t«ntion.  In  108?  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathem&tica  in  the  nniverait}'  of  Basel,  and 
engaged  in  profound  matbematical  inveatiga- 
tJODS,  particoiarlj  in  the  development  of  the 
theory  of  the  differential  and  integral  calcdne 
which  had  heen  devised  hj  Leibnitz.  In  lOOB 
he  was  chosen  member  of  the  French  academy, 
the  first  foreigner  ever  elected,  and  in  ITOl 
lieoame  member  of  the  Berlin  aoademj.  He 
directed  that  the  logarithmlo  spirHl,  of  which 
he  had  demonstrated  the  properties,  should  lie 
ensraved  npon  his  tombstone  with  the  motto : 
Ead«m  mutatd  raurgo.  After  his  death  his 
treatise  entitled  Art  ConJKtandi  was  pobtished 
(1718).  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  works  on 
the  theory  of  probabilitdes.  His  collected  works 
were  pohlished  at  Geneva  in  1744  (2  vols.  4to). 
n>  Jtthi,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  July 
27,  16S7,  died  Jan.  1,  1746.  He  was  ednoated 
at  the  nniverfflty  of  Basel,  stadied  medicine, 
and  in  1690  published  a  dissertation  on  effer- 
vescence ana  fermentation.  But  he  soon 
tamed  his  attention  to  mathematics.  In  1690 
he  went  to  Qeneva,  and  travelled  in  France, 
where  he  made  the  acqaaintanoe  of  Hale- 
branche,  De  I'HOpital,  and  other  men  of  sci- 
ence. He  retamed  to  Basel  in  1692,  and  was 
appointed  in  169fi  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Groninffcn.  In  1696  ha  proposed  for  solution 
Oie  following  problem:  "To  find  the  onrve 
on  which  a  material  point  will  fall  ttora  one 
given  point  to  another  in  the  least  possible 
time."  It  was  solved  by  his  brother  James 
and  others,  and  James  proposed  in  return  an- 
other problem  in  regard  to  the  solution  of 
which  there  was  a  loi^  controversy  between 
the  two  brothers.  John  exhibited  anreason- 
able  jealousy  of  his  brother,  and  was  not  eqaal 
to  him  aa  a  mathematician.  He,  however,  sno- 
oeeded  him  as  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Basel,  and  remained  in  that  po«tiou  till  his 
death.  He  was  also  jealoas  of  his  son  Daniel, 
and  had  controversies  with  many  of  the  scien- 
tiSc  men  of  his  day ;  hut  he  was  the  instructor 
of  Enler  and  the  friend  of  Leibnitz,  with  whom 
he  carried  on  a  long  correspondence,  published 
at  Lausanne  and  Geneva  (3  vols.,  174S).  He 
aided  with  his  brother  in  the  development  of 
the  calcalus,  investigated  many  ourions  ques- 
tions In  physics,  and  contributed  greatiy  to  the 
advancement  of  mathematical  science.  He  ad- 
dressed many  papers  to  the  different  scientjflo 
bodies  of  Europe,  which  were  collected  by  Cra- 
mer (4  vols,  4to,  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  1742), 
and  was  a  member  of  the  academies  of  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg,  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety of  London,  and  of  the  institate  of  Bologna. 
His  works  were  published  at  Geneva  in  1T42 
(I  voL  4to).  ni>  Daaiel,  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  in  Groningen,  Feb.  8,  1700,  died 
in  Basel,  March  17,  1782.  He  received  in- 
Btmction  from  his  bther  in  mathematics,  and 
stndied  medicine  for  some  years  in  Italy.  While 
there  he  distingoisbed  himself ' 
a  question  of  geometry,  and  a 


>ULU  679 

was  offered  the  presidency  of  an  academy  of 
sciences  which  had  jnst  been  founded  at  Genoa. 
The  following  year  he  was  appointed  professor 

of  mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
remained  till  17S3,  when  he  was  appointed 
first  professor  of  botany  and  anatomy,  and 
afterward  of  natural  philosophy  and  meta- 
phy^s,  in  the  university  of  Basel.  In  1T4B  he 
sncceeded  his  bther  as  member  of  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Paris,  and  ten  times  obtained 
the  prizes  of  that  body.  He  made  man;  new 
and  in^nious  amplications  of  matbematioal 
science  m  mechanics,  astronomy,  and  hydrau- 
lics, and  in  1760  wrote  a  paper  on  inocnlation 
in  which  he  introduced  a  new  principle  in- 
to the  theory  of  probabilities.  He  resigned 
his  professorship  in  1TT7,  suffered  much  itam 
asthina  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and 
was  finally  found  one  morning  by  his  servant 
dead  In  his  bed.  Among  his  works  are :  ExeT' 
eitatiotie»  gwtdam  MaiKematieM  (4to,  Venice, 
1724);  ffydrodytiamiea,  leu  de  TiribTU  et  iioti- 
but  Fluidoram  (4to,  Strasburg,  1738);  and  a 
work  on  the  physical  cause  of  the  inclination 
of  the  axes  and  orbits  of  planets  with  reference 
to  the  solar  equator.  IV.  Nldielu,  elder  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Basel,  Jan.  27, 
16B5,  diedinStPetersbuig,Jaly26, 172a.  He 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  was  then 
appointed  professor  at  St.  Petersbui^  with  bia 
brother.  T.  itHd,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Basel,  May  18,  1710,  died  July  17, 1790, 
He  studied  law  and  mathematics,  in  1748  was 
appointed  professor  of  eloquence  at  Basel,  and 
in  1748  suoc«eded  hie  father  as  professor  of 
mathematics  there.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  of  Berlin  and  of  Paris,  and 
received  tiiree  prizes  from  the  French  acad- 
emy. TL  Joha,  eon  of  the  preceding,  bom  in 
Basel,  Nov.  4,  1744,  died  Jnly  18,  1807.  He 
stndied  at  Basel  and  Neufchfitel,  .devoting  him- 
self especially  to  astronomy,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  At  the  age  of  19  he  was  appoint- 
ed astronomer  of  the  Berlin  academy,  and 
afterward  director  of  the  mathematical  class. 
He  published  Reeueil  pour  U»  tulTimomet  (8 
vols.,  Berlin,  1772-'6),  Lettrei  a*lronomiquei 
(17B1),  and  6  vols,  of  his  own  travels,  besidea 
a  collection  of  travels  in  IS  vols.  Til*  iimia, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Baael,  Oct 
17,  1759.  died  in  St  Petersburg,  Jnly  18, 1789. 
When  his  uncle  Daniel  became  infinn,  he  as- 
sumed at  the  age  of  21  his  duties  as  professor 
of  nataral  philosophy,  but  was  not  chosen  his 
successor,  the  appointment  being  made  by  lot 
At  the  age  of  20  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  in  Bt  Petersburg,  and  mar- 
ried there  a  granddaughter  of  Enler.  Two 
months  afterward  he  died  of  apoplexy  while 
bathing  in  the  Neva,  fill,  Nlthelas,  nephew 
of  the  first  James  and  John,  bom  in  Basel, 
Oct  10,  1687,  died  Nov.  29,  1759.  He  edited 
the  Art  Conjeetandi  of  his  uncle  James,  and 
solved  several  of  the  geometrical  problems 
proposed  by  his  nncle  John.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Padua  from  1716  to  1T22, 


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580 


BEBNSTORFF 


in  the  chair  once  filled  b?  Galileo,  and  was 
afterward  professor  first  of  lo^o  and  then  of 
law  at  Basel.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Berlin 
academy,  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  and 
of  the  institute  of  Bolo^a.  IX.  Jctmn,  of  the 
same  family,  born  in  Basel  in  174S,  died  in 
1829.  He  was  distiugnished  as  h  naturalist 
and  a  mineralogist^  and  was  for  a  time  presi- 
dent of  the  coonoil  of  his  native  canton.  X> 
Uulitapher,  a  teohnoIoRiat,  of  tlie  pame  family, 
bom  in  Basel,  March  16,  1T82,  died  there, 
Feb.  e,  1863.  He  stadied  at  Neufoh&tel  and 
afterward  at  GOttingen,  where  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  natural  sciences.  In 
1802  he  became  professor  at  Halle,  where  he 
remmned  two  years.  He  then  spent  some  time 
in  traveUing,  and  in  1806  opened  a  private 
school  at  Basel,  which  he  gave  up  in  1817  and 
became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  uni- 
Tersity,  retiring  in  1861.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  works  npon  snhjects  connected  with 
rational  technology,  among  which  are:  Weber 
den  Tuichtheiligen  EinAtia  dtrr  ZwifHerfa^wig 
auf  die  Indiutrie  fBasel,  1822) ;  Randbveh 
der  Technology  (2  vo!s._,  1838-'4 ;  2d  ed.,  1840) ; 
Sattdbaeh  der  induttriellea  Pkyiih,  Meehanik 
und  ffydraulii  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  18S4-'5). 

BEXNSTOIFF.  L  JAiu  Hartwlg  but,  count, 
a  Danish  statesman,  bom  in'IIanoTer,  May  18, 
1712,  died  in  Hamburg,  Feb.  16,  1772.  He 
was  educated  in  Germany,  represented  the 
Danish  government  in  1787  at  the  diet  of 
Ratiebon,  and  in  1744  was  appointed  minister 
to  Paris.  In  17G0  he  became  secretary  and 
coimcillor  of  Btat&  and  in  1751  member  of  the 
privy  conncil,  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  af- 
fairs. A  war  with  Russia  on  the  Holsteia-Got- 
torp  question  was  averted  by  his  prudence,  and 
he  was  ennobled  by  Christian  Vll,  (1767),  and 
called  by  Frederick  the  Great  the  "  oracle  of 
Demnark."  He  promoted  indnstry,  art,  and  let- 
ters, and  hberat«d  his  serfs.  After  having  been 
onsted  from  office  by  Stmensee  in  1770,  he 
was  recalled  in  1772  in  the  most  flattering 
manner  after  tbe  latter's  downfall,  and  died 
when  about  returning  to  Copenhagen  from 
Hamburg,  where  he  had  lived  in  the  interval. 
■L  IbArm  Peter,  connt,  a  Danish  statesman, 
ooDsin  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Gartow,  near 
Ltlneburg,  Aug.  28,  173S,  died  in  Copenhagen, 
June  21,  1797.  He  studied  at  German  nniver- 
rities,  travelled  eitenwvely,  entered  the  Daui^ 
service  in  1766,  became  a  privy  councillor  in 
1769,  and  in  1T72  minister  of  foreign  alFairs. 
He  reestablished  friendly  relations  with  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1778  was  the  first  to  propose 
armed  neutrality  to  Sweden.  His  views  con- 
flicting with  those  of  the  dowager  queen  Juli- 
ana and  other  influential  parties,  he  left  office 
in  1780.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  in 
1782,  he  married  in  1783  her  sister  the  coun- 
tess Augusta  Stolberg,  whose  brothers  were 
the  famous  German  poets.  Rejoining  the  cab- 
inet in  1784,  he  prepared  for  the  abohtion  of 
serfdom  in  Scbleswig  and  Holstein ;  and  by  re- 
moving all  trammels  from  liberty  of  the  press, 


he  enabled  German  thinkers  to  express  ideas 
in  Denmark  which  they  were  not  permitted 
to  utter  in  their  own  country.  See  Eggers, 
Benkuni/rdigteiten  am  dem  Leben  da  StaaU- 
mifiUteri  eon  Bemitorff  (Copenhagen,   1800). 

BEMEL  1.  An  ancient  town  of  Macedonia, 
on  a  tributary  of  the  Ballacmon,  in  which  St. 
Paul  preached  the  gospel.  (See  Vebu.)  IL 
One  of  the  ancient  names  of  Aleppo. 

BiXOeCi,  a  priest  of  Belns  at  Babylon,  who 
probably  lived  about  260  B.  C,  although  some 
place  him  80  and  even  70  years  earlier.  He 
wrote  in  Greek  a  history  of  Chaldea  or  Baby- 
lonia, professing  to  derive  the  materials  from 
the  archives  of  the  temple.  It  embraced  the 
myths  and  traditions  of  the  early  ages,  a  de- 
scription of  Babylonia,  and  e.  chronological  list 
of  its  kings  down  to  Cyrus.  He  starta  with  a 
mythical  period  of  34,080  years,  during  which 
there  were  86  kings,  two  of  whom  reigned 
more  than  2,000  years  each.  His  earliest  his- 
torical date  is  placed  by  Rawlinson  about  2458 
B.  0.,  and  he  speaks  of  1S2  kings  who  reigned 
between  that  time  and  688  B.  C.  His  work 
itself  is  lost,  tliere  being  eitant  only  fragments 

f reserved  in  citations  by  Josephus,  Ensebins, 
olyhistor,  Synceilus,  and  some  of  the  Greek 
fathers.  The  historical  chronoli^ry  of  Bero-ms  id 
to  a  degree  confirmed  by  the  inscriptions  which 
have  been  discovered  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
and,  as  &r  as  they  touch  upon  each  other,  by 
the  Hebrew  records.  It  is  generally  accepted 
as  tolerably  authentic  by  scholars,  who  dis- 
credit the  statements  of  Cteuas.  The  esistiiig 
fragments  of  Berosus,  with  the  inscriptions, 
fill  a  space  otherwise  vacant  in  ancient  history. 
They  were  partially  collected  by  Scaliger  in 
De  Emendations  Temporum  (l«yden,  1683), 
and  more  fnlly  by  Fabricius  in  the  Bibliatheta 
Oram  (Hamburi,  8d  ed.,  1718-'28)  ;  the  best 
collection  is  hy  Kichter,  Beron  Chaldaorum 
Hutoria  que  ivpertunt  (Leipnc,  1826 ;  Paris, 
1848).  A  work  ascribed  to  Berosua,  Avtigiii' 
latum  libri  gvingve,  cum  Commentariit  Joan- 
na Annii,  which  appeared  at  Rome  in  1498, 
and  has  been  several  times  reprinted,  is  spn- 
rioQB,  being  a  forgery  by  Annlos  of  Viterbo. 

BEK^nil,  Inaad,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Bordeaux  inl749,diedinPsriB,  Dec.  21, 17B1. 
His  idyls  and  ballads,  and  especially  Oenf- 
viire  da  Brabant,  became  very  popular,  and 
still  more  his  numerous  writings  for  children, 
including  brief  stories  and  plays.  His  principal 
work  of  the  kind,  VAmi  de*  ei\fanU  (24  vola. 
I2mo,  1783-'3),  obtained  a  prize  from  the 
French  academy  ix  1784,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German.  Many  of  the  stories  were 
t^en  from  Christian  Felii  Weisse's  Einder- 
frmind  fl776-'e2),  but  adapted  so  admirably 
to  the  French  as  to  convey  en  impression  of 
their  originality.  He  also  published  a  free  trans- 
lation of  Mrs.  Trimmer's  "Easy  Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Nature,"  wrote  noveU, 
edited  for  some  time  the  ifonilear,  and,  in 
coijunetion  with  other  Journalists,  LafeuUU 
vitiageoite.    Complete  editions  of  his  writings 


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BERRIEN 

appeared  in  1798-1803,  and  the  kit  in  4  vols. 

large  8vo,  1886. 

BERRIEBT.  I.  A  S.  coant;  of  Georgia,  bound- 
ed E.  by  the  AUpaha  river,  which  crosses  the 
N.  E.  corner,  and  W.  bj  Little  river,  and 
drained  also  bj  tho  Withlacoochee ;  area,  TSO 
sq.  m.  ■  pop.  in  1670,  4,618,  of  whom  460  wore 
colored.  In  1670  it  produced  78,878  bnshela 
of  Indian  com,  41,184  of  oats,  C5,675  of  sweet 
potatoes,  671  bales  of  cotton,  19,016  lbs.  of 
wool,  and  119,463  of  rice.  Tliere  were  686 
hones,  3,682  milch  cows,  6,9ol  other  cattle, 
7,016  sheep,  and  13,629  swine.  Capital,  Nash- 
ville. II>  AS.W.conntT  of  Michigan,  bordering 
on  Indiaoa  and  Lake  Miohigan ;  area,  600  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1670,  86,104.  It  ia  drained  by  the 
St  Joseph's,  Pawpaw,  and  Galien  rivers.  The 
mr&oe  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  near  the  St. 
Joseph's  consists  of  a  deep,  black,  sand;  ioam, 
overgrown  with  thick  forests  of  hard  timber. 
The  Michigan  Central  and  the  Chicago  and 
Michigan  Lake  Shore  rulroads  pass  through 
the  countj.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  460,809  bushels  of  wheat,  469,703  of  In- 
dian corn,  176,217  of  oats,  282,508  of  potatoes, 
27,064  t«ns  of  haj,  90,789  lbs.  of  wool,  and 
648,959  of  butter.  There  were  6,448  horses, 
6,967  nulch  cows,  7,004  other  cattle,  26,118 
aheep,  and  16,626  swine.  Capital,  Berrien 
Springs,  on  the  St.  Joseph's,  8  m,  N.  W.  of 
Kiles,  the  largest  town. 

BESBIEN,  Jsbi  Muf^atm,  an  American  law- 
yer and  atatesman,  bom  in  Sew  Jersej,  Aug. 
23,  1781,  died  in  SsTacnah,  Ga..  Jan.  1,  1866. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  ofBoer  in  the  war  of  the 
revolution,  and  earlj  acquired  distinotton  as  a 
lawyer  in  Georgia.  He  was  soUcitor  of  the 
eastern  district  of  Georgia  in  1809,  and  judge 
of  the  same  district  from  1610  to  1622,  when 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Georgia  senat«, 
from  which  he  was  transferred  in  1S24  to  the 
senate  of  the  United  States,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  hi^  reputation  as  an  orator  and 
statesman.  He  was  appointed  attorney  gen- 
eral of  the  Cnit«d  States  in  1829,  but  redgnad 
that  office  in  1831  when  Gen.  Jackstm'a  cabinet 
became  inbarmooions.  In  1840  he  was  elected 
again  to  the  national  senate  as  a  whig,  and  was 
reglect«d  in  1646,  finally  retiring  in  1652. 

BERET,  or  Becrl,  a  former  provinoe  of  France, 
nearly  in  the  centre,  now  forming  the  depart- 
ments of  Indre  and  Cher,  and  Bmall  portions 
of  those  of  Loire-et-Cher  and  Grause.  Capital, 
Bonrges.  It  included  most  of  the  ancient  ter- 
ritory of  the  Bituriges,'  the  chief  people  of  Celtic 
Ganl,  was  nnder  Roman  role  till  near  the  end  of 
the  6th  century,  and  was  wrested  by  Olovis  in 
607  from  the  Visigoths,  who  had  invaded  it, 
after  which  the  local  rulers  were  military  chiefs 
or  counts.  Under  Charles  the  Bald  the  province 
became  a  hereditary  county,  and  was  ruled  by 
the  counts  of  Bourges  until  abont  1100,  when 
the  last  of  them,  Arpin,  sold  the  fief  to  Philip 
I.  It  remained  thenoeforward  in  possession  of 
princes  and  princesses  of  the  royal  btood,  first 
as  a  county,  and  after  1860  as  a  duchy,  till 


5S1 

1601,  wheuon  the  death  of  the  widow  of  Henry 
III.  it  was  definitively  merged  in  the  French 
crown.  Since  then  the  nominal  title  of  duke 
of  Berry  has  been  given  to  a  grandson  of  Lonis 
XIV.,  to  Loais  XVI,  while  he  was  dauphin, 
and  to  Charles  Ferdinand,  son  of  Charles  X. 
Berry  suffered  much  during  the  wars  with  Eng- 
land and  the  religious  wars.  See  Hutoire  du 
Berry,  by  Baynal  (Paris,  1844-'T). 

VmXt,  or  Berri.  I.  Marls  Lsilse  £llsabet!i, 
duchess  of,  bom  Aug.  20,  1895,  died  at  Marlj, 
July  21,  1719.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Philippe 
d'Ori^ans,  afterward  regent  of  France,  and 
married  in  1710  Charlea,  duke  of  Berry,  grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.,  after  whose  suspiciously 
sudden  death  in  1714  she  secretly  married 
one  of  her  many  lovers,  made  no  longer  a  se- 
cret of  her  incest  with  her  own  father,  and  died 
from  an  illness  which  she  contracted  while  giv- 
ing to  him  a  great  eutert^nroenl,  though  barely 
recovered  &om  her  confinement,  which  she  hod 
attempted  to  conceal.  St  Simon  describes  her 
as  an  ambitious  Mesaolino,  and  she  was  so  de- 
praved that  she  was  even  accused  of  many 
crimes  of  which  she  was  probably  innocent 
IL  CbariM  Fsrriluad,  duke  of,  the  second  son 
of  the  connt  d'Artois,  afterword  Charles  X., 
bom  in  Versailles,  Jon.  24,  1778,  died  in  Pa- 
ris, Feb.  14,  1620.  He  emigrated  with  his 
fa^er  in  1789,  and  served  in  the  army  of 
Cond£  till  1798,  when  he  went  to  Russia,  and 
in  1801  to  England,  where  he  contracted  a  se- 
cret marriage  (which  waa  afterward  cancelled) 
with  an  English  woman,  who  bore  him  two 
children.  He  was  favorably  received  in  France 
on  landing  at  Cherbourg  in  1614,  afterward 
accompanied  Lonis  XVIII.  to  Ghent,  and  made 
Paris  his  home  after  the  final  overthrow  of  Na- 

Gleon.  He  was  stabbed  by  a  saddler  named 
lurel,  a  political  fanatic,  on  leaving  the  opera 
with  bis  wife,  and  died  neit  morning,  after 
having  in  vmn  solicited  the  pardon  of  his  mur- 
derer, who  was  foiled  in  his  avowed  purpose  of 
extinguishing  the  race  of  the  Bourbons  by  the 
birth  seven  months  afterward  of  the  doke  of 
Bordeaux.  (See  Bottbbos.)  III.  Jbrie  GaitllH 
Frriiisiir  L«ilse,  duchess  of,  wife  of  the  preced- 
ing, bom  in  Palermo,  Nov.  B,  1798,  died  near 
Gratz,  April  7,  1870.  She  waa  a  danghter  of 
Francis  I.,  king  of  the  Two  Siciliea,  and  of  Ma- 
ria Clementina,  archduchess  of  Austria.  Louis 
XVIII.  arranged  her  marriage  with  his  nephew 
the  duke  of  Berry,  which  was  celebrated  in 
Paris  on  June  16, 1616.  In  1819  she  gave  birth 
to  a  daughter,  Louise  Marie  Th^r^,  who  be- 
came duchess  of  Parma,  and  died  in  1664.  After 
theassassinationofber  husband  (Feb.  13, 1820), 
she  gave  birth  (Sept  29}  to  Henri,  duke  of 
Bordeaux,  afterword  known  as  the  count  de 
Chambord,  She  became  very  popular  in  Paris 
by  her  affable  manners,  and  especially  by  her 
fondness  for  theatres  and  brilliant  social  enter- 
tainments. On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1880  she  was  restrained  by  Obarles  X. 
from  insisting  upon  the  claims  of  her  son  to  the 
throne,  and  she  followed  the  Bourbon  family 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


583  BERRY 

into  exile.  In  1831  she  went  to  Sestri,  bnt  at 
the  request  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  left  his  ter- 
ritory and  proceeded  to  Modeoa  and  thence  to 
Rome.  She  afterward  went  to  Mossa,  where 
she  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  for  the  restoration 
of  the  elder  Bourbon  line  in  the  person  of  her 
son.  At  Hossa  she  is  said  to  have  first  met  the 
count  Ettore  de  Lnocbesi-Falli,  a  Neapolitan 
diplomadst,  with  whom  she  contracted  a  se- 
cret morganatic  marriage.  In  April,  1688,  she 
effected  a  landing  near  Marseilles,  and  on  the 
failnre  of  the  legitimist  attempt  in  that  citj, 
she  BQcceeded  in  reaching  La  Vend^  in  dis- 
guise with  a  few  attendants.  The  attempt«d 
riaing  there  having-  ended  diaastronslj,  she 
barelT  escaped  to  Nantes  (Jane  8),  where  she 
founa  an  asylum  which  was  disclosed  to  U. 
Thiers  hj  Simon  Deutz,  a  converted  Jew,  who 
had  gained  her  confidence  at  Rome.  She  was 
arrested  on  Not.  6,  after  having  concealed  her- 
self for  34  hoars  behind  a  chimney  at  the  risk 
of  Boffocation.  From  Nantes  she  was  sent  aa 
apriBonerofstato  to  the  citadel  of  Blaye.  The 
alleged  illegality  of  these  snmmary  proceedings 
created  some  public  ezcitement,  which  was 
increased  by  the  reports  of  her  advanced  Btate 
of  pregnancy.  The  commander  of  the  citadel, 
Ool.  Chousaerie,  resigning  on  aocoant  of  the 
private  instructions  which  he  had  received 
from  the  government  in  respect  to  her  treat- 
ment,  lje  was  sncceeded  by  Gen.  Bugeaud, 
who  made  her  publicij  avow  her  secret  mar- 
riage. She  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Uay  10, 
188S,  and  was  released  on  Jane  B  and  convey- 
ed to  Palermo.  She  viut«d  Charles  XwBt  Gdrz, 
but  was  not  &vorobly  received,  and  the  ednifa- 
tion  of  the  duke  of  Bordeanx  was  intrusted 
to  other  hands.  She  subsequently  resided  in 
Venice,  and  after  1864  at  her  chAteau  of  Brun- 
aee,  near  Gratz,  where  she  attended  to  the  ed- 
ucation of  her  four  surviving  children  by  her 
second  husband,  who  Inhented  the  tide  of 
Doke  della  Grazia  and  died  April  1,  1864. 
The  fine  picture  gallery  of  the  dachess  was 
sold  by  public  auction  in  Paris  in  1865. 

BESKT,  MuT,  an  En^ish  writer,  bom  in 
Yorkshire  in  1702,  died  in  London,  Nov.  20, 
1853.  She  and  her  elder  sister  Aonbb  (who 
had  mnoh  artistic  talent,  and  died  in  May,  1861) 
became  acquainted  in  1787  with  Horace  W«l- 

Sole,  who  called  them  his  two  little  wivea 
[ary  vindioatdd  him  in  the  "  Edinhnrgh  Re- 
view "  against  the  criticisms  of  Macaulay,  and 
she,  her  sister,  and  their  father,  a  gentleman 
of  wealth,  were  his  literary  eiecQlors,  and  in 
1767  published  an  edition  of  his  works  in  5 
vols.  Mary  Berry  published  her  own  worlis, 
"England  and  France,"  "Life  of  Rachel,  Lady 
Russell,"  and  a  comedy  entitled  "  Fashionable 
Friends,"  in  2  vols,  in  1944.  Lady  Theresa 
Lewis  edited  in  1668  "  Lite  and  Correspon- 
dence of  Miss  Mary  Berry." 

BiXBTER,  AbMm  Ptcm,  a  French  advocate 
and  statesman,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  4,  iTflO, 
died  at  his  country  seat  near  Angerville,  Nov. 
29,  1868.    His  ancestors  were  from  Lorr^e, 


end  their  orif^nal  name  was  Mittelbei^r.  Ha 
was  one  of  tiiree  sons  of  Pierre  Nicolas  Ber- 
ryer,  an  eminent  lawyer.  He  was  educated 
for  the  church  in  the  school  of  the  Oratorians 
at  Jallly ;  but  his  father  induced  him  to  he- 
came  a  lawyer,  and  after  serving  for  a  time  in 
an  attorney's  office,  he  made  his  dihxtt  at  the 
Paris  bar  early  in  1811.  In  the  same  year  he 
married  Mile.  Gantier,  the  daughter  of  a  Paris 
ofliciaL  In  1814  ha  proclaimed  at  Rennes  the 
deposition  of  Napoieon,  and  hoisted  tbe  legiti- 
mist flag,  to  which  he  remained  &ithfiU  till  his 
death,  though  he  was  a  man  of  liberal  ideas  and 
a  decided  opponent  of  all  arbitrary  measurea. 
He  assisted  nia  father  in  oondncting  the  de- 
fence of  Ney,  and  obtained  the  acquittal  of 
Cambronne  and  the  pardon  of  Debelle.  His 
practice  now  increased  steadily.  His  imposing 
presence  enhanced  the  effect  of  his  oratofr, 
and  his  eloquence  has  been  described  as  almost 
equal  in  power  to  that  of  Mirabean.  In  1828 
he  defended  Lamennais  against  a  charge  of 
atheism.  Elected  to  the  chambers  in  1880  by 
a  lai^e  majority,  his  first  great  speech  was  a 
denunciation  of  the  unconstitotional  character 
of  the  famous  address  of  the  221.  The  July 
revolution  did  not  interropt  his  parliamentary 
career,  though  he  continaed  to  be  the  cham- 
pion of  the  le^timiets.  He  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Louis  Philippe's  government,  bnt 
never  ceased  to  embarrass  it.  In  I88S  he  was 
arrested  as  an  aceompltce  of  the  duchess  of 
Berry;  bnt  it  was  shown  that  he  had  en- 
deavored to  stop  her  expedition,  and  the 
charge  was  abandoned.  He  defended  Chateau- 
briand from  a  similar  chaise,  and  exerted 
himself  in  vain  for  the  liberation  of  the  dnch- 
ess.  His  political  career  interfering  with  hia 
profeasional  labors,  he  was  involved  in  pecu- 
niary difficulties,  and  a  public  subscription  of 
400,000  fl-ancs  was  raised  for  him  in  1886. 
In  the  chambers  his  renown  was  increased  by 
his  powerf^il  speeches  in  opposition  to  the 
press  laws  of  September,  188S,  the  measure 
against  associations,  and  the  Pritchard  indem- 
nity bill  (1845);  but  he  was  censured  for  hav- 
ing paid  homage  to  the  count  de  Ohamlrard  iu 
London  (184S).  In  1840  he  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  of  Louis  Ni^Ieon  after 
the  Boulogne  expedition.  On  the  revotnti<m 
of  1848  he  became  the  chief  of  the  legitimist 
faction  which  was  opposed  to  universal  suf- 
frage, adhering  to  the  cause  of  the  count  de 
Ghambord  and  the  doctrine  of  divine  right. 
On  the  morning  after  Louis  Napoleon's  covp 
cPitat  (Dec.  3,  1851)  he  appeared  at  the  maine 
of  the  10th  arrondissement  of  Paris,  and  voted 
in  favor  of  the  deposition  of  the  prinoe-preei- 
dent.  In  1662  he  was  elected  to  the  academy 
of  scienoes.  In  1858  he  defended  Montalembert 
in  a  celebrated  speech,  and  subsequently  he  waa 
counsel  for  the  Patterson- Bon^artes  in  tba 
great  suit  for  the  recognition  of  the  Baltimore 
marriage.  He  kept  aloof  from  politics  till 
1863,  when  he  was  reelected  to  the  chambers 
with  Thiers.    He  took  ndes  with  the  f^eral 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERTHIER 


govemmeDt  dming  tlio  eivil  war  in  the  United 
States,  denouDced  the  invauoii  of  Ueiioo,  and 
affirmed  the  aathority  of  the  French  courts  to 
fine  and  imprison  all  who  were  concerned  in 
the  oonBtraction  of  confederate  cruisers  ia 
France.  His  opinion  exerted  some  inflaence 
in  preventing  the  emperor  from  takins  the  re- 
sponsibility of  letting  the  steameTs  be  aelivered 
ti>  the  confederates,  and  hia  last  professional 
argument  was'  as  leading  oomiael  in  the  suit 
insCitated  agunat  Arman,  the  principal  con- 
tractor for  confederate  vessels.  The  semi-oen- 
tennial  anniversary  of  his  practice  at  the  bar 
was  celebrated  in  France  in  ISeS,  and  a  great 
ovation  was  given  to  him  in  England  in  1&<I4, 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer prcBiding  on  the  oocosion. 
He  spoke  in  186T  in  favor  of  French  interven- 
tion in  Rome,  and  in  18S3  addressed  from  his 
deathbed  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  £sUeteur 
justifying  Bandin's  proceedings  in  1B61.  See 
(Eatret  de  Berryer  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1873  et  wf.), 
the  first  volume  containing  his  parliamentary 
speeches,  with  a  notice  by  De  Noulles. 

BEISEBKQtB  (Norse,  her,  bare,  and  itrhr, 
coat  of  mail),  giants  and  warriors  of  Scandina- 
vian  raytholojty,  and  especially  the  descendants 
of  Stoerkoddar,  a  hero  of  immense  size  and 
great  valor,  who  fonght  without  coat  of  mail, 
and  whose  exploits  have  been  celebrated  in 
the  sagas.  The  name  Berserkers  was  also 
applied  to  SoaudinaTian  warriors  who  were 
liable  to  fits  of  fk'enzy,  arising  fVom  the  nse  of 
intoxicating  liquors  or  from  an  excited  imap- 
nation.  During  thrae  fite  they  performed  ex- 
traordinary feats  and  attacked  indisorirainatdy 
friends  and  foes. 

■EITDaOT,  Pkm  Ei«iM  Kamnin,  a  French 
chemist,  bom  in  Paris,  Oct.  25,  1827.  He  waa 
on  assistant  of  Balard  in  the  ooli^  de  France, 
and  afterward  professor  of  organic  cheraistiT 
in  the  school  of  pharmacy ;  and  in  18S4  a  chair 
of  organic  chemistry  in  the  college  de  France 
wan  created  for  him.  !£.  Berthelot  was  espe- 
cially instructed  to  advance  his  own  ideas  and 
treat  at  length  of  hia  own  discoveries  in  his 
lectures.  In  1S54  he  introdnoed  the  theory  of 
polyatomic  alcohols.  This  theory  conducted 
jiim  to  the  synthesis  of  natural  fatty  bodies, 
and  thereby  to  a  knowledge  of  their  true  con- 
stitution. By  it  he  defined  also  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  sugars,  and  was  able  to  understand 
that  also  of  the  fixed  principlee  of  vegetable 
tisanes,  although  he  has  not  yet  produced  these 
latter  by  synthesis.  He  has  published  La 
ehimie  organique  fondu  tar  la  gyntkits  (1880) 
and  Lefoni  Kir  U»  mithodei  giniraU*  de  tyn- 
thiee  en  ehimit  organique  (1SS4).  Perhaps  his 
most  celebrated  researches  are  those  connected 
with  the  discovery  of  acetylene  and  the  syn- 
thesis of  alcohol.  His  chief  glory  is  that  by 
hia  own  experiments  he  has  succeasftiUy  over- 
thrown the  famous  dogma  of  Berzelias  and 
Gerhardt,  '*  that  chemical  forces  alone  ore  sot 
able  to  effect  oiganic  synthesis,  and  that  when 
each  metamorphoses  occnr  they  ore  due  to  the 
Ejjency  of  vital  force." 


583 


a  village  of  Saxony,  about 
1  ra.  from  Hermh'nt ;  pop.  about  2,000.  The 
central  conference  of  the  Moravians  is  held 
here  in  the  castle  formerly  inhabited  by  Count 
Zinzendorf, 

BEK'llfUS,  a  county  of  Canada,  in  tiie  pro- 
vince of  Quebec,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  St. 
Lawrence,  just  above  Lake  St.  Pet«r ;  area, 
abont  1,900  «q.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1871,  19,804.  It 
is  about  10  m,  wide,  ana  runs  in  a  N.  W.  di- 
rection to  the  nndetermined  northern  frontier 
of  the  province,  a  distance  that  may  be  esti- 
mated at  IBO  UL  It  is  drained  by  Maskinonge 
lake  and  river.  Assumption  river,  and  other 
streams  and  ponds.  Ohief  town,  Berthier,  on 
theSL  Lawrence,  46  m.  N.  N,  £.  of  MontKol. 

BiarnuiK,  Jew  FcrdtBond,  a  French  deaf 
mnte,  bom  near  M&con  abont  1806.  He  at- 
t«nded  the  national  institution  for  deaf  mutes 
at  Paris,  was  while  still  young  appointed  an 
instructor  there,  and  is  now  {I87S)  the  dean 
of  the  institution,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent 
teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Europe.  He 
has  greatly  contributed  to  dift\i»e  the  methods 
of  the  ahb6  de  l'£pSe  and  of  the  abb6  Sicard. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  L'Ahbi  de 
r&pie,  la  vie,  ton  apottolat,  tee  trovaus,  ta 
lutte  et  tet  proeie  (Paris,  18fi2). 

BmniEK,  LmIs  UciowlTe,  prince  and  dnke 
of  Neufch&tel  and  Valengin,  and  prince  of 
Wagram,  a  French  soldier,  bom  in  Versailleo, 
Nov,  20,  1758,  died  in  Bamberg,  June  1,  1816. 
His  father  was  chief  of  the  corps  of  topograph- 
ical engineers.  After  studying  in  the  topo- 
graphical bureau  he  became  lieutenant  in  the 
general  staff  and  afterward  oaptdn  of  dra- 
goons, and  served  in  the  American  war  under 
Lafayette.  As  general  of  the  national  guard  of 
Versailles  he  rendered  good  service  to  the  royal 
family  in  October,  1789.  Afterward  he  was 
ohief  of  the  general  staff,  under  Lafayette,  Luok- 
ner,  and  Oustiue.  He  participated  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful defence  of  Saumurin  June,  1793.  After 
the  9th  Thermidor  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
the  general  staif  of  Eellermann,  and  by  causing 
the  French  army  to  take  up  the  lines  of  Bor- 
ghetti  contributed  to  arrest  the  advance  of  the 
enemy.  He  also  proved  himself  a  good  general 
of  division  in  the  batties  of  1796-7  in  Italy, 
and  excelled  as  a  staff  officer  by  his  grasp  of  all 
the  details  of  the  service,  though  he  had  not 
the  genius  required  for  supreme  command.  De- 
spite his  remonstrances,  Bonaparte  placed  him 
in  1798  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  occupation 
in  Rome ;  but  be  resigned  his  command  to 
Uass^na,  and  went  tc  Milan,  where  he  fell  in 
love  with  the  beautiful  Madame  Visconti,  his 
eccentric  and  lasting  passion  for  whom  caused 
him  during  the  eipedition  to  Egypt  to  Ije  nick- 
named the  chief  of  the  /action  ate  atnoureute. 
and  absorbed  the  greater  part  of  the  vast 
sums  bestowed  upon  him  bynis  master.  After 
his  return  f^m  Egypt  he  seconded  Bonaparte 
on  the  18th  and  19th  Bmmaire,  and  was 
minister  of  war  till  April  2,  1800.  He  was 
ohief  of  th«  general  st^  at  the  battle  of  Ma- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


584      BERTHOLD  OF  EATISBON 

rengo,  oonclDded  tm  itmiistice  with  Gen.  MeJas, 
vas  employed  on  several  diplomatio  tnisffious, 
and  reinstated  in  the  war  ministry  till  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  empire.  With  the  title  of 
mnjor  ((enem!  of  the  grand  army,  he  accom- 
panied the  emperor  as  chief  of  the  general  staff 
daring  all  hia  sabsequent  campaigns.  On  Oct. 
17,  1806,  he  n^iotiated  with  Hack  the  terms 
of  the  capitulation  of  Hlm.  After  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1906  he  was  made  sovereign  prince 
of  >ieDfcbfttel  and  Valengin.  Id  1908  he  was 
ordered  to  marry  the  princess  Elizabeth  Maria 
of  Bavaria-Birkenfeld,  the  king  of  Bavaria's 
niece,  and  was  made  marshtJ  and  vice  consta- 
ble of  France.  In  190B  Napoleon  placed  him 
as  genersl-in -chief  at  the  head  of  the  grand 
army  destined  to  operate  from  Bavaria  against 
Austria.  He  won  no  glory  in  this  capacity, 
bnt  again  distinguished  himself  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Wagram,  which  procured  bim  one  of 
hia  princely  titles.  He  failed,  however,  com- 
pletely during  the  Russian  campai^.  After 
the  senat«  had  decreed  the  deposition  of  the 
emperor,  Berthier  vas  one  of  the  first  to  pay 
eonrt  to  Lonis  XVIII.,  who  made  him  a  peer 
and  captain  of  the  royal  guard.  During  the 
hnndred  days  he  wished  to  remain  neutral, 
concealed  from  the  king  a  letter  he  hod  re- 
ceived from  Napoleon  annonnoing  hia  purpose 
to  leave  Elba,  and  retired  to  Bamberg,  where, 
according  to  some,  be  was  thrown  from  a  win- 
dow of  his  fathef-m-law's  palace  by  six  men  in 
masks,  supposed  to  have  been  agents  of  a  se- 
cret society ;  but^  according  to  a  more  probable 
account,  he  threw  himself  from  the  balcony  at 
the  sight  of  Russian  troops  marching  toward 
France.  lie  wrote  Relation  da  eantpagna 
da  ffSniral  BcnaparU  en  £gvpt«  et  en  Syris 
(Paris,  1800),  and  Relation  de  la  batailU  de 
Marengo  (1806);  and  his  memoirs  were  pub- 
lished m  1926. — His  only  son,  Napol4oh  Ijjuis 
JosEPB  Albx&ndbk  Chasles,  duke  and  prince 
of  Wagram,  bom  in  Paris,  Sept.  11,  1910,  be- 
came a  senator  in  195S,  and  baa  ^atly  im- 
proved agriculture  in  his  vast  domam  of  Gros- 
bois.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Count  Clary 
andcousinof  the  dowager  queen  of  Sweden,  and 
is  the  father-in-law  of  Prince  Joachim  Murat 

BEBTH«J>  OF  UTISBOH,  a  German  preach- 
er of  the  middle  ages,  bom  in  that  city  abont 
1216,  died  there  in  1272.  He  was  a  Fran- 
ciscan friar,  and  preached  for  many  years  to 
immense  outdoor  congregations  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Hungary.  The  first  complete 
edition  of  hia  oripnal  sermons,  which  were 
singularly  eloqnent,  was  published  in  18S2  by 
Franz  Pfeiffer  (2  vols.,  Vienna),  and  they  have 
been  translated  into  modem  German  by  Q6bel, 
with  a  preface  by  A.  Stolz.  According  to  La- 
baud's  Beitrage  z«r  Oetehichte  da  Sckwaben- 
tpiegelt  (Berlin,  16S1),  the  sermons  serve  also 
to  ezplun  this  compilation  of  Swabion  laws. 

BEBTHOtXin',  Oiwle  Lnls,  a  French  chemist, 
bom  at  Talloire,  near  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  Nov. 
9,  1746,  died  at  Arcueil,  near  Paris,  Nov.  6, 
1822.    He  took  his  medical  degree  at  the  nni- 


BEBTHOLLET 

versity  of  Turin,  and  in  1772  went  to  Paria,  was 
appointed  phyaician  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and 
applied  himself  to  chemistry.  He  soon  became 
known  by  his  "Essays"  on  this  branch  of 
science,  and  in  1780  was  elected  a  member  of  tha 
academy  of  sciences.  Borne  years  later  the 
duke.of  Orleans  procured  for  bim  the  ofGce  of 

fovemment  oonmiiBBBry  end  superintendent  of 
yeing  processes,  a  position  previously  hdd  by 
ifscquer.  To  this  appointment  chemistry  is 
indebted  for  his  work  on  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  the  art  of  dyeing,  which  is  much  supe- 
rior to  anything  of  the  kind  ever  published 
before.  In  179G  Berthollet,  at  a  meeting  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  announced  his  belief 
in  the  antipbto^^ic  doctrines  propounded  by 
Lavoisier,  in  opposition  to  the  phlogistic  theory 
then  in  vogue,  and  he  was  the  first  French 
chemist  of  celebrity  who  did  so.  He  differed 
from  Lavoisier,  however,  on  one  point;  not  ad- 
mitting oxygen  to  be  the  acidifying  principle, 
he  cited  sulphuretted  hydrogen  as  a  componud 
possessing  tlie  properties  of  an  acid ;  and  th« 

Justness  of  Berthoiiet's  views  has  been  eon- 
rmed  by  the  discovery  of  other  acids  into  the 
composition  of  which  oxygen  does  not  enter, 
Dunng  the  same  year  he  discovered  the  com- 
position of  ammonia,  and  published  his  first  es- 
say on  dephlogiaticated  marine  acid,  now  called 
chlorine,  proposing  the  use  of  it  in  the  process 
of  bleaching.  During  the  revolutionary  war, 
while  the  ports  of  France  were  blockaded,  he 
viuted  almoat  every  part  of  the  country  for  tlia 
purpose  of  pointing  out  the  means  of  obt^- 
mg  saltpetre,  and  was  engaged  with  others  in 
teaching  the  processes  of  smelting  iron  and 
convertmg  it  into  steel.  In  1792  he  waa  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  commiauoners  of  the  mint, 
and  in  1794  a  member  of  the  commission  of 
agriculture  and  arta,  and  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  polytechnic  and  normal  schools.  In 
179G  he  became  a  member  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized institute  of  France,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  appointed  by  the  directory  to  pro- 
ceed to  Italy  with  Monge,  to  select  works  of 
art  and  science  for  the  French  capital  On 
this  ocoadon  he  became  acquainted  with  Bona- 
parte, end  was  led  to  join  the  expedition  to 
Egypt,  where  lie  took  part  In  the  formation  of 
the  institute  of  Cairo.  Berthollet  cooperated 
with  Lavoisier,  Guyton  de  Morveuu,  and  Fonr- 
croy  in  establishing  a  new  and  more  philo- 
sophical system  of  chemical  nomenclature.  U« 
was  the  author  of  more  than  80  scientific 
papers,  some  of  which  were  inserted  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  academy,  and  others  were 
printed  in  the  Annate*  de  ehimie,  Journal  de 
pkyaiqite,  and  the  Memoira  de  phygigue  tl  de 
ekimU  de  la  toeiiti  d'Areveit,  so  called  frmn 
the  place  where  B«rthollet  lived,  the  meetings 
of  the  society  being  held  at  his  bouse.  In 
some  of  the  first  memoirs  published  by  Berthol- 
let on  sulphuric  acid,  on  the  volatile  alkali, 
and  the  decompomtion  of  nitre,  he  adopted  the 
phlogistic  theoir;  but  subsequently,  in  a  paper 
on  soaps,  he  showed  that  they  are  chemical 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERTINI 


58:> 


with  the  alkali,  acts  the  part  of  an 
Bertbollet  waa  the  discoverer  of  the  ammo- 
moret  of  silver,  commonly  called  fulminating 
Bilver.  He  also  fint  obtained  hydrate  of  pot- 
ash in  a  Btat«  of  parity,  bj  dissolyiiiff  it  in 
alcohoL  In  180S  he  pablished  his  EtMaide 
ttatiqut  ehimiqut,  in  which  he  attempts  to 
coniiite  the  opinion  of  Bergman  with  regard  to 
the  uatare  of  chemical  affinity.  Sir  Hamphry 
Davy,  in  his  "Elementa  of  Chemioal  Philos- 
ophy," givee  a  synopus  of  the  views  of  Bertbol- 
let on  this  point,  and  shows  them  to  be  incor- 
rect. '  In  a  controversy  with  Pronst,  Bertbol- 
let maintained  that  inorganic  bodies  are  capable 
of  combining  in  all  pro|jortions ;  but  the  views 
of  Proust  have  been  since  corroborated  by  the 
doctrine  of  definite  proportions. — On  his  retnrti 
from  Egypt,  Bertholiet  was  made  a  senator, 
and  aiterward  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  grand  cross  of  the  "order  of  re- 
union." Ho  waa  created  count  by  Napoleon, 
and  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  made  a  peer  of  France.  These  distinc- 
tions did  not  affect  his  studious  and  simple 
mode  of  life ;  and  being  obliged  to  adopt  ar- 
morial beariags,  he  selected  the  figure  of  his 
dog.  BerthoUet  studied  the  antiseplio  prof>er- 
ties  of  charcoal,  and  by  his  advice  Admiral 
Ejusenstem  preserved  water  fresh  by  placing 
it  in  oharrea  barrels  during  a  long  voyage. 
He  first  sliowed  how  to  reduce  the  complica- 
ted combinations  of  animal  and  vegetable  snb- 
stances  by  combustion  in  one  of  his  last  memoirs, 
entitled  Cormdiralvm*  lur  Vanalyu  vigitaU 
et  Vanalyts  animalt  (1817). — His  only  son, 
AviDiR,  born  in  I  TBS,  died  in  Marseilles  in  161 1 . 
He  aaaiated  his  father  in  the  second  edition  of 
the  £lem«nl*  de  Vart  de  la  teinture,  avee  un 
deteription  du  blaticMTrumt  par  Vaeida  mUTia- 
tiqite  oxigiiU  (3  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  2d  ed.,  1604), 
and  was  a  member  of  the  society  founded  by 
his  father  at  Arcaeil.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  a  chemist,  and  established  a  monafaotory  of 
corbonato  of  soda  according  to  his  father's  pro- 
cess ;  but  competition  preventing  his  snocess, 
he  fell  into  dissipated  courses,  and  committed 
soicide  by  suffocation  with  charcoal  gas,  seat- 
ing himself  at  a  table  with  a  watch  and  writing 
materials  before  him,  and  carefully  noting  his 
sensations  as  long  as  lie  could  bold  the  pen. 

BEKTIE,  a  county  of  North  Carolina,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Albemarle  sound,  bounded 
E.  by  the  Chowan  and  W.  and  S.  by  the  Roan- 
oke river,  and  drained  by  the  Cashie ;  area,  900 
sq.  ra, ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,950,  of  whom  7,487 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  flat  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
800,814  bnshels  of  Indian  corn,  64,999  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  &,05S  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  1,063  horses,  2,464  milch  cows,  4,924 
other  cattle,  3,468  sheep,  and  14,100  swine. 
Capital,  Windsor. 

BEBm,  LMh  Fniftta,  a  French  journalist, 
bora  in  Paris,  Deo.  14, 1T66,  died  there,  Sept. 
IS,  1841.    The  revolnticn  diverting  him  f^om 


the  priesthood,  he  engaxed  in  journalism,  op- 
posing the  excesses  of  tue  Jacobins.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1800,  he  founded  the  Journal  detHibati, 
which  under  his  direction  and  that  of  his  rela- 
tives, and  through  the  collaboration  of  Chateau- 
briand, Madame  de  Sta£l,  Royer-Collard,  and 
otlier  celebrated  writers,  ultimately  became  the 
most  influential  jonrnal  in  France.  Although 
it  professed  to  be  exclodvely  literary  and  artis- 
tic, historical  and  political  allusions  were  ooca- 
Monally  Introduoea  which  the  anthorities  con- 
straed  as  royalistic.  Napoleon  had  the  editor 
arreatedin  the  first  year,  and  after  nine  months' 
imprisonment  banished  to  Elba ;  and  it  was  only 
after  several  years  that  he  was  allowed  to  re- 
sume the  control  of  the  paper,  and  on  condition 
of  his  paying  annually  24,000  francs  to  the  cen- 
sor, calling  his  publication  the  Journal  de  I' Em- 
pire, and  submitting  to  the  control  of  the  empe- 
ror's agents.  It  was  suppressed  nevertheless  in 
1811,  and  Bertin  again  banished  to  Elba,  whence 
the  next  year  he  escaped  to  Italy.  In  1814 
the  publication  was  resumed  under  the  original 
title.  BertiD  followed  Louis  XVIII.  to  Ghent, 
but  opposed  him  after  his  rupture  with  Cha* 
teaubriand,  on  which  occasion  these  words  ap- 
peared in  the  Debate:  Malheureuee  FraTiee, 
maiheurevx  roi.  For  this  he  was  prosecuted, 
but  acquitted  on  appeal.  After  the  July  revolu- 
tion the  paper  became  very  proeperoua,  Bertin 
invariably  declining  public  omce,  though  gener- 
ously snpporting  the  cldms  of  his  oollaborators. 
He  has  been  called  the  chief  of  the  Bertin  dy- 
nasty. He  wrote  several  novels,  partly  after 
English  originals,  and  possessed  exquisite  pow- 
ers of  literary  appreciation ;  but  his  fame  rests 
on  his  eminent  servicer  to  French  journalism. — 
He  was  succeeded  as  editor-in-chief  by  his  son 
IjOdis  Mabib  Abmahd,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  22, 
1801.  He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Lmdon 
nnder  Chateaubriand,  and  did  much  to  enlist 
the  best  talent  for  the  i)Ma<«,thoagh  he  person- 
ally wrote  little.  On  his  death,  Jan.  13,  1654, 
the  direction  of  the  journal  devolved  upon  his 
brother  £dooabd  Fsanqoib,  bom  in  Paris  in 
179T.  He  was  inspector  of  fine  arts  under 
Louis  Philippe,  and  is  an  esteemed  landscape 
painter.  As  editor  of  the  Dibate  he  has  sap- 
ported  the  cause  of  Italy  and  of  the  United 
States,  and  displayed  great  tact  in  making  the 
paper  popular  among  alt  classes.  His  sister 
Louise  AnofeuqnB,  bom  Jan.  IG,  1806,  compos- 
ed sereral  operas,  including  FhMtto  (I8S1)  and 
EemeraUa  (1886),  the  libretto  of  the  latter  be- 
ing by  Victor  Hago.  In  1843  she  published  Lee 
glanee,  a  volnme  of  poetry,  to  which  the  acad- 
emy awarded  a  prize.  She  died  in  April.  1677. 
BfXTINI,  Heiii,  a  pianist  and  composer,  bom 
in  London  of  French  parentage,  Oct.  28,  1798, 
died  in  October,  18TS.  His  father  and  hia 
brother  were  sliilful  musicians,  and  yonng  Ber- 
tini  received  fW)m  them  a  thorough  training, 
being  taught  in  the  system  of  Clementi.  At 
the  age  of  12  he  made  a  successful  concert  tour 
through  Hollaud  and  Germany,  subsequently 
performed  in  Scotland  and  England,  and  then 


□igitiredbyCjOOQlC 


586        BERTRAIID  DE  BOEIT 

went  to  Paris,  where  he  applied  himself  eape- 
oially  to  the  stnily  of  harmonr  and  composi- 
tion. He  uUimatel/  estabhgbed  himself  in 
Grenoble.  The  number  of  his  pahlisbad  works 
reaohea  nearly  200.  Tbey  oonaist  mwnly  of 
rondoa,  oapricea,  fantasias,  nootamea,  and  other 
compositions  for  the  piano ;  but  he  also  com- 
posed a  number  of  pieces  for  the  piano  in  ooa- 
neclion  with  stringed  and  reed  iostmraenta, 
aompriain;;  trios,  quartets,  sextets,  and  one 
nonet.  He  also  prepared  12  sets  of  studies, 
which  were  written  with  much  skill  and  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  what  was  necessary  to  form 
a  correct  progresaiTe  aohool  for  the  pianoforte, 

BOtmUIB  DE  MSN.    See  Bobn. 

BEMUHD,  HmH  Gralhtt,  count,  a  French 
soldier,  bom  at  ChAteanronx,  March  2S,  1TT8, 
died  there,  Jan.  81,  1844.  He  early  Joined 
the  corps  of  engineers,  became  a  captain  in 
1795,  and,  after  serving  in  the  Italian  and 
Egyptian  campaigns,  was  made  general  of  brig- 
ade. He  distingnisbed  himself  at  Ansterlitz, 
became  adjutant  of  the  emperor  and  general 
of  diviraott,  and  after  the  battle  of  Aspem, 
where  he  restored  the  passage  over  the  Danube, 
he  was  made  count  and  governor  of  Illyria. 
He  covered  with  his  reserve  corps  the  retreat 
of  the  army  alter  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  the 
passage  over  the  Rhine  after  that  of  Hanan. 
To  hia  previous  rank  of  grand  marshal  of  the 
palace  the  emperor  added  on  his  return  to 
Paris  that  of  aide  mmor  general  of  the  national 
guard.  He  followed  Napoleon  to  Elba,  and 
with  Sonlt  is  s^d  to  have  prevented  the  em- 
peror from  rushing  into  death  at  Waterloo. 
Bertrand  and  his  wife  (a  daughter  of  Gen.  Ar- 
thur Dillon)  shared  the  exile  at  Bt.  Helena.  His 
Bons  published  the  (Jampagntt  S^qypte  tt  de 
SyrU,  dietieipar  Napoleiya,  i  SainU-Heline, 
av.  giniral  Bm-trand  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1847), 
which  he  wrote  under  Napoleon's  dictation. 
Returning  to  Paris  after  Napoleon's  death,  the 
sentence  of  death  previonsly  passed  npon  him 
was  cancelled,  and  be  was  restored  to  his  rank. 
After  the  July  revolution  be  was  for  a  short 
time  at  the  head  of  the  polytechnic  school,  and 
wBB  a  deputy  till  1834,  advocating  liberal  meas- 
ures and  the  freedom  of  the  press.  In  1840  he 
esoortad  Napoleon's  remains  from  8t.  Helena 
to  Paris,  and  he  was  buried  by  his  side. — One 
of  his  sons,  Alexandkb  Abtbub  Hensi,  born 
in  1811,  acquired  distinction  as  a  soldier  in  Al- 
geria and  the  Crimea,  and  as  a  deputy,  and  bo- 
came  in  1854  general  of  brigade. 

raKULLE,  Plcnt  4e,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  near  Troyes,  Feb.  4,  1575,  died 
in  Paris,  Oct  3,  ](]3e.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Carmelite  nuns  and  of  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  France.  He 
brought  about  the  first  reconciliation  between 
I,oniB  XIII.  and  his  mother,  concluded  as  am- 
bassador to  Sp^n  the  peace  of  Monzon,  ob- 
tained on  a  mission  to  the  Roman  see  a  dis- 
pensation for  the  marriage  of  Henrietta  of 
France  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  accom- 
panied the  princess  to  England.    He  after- 


BERWIOK-ON-TWEED 

ward  became  minister  of  state,  to  ihe  great 
displeasure  of  Ricbelien,  who  soon  made  this 
poution  anteoabte  for  him,  after  which  he 
returned  to  ecclesiastical  avocations.  Urban 
VIII.  made  him  cardinal  in  1Q37,  but  he  de- 
clined the  bishoprics  offered  to  him  by  Hen- 
ry rV.  and  Loois  XIII.,  and  remained  content 
with  the  moderate  benefice  of  two  abbeys, 
joining  as  before  his  elevation  in  the  bumble 

Eractioes  of  his  order.  He  was  also  noted  for 
is  patronage  of  literature  and  science,  and 
was  among  the  first  to  appreciate  Descartes. 
His  works,  chiefly  sermons,  passed  through 
many  editions  during  his  life,  and  were  col- 
lected by  his  disciples  after  his  death  (2  vols, 
fol.,  1644,  and  1  vol.  fol.,  1967). 

BHtWICK,  Janta  Ftb-JiMca,  dnke  of,  an  Eng- 
lish and  French  soldier,  bom  in  1670,  killed  at 
Pbilippshnrg,  June  12,  1784.  He  was  an  ille- 
gitimate son  of  James  11.  by  Arabella  Church- 
ill, sister  of  the  dnke  of  Marlborough,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1087  as  Baron  Bos- 
worth,  earl  of  Tinmouth,  and  dnke  of  Berwick- 
on-Tweed ;  hut  these  titles  became  forfeited  in 
1605,  when  he  was  attainted.  He  accompanied 
hia  father  to  France,  and  in  1690  to  Ireland, 
where  he  distingmshed  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Londonderry  and  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
He  acquired  repntaUon  in  the  French  service 
under  Louis  XI  v.,  who  in  1693  made  him  lieu- 
tenant general  and  in  1706  marahal.  For  his 
snocesaful  expedition  in  ud  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  in  1704  he  was  made  grandee  by  that 
king.  Recalled  to  France,  he  fought  the  Oa- 
misards.  and  conquered  Nice,  but  snbsecinently 
resamed  the  command  in  Spain,  and  in  1707 
achieved  over  the  combined  Englhb  and  Por- 
tuguese forces  the  brilliant  and  decisive  victory 
of  Almanza,  for  which  Philip  Y.  granted  him 
the  dignity  of  dnke  and  the  towns  of  Liria 
and  Xerica.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
placed  at  the  bead  of  the  army  on  the  Rhine, 
in  1719  c<»nmanded  agunst  Philip  V.  in  Spain, 
and  fell,  after  many  gallant  achievement,  at 
the  siege  of  Philippsburg.  His  first  wife  was 
the  widow  of  the  earl  of  Lucan  and  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  earl  of  Clanricarde,  by  whom  be 
had  issne  James  Francis,  dnke  of  IJria  and 
Xerica,  whoee  posterity  perpetoate  the  eenioT 
branch  of  the  Berwick  &mily.  Hia  second 
wife,  Anne  Bulkeley,  bore  him  several  children, 
the  eldest  of  whom  inherited  the  title  of  duke 
de  Fitz-James,  that  had  been  conferred  npon 
him  in  France.  The  spnrions  MimotTe*  tfu 
martefuil  de  Beneiek  (2  vols.,  Hague,  1737-'8) 
were  followed  by  the  genuine  JUemoira,  pnb-. 
iished  by  the  duke  de  Fitz-James  and  revised 
by  lie  abb6  Hook  (3  vols.,  Pari^  1778). 

BERWICK-Olf-TWEED,  an  Anglo-Scotch  bor- 
der town  and  seaport,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Tweed,  near  the  German  ocean,  68  m.  by 
railway  E.  S.  E.  of  Edinburgh ;  pop.  of  the 
town  and  parliamentary  borough  in  1971, 18,- 
331.  Geographically  it  forms  part  of  Berwick- 
shire, Scotland,  but  belongs  to  England,  and 
is  not  legally  included  in  any  coonty,  though 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BERWIOK-ON-TWEED 

for  convenience  it  ia  often  reckoned  aa  being  in 
Northumberland.  It  extendB  with  its  libertiee, 
iaclndiiig  the  sobarba  Tweedmonth  (an  impor- 
tant railway  station)  and  Spittal  (a  Dsbing  vil- 
lage and  watering  place)  A^  m.  along  the  oosat 
and  nearly  8^  in.  westward.  In  ancient  deeds 
the  town  is  called  Sooth  Berwick,  to  distinguish 
it  from  North  Berwick  on  the  tHth  ofForth,  B4 
m.  N.  E.,  near  Tantallon  castle.  Berwick-on- 
Tweed  ia  mostly  boilt  on  the  castle  hill.  The 
castle,  prominent  in  the  border  wars,  is  now  a 
shapeless  ruin,  with  only  a  tower  and  part 
of  the  waJ!  remaining.  The  new  royal  border 
bridge  or  aquednct,  connecting  the  North  Brit- 
ish with  the  Newcastle  and  Berwick  railway, 
one  of  the  celebrated  works  of  Robert  Stephen- 
son, apans  the  Tweed  from  the  caatle  hill  to 
the  Tweedmonth  side.  It  was  opened  in  1860, 
is  l&i  ft.  high,  2,000  ft.  long,  and  has  S8  aetni- 


BEKWIGESHIBE 


687 


oircniar  arches.  There  is  also  an  old  stone 
bridge.  The  town  is  well  built,  with  ^acious 
streets,  bnt  the  general  appearance  is  duapida- 
ted.  A  thorough  aysteni  of  drainage  baa  recent- 
ly been  introduced.  There  are  many  ptaoes  of 
worship ;  the  pariah  ohnrch  was  enlarged  and 
embellished  in  1666,  and  a  fine  new  Gothic 
ohnrch  opened  in  1869.  The  gnildhall  belong 
to  the  bargeases,  and  ia  a  fine  building  with  a  tj^ 
spire.  There  are  numerona  schools  (including 
a  corporation  academy)  and  charitable  institn- 
tions,  and  the  Berwickshire  naturalists'  club 
meets  here.  The  com  exchange  waa  .opened 
in  1848,  and  a  new  cemetery  in  1867.  Once 
the  chief  seaport  of  Scotland,  the  town  still 
retains  mooh  commercial  importance.  About 
TOO  veesels,  with  a  tonnage  of  over  40,000, 
enter  and  leave  the  port  annnally.  The  chief 
exports  are  salmon,  coal,  wool,  ale,  and  whis' 


B«wfci™-Twead. 


key;  the  chief  imports,  timber,  staves,  iron, 
tallow,  and  hemp.  The  town  haa  a  ship-bolld- 
ing  yard,  breweries,  an  exteoaive  iron  fonn- 
dery,  and  manufactories  of  steam  engines  and 
machinery,  cotton  hosiery,  and  carpets;  and 
near  it  are  coal  mines. — The  antbentic  his- 
tory of  Berwick  benns  with  Alexander  I.  of 
Scotland  in  the  12th  century.  It  was  most 
prosperons  in  the  18th  under  Alexander  III. 
Edward  I.  held  the  English  parliament  here 
which  decided  for  Balliol  and  against  Braoe  for 
the  throne  of  Scotland ;  and  here  the  limbs 
of  Wallace  were  exposed,  after  his  execntioo, 
Berwick  was  promment  in  the  border  wars, 
and  was  often  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Scotch 
and  the  English  ttom  early  in  the  Uth  till  late 
in  the  I6th  century,  when  it  finally  reverted  to 
Eagland.  James  I.  grauted  to  the  citizens  the 
seigniory  of  the  town.    This  charter,  somewhat 


modified  by  the  municipal  reform  act,  is  still  in 
force.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  corporation 
of  6  aldennen  and  18  oonnoillors,  one  of  whom 
is  the  mayor,  and  the  borougti  rctnms  two 
members  of  parliament. 

BEEWICKSHIKE,  a  maritime  and  border 
county  forming  the  8.  E.  extremity  of  Scotland, 
on  the  German  ocean,  separated  S.  E.  by  the 
Tweed  from  Northumberland,  England,  and 
bounded  N.  by  Haddingtonshire,  W.  by  Edin- 
burghshire, and  8.  by  Roxburghshire ;  area, 
4T3Bq.ni.;  pop.  in  1871, 86,4TB.  Itisdivided 
into  the  districts  of  Lammermoor,  Lauderdale, 
and  the  Merse.  Some  of  the  famous  Lammer- 
moor hills  are  over  l.fiOO  feet  high.  About 
200,000  acres  are  under  cultivation,  and  the 
prodaction  is  steadily  increawng  from  improved 
systems  of  culture.  Though  smaller  than  many 
other  Scotch  connties,  it  prodnces  more  wheat 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


588  BEEYL 

and  turoipa  than  moeit  of  them.  Sbe«p  and 
cattle  are  ruaed  in  great  numbers.  The  coast 
ia  ragged,  with  no  bays  aeve  at  Ooldingham 
and  Eyemouth.  Excepting  the  Eye  in  the 
northeast,  all  ttie  atreuna  are  tributariea  of 
the  Tweed  and  abonud  with  fish.  The  salmon 
fisheries,  long  suspended,  have  lately  reaumed 
aorae  of  their  former  importance.  The  chief 
trade  ia  carried  on  throngb  Berwick-on-Tweed. 
The  only  royal  burgh  is  Lauder;  the  largest 
totrn  is  Bonse ;  and  the  canaty  town  is  Green- 
law, S  m.  S.  of  which  is  Hnme  castle,  on  a  hill 
900  feet  hirfi.  There  are  nnmerons  reUcs  of 
Roman  and  British  encampments,  and  among 
the  many  antiquities  are  those  of  Fast  castle  (the 
Wolfs  Orag  of  the  "Bride  of  Lammermoor  "), 
3  m.  from  the  celebrated  St.  Abb's  Head  prom- 
ontory, and  the  ruins  of  Coldingham  priory  and 
of  Dryburgh  abbey. 

BERTL  (Gr.  ^JiSpullog),  a  mineral  composed 
of  silioa  Sfl'B,  alumina  19-1,  glucina  14'1=100. 
The  nnion  of  the  emerald  and  beryl  in  one 
species,  which  Pliny  says  was  suggested  in  his 
time,  was  first  recognized  on  crystal! ographio 
grounds  by  De  Lisle,  and  more  satisfactorily 
through  measurements  of  awlea  by  Hatly,  and 
chemically  by  Vauquelin.  Tlie  beryl,  emerald 
or  smaragd,  and  aqaomarme  ore  alt  the  same 
mineral  species,  and  only  distingQiahed  from 
each  other  by  their  bine  and  yellow  shades  of 

EMn,  or  by  the  delicacy  of  the  crystals.  The 
ryl  ia  sometimes  also  white.  The  emerald  ia 
more  traoeparent  and  of  finer  colore  than  the 
beryl,  and  makes  a  handsomer  gem.  Aoria- 
marine  is  a  beantlfnl  sea-green  variety.  The 
briUiant  green  color  of  the  emerald  is  due  to 
the  preseitce  of  a  minute  quantity  of  oxide  of 
chromium  ;  beryl  and  aqnamarine  derive  thdr 
colors  from  the  oxide  of  iron.  The  beryl  crya- 
tallizes  in  regular  6-Bided  prisms,  which  ore 
often  striated  with  longitudinal  channels.  Its 
hardness,  rated  at  7*5  to  S  on  themineralogiool 
scale,  is  less  than  that  of  topaz  and  greater 
than  tliat  of  qaartz.  Its  specific  gravity  is  S'T. 
The  crystals  are  foand  in  metamorpbic  lime- 
stones, in  slate,  mica  schist,  gneiss,  and  gran- 
ite rocks,  generally  as  nngle  crystals  or  in 
clusters,  rather  than  in  veins.  There  are 
many  celehrated  localities  of  gigantic  beryls 
and  beautiful  emeralds  in  various  parts  of  tiie 
world.  Upper  Egypt  produced  the  mineral 
in  ancient  times,  and  it  is  still  found  in  the 
mica  slate  of  Mount  Zabarah,  Siberia,  Hindo- 
Btan,  Liraouan  in  France,  Pern,  and  Colombia 
have  all  furnished  splendid  emeralds.  The 
largest  beryls  known  have  been  foand  in  Ac- 
worth  and  Grafton,  New  Hampshire,  and  in 
Royalst^n,  Massachusetts.  One  from  Grafton 
measures  4  ft.  8  in.  in  length,  S2  in.  throngh 
ia  one  direction  and  22  in  another  transverse, 
and  weighs  S,900  lbs.  Another  is  estimated  to 
wrigh  nearly  2^  tons,  measuring  45  in.  through 
in  one  direction  and  34  in.  in  another.  A 
crystal  in  the  museum  at  Stockholm,  found  in 
Sweden,  is  considered  to  be  the  largest  in 
Europe ;  it  weighs  BO  lbs.    The  value  of  the 


BERZELIUS 

spedmens  is  not  at  alt  dependent  on  their  sin. 
The  large  crystals  are  of  coarse  texture  and 
feeble  lustre,  and  possess  no  beauty.  As  the 
beryl  expands  by  heat  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  the  principal  axis,  and  contracts  on 
the  line  of  the  axis,  there  is  a  point  where  the 
ezpansiou  and  contraction  exactly  neutralize 
each  other,  and  a  section  across  thia  would 
muntain  a  constant  length.  Sol eil  recommends 
the  cuttdng  of  prisms  in  conformity  with  this 
direction,  to  be  used  as  normal  units  of 
measuremenL 

BiXnUS.    See  Betkotit. 

BERZUJC8,  JAw  Jakfb,  baron,  a  Swedish 
chemist,  bom  at  Vfifi^ersunda,  district  of  Link&- 
ping,  Aug.  20,  I7T0,  died  in  Stockholm,  Aug.  7, 
1 848.  li  is  father  was  goTemmeat  achoolmaster 
in  hia  native  village,  and  was  very  poor.  Ber- 
zelius  received  hia  early  education  at  home,  and 
in  ]T96,  through  the  assistance  of  friends,  com- 
menced the  atudy  of  medicine  in  the  onivcr- 
sity  of  Upsal.  The  lectures  at  Upsal  in  those 
days  were  read  without  any  experimental  illus- 
trations, and  the  instructions  in  the  lahoratoir 
were  of  a  superficial  and  unsatisfactory  kind. 
He  contrived,  however,  to  obtun  the  means  of 
making  an  analysis  of  a  mineral  water,  and  in 
1600  published  his  first  paper,  entitled  Ifbea 
AiutlyMis  Aguarum  Medevien*ium,  which  at 
once  gained  for  him  considerable  local  celebrity. 
In  1602  he  became  adjunct  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  Stockholm,  at  the  same  time  practising 
his  profession  and  delivering  teotnres  on  chein- 
istry.  At  this  period  nearly  all  the  scientific 
men  of  the  world  were  attracted  by  Volta'a 
discoveries  to  experiment  with  voltaic  elec- 
tricity, and  BerEelius  in  1608  published  an  im- 
portant paper  on  the  action  of  electric  cnrrenta 
on  solntiona  of  aalta,  in  which  he  first  pointed 
out  that  combustible  bodies,  alkalies,  ana  earths 
went  to  the  negative  pole,  while  oxygen  and 
the  acids  went  to  the  poative.  Three  yeara 
later  Davy  published  similar  views  and  extended 
his  researches  l^rther  than  Berzelins,  aa  he  bad 
far  greater  means  at  his  command  ;  in  Davy's 

fiaper,  however,  no  allusion  is  made  to  Berze- 
ins,  an  omis^on  which  was  at  once  supplied  by 
the  translators  of  Davy's  article  for  the  German 
and  Swedish  annals.  In  1808  Berzelius  was 
made  teacher  of  chemistry  at  the  military 
school  of  Carlberg,  and  in  180T  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  at  the 
medical  institute  in  Stockholm.  At  this  time 
he  constniat«d  a  battery  consisting  of  zinc, 
copper,  and  two  liquids  so  made  that  the  zinc 
was  not  attacked  by  the  liquid  in  which  it  was 
immersed,  while  the  copper  was  rapidly  oxi- 
dized. Dy  aid  of  this  apparatus  and  the  em- 
ployment of  mercury  at  the  negative  pole,  he 
succeeded  early  in  1808  in  preparing  the  metals 
calcium,  barium,  and  the  supposed  amalgam  of 
aramroiinm.  Simnltsneoualy  with  hiselectricol 
researches  he  conducted  the  analysis  of  miner- 
als, and  in  1603,  when  he  was  only  2S  years 
old,  made  the  discovery  of  the  metal  cerium 
While  thns  engaged  it  was  necessary  for  him  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BEBZELITTS 

praotiae  medicine  for  his  aapport,  and  be  even 
establiahed  &  manu&ctorf  of  artificial  mineral 
waters  in  order  to  add  to  bis  Bcaatj  income. 
The  Tariet;  of  hta  ocoupadoDS  at  this  period  of 
his  tifa  somewhat  interfered  with  the  system- 
atic course  of  inveatigation  which  he  subse- 
qaentlf  adopted.  The  tendency  of  his  research- 
es was  dac  to  accident ;  the  fashion  of  the  daj 
ted  him  to  pnrsne  galvanism,  bis  intimate  as- 
Booiatdon  with  Hidnger  anggested  mineralogy, 
and  his  avocation  as  a  physician  natnraliy 
brought  in  physiolopcal  onemistry.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  alkaline  metals  by  Davy  and  hia 
own  saccess  in  the  same  direction  prompted 
him  to  apply  himaelf  to  the  study  of  the  ele- 
ments, ana  then  commenced  tbe  really  great 
woric  of  his  life,  which  cnlmhisted  in  the  pro- 
mnlgation  of  the  law  of  chemical  proportion. 
To  prove  the  coirectness  of  this  law,  Berzelina 
reexamined  all  known  chemical  compounds 
and  prepared  many  new  ones.  In  the  execu- 
tion of  this  great  work  it  was  neoeaeary  for 
him  to  devise  new  methods  of  analysis  and  to 
invent  all  of  the  apparatus  for  their  execation. 
He  had  to  distil  his  alcohol  from  brandy,  and 
the  commonest  reagents  were  prepared  in  hia 
laboratory.  Reinvented  the  lamp  with  double 
draft,  since  called  the  Berzelitis  lamp ;  he  also 
introduced  smaller  quantitjes  of  substances 
which  contd  be  bnmed  and  weighed  in  pla- 
tinum orDoiblea ;  flmnels,  hieakers,  wash  bottles, 
Swedish  filto"  paper,  mbber  and  glass  tubing, 
and  a  great  vorietv  of  other  aids  were  intro- 
dooed  by  him ;  and  he  removed  the  laboratory 
from  the  dingy  cellar  to  ^rr  upper  rooms,  and 
elevated  chemistry  fi'om  a  black  art  to  an  exact 
science.  In  1618,  aft«r  many  years  of  patient 
Industry,  Berselius  was  prepared  to  pabliah  a 
list  of  2,000  simple  and  componnd  bodies,  pv- 
ing  their  exact  chemical  composition.  It  was 
natural  for  him  to  apply  the  same  methods  of 
researoh  to  minerals  that  he  did  to  artificial  oom- 
ponnda,  and  be  was  early  in  the  field  with  his 
famons  mineral  system  founded  upon  chem- 
istry. Hobs  adopted  crystalline  form,  hard- 
ness, and  specific  gravity  as  the  basb  of  clas- 
sification, and  did  not  care  for  an  elementary 
analysis.  Berzetius  tbonght  thia  was  much 
like  a  person  groping  in  the  dark  refuung  to 
Bocept  more  tight  for  fear  of  seeing  too  much. 
As  uie  only  mineral  analyses  extant  were  by 
Bergman,  Elaproth,  and  Vauquelin,  it  was 
neeeesnry  to  repeat  all  of  them  before  any  sys- 
tom  could  be  ^tabliahed;  and  it  was  not  till 
1847  that  the  last  edition  of  Berzelios'a  "  Min- 
eral Chemistry"  was  published  under  Rammols- 
berg's  revision.  TTndertheinatractionofhisold 
friend  Gahn  of  Fahlan,  the  pupil  of  Bergman 
and  friend  of  Bcheele,  Berzelins  acquired  great 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  blowpipe,  and  published 
a  book  on  the  subject  which  for  SO  years 
was  the  leading  authority,  until  superseded  by 
Plattner's  more  comprebenuve  work.  As  early 
as  1806,  in  ooi^unotion  with  Hisinger,  he  com- 
menced tbe  "Memoirs  relative  to  Physics, 
Chemistry,  and  Mineralogy,"  and  his  numer- 


BERZSENTI 


589 


ons  oontribations  to  those  sciences,  smoanting 
in  all  to  more  than  SOO  papers,  obtained  for 
him  that  high  rank  which  be  holds  as  on  ooon- 
rateobserverandeiperimentalanalyst.  Hewaa 
one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  medical  society 
of  Sweden,  and  in  1808  he  became  a  member 
of  the  royd  Swedish  academy,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  president  in  1810.  In  the  intervals  of 
bis  public  duties  ho  piud  several  visits  to  Paris, 
and  in  1812  he  spent  some  time  in  London.  In 
1615  tbe  king  of  Sweden  named  Berzelius  a 
knight  of  the  order  of  Voaa;  and  in  1818  he 
was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Stock- 
holm academy  of  sciences.  On  the  coronation 
of  the  king  in  the  same  year,  Berzelius  was 
ennobled,  and,  contrary  to  tbe  custom  of  the 
country,  was  allowed  to  retain  his  own  name. 
In  1621  he  was  named  commander  of  the  or- 
der of  Vasa,  and  France  gave  him  the  insignia 
of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  Austria  those  of 
the  order  of  Leopold.  His  works  are  both  nu- 
merous and  important.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Physical  Memoirs,"  daring  a  period  of  13 
years,  47  original  papers  of  great  merit.  His 
treatise  on  chemistry  went  through  five  large 
editions,  and  was  partly  rewritten  each  time. 
It  is  most  oompteto  and  best  known  in  tiie 
edition  translated  into  French  under  his  own 
inspection,  by  Esslinger,  and  published  in  B  vols, 
at  BroBsets  in  I8S6.  The  last  volume  contains 
his  very  remarkable  dissertation  on  chemical  op- 
paratns,  with  essays  on  qualitative  and  quantita- 
tive analysis,  and  the  use  of  the  blowpipe.  The 
Stb  edition,  begun  in  1842,  was  carried  through 
S  vols.,  including  one  on  organic  chemistry,  pre- 
vious to  his  death  in  1848.  At  tbe  instigation  of 
Berzelins  the  mcmljers  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences of  Stockholm  consented  to  prepare  year- 
ly reports  on  the  progress  of  all  the  sciences. 
Berzelius  took  upon  himself  the  department  of 
physics,  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy; 
and  his  share  of  the  labor  has  been  of  great  nse 
to  the  scientific  world,  Tbe  reports,  begun  in 
1320,  were  continued  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
and  since  1647  have  been  conducted  by  Liebig, 
WOhler,  and  Eopp  in  Germany,  We  thus  have 
a  complete  series  of  reports  on  the  progress 
of  chemistry  since  1620.  It  is  worth;  of  noto 
that  all  the  leading  chemists  of  Germany,  ex- 
cepting Liebig,  were  pupils  of  Berzelius.  Soon 
after  his  marriage  in  1833,  the  directors  of  the 
Swedish  iron  works,  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
light  his  researches  had  thrown  on  their  art, 
and  of  his  services  to  the  usefU  arts  of  his 
country,  conferred  on  him  a  pension  for  life. 

BESZSENTI,  MaM,  a  Hungarian  poet,  bom 
at  Hetye,  May  7,  1776,  died  at  Nikla,  Feb,  24 
1836,  A  volume  of  his  lyrics  entitled  Verieh 
appeared  in  1S13,  embracing  the  best  speci- 
mens of  that  kind  of  poetry  till  then  published 
in  Ma^ar,  among  them  the  stirring  nationhl 
ode  "To  the  Hungarians"  (2d  ed.,  1816).  He 
also  wrote  {esthetical  and  philosophical  essays. 
In  18S0  he  became  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
academy.  A  complete  collection  of  his  works 
was  published  in  Posth  in  1843. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


690 

BiStX^IT  (anc.  Vaontio),  a  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Doabs,  on  both 
Bides  of  the  river  Donba,  and  on  the  RhSne  and 
Rhine  canala,  198  m.  S.  £.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in 
1866,  46,B81,  It  is  strongly  fortified,  with  a 
citadel  built  b^  Vanban,  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  has  a  school  of  artillerj,  a  librarr 


Bfliufon. 

of  90,000  Tolames,  academies  of  science  and 
art,  a  seminary  for  jiriests,  and  a  botanical  gar- 
den. There  are  many  hospitals  and  a  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum.  Among  the  prominent  buildings 
are  the  prefecture  and  the  ancient  palace  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle,  archbishop  of  Besanfon, 
who  founded  a  university  here,  which  eiisted 
till  the  first  revolntion.  The  town  and  its  vi- 
cinity abound  with  Roman  remains,  and  a  vast 
amphitheatre  has  been  lately  excavated.  The 
principal  articles  of  trade  are  corn,  timber, 
staves,  cheese,  ironware,  cloth,  leather,  and 
wine.  Agricultural  implements,  iron,  steel,  and 
copper  ware,  paper  hanging  cotton,  silk,  and 
woollen  goods,  and  other  articles  are  manafao- 
tured ;  and  Besancon  rivals  Geneva  in  watches, 
of  which  300,000  are  made  annually,  employ- 
ing over  2,0CO  persons.  Over  BOO.OOO  bottles 
of  seltzer  water  are  put  up  annually. — Ancient 
Vesontio  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Sequani,  and 
nnder  the  Roman  empire  was  the  capital  of 
Maxima  Sequanorum.  It  was  rebuilt  early  in 
the  6th  century  bj  the  Bnrguadians,  after  hav- 
ing been  destroyed  by  the  Alemanni,  but  was 
again  ravaged  by  the  Hnns.  It  successively 
belonged  to  the  Frankish  kingdom,  to  the  king- 
dom of  Aries,  and  to  the  German  empire ;  be- 
came the  capital  of  Franche-Comt£,  and  under 
Frederick  I.  a  free  imperial  city,  and  subse- 
quently shared  the  fortunes  of  that  proi-ince, 
passing  with  it  to  France  in  1678.  In  18U  it 
was  in  vain  besieged  by  the  Anstrians.  Victor 
Hugo,  FoQtier,  and  Proudhon  were  bora  here. 
BESBOBOD&O,  Alexrader  AidKycTllck,  prince, 
a  Russian  statesman,  bom  at  Stolnoye,  little 


Rnssio,  in  1742,  died  in  St.  Petersborg,  Aug.  9, 
17^9.    He  was  secretary  of  Eumiantzoff  in  the 
Turkish  campaigns,  and  after  having  risen  by 
his  rare  natural  abilities  to  varions  high  por- 
tions nnder  Catharine  11.,   became   imperial 
chancellor  under  Paul  1.    He  concluded  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Jaasy  (1^82)  and  other  trea- 
ties, and  organized  the 
coalition  of  Kosaa  and 
Great  Britain  against 
France(1798>.   Hewaa 
made  a  count  of  the 
German  empire  by  Jo- 
aeph  II.,  and  a  Rnsmaa 
pnsoe  by  Paul  I.     He 
was  profligate  and  ava- 
ricious, but  at  the  same 
time  a  ecalous  patnm 
of  the  fine  arts,  and 
left  a  large  part  of  his 
immense    fortune    for 
the    endowment  of    a 
lycenm. 

BESCHEREIXE,  Uals 
NImIh,  ain£,  a  French 
lexicographer  and 

?'anmianan,  boni  in 
aris,  June  10,  1803. 
He  was  edncated  at  the 
cdl£ge  Bourbon,  and 
afterward  employed  in 
the  archives  of  the  council  of  state  and  as  a  libra- 
rian in  the  Louvre.  His  principal  works  are : 
Orammaire  nalionaU  (3  vols.  8vo,  1834-'6; 
6th  ed.,  1851),  and  Piclumruiira  ttational,  oit 
grand  dielicnnaire  eritigut  de  la  languefi^fi' 
{aim,  inclnding  technical,  historical,  and  geo- 
graphical words  (2  vols.  4to,  iei8-'6),  which 
proved  very  successfnl.  He  also  edited  with 
G.  Devars  the  Orand  dietionnaire  de  gio- 
graphie  univertelle,  ancientte  et  modema  (4 
vols,  4to,  185ft-'7;  new  ed.,  1865),— His  bro- 
ther, known  as  Besohebelle  jeune,  bom  in 
Paris,  Jnne  12,  1804,  an  employee  of  the 
council  of  state  and  the  sole  author  of  Mfthode 
pour  apprtndre  la  languet  mod«me*  (4  vols,, 
18G5),  has  participated  in  most  of  his  labors. 
One  of  their  joint  works  is  a  Dietionnairt 
vtuel  de  tout  ice  terbet  de  la  langtie  Jrajifaiee 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1842-'3). 
BESITITI.  See  BEmsTCK. 
BESSUiBA,  a  family  that  took  an  active  part 
in  the  politics  of  eastern  Europe  from  the 
13th  century  to  the  early  part  of  the  ISth.  It 
gave  several  waywodes  to  Wallachia,  and  ruled 
for  a  conMderable  time  over  Bessarabia.  Ru 
dolph  the  Black  founded  the  principality  ol 
Wallachia  dnring  the  invasion  of  Batu  Khan, 
and  built  the  towns  of  Argisii,  Tergovist.  an<t 
Bucharest.  He  died  in  1265.  Hirce  or  Minn 
I.,  waywode  from  1382  to  1418,  fought  against 
the  Bulgarians  and  the  Turks,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  Ijattle  of  Kosovo ;  he  was  obliged 
to  sign  the  treaty  of  139S,  which  made  him  a 
vassal  of  Bajazet  I.  Michael  II.,  the  Brave, 
waywode  in  1692,  united  under  his  rule  Wal- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BESSARABIA 

lachla,  Moldavia,  and  Traasjlvasia.  lie  vA 
asaanginated  io  1601.  Matthew  Brancovan, 
who  mode  an  Dnsuocerafal  attempt  to  recover 
the  indepesdeuoe  of  hU  country  against  the 
Turks,  died  in  1654.  Constantino  II.  Branco- 
van,  waywode  In  1838,  gerred  and  betrayed  in 
tumtheAa8triaii3,BuBsiaD3,aDd Turks.  Hewaa 
arrested  by  order  of  the  Turkish  govemment, 
taken  to  Constantinople,  and  executed  with  his 
four  sons  in  1T14.  With  the  death  of  this  prince 
the  Bessaraba  dynasty  was  extingnislied. 

BEBSAEIBU,  a  S.  W.  province  of  European 
Rnssia,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  Dniester, 
which  separates  it  from  Austrian  Galicia,  and 
the  Russian  governments  of  Podolia  and  Kher- 
son, S.  E.  by  the  Black  sea,  and  S.  and  W.  by 
Holdavis  and  Bakowina;  area,  14,012  sq.  m. ; 
mp.  in  1667,  l,0S2,i}1S,  comprising  Moldavians, 
Russians,  Bulgarian)),  Jews,  Armenians,  Greeks, 
Gypues,  and  French  and  German  colonists. 
The  northern  and  larger  part  of  Bessarabia  is 
traversed  by  a  low  brtincli  of  the  Carpathian 
monntaina,  with  a  succession  of  wooded  hills 
and  voles,  and  a  fertile  soil.  The  lower  part 
of  the  province  consists  of  fertile  bat  treeless 
steppes,  watered  by  tribntaries  of  the  Dniester 
and  Pmth,  and  affording  rich  pasturage  for 
horses,  buffaloes,  and  sheep.  Immense  qnan- 
tities  of  wheat,  barley,  and  maize  are  raised. 
The  vine  flourisbea,  and  melons  and  otlier 
fruita  grow  in  abundance.  Flax,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, dye  plants,  and  poppies  are  also  raised. 
Coal  and  marble  have  been  fonnd  in  the 
monntuns,  and  saltpetre  in  the  environs  of 
Soroki  on  the  Dniester.  The  prinoipal  rivers 
of  Bessarabia  are  the  Dniester,  the  Yalpukh, 
tribntary  of  the  Danube,  and  the  Pruth,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  W.  bonndary.  The  climate 
IB  ftiild  and  salnbrioas,  bnt  in  the  southern 
parts,  which  are  not  sheltered  by  mountains, 
the  winters  are  very  severe  and  the  summers 
excessively  warm.  The  seat  of  government  is 
at  Kiahenev.  The  only  harbor  is  Akerman. 
Other  important  towns  are  Bender,  Soroki, 
and  Khotin  or  Choeim,  all  on  the  Dniester. — 
The  primitive  inbabitajits  of  Benarabia  were 
nomadic  Boythian  tribes.  It  was  nominally  a 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Dacia.  In 
the  8d  century  it  was  oocnpied  by  the  Goths, 
and  in  the  6th  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Huns. 
Then  followed  the  Avars,  Bulgarians,  and 
Slavs.  In  the  Tth  century  the  Beasi  obtained 
the  sapremaoy,  and  from  them  the  country  is 
said  to  have  taken  itsnarae.  In  tbe  14th  cen- 
tury it  formed  port  of  Moldavia,  and  with  it, 
in  the  16th,  became  tribntary  to  Tnrkey.  It 
soon  aft«r  suffered  a  terrible  inonraion  of  Tar- 
tan, and  anbsequently  tbe  horrors  of  freqnent 
wars  between  the  Rassians  and  Tarks.  In 
the  peace  of  Bncharest  (1S12)  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  Rnssia 
ceded  to  Tnrkey  tbe  sonthem  part  of  Bes- 
sarabia, which  included  Ismail,  Tutdikov,  the 
district  of  Kagul,  the  greater  part  of  that  of 
Akerman,  and  most  of  the  salt  lakes.  This 
waa  annexed  to  Moldavia. 


6&1 

BiSStSIOir,  lata  or  BaiU,  a  Greek  scholar, 
bom  in  Treblzond  in  1889  or  139S,  died  in  Ra- 
venna, Nov.  IB,  1473.  He  passed  many  years 
in  a  monastery,  became  a  prominent  reviver 
of  literature,  and  was  titular  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople and  archbishop  of  Nice.  Having 
forfeited  the  good  will  of  his  countrymen  by 
exerting  himself  with  John  Faleeologus  at  the 
council  of  Ferrara  over-zealonsty,  as  they 
tbonght,  for  a  union  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches,  be  remained  in  Italy,  where  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.  made  him  cardinal,  and  Nicholas 
V.  bishop  of  Sabina  and  afterward  of  Frascati, 
and  legate  of  Bologna.  But  for  one  adverse 
vot«  he  woald'  have  been  raised  to  the  papal 
see,  hia  Greek  birth  being  tbe  chief  objection. 
Biitns  IV.  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Louis  XL 
to  reconcile  the  latter  with  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy; but  tbe  French  monarch  is  said  to 
have  taken  offence  at  his  having  visited  first 
the  duke,  and  called  him  a  barbarous  Greek, 
which  according  to  some  accounts  affected  the 
health  of  the  envoy  and  accelerated  his  death. 
In  France  and  in  Gennauy  beinstigated  crnsades 
against  the  Turks,  after  whose  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople he  was  very  nsefiil  to  his  furtive 
countrymen.  His  house  in  Rome  became  & 
species  of  academy,  attended  by  Arayropnlos, 
Poggio,  and  others,  whom  he  aided  in  their 
studies.  He  bequeathed  his  books  to  the  Ve- 
netian senate,  and  his  valuable  collection  of 
Greek  M8S.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  library 
of  St.  Mark's  in  that  city.  He  left  varions 
writings,  chiefly  translations  of  Aristotle  and 
in  vindication  of  Plato,  of  whom  he  was  a  dis- 
tinguished exponent.  He  wrote  in  reply  to 
George  of  Trebizond  Advertu*  Calumniato- 
rem  Platonit  (1470),  which  was  one  of  the  flrst 
books  issned  from  ^e  Roman  press. 

BfSSEL,  Frtetlilth  HIIMi^  a  German  astron- 
omer, born  in  Minden,  July  22,  1734,  died  in 
KSnigabcrg,  March  17,  1846.  His  fondness 
for  science  was  aroused  in  Bremen,  where  he 
was  employed  in  a  merchant's  office  and  be- 
come intereBt«d  In  nautical  and  other  studiea. 
Acquiring  some  proficiency  in  astronomy,  he  re- 
ceived throngb  Olbers  an  appointment  as  asnst- 
ant  in  the  observatory  of  Lilientbal.  In  1810 
he  was  called  to  KOnigsberg,  where  under  his 
direction  an  ol>servator7  was  bnilt  and  rose  to 
the  highest  importance,  his  connection  with  it 
ending  only  with  his  death.  In  1818  he  pob- 
lished  Fundammta  Attnmomia,  a  discnseioit 
of  the  observations  made  upon  the  fixed  stora 
by  Bradley  at  Greenwich  90  years  before,  and 
inclndiuK  dissertations  of  inestimable  value  os 
the  metnod  of  stellar  astronomy.  He  after- 
ward published  rognlarly  his  own  observations, 
measured  the  distance  of  the  star  61  Oygni 
(h>m  the  earth,  took  a  distinguished  part  in  all 
the  astronomical  discoveries  and  geodetic  dis- 
cuBHons  of  bis  day,  ond  waa  considered  one 
of  the  foremost  astronomers  of  the  world, 
blending  theory  and  practice  with  a  master 
hand.    His  posthoraons  work,  p<mul&Ta  Vor- 


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g92  BEBSEUER 

edited  bj  bia  friend  Schumacher,  waa  pnb- 
lUhed  in  Hombarg  in  1848. 
BESSEMEB,  Heir;,  on  EngliBh  engineer,  bom 

in  Hertfordshire  iu  1613.  He  earlj  devoted 
himself  to  the  unprovement  of  machinery,  and 
aoijuired  celebrity  abont  20  jears  ago  bj  hie 
iDventioa  of  a  new  practical  procesa  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel  (eee  Stehl),  which  has 
been  extensively  adopted  in  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  product  of  which  ia 
known  in  trade  as  Bessemer  steel.  Until  1870 
his  annnal  income  from  his  patent  amounted 
to  nearly  £100,000;  but  his  royalty,  which 
nntil  then  was  one  shilling  per  onintal,  hag 
since  been  considerably  rednced.  The  jury  on 
Sted  manafactnrea,  in  the  expoBition  of  1862, 
remarked  that  of  127  patents  for  improTementfi 
in  that  industry  in  England,  there  was  only  one 
which  had  brought  about  any  striking  change 
in  the  mode  of  producing  steel,  or  which  hod 
been  attended  with  any  real  or  practical  com- 
mercial result,  and  this  was  the  process  pat- 
ented  by  Mr.  Bessemer.  The  report  on  the 
Paris  universal  exposition  of  1867  states  that 
"Mr.  Bea^emer  was  not  the  first  to  attempt 
the  conversion  of  carbnretted  iron  into  steel, 
although  he  was  the  first  to  propose  a  prac- 
ticable process  for  accomplishmg  so  desirable 


I  BaHUa)  dnke  of  latria,  a 
French  soldier,  bom  at  Praissac,  Ang.  6, 1766, 
killed  near  LOUen,  Uay  1,  161S.  He  entered 
the  aervice  in  1790  and  after  the  victory  of 
Roveredo,  Bept.  4,  1TQ6,  Bonaparte  made  bim 
colonel.  Commander  of  the  guarda  of  the  gen- 
eral-in-obief  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  he  remained 
attachedto  that  corps  for  tbe  greater  part  of  his 
life.  In  1802  he  became  general  of  division, 
and  in  1804  marshal.  He  fought  in  the  battles 
of  Rivoli,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  Abookir,  Marengo 
(where  be  commanded  tlie  last  decisive  caval- 
ry charge),  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eyiau,  and  Fried- 
'  land.  Id  1608  be  achieved  a  victory  at  Me- 
dina del  Rio  Seco  in  Spun.  After  the  fail- 
are  of  tbe  English  Walcheren  expedition,  Na- 
poleon substituted  Besudres  for  Bernadotte  in 
command  of  the  Belgian  army.  In  the  same 
year  (180S)  he  was  created  duke  of  Istria.  At 
the  head  of  a  cavalry  division  he  routed  the 
Austrian  general  HohenzoUern  at  the  battle  of 
Aspem  and  Essling.  In  tbe  Russian  expedition 
be  acted  as  chief  commander  of  the  mounted 
guard,  and  on  the  opening  of  the  German  cam- 
paign of  1613  he  was  at  the  hoad  of  the  French 
cavalry.  He  fell  white  attacking  a  defile  on  the 
Rippach  in  Saxony,  on  the  eve  of  the  battle  of 
Lotzen.  Napoleon,  fearing  to  discourage  bis 
soldiers,  with  whom  BessiBres  was  exceedingly 
popular,  prevente<l  for  some  time  the  announce- 
ment  of  his  death.  Greatly  affected  by  bis 
gallant  end,  and  moaming  him  as  one  of  his 
most  skilful  and  devoted  ofHcers,  he  wrote  a 
touching  letter  of  condolence  to  the  duchess  of 
Istria,  and  bequeathed  at  St.  Helena  100,000 
franca  to  the  son.  A  statue  in  honor  of  Bes- 
tadrea  has  been  erected  in  his  native  town,  and 


BESTUZHEFF-RIUMIN 

his  name  was  inscribed  on  tbe  arob  of  trinmph 
and  on  the  bronze  tablets  at  Versaillea. 
BESTi'ZHEFF,  lleuKder,  a  Rusuan  poet  and 

patriot,  born  at  his  father's  country  seat  in  the 
government  of  Voronezh  in  1795,  killed  in  bat- 
tie  in  the  Caucasus  in  June,  1637.  He  wasedn- 
oated  in  one  of  the  imperial  milit&ir  establish- 
ments, and  became  aide-de-campof  Dnke  Alex* 
anderofWQrtembei^inl826.  Eeeditedjoinl^ 
ly  with  Byeleyefi^  in  1828,  the  literary  almanac 
entitied  tLe  "  Northern  Star,"  and  with  him 
became  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  and  inenr- 
rection  of  1625.  For  this  he  waa  d^raded  to 
the  rank  of  a  private  without  the  privily  of 
promotion,  and  sent  to  Yakutsk  in  Siticria,  to- 
gether with  his  equally  implicated  brothers  Ni- 
cholas and  Michael,  Byeleyeff  being  executed. 
Here,  under  the  name  of  the  Coeeack  Marlinffty, 
he  wrote  small  novels  and  sketches  for  the  "  Tel- 
egraph," a  periodical  of  Moscow,  and  for  some 
others.  After  two  or  three  years,  by  a  special 
order  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  he  waa  transfer- 
red to  the  army  of  the  Caucasus.  There  hia  ad- 
ventnrouH  and  dangerous  life  had  ita  effect  on 
his  style,  and  he  now  showed  a  great  talent  for 
description  and  for  analysis  of  human  eheract«r 
and  passions.  The  more  considerable  of  hia 
writings  during  this  period  are  two  novela, 
Mullah  Nur  and  Ammalat  Beg.  Toward  the 
year  1886  Nicholas  relented  and  permitted  the 
advancement  of  Bestnzheff  from  the  ranks; 
hut  shortiy  afterward  he  was  killed,  along  with 
a  oon»derab1e  detachment  of  Rusuan  soldiery 
by  the  mountaineers,  in  an  ambush  near  Yeka- 
terinodar. 

BESTDZHEFF-UUMnr,  a  Rusdan  family  of 
English  origin,  origioBlly  named  Best  On 
their  settlement  in  Busna  they  took  the  name 
of  Ruma.  which  was  changed  by  Peter  the 
Great  to  Riumin. — Petes  MiERAiLovrrcR  was 
Rusraan  minister  at  Hamburg,  and  received 
the  rank  of  count  from  Peter.-^Miciuii.,  his 
son,  bom  in  1666,  was  Bnasian  ambassador  at 
Stockholm,  grand  marshal  under  the  eraprcM 
Elizabeth,  and  from  17S6  to  1760  ambaaaador 
at  Paris.  His  wife,  dster  of  Count  Golovkin, 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  Lapushin 
against  Elizabeth,  on  Uie  discovery  of  which 
sbe  was  knoated,  had  her  tongue  cut  out,  and 
was  exiled  to  Siberia. — Albzei,  connt,  brother 
of  Mikhail,  bom  in  Moscow  in  1693,  died  in 
April,  176S.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin  and 
Hanover,  where  he  was  presented  to  George 
I.  of  England  and  entered  bis  service.  In  1718 
he  returned  to  Rusda,  and  was  sent  by  Peter 
the  Great  as  ambassador  to  Copenhagen.  Un- 
der Anna  he  was  minister  to  Hamburg  and 
Copenhagen,  and  afterward  a  cabinet  minister. 
Under  Elizabeth  he  was  made  grand  chancel- 
lor of  the  empire.  In  1745  he  concluded  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  England,  and  in  1748  a 
treaty  with  Sweden  hy  which  the  royal  suc- 
cession in  that  conntry  was  regulated  accord- 
ing to  tbe  wishes  of  Russia.  In  1746  he  formed 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Austria  against  France 
and  Prns^  and  in  1748  sent  an  anaj  into 


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BETANC08 

Germany  under  the  oommand  of  Repnin.  Soon 
after  be  occasiODed  tbe  rnia  of  Lestocq,  bU 
former   patron.      Through  hia  influence  the 

Rnseian  troops  supported  Anatria  against  Fred- 
erick the  Qreat  in  the  seren  jeara'  war;  bat 
their  commander,  Apraxin,  suddenlf  retired  to 
RoBsia,  and  this  occaaioned  the  fall  of  Beetu- 
zhefi*,  who  was  suspected  of  having  recalled 
him  in  the  interest  of  a  political  iutrigne.  (See 
Apbaxih.)  He  was  degraded,  bat  Catharine 
II.  in  1TS3  restored  bim  to  liberty  and  to  his 
previons  social  position,  creating  him  a  field 
marshal.  He  is  regarded  aa  the  inventor  of  a 
preparation  known  in  medicine  under  the  name 
of  tinctura  toniea  Bettutewi. 

BETilKOS,  DwbIb^  dt,  a  Spanish  missionary, 
bom  in  Leon  late  m  the  ISth  ceatary,  died  in 
Yalladolid  in  August,  1549.  He  studied  law 
at  Salamanca,  joined  the  Benedictines  in  Rome, 
and  lived  for  a  time  as  a  hermit  at  Somma  near 
Naples.  In  1614  he  went  to  Uispaniola,  ac- 
quired the  Indian  languages,  and  endeavored 
to  save  the  natives  from  Spanish  cmelty. 
Sabseqnently  he  labored  among  the  Indiana  in 
Mexico  and  GnBtemala,  wliere  he  established 
oonventa.  His  representations  led  Paul  III. 
to  promulgate  a  bull  in  1S37  reminding  all 
Chnsdana  that  pagan  Indians  were  th«r 
brethren,  and  should  not  be  hanted  down 
like  wild  beasts.  Betanfoa  refused  the  bish- 
opric of  Guatemala,  and  remained  simply  pro- 
vincial of  his  order.  He  died  shortly  after  his 
return  to  Spain. 

BEI^L  NDT,  a  name  inaccurately  applied  to 
the  nut  of  the  areca  palm  (areea  eateehv),  be- 
caoae,  though  sold  separately,  it  is  used  for 
chewing  in  combination  witli  the  leaf  of  the 
betel  pepper  (piper  betU).  The  habit  of  chew- 
ing this  compound  baa  extended  &om  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Malay  archipelago,  where  it  is 
chielly  fonad,  to  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  its 


BeUl  Feppa  (Piper  b«tle). 

use  la  now  noiversal  from  the  Red  sea  to  Ja- 
pan. Ita  preparation  for  use  is  very  simple : 
the  nnt  is  sliced  and  wrapped  in  the  leaf,  witii 


BETHANY  5&3 

a  little  qnicklune  to  give  it  a  flavor.  All  daw- 
ee,  male  and  female,  are  in  the  habit  of  chewing 
it,  and  think  it  improves  the  digestion.  It  gives 
to  the  tongue  and  lips  a  scarlet  hae,  and  in  time 
tarns  the  teeth  perfectly  black.  The  Malaya 
have  s  hideous  appearance  from  its  use,  bat 
the  Chinese  are  very  caretHil  to  remove  the 
stain  from  the  teeth.  Persons  of  rank  often 
carry  it  prepared  for  use  in  splendid  cases 
worn  at  the  girdle,  and  ofier  it  to  each  other 
aa  people  of  Europe  or  America  offer  snuff. 

BETHIH,  Sir  WUliaa,  an  English  antiquary, 
bom  at  Stradbroke,  Suffolk,  in  17T9,  died  at 
Blackrock,  near  Dublin,  Oct.  2S,  1863,  His 
father,  the  Rev.  William  Betham,  waa  the 
author  of  "  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Sove- 
reigns of  the  World  "  (folio,  1795)  and  of  a 
"Baronetage"  (6  vols.  4to,  1801 -'6).  The  son 
was  brought  up  as  a  printer,  and  his  first  liter- 
ary employment  was  revising  a  portion  of 
Oough's  edition  of  Camden.  In  1805  he  be- 
came clerk  and  afterward  deputy  of  Sir  Charles 
Fortescue,  and  in  1620  succeeded  hira  as  Ulster 
king  of  arms.  In  1812  he  had  been  appointed 
geneaiogist  of  the  order  of  St  Patrick  and 
knighted,  lie  was  also  deputy  keeper  of  the 
records  of  Dublin.  Among  his  works  are: 
"  Irish  Antiquarian  Researches "  (2  parta, 
Dublin,  1828-'7) ;  "  Dignities,  Feudal  and  Par- 
liamentary "  (1830) ;  "Origin  and  History  of 
the  Constitntion  of  England"  (I8S0);  "The 
Gael  and  the  Cymbri"  (1884);  and  "Etruria 
Oeltica :  Etruscan  Literature  and  Antiqaitiee 
Investigated  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1842), 

BEIVINT,  a  village  of  ancient  Palestine,  on 
the  E.  slope  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  8  m.  from  Je- 


msalem,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as  the 
place  where  Christ  was  anointed,  often  lodged, 
and  raised  Lazarus  from  the  dead,  and  near 
which  the  ascension  took  place.    It  is  now  a 

desolate  and  dirty  hamlet  or  about  20  families, 
called  by  the  Arabs  El-Aiariyoh,  or,  according 
to  I.iudsay,  Lazarieh.  The  monks  and  Mo- 
hammedans point  ont  varioos  objects  of  curios- 
ity, among  which  are  a  mined  tower  which 
they  say  waa  the  house  of  Mary  and  Martha, 
and  the  tomb  of  Lazarns,  a  deep  vault  in  the 


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594 


BETHANY 


limestone  rock,  probabl}'  a  natural  care  re- 
modelled hj  haman  labor,  in  wbicti  the  Fran- 
ciscana  a&j  maes  twice  a  year.  A  church,  called 
the  castle  of  Lazarus,  was  built  over  this  grave 
by  St.  Helena  in  the  4th  centurj.  In  tlie  13th 
centar/  it  became  the  site  of  a  very  important 
monastic  establishment  It  waa  still  in  exist- 
ence in  1484,  but  scarcely  any  vestige  now  re- 
mains. 

BETHINT,  a  post  village  of  Brooke  co.,  W. 
Va.,  10  m.  N.  £.  of  Wheeling.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Betbaoj  college,  established  in  1S41  by  the 
Rev.  Alexander  Campbell,  the  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Baptists  called  Disciples.  This  college 
in  1871  had  9  inatrnctors  and  107  studenta. 

BCTHEl.  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  about  11 
m.  N.  of  Jerasalem.  It  was  originally  called 
Luz,  and  was  named  Beth-El  fhouse  or  place 
of  God)  by  Jacob,  who  here  beheld  in  a  timod 
the  angels  ascending  and  descending.  The 
rnina  culed  Beitin  occupy  its  uicient  eite,  cov' 
ering  aa  area  of  three  or  four  acres.  On  the 
highest  point  are  the  remains  of  a  square  to 
and  toward  the  sonth  those  of  a  Greek  church 


standing  on  foandations  of  more  ancient  date. 
Bethel  was  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  and 
on  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  Israel  waa  ss- 
ngned  to  Benjamin,  but  ultimately  occupied  by 
the  Ephraimites.  On  the  division  of  the  coun- 
try into  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel, 
Jeroboam  for  political  purposes  built  there  an 
altar  and  set  up  a  golden  calf,  to  prevent  the 
Israelites  from  resorting  to  the  sanctuary  at 
Jemsalem. 

iEtan,  a  town  of  Oxford  co.,  Uaine, 
the  Androscoggin  river  and  the  Grand  Tr 
r^lroad,  70  m.  N.  N.  W,  of  Portland ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,286.    It  is  rendered  attractive  to  tour- 
ists by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery. 
The  principal  points  of  interest  in  the  vicinity 
are  Screw  Anger  falls,  Rumford  falls.  Partridge 
falls,  White   Cap   monntain,   and   Glass   Face 
monntoin ;  the  White  mountwns  are  2Q  m.  dis- 
tant.    The  town  contains  S  hotels,  5  churches, 
monafactoriee  of  woollens,  atarch,  lumber,  ( 
riagea,  spools,  furniture,  blinds,  ko.,  and 
academy  with  150  pupils. 


BETHLEHEM 

B^THEIfCOCKT,  Jen,  seigneur  de,  a  French 
navigator,  bom  in  Normandy,  died  in  1425. 
He  was  chamberlain  of  Charles  VI.  of  France, 
and  having  been  ruined  in  the  Anglo-French 
wars,  he  organized  in  1402,  with  Gadifer  de  la 
Salle  and  others,  an  expedition  from  La  Ro- 
ohelle  in  quest  of  adventures.  After  touching 
at  the  Spanish  ports,  and  taking  on  board  a 
Guanche  prince,  Augeron,  whom  he  found  at 
Cadiz,  he  sailed  for  the  Canaries.  He  visited 
the  islands  separately,  and  constructed  a  fort 
on  Lanzarote.  Finding  his  forces  insufGcient 
to  subdue  the  natives,  he  returned  to  Spain  for 
reinforcements,  leaving  Gadifer  in  command, 
who  succeeded  in  subjugating  a  conMderable 
number  of  the  natives  before  B^thencourt's 
return  and  resumption  of  the  supreme  power 
under  the  title  of  tfigneur  or  lord  of  the  isl- 
ands. He  converted  the  king  to  Christianity 
in  1404,  and  the  conversion  of  the  greater 
number  of  the  Gnanches  foUoweil.  B^then- 
court  wished  to  extend  his  conqaesls  to  Africa, 
bnt  dissensions  arose  between  himself  and 
Gadifer,  which  were  decided  by  Henry  III.  of 
Caatile  in  favor  of  B6thencourt.  The  latter  in- 
troduced French  laborers  into  the  islands,  had 
a  bishop  named  by  the  pope  in  1405,  and,  after 
deputing  his  nephew  as  governor,  returned  to 
France  in  1406,  spending  tlie  rest  of  bis  life 
on  his  estates.  His  achievements  are  related  in 
L'Eittoire  de  la  jtrtmiirt  dacouterU  tt  eon- 
gneiU  da  Canariea  (Paris,  1630).  His  nephew 
was  the  founder  of  a  Spanish  family  (Betan- 
curt  or  Betancnr)  which  is  still  prominent. 

BETBESDt  (Heb.,  place  of  mercy  or  place  of 
effHision),  the  name  of  a  pool  or  fountain  which, 
according  to  Scripture,  was  situated  near  the 
sheep  gate  of  Jerusalem,  and  had  porchea  or 
resting  places  aronnd  it  for  the  sick.  (See 
JsiinsALBii.) 

BEin-BOBOH  (Heb.,  place  of  caverns),  Dppcr 
and  hnm,  two  villages  of  ancient  Palestine, 
situated  »  m.  N,  W.  of  Jerusalem.  The  former 
ie  identical  with  the  modem  village  of  Beit  Ur 
el-Foka,  and  the  other  corresponds  to  Beit  Ur 
el-Tahta.  There  is  a  pass  between  the  two  vil- 
lages, down  which  Joshua  pursued  the  Amorite 
kings,  Both-horon  was  mcloded  within  tlie 
district  of  Ephraim.  Solomon  fortified  it, 
probably  on  account  of  its  commanding  posi- 
tion and  because  it  was  the  key  of  tlie  prmci- 
pal  pass  to  Jerusalem.  Traces  of  ancient  walls 
are  still  visible, 

BBtBLEHEH  (Heb.,  place  of  bread;  Arab. 
Beit  Ldhm,  bouse  of  fleah),  an  ancient  town 
of  Palestine,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Jndah, 
6  ra,  S.  of  Jeruaalem,  It  was  called  Bethle- 
hem Ephratah  to  distinguish  it  from  a  Bethle- 
hem in  Zebulun,  and  is  famous  for  many  re- 
markable events,  aa  the  birth  of  David  and 
his  inauguration  and  anointing  by  Samuel. 
But  that  which  renders  Bethlehem  eminent  in 
Christian  history  is  the  birth  of  Jesus.  A  lai^e 
convent  divided  among  the  Greeks,  Cathollea, 
and  Armenians,  and  which  oontains  a  church, 
is  built  over  the  spot  where  that  event  is  sap- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BETHLEHEM 


posed  to  have  oooarred.  The  chnrch  Is  atatod 
D7  EosebioB  to  hAve  been  erected  bj  Helena, 
the  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  about 
S2T.  It  ooQsists  of  a  basilica  about  120  ft 
long  by  110  broad,  divided  Into  a.  nave  and 
fonr  aisles  aupportod  by  ranges  of  Corinthian 


Church  oT  Ihs  NUItII;.  BelhlehniL 

oolnmns.  The  choir  is  portioned  off  by  a  low 
wall,  and  is  divided  into  two  ohapeLi  belon;;- 
ing  respectively  to  the  GreelcB  and  AnnenianB. 
From  each  chapel  a  staircase  leads  down  to 
the  grotto  of  the  nativity.  At  the  E.  end  is 
a  email  eemicircalar  apse  with  a  marble  slab 


on  it«  fioor.  This  is  ptunted  out  as  the  spot 
where  Christ  was  bom.  Opposite  this  is  a 
marble  trongh  said  to  occupy  the  place  of  the 
oripnal  one.  In  the  catacombs  are  shown  the 
study  and  tomb  of  St.  Jerome,  and  the  tombs 
of  other  saints.  Another  ourioas  place  near 
Bethlehem  is  the  milk  grotto,  where  the  Virgin 
is  said  to  have  hid  herself  with  her  babe  from 
Herod.  Bits  of  the  rock  are  chipfied  off  and 
sold  to  pilgrims,  who  believe  that  if  poonded 
and  eaten  It  has  the  miraculous  power  of  in- 
creasing a  woman's  milk.  About  a  qoarter  of  a 
mile  fVom  the  town  the  well  of  David  is  pointed 
out,  from  which  David's  three  mighty  mea 
drew  water  (2  Bam.  iiiii.  18),  The  present 
population  of  Bethlehem  is  about  8,000,  moat 
of  whom  are  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Christians,  and  the  rest  Moslems.  There  is 
a  considerable  odmixtDre  of  Eoropean  blood  in 
the  natives,  probably  from  the  time  of  the 
cnisadeB,and  it  can  bedet«at«d  in  their  lighter 
complexion  and  different  type  fVom  the  other 
natives.  They  sell  to  pilgrims  and  travellers 
variona  relics,  some  of  which  are  cnriously 
carved.  This  town  was  one  of  the  first  po«- 
seeeions  wrested  from  the  Moslems  by  the  cm- 
saders.  It  was  erected  into  a  see,  but  in  1244 
was  overrun  by  the  Tartors,  The  present 
town  is  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  or  to^  ridge,  and 
overlooks  the  opposite  valley.  There  never 
has  been  any  dispute  that  it  occupies  the  dt« 
of  the  ancient  town, 

BrrHLEHEK,  a  borough  of  Northampton 
county,  Penn,,  on  the  Lehigh  river,  here  crossed 
by  a  bridge,  CI  m.  N.  of  Philadelphia ;  pop.  in 
1870,4,Bia.  It  was  settled  by  the  Moravians  in 
1741,  and  contains  a  Gothic  Moravian  cliarch 
boilt  of  stone,  a  female  seminary,  and  several 
schools  and  benevolent  institutions.  It  ia  mnch 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


resorted  to  in  Banimer.  It  is  noted  for  its  iron 
and  zino  mann factories.  The  Lehigb  Vallej 
and  Lehigh  and  Saaquebanna  railroads  connect 
at  this  point  with  the  North  Fennsjlvania 
road.  The  Lehigh  university  (Episcopal)  was 
eetablislied  here  in  1866,  through  the  liberal- 
ity of  Asa  Packer,  wbo  gave  66  acres  of  land 
for  its  site,  and  endowed  it  with  the  sum 
(if  $600,000.  In  1871  it  had  16  instructors, 
48  students  in  the  preparatory  and  68  in  the 
collegiate  department,  and  a  library  of  2,000 
volumes. 

HmLEHEHITiS.  L  An  ancient  monastio 
order  na  to  which  there  is  great  uncertainty,  no 
monastery  being  known  except  that  at  0am- 
bridge,  England,  said  by  Matthew  Paris  to 
bftve  been  founded  in  1267.  II>  An  order  of 
religious  hospitallers  founded  about  1665  in 
Onatemala  by  Fray  Pedro  de  Betancnrt  of  St. 
Joseph,  a  native  of  Tenerifie.  Ue  was  a  Fran- 
dscan  tertiary,  and  his  associates  assumed 
that  habit,  but  soon  adopted  constitutions  of 
their  own,  which  were  approved  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent XI.  in  1687.  They  devoted  themselves 
to  the  education  of  the  poor  and  the  care  of 
the  sick.  The  order  spread  to  Mexico  and 
Pern,  and  also,  it  is  said,  to  the  Canary  ielands, 
being  governed  by  a  general  at  Guatemala.    A 

Kir  after  Fray  Pedro's  death  in  1607,  the 
thlehemite  nuns  were  founded  by  Maria 
Anna  del  Galdo,  also  a  Franciscan  tertiary,  and 
devoted  themeelves  to  the  same  otgects  among 

lETHLEH,  Gibtr,  prince  of  Transylvania,  bom 
in  1680,  of  an  eminent  Magyar  Protestant  fam- 
ily, died  Nov.  16, 1629.  In  1613,  after  the  death 
of  the  two  BAthoris,  he  snoceeded,  with  the  aid 
of  Turkey,  in  being  elected  prince  of  Transyl- 
vania. Joiniug  the  Bohemians  in  1619  in  Uie 
war  against  Austria,  he  took  Presburg.  threat- 
ened Vienna,  and  theMagyar  nobles  elected  hhn 
king  of  Hungary  (Aug.  26, 1620).  At  the  begin- 
ning of  1622,  however,  he  concluded  at  Nikola- 
bnrg  a  peace  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  11., 
who  ceded  to  him  seven  Hungarian  counties 
and  two  Silesian  principalities  on  condition 
of  his  abandoning  the  Himgarian  crown.  This 
treaty  being  violated  by  the  imperialists,  he  re- 
newed hostJlities  in  162S,  and  at  the  bead  of 
a  powerfiil  force  invaded  Moravia;  but,  unable 
to  join  the  Protestant  army  under  Christian 
of  Brunswick,  he  conoluded  an  armistice,  then 
a  treaty  of  peace,  which  he  again  broke  in  1626 
on  his  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Branden- 
burg. Shortly  afterward  he  made  a  third  and 
permanent  alliance  with  Ferdinand  II.,  hence- 
forward devoting  himself  to  Transylvanian 
interests,  and  founded  an  academy  at  Weissen- 
burg  (now  Karlsburg),  wliich  still  exists  at 
Enyed,  promoting  learning  by  appointing  Ger- 
man professors.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  pillars  of  Protestantism, 

BtrniPHAGE  (Ileb.,  place  of  unripe  figs),  a 
place  of  Scriptural  interest  which  has  passed 
away,  leaving  no  trace  behind.  It  must  have 
been  situated  somewhere  oc  the  E.  elope  of 


the  range  of  hills  extending  N.  and  S.  between 
Jemsalem  and  Bethany.  By  Euaebios  and  Je- 
rome, and  also  by  Origen,  the  place  was  known, 
though  its  position  is  not  inaicated  ;  they  de- 
scribe it  as  a  village  of  priests,  possibly  deriving 
the  name  from  Beth-phake,  si^iJying  in  Syriac 
the  house  of  the  jaw,  as  that  part  in  the  sacri- 
fices was  the  [Htrtion  of  the  priests.  Schwarz 
places  Bethphage  on  the  S.  shoulder  of  the 
mount  of  Offence  above  Siloam ;  and  Dr.  Bar- 
clay ("City  of  the  Great  King  ")  identifies  it 
with  traces  of  foundations  and  cisterns  in  tliat 
vicinity,  that  is,  8.  W.  of  Bethany. 

lEIUSAlDl  (Heb.,  fishing  place),  the  name 
of  two  places,  as  is  now  generally  agreed,  of 
ancient  Palestine.  One  of  them  is  believed  to 
have  been  situated  on  the  N.  W.  shore  of  the 
lake  of  Tiberias.  Jerome  and  Ensebios  men- 
tion Capiemanm,  Chorazin,  Tiberias,  and  Beth- 
saida  as  lyin^  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tiberiaa ; 
and  Epiphamns  aaya  of  Bethsaida  and  Oaper- 


nanm  that  they  were  not  far  apart.  But  the 
exact  position  of  this  Bethsaida  has  never 
been  indicated,  and  even  the  name  is  un- 
known to  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  the 
country,  except  sach  as  have  learned  it  from 
the  New  Testament.  Some  writers  pUoe  it 
at  Khan  Minyeh,  others,  with  Robinson,  at  Ain 
et-Tabighah ;  and  De  Saalcy  thinks  it  was  lo-  - 
cated  at  Tell  Hum.  Here  wss  the  birthplace 
of  three  of  Christ's  disciples  and  a  frequent  re- 
sort of  Christ  himself.  Tlie  other  place  ap- 
pears to  have  been  Bethsaida  of  Ganlonitis, 
just  above  the  embouchure  of  the  Jordan  into 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  on  the  E.  side.  It  was 
originally  a  village  called  Bethsaida,  but  was 
rebuilt  and  enlarged  by  Philip  the  tetrarch  and 
named  Julias  in  honor  of  Julia,  daughter  of 
Augustus.  This  is  identified  with  the  place 
where  Christ  miraculously  fed  the  6,000,  and 
where  the  blind  man  was  restored  to  sight. 
Here  also  Philip  the  tetrarch  died  and  wu 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BfiTHUSE 

ifelVllflE,  B  fortified  town  of  Artoia,  France, 
Id  tbe  department  of  Pss-d»-Oalais,  on  the 
L&w  and  Aire  oanala,  bnilt  on  a  rook  above 
the  river  Brette,  16  ra.  N.  N.  W.  of  Arra«;  pop. 
ia  I8SS,  B,178.  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
commnnal  college,  and  several  hospitals.  The 
triangalar  fortress  and  citadel  are  among  Van- 
ban's  finest  works.  Linen,  cloth,  beet-root  sO' 
gar,  and  other  artidee,  are  mannfactnred  hare, 
and  the  trade  is  important.  The  town  was 
ruled  bj' local  ooimtB  from  the  11th  to  the  middle 
of  the  ITth  centurj.  The  title  of  oonnt  of 
B^thiine  became  extinct  in  I80T.  Gaston 
d'Orlfians  took  B^thnne  from  the  Spaniards  in 
1040 ;  it  was  retaken  by  Prince  Rngene  in 
ITIO,  and  definitively  annexed  to  France  hj  the 
treaty  of  Utreobt  (ITIS).  Tbe  first  artesian 
wells  are  said  to  have  been  bored  here. 

BETHUirE,  Benge  WmUisIm,  D.  D.,  an  Amer- 
ican olergyman  and  anthw:  bom  in  New  York 
in  March,  180G,  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  April 
SIT,  1B69.  His  father,  Divie  Bethnue,  a  native 
of  Scotland,  emigrated  to  America,  settled  in 
New  York  as  a  merchant,  and  became  eminAit 
as  a  man  of  business  and  philanthropiat.  His 
mother,  Joanna,  was  the  dangfater  of  Isabella 
Graham.  (See  GnAHAU.)  George  Bethnne  was 
educated  at  Dickinson  college  and  Princeton 
theological  seminar/,  and  for  a  abort  time  acted 
as  seaman's  chaplain  in  Savannah,  Ga.  In 
1826  he  became  paatop  of  the  Dntch  Reformed 
cbnrch  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  removed  in  1880 
to  Utioa,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1884  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  remained  as  pastor  of  a  ohurch  till 
1849,  when  he  went  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  to 
b«eome  pastor  of  the  newly  organised  "Re- 
formed Dntch  Cbnrch  on  the  Heights."  His 
health  having  become  impaired,  he  rengned 
this  charge  in  18G9  and  went  to  Italy,  wnere 
he  remained  abont  a  year.  For  a  few  months 
after  his  return  he  was  associate  pastor  of  a 
chnroh  in  New  York.  In  ISOl  he  again  went 
to  Italy,  taking  up  his  residence  in  Florence, 
where  no  died  suddenly  from  an  attack  of 
apoplexy.  Dr.  Bethnne  was  one  of  the  finest 
scholars  and  moat  briUiant  orators  among  the 
American  clergy.  He  edited,  with  biographi- 
cal and  critical  notices,  a  volume  of  "British 
Female  Poets,"  and  prepared  a  nniqne  edition 
of  tzaak  Walton's  "Complete  Angler,"  sup- 
plying much  matter  relating  to  angling  in  Ame- 
rica, a  work  for  which  his  love  of  natnre  and 


hare  been  separately  printed.  Wia  last  publi 
appearance  in  America  was  at  a  Union  mass 
meetinginNew  York,  AprQSO,  19S1,  where  he 
delivered  a  speech  whion  was  one  of  his  most 
eloqnent  efforts.  He  wrote  "Lays  of  Love 
and  Futh,"  a  volume  of  poems  of  considerable 
merit;  "Early  Lost  and  Early  Saved;  "  "The 
History  of  a  Penitent ; "  "  Memoirs  of  Joanna 
Bethnne,"  his  mother;  and  "Leotnres  on  the 
Heidell>erg  Catechism,"  an  elaborate  work  in 
dogmatic  theology,  originally  prepared  as  a  se- 
ries of  lectures  fbr  his  . .        — 


BETROTHMENT 


697 


pnblished 

A  memoir  of  his  Ufe.  by  A.  R.  Van  Nest,  D.  D., 
was  published  in  18S7. 

•EIUS,  or  BMU,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
In  EnrdistoD,  about  10  m.  S.  W.  of  Lake  Van 
and  60  m.  W .  of  tbe  city  of  Van ;  pop.  about 
10,000,  of  whom  one  third  are  Armenians  and 
Kurds.  It  is  situated  in  a  wide  ravine,  baa 
saveral  moaqnea  and  convents,  caravansarie*, 
and  an  ancient  castle  on  a  high  rock,  formerly 
the  residenoe  of  the  local  khans.  Cotton  cloths, 
celebrated  for  their  bright  red  dye,  and  varions 
other  articles,  are  mannfactnred  here.  Excel- 
lent tobaooo  is  exported  to  Erzemra  and  Con- 
stantinople. The  a<^<Hiung  conntry  is  remark- 
able fbr  Its  fertility,  and  abomida  in  game. 

BEnomUHT,  a  mntnal  promise  of  mar- 
riage. Among  Ilie  ancient  Greeks,  the  father 
made  a  selection  for  his  daughter.  The  young 
conple  kissed  each  other  for  the  first  time  in 
the  presence  of  their  friends,  and  it  was  cna- 
tomary  for  the  brid^room  to  bring  flowers 
daily  until  the  wedding  day  to  the  house  of  his 
bride.  In  the  laws  of  Ho»es  there  are  some  pro- 
visions respecting  the  state  of  the  virgin  who 
is  betrothed,  but  nothing  particularly  refer- 
ring to  the  act  of  betrothmenL  Selden's  Vzor 
H^raiea  gives  the  schedule  of  later  Hebrew 
contracts  of  betrothmenL  which  are  still  in 
use  among  the  orthodox  Jews.  The  ^ponialia 
of  the  Romans  were  invested  with  great  legal 
importance.  Children  could  be  betrothed  in 
their  seventh  year,  and  &  pabllc  record  was 
kept  of  the  engagement,  certified  by  the  seals 
of  witnesses,  the  bridegroom  giving  as  a  pledge 
to  the  bride  an  iron  ring  (annulm  proitubut), 
after  which  she  proceeded  to  his  honse,  where 
Bondata,  a  spindle,  and  a  distaff  were  presented 
to  her,  while  a  hymn  was  snng  in  nonor  of 
ThalaasiuB.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Roman  and 
canon  statutes  oonstitnted  the  law  on  the  snb- 
jeot  While  the  Greek  chnroh  conddered  be- 
trothments  as  binding  as  weddings,  the  church 
of  Rome  viewed  them  simply  as  promises  of 
marriage.  But  as  much  concision  cnsned,  the 
council  of  Trent  decreed  that  no  betrothment 
was  valid  without  the  presence  of  a  priest  and 
of  two  or  three  witnesses.  This  decree  was 
adopted  in  France  by  Lonis  XIII.  in  1639,  and 
became  known  as  the  ordonnance  d«  Bloii, 
Until  the  revolntion  of  1T8S,  when  betroth- 
ments  ceased  to  have  legal  importance,  they 
were  generally  celebrated  in  France  by  pro- 
nouncing the  nuptial  blesnngs  in  front  of  the 
chnrch,  by  reading  the  marriage  contract,  end 
byexchanfnng  presents,  while  the  French  bride- 
groom, as  waa  also  the  case  with  the  Romeo 
bridegroom,  had  to  pay  a  certain  amount  of 
earnest  money  to  ratify  the  bargain.  In  Eng- 
land, formal  engagements  of  this  kind  were 
nsu^  down  to  the  time  of  the  reformation.  In 
Shakespeare  and  other  writers  many  illnstra- 
tions  occur,  ttam  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 
betrothmonts  were  celebrated  by  tbe  inter- 
change of  rings,  the  kiss,  the  Joining  of  hands, 
and  the  attestation  of  witnesses.   Tbe  eoclesias- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


598  BETTEBTON 

tical  law  wbioh  panUhed  e,  violation  of  the 

pledge  hj  exoommunicHtion  was  abolished  un- 
der  George  H.  Betrothraent  in  England  was  a 
legal  bar  to  marriage  with  unother.  Frevioue  to 
Anne  Boleyn's  execution  llonrj  VIII.  obtained 
a  decree  of  divorce  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  on 
the  groand  of  her  alleged  former  betrotliment 
with  Northumberland.  The  onl;  legal  remedy 
against  the  violation  of  betrothment  at  the 
present  time  is  an  action  for  breach  of  prom- 
ise. In  Scotland,  however,  betrothment  when 
taking  place  with  the  free,  deliberate,  and  clear 
"present  consent"  of  both  parties,  may  be 
enforced  against  the  recosant  party,  and  con- 
stitctCB  marriage  itself.  (See  "Treatise  on 
the  New  Divorce  Jurisdiction,"  bj  Macqneen, 
1668,  and  "Exposition  of  the  Laws  of  Marrisse 
and  Divorce,"  by  Ernst  Browning,  1872.)  Is 
Germany  betrothment  is  still  more  generally 
celebrated  than  in  moat  other  countries,  and 
must  be  legalized  by  two  witnesses.  The 
pledges  nsnally  connst  in  the  interchange  of 
rings.  The  contract  may  be  dipsolved  by  mn- 
tn^  consent ;  bnt  a  violation  of  it,  once  attended 
with  severe  penalties  is  stii)  pnoUhed.  Chil- 
dren borne  by  the  bride  to  the  bridepoom  are 
regarded  aa  it  bom  in  wadloek,  even  if  no  mar- 
riage Bucoeeds  the  betrothment.  In  the  United 
States  betrothment  has  only  the  moral  foroe 
of  a  mutual  pledge,  and  in  case  of  a  breach  of 
promise  the  law  provides  for  redress. — Some 
peculiarities  of  betrothment  among  semi-civil- 
ized and  savage  races  may  h6  mentioned.  The 
Arab  sends  a  relative  to  negotiate  about  his 
intended  bride,  and  the  price  at  which  she  is 
to  be  had.  The  bridegroom  of  Karatchatka 
has  to  serve  in  the  house  of  his  prospective 
father-iu-law  before  an  engagement  is  allowed 
to  take  place.  With  the  Letts  and  Estbonions 
no  engagement  is  considered  valid  until  the 
parent  and  relativee  of  the  bride  have  tasted 
the  brandy  which  the  bridegroom  presents. 
Among  the  Hottentots,  the  would-be  bride- 
groom ia  not  allowed  to  propose  withont  be- 
ing accompanied  by  bis  father.  Father  and 
son  walk  arm  in  arm,  with  pipes  in  their 
months,  to  the  hoase  of  the  bride,  where  the 
engagement  takes  place.  Among  some  of  the 
indigenous  tribes  of  America  it  was  onstomary 
to  keep  the  betrothed  woman  in  durance  and 
on  abort  allowance  for  40  days,  as  the  super- 
stition prevtiled  that  she  wonld  exert  an  oc- 
cult innaenoe  upon  anything  she  touched  or 
anybody  witb  whom  she  came  in  contact. 

BET^BTON,  Tkwus,  an  English  actor,  bom 
in  1S85,  died  in  April,  ITIO.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  cook  in  the  service  of  Charles  I.,  and  was 
apprenticed  to  a  bookseller  in  London,  who 
obtained  a  license  for  a  company  of  players 
in  1669,  with  whom  Betterton  commenced  his 
career.  He  was  engaged  by  Davenant  in 
1G6S,  and  became  an  established  favorite.  His 
personal  appearance  was  clumsy  and  his  man- 
ner unprepossessing,  but  he  bad  a  singular 
faculty  of  thoroughly  identifying  himself  with 
his  part    His  last  appearance,  April  13,  1710, 


BEUKEIil 

was  the  proximate  canse  of  bis  death,  as  he 

performed  when  in  ill  health,  in  order  to  keep 
his  engagement  with  the  public.  His  widow, 
an  eminent  actress,  whose  flr^t  husband  was 
Mr.  Sanderson,  soon  afterward  died  of  grieC 

BinUELU,  Savtrta,  an  Italian  author,  bom 
in  Mantua,  July  18,  1718,  died  there,  Dec  13, 
1808.  lie  became  a  member  of  the  society  of 
Je^ns  in  1T8S.  From  1T39  to  1744  he  taught 
literature  at  Brescia,  and  was  afterward  pro~ 
fessor  of  rhetoric  saccessivcly  at  Venice  and 
Parma.  He  was  noted  for  his  eloquence  as  a 
preacher  and  his  generous  social  nature.  When 
the  society  of  Jesus  was  abolished,  he  relin- 
quished the  professorship  which  he  then  held 
at  Modena,  and  returned  to  Mantua.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are:  BelC  entunaimo  nelle  belle 
arti  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1769),  and  Ritorgimeato 
negli  ttvdj,  &c.  (2  vols.,  Bassano,  1776).  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
Venice  in  1801,  in  34  vols.  His  LetUre  duct 
di  Virffilio  a^li  Areadi  were  severely  criti- 
cised on  account  of  their  depreciation  of  Dante 
and  other  great  writers.  His  Verri  teialti  are 
his  best  poems. 

BETTY,  WUUiH  Hcarr  W«t,  an  English  actor, 
popolarly  known  as  "the  yonng  Roscina," 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  Sept.  IS,  1T01.  In  in- 
fancy he  accompanied  his  father,  who  was  a 
farmer,  to  Ireland.  He  made  a  successful  d^ 
bnt  at  the  Belfast  theatre  as  Osman  when  be 
was  about  12  years  old,  performed  at  Cork 
with  even  greater  effect,  and  was  enthosiaati- 
cally  received  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh.  In 
1804  he  was  engaged  at  Covent  Garden  for 
IS  nights,  at  60  guineas  a  night  and  a  clear 
benefit,  and  at  Drury  Lane,  on  the  intervening 
nights,  on  the  same  terms,  though  John  £em- 
ble's  weekly  salary  was  under  39  guineas,  and 
Lewis's  only  £20.  He  drew  immense  house* 
in  Hamlet  and  other  characters;  and  the  ex- 
citement was  BO  great  that  the  university  of 
Cambnige  Taade  Quid  no»Ur£e*civ»effett  tha 
subject  of  Sir  William  Brown's  prize  medaL 
In  28  nights,  at  Dmry  Lane,  he  drew  £17,210, 
an  average  of  nearly  £016  a  night,  and  at  least 
as  much  more  at  Covent  Garden.  After  he 
bad  secured  a  handsome  income  he  passed 
three  years  at  Shrewsbury  schooL  Resuming 
his  profession  in  181&,  be  made  an  utt«r  fail- 
ure- Lord  Byron  had  predicted  this  on  ao- 
count  of  his  corpulence,  Dat  features,  ungrace- 
ful action,  and  his  "mofSn  face."  He  then 
retired  from  the  stage. — Hbhbt  Bettt,  his  eld- 
est son,  bom  Sept  29, 181G,  appeared,  after  sev- 
eral years' practice  in  the  provinces,  at  Covent 
Garden  in  Dooember,  1644,  as  Hamlet 

BETWIH,  a  river  of  Hindostan,  which  risea 
in  the  Vindhya  mountuns,  near  Bhopaul,  and 
flows  nearly  840  m.  mostly  in  a  N.  E.  direction, 
finally  joining  the  Jamna  about  80  m.  £.  S.  £. 
of  Calpee.  In  a  portion  of  ita  coarse  are  beds 
of  iron  ore.    It  is  not  navigable. 

BEVEEIA,  or  BeiketaMM,  WIDch,  a  Dutch  flah- 
erman,  bom  at  Biervliet  in  ISBT,  died  tliere  in 
1449.    He  is  celebrated  as  being  the  first  who 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


•  BEULfi 

fDcceeded  in  preseiring  herrings,  an  wt  which 
has  proved  of  tmch  great  importance  to  his 
conntrj  that  Oharles  Y.  bad  a  statue  erected 
to  his  memorf.  The  etymology  of  the  word 
pickle  has  been  traced  to  his  name. 

BETlJa,  ChHiM  EnMt,  a  French  orcheeolo- 
giat,  bom  in  Sanmor,  June  89, 18S6,  died  April 
6, 1674.  Ha  waa  profeaaor  of  rhetoric  at  Hon- 
lins,  and  io  1849  became  conneoled  with  tlie 
French  school  at  Athens.  His  excavations  and 
discoveries  there  are  described  in  L'AoropcU 
^AtiUnet  (2  vols.,  Paris,  18(4;  2d  ed.,  1B68). 
This  work  and  his  Btude  *ur  U  Piloponnite 
(1856)  were  pnblished  by  order  of  the  minister 
of  publio  instruction,  and  acquired  for  him  a 
membership  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  and 
the  archaeological  ebair  in  the  imperial  libra- 
ry. In  19S0  he  became  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  insoriptiona  and  belles-lettres,  and  in 
18(18  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of 
tine  arts,  in  which  capacity  be  upheld  the  an- 
cient prerogative  of  that  body  against  the  de- 
cree of  Nov.  18,  18fi8,  which  remodelled  the 
school  of  fine  arts  upon  a  more  modem  basis, 
vesting  part  of  the  authority  in  a  special 
committee.  Ingres,  Flandrin,  and  otber  emi- 
nent artisU  sided  with  the  academy.  Besides 
the  works  already  mentioned,  and  nameroos 
contributions  to  scientific,  artistic,  and  liter- 
ary periodioals,  he  published  FauiUei  da  Car- 
thage (I860),  giving  an  aocoant  of  hia  excava- 
tions in  that  locality;  Hittoire  Ae  la  teulptara 
atant  Phidiat  (1864) ;  Gav*ent»  tar  I'art,  and 
Augvgta,  *afamill«  et  ta  amu  (186T) ;  ffiitcire 
dt  I'art  free  avant  Pirielit,  and  T^ira  et 
r heritage  (PAufvste  (1868);  and  the  play  PAi- 
dioj,  drame  antique. 

HXlNONniXE,  Flam  4«  BmI,  marquis  de,  a 
French  soldier,  bom  at  Ohampignol!e,  Uay  10, 
1752,  died  April  28,  1821.  After  serving  for 
some  time  in  India,  he  became  in  1793  aide- 
de-camp  to  Uarsbat  Luckner,  and  was  soon 
after  named  general-ia-ohief  of  the  army  of  the 
Moselle,  and  in  1798  minister  of  war.  Sent  by 
the  convention  to  arrest  Dumonriez,  be  was 
himself  arrested  by  that  general,  delivered  over 
to  the  prince  of  Gobnrg,  and  kept  in  Aostrian 
fortreSHes  tilt  1796,  He  afterward  became  snc- 
ceadvely  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north,  inspector  general  of  infantry,  amhoasa- 
dor  to  Beriin  in  1800  and  to  Madrid  in  1802, 
senator  in  1805,  and  count  in  1809.  Having 
voted  for  the  deposition  of  Napoleon  in  1814, 
he  was  mode  by  Louis  XVIII.  minister  of  state 
and  peer  of  France,  marshal  in  I8in,  and  mar- 
quis in  181T.  Dying  childless,  he  bequeathed 
hia  dignities  to  his  nephew,  fiTHNNE  Maxiis, 
who  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1809-'13,  and 
in  1828  was  aide-de-camp  of  the  duke  of  An- 
goDl6me  in  the  Spanish  war,  and  retired  from 

BEIJ9r,  FrMrkh  FeHlaaad  vaa,  count,  a  Ger- 
man Btateaman,  bom  in  Dresden,  Jan  13,  1809. 
He  studied  political  science  at  Gottingen  under 
Heeren,  Sartorius,  and  Eichhorn,  and  in  1881 
and  the  following  years  was  employed  in  the 


BEUST  699 

Saxon  ministry  of  foreign  affairs.  Between 
1B8S  and  1849  he  was  secretary  of  legation  in 
Berlin  and  Paris,  chargfi  d'affaires  in  Munich, 
minister  resident  in  London,  and  ambassador 
in  Berlin.  He  became  Saxon  minister  of  for- 
eign afihira  Feb.  24,  1849.  He  opposed  the 
proclamatioQ  in  Saxony  of  the  German  coosti- 
tntion  of  March  28,  promulgated  by  the  Frank- 
fort parliament,  and  on  the  ontbreak  of  an  in- 
surrectdon  in  Dresden  invoked  the  assistance 
of  Prussia,  and  accompanied  the  king  in  his 
flight  &om  tiie  capital.  On  May  14,  after  the 
quelling  of  the  outbreak,  be  was  also  made  mia- 
ieter  of  ecolesiaHtioal  affairs.  He  agreed  with 
Prussia  to  join  the  so-called  Dreik&nigtbund,  or 
union  of  the  three  kings  of  Nortli  Germany,  bnt 
withdrew  A«m  this  engagement,  subsequently 
favored  an  alliance  with  Austria,  and  adopted 
a  policy  more  and  more  reactionary.  In  1858 
he  exchanged  the  portfolio  of  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs for  that  of  the  interior  department,  re- 
tuning  at  the  same  time  the  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs ;  and  soon  afterward  he  became  the  offi- 
cial chief  of  the  cabinet,  after  having  for  a  long 
time  virtually  ruled  it«  conncils.  During  the 
Orimean  war  he  declined  to  join  Austria,  Frus- 
ua,  and  the  German  diet  in  a  demonstration 
against  Russia,  and  prevuled  upon  the  mbior 
German  states  to  associate  themselves  with 
Saxony  at  the  conference  of  Bamberg  with  a 
view  to  forming  an  independent  nnion.  At 
that  period  and  for  some  time  afterward  he 
cherished  the  idea  of  reorganizing  Germany  on 
the  basis  of  tiiree  groups  (die  iHat),  formed 
by  Austria,  Prussia,  and  all  the  other  German 
states  under  the  lead  of  the  German  diet.  He 
was  oonfirmed  in  this  project  in  1865  when  the 
diet  came  forward  for  the  first  time  as  a  distinct 
sovereign  power  by  appointing  him  its  ambas- 
aador  at  the  Schleawig-IIolateIn  conference  in 
London,  where  he  opposed  all  tamperioj;  with 
the  duchies  og^nst  the  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Henceforward  identified  with  Austria, 
whose  counsels  swayed  the  German  diet,  he 
was  regarded  as  oue  of  the  principal  instigators 
of  the  war  with  Pmsaio.  He  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  from  the  Saxon  ministry  after  the 
battle  of  Sadowo,  and  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  king  and  crown  prince  of  Saxony  was 
appointed  by  Francis  Joseph  successor  of 
Connt  Mensdorff  as  Austrian  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  Oct.  GO,  1866.  Shortly  afterward 
he  spent  some  time  in  Pesth,  where  he  concert- 
ed with  the  Hungarian  stateamen  the  plan  of 
a  dnalistic  Austro-Hungarian  empire;  and  in 
June,  1807,  on  the  coronation  of  Francis  Joseph 
OB  king  of  Hungary,  he  was  rewarded  with 
the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  empire,  in  1868 
with  the  title  of  count,  and  in  18T0  with  the 
chancellorship  of  the  order  of  Haria  Theresa, 
which  had  been  vacant  since  the  death  of 
Mettemich.  He  was  thus,  thonsh  a  Protes- 
tanlj  placed  at  the  helm  of  affairs  m  the  empire 
of  the  Hapsburgs.  The  concordat  with  Rome 
was  abrogated  and  other  important  liberal  re- 
forms were  carried    throngh    under  Beuat's 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


600 


BEUTHEN 


administration;  and  it  wbb  chiefly  due  to  hU 
influence  that  Austria  maintuned  peace  with 
foreign  powers,  and  became  apparently  recon- 
ciled with  Prussia  at  the  end  of  the  Franco- 
German  war.  His  penieTering  efforts  to  effect 
a  harmoniouB  anion  between  the  non-German 
and  German  elements  of  the  empire,  as  well  as 
bis  opposition  to  the  nltramontane  party  and 
the  joalonsiea  excited  by  hia  all-controlling 
iaflaence,  involved  him  in  many  difficnltiee, 
which  terminated  with  his  resignation  in  No- 
vember, 18T1.  (See  Aubtbia^  vol.  ii.,  pp.  160- 
15G-)  The  emperor  in  a  complimentary  letter 
thanked  him  warmly  for  his  past  servicea,  and 
appointed  him  a  member  for  life  of  the  upper 
chamber  of  the  imperial  diet.  In  December, 
1871,  he  was  appointed  Austro-Hnngarian  am- 
bassador in  London. — See  Ebeling,  FrUdrieh 
FerdiTMod,  Qraf  ton  Baitt,  uia  Ltben  taid 
vomtkmlieA  tein  ttaaltmAnnueAe*  Wirktn  (2 
vols.,  Leipsio,  1870). 

BEUTHEN,  the  name  of  two  towns  of  Prussia, 
in  the  prorince  of  Silesia.  I.  Bcidbta  ti  Gpiter 
SBiria,  or  OberkntkH,  in  the  district  of  Oppein, 
is  sitoated  on  the  Klodnitz,  60  m.  S.  E.  of 
Oppein;  pop.  in  1871,  17,!'46,  having  increased 
during  the  last  ten  years  with  rreat  rapidity. 
The  town  has  mannfactnrea  of  cloth  and  linen, 
and  near  it  are  iron  and  lead  mines.  It  is  the 
chief  place  of  the  poeaessiona  of  Count  Henckel 
of  Donnersmark.  IL  Beithea  m  the  Ota,  or 
HMcrbMtbet,  in  the  district  of  Liegnitz,  situ- 
ated on  the  Oder,  6a  m.  N.  W.  of  Breslan ;  pop. 
in  1871,  S,82S.  It  is  the  capiUl  of  the  former 
principality  of  Carolath-Beuthen. 

BEViUIID.  Sartk  and  Snik,  two  islands  of 
Holland,  in  the  province  of  Zealand,  formed  by 
branohes  of  the  Scheldt;  united  area.  154  sq. 
m. ;  nop.  28,800.  They  lie  E.  of  the  island  of 
Valcneren.  Sonth  Beveland,  the  larger  and 
more  fertile,  is  also  colled  by  the  Datch  l-and 
vanTer-Ooes.  It  has  an  actiregr^trade,  and 
contains  Goes,  the  capital,  with  a  new  harbor, 
and  several  forts  and  villages. 

BEVIZDI,  a  borough  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  East  Flanders,  6  m.  W,  of  Ant- 
werp; pop.  in  180S,  7,lfil.  It  has  mannfso- 
tnrea  of  lace,  linen,  cotton,  and  of  wooden 

SETEBIIKI^  vahuK,  an  English  prelate,  bora 
at  Barrow,  Leicestershire,  in  1S8S,  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  6,  1708.  At  the  age  of  20  he  pnb- 
lished  an  able  Latin  treatise  on  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriao,  Arabic,  and  Bamaritan  lan- 
guages. In  1681  he  became  archdeacon  of  Col- 
chester ;  in  1684,  prebendary  of  Canterbury ; 
and  at  the  revolution  of  1B88,  chaplain  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary.  He  declined  the  bishopric  of 
Bath  and  Wells  on  the  depriration  of  Bishop 
Een  for  non-juring,  but  in  1704  he  accepted 
the  see  of  St.  Asaph.  Ho  left  the  greatest  part 
of  bis  estate  for  reli^oua  pnrposes,  and  his 
whole  life,  which  he  ended  in  the  cloisters  of 
Westminster  abbey,  was  devoted  to  piety  and 
charity.  His  worksinclnde  "Treatise  onChro- 
nology,"  "Canons  of  the  Greek  Ghnrch  to  the 


BEVERLY 

Eighth  Century,"and  " Private Thonghts upon 
a  Christian  Life."  The  last  named,  written  at 
the  age  of  23,  but  not  published  nntil  after  bis 
death,  has  been  very  popular.  The  6rHt  col- 
lective edition  of  his  English  works  was  pnh- 
liahed  by  the  Eev.  Thomas  HartweU  Home, 
with  a  life  and  critical  eiamination,  in  1824,  in 
9  vols.  6vo.  A  more  complete  edition  is  that 
of  Oxford  in  12  vols.  8vo,  1844-'8. 

lEVQLET,  a  munidpal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  capital  of  the  E.  Ridingof 
Yurkfidre,  28  m.  £.  S.  £.  of  York,  and  8  m.  N. 
N.  W.  of  Hnll ;  pop.  of  the  mnnicipal  borongfa 
in  1871, 10,218.  The  modem  part  of  the  town 
is  well  boilt  The  most  ancient  and  finest  pub- 
lic building  is  the  minater  or  collegiate  chnreh, 
founded  by  John  of  Beverley,  with  the  famous 
Percy  Hhrioe  within  the  choir.  St.  Mary's 
church  isalarge  and  handsome  Gothic  bnilding. 
The  ancient  grammar  school,  with  a  library,  ia 
one  of  the  many  edncational  in!^itutimiB.  A 
newcattlemarketwaaboiltiD  1664.  The  chief 
trade  is  in  agricultural  products,  and  also  in 
coal,  timber,  and  cattle.  There  are  many  tan- 
neries and  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  of  firearms,  and  the  iron  fonnderies 
are  among  the  most  eitensive  in  England. 
Beverley  sent  two  members  to  parliament  till 
1870,  when  it  was  disfranchised.  The  origin 
of  the  town  ia  traced  to  the  8th  oentnry.  Ath- 
elstan  granted  a  charter  to  it  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury. It  was  a  manufacturing  town  at  an 
early  period,  but  the  superior  advantages  of 
Hull  interfered  with  its  progress.  Sir  John 
Hotham,  governor  of  HuU  under  Charles  I^ 
who  bad  been  member  of  parliament  for  Bev- 
erley, was  arrested  here  by  nis  nephew  in  IMS, 
on  account  of  his  treaaonable  corTesp<»dence 
with  the  royalists,  and  was  executed  with  bis 

lETOLET,  JAa  it,  an  English  prelate,  borD 
at  Harpham,  Korthnmberland,  in  the  7th  oen- 
tory,  died  at  Beverley  in  May,  721.  He  was 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Hilda,  and  his 
reputation  for  learning  and  piety  induced  Al- 
fred, king  of  Northumberland,  to  obtain  his 
appointment  in  S8S  as  bishop  of  Hexham,  and 
in  687  as  archbishop  of  York.  He  was  the  tutor 
of  Bode.  In  717  he  retired  to  Beverley,  where 
he  had  previously  founded  a  collie  for  secular 
priests.  Be  is  said  to  have  written  homiliea  on 
the  Gospels  and  a  commentary  on  St.  Luke, 
but  they  are  not  extant  Bcde  and  others 
ascribe  miraclee  to  him,  and  he  was  canoniied 
three  centuries  after  his  death.  William  the 
Conqueror  was  s^d  to  have  refrained  from 
molesting  his  native  place,  out  ol  re^>ect  for 

BETEU.T,  a  post  town  of  Essex  co.,  Haas.,  on 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  opposite  Salem,  with  which 
it  is  united  by  a  bridge,  and  16  m.  N,  N.  E.  <rf 
Boston,  on  the  Eastern  railroad ;  pop.  in  1870, 
fl,607.  It  contains  a  bank,  a  weekly  newq>a- 
per,  an  insurance  office,  an  academy,  and  man- 
ufactures boots  and  shoes,  &c.  Two  vessels, 
with  an  a^regate  tonnage  of  220,  are  employ- 


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BEYKOUT 


601 


tons,  in  the  coastwise  trade. 
BEWICK,  ThtBU,  reviver  of  wood  engraving 

in  England,  bom  at  Cherrjbnm,  Nortburaber- 
land.  Aug.  IS,  1TG3,  died  at  Gateshead,  Nov. 
8,  182S.  He  waa  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  14 
to  Mr.  Ralph  Bellby,  engraver,  at  NewnastJe- 
on-Tjne.  Having  ezeoated  in  wood  the  dia- 
grams for  Ilntton's  "  Treatise  ou  Uensoration  " 
(pabliahed  in  ITTO)  and  other  Boientifio  works, 
he  soon  after  attempted  sometbiog  better,  and 
at  the  age  of  22  obtained  froni  the  sooiety  of 
arts  a  premiuiu  for  bis  wood  engraving  of  the 
"Old  konnil,"  one  of  a  series  of  illnatrations 
to  Gay's  fables.  Some  years  later  he  illos- 
trated  a  voinme  of  select  fiibles  by  Mr.  Saint. 
In  1T90  the  firgt  edition  of  the  "History  of 
Quadrupeds,"  illnstrated,  was  published  by  Mr. 
Beilby,  who  had  received  him  into  partner- 
abip  (8tb  ed.,  1824).  Tbe  designs  in  this,  as 
well  as  in  Bulmer's  editions  of  Qoldsmith's 
"Deserted  Village"  and  Pamell's  "Hermit," 
were  drawn  and  engraved  hf  Thomas  Bewick 
and  his  joanger  brother  and  pnpil  John. 
Their  beantj,  novelty,  and  admirable  execution 
attracted  general  attendon,  and  George  III. 
would  not  believe  they  were  woodcuts  until  be 
was  shown  the  blocks.  Somerville's  "  Chase  " 
was  the  neit  work.  All  tbe  engravinm  were 
by  Thomas  and  the  designs  by  John  Bewick, 
who  died  of  consumption  in  lT9fi,  the  year  it 
was  prodnoed.  Thomas  Bewick  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  "British  Birds,"  containing 
the  land  birds,  in  ITOT,  illustrated  and  partly 
written  by  bimself.  It  ranks  as  the  finest  of 
his  works.  The  second  volume  appeared  in 
1804,  about  which  time  the  partnership  with 
Mr.  Beilby  was  dissolved.  Ue  published  "  Se- 
lect Fables"  by  .^Esop  and  others,  illnstrated. 
In  IS18,  after  which  he  engaged  in  preparing 
for  an  illnstrated  history  of  fishes,  wbicn  was 
never  completed.  Among  his  pupils,  who 
were  numerous,  Lnke  Clennel  and  William 
Harvey  have  most  distinguished  themselves. 
His  autobiography  was  published  in  1862. 

BEXU,  a  S.  W .  county  of  Tesas,  bounded  E. 
by  the  Cibolo  river  and  watered  by  the  Ban 
Antonio  and  Medina;  area,  l,4fi0  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  IBTO,  ia,043,  of  whom  2,808  were  colored. 
The  suT&ce  b  undulating,  the  borders  of  the 
rtreams  are  well  timbered,  and  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile when  irrigated.  Tbe  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  81,097  bushels  of  Inaiau  com,  117 
bales  of  cotton,  7,910  lbs.  of  wool,  and  22,952 
of  butter.  There  were  4,616  horses,  4,158 
milch  cows,  56,640  other  eattle,  8,770  sheep, 
and  1,869  swine.    Capital,  San  Antonio. 

BEXAR  DISTBICT,  or  TMiltMT,  an  unorgan- 
ized and  almost  unsettled  portion  of  Texas,  in 
the  W.  part  of  the  state,  bounded  B.  W.  by  the 
Kio  Pecos,  a  branch  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
N.  W.  by  New  Mexico;  pop.  in  1870,  1,077. 
The  B.  E.  portion  of  the  district  is  a  table  land, 
tbe  N.  W.  portion  an  elevated  table  land  with- 
«at  wood  or  water,  while  the  N.  E.  and  E. 


oeotrol  parts  are  well  watered  by  the  bead 
streams  of  the  Colorado  and  Brazos. 

BEXLET,  Lwd.     Bee  Vaksittabt,  Nicholas. 

BEYL^  >arle  Heul,  popularly  known  as 
Bteitobal,  a  French  author,  born  in  Grenoble, 
Jan.  28,  17B3,  died  in  Pans,  March  2S,  1842. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  displayed  early 
talent  at  the  central  school  of  Grenoble,  went 
to  Paris  iu  1799,  was  connected  with  the  civil 
and  military  service  ohiefiy  with  the  army  in 
Italy,  and  was  also  engaged  in  various  other 
pursuits  according  to  the  promptings  (^  his 
restless,  roving  disposition,  and  of  bis  necessi- 
ties. Finally  he  became  consul  at  GivitaYeochia 
(1880-'42).  the  eieqnatur  at  Trieste,  the  original 
place  of  his  destination,  having  been  denied  to 
liim  on  account  of  bis  Italian  sympathies.  He 
wrote  voluminonaly  nnder  various  names  for 
many  periodicals  and  journals.  Under  tbat  of 
Alexandre  C^sar  Bombet  he  wrote  in  1814  Let- 
trei  d«  Viame  «ur  Haydn,  ttiieim  (Tune  ni»  dt 
ifoMart  et  de  comidiratiotu  tur  Mitasttua  et 
Vital  pritent  de  la  mutiqve  en  Italie  (new  ed., 
1817,  nnder  the  name  of  Stendhal),  the  life  of 
Haydn  being  a  new  version  of  Carpani's  work, 
and  that  of  Mouut  a  free  translation  &-om  the 
German.  Both  works,  as  well  aa  his  Viede 
Eouini,  the  only  entirely  original  and  best  of 
the  series,  were  translated  into  English  (1320- 
'24).  By  his  HUtoirt  da  la  peinlure  tn  Italia 
(1817),  Roma,  NapUt  et  Flormee  (1817),  and 
Promenade*  dant  Some  (2  vols.,  1829 ;  new 
ed.,  6  vols.,  1846),  he  gave  additional  evidence 
of  bis  remarkable  familiarity  with  Italy;  while 
his  Del  romantirmo  aelle  arti  (2  vols.,  Flor- 
ence, 1819)  was  writt«n  in  excellent  Italian. 
In  the  latter  work,  as  in  bis  pithy  pamphlet 
Ratine  et  Shaketpeare  (1S28),  which  made  a 
sensation  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  be  re- 
veals himself  as  an  eDthoaiaatio  champion  of 
the  romantic  and  adversary  of  the  classical 
school.  His  most  famous  works  are  VAmour 
(1823),  Memoiret  (fun  touritU  (1388),  and  his 
romances  La  Bouge  et  Is  N'oir  (1831)  and  La 
Chartreuse  de  Parme  (1839)— the  latter  a  de- 
lineation of  court  life  at  Parma,  which  accord- 
ing to  Balzac  is  chiefly  interesting  for  dipltHna- 
tists  and  people  moving  in  official  and  court  cir- 
cles; bat  after  he  had  acquired  a  wider  popu- 
larity Balzac  as  well  as  Sunte-Beuve  extolled 
him  as  a  writer  of  wonderinl  genius,  original- 
ity, and  critical  power.  The  number  of  his 
readers,  at  Arst  limited,  has  been  lately  increas- 
ing. A  complete  edition  of  his  writings  was 
published  at  Paris  in  18  vols.,  lS65-'6  ;  and  in 
1657  Prosper  M£rim6e  published  his  Corre- 
eponlante  incite  in  %  vols. 

BETBODT,  or  Bdral  (anc.  Beryttu),  a  town  and 
the  chief  seaport  of  Syria,  5G  m.  N.  W.  of  Da- 
masons;  pop.  about  70,000,  one  third  of  whom 
are  Moslems,  and  the  rest  Christians,  Jews, 
Bmses,  and  foreign  residents.  It  is  built  on  a 
triangular  promontory,  the  apex  projecting  3 
m.  into  the  sea  and  the  base  running  along  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Lebanon.  Tbe  ntuation  is  singular- 
ly beautiftil,  and  the  dinutte  mild  and  healthy. 


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The  old  city  la  a  dense  nocleas  of  sabstantial 
baildings  with  narrow  streets  on  the  shore, 
whence  extends  s  broad  margin  of  piotorceque 
villas  with  ffardens  ronuing  up  to  the  snnimit 
of  the  heights.  Beyond  tliese  are  raulberrj 
groves.  Theetreetsin  the  suburbs  are  wide  and 
passable  for  carriages,  and  the  houses,  which 
are  built  of  stone,  are  snacioas.  The  popula- 
tion has  nearlj  doubled  within  the  last  few 
years,  partly  owing  to  the  opening  of  com- 
merce with  Europe,  which  has  proved  very  suc- 
cessful, and  partly  in  consequence  of  the  mas- 
sacre at  Damascus  in  1860,  after  which  nnm- 
bersof  the  ChristiiuiB  there  removed  to  Beyrout. 
The  harbor  is  partly  filled  with  sand,  and  Tes- 
sels  have  to  anchor  in  the  road,  or  in  Bt. 
George's  bay,  so  called  from  the  legend  that 
St  George  killed  the  dragon  near  that  place. 
Beyrout  is  alternately  wifli  Damaseoa,  for  six 


raontba  of  the  year,  the  seat  of  the  governor  of 
the  vilayet  of  Syria,  as  organiied  in  1866, 
It  is  also  the  residence  of  the  consuls  gen- 
eral of  most  of  the  European  powers  and  of 
the  United  States.  It  has  Greek,  United 
Greek,  and  United  Syrian  archbUhops,  a  Jesuit 
college  with  a  printing  ofiioe,  and  a  convent  of 
Sisters  of  Charity.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
American  Pi-otestant  missions  in  Syria,  with 
a  literary  and  medical  college  and  a  theologi- 
cal seminary ;  and  there  are  two  Protestanr 
reli^ous  journals  in  Arabic,  and  a  honse  of 
German  Protestant  deaconesses.  A  large 
number  of  Europeans  reside  here,  which  has 
had  the  effect  of  giving  new  force  and  vitality 
to  commerce.  A  macadamized  road  to  Damas- 
cus has  been  bnilt  by  a  French  company ;  and 
silk-winding  establishments,  iron  works,  cot- 
ton factories,  l>anking  houses,  &c.,  are  con- 


daot«d  mainly  by  foreigners.  The  exports 
we  chiefly  grain,  wool,  cotton,  raw  silk,  bides, 
tobacco,  oils,  soap,  hemp,  drugs,  figs,  raisins, 
and  native  wines ;  the  imports  from  the  United 
Statea,  Europe,  and  Egypt  are  kerosene,  broad- 
cloth, woollen,  cotton,  linen,  and  silk  stuffs,  rice, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  foreign  wines  and  other  deli- 
cacies. The  importation  of  American  petro- 
lenm  during  the  year  1870  amounted  to  |IS0,- 
491  38.  Tlie  esports  to  America,  mainly  of 
wool,  for  the  some  period  amounted  to  |6S,- 
840  Od. — Beyrout  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Phceniciaos,  although  the  first 
mention  of  it  in  classical  writings  is  made  by 
Strabo.  Soma  critics  identify  it  with  the 
Berothah  or  Berothai  of  Scripture.  In  140  B. 
C,  it  was  destroyed  by  Diodotus  Trypbon,  the 
usarper  of  the  throne  of  Syria.  After  its  cap- 
ture by  the  Romans  and  restoration  in  the 
time  of  Augustus  by  Agrippa,  it  became  a  Go- 


man  colony  under  the  name  of  Julia  Angna- 
ta  Felix  Berytus.  Under  Clandins  it  was  em- 
bellished by  the  erection  of  magnificent  thea- 
tres, amphitheatres,  and  other  edifices;  and 
under  Caracalla  it  wassnmamed  Antoniniana. 
Here  Titns  after  the  destruction  of  Jeraaalem 
celebrated  the  birthday  of  his  father  Vespa«an 
by  combats  of  gladiators,  in  which  a  great  num- 
ber of  tjie  captive  Jews  perished.  Later  it  be- 
came celebrated  as  a  seat  of  learning,  and  par- 
ticularly of  law,  and  attracted  students  from 
distant  lands.  The  emperor  Tbeodosius  II. 
made  it  a  metropolis.  In  S61  an  eartliqnake 
laid  the  town  in  ruins,  and  before  it  was  com- 
pletely restored  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conquering  Moslems,  who  destroyed  alike  agri- 
culture, commerce,  architecture,  and  literature. 
In  1110  it  was  captured  by  the  crusaders  under 
Baldwin  I.,  and  was  comprised  within  the  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem,    It  was  again  oaptored  by 


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BEZA 

fialadin  and  retaken  bj  the  cnisaders,  in  witose 
hands  it  remained  till  the  overthrow  of  their 
power  in  1291.  From' that  period  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ITth  centnrf  it  remained 
an  inaisniScant  place;  but  the  Druse  prince 
Fakreddin  rebailt  it  as  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment. In  1772  a  Bussiau  fleet  bombarded  and 
plundered  the  citj.  With  the  Egyptian  invasion 
of  Syria  Beyront  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Uehemet  Ali  ;  but  in  1840  the  EngJlBh  fleet 
bombarded  it  and  drove  ont  Che  Egyptians. 

B£Z1,  or  Beu,  TbMMV  d«,  a  French  reli^ons 
reformer,  bom  at  Yezelay,  June  24,  1S19, 
died  in  Geneva,  Oct  13,  1606.  He  was 
brought  up  for  the  law  by  hia  nncle,  who  was 
a  councillor  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and 
Btndied  at  Boarges  under  Melchior  Volmar, 
who  enlisted  his  sympathies  for  Luther.  From 
1539  to  1548  he  was  m  Paris,  addicted  to  pleas- 
ure and  literature,  and  published  there  loose 
Latin  poetry  nnder  the  title  of  Junenilia.  A 
severe  illneea  changed  the  turn  of  his  mind, 
and  in  1648  he  retired  to  Geneva,  where  he 
made  a  public  profession  of  the  reformed  re- 
ligion. He  taught  Greek  at  Lausanne  till  1CG8, 
when  he  went  to  Germany  to  intercede  with 
tlie  German  princes  in  b^alf  of  the  French 
Hognenots,  after  which  Calvin  obtained  for  him 
the  rectorship  and  chair  of  theology  at  the 
academy  of  Geneva.  In  1669  he  converted 
Antoine  de  Bonrbon  and  bis  wife  Jeanne  d'Al- 
bret  to  Protestantism,  and  in  1661  he  was  the 
official  representative  of  the  Hagaenots  at  the 
conferences  of  Poissy,  where  he  displayed  abil- 
ity and  moderation,  In  1663  ha  went  to  Paris 
to  preach  the  reformation,  became  chaplain  to 
the  prince  de  CondS  and  afterward  to  Ooligni, 
and  r^oiced  over  the  assassination  of  the  duke 
de  Guise,  though  he  was  not  believed  to  have 
connived  at  any  deeds  of  violence.  Returning 
to  Geneva  in  1668,  he  took  the  place  of  Oalvin 
on  the  latter's  death  in  1664,  and  waa  the 
apokesmsu  of  the  Huguenots  at  the  synods  of 
La  Rochelle  and  Ntmes,  and  on  many  other 
occaaons.  He  married  for  the  second  ttme  at 
the  age  of  S9,  and  at  78  wrote  a  spirited  poem 
in  refutation  of  the  rumors  of  his  conversion. 
He  was  the  virtual  fonnder  of  the  academy  of 
Geneva,  and  prodaced  after  Greek  models  an 
admirable  drama  on  the  sacrifloe  of  Abraham. 
He  pnblished  in  1G56  a  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  passed  throngh  many  edi- 
tions, and  took  part  in  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  revised  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
texts,  which  was  issued  in  1688  by  the  pastors 
of  the  ohnroh  of  Geneva,  His  Tradwition  m 
ven  franfoit  da  ptautaet  omit  par  Marot 
(Lyons,  1C68)  has  been  reprinted  many  times 
tt^ther  with  Marot's  for  the  nsa  of  Frenob 
Protestant  congregations.  Among  his  nomer- 
ous  other  works  is  L'Hiitoire  eceltsiattique  de* 
igliatf  ri/oTTniet  ou  royoum*  de  I¥anee  depvU 
Van  1631  jvtqu'tn  1663  (8  vols.,  1580),  As 
his  name  is  not  ostensibly  associated  with  the 
anthorship  of  this  work,  his  claims  to  It  are 
contested  by  some  writers,  but  generally  decid- 


ed in  his  favor.  The  best  known  biographies 
are  by  Schloeser  (Heidelberg,  1800)  and  Baum 
(3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-'51).  See  Heppe,  Tkeo- 
doT  Beta,  Leben  tind  Avtgeadhlte  ScKr^fieu 
(Elberfeld,  1861). 

BEZl'S  CODEX  (sometimes  called  the  Codez 
CantabrigieTitit,  from  its  present  place  of  de- 
posit, the  university  of  Cambridge,  England), 
a  very  ancient  MS.  on  vellum,  contfuning  in  its 
present  state  the  four  Gospels  and  Acta,  but 
with  several  omissions.  It  is  usually  cited  by 
critics  BS  HS.  D  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts.  Id 
the  arrangement  of  the  Gospels  John  stands 
second.  It  contains  the  Greek  text  with  a  Lat- 
in translation  on  opposite  pages.  It  is  written 
in  large  uncial  letters,  and  is  generally  assigned 
to  the  6th  century ;  but  there  are  some  addi- 
tions which  cannot  be  eariier  than  the  lOtb  cen- 
tury. It  forms  a  quarto  volume  of  10  inches  by 
8,  and  now  consists  of  414  leaves.  Originally, 
as  is  shown  by  the  paging,  there  were  at  les^t 
612  leaves.  The  principal  biatos  is  between  the 
Gospels  and  Acts,  whion  it  Is  presumed  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Ejiiatles.  Its  critical  authority  is 
not  ranked  high.  It  is  chiefiy  remarkable  for 
eit«nsive  interpolations,  which  amount  in  Acts 
alone  to  more  than  600.  The  MS.  was  pre- 
sented in  ISBl  to  the  university  of  Cambridge 
by  Theodore  Beza,  who  swd  that  it  was  found 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Irennns  at  Lyons, 
whence  it  bad  probably  been  taken  by  some 
Huguenot  soldier.  The  MS.  has  been  several 
times  carefully  collated,  and  has  been  twice 
printed,  once  by  Kipling  in  facsimile  {Codex 
Beza  Cantabrigieneit,  2  vols,  fol.,  1798),  and 
later  in  ordinary  type  with  an  introduction 
and  annotations  (8vo,  London,  1864). 

ifiziEES  (anc.  BaUrra  or  BaUrrra),  a  town 
of  Languedoo,  France,  in  the  department  of 
HSrault,  at  the  junction  of  the  Orb  with  the 
LanRuedoo  canal  or  canal  du  Midi,  88  m.  S.  W. 
of  Hontpellier ;  pop.  in  1666,  27,722.  Situated 
upon  a  commanding  eminence,  its  fine  appear- 
ance led  to  the  proverb.  Si  Deut  in  temt,  vtl- 
lethabitare  BaterHe;  but  the  interior  of  the 
town  is  far  from  attractive.  The  old  walls 
flanked  with  towers  still  remain,  but  the  cita- 
del has  been  razed  and  converted  into  pleasure 
Sounds,  in  which  there  is  a  monument  of 
iqnet,  the  native  engineer  of  the  Languedoo 
canal.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Nazaire  is  a  Gothic 
bnilding  surmounted  with  towers  like  a  Gothic 
castle.  In  the  church  of  the  Madeleine  7,000 
persons  were  burnt  during  the  Albigensian  war. 
The  convents  and  the  bifdioprio  were  abolished 
in  1769,  and  the  episcopal  palace  baa  been  since 
used  for  courts  of^  law  and  public  offices.  The 
town  possesses  a  communal  college,  a  public  li- 
brary, and  an  economical  and  orchsological  soci- 
ety. Bilk  stockings,  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
parchment,  verdigris,  starch,  gloves,  glass,  and 
famous  sweetmeats  are  manufactured ;  but  the 

{rinoipal  industry  is  that  of  distilling,  and  the 
randy  made  here  is  almost  as  good  as  cognac. 
Owing  to  the  situation  near  the  sea,  the  com- 
merce is  very  active  in  wine  (which  is  produced 


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in  the  neif;hborhood  in  excellent  qnalitiea), 
grain,  honey,  oil,  almonds,  and  other  articlee. — 
An  smphithoatre  and  other  remains  of  the  Ro- 
man era  still  exist.    The  town  dates  from  120 


CBthotnJ  or  Bt  Budra,  BAdn*. 

B.  C,  bnt  it  was  named  Jnlia  Btet«rrB  in  honor 
of  Jalins  CfBsar,  who  established  a  colony  here. 

Flourishing  in  the  4th  century,  the  Visigoths 
destroyed  the  town  in  450,  and  Charles  Martel 
in  T38,  in  wresting  it  from  the  Moors.  In  1209 
the  fearful  massacre  of  the  Albigenaee  depofi- 
ulated  the  place,  the  loss  of  life  reaching  over 
2U,000,  and  according  to  some  authoriljes  over 
60,000,  besidee  the  victims  in  the  Madeleine. 
In  1229  Bfeziera  was  nnited  with  the  French 
crown,  after  having  been  ruled  in  the  10th 
century  by  the  local  coants  of  Septimania,  and 
sobsequently  by  viscounts  of  Biziers,  Carcas- 
sonne, and  Albi,  subject  to  the  counts  of  Barce- 
lona. Several  synods  were  held  here  in  the 
13th  and  subsequent  centuries.  B^ziera  sof- 
fered  much  daring  the  religions  wars  of  the 
16th  century. 

BEZOIB  (Pers.  pad-tahr,  poison  expeller— 
pad,  wind,  and  tahr,  poison),  a  concretion,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  bile  and  resin,  met  with  as  a 
round  or  orbicular  calculus  in  the  stomach,  the 
intestines,  the  gall  bladder,  the  salivary  ducts, 
and  even  in  tbe  pineal  gland,  but  mostly  in  the 
intestines  of  certain  ruminant  animals.  Such 
bodies  were  once  celebrated  for  their  sup- 
posed medicinal  properties,  distinguished  by 
the  names  of  the  animals  or  the  countries  from 
which  they  were  obtained,  and  eagerly  bought 
for  ten  times  their  weight  in  gold.  Besides 
being  taken  internally  as  medicines,  they  were 
worn  around  the  neck  as  preservatives  from 
contagion.  Modem  investigation  and  experi- 
ment have  destroyed  the  charm  of  these  won- 
derful calculi. 

BHADUNATH,  or  BaMnatk,  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  the  district  of  Gurhwal,  Northwestern 
Provinces,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  tlie 


BHAKTEIHARI 

Yishnn'-gnnga  or  Bishengnnga,  66  m.  N.  E. 
of  Serinagar.    It  is  rituatod  in  a  valley  of  the 
Himtdaya,  10,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  ndghboring  Bhadrinath  peaks  being  21,- 
000  to  23,000  fL  high. 
It  is  celebrated  for  a 
temple  of  Vtshnn,  sup- 
posed to  be  of  ancient 
oripn,  though  the  pres- 
ent building  is  modern. 
Below  it  is  a  tank  80  ft. 

Suare,  which  by  means 
a  suhtemme  ons  com- 
mnnit^tion  is  supplied 
withwaterfrom  ather- 
mal    spring.     In    this 
tank  Hie  sexes  bathe  in- 
discriminately, and  the 
ablution  and  the  wor- 
ship of  the  chief  idol, 
which  is  a  Bgar«  of 
black    marble    array- 
ed in  gold  and  silver 
brocade,  is  regarded  aa 
eifioacioDS  in  washing 
away  nns.   Nearly  60,- 
000  pilgrims  visit  the 
shrine  every  12th  year, 
during  the  celebration  of  the  Kumbh  Hela  fes- 
tivaL     In  ordinary  years  the  nbmber  of  pil- 
grims is  much  less.    From  November  to  April 
the  temple  is  closed  on  acooont  of  the  cold. 
IHIGATIT  em.    See  Sakbkbit  LANanAOB 

Ann   LlTXRATUnZ. 

BaUO,  Baaa,  or  Ihuna,  a  town  of  Burmah, 
on  the  Irrawaddy,  40  m.  W.  of  the  Chinese 
frontier;  pop.  about  12,000,  The  permanent 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  Laos,  and  the  transient 
residents  Chinese  and  Shans  (Siamese).  Tho 
did  Shan  town  of  Bhamo  or  Mhanmo  is  further 


latter,  surrounded  with  a  bamboo  palisade,  con- 
tains a  Chinese  temple  and  about  2,000  large 
dwellings,  those  of  the  natives  being  made  of 
reeds  thatched  with  grass,  and  those  of  the 
Chinese  of  blue-stained  brick.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  viceroy  and  tbe  principal  trading  place 
between  the  Chinese  caravans  and  the  Burman 
and  Mohammedan  merchants.  A  greater  varie- 
ty of  tribes  gather  at  the  annnal  fair  and  in  the 
bazaar  here  from  December  to  April  than  in 
any  other  Araadc  town,  not  excepting  Kiakht*. 
The  total  annual  value  of  the  trade  with  China 
is  estimated  at  about  £600,000,  and  sometimes 
as  much  as  £700,000,  including  imports  of 
£80,000  worth  of  eilk,  beaides  tea,  copper, 
drugs,   and   paper,   and   exports  of  £230,000 


and  sapphires.  Among  the  most  industrious 
dyers  and  mechanics  are  the  Falongs,  who  live 
in  the  neighborhood  on  the  frontier  of  China. 
BHiBniHlBI,  a  Hindoo  poet  of  the  1st 
centurr  B.  C,  said  to  have  been  a  brother  of 
King  Vikramaditya.   According  to  another  tra- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BQATGAN 

dition,  he  was  the  Bon  of  a  Brahman,  and  be- 
oamo  a  poet  or  a  cominler  of  poetry  after  hav- 
ing led  a  gay  life.  His  writings  are  said  to 
have  been  the  firat  apecimens  (rf  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature to  become  known  in  Earope,  tlirough 
the  translation  into  German  of  many  of  his 
aphorinoB  by  the  missionarj  Abraham  Roger 
in  his  Offen«  TK^t  Eum  vvrborgmiei^  Ileidea- 
tAunte  (Noremberg,  1658).  The  principal  worlc 
ascribed  to  Bbartribori,  "The  Centuries,"  is 
often  called  an  anthology.  The  £rst  part  de- 
lineates the  Hindoo  conception  of  love;  the 
second  part  is  didactic,  and  the  third  part 
ascetic  and  mystical.  It  was  first  edited  at 
Serampore,  with  the  Mil'niadeta  (180*).  Peter 
von  Bohlen  published  BbaTtriharit  sSeatentim 
it  Carmen  Brotieum  (Beriin,  1833),  and  in  1885 
a  free  Crerman  metrical  translation;  and  Hip- 
polyte  Fanchd  has  published  a  French  tranala- 
tioD,  Bhartnhari  et  Tehaura  (Psria,  18G2). 

BHITCAN,  or  Bhitg««,  a  town  of  N.  Hiudos- 
tan,  in  the  valley  of  Nepaol,  6  m.  S.  E.  of  Cat- 
mtwdoo.  It  formerly  had  12,000  houses  and 
an  estimated  population  of  80,000,  with  a 
palace  and  other  buildings  of  fine  appearance. 
Though  much  decayed,  it  is  stilt  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Nepaalese  Brahmans. 

BHIWILPOOR,  or  Bahawripm.  I.  A  native 
state  of  N.  W.  Hindostan,  extending  280  m. 
along  the  S.  bank  of  the  continnous  rivers 
Ghara  (lower  SntlQJ),  Faqjnnd,  and  Indus,  from 
Sirhind  on  the  N.  E.  to  Sinde  on  the  6.  W.,  and 
120  m.  in  greatest  breadth  from  the  rivers  B.  to 
Jossnlnieer;  area,  22,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  variously 
estimated  at  from  250,000  to  upward  of  600,- 
000.  The  whole  country  is  a  fiat  desert  of 
arid  sand,  with  the  exception  of  a  fertile  strip 
a  few  miles  wide  along  the  rivers,  which  is 
annually  watered  by  their  innndations.  In 
some  portions  of  this  strip  the  land  is  well  cul- 
tivated, covered  with  thick  jungles,  abonndiog 
in  wild  hogs,  wild  geese,  and  partridges.  The 
principal  crops  are  rice,  wheat,  maize,  indigo, 
sugar,  opium,  cotton,  and  fVuits.  The  popula- 
tion, whioh  eonsiste  of  Jauts  and  Belooohes, 
both  professing  Mohammedanism,  and  of  Hin- 
doos. IB  more  peaceful,  orderly,  and  industrious 
than  that  of  the  neighboring  territories.  The 
prindpal  towns  are  Bbawalpoor,  the  former 
capit^  Ahmedpoor,  the  present  residence  of 
the  khan,  Ehanpoor,  and  Dirawul,  a  fortified 
prost  in  the  desert.  The  khan  is  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  English,  and  maintains  an  army 
of  2,000  regular  troops,  which  he  can  increase 
to  30,000  in  case  of  emergency.  II.  A  town, 
the  former  capital  of  the  state,  on  the  Ghara, 
60  m.  8.  by  E.  of  MoolWn,  in  lat.  29°  26'  N., 
Ion.  71°  87'  E. ;  pop.  aboot  20,000.  The  honses 
are  poorly  constructed  of  brick  and  sorronnded 
with  gardens.  The  town  was  once  enclosed 
by  a  wall  4  m.  in  circumference,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  visible.  Oatside  of  these  are 
large  groves  of  date  palms  and  other  trees. 
There  are  many  Hindoo  weavers  here,  who 
manof^tnre  excellent  scarfii,  turbans,  chinUe^ 
and  colored  gooda. 


BHOPAUL 


605 


BflEIU  (Sanskrit  IMl,  separate;  i.  ».,  ont- 

oasta),  a  native  trilie  of  Hindostan,  chiefly  in- 
habiting Oandeish  in  Bombay,  and  numbering 
oTer  100,000.  They  are  believed  to  be  the 
aborigines  of  Guzerat  and  ai^acent  territories, 
who  have  been  Irom  remote  ages  described  as 
a  distinct  people.  The  earliest  notice  of  them 
is  in  the  Ma,hai>haTala.  According  to  their 
own  traditions,  thev  sprang  from  the  union  of 
the  god  Mohodeo  with  a  beautiful  woman 
whom  he  had  met  in  a  forest,  and  whose  de- 
ecenSantfi  on  being  driven  south  settled  in  W. 
Candeish  and  Ualnah,  in  the  Vindhya  and 
Satpoora  moanteins,  and  along  the  banks  of 
the  Taptee,  Mahee,  and  Narmsda.  Along  the 
Vindhja  range,  from  Jam  to  W.  Mandoo,  the 
country  is  exclusively  inhabited  by  Bbeels,  The 

Sinoipal  chiefs  are  called  hhomiyaht,  of  the 
hilalah  tribe  (deeoendaots  of  Kiypoots  with 
Bheel  women).  One  of  the  most  notorious  of 
them  for  his  inorderous  exploits  was  Nadsr 
Singh.  Thej  chiefly  worship  Mahadeo  and  hia 
consort  Devi,  the  goddeas  of  smallpoi.  The 
Bbeele  joined  in  the  Indian  mutiny  of  185T-'8. 
Lieut.  Henry,  the  superintendent  of  police,  was 
killed  in  an  attempt  to  dislodge  them  from  a 
strong  portion  in  Oandeish,  and  another  en- 
gagement, fought  Jan.  20,  1858.  near  the  fron- 
tier of  the  nizam's  territory,  wnere  the  Bheels 
had  mustered  in  great  force,  resulted  in  the 
toss  of  50  European  troops.  The  English 
ButhoritieB  have  since  endeavored  te  control 
them  by  subjection  te  military  discipline, 

IHOOJ,  a  city  of  S.  W.  Hindostan,  capital  of 
the  native  state  of  Cntoh,  30  m.  N.  of  the  gulf 
of  Cuteh,  and  160  m.  8.  8.  E.  of  Hyderabad ; 
pop.  about  20,000.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  a 
fortified  hill,  is  enclosed  by  a  strong  stone  wail 
flanked  with  towers,  and  contAins  a  castellated 
palace,  a  mausoleum,  and  several  temples, 
mosqoefl,  and  pagodas,  interspersed  with  plan- 
tations of  date  palms.  The  fine  appearance 
thus  given  to  the  city  from  a  distance  vanishes 
on  entering  the  gates.  An  earthquake  in  1819 
destroyed  the  fort  and  many  boildings,  and 
caused  great  loss  of  life.  Bhooj  is  famous  for 
its  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver. 

BHOPAIIL,  or  BeyaL  I.  A  native  state  of 
Malwah,  Hindostan,  between  lat.  82°  83'  and 
28°  46'  N.,  and  Ion.  76°  25'  and  78°  50*  E.,  trav- 
ersed partly  by  the  Vindhya  mountains  and  wa- 
tered by  the  Nerbndda  and  other  rivers;  area 
nearly  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  800,000,  chiefly 
Hindoos.  The  territory  is  ruled  by  a  nawaub 
under  the  [mlitical  tutelage  of  Great  Britun. 
Dost  Mohammed  Khan,  an  Afghan,  conquered 
Bhopan!  m  1728.  Since  1818  the  English  have 
asserted  their  political  aaoendsncy,  but  not 
without  many  complications.  Dnring  the  se- 
poy rebeUion  in  18o7-'B,  theBhopaul  motineers 
were  defeated  Jan.  12,  1858,  bj  Gen.  Rose,  and 
a  number  of  them  were  put  to  death.  II>  A 
town,  capital  of  the  stete,  and  the  seat  of  the 
British  political  resident,  about  800  m.  8.W.  of 
Allahabad.  The  old  fortifications  of  the  town 
are  dilapidated. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


606  BHOTAN 

BBOTUT.    See  Bootan. 

■HIJBTPOOR,  or  Bhaitpwc  L  A  native  etate 
of  N,  W,  Hindostan,  bordering  on  the  North- 
western Provinces,  between  lat.  26°  80'  and  27° 
50'  N.,  and  Ion.  76°  64'  and  77°  48'  E. ;  area, 
aboDt  2,000  B^.  m. ;  pop.  about  800,000,  chiefly 
Jauts  professing  Brahmsnism.    There  are  few 

Krennial  streams,  and  the  soil  is  sandf,  bat 
-ge  crops  are  prodoced  bj  abondant  irriga- 
tion Axhh  welk.    IL  A  city,  capital  of  the  state, 


BIAKCHINI 


38  m.  W.  of  Agra,  and  63  m.  8.  of  Delhi ;  pop. 
about  100,000.  It  is  nearly  8  m.  in  circoit,  and 
was  formerly  sarronnded  by  a  mud  wall  and 
wide  ditch,  and  had  a  fort  of  great  strength. 
Gen.  Lake  made  foor  attempts  to  storm  it  in 
1606,  without  success,  losing  over  3,000  men. 
It  was,  however,  finally  surrendered  by  the 
r^ah,  who  conclnded  a  treaty  April  17;  but 
his  death  in  1830  producing  a  contest  about  the 
succeesioD,  new  complications  arose,  in  con- 


sequence of  which  Comhennere  stormed  the 
town  in  1826,  having  first  destroyed  a  part  of 
the  wall  by  mining.  The  fortifications  were 
afterward  dismantled.  Throughout  the  sepoy 
rebellion  the  city  remained  in  die  hands  of  the 
British. 

BIAFBi.  1.  A  smaU  kingdom  of  W.  Africa, 
on  the  bight  or  bay  of  the  same  name.  It 
lies  between  the  eqoator  and  lat.  0°  N.,  and 
extends  only  a  small  distance  into  the  interior. 
The  principal  town,  of  the  same  name,  is  sit- 
uated not  far  from  the  coast  IL  HgM  (f,  the 
eastern  part  of  the  galf  of  Guinea,  extending 
from  Cape  Formosa  on  the  north  to  Oape  Lopez 
on  the  south.  The  delta  of  the  Niger  projects 
between  it  and  the  bight  of  Benin,  some  of  the 
mouths  of  that  river  being  upon  either  bay.  It 
also  recei  ves  the  rivers  Old  Calabar,  Cameroons, 
and  Gaboon.  It  oontuns  the  islands  of  Fer- 
nando Po,  belonging  to  Spain,  and  Principe 
and  8t  Thomas,  to  Port:Ugal. 

BULI'STOK  (Rasa.  BUloMtolc),  a  town  of  Rns- 
aia,  in  the  government  of  Grodno,  formerly  in 
the  Polish  prorinoe  of  Podlachio,  on  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Narew,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the 
game  name,  4C  m.  S.  W.  of  Grodno;  pop.  iii 
1860,  16,666,  aboot  13,000  of  whom  are  Jews 
and  nearly 4,000 Boman  Catholics.   Thetownis 


well  built,  mostly  with  one-story  brick  houses. 
It  has  a  beantifnl  castle,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  counts  Branicki,  but  now  to  the  mani- 
cipality,  aiUoining  which  are  snperb  pleasnre 
grounds.  Leather,  cloth,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  soap,  and  other  articles  are  manufac- 
tured, and  there  is  an  active  trade,  chiefly  in 
groin  end  timber,  with  Poland,  the  fairs  being 
very  lively.  Together  with  the  territory  now 
forming  the  circle,  the  town  was  transferred  to 
Prussia  at  the  partition  of  Poland  in  1765,  and 
in  ISO?  to  Knssia  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  when 
this  part  of  Podlachia  was  formed  into  a  sepa- 
rate ^strict,  snbseqaently  united  with  Grodno. 
BIINCHIKI,  FniMtM,  an  Italian  astronomer 
and  anthor,  bom  in  Verona,  Dec.  18,  1662, 
died  in  Rome,  Uarch  3,  1729.  Ue  studied 
under  Montanari,  and,  though  he  took  holy 
orders,  he  devoted  himself  Xo  science.  His 
merits  won  for  him  a  high  position  under  fonr 
successive  popes;  he  became  secretary  of  a 
committee  for  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  drew 
a  meridian  line  through  Italy,  but  did  not 
complete  this  work,  superintended  the  antiqni- 
ties  of  Home,  and  proposed  the  eetablishment 
of  a  museum  of  sacred  monuments.  He  was 
an  associate  member  of  the  French  academy, 
and  was  ennobled.    His  works  include  htoria 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


6TASD 

mieenaU  prmata  em  monnmenti  (Rome, 
1697);  a  voluine  of  his  astronomical  and  jfeo- 
graphJcal  obaervationa  (Verona,  173T) ;  Opvs- 
ercla  Varia  (3  vole.,  1754)  ^  and  an  edition  of 
the  Vittt  Ronuinorum  Pontifieam  bj  Anasta- 
siiis,  which  was  finished  by  hie  nephew  (i 
vols.,  171B-'S4). 

iUKD,  Allele  Fna- 

tvb,  a  French  painter,  —  

born  in  Lyons  in  180O. 
He  began  life  as  a 
chorister  with  a  view 
of  connecting  himself 
with  the  church;  but 
following  his  artistic 
bent,  he  became  bu£B- 
ciently  proficient  in 
drawing  to  secure  a 
professorship  on  board 
a  frigate  bound  to  the 
East,  and  he  sabse- 
qnently  travelled  in 
Europe,  going  north  as 
far  aa  Spitzbergen.  In 
tSaQ  he  went  to  Bra- 
zil, visited  other  parts 
of  South  America  and 
the  United  States,  and 

In  1865  set  oat  on  an  expedition  ronnd  the 
globe.  Among  his  most  renowned  earlier  pic- 
tures are  the  "Babes  in  the  Wood,"  "Stroll- 
ing Comedians,"  and  "A  Beggar's  Family." 
His  travels  suggested  to  him  many  themes, 
among  which  "  A  Concert  of  Fellahs,"  "  White 
Bears  attacking  a  Boat  in  Spitsbergen,"  "  The 
Slave  Trade,"  and  "An  Aurora  Borealis  in 
Hpitzbergen"  were  noted.  His  "Slaves  on 
Board  of  a  Slaver  "  was  exhibited  anew  in  Paris 
in  1867.  He  has  also  produced  "Jane  Shore" 
(1S4S),  "  Tlie  Bombardment  of  Bomarsund" 
(1857),  and  other  historical  works ;  bnthisrep- 
ntation  withthemassesrestsnpon  his  sacrificing 
sathetical  rules  for  the  sake  of  producing  great 
effects,  and  chiefly  upon  bis  knack  in  delinea- 
ting the  grotesque  characteristics  of  tlie  lower 
classes,  on  account  of  which  Edmond  About 
called  him  the  Paul  de  Eook  of  painters,  while 
more  fastidious  critics  deny  to  nim  sti  higher 
artistic  merit.  Among  his  man;  amusing  pro- 
ductions  of  the  kind  are  "Honors  Easy,"  "The 
Family  Bath,"  and  "National  Guard  of  the 
Banlieu ; "  and  among  tiie  most  recent  are 
'■The  Bonrae  of  Paris"  and  "A  Provincial 
Lawsuit"  (1863).  lie  enjoys  great  popularity 
in  France  and  on  the  continent,  and  especially 
in  England,  where  engravings  of  his  pictures 
are  mncb  in  demand.  In  186S  he  published 
an  illostrated  work,  Voyage  au  Bresil. — Ills 
wife,  UoHiB  d'Aijskt,  a  dramatic  and  miscel- 
laneons  writer,  who  accompanied  him  to  Spitz- 
bergen,  but  from  whom  he  was  separated  about 
1843,  has  written  Vo-!/a<rt  d'une/emmed  Spits- 
bergen (185i ;  Sded.,  1867). 

BIIRUTZ,  a  bathing  place  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Basses-Pyrtnees,  on  the  bay  of 
Biscay,  fi  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Bayoune ;  pop.  in  1866, 
Bl  VOL.  II.— 39 


BtBB 


607 


S,S52.  The  ^r  here  is  more  bracing  than  at 
Pan.  The  chief  public  bath  houses  are  in  a 
small  bay  called  Port  Vieui  and  on  the  C6te 
de  Moulin.  The  place  contains  onrious  grot- 
toes. It  flourished  especially  during  the  pe- 
riodical residence  there  of  Napoleon  III.  and 
Eugenie,  1855-'70.    The  villa  Eugfnie,  as  the 


TUB  En|[«iils,  BlUTftt. 

very  plain  imperial  residenc-e  was  called,  is  sit- 
uated on  an  elevation  dose  to  the  sea. 

BUS.  I.  SonofAmythaon,andbrotheroftbe 
seer  Melampus,  who  assisted  him  in  procnring 
the  oxen  of  Iphicles,  without  which  Neleus 
would  not  have  allowed  him  to  marry  his 
daughter  Pero.  He  also  obtained  a  third  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Prmtns,  king  of  Argos, 
through  his  brother's  curing  the  daughters  of 
Prtetus  and  other  Argive  women,  who  were 
insane.  1I>  Of  PrtcM,  flourished  at  Priene, 
Ionia,  under  the  Lvdian  king  Alyattes  and  his 
son  CrcesQB,  about  G70  B.  C.  He  was  not  only 
numbered  among  the  seven  wise  men,  but  was 
one  of  the  immortal  four  to  whom  the  term 
"sophi"  was  universally  applied.  He  was  a 
jurist  by  profession,  but  his  abilities  and  elo- 
quence were  only  at  the  service  of  those  who 
had  right  and  Justice  on  their  side.  He  in  vain 
sought  to  prevent  the  subjugation  of  the  loni- 
ans  by  Cyrus  by  urging  tliem  to  settle  in  Sar- 
dinia ;  but  when  his  townsmen,  after  the  siege 
of  their  city,  concluded  to  depart,  he  alone 
made  no  preparations  fur  the  flight,  and  when 
asked  about  it,  answered  with  the  words  now 
proverbial  in  the  Latin,  Omnia  men  mecum 
porta.  His  maxims  have  been  published  by 
Orelli  in  his  Optucula  Omcorum  iSententiota 
et  Moralia  (Leipsic,  1819),  and  a  German 
translation  of  them  is  contained  in  Frag- 
menle  der  nthen  WeUen,  by  Diltliey  (Darm- 
stadt, 1835). 

BIBBi  !•  A  central  county  of  Georgia,  trav- 
ersed by  the  Ocmulgee  river  and  several  small 
creeks;  area,  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,255, 
of  vhom  11,424  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
uneven.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the  Ocmul- 
gee is  fertile,  but  in  other  places  is  improduo- 


□IgitizedbyGoOglc 


608  BIBBIENA 

tiva.  The  Centntl  Georgia,  the  Macon  and 
WeBUrn,  the  Macon  and  Bnuiawjck,  and  the 
Southwestern  railroada  traverse  the  connty. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  148,660 
bnshelB  of  Indian  corn,  16,610  of  peaa  and 
beana,  46,076  of  aweet  potatoes,  and  6,09S 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  842  horses,  1,008 
mules,  1,105  mitoh  cows,  1,986  other  cattle, 
and  4,103  swine.  Capital,  Macon.  U.  A  cen- 
tral count;  of  Alabama,  watered  by  the  Ca- 
hawba  and  Little  Cahawba  rivers,  nhich  unite 
within  its  limits ;  area,  about  620  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,469,  of  whom  2,408  were  colored. 


Borne,  and  Dalton  railroad  skirts  the  E.  bonn- 
dary.  The  chief  prodnctions  in  1870  were 
6,828  bnshels  of  wheat,  82,620  of  Indian  com, 
18,646  of  oats,  14,554  of  sweet  potatoes,  ana 
8,973  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  619  horses, 
1,089  milch  cows,  2,828  other  cattte,  2,981 
sheep,  and  S,460  swine.    Capital,  Centreville. 

BUBIENi,  Ferdnafa  Oilll  da,  an  It&lion  ar- 
chit«ct  and  pwnter,  bom  in  Bologna  in  1657, 
died  abont  1748.  His  designs  were  of  the  most 
Bumptnons  character,  and  for  many  years  the 
dnke  of  Parma  and'the  emperor  Charles  VI. 
of  Germany  employed  him  in  painting  decora- 
tions and  arohitectnral  pieces,  and  in  conduct- 
ing triumphal  processions,  which  were  famous 
thronghont  Enrope.  To  him  the  stage  is  in- 
debted for  the  mvention  and  decoration  of 
movable  scenery.  He  published  several  works 
on  arohitectnre  and  on  the  theory  of  perspec-' 
tive, — His  father  Giovanni  Maria,  owner  of  the 
Bibbiena  estate  in  Tuscany,  whence  came  the 
snrname,  his  brother  Francesco,  and  his  son 
Antonio  were  all  dlatingnished  for  a  consider- 
able degree  of  the  same  talent. 

BIBIX,  Gewfc  Erenrd,  an  Enghsb  clergyman 
and  anthor,  born  in  Germany  in  ISOl.  He 
received  his  degree  as  doctor  of  philosophy 
in  TObingen  and  of  doctor  of  divinity  in  (}6t- 
tingen,  became  connected  with  Pestalozri's 
Bohools  at  Tverdun,  Switzerland,  and  pub- 
lished BeitTog  tur  Biographie  ffeinrieh  PmIo- 
lottCt  (St.  Gall,  1827).  About  this  period  he 
took  np  his  residence  in  England,  in  1889  be- 
came a  naturalized  British  subject,  and  rince 
1842  has  been  cnrate  of  Roehampton,  Surrey. 
He  has  taken  an  active  part  in  man;  chnrch 
movements,  edited  for  several  years  the  "  John 
Bull,"  and  contrtbnted  mnch  to  the  "English 
Review "  and  other  periodicals.  His  many 
pnblicationa  jnclnde  "The  Standard  of  Catho- 
licity" (1840);  "  Sermons  Occasional  and  for 
Saints' Days"  (1846);  " Biehop  Blomlleld  and 
his  Times  "  (1B57) ;  and  two  essays  (1870)  en- 
titled "TheValne  of  the  Established  Chnrch 
to  the  Nation  "  and  "Robbing  Churches  is 
Robbing  God." 

BIBEEICH,  a  town  of  WDrtemberg,  in  the 
circle  of  Donan,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bibe- 
rach  with  the  Riss,  a  tributary  of  the  Danibe, 
aa  m.  8.  8.  W.  of  Uhn;  pop.  in  1871,  7,091. 
It  contains  fbnr  chorches,  a  hospital,  and  a  col- 


BIBLE 

lege,  and  has  taonerieB,  breweriea,  mannfactoriea 
of  linen,  woollen,  and  paper,  and  an  active  trade 
in  grain.  Till  1802  Biberach  was  a  free  impe- 
rial city.  It  then  came  under  the  government 
of  Baden,  but  was  ceded  to  Wfirtembnrg  in  1 806. 
On  May  9,  1800,  the  French  general  Morean 
won  here  a  great  victory  over  the  Anstrian 
general  Eray.  Wieland  was  bom  in  Biberach. 
BlBiSCO,  ecMie  Dtwirlu,  prince,  a  Walla- 
chian  statesman,  bom  in  1804.  He  is  of  a  dis- 
tinguished family,  was  educated  in  Parity  and 
served  in  important  public  offices.  He  aided 
in  the  overthrow  of  Alexander  Gbika  in  1842, 
and  succeeded  him  as  hospodai  (1843),  bet  was 
driven  from  power  by  a  revolutionary  rising  in 
1848.  In  1657,  at  the  reqnest  of  the  Porte,  he 
aided  in  preparing  for  the  political  umon  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia  nnder  the  rule  of  a 
foreign  prince.     In  1862  he  was  elected  to 


in  1869,'  waa  hospodar  of  Wallachia 'from  1849 
to  1866,  but  absent  from  his  capital  during 
the  Russian  invaaion  of  1853-'4;  and  another 
brother,  John,  was  minister  of  religion  and 
education  from  1850  to  1858.— Three  sons  of 
Prince  George  served  as  officers  in  the  French 
army.  One  of  them,  Niouolab,  distingniahed 
himself  in  Algeria,  and  married  Ney's  grand- 
daughter Mile.  d'Elchingen. 

BIBLS  (Gr.  pLpUa,  books),  the  name  applied 
by  Ohrysostora  in  the  4th  oentnry  to  the  Vooks 
of  the  Old  and  New  Teatamenta,  which  had 
been  called  the  "  Scriptore."  The  ancient 
plural  haa  been  transformed  into  a  sinBiilar 
noon,  in  view  of  the  recognized  unity  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  which  is  thos  called  The 
Boos  by  way  of  eminence.  The  Bible  has 
two  general  divisions,  the  Old  Testament  and 
die  New  ;  the  Greek  SioBftic^,  meaning  disposi- 
tion by  will,  is  used  both  in  tlie  Septnagint 
and  in  the  Greek  New  Testament  for  the 
"  covenant "  or  compact  between  God  and 
man.  The  Old  Testament  waa  divided  by  the 
Jews  into  three  parts,  viz.,  the  law,  the  pro- 
phets, and  the  sacred  writings.  The  law 
comprised  the  five  books  of  Moses.  The 
prophets  comprised  the  earlier  prophets,  so 
called — the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  1  and  i 
Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings ;  and  the  later  prophets 
— three  m^or,  Isai^,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel, 
and  12  minor,  Rosea  to  Malachi.  Under  the 
sacred  writings  were  included  the  poetical 
books,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job;  the  "Five 
Rolls,"  Canticles,  Rulh,  Lamentations,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  Esther;  also  the  books  of  Daniel,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  1  and  2  Chronicles.  The  num- 
ber of  the  books  and  their  gronping  have  va- 
ried in  different  versions.  Our  English  Bible 
gives  39.  Jerome  counted  the  same  l>ooks  so 
as  to  ennal  the  22  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alpba- 
liet ;  Judges  and  Knth,  the  two  books  of 
Samuel,  two  of  Kings,  two  of  Chronicles  and 
the  12minor  prophetsmakingfive books.  The 
later  Jews  of  Palestine  counted  these  24.  As 
to  their  order,  the  Masoretic    arrangement. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


whiob  ia  that  of  oar  present  Hebrev  Bibles,  'u 


urangemeat  is  prewired  in  the  Septna^nt, 
which  is  followed  in  the  Yaigate  and  in  oar 
Engliah  Bibles ;  an  order  not  according  to 
chronological  aaccesaion,  bat  made  with  a  view 
to  gronping  similar  classes  of  compostion  to- 
gether, the  historical  being  placed  firat,  the 
poetical  next,  and  the  prophetical  last.  The 
biatorioal  division  opena  in  the  book  of  Gene- 
aia  with  an  acooant  of  the  creation  of  all  things, 
then  takes  ap  the  historj  of  the  Hebrews  as  a 
matter  of  central  interest,  showing  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  iamilj  of  Abraham  from  other  na- 
tions and  their  proaperona  settlement  in  £gjpt. 
Esodos  describes  the  escape  of  the  Israelites 
from  Ee^pt  and  their  organization  as  a  nation 
nnder  ue  Moswo  law.  Leviticns  contains  the 
more  special  laws  of  Israel,  chiefly  those  relat- 
ing to  the  public  worship,  festivals,  and  similar 
topics.  Numbers,  with  a  anpplement  to  the 
laws,  narrates  the  wearj  march  throngh  the 
desert,  and  the  opening  of  the  contest  for  the 
land  of  Canaan,  in  Deateronomy  Moees,  draw- 
ing near, death,  reminds  the  people  of  the  ex- 
perience they  have  gone  throngh  and  the  laws 
they  have  received,  and  eshorts  them  to  obedi- 
ence to  God ;  then  appoints  a  aucceasor,  and, 
taking  a  first  and  last  look  at  the  land  not  yet 
entered,  dies.  The  book  of  Joabna  descrihea 
the  conqnest  and  partition  of  Canaan,  and  the 
leader's  farewell  eihortation  and  death.  In 
the  next  book,  Judges,  we  read  of  nnarohy  and 
apostasy,  and  the  conseqaent  subjagation  of 
the  Israelites  by  their  heathen  neighbors,  and 
the  exploits  of  heroes  r^sed  np  to  deliver 
them.  The  books  of  Samael  give  hia  history 
as  prophet  and  jndge,  and  the  story  of  Saul 
and  David.  The  books  of  Kings  tell  of  David's 
death,  the  brilliant  reign  of  Solomon,  and  the 
snbseqnent  decline,  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes, 
the  overthrow  of  the  seceded  kingdom  of  Isra- 
el and  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Jndah  into 
captivity,  and  the  fate  of  the  remnant  left  in 
Jndea  while  their  brethren  were  carried  away 
captive.  Theae  booka  tell  alao  of  thoae  prophets 
who  testified  for  God  in  the  face  of  wicked 
kings  and  a  degenerate  people.  The  Chroni- 
cles are  a  supplementary  work,  and  are  accom- 
panied by  the  book  of  Ruth,  an  episode  in  the 
time  of  the  judges,  narrating  with  exquisite 
grace  the  marriage  of  Rnth  the  Uoabitess  and 
Boaz  the  great-grandfather  of  David.  The 
Old  Testament  history  closes  in  the  books  of  Ez- 
ra and  Nehemiah,  which  describe  the  retnni 
of  the  Jewish  nation  from  exile  and  the  re.ifto- 
ration  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  worship. 
The  book  of  Esther  records  events  of  the  Per- 
rian  captivity. — While  the  historical  books 
show  the  development  of  thoae  religions  ideas 
which  underlie  the  Hebrew  national  life,  the 
prophetic  books  show  these  ideas  inspiring  the 
people  in  their  conflicts  with  unbelief  and 
apc^tasy,  and  animating  the  nation  with  bright 
hopes  of  the  future.     In  all  literature  there 


are  no  hooka  like  these,  in  severe  morality, 
high  religions  tone,  aublime  conception,  grand 
diction,  and  rich  imager;.  Covering  a  great  ex- 
tent of  time,  these  prophetic  writings  vary  in 
style,  but  they  sliow  the  struggles  of  the  na- 
tion's hesrt  and  its  foreign  relations  in  a  way 
that  lights  up  the  historical  booka. — The  poet- 
ical books  express  the  same  ideas  with  the  pro- 
phetic, but  in  a  more  quiet  didactic  and  lyrio 
form.  The  didactic  portion  of  them  consiste  of 
the  Proverbs,  a  collection  of  sententious  max- 
ims and  wise  discourses ;  Ecclesiastes,  an  elo- 
quent wul  over  the  transientness  of  earthly 
taings ;  and  the  book  of  Job,  a  pbilosophicot 
poem  npon  Providence,  wonderfnlly  rich  in 
thought  and  diction,  and  full  of  the  doctrine 
of  resignation  to  the  mysterions  will  of  God. 
The  Psalms  are  a  collection  of  devotional  lyrics. 
Lamentations  are  elegiac  patriotic  verses.  The 
Song  of  Solomon  is  on  amatory  idyl,  which 
has  been  explained  by  many  scholars  as  an  al- 
legory.— The  New  Testament  givea  the  only 
ori^nal  aoconnt  of  the  origin  and  early  ^read 
of  Christianity.  It  is  composed  of  27  books. 
Four  contwn  the  memoirs  of  Jesus;  one  (Acts) 
gives  the  actions  of  the  ^loatlea,  especially  of 
Peter  and  PanI ;  21  ore  apostolical  letters;  and 
the  collection  closes  with  the  Apocalypse. 
The  Grospels  of  Matthew  and  John  are  held  to 
be  the  work  of  the  apostles  whose  names  they 
bear.  Mark  was  a  disciple  of  Peter,  and  Luke 
a  companion  of  Paul.  The  book  of  Acts  is 
also  ascribed  to  Lnke.  The  Epiatles  are  let> 
ters  called  forth  by  various  exigencies,  and 
contain  incidental  information,  throwing  much 
light  upon  the  early  constitution  and  spread 
of  tbe  Christian  church,  and  the  development 
of  its  doctrines.  The  Apocalypse  is  the  only 
book  in  the  New  Testament  of  a  strictly  pro- 
phetic character.  It  was  written  shortiy  after 
the  death  of  Nero,  and  strengthened  the  hearts 
of  Christians  agsjnst  a  threatening  persecution 
by  giving  hope  of  the  approaching  kingdom  of 
Cfhrist. — For  1,000  years  learned  men  have 
been  studying  the  authenticity  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  constitnent  ports  of  the  Bible. 
The  history  of  this  work  will  be  found  under 
the  title  Canos.  Far  greater  study,  however, 
has  been  given  to  the  original  text  of  Scripture. 
The  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament  as  we 
have  it  has  already  passed  tbrongh  many  re- 
visions. Of  the  primitive  text  we  have  little 
positive  information.  The  booka  were  first 
written  on  skins  or  linen  cloth  or  papyrus,  and 
preserved  in  rolls.  The  letter  used  was  the 
old  Hebrew  character,  which  is  found  on  the 
coins  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  probably  of 
PhiBUician  orifriu.  There  were  no  accents  nor 
vowel  points,  the  consonants  only  being  writ- 
ten, and  the  vowel  sounds  supplied  by  the 
usageof  the  living  speech;  and  the  words  were 

Scuerally  run  together  in  a  continuous  line, 
o^  until  the  Hebrew  became  a  dead  language 
was  its  vowel  system  perfected,  to  take  the 
place  of  the  familiar  usage  which  was  passing 
away.    After  the  return  from  the  Babylonish 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


610  BH 

eitile,  the  sacred  books  were  sabjected  to  a  care- 
ful and  critical  exominatioa.  About  the  same 
time  the  writteD  ch&racter  of  the  ancient 
Hebrew  was  modiBed  b;  the  Aramaic  chiri^- 
raphy,  until  it  took  the  square  form,  more 
nearly  resembling  the  Palmyrene  letters,  which 
was  adopted  perhaps  on  account  of  its  beaut?. 
Simultaneously  caine  another  arrangement  of 
the  text,  with  a  view  to  its  public  reading. 
Tradition  had  prescribed  the  manner  in  which 
the  reader's  voice  should  emphasize  words  and 
balance  sentences,  but  it  was  long  before  that 
mode  was  declared  by  any  written  signs.  The 
first  step  toward  this  was  the  separation  of 
words  from  each  other,  and  it  was  followed  by 
the  division  into  verses.  This  had  been  marked 
in  poetry  very  early  by  lines  or  blank  spaces 
measuring  the  rhythm.  In  prose  it  was  intro- 
duced later  for  the  convenience  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  was  established  by  the  close  of  the 
period  we  are  considering.  Before  this  distri- 
bution into  sentences,  the  necessity  was  felt  of 
breaking  up  the  text  into  secUons  of  less  or 
greater  length.  In  this  division  the  book  of 
tlie  law  consisted  of  669  paragraphs  or  "  pa- 
rashes,"  and  these,  in  the  absence  of  beadiugs 
and  nmning  indices,  were  known  and  referred 
to  by  the  sabject  that  was  most  prominent  in 
each;  for  example,  parosh  "Balaam,"  parssh 
"Bush,"  or  "Deluge."  The  text,  tlius  writ^ 
ten  and  distributed,  was  most  jealously  guard- 
ed. In  copying  it  notliing  must  be  added,  no- 
thing taken  away,  nothing  changed;  letters, 
words,  verses,  sections  were  counted.  Rules 
were  made  in  regard  to  the  way  in  which  the 
MSS.  were  to  be  written  ;  every  letter  that 
was  larger  or  smaller,  suspended  or  inverted, 
or  otherwise  nnusnal  in  its  form,  even  if  acci- 
dentally so  written,  was  t«  be  heedfnlly  copied. 
Another  division  into  larger  parashes  or  sec- 
tions, adapted  to  the  public  readings  on  tlie 
Sabbath,  was  introduced  at  a  later  time.  The 
next  period  in  the  history  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament text  is  the  llasoretic,  commonly  reck- 
oned from  the  6lh  to  the  11th  century.  The 
word  matora  means  a  "  collection  of  tradi- 
tions," and  the  main  object  of  the  laborers  in 
this  field  was  to  gatlier  up  and  arrange  the 
critical  material  at*  au  older  time  before  tlie 
existing  traditions  should  fade  out.  But  the 
Masorites  did  more  than  this ;  they  aimed  at 
completing  whet  had  been  commenced  before; 
they  would  fix  the  reading  of  the  text  in  all 
its  yarts,  and  their  scmputous  care  did  much 
to  nnifih  and  perfect  it.  They  collated  MSS., 
noticed  critical  and  orthographical  difficul- 
ties, and  ventured  npon  conjectures  of  tlieir 
own.  Their  notes  were  at  first  written  in 
separate  books ;  afterward  for  convenience 
they  were  copied  upon  the  margin  of  MSS., 
or  even  at  the  end  of  a  book,  a  practice  that 
led  gradually  to  vast  confudon.  Attempts 
were  even  made  to  crowd  the  whole  Masora 
upon  the  margin  of  MSS.,  and  when  the  space 
was  too  small,  as  oflen  it  waa,  the  annotations 
were  appended  to  the  test  or  omitted  entirely. 


Since  the  completion  of  the  Masoretic  period 
the  labors  of  scholars  have  been  spent  in  eliid- 
dating  and  i>erpetQating  the  Masoretic  teiL 
The  MSS.  of  the  Pentateuch  were  very  care- 
fully revised,  and  some  of  them  are  very  ancient. 
Of  the  other  books  no  iiSS.  date  back  as  far  as 
the  Masoretic  period ;  four  or  five  belong  to  the 
12th  century;  some  50  belong  to  the  13th; 
and  for  the  following  centuries  the  number 
increases.  Eminent  Jewish  scholars  of  the 
middle  agee  devoted  themselves  to  the  task  of 
purifying  the  sacred  text  by  the  largest  poe«b)e 
collation  of  MSS,,  and  in  their  writings  qwak  of 
famous  copies  now  lost  whose  use  they  eqjoyed. 
When  the  invention  of  printing  had  made  easy 
the  exact  reproduction  and  extensive  mnltipli- 
cation  of  copies,  an  attempt  was  made  to  com- 
pare carefully  the  best  MSS.  extant,  to  collate 
with  them  the  Masora,  and  thus  to  bring  out  a 
true  and  pure  Masorettc  text;  an  undertaking 
too  largo  to  be  accomplished  at  once,  and  there- 
fore bnt  imperfectly  executed  at  that  time. 
The  books  were  produced  singly.  The  earli- 
est printed  portion  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the 
Fitalter,  was  done  in  1477,  in  small  folio  form. 
very  carelessly,  with  many  abbreviatioDS,  and 
not  a  few  grave  omissions.  Later,  aboat  1460, 
it  was  reprinted  in  12mo,  without  date  or  place, 
and  again  in  the  same  form  with  on  index. 
The  whole  Pentateuch,  with  the  points,  the 
Chaldeo  paraphrase,  and  Rashi's  conunentary, 
was  printed  in  14S2,  in  folio,  at  Bologna.  In 
1486  appeared  in  two  folios,  at  Soncino,  the 
prophets,  early  and  later,  with  Eimhi's  com- 
mentary. The  whole  Uugiographa  waa  printed 
in  Naples  in  1487.  The  entu-e  Hebrew  Bible 
waa  first  printed  at  Soncino  in  1488.  It  was 
made  partly  from  MSS.  neither  very  old,  prob- 
ably, nor  very  good,  and  partly  from  editions 
of  separate  books  already  publislied.  It  con- 
tained many  errors.  Only  nine  copies  of  this 
edition  arc  extanL  This  was  strictly  followed 
by  the  Gerson  edition  printed  at  Brescia  in 
1494,  from  which  Lnther  made  his  translation. 
It  was  the  parent  of  the  first  rabbinical  Bible 
of  Bomberg,  IQIT  and  1518,  and  of  Bcmbere's 
manual  editions  from  1518  to  1521;  of  the 
editions  of  Kobert  Stephens  (4to,  lB89-'44), 
and  of  Sebastian  MQuster's  (Basel,  2  vols.  4to, 
1636).  The  next  independent  edition  prepared 
irom  a  fresh  comparison  of  MSS.  was  the 
famous  Complntensian  Polyglot  (Complutiun, 
1.  «.,  Alcal^  de  Henares),  Uie  work  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes,  assisted  by  the  most  eminent  biblical 
scholars  in  Spoin.  No  expense  was  spared  to 
procure  Hebrew  MSS.  from  different  oonn- 
tries.  The  Vatican  and  other  libraries  lent 
their  treasures ;  and  14  years  of  preparatory 
labors  were  spent  before  the  first  volume  wa'i 
issued  (1622).  The  text  of  the  Gimpluteasian 
Bible  agrees  closely  with  that  of  Bomberg"s 
first  edition  of  1G18.  The  Uiird  greet  original 
edition  is  the  second  of  Bomberg's  rabbinical 
Bible,  printed  in  folio  at  Venice,  1525-'G.  This 
embodies  the  labors  of  Rabbi  Jacob  ben  Ha- 
yim,  who  revised  the  Masora  word  by  word,  ar- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ranged  it,  made  an  index,  and  availed  Limself 
sjstematicaUy  of  its  whole  apparatuB,  It  waa 
reprinted  several  times  in  tliemth  and  ITth  cen- 
turies. After  these  three  independeDt  editions, 
all  that  follow  contain  a  mixed  text  The  Ant- 
werp Polyglot,  pnbliahed  ]BB9-'72,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  King  Pliilip  II.  of  Spain,  and  there- 
fore called  the  royal  Polyglot,  was  composed 
from  the  Complntensian  and  Bomberg's.  Be- 
sides the  texts  in  five  volnmes,  four  contain- 
ing the  Old  and  one  the  New  Testament,  three 
otter  volnmes  gave  a  valuable  apparatus,  crit- 
ical, i^ilological,  Bntiqnarian,  The  varions  edi- 
tions of  Plantin  foUowed  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot, as  did  those  of  Christian  Reineccios.  It 
was  the  basis  also  of  the  Paris  Polyglot  (10 
vols,  foKo,  1645),  which  gave  the  text  in  He- 
brew, fiomarit^  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  containing  for  the  first  time 
In  print  the  Samaritan  Pentatench.  It  was 
repeated  again  in  the  London  Polyglot  (6  vols. 
folio,  165T).  Elias  Hotter,  in  his  first  edition 
published  at  Hambarg  in  1687,  and  three  times 
reprinted,  used  the  copies  of  Venice,  Antwerp, 
and  Paris.  In  ISll  the  manaal  edition  of 
Bnxtorf  was  printed.  Baxtorf  undertook  to 
improve  npon  Bomberg's  Bible,  and  as  far  as  he 
conld  conformed  to  the  Mosora,  for  whose  text 
he  had  the  highest  refract,  regarding  it  as  the 
only  perfect  one.  The  next  important  edition 
for  which  the  oldest  and  best  MSS.  were  col- 
lated was  that  of  Joseph  Athias,  printed  at 
Amsterdam,  1661  and  1667.  Among  the  later 
editions  that  have  followed  this,  the  most  no- 
ted from  their  now  collation  of  MS8.,  careful 
selection  of  readings,  and  thorough  oorrection 
of  points,  are  those  of  Jablonski,  Berlin,  1699 ; 
Van  der  Hot^ht,  Arasterdam,  1706 ;  J.  H. 
Micbaelis,  Halle,  1720 ;  Houbigant,  Paris,  17B3 ; 
Simon,  Halle,  1752,  1787;  Kennicott,  Oxford, 
1776,1780;  Angnst  Hah n,  1831 ;  andG.Thoile, 
1849.  Besides  these  editions,  which  aim  at 
bringing  the  Masoretio  text  near  its  perfec- 
tion, critical  helps  are  fonnd  in  the  Masora 
contained  in  the  rabbinical  Bibles  of  Bomberg 
and  Bnrtori;  and  the  varions  readings  which 
are  fonnd  in  alt  the  best  editions.  The  toil 
and  treaenre  expended  npon  this  long  series  of 
editions,  each  of  which  was  a  triumph  in  its 
time,  have  not  been  wasted.  The  resnlt  on  the 
whole  is  a  text  of  these  ancient  and  venerable 
books,  not  indeed  perfect  in  every  point  and 

Crticle,  but  more  excellent  than  might  have 
en  expected,  a  text  that  nearly  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  hooks  which  constituted  the 
oldest  Hebrew  canon. — The  task  of  pnrifying 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Tentanient  and  bring- 
ing it  to  tlie  perfection  of  onr  latest  and  be.tt 
editions  was  mocb  less  difficnlt,  yet  a  work 
of  no  small  magnttade.  Not  a  frai^ont  from 
the  hand  of  an  evangelist  or  an  apostle  sur- 
vived the  early  generotions  that  nsod  the  ori- 
S'nal  MSS.  and  wore  them  out.  The  early 
hristians  did  not  feel  the  importance  of  laying 
them  sacredly  aside.  The  greater  their  value, 
the  more  extenMve  woe  their  circnlation,  and 


IE  611 

the  briefer  consequently  their  existence.    The 

books  o^  the  New  Testament  were  written 
after  the  custom  of  the  time  upon  papyras,  or 
npon  parchment,  finer  and  more  durable,  which 
was  beginning  to  take  its  place,  and  were  in 
the  roll  form.  The  writing  iuelf,  done  with  a 
reed  and  ink,  was  in  nncial  or  large  letters, 
and  ran  In  continnons  lines,  with  no  spaces  be- 
tween the  words,  no  capitals  or  stops.  The 
heodingof  the  books,  "According  to  Matthew," 
"Acoording  to  Lake,"  &c.,  was  added  later. 
Some  epistles  had  their  address  marked  upon 
them,  but  in  others  it  was  inferred  from  the 
contents.  The  title  "catholic"  ("general"in 
our  English  Bibles)  was  given  to  oert*dn  epis- 
tles in  the  4th  century.  As  copies  of  these  an- 
cient books  multiplied,  they  naturally  varied 
more  or  less  from  the  originals  and  IVom  each 
other;  the  copyists  confounding  similar  letters 
or  words,  substituting  a  synonyme  for  a  given 
term,  introdncing  something  from  a  parallel 
passage  or  marginal  gloss,  or  making  other  al- 
terations nnintentional  or  even  intentional,  as 
the  copyist  tried  to  harmonize  seeming  discrep- 
ancies or  to  explain  what  seemed  obscure. 
Those  varistiong,  small  and  great,  number  not 
less  than  190,000;  yetthey  are  mostly  variations 
of  spelling  or  intleetion,  often  imposnhle  to  ex- 
press in  a  translation.  There  are  not  more  thou 
1,600  or  3,000  places  where  the  true  readmg 
is  at  all  in  doubt,  while  the  donbtfol  readings 
which  affect  the  sense  are  ranch  fewer  still,  and 
those  of  any  dogmatic  importance  can  be  easily 
numbered.  The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 
have  been  claadfied  according  to  certdn  literary 
or  geographical  affinities.  They  were  divided 
into  the  eastern  and  the  western,  or  according  to 
another  description,  into  an  Alexandrine  and  a 
Latin,  an  Adatic  and  a  Byzantine  text.  The 
Alexandrine  type  of  the  Greek  text  waa  in  use 
among  the  oriental  Jewish  Cliristians  who  used 
the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
Latin  type  is  found  not  only  in  the  I^tin  copies, 
but  in  the  Greek  copies  which  the  Latins  used. 
These  gronps  were  not  wholly  distinct  fi'om  one 
another,  and  it  is  difficult  to  fix  upon  the  pecu- 
liar reading  that  belongs  to  each.  The  MSS. 
of  the  Byzantine  class  are  most  uniform.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  4th  oentury  no  single  MS. 
was  known  that  comprised  the  whi^e  New 
Testament.  At  a  considerably  later  period 
they  were  rare,  and  most  of  these  contained 
also  the  Old  Testoment  in  Greek.  The  four 
gospels  were  commonly  written  in  one  coltec' 
tion,  and  the  Pauline  epistles  in  one.  The 
catholic  epistles  were  classed  with  the  Acts, 
though  sometimes  these  last  two  collections 
and  the  Pauline  were  united.  MSS.  of  the 
Apocalypse  were  the  rarest.  The  gospels  were 
generally  found  in  the  order  in  which  we  have 
them,  though  in  some  copies  they  were  trans- 
posed. After  the  Acts  usually  came  the  cath- 
olic epistles.  The  order  in  which  the  letters 
of  Paul  stood  varied  much.  The  place  of  the 
Apocalypse  was  fixed  by  Athanasius  at  the  end 
Of  the  collection,  aa  it  stands  at  present.    By 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


612  BII 

the  4th  centnry  pepjras  had  given  place  to 
parchiaeot,  and  the  form  of  the  roll  to  that  of 
the  book.  Breaks  id  the  line  and  simple  points 
were  nsed.  To  meet  the  coDveoience  of  the 
pablio  lectare,  the  books  were  measured  off 
into  pauses  and  sentenoea  by  linea,  after  the  same 
manner  with  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament It  was  not  long,  however,  before 
other  divisions  of  the  text  were  adopted.  In 
the  3d  century  Aumonius  in  making  his  har- 
mony of  the  gospels  had  broken  np  the  teit 
into  1,166  seotions,  and  after  the  Sth  century 
bis  arrangement  was  indicated  upon  the  mar- 
■  gm  of  nearly  all  the  MSS,  The  gospels  were 
divided  into  chapters  trom  a  very  early  period, 
but  the  present  arrangement  originated  in  the 
13th  century  with  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  devised 
it  while  making  a  Latin  concordance.  Erasmus 
noted  it  in  the  margin  of  his  Latin  translation, 
and  it  was  repeated  in  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot.  The  Bnbdivision  of  the  chapters  into 
verses  was  introdaced  by  Robert  Stephens  in 
1651.  Cnrsive  or  small  letters  were  not  gen- 
erally sabstitnted  for  the  uncial  till  the  lOtb 
century.  Uncial  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 
are  nomerous  when  compared  with  the  ancient 
MSS.  of  other  works ;  and  year  by  year  new 
ones  are  being  discovered.  The  ages  of  these 
to  within  half  a  centnry  have  been  ascertained. 
To  the  4th  centnry  belong  two  or  three :  the 
SinMtio  codex  (bt),  now  at  St.  Petersburg,  ob- 
tained by  Tischendorf  from  the  convent  of  8t. 
Catharine,  Mt.  Sinai,  in  1S5S,  and  since  pub- 
lished in  facsimile  at  the  expense  of  the  empe- 
ror of  Russia  (1SQ2) ;  the  Vatican  codes  (B), 
containing  all  the  New  Testament  except  the 
Apocalypse,  the  epistles  to  Timotliy,  Titus,  and 
Philemon,  and  the  last  four  and  a  baif  chapters 
of  Hebrews.  This  MS.  was  published  by  Ti- 
Bchendorf  at  Leipsic  in  1867  and  by  papal  au- 
thority at  Rome  m  186B.  To  tliis  century  per- 
haps belongs  a  palimpsest  in  the  British  mu- 
seum cont^ning  fragments  of  John  liii.  and 
xvi.,  published  by  Tischendorf.  To  the  5th 
centnry  belong  seven  MSS. :  the  Alexandrian 
codex  (A),  presented  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Charles  I.  in  1638,  and  preserved 
in  the  British  maseum,  and  published  in  1786 
and  1860;  the  Ephrem  palimpsest  (0),  in  the 
imperial  library  at  Pons,  containingin  64  leaves 
fragments  of  the  Soptnagint,  and  in  145  two 
thirds  of  the  New  TeataraBnt,  over  which  had 
been  written  the  works  of  St.  Ephrem  the  Syr- 
ian, deciphered  and  published  by  Tischendorf  in 
1848;  and  five  otherframnentary MSS.  Tothe 
6th  century  belonglS  MSS. ;  among  them  Beza's 
codex  (D),  a  Greek-Latin  MS.  of  part  of  the 
New  TestamentpresentedbyBezain  1581  tothe 
university  of  Cambridge;  the  Codex  purpureut 
(N)  written  with  silver  letters  on  purple  vel- 
lum; and  other  MSS.  of  great  interest.  From 
the  7th  century  we  have  only  several  frag- 
ments of  MSS.  To  the  Sth  century  are  as- 
signed 9,  one  qf  the  most  valuable  beins  the 
MS.  (L)  63  in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris 
used  by  Robert  Stephens.    The  Sth  century 


has  left  ns  SO  MSS.,  besides  fonrwhich  are  as- 
signed to  the  9th  or  10th.  From  the  10th 
century  we  have  five.  These  nncial  MSS. 
(about  75)  have  been  deciphered,  some  of  them 
with  great  difficulty ;  most  of  them  have  been 
accurately  collated,  and  the  text  of  tnanj  htm 
been  published.  Of  them  all,  only  one,  the 
recently  discovered  Sinutic  MS.,  now  has  the 
New  Testament  complete,  though  three  others 
originally  had  the  whole,  but  now  lack  some 
parts.  Foot  others  have  the  gospels  complete, 
and  four  nearly;  and  about  40  others  have 
portions  of  the  gospels,  larger  or  smaller.  The 
other  New  Testament  books  are  found  more  or 
less  complete  in  some,  while  in  others  tbey 
are  wantmg.  Besides  the  75  uncial  MSS.  above 
noticed,  there  are  some  66  lectionaries,  or  se- 
lect portions  of  the  gospels  or  epistles  for 
church  services,  written  in  uncial  letters,  and 
1,215  MSS.  of  some  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  24B  lectionaries  in  cnrsive  letters. — 
Most  eminent  scholars  have  aided  in  establish- 
ing the  text  of  the  New  Testament :  among  the 
Greeks,  Ireneens,  Clement,  Origen,  Athanaaius, 
Ensebiua,  Epiphanius,  the  Cyrils,  Chrysoet^m, 
and  Theodoret;  among  the  Latins,  Cyprian, 
Tertnllian,  Ambrose,  Angustine,  and  Rafinns. 
The  name  of  Bede  brings  us  nearer  home. 
Alcuin  endeavored  to  purify  the  Latin  text, 
and  Photius  labored  in  the  Qth  centnry,  Suidaa 
in  the  10th,  and  Theophylact,  (Ecumenina,  and 
others  in  subsequent  ages.  Yet  60  years  after 
the  invention  of  printing  no  attempt  had  been 
made  to  print  tlie  original  text  of  the  Nevr 
Testament.  The  fifth  volume  of  the  Compln- 
tension  Polyglot  contained  the  original  Greek 
based  on  MSS.  of  no  special  value,  so  far  as 
may  be  judged.  This  volume  was  printed  first 
of  the  whole  set  in  1514,  bat  was  not  issued 
until  the  rest  were  finished  in  leSS.  Before 
this,  in  1616,  Erasmus  had  issued  the  £rst 
Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
at  Basel,  constructing  his  text  from  five  MSS. 
there.  A  second  edition,  changed  in  some 
hundred  psasages,  appeared  in  1619,  a  third  in 
1622,  and  a  fourth  in  1627,  further  altered  to 
conform  to  the  Complutensian,  and  repeated  in 
1535  with  little  change.  For  100  years  the 
Complutensian  and  Erasmian  texts  were  often 
reprinted  with  slight  alterations.  Famous 
editors  of  the  text  were  Robert  Stephens,  a 
learned  printer  of  Paris  n689-'51),  and  Thei>. 
dore  Beza  (1G66-'9B).  The  Ebwvirs  at  Ley- 
den  (1624-'41)  and  at  Amsterdam  (1669)  gave 
what  is  known  as  the  "received  text,"  relying 
upon  Stephens  and  Beza.  Bishop  Walton's  L(mi- 
don  Polyglot  (ff  10.57,  Bishop  FeU's  Greek  Tes- 
tament (Oxford,  m58>and  Dr.  John  Mill'sGreek 
New  Testament  (Oxford,  1707)  gave  varions 
readings  and  versions  from  manyandent  MSS. 
under  the  received  text.  These  were  the  pre- 
cursors of  modem  critical  editjons.  Bengel 
(Tubingen,  17S4),  Wotstein  (Amsterdam,  1761), 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


are  chiefly  based  on  Qriesbaoh'fi.  Greenfield 
followed  Mill,  but  gave  Griasbaoh'B  principal 
Tariationa.  Scholz  (Leiprio,  18S0-'36)  made  a 
wide  collation  of  MSS.,  and  Laclimann  a  very 
oriHoal  Btady  of  a  few  MSS.  The  late  Dean 
Alford  and  Dr.  Tregelles  in  England,  and 
Tischendorf  in  Germany,  ore  among  the  most 
eminent  laborers  in  our  own  daj.  Tiachendorf  b 
first  edition  (Leipsic,  1841)  followed  Griesboch 
and  Lacfamanu,  but  enbseqnently  he  carried  out 
a  moat  elaborate  plan  of  travel  and  inveetiga- 
tjon,  and  pnbliabed  its  results  in  hia  second 
edition  (Leipsio,  184U).  Other  editions  have 
foUowed  in  18B0,  1864,  and  1865-'e,  the  last 
giving  Talaable  aocoonts  of  his  critical  labors, 
and  presentingthe  beet  toxthitherto  published. 
A  new  edition  begnn  in  1804  is  nearly  com- 
pleted (18TS).  Tregellea  baa  pobliabed  (1866- 
'70)  an  edition  from  collatioD  and  comparison 
of  M8S.  of  all  the  Greek  fatliers  down  to  the 
Nioene  conncil.  His  edition  is  incomplete,  be- 
ing interrupted  by  the  state  of  his  health.  The 
various  critical  edlljona  of  the  Now  Teatament 
hear  conolneive  witnesa  to  the  genuineness  of 
the  text  in  every  matter  of  importance.  There 
has  been  no  material  corruption  in  the  sacred 
record. — The  ancient  tranelations  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  are  in  some  respects  of 
great  value.  The  oldest  of  these  and  tne  most 
celebrated  is  the  Greek  version  of  tbe  Old 
Testament  called  the  Septnagint  (LX£.)  from 
its  T2  translators,  or  perhaps  from  the  7B 
members  of  the  Saobedrim  wno  sanntioned  it. 
It  was  commenced  by  Jews  of  Alexandria 
abont  280  B.  C,  and  was  finished  in  the 
course  of  years  evidently  by  different  hands. 
The  Pentateuch  is  pronounced  by  scholars  the 
best  portion  of  the  work ;  other  portions  are 
unequal;  here  and  there  it  is  considered  to  be- 
tray an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage. It  contains  most  of  the  books  called  the 
Apocrypha.  (See  Apoobtph*).  The  Greek 
Jews,  in  the  declining  state  of  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  made  great  use  of  the  Septnagint,  and 
even  the  Jews  of  Palestine  held  it  in  high  esteem 
until  the  Christians  in  the  second  century  quo- 
ted it  against  them.  They  then  denied  its 
agreement  with  the  Hebrew,  and  it  became 
odious  to  them.  In  Jerome's  day  there  were 
three  differing  yet  anthorized  editions  of  the 
Septua^t  in  use :  one  in  Palestine,  one  at  Al- 
exandria, and  one  in  Constantinople.  Henoe 
the  corruptions  that  mar  the  HSS.  in  onr  pos- 
seswon.  The  Septuapnt  waa  the  parent  of 
many  translations  in  Latin,  Syriac,  Ethiopic, 
Coptic,  Armenian,  Georgian,  Slavonic,  and 
Arabic.  Uaoy  oriental  versions  were  made 
tirom  the  Hebrew,  of  uncertain  date ;  among 
them  the  Targnms  in  Chaldee  (see  TAnncHs), 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  tlie  Syriac  transla- 
tion called  the  Peahito  or  "  simple,"  one  of  the 
oldest  translations  of  the  Bible,  several  b  Ara- 
bic, and  one  in  Persian.  There  were  also  other 
Greek  Tersiona,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
was  that  of  Aquila,  made  about  A.  D.  18S,  and 
volnable  on  aooount  of  its  anxious  litcralness. 


LE  618 

Fragments  of  it  are  preserved  in  Origen's  Hex- 

apla.  But  after  the  Septnagint  the  most  famous 
version  from  the  Hebrew  waa  the  Latin  version 
of  Jerome,  the  basis  of  the  present  Vnlgate. 
Jerome,  who  had  previously  undertaken  a  re- 
vinon  of  the  old  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  called  the  Itala,  revised  the  Psalter 
also  from  tbe  Septua^int  abont  383.  About  880 
he  began  a  new  version  from  the  Hebrew,  and 
completed  the  work  about  406.  The  work, 
though  in  parts  hastily,  was  on  the  whole  well 
done.  The  translator  made  use  of  the  Greek 
versions  that  were  before  him,  as  well  as  of  the 
Arabic  and  the  Byriac,  always,  however,  com- 
paring them  with  the  Hebrew.  The  transla- 
tion, having  to  contend  with  a  superstitiotis  rev- 
erence for  the  Septnagint,  met  with  a  doubtful 
reception,  and  made  its  way  slowly  into  &vor, 
but  in  the  course  of  200  or  800  years  it  was 
highly  regarded  at  Rome  and  in  other  places,  • 
bnt  not  so  highly  as  to  escape  cormption  from 
careless  copyists,  indiscreet  revisers,  ambitious 
oritics,  and  reckless  theoli^ians.  The  old 
Vulgate  (the  Itala)  and  the  new  injured  each 
other.  Alcuin,  early  in  the  Sth  century,  bid- 
den, and  aa  some  think  aided  by  Charlemagne, 
revised  and  corrected  Jerome's  version  by  tbe 
Hebrew  and  Greek  originals.  Lanfi'ana,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  11th  oentury, 
revised  it  agiun.  The  council  of  Trent  (1648), 
having  received  a  report  from  a  eommissioB 
that  the  text  wae  very  cormpt,  so  that  only 
the  pope  conld  restore  it,  declared  that  "the 
old  ana  Vulgate  edition  .  .  .  shall  be  held  as 
authentic,  .  .  .  and  that  no  one,  on  any  pre- 
text whatever,  may  dare  or  presume  to  r^eot 
it."  The  council  ^so  decreed  tiiat  the  edition 
"  shonid  be  printed  as  accurately  as  possible." 
As  it  had  become  necessary  to  prepare  an 
authentic  edition  of  the  authorized  version, 
two  popes,  Pius  IV.  and  ¥.,  addressed  them- 
selves to  this  task;  learned  men  were  assem- 
bled, a  printing  press  was  erected  in  the  Vat- 
ican, a  pontiff  looked  over  the  printed  sheets, 
and  the  work  was  published  in  1590;  bnt 
it  proved  to  be  so  imperfect  that  Gregory 
XlV.  called  another  assembly  of  scholars  to 
make  another  reviHon.  This  time  the  duty 
was  more  thoroughly  discharged,  and  the 
Biilia  Saera  Vulg.  Ed.  Te»t.  V.  Font.  Max. 
jvtru  raeog.,  &,o.,  the  basis  of  every  subsequent 
edition,  was  issued  in  1G92.  The  famous  Bel- 
larmin,  one  of  the  translatora,  wrote  the  pref- 
ace.— Translations  of  the  New  Testament  were 
made  very  early  into  all  the  tongues  then  spo- 
ken by  Christiana.  A  few  words  upon  some 
of  the  more  modern  versiona  will  be  in  place 
here.  In  Germany,  Martin  Luther  spent  ten 
laborions  years,  from  1623  to  Ifisa,  in  execu- 
ting that  wonderful  translation  which  has  done 
so  much  for  the  Bible  and  for  the  language 
into  which  it  was  rendered.  Several  portions 
of  the  Scriptures  be  had  translated  into  Ger- 
man before,  for  the  use  of  the  people,  viz., 
the  penitential  and  other  Psalms,  tbe  Lord's 
prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  other 


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6U 


BIBLE 


pfisBases,  which  were  often  printed.  It  was 
not  tm  toward  the  close  of  1521  that  he  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  transluting  the  whole;  but 
having  aomnienced,  the  work  proceeded  rap- 
idlj.  The  New  Testament  was  finished  first; 
in  a  year  came  the  Pentatench;  another  jear 
completed  the  historical  books  and  the  Hagio- 

Sapha;  two  yeara  more  brooght  Jonah  and 
ababknk;  and  the  prophets  were  Sniahed  in 
lCiS2.  It  was  all  Lather's  work.  As  the  foun- 
dation he  used  the  Brescia  edition  of  1494  (bis 
copy  is  still  preserved  at  Beriin),  and  with  this 
the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  other  Latin 
versions,  while  for  the  New  Testament  he  took 
the  text  of  Erasmus,  1619.  Many  versions  have 
been  made  since  Luther's  in  Germany,  but  for 
vigor  and  aimplicity  his  has  not  been  sar- 
passed,  not  even  by  that  of  August!  and  Be 
Wette.  Portions  of  the  Bible  were  tranalated 
.  into  Saxon  by  Aldhehn,  Egbert,  Bede,  and  oth- 
ers, between  the  Stb  and  10th  centuries.  An 
English  version  of  the  Psalms  is  supposed  to 
have  been  made  in  1290.  Wyclifie  finished  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  about  ISSO. 
That  of  the  Old  Testament,  begun  by  his  coadju- 
tor Nicholas  de  Hereford  about  1SS2,  was  com- 
pleted probably  by  Wyclifie  before  1884.  The 
revifflon  made  by  Jobn  Purvey  and  others 
alxint  1888  nearly  displaced  Wyelifie'a,  and  waa 
widely  cironlsted  in  MS.  among  all  classes,  on- 
til  superseded  by  the  printed  versions  of  the 
16th  century.  The  first  volume  printed  by 
Gutenberg  (1460-'&C)  -waa  the  Latin  Bible, 
and  hardly  was  it  completed  when  versions  be- 
gan to  multiply.  In  1524,  William  Tyndale, 
"finding  no  place  to  do  it  in  all  England," 
went  to  the  oontinent,  and  there,  at  Worms,  in 
1526,  printed  his  version  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  oripnal  Greek.  Ooverdale,  his  fel- 
low laborer,  finished  his  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  1585,  and  this  was  followed  by 
several  editions  of  "Matthew's  Bible,"  called 
also  the  "Great"  Bible,  or  "Cranmer's,"  ac- 
cording to  its  editors.  This  was  the  authorized 
verwon  under  Edward  VL  The  "Genevan  Bi- 
ble," the  first  English  Bible  with  Roman  type, 
verses,  and  no  Apocrypha,  was  a  new  and  care- 
fol  revision  from  the  original  tongues  by  the 
English  refugees  at  Geneva  (1560,  and  London, 
1076).  Bishop  Parker  undertook  another  ver- 
sion by  the  help  of  eminent  scholars,  which 
was  called  the  "  Bishops'  Bible,"  published  in 
1S68,  with  preface  and  notes.  Its  basis  was 
the  "Great  Bible,"  and  the  "Genevan."  A 
little  later  appeared  the  Roman  Catholic  ver- 
sion known  as  the  Douay  Bible,  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  15S2,  at  Rbeims,  the  Old  Testament 
in  1609--'10,  at  Douay,  upon  the  basis  of  the 
authorized  Vulgate.  Our  present  English  ver- 
Mon  was  made  by  direction  of  James  I.,  who, 
on  motion  of  Dr.  Reynolds  of  Oiford,  in  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court,  commissioned 
54  divines  to  undertake  the  labor.  Seven  of 
the  54  died  before  the  task  was  commenced, 
but  in  1808  the  hooks  were  distributed  among 
the  reminder  in  six  portions,  and  the  transJa- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 

lation  waa  diligently  pressed.  The  "Bishop's 
Bible"  was  the  basis,  faithfully  compared  with 
Tyndale's,  Coverdalo's,  Matthew's,  Craumer's, 
and  the  Geneva  version,  and  with  the  original, 
and   corrected   where    defective.     The   whole 


been  in  use  280  years,  and  its  faithfulness,  pore 
and  strong  English,  simple  yet  dignified  style, 
and  its  common  acceptance  by  persons  of  all 
classes  and  all  shades  of  religious  belief,  have 
^ven  it  a  combination  of  advantages  over  any 
rival.  Many  have  felt,  however,  that  it  could 
be  improved  in  clearness  and  accuracy.  The 
late  Dean  Alford  especially  urged  a  new  revi- 
sion; and  the  convocation  of  Canterbury,  in 
February,  18T0,  appointed  a  committee  for  this 
work.  This  committee  comprises  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Biblical  scholars  of  the  chnrch 
of  England,  and  has  invited  the  cooperation  of 
other  eminent  scholars  both  in  England  snd 
America.  The  principles  of  revinon  have  been 
adopted,  and  the  work  is  now  in  pn^p^as 
(1878).  A  new  version  has  also  been  long  in 
progress  under  the  care  of  the  American  Bible 
onion.    (See  Bible  SooiEnBS.) 

BIBLE  SOOEIIES,  associations  for  publishing 
and  cironlatjng  the  Bible  among  the  people. 
The  "Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in 
New  England  "  bore  the  expense  of  printing 
Eliot's  Indian  Bible  in  1668;  the  "Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,"  established 
m  ISeg,  published  before  1800  an  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  in  Arabic,  one  of  the  Bible  in 
Manks,  and  four  of  the  Bible  in  Welsh,  beddee 
English  Bibles,  prayer  books,  tea.  Bnt  these 
and  other  similar  societies  in  Great  Britain 
did  not  make  the  publication  and  circulation  of 
the  Bible  their  main  work.  The  Canetein  Bi- 
ble institute  {Die  CHntUiiuehe  BibelaTutalt), 
founded  in  1712  by  the  baron  of  Cansteln,  to 
print  and  circulate  Bibles  at  a  cheap  rate,  and 
forming  a  part  of  Francke's  institute  at  Ualle, 
Germany,  issued  from  1T12  to  186S  6,2TS,<t28 
Bibles  and  3,680,000  New  Testaments.  The 
"  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society "  was 
formed  in  London  In  1780,  to  supply  the  British 
army  and  navy  with  the  Bible.  The  French 
Bible  society,  formed  in  London  in  1792,  was 
prevented  by  the  French  revolation  from  ac- 
complishing its  object,  the  distribution  of  the 
Scriptures  in  France.  A  new  era  in  Bible  dia- 
tribuljon,  however,  commenced  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  "  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci- 
ety "  (1804).  There  had  long  been  a  great 
scarcity  of  Bibles  in  Wales.  The  last  edition 
of  10,000  Welsh  Bibles,  ordered  la  1798  by  the 
society  for  promoting  Christian  knowledge, 
and  actually  published  in  1799,  was  soon  ex- 
hausted. Tbe  Rev.  Thomas  Cliarles,  of  Bala. 
a  leader  among  the  Welsh  Oalvinistio  Hetho- 
dista,  afrer  vain  efforts,  first  to  obtun  from 
this  society  another  edition,  and  then  topnb- 
liah  an  edition  by  subscription,  went  to  Lon- 
don in  1602,  where  he  was  introduced  to  tba 
esecutive  committee  of  the  religious  tract  aod- 


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BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


615 


ety  (formed  in  1789),  related  to  them  the  dea- 
titation  of  Wales  and  hU  desire  for  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Welsh  Scripturea,  and  proposed  to 
organize  a  socie^  for  the  purpose.  One  of  the 
committees  the  Rev,  Joseph  Huahes  (Baptist), 
replied,  "  Certninlj' ;  and  if  for  Wales,  why  not 
for  the  world)  "  On  this  idea  the  committee 
acted.  Hr.  Hnghes  sent  out  a  call  for  a  meet- 
ing to  consider  the  project,  and  the  ReT.  C.  F. 
A.  Steinlcopf  (German  Lutheran  in  London) 
offered  to  gather  information  concerning  the 
destitution  of  the  Scriptures  in  foreign  lands, 
while  others  were  to  collect  similar  facts  at 
home.  The  meeting,  held  at  the  London  Tav- 
ern, March  7,  1804,  consisted  of  abont  800  of 
all  denominations,  chnrohmen  and  dissenters, 
including  Quakers.  Dr.  Steinbopf 'e  report  dis- 
closed an  unexpected  state  of  things,  and  many 
influential  persona  present  irameaiatety  lent 
their  cooperation  to  the  work.  The  society 
commenced  operations  with  a  snbscribed  fund 
of  £700,  and  appointed  a  president  (Lord  Teign- 
mouth)  and  other  officers,  with  an  eiecutive 
committee  of  SS  laymen,  of  whom  15  were  of 
the  church  of  England,  16  dissenters,  and  9  resi- 
dent forei)^er^.  The  Rav.  Joseph  Hughes,  the 
Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  (who  was  soon  succeeded  by 
the  Rev.  John  Owen,  both  of  the  chnrch  of  Eng- 
land), and  Dr.  Steinkopf  were  the  secretaries. 
The  fundamental  law  ueclares  the  society's  ex- 
clusive object  to  be  to  promote  the  circalation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note  or  com- 
ment, both  at  home  and  in  foreign  lands,  and 
restricts  tlie  English  copies,  for  circniation  at 
home,  to  the  authorized  version.  The  mem- 
bers pay  a  guinea  annnally,  and  have  a  disooant 
on  Bibles.  The  first  object  was  to  supply 
Wales,  for  which  the  society  at  once  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  20,000  Bibies  and  &,000 
Testaments.  The  society  soon  extended  its  la- 
bors to  the  continent,  the  Turkish  empire,  In- 
dia, and  other  parts  of  the  world.— Roman 
Catholics  for  a  time  cooperated  with  Protes- 
tants in  this  work ;  but  their  society,  formed  at 
Ratisbon  in  1805  for  translating  into  German 
and  circulating  the  Bible,  was  abolished  by  a 
papal  bull  in  1817;  and  another  at  Presburg, 
for  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  llangarian, 
was  umiliirly  dealt  with.  Tlie  Russian  Bible 
Society,  authorized  by  an  imperial  ukase  in 
1813,  wOM  suspended  by  the  same  authority  in 
1826,  and  a  Protestant  Bible  society  was  es- 
tablished in  its  place.  The  kings  of  Prnssia, 
Bavaria,  Sweden,  and  WOrtemberg  have  been 

K Irons  of  Bible  societies.  Such  societies  have 
en  established  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  civ- 
ilized globe.  The  British  and  foreign  Bible 
society  alone  had  in  1870  4,268  auxiliaries, 
branches,  and  associations  in  Great  Britain 
connected  with  it,  besides  52T  auxiliaries  and 
branches  of  the  Hibernian  Bible  society,  1,053 
auxiliaries  and  branches  in  the  colonies,  and 
numerons  agencies  and  depots  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  same  society  has  issued,  up 
toieT2,  68,299,788  volumes,  of  which  3,908,087 
volumes  were  in  the  last  year,  its  entire  re- 


ceipts in  cash  for  the  same  year  being  £180,- 
314  19«.  2d.  The  society  had  then  directly 
promoted  the  translation,  printing,  or  dis- 
tribution of  the  Scriptnres  in  ISO  langnt^tes  or 
dialects,  and  indireody  in  50  others,  making 
200  in  all.— The  tirst  Bible  society  formed  in 
the  United  Sutes  was  the  Philadelphia  Bible 
society  (1608),  which  was  followed  by  the  Bi- 
ble societies  of  Connecticut  (May,  1609),  Maa- 
aachusetta  (July,  1809),  New  Jersey  (latter 
part  of  1809),  New  York  city  (1810),  and 
others,  to  the  number  of  50  or  eo  before  1816. 
The  "  American  Bible  Society  "  was  formed  in 
New  York  in  May,  1816,  by  a  convention  of 
delegates  from  35  local  Bible  societies  and  4 
l^om  the  society  of  Friends,  making  60  persons 
in  all.  The  constitution  declares :  "The  sole 
object  shall  be  to  encourage  a  wider  circniation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note  or  com- 
ment. The  only  copies  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, to  he  circulated  by  the  society,  shall  he 
of  the  version  now  in  common  use."  "  Each 
subscriber  of  |3  annually  shall  he  a  member. 
Each  subscriber  of  $30  at  one  time  shall  be  a 
member  for  life.  Each  subscriber  of  $150 
at  one  time,  or  who  shall  by  one  additional 

Sayment  increase  his  oripnal  subscription  to 
150,  shall  be  a  director  for  life ;  but  [this  was 
added  in  1873]  he  shall  not  be  such  director 
when  he  is  in  receipt  of  any  salary,  emoln- 
ment,  or  compensation  for  services  from  the 
society."  The  original  officers  of  the  society 
were  the  Hon.  Elias  Boudinot,  LL.  D.,  presi- 
dent; 23  vice  presidents;  the  Rev.  John  M. 
Mason,  D.  D.,  secretary  for  foreign  correspon- 
deiic  ■;  the  Rev.  John  B.  Romeyn,  D.  D.,  sec- 
retary for  domestic  correspondence ;  John 
Pintard,  LL.  D.,  recording  secretary  and  ac- 
countant; Richard  Variek,  treasurer ;  and  86 
managers.  All  the  original  olBcers  served 
gratuitoosly.  The  first  paid  officer  was  John 
Nitchie,  agent  and  accountant  (1819),  subse- 
quently general  agent  and  assistant  trea-^nrer. 
The  Rev.  John  C.  Brigham,  D.  D.,  assistant 
secretary  1828-'8,  and  corresponding  secretary 
1828-'62,  was  in  his  long  service  almost  iden- 
tified with  the  society.  The  presidents  since 
Mr.  Boudinot  have  been  the  Hon.  John  Jay, 
182I-'8  ;  the  Hon.  Richard  Varick  (first  treas- 
urer), 1828-'31 ;  the  Hon.  John  Cotton  Smith, 
1881-'45;  the  Hon.  Theodore  Frellnghuysen, 
1846-'62;  the  Hon.  Luther  Brndish,  lB62-'8; 
James  Lenox,  Esq.,  1864-71 ;  Wm.  H.  Allen, 
LL.  D.,  1872,  The  Methodist  Bible  society 
was  dissolved  in  1836,  and  since  1810  one  of 
the  secretaries  has  been  from  that  denomina- 
tion. The  present  secretaries  (1873)  are  the 
Rev.  Joseph  Holdich,  D.  D.,  elected  in  1849, 
and  the  Rev.  Edward  W.  Oilman,  elected  in 
1871;  the  treasurer  is  William  Whitlock,  jr., 
elected  in  1840;  the  assistant  treasurer,  An- 
drew L.  Taylor,  elected  in  1860 ;  general  agent, 
Caleb  T,  Rowe,  elected  in  1854.  The  society's 
receipts  forthe first  year  were  $37,779  36,  and 
it  issued  6,410  Bibles  and  Testaments;  for  the 
56th  year,  ending  March  80,  1873,  its  receipts 


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616 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


were  $689,628  47,  and  it«  Tolnmee  IsBaed 
(Bibles  or  parts  of  Bibles)  were  1,100,871. 
For  the  whole  68  years,  its  total  receipts  were 
114,980,331  15,  and  iU  whole  number  of  toI- 
umea  issued  was  28,780,969.  The  receipts  for 
the  seoond  year  were  the  least  of  all,  $36,- 
504  30 ;  and  those  for  the  e4th  year,  $747,- 
058  69,  the  largest.  The  anmber  of  Tolnmes 
bsued  the  first  year,  6,410,  was  the  smallest, 
and  thst  of  the  4Bth  year,  1,830,766,  the  largest. 
For  26  years  the  society  was  aoincorporatad ; 
bot  the  legislature  of  New  York  granted  an  act 
of  incorporation  March  S6,  1841,  and  by  act 
of  April  13,  1852,  granted  special  authority  to 
purchase,  hold,  and  convey  its  real  estate  on 
Astor  place,  with  all  buildings  and  improTe- 
ments  that  might  he  pnt  npon  it.  The  society, 
having  previously  occupied  varioUB  rooms  for 
its  basiness,  erected  in  1SS2  a  bnilding,  60  ft. 
front  by  100  deep,  long  known  as  115  kassaa 
street,  and  occupied  it,  with  an  addition  made 
subsequently,  till  1853.  The  society  needing 
more  room,  the  cornerstone  of  the  "  Bible 
House"  in  Astor  place  was  laid  Jane  29, 
1852,  and  the  new  hnilding  was  occupied 
in  the  early  part  of  1868.  The  edifioe  end 
ground  cost  about  $300,000.  The  building 
covers  a  square  of  about  three  fourths  of  an 
acre,  fronting  on  four  streets,  with  an  open 
court  in  the  centre,  is  six  stories  high,  built  of 
brick  with  freestone  copings,  and  commands 
attention  by  ita  magnitude  and  proportions. 
In  1847  the  managers  of  the  American  Bible 
society  found  that  their  Bibles  and  those  of 
England  had  many  small  discrepancies  which 
embarrassed  the  proof-readers.  A  thorough 
coUation  was  therefore  made  by  the  Kev. 
James  W.  McLane,  D.  D.,  under  the  direction 
of  the  committee  on  versions,  of  the  society's 
royal  octavo  Bible,  with  four  leading  British 
editions  (London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Edinburgh),  and  the  edition  of  1311.  This 
coUalJon,  which  was  finished  Uay  1,  1851,  ex- 
tended to  all  the  details  of  typography,  in- 
cluding orthography,  capital  letters,  words  in 
itaUcs,  punctuation,  brackets,  hyphens,  &c. ; 
and  though  the  number  of  variations  or  dis- 
crepancies noted  in  the  t«xt  and  punotualion 
of  the  six  copies  compared  fell  but  little  short 
of  34,000,  not  one  of  the  entire  nomber  marred 
the  integrity  of  the  test,  or  affected  anv  doc- 
trine or  precept  of  the  Bible.  In  redncing 
these  variations  to  one  uniform  standard,  the 
committee  made  a  few  changes,  which  they 
considered  typographical  corrections  of  the 
text,  and  also  modernized  somewhat  the  chap- 
ter headings  and  other  accessories  of  the  text ; 
but,  as  this  part  of  their  work  gave  dissatisfao' 
tion  in  some  quarters,  the  managers  concluded, 
in  January,  1868,  so  far  to  modify  the  new 
standard  as  to  omit  every  alteration  which  had 
not  the  sanction  of  previous  editions.  This 
was  accordingly  done  in  1863-'60,  and  the  vol- 
umes now  published  by  the  society  are  conmd- 
ered  remarkably  tree  from  errors  of  tlie  press, 
aikd  are  conformed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 


best  editions  which  have  been  in  cironlation 
for  generations.  The  society  does  not  publish 
the  Apocrypha.  Its  managers  are  36  layraeti, 
belonging  in  18T1  to  seven  different  denomina- 
tions ;  and  any  minister  of  the  gospel  who  is 
a  member  of  the  society  may  meet  and  vote 
with  its  board  of  managers.  It  sells  and  dis- 
tributes ita  books  in  this  country,  as  far  aa 
pos«ble,  through  its  auxiliary  societies,  which 
(1878)  number  aboot  2,000,  with  probably 
5,000  or  more  branch  organizations  connected 
with  them.  At  the  50th  annual  meeting  in 
May,  1806,  the  society  resolved  to  undertake 
withoDt  delay  a  third  general  supply  of  the 
whole  coantry  (the  two  previous  l^eing  in  1629 
and  1866),  and  this  undertaking  has  been  vigor- 
ously prosecuted  with  the  intention  of  supply- 
ing the  Bible  to  every  family  willing  to  receive 
it  The  society  also  aids  other  benevolent  in- 
stitutions by  making  grants  of  money  or  books 
for  use  at  home  or  abroad,  or  furnishing  stere- 
otype plates  or  other  assistance.  It  has  three 
agencies  of  its  own  and  about  66  colporteurs 
in  foreign  lands ;  it  has  for  many  years  offered 
the  aid  requisite  to  publish  new  tranalationa 
made  by  American  missionaries  of  the  Old 
Testament  or  the  Kew,  or  any  entire  Gospel 
or  other  book  of  the  Bible ;  it  has  printed  tiw 
Bible,  or  portioiis  of  it,  in  about  27  new  trans- 
lations, besides  publishing,  at  home  or  abroad, 
about  28  others ;  it  has  prepared  and  published 
the  entire  Bible  in  raised  letters  for  the  Iilind 
(8  folio  volumes  costing  $20,  or  IS  folio  vol- 
umes costing  $28);  and  it  publishes  accounts 
of  its  doings  m  its  annual  reports  and  monthly  in 
the  "Bible  Society  Record."— The  "American 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  "  was  organized  in 
New  York  May  IS,  1886,  and  was  incorporated 
by  the  legislatare  of  New  York  April  12,  1B4B. 
It  originated  In  a  secession  of  the  Baptists  from 
the  American  Bible  society,  after  the  latt«r 
society  refused  aid  to  the  Bengalee  and  Bur- 
mese vernons  made  by  Baptist  missionaries, 
because  in  these  versions  the  Greek  word  ^asrifu 
and  its  ci^(nates  were  translated  "immerse," 
"immersion," &o.  The  Rev.  Spencer  H.  Cone, 
D.  D.,  who  had  been  a  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  society,  was  the  first  president  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  society,  and 
the  Kev.  Chariea  G.  Sommers,  D.  D.,  its  first 
corresponding  secretary.  The  constitutionB  of 
the  two  societies  are  nearly  alike,  except  that 
the  managers  of  the  latter  are  required  to  be 
Baptists.  The  society  has  primarily  aided  the 
misfflonaries  of  the  American  Baptist  missionary 
union  and  kindred  societies  in  trsnslatJng,  re- 


st the  discretion  of  tiie  managers,  to  Bib 
operations  in  all  lands.  It  has  employed  Bible 
readers  in  the  United  States,  Csnada,  Mexico, 
Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  China,  Greece, 
&c.  It  publishes  and  circulates  in  this  coon- 
try  the  commonly  received  or  King  James's 
version.  In  36  years  it  has  collected  and  ex- 
pended more  than  $1,100,000  in  Bible  dronU- 


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BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


617 


tloD,  published  the  Soiiptiires  in  40  different 
laDguagea,  and  circalateu  4,000,000  volnmes  is 
onr  own  &nd  foreign  londa.  "The  Bible  Ad- 
vocate" is  its  monthly  periodical.  Its  officers 
for  1672  are  the  Hon.  D,  M.  Wilson,  president ; 
the  Rev.  A.  D.  Gillett«,  D.  D.,  corresponding 
»ecret«ry;  TJ.  D.  Ward,  treasurer.  —  "The 
American  Bible  Union  "  was  organized  in  Sevr 
York,  June  10,  1850,  Its  object  is  "  to  proonre 
and  circulate  the  most  faithful  vermons  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  in  a!]  languages,  throughont 
the  world."  Its  founders  seceded  from  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  aooiety  May  S3, 
1860,  when  that  body  decided  that  it  was  not 
its  province  or  duty  to  revise  the  English  Bible, 
nor  to  procure  a  revision  of  it  from  others ;  and 
that  in  its  fiitare  isaaes  it  would  only  circulate 
the  eiisting  commonly  received  version.  The 
membership  ia  composed  of  Tolnntary  oontrib- 
Qtors,  $30  constituting  a  member,  $100  a  direc- 
tor for  life.  The  field  of  its  operations  ia  the 
vorld.  It  has  aided  ext«n9ively  in  the  prepara- 
tion or  circnlatioQ  of  versions  made  on  its  prind- 
ples,  for  the  Chinese,  Earena,  Siamese,  French, 
Spanish,  Italians,  Germans,  and  English.  But 
the  primary  aim  of  the  onion  is  to  prepare  a 
thorough  and  faithful  revision  of  the  common 
English  version.    To  accomplish  this  it  has  em- 

Sloyed  the  aid  of  scholars  of  nine  evangelical 
enominations.  Though  mainly  cbmpoaed  of 
Baptists,  it  profeasee  to  act  without  reference 
to  denominational  differences.  The  principle 
adopted  for  the  guidance  of  translators  is : 
Express  in  language  moat  readily  understood 
by  the  people  "the  exact  meaning  of  the  in- 
spired original."  No  views  of  expediency 
are  allowed  to  withstand  the  invariable  ope- 
ration of  thia  role.  The  New  Testament  has 
been  sulgected  to  three  consecutive  revisions, 
the  first  extending  through  a  period  of  eight 
years,  the  second  of  four,  and  the  third  of  a 
little  more  than  two  years.  No  expense  has 
been  spared  in  procuring  hooka  or  supplying 
every  possible  aid  for  the  greatest  perfection 
of  the  work.  The  book  of  Job  has  been  re- 
vised and  published  under  two  different  forms: 
the  first  embracing  the  common  veraion,  the 
Hebrew,  and  the  revised  version,  accompa- 
nied with  philological  notes;  the  second  con- 
fined to  the  revision  and  notes  for  the  English 
reader.  Genesis  and  the  Psalms  have  been 
issued,  each  in  a  single  volume,  combining 
the  notes  for  the  scholar  and  the  Engliah  read- 
er. Proverbs  has  lately  been  issued  in  the 
same  form  as  Job.  Exodus,  Joshua,  Rnth, 
Judges,  1  and  2  Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings,  1  and  2 
OhriKiicles,  have  been  revised,  and  the  first 
four  of  theae  books  are  now  (1873)  nodergoing 
revision  for  the  press.  The  Bible  union  has 
also  prepared  a  "Bible  Primer"  especially  for 
the  freedmen  in  the  south.  It  has  made  two 
translations  of  the  Testament  into  the  Ohineae 
langn^e,  one  in  the  oharact«r,  and  the  other 
in  the  Nin^  ooUoqnial.  Its  Spanish  Testa- 
ment has  nndergone  three  revisions,  and  is  now 
widely  oiicnlatod  in  Spain  and  Msiico.    Its 


Italian  Testament  i 
Italy.  The  number  of  copies  of  Scriptnr 
which  it  has  issued,  or  forniahed  the  means  for 
issuing,  in  aU  languages,  exceeds  a  million. — 
The  "Bible  Revision  Association,"  organized 
at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  April  2,  1863,  and  after- 
ward removed  to  Louisville,  Ky,,  suspended 
operations  in  the  early  part  of  1860,  and  passed 
over  ita  books  to  the  American  Bible  union. 
— The  history  of  Bible  societies  would  be  in- 
complete without  mention  of  .the  controversy 
with  regard  to  the  Apocrypha,  in  which  the 
European  societies  were  involved  from  about 
1811,  and  which  was  not  finally  aettied  till  !827. 
The  one  idea  of  Bible  societies,  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures  without  note  or  comment,  had 
to  acertun  extent  engaged  all  parties  indiscrim- 
inately, and  especially  all  partiea  of  the  refor- 
mation. Tlie  Roman  Catholic  church  had  a 
different  canon  of  Scripture  from  the  Protes- 
tant. On  the  continent  various  causes  had 
conspired  to  separate  the  Protestants  less  in 
this  matter  from  the  Catholics  than  their  breth- 
ren in  Great  Britain.  ConsequenUy,  on  the 
continent,  the  Catholic  canon  was  in  use  among 
Protestants.  At  first  the  London  society  had 
connived  at  this  difference  of  sentiment,  or  at 
least  had  not  allowed  itself  to  interfere  with  ita 
free  exetciae.  Thua  the  German  auxiliary  so- 
cieties had  from  the  outset  purchased  for  cir- 
culation the  Canstein  Bible,  in  whinh  the  apoc- 
ryphal books  were  intermingled  with  the  ca- 
nonical (Protestant),  A  feeling  began  to  be 
manifest  on  this  subject  with  greateat  violence 
in  Scotiand,  and  the  parent  society  therefore 
decided  in  1811  to  request  its  auxiliaries  to 
leave  out  the  Apocrypha.  This  request  pro- 
duced some  feelii^,  and  it  was  rescinded  in  1818. 
The  apocryphal  war  was  thus  fairly  commenc- 
ed ;  for  the  passing  and  subsequent  rescindiug 
of  the  resolution  of  18II  brought  the  parties 
into  position.  The  inapiration  of  the  apocry- 
phal books  was  discussed,  and  the  cnstom  of 
the  Protestant  church  cited,  which  had  trans- 
lated the  Apocrypha,  and  even  in  the  establish- 
ment appointed  it "  tii  be  read  in  the  churches." 
While  the  general  sentiment  was  in  iavor  of 
the  non-inspiration  of  the  apocryphal  books, 
one  party  insisted  on  the  propriety  of  their 
circulation,  on  the  ground  that  the  catalogue 
of  the  canon  was  not  inspired,  and  that  even 
the  Protestant  canon  itself  was  not  an  article 
of  faith,  but  might  contain  uninspired  books. 
On  the  other  band,  the  anti-apocryphal  party 
rigidly  defined  the  difference  between  the  ca- 
nonical and  apocryphal  books,  designating  the 
apocryphal  as  "far  below  the  level  of  many 
human  writings,  ftill  of  &lsehooda,  errors,  sn- 
perstitioDS,  and  cootradictions,  and  the  more 
dangerous  for  assuming  to  be  a  divine  revela- 
tion." The  Scotch  party  was  violent,  the  con- 
tinental nnyielding.  The  publication  of  the 
Catholic  Bible  in  Itaban,  Spanish,  and  Portn- 
gnese,  in  1819,  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
society,  added  fresh  fiiel  to  the  fiames.  It  waa 
thought  by  the  Edinburgh  society  a  violation 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


618 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


of  the  act  of  1818.  It  was  Tirgei  that  to  pub- 
lish a  Bible  in  which  the  apocryphal  books 
were  made  canonical,  was  worse  than  merely 
to  pobliah  them  as  apocryphal  at  the  end  of 
the  Old  Testament  canon.  The  London  soci- 
ety, on  a  revision  of  its  course,  decided  it  to 
be  erroneons,  and  resolved,  Aug.  19,  1822,  that 
the  moneys  of  the  society  should  henceforth 
be  naed  only  in  printing  the  canonical  books, 
and  that  if  the  auitiliaries  pablished  the  Apoc- 
rypha, they  should  do  it  at  their  own  ei- 
Knse.  When,  in  accordance  with  Uiis  act, 
ander  Van  Ess  asked  aid  in  puhlishing  his 
Bible,  and  promised  to  include  the  Apocrypha 
at  his  own  expense,  the  society  appropriated 
£B00  for  the  purpose  (Sept.  24,  1824).  The 
anti-apocryphiu  party  procnred  the  rescinding 
of  the  act  the  following  December,  on  the 
ground  that  the  apocryphal  books  were  still 
undistin^ished  from  the  canonical,  and  that 
therefore,  although  the  society's  money  was 
not  nsed  to  publish  them,  they  nevertheless 
had  the  apparent  sanction  of  inspiration  by  the 
ffood  company  in  which  the  society  allowed 
uiem  to  be  pat,  by  consenting  to  have  them 
intermingled  with  the  inspired  books.  The 
BOdety,  in  rescinding  the  above  act  of  appropri- 
ation, advanced  only  one  step  further  in  the 
apocryphal  reform.  It  had  in  the  act  of  re- 
scinding declared  that  the  money  of  the  society 
might  be  applied  to  aid  those  editions  of  the 
Bible  in  which  the  apocryphal  books  were 
printed  at  the  eD<l  of  the  canon.  The  anti- 
apocryphal  pai'ty  had  already  achieved  too 
many  victories  to  he  satisfied  with  soch  moder- 
ate gronnd.  The  £dinburgh  society  now  pro- 
tested (Jan.  IT,  1825)  against  this  compromise 
of  Protestantism,  and  procured  in  the  following 
February  a  rescinding  act  wliich  swept  the 
records  of  the  London  society  of  all  ibrmer 
acts  on  the  subject  The  matter  stood  now 
where  it  hod  before  1811,  but  the  anti-apocrr- 
phal  sentiment  was  conscious  of  ita  strength, 
and  now  initiated  positive  proceedings.  A  two 
years'  contest  followed,  in  which  the  ground 
was  all  reviewed,  and  the  end  of  which  was  a 
resolution  of  the  London  society  (May  3,  1827) 
that  no  association  or  individual  circulating  the 
apocryphal  books  should  receive  aid  from  the 
society;  that  none  hut  bound  books  should  be 
distributed  to  the  auiiliaries,  and  that  the  aua- 
iliaries  should  circulate  them  as  received  ;  and 
that  all  societies  printing  the  apocryphal  books 
should  place  the  amount  granted  tbem  for 
Bibles  at  the  disposal  of  the  parent  society. 
Thus  ended  the  controversy,  which  threatened 
for  a  time  to  split  the  parent  society  itself,  and 
which  did  result  in  the  secession  of  many  aux- 
iliaries on  the  continent.  Previous  to  this  con- 
troversy, the  Roman  Catholic  church  had  in 
many  instances  (especially  on  the  continent) 
acted  with  the  Protestants ;  but,  as  already 
mentioned,  that  church  had  abolished  the  Bible 
society  of  Ratjslion  (1817)  in  the  midst  of  the 
contest.  Meanwhile  the  London  society  con- 
tinued the  aid  of  its  ftmds,  under  its  sncces^ve 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

prohibitions  in  reference  to  the  Apocrypha, 
to  the  individual  enterprise  which  still  per- 
sisted, at  Munich,  in  the  circnlation  of  the 
Bible.  Gradually  the  Roman  Catholic  dinrcb 
withdrew  its  favor  from  an  enterprise  that  re- 
fused its  aid  in  the  circulation  of  that  which 
she  deemed  the  canon  of  Scripture,  nntjl, 
from  the  cooperation  which  had  characterized 
the  early  history  of  Bible  societies,  the  move- 
ment became  essentially  Protestant. — When  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  society  was  formed, 
there  was  a  great  destitation  of  the  Bible 
in  all  conntries ;  the  Bible  hod  been  printed 
and  circulated  in  only  47  languages  and  dia- 
lects; but  since  1804  more  than  100,000,000 
Bibles,  Now  Testaments,  and  portions  of  the 
Bible  have  been  issued  by  Bible  societies;  and 
the  Scriptures  are  now  circulated  among  near- 
ly all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  in  more 
than  ZOO  different  languages  and  dialects. — Be- 
fore the  invention  of  printing  the  Bible  was 
the  most  expensive  book  in  the  world,  coating 
in  England,  in  the  13th  century,  £30  a  copy. 
At  the  time  of  the  Araerioan  revolution  the 
cheapest  Bibles  were  valued  at  not  less  than 
$2  a  volume.  For  some  years  (1844-'G8)  the 
American  Bible  society  sold  its  nonpareil  Bible 
wichont  references  at  25  cents  a  copy,  and  ita 
pocket  pearl  Testament  at  6^  cents ;  and  now 
(1873)  this  cheapest  Bible  is  sold  at  40  cents, 
and  this  cheapest  Testament  at  10  cents.  It  is 
a  principle  of  the  society  to  make  the  prices 
of  Bibles  and  Testameste  as  low  as  posuble. 

BUUOdRlPHI  (Gr.  ^</}?iov,  a  book,  and 
ypd^iv,  to  describe),  Uterally,  the  description  of 
books.  Among  the  Greeks  the  term  fiifjXio- 
ypa^a  signified  only  the  writing  or  transcrip- 
tion of  books ;  and  a  bibliographer  with  them 
was  a  writer  of  hooka,  in  the  sense  of  a  copy- 
ist. The  French  term  bibliographie  was  long 
used  to  signify  only  an  acqaaintance  with  an- 
cient writings,  and  with  tie  art  of  decipher- 
ing them.  In  its  modem  and  more  extended 
sense,  hibli<^rapby  may  be  defined  to  bo  the 
science  or  knowledge  of  books,  in  regard  to 
the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed,  their 
different  di^ees  of  rarity,  curiosity,  repnted 
and  real  value,  the  sulnects  discussed  by  their 
respective  authors,  and  the  rank  which  they 
ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a  library. 
It  is  therefore  divided  into  two  branchoa,  the 
first  of  which  has  reference  to  the  contents  of 
hooks,  and  may  be  called,  for  want  of  a  better 
phrase,  intellectual  bibliography  ;  the  second 
treats  of  their  external  character,  the  history 
of  particular  copies,  &c.,  and  may  be  termed 
material  bibliography.  The  object  of  the  first 
kind  is  to  acquaint  literary  men  with  the  most 
valuable  books  in  every  department  of  study, 
either  by  means  of  alphabetical  cataloguea 
simply,  or  by  catalogue*  rationne-t,  accompa- 
nied by  critical  remarks, — It  is  the  province 
of  the  bibliographer  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
materials  of  which  books  are  composed,  and 
their  different  forms,  the  number  of  pages,  the 
typographical  character,  the  number  and  de- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


619 


toription  of  the  plat«B,  the  oompleteneBS,  cor- 
rectness, and  all  the  other  external  pecnliari- 

ties  or  distinctions  of  an  edition.  He  knows 
not  onlj  the  treatises  that  have  been  written 
on  any  partionlBr  topic,  their  comparatiTe 
valae,  and  the  variooB  editions  of  books,  bnt 
also  Id  what  important  respects  one  edition  dif- 
fers fi^m  another,  when  and  troni  what  cause 
omissions  have  twen  made,  deficiencies  auppii- 
ed,  errors  corrected,  and  additions  subjoined. 
When  books  have  been  pnblishod  anonymously 
or  psendonymonsly,  he  indicates  the  real  name 
uf  the  concealed  author;  and  with  regard  to  the 
rarity  of  books,  he  is  acquainted  with  all  the 
caases  which  have  contributed  to  reader  them 
scarce.  In  compiling  a  catalogne,  he  assigns  to 
them  that  place  which  they  ought  to  hold  in 
the  system  of  classi£cation  adopted  for  arraog- 
fng  a  poblio  or  private  collection  of  books. 
These  legitimate  duties  of  the  bibliographer, 
however,  require  a  variety  and  eitent  of  knowl- 
edge seldom  if  ever  possessed  hy  a  single  indi- 
vidual, and  different  writers  have  selected  dif- 
ferent fields  of  labor  in  the  science. — A  collec- 
tion of  ail  the  works  belonging  to  the  various 
departments  of  bibliograpny  would,  it  has 
been  estimated,  exceed  30,000  volumes.  The 
more  important  of  these  are  indicated  or  de- 
scribed in  Haiaafa  S^lioffrapkie  paliograpki' 
eo-diploTaatwy-hihliogTaphique  ffinSrale  (2  vols. 
Svo.Li^ge,  1838);  also  in  Peignot's  .figwrtoire 
hibliograpiiique  univenel  (8vo,  Paris,  1812) ; 
Home's  "  Introdnction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliog- 
raphy," vol.  ii.  (8vo,  London,  1814) ;  Boha's 
"General  Oatalt^ne,"  ?ol.  i.  (8vo,  London, 
1847);  'Ptit^olAVs  Anetiger ^r  BihliographU 
und  Bibliothetmiitaejisch^ft,  an  important  peri- 
odical commenced  in  1840  in  Halle;  andinPetz- 
holdt's  roroarltably  full  and  complete  catalogue 
entitled  Bibliotkeea  Bibliographiea  (Leipsic, 
1866).  For  information  npon  certwn  points 
connected  with  bibliography,  see  Book,  Book- 
BiHDiNO,  Diplomatics,  EsoB4vino,  Librast, 
MAHTscBiPra,  Papkk,  Printiso,  andWaiTiNO. 
The  following  elementary  works  treat  general- 
ly upon  all  matters  appertaining  to  this  science. 
Although  most  of  them  are  old,  and  some  not 
well  digested,  they  nevertheless  contain  much 
curious  as  well  as  useful  information  ; 
ACBAu,  C.  F.    Conn  ^16meBUIi*  de  blbUogrmntile.    8  tdIb. 

Std,  UuuUlen.  IMie-T. 
BovuRD,^    TniU  tUnwDlaln  da  blbUogmplile.    Bro,  Pi- 

Dlitn,  J.  U.  C.    ElnMtiuig  Id  dla  BDcherkiuide.    Sd  ed.,  a 

Tola,  llo,  Tleano.  ITSK-'K 
DlHUR.T.F,    BlbUogrmphldl  DHOmeroii.    8«oIi.rD;aISro. 


Id.,  Sto,  Pklmno, 

PnaHOir,  ti.  d.    DtcCkiiiiub«  nI*ODD«  de  blbUologle  (with 

uppleraeni;.    8  vols.  i)vo,  Piriii.  IV^'i. 
Priiiduit.  J.    Katechlimiu  der  BlbUoUKkimlelm.    tded., 

ISfDO.  Lslpllc  1»T1. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  to  Riake  a  universal 
catalogue,  such  as  wonid  einbod;  the  ideal 
of  a  bibliographical  work  by  giving  the  title 
of  every  important  book  ever  published  in 
any  country,  would  be  literally  impos«blo.  j 


The  attempt  has  nevertheless  been  made,  and 
some  of  the  results,  though  exceedingly  incom- 
plete when  compai^  witii  the  avowed  purpose 

of  the  catalogue,  are  most  useful  to  tlie  bibli- 
ographer, Even  more  valuable,  however,  are 
those  works  which  more  modestly  attempt  to 
give  a  list  of  only  the  leading  stimdard  books 
of  the  world.  We  give  the  tides  of  &  few  cat- 
alogues compiled  with  either  one  or  the  otiier 
of  these  aims : 


Euid  AmoHeui  Aolhon. 


ODtalntnff  n  Catakiffiu  BbIiod- 


Put  I.. !  Tdg.  Bvo.  London.  1K4«, 
kmi,  II.  O.  A  (tapsnl  Vtuloma 
ISIl,  pp.  i,l«u. 


.  Pivne  ind    H.  Fom. 

P>rt!l,  eTO,lMS. 

if  BoobL    bra,  Ijibdoa, 


IMfU  ed,  t  TOta,  Pirta.  lo«i>-'6B. 


Dahtis.  A.    Tables  l^ognphlqaa  et  blbBofTwhlquea  <Ih  v 

tdeona,  dM  leuno.  et  dn  uta.    Svo.  Pui^  IW, 
DeBvu,0.  F.    BUilliKncUe  lutractlTe,    Ivo1l8to,Ps- 

rta,  1185-'a. 
DiBDm,  T.  F.    ThelibniyCampuloii;  or.theToiuigliliii'i 

Outds  and  thd  OU  Uin'i  Comftin  Id  the  ctaoka  of  a  Ubn- 

ry.    Thick  Br^  London.  IBM. 

Birbler,  b/ the  abb^  Dd  Cku.)    Sroti,  Sro,  Pirii,  I'UO. 
"   ■       ■ ''-|ientBlbllognphl<aJllliitlonBr]F,froniIh« 


KosTeu  dirtlonDiJ 
Uiimt,  J.  O.    BIM 

Lelp^  ITSS-ISM. 
Moou.  Dr.  C.  H.    T" 

Y0dt.lS71. 
HoDiicC.    DeMTtpt 

Finrtii.  K,    Booki 

PimAM.  Q,  P..  ud  P 


AUmnielDM  enropIlKhfli 
;WIth  lappleinenta.)    SvoIi.J 

Trto>r  d«  Ktih  imra 


K*  Tils 


BlbUothK*  HMorlix.    £9  Tola.  Ui  11.  Sto, 


ie  d-ane  JoHs  coUsotion  dt 


I.  The  B«t  BasdlDff.  1 


I.  M.     BlbUognphis  ^tnlo  do  XIX<  altele. 
1,  FwtL 


As  has  already  been  Kaid,  it  is  m 
for  a  bibliographer  to  select  some  special  de- 
partment, collecting  or  cataloguing  the  works 
belonging  in  some  one  class  of  literature.  Such 
dictionaries  and  catalogues  applicable  to  partio- 
ular  branches  of  knowledge,  and  comprising 
the  works  published  on  the  subjects  discussed, 
would  of  themselves  constitute  a  library.  In 
the  present  article  we  can  only  mention  a  few 
of  the  more  important. 

ATKonnit.  J.    Uedlial  BlbUopaphr.    A  »Dd  B,    Sto,  Lou- 

Biom.  A.  and  A.  di.  BlbUotheqne  de*  (nIntBs  de  b 
'Bda  J^aui.  flTob-ro^al  Uto,  L1^,  Is^a  ftseq. 
S.L.    Eaial  blbllc^raphlqae  HIT  lea  Mltloni  d« 


tLin,  F.  B.  J.    BlbUo^i^ble  IT 

InDamiAH.  B,  W,    Bhort  Vie 

LoDdOD.  1S09. 
;AHri,  A,  O.    FrottaaloD  d'lT 


le  la  Fnnee  et  de 
ofL^ilIlibllognphr,  Sto, 
at.  Bthad.,lT(ila,  BTOpPaiK 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


_.  ^ i]  Uwnnin.     i  loK  toytl  Svo, 

Londoii.  lIiM-'B. 
DC  Momn.  A.    ArfthvcUal  Bwki.  from  tlie  InVEDtloti  of 

PilndDg  to  tilt  pRBont  Time.    Poal  Sro,  Loodoii,  1  U^. 
Derm.  A.  H.    lUtiiisl  im  itailmau  «D  ilioU-    lima,  PariA, 

Ddfik,  A.M.    MuiieldudP0ttpnbUe«eel6aluUiiw&an(*l>. 
Ibno,  PBfta,  ISH. 


DDFUHn,P.A,0.    BlbUognithle  puiiniologiqiu.    (BlbBae- 

mnliyofPrenirln.)    Hyo^kHi.  ^41. 
DKTAHDaB.  J.     C*uk«Di   BlbUoUiHB   Hlitorlco-Nitanlli 

JoHpbJ  Bank*.    SfolL  Bvo,  IdDdoD,  tTH-iaoO. 

Ellu.  H.    CtUdOiTM  of  Book!  on  AJigtsf.     Sto,  LoDdon, 

Euin,J.    OcDanlHidBthllocnpblcalDlctloBUTorUiallBe 
ArU.    Sm,  LoDdoii.  ISilt. 

EnoiutucN,  W.    BibUMhsH  Fhlloto(toi.    (A  Hit  o 
■sd  IdUn  rnmmin,  dkltauriM.  teu  pnUltbed  tt 

toieSL)    adad^BTO,LelHlisJ9n.    AbiLF 

chulco-TgchDoloatai.  1  tdL  ;  BlbBoUiec*  Bci 

rieontm.  1  toL;  MedkD-ChlnRk*,  1  Tol.; ,  . 

*ol.;  VaUdluita,  1  ToL;  ZoiitofiiB«tF>lHntok«io,l>aI.; 
BtbHothsk  der  Foirt- UMlJigdw1weDK;hift«.l  nL;  Bl- 
bUotluOc  dor  UudliunwlHaiuctuft,  1  ToLi  BtbUotbek  der 


'  FoiBB,  J.    Mini 
SroiLaiidoii.  19 


iiul  ol  Belact  Hsdh^  Bltilk«i 


.    MiDiiiIorBlbllalBlbllocTvhr.    Sdad^Bro, 

Edtxi.  Dt.J.G.  you.    liUntnr  der  Eil««wUwiiMti*R  and 

Krle«a««KhlchU.    Itmo,  BaUll,ie»-'S. 
Lai^bi,  J.  PC     BtbbognptitB  utronomlqD*.     Mo,  Pwte, 

U'Cdlimd.  J.  B.    Tbe  LHontnn  of  Podded  Econom;.  Svo, 

London,  It^^, 
UuuiuD,  F.  W.  A.    BlbKotheis  Uitliaiullak    (tTOk-Svo. 

]>lp«Lc,  IKT-ISOB. 

OvmvoKk  E-  H-  BLblioirniphld  bloffnphlqne  nnlTonono, 
(DietloDUT  of  woAb  nlitllc*  lo  ths  public  nnd  prIvKle  Ulg 
of  ceiebnud  unouoei-)    S  Tols.  4to,  Bniue>,  1  SU-'M. 

Oiki.  W.  BlbUotbeni  BlbHn:  A  BelHl  Llil  of  Book!  on 
Bund  Utrastun.  with  Dollcu.  Ao.    Svo,  Edloburirii.  IS^ 

PiionEKOIr,  A.     BUiUngTiplile  oatonxdogliiDe.     S  vuIl  Svd, 

PiAucouR,  W.  0.    lilontDimUedhalMgMt*.    4ToIi.niyd 

4to,  f  ablnfoc  I8(ie-% 
Po«u,V.  I^    An  Iikdex  la  PiHodlod  LIMntnie.    Bro,  How 

Yuik,  18II8. 

rutskgoi  BlUlolbew  Mediae.    C  rola.  Bro, 


AmatoRluu.  IBM. 

9  pvta,  Bto,  Perle.  13 
WiLoa.  J.  O.    BLWlDtboci  Tbeoloet™  Salmt*.    4 


BlUlolh^ine  talitlqiie 


Vadoiml  bibliofrraphies  ('caUlogaea  of  works  in 
the  literature  of  a  ein^a  nation)  are  very  nu- 
merous. Of  these  also  we  can  only  give  some 
of  the  most  naeM. 

1.  Amebic  A. 

Asnm.  a,  M.  BlbHocnpblcil  and  HlatoiHoil  Eaaay  on  the 
Dutcb  Book!  nnd  PunnhlelB  nintlne  to  yev  Ketlierinnd. 
fl  pU.  »ni»ll  4lo.  Amnleriain.  1?.%\ 

AeriirwjiLi.  J.    BlbHothcn  Amoriae  BeptentrlouUt.     £ro. 

the  Dnited  BWtM.    Svo,  Wuhbiftaii,  IS4e. 
.  BiBUoTBici  AMnucix.;  or.  n  Cbronnl»clal  Cclalncue  of 

upon  Nortb  nnd  Sooth  America.     4to.  London,  iVsg. 
DAIjmPU,A.    CaMlogiie  of  Authon  whn  hnvoirrttleoon 

the  Klo  de  Is  PIUi.  J^    4U,  I-ondoo,  I  SOT. 
FiniBAOiT,  B.  O.    Cilalo^Tie  dpii  oiivrairPB  but  ThlBloIre  d» 

I'AmMqua.    (EBpadalypstnlnbiglothoKpvtsof  AmeT' 


hs  hnaatr  Id  the  cnaMMlon  of  tk*  TmKb.)   t  pM.  in, 

eoobec.  IMT. 
lAinieui,  H.    Blbllatbca  Ameriuiu  VetoatlMlnu.    Boiil 
Bro.  New  York,  IMHL 

Bibljolhece  Ai 


TKOBHn,N.    BIbllwq 
Iteto.  London,  IcAC 

~    - ■Mbllntbe™  Jima ., 

Bfo,  Fkite,  fStO. 

2.  Gbsat  Bbitaiti. 

I  APMla  or  tbt  En^kb  Blbls.  (Contdnbv  a 
jwui  uflQ  <irlonA  odltlonB,  Ac)    £to1b.  Stcl  Limdoa,  1&45, 

BeuikWiluu.  AoeoloUcorLltonunaiidScnneBooki. 
Bto,  London.  ISOT-'li. 

Bonn,  J.  Catalogue  of  an  EitonalTa  CoUe«IloB  of  EngUah 
Book*.    Bto.  London,  IP" 


BxTiwia.  S.  E.     The  BritlBh  Blbllognpber.     i  Tola.  Bra 

London,  1^0-'14. 
Bmiou.  S.  E.  BHtltnli ;  at.  Titles,  Eitncli.  and  Charae- 
len  of  Old  Booke  Is  English  Lltonuiie,  Rvlaod.  4  Tola. 
Bto,  London,  1B14-UB. 
[^oLLSk.  J.  P.  BlUlognphlal  and  Crldal  Acconnt  of  the 
Bareet  Bookt  lo  the  Ensllah  Luiguage.  S  Tola..  London, 
IMS:  4rob,  N™York,lS«. 

le  Bible  and  Parti  thenof  In  Enc- 
,lUiS. 

. a  ADglo-Poetlci ; 

Citalopie  of  1  Hire  uul  rkli  C<dlectloD  i 
Poetry.  Sto,  Loudon,  16irt. 
iuLiTT,  W.  C.  Hand  Book  lo  the  Popolir.  PoetlaiL  and 
Diwiutlc  litentiin  of  6n«  BriBln.  from  the  Inientkn  of 
'     ~    '  II  |MrU.6To,  London.  IBd. 

M^  — •  ■"rlntln*  Clnbo  of  Uh 


LItfntare.     New  ed,  t  volB.  In  11 

If  icui.  W,  D.    A  Uuiuil  of  Brltl^  Ulatolaog  to  A.  I>. 

1600.    Bto,  London.  IBIO. 
Hinni.  J.     BlbHacnphteil  CaUlome  of  Booka  prtTttdr 

prlattd  In  Enrlind.    1  Tola.  Imp.  Bvo.  London.  if<84, 
bloDLK,  T.     BlbHotbaa  HenUla  Hftm   Brluiude:  An 

AnalTtloil  Catolof^e  of  Booka  on  OenealogT-  Iloaldrj, 

Nobullv,  Kolghlbood,  and  CerenxmloB.    Ki^  Bro,  lim- 


A  BlbUomnihkal  llat  of  all  Woifca  llUutntlnf 


I  of  aj  £ngllBh  Library.    Poat  Bi 


npomT,  W.    BlbUonnpbrofWorliB  { 
a  Tola.  Bro,  London,  ISIB^ 


England ;  «okr^  by  Piirk,    C  Tola.  Bro.  London,  IBML 
IVucnT,  T.    BloKTipUB  Uritumka  Llcenili.    Anrki-Suon 
and  Norman  Feriodt.    (With  Uata  of  woriia,  Ac)    «  Toll- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIBUOGEAPHY 
8.  Fkascb. 

u<w...~— I,  —  WMogn-^Oe  nnunttqiu.  (Anssdntlc  at- 
■kuFUe  of  Mudud  modara  Fniicb  I«mlllca,J  Uto,  Pul*, 
len;  nriied  inA  wlused  ed,  iirit. 

.rirt>    U         Urn    hlhlbiJh^iii* 


len;  nriHd  uul  wlaiged  ed,  litli.  1»U. 

Po«*aai,  H.    Ub  blbUotli^ag  buf*l».    Port  ero,  Paid,     Fortxi 


OnuTLT  »■  BuHi-ITABeuF,  A.  BIbUognphle  UWoriqae 
MlflMmoUmadciaFnaH,    4ta,  Pari*.  ItMB. 

fl<ni>,KarBIMtofn|«la  hWoriqiH  da  H  villa  d«  Lfoa 
paDdutliTtTolDlloi&aaalM.    Sni,  Lyons.  1840. 

lAUxra,  J.    BlUlothmiis  hlitortqaa  da  !■  FmnM.    D  toIi. 
Mia,  Pull.  ITSa^TS. 
CguaUif  w,Mn  iitlelH,  t  talnH.  ud  >  UUa  oC  uarua 

TjOiuiz,   O,     CatulHne  gdu^ral  da   Jft  Hbnirla  franpAlu. 

IHO-'M.    4toIi,  Pu1^18^. 
QdEiud.J.  M,    U  I>uea  UcUnln.  on  DIctkRuuIni  blbU- 

wnpbtnnB,  As.    (IBth  ud  Itth  eenCiulH.)    ]3  ti^,  Bio, 

QnimuD,  J,  U.  1a  Utttotnn  frufBlaa  eontraaponlna, 
ISST-'U.  ICommenced  b/  Qo^nrd.  and  coaamud  by  oth- 
en.)    S  roll.  Sto.  PirU,  181»-'fiT. 

QtrfiBiiD.  J.  M.  Las  auperotaertaa  HtUnlrea  dJTonfiea,  Os- 
larlea  da  lutenn  ^ooTplott,  anppot^  dtRoliij*,  A<l,  da 
hUtC^rUunftuc^ae.    4  vob.STO,Tuii,  mi-IU. 

Bmnet's  Xaauel  da  librairt,  before  mentioiied, 
otthoDgh  a  general  work,  is  verj  rich  in  Freaoh 
bibljograph/. 

i.    QXBMANT. 

Ibnojfnidiiad  Esaty  oo  Uie  Bcilptom  Baniin 
L.    4ID.  LiHidoD  anil  BaHIn.  isitf 
BlMlofrrwblBcha  Haodbooh  dar  daatachan 
"■^ralur.    4UI,  Berili.  ISST. 

BlblliiUuici  OaognpUo.     S  tdIl   Sto, 

_...,  W.    BibUottiek  d( 

(A  UM  of  Garniia  muiuicaB.  piuyk  snd  poemi,  i 
(NminotDlStO.)  1  Tok.  Svo,  Ldpilc.  lBn--A 
.  „     "-ndbotli  dar  -     ' ' 


k.  en,  Ldpala,  1S»-'4S. 


UUnur.    ided,! 

AllRanHbiai  BQohadulkaD.    rWlthfinnp- 
S  rota.  410,  Leipglo,  llKia-'M. 


Bfluwu,  O.  '^e^etaer  dureh  die  LltsnCui  dcr  DentMben. 
ElD  Hu>dbtich  for  Lo^en.  Har^nsgawbeD  tod  Quhuit 
Schwab  Dsd  Kul  KIBpftO.    td  od.,  Sto.  Lalp^  184T. 

TiTbOn,  W.     Hlgtorls  aunay  of  Oermu  Pastry.    8  ml*. 

STcLondoD.  ISSS-'Si). 
Tsnut  S,  L.  J.    Tb*  UteratopB  of  Gennuiy,  from  Its  mtUhiI 

Eriod.    (Witb  biblbwruibtal  Dotei.  Ac)    llmo,  JjmOoa, 
A 

Ebert's  "General  Bibliographical  Dictionary," 
before  mentioDed,  is  especially  rich  in  early 
German  literature. 

o  nglonato  dalle  opera  aontfinita 


oaUeiione  da'  cluslci  lu 


BIBLIOUANIA  63 

BiracB,  B.  £.  Bee  UtaroriB,  bIbBflgnpUral  and  aOa 
(PrlHipally  upon  ICallaD  Uterslun.)  8  TOta.  Bio,  Hapk 
Rome,  BSd  Oensn,  1^1-^. 


ii>^  evo.  Venloa,  19N. 


.    Ssrls  del  taatl  dl  Un^ua.    4Ch  ed. 


1.  Spain,  PoBrnoAL,  and  Nosthbbn  Edbope. 

LtnaKHV  N.    BIbDDllnia  HIspanaTatui  ad  aimimi  UOO. 

New  el.  2  Tola.  11^  Uadrld.  I'SS. 
iXTOHlo.  N.    BlblloOLOea  Ulipani  NoTa.  ab  simo  ISDD  ad 

aonumlim.    New  ed.,  i  voh.  <blla,  Madrid.  liS^'B. 
SABBOei-lUoHuo, U.    BlbUotliacaLuelUiiaCrtllsetaicD- 

nolaglca.    4  vole,  fcllo,  Llabon.  IT41-'1W. 
BiHTEOWHi.  F.     Hlibirya  Ifteratary  polaUfd.    (IliMoiy  of 

FoUsli  UUntora,  aiUblUd  In  a  ll^  of  inldngs,  Aa.)    3 

Tola.  Sva,  Wannr  and  WUna.  1S14. 
BouTZawiE,  f .    HlfbuT  af  Bpanlah  and  PortiigiieH  IJIe- 

tatqn,  baulaUd  by  Boaa.    i  toIb.  Sto,  LondOD,  1>S3. 
Jiais,  U.     Blblotbeca  Anbkso-HlapaH  EaaurialeiiBla.    1 

Tola.  fbUo,  Madrid,  I  TtO-TO. 
CAtnOjjJ.  K.  da.    BlhBotaca  £ipaClolB.    S  Tols.  Ibllo,  Ua- 

- .  —    Abnlin 
ls.«o, 

Om,  F.    HIalary  of  Ensaiaii  Utentan,  with  a  IdilnHt  of 

Bonlaa  Aulhon.    Sto,  Oiibid,  ISSB. 
Bkiu  Did  NipmaET.    AUgemelnee  BdnMateller  lud  Oe- 

lehrteo-Leidkai  der  FioTlnaeii  liTlasd,  Eathknd,  nad  Ksr- 

land     4  Tola,  tblck  Sto,  MIlaiL  ISST-'^. 
BAtvA,  T.    CaUlopna  of  fipaniab  and  Porta^nase  Booka, 

with  blbUognpblal  remarks,    i  lOli.  Sto,  luDdan.  13W-7. 


T.  HiacsLLAHSors. 

Puile,L.    BlbUograplile  ]aponalia,oa  ataliviiodaa  ooTn- 

gasralsmban  Japon.    4ta.  Puis,  ISTI. 
RauommoA  HnFASO-AUBlculA.    Idma^  Lmdon,  1ST1, 

In  most  of  these  countries  periodical  cata- 

lognes  of  all  onirent  publications,  critical  Jonr- 
nals,  weekly  trade  ciroalars,  &c.,  have  long 
been  poblislied,  forming  collectively  valuable 
Bonrcee  of  information. 

BIHJOHUU  (Gr.  0i^}Joy,  bootc,  aad  /utrfa, 
madDe8.s),  a  term  first  introdnoed  by  Dr.  Bib- 
din  to  denote  a  rage  for  poesessing  rare  and 
onriouB  books.  The  bibliomaDiao  proceeds  ac- 
cording to  certain  principles,  but,  being  a  lover 
of  books  rather  than  of  knowledge,  attaches 
himself  to  accidental  rnther  than  essential 
qnalities,  and  spen<ls  a  fortune  for  works  the 
contents  of  which  he  migiit  obtain  for  a  few 
dollars.  The  specialty  which  gives  value  tx>  a 
book  may  be  its  age  or  rarity,  the  vicisntndcs 
through  which  it  has  passed,  or  the  fact  of  its 
having  issued  from  a  particular  publishing 
house.  It  may  be  a  handsome  and  peonliar 
binding,  fenciful  typography,  the  circnmsCance 
that  it  has  belonged  to  some  eminent  person- 
age, poseessing  perhaps  an  autograph  or  mar- 
ginal notes,  or  that  the  purchaser  desires  it  to 
swell  a  collection  in  some  particular  deporti- 
ment  of  literature.    Bibliomania  originated  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


622 


BIBLIOMANIA 


Holland  near  the  close  of  the  17th  century, 
and  passed  thence  into  England,  where  it  has 
held  its  principal  seat,  though  it  has  more 
recently  become  to  some  extent  a  passion  in 
France  and  in  the  Uoited  States,  Kamerous 
collections  have  been  made  of  the  editioas 
of  the  Bible,  of  which  the  most  complete  is 
in  the  British  mnsenra,  though  rivalled  bj  that 
of  Mr.  James  Lenox  of  New  York ;  of  eilitious 
of  the  claasicB  in  u»um  Delphini  and  cum 
notU  tarioTum  ;  of  first  editions  of  the  claa- 
aics  {editionea  printipei),  and  of  many  hooks 
which  appeared  in  the  infancy  of  typography 
(incunaivla);  of  Bipont  editions,  and  those 
cited  by  the  academy  delJa  Crusca;  of  the 
"  Eepublics "  of  the  EUevirs ;  and  works 
printed  by  Aldas,  Comino  of  Padna,  Bodoni, 
Hattaire,  Fonlis,  Barbon,  and  Baskerville.  In 
France  the  jest  books,  burl esqne  treatises,  and 
macaronio  poems  of  the  16th  century,  which 
proceeded  from  the  school  of  Merlin  Coccaie 
and  Rabelais,  have  been  mnch  soasht  after 
by  bibliomaniacs.  The  bindings  on  which  the 
highest  prices  are  set  in  France  are  those  of 
Derosne,  Padeloup,  Simier,  and  Thouvenin,' 
and  in  England,  those  of  Charles  Lewis  and 
Roger  Poyne.  The  roost  extraordinary  prices 
are  paid  for  splendid  old  editions,  copies  with 
a  likeness  of  the  author  and  painted  initial 
letters,  impressions  upon  parchment,  morocco, 
paper  furnished  with  a  broad  raar^n,  or  upon 
flsbestuB,  printed  with  letters  of  gold  or  silver, 
or  having  all  the  text  set  in  an  impresaon  of 
copper.  The  materia]  is  more  highly  esteemed 
-  if  tinted  rose  color,  blue,  yellow,  or  green. 
The  library  of  Lord  Spencer,  in  England,  con- 
tained an  jfischylus  of  the  Glasgow  edition  of 
1T95,  the  binding  of  which  alone  cost  £16  7«. 
sterling.  The  binding  of  Macklin's  Bible,  in  four 
volumes,  cost  15  f^ineas ;  and  that  of  Boydell's 
large  edition  of  Bhakesjieare,  in  nine  volumes, 
cost  £19S  sterling.  The  London  bookseller  Jef- 
frey had  a  volume  of  the  "  History  of  Jamesll.," 
by  Fox,  bound  in  fox  skin,  in  allusion  to  the 
name  of  the  author;  and  the  capricious  biblio- 
maniac Askew  is  said  to  have  pushed  his  mad- 
ness even  to  having  a  book  bound  in  human 
akin,  that  he  might  possess  an  entirely  unique 
volume.  The  edges  of  books  have  sometimes 
been  adorned  wi^  beautiful  pictures.  Books 
formerly  were  often  bound  in  copper,  silver,  or 
sold  leaf,  and  embellished  with  precious  stones. 
It  is  not  nnfrequently  a  passion  of  men  to  ob- 
tain an  extensive  library  in  some  particular  de- 
partment, or  a  complete  set  of  the  editions  of 
some  favorite  author.  Thus,  Boulard  spent  a 
fortune  in  pursuit  of  the  editions  of  Racine;  a 
professor  in  a  university  is  mentioned  who  pass- 
ed his  life  in  collecting  obscene  books ;  ana  So- 
leinnos  made  a  library  of  all  the  dramatic  pieces 
that  have  ever  appeared  on  any  stage.  He 
searched  for  new  pieces  with  painful  anxiety, 

Jorohasing  a  mass  of  boots  in  languages  which 
e  conld  not  read.  A  certain  Frenchman  pur- 
chased at  exorbitant  prices  all  astronomical 
books  that  he  conld  fina,  though  he  did  not  un- 


BICETBE 

derstand  a  word  of  that  ficience.  Bibliomani- 
acs are  the  principal  purchasers  in  the  great  an- 
tiquarian hook  auctions  which  are  oeoasionally 
hold  in  London  and  Paris.  The  Mazarin  Bible, 
supposed  to  have  been  printed  in  14&5,  was  sold 
in  1827  for  £604.  A  gentieroan  of  New  York 
has  obtained  a  copy  of  this  work  at  an  expense 
of  $2,600.  Alcuin's  H8.  Bible,  which  was 
made  for  Cbartemagne,  was  purchased  by  the 
British  museum  for  £750.  At  the  sale  of  Car- 
dinal Lom^nie's  library  in  Paris  3,300  livrea 
were  given  for  a  copy  of  the  Qrammatica 
Rhytkmica,  in  folio,  printed  in  146G  by  Faust 
and  SchOffer.  A  copy  of  Virgil,  printed  by 
Sweynheym  and  Pannartz  in  1469,  brought 
4,101  livres.  Dr.  Dibdin  mentions  that  500 
guineas  were  offered  for  a  Llvy  printed  by  Vin- 
delin  de  Spira  in  1470,  "  a  most  extraordinary 
copy,  bonod  in  three  volomcs,  in  foreign  coar^ 
vellum."  One  of  the  most  memorable  compe- 
titions for  bibliographic  treasures  occurred  at 
the  sale  of  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  library,  in 
London,  in  1812.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition 
of  the  "  Decameron,"  published  Ijy  Valdarfer 
at  Venice  in  1471,  was  sold  for  tlie  immense 
price  of  £3,260.  An  illuminated,  missal,  exe- 
cuted for  the  duke  of  Bedford  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VL,  was  soldin  1780  for  £203,  in  1815 
for  £687,  snd  in  1 833  for  £1,100.  Eliot's  Indian 
Bible  sold  in  New  York  in  1857  for  $200,  and 
18  numbers  of  Franklin's  "Poor  Richard's  Al- 
manack "  for  (12  per  number.  The  most  es- 
pennve  single  work  in  the  United  States  is  a 
copy  of  De  Bry's  "  Voysges."  The  biblioma- 
niac forms  the  subject  of  the  ISth  chapter  of 
the  Caract^ret  of  La  Bruyire,  and  Dr.  Dibdm 
has  published  a  volume  entitled  "  Bibliomania, 
or  Book-Madness." 

BIBBi,  KbsI  tea,  baron,  a  German  naturalist 
and  author,  bom  at  Schwebhoim,  Bavaria,  June 
9,  1806,  died  June  4,  1B78.  He  studied  law 
and  afterwai-d  chemistry,  and  published  sev- 
eral medical  and  chemical  works,  1840-'48. 
He  explored  parts  of  Chili,  Pern,  and  Brazil, 
and  after  his  return  resided  in  Nuremberg, 
where  his  scientiHo  collections  acquired  some 
celebrity.  His  works  include  VeTgUtehende 
UnUrtuckungen.  Cber  da*  Qehira  da  Mentchen 
und  der  WirhelthieT*  (1864);  Reiten  in  Sid- 
amerika  (2  vols.,  1854) ;  Die  varlxtuehtn  6e- 
wmmilUl  vnd  der  Haath  (1856) ;  iWnnarun- 
gen,  au*  SUdameTika  (8  vols.,  1861) ;  Am  ChiU, 
Peru  und  SrasilUn  (3  vols.,  1862) ;  and  Baff- 
nungm  in  Ferv  (8  vols.,  1864).  He  also  pnb- 
lished  novels  and  other  writings,  and  in  1869 
the  first  part  of  an  archEeoIogioal  work. 

BIBBlCnL    See  Autun. 

BICETBE,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  near  Sceaox,  on  the  way 
Irom  Fontainebleau  to  Paris,  celebrated  for  its 
hospital ;  pop.  (including  inmates  of  the  hospi- 
tal) about  5,500.  It  derivee  its  name  from  and 
occupies  the  site  of  a  chftteau  built  in  1290  by 
John,  bishop  of  Winchester.  A  military  hos- 
pital was  founded  here  by  Cardinal  Richelieo 
m  1SS2.    The  inmates  were  afterward  removed 


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BIOHAT 

to  the  Invalidea,  and  Bic6tre  become  a  hospital 
for  the  poor  and  an  aBjlnm  for  yagrftnta.  Un- 
der Lonis  XVI.  a  part  of  it  was  aet  aside  for 
the  treatment  of  venereal  diseaae*,  the  patieota 
inTariabl/ receiving  a  flowing  as  the  first  step  in 
the  cure.  Daring  the  massBcres  of  September, 
1792,  the  inmates  defended  themselves  dem)e-' 
rat«l7  against  the  terroriBta,  and  a  horrible 
slaughter  ensued.  The  establishment  now  has 
departmentsforthe following dasBes:  l,oldaer- 
vants  of  the  hospital,  able-lradied  old  men,  and 
blind  lads;  2,  the  sick  generaltj ;  3,  old  men  not 
qnite  disabled,  and  men  over  TO  fears  of  age ; 
4,  blind  old  men,  and  those  snfferinK  nnder 
grave  disessee;  S,  incnrable  invalids,  Tnnatics, 
idiots,  and  epileptics.    About  one  half  of  the 


are  lunatics ;  the  whole 
from  8,000  to  4,000,  inclnding  aboat  600  em- 
ployees with  their  families.  Women  are  not 
received,  and  children  are  taken  only  when 
thej  are  insane  or  epileptio ;  of  these  there 
are  about  100.  The  annual  expenses  exceed 
1,800,000  franos.  The  bnildinga  molnde  a  gym- 
nafnnm,  library,  church,  and  school,  and  work- 
shops in  which  those  who  are  able  to  labor  are 
employed  in  woollen  spinning,  glass  polishing, 
&«.  About  200  ImiaticB  are  occupied  in  sgn- 
cnltnral  labor  on  a  farm  near  the  hospital. 

SICUAT,  Marie  ?ra>f«la  Xavter,  a  French  anat- 
omist and  physiologist,  bom  at  Tboirette-en- 
Breese,  department  of  the  Ain,  Nov.  11,  17T1, 
died  in  Paris,  Jul?  2%  1802.  He  was  a  student 
of  the  Jesuit  seminary  of  St.  WnSe  at  Lyons 
nntil  the  revolution  in  1T89,  when  he  retamed 
home  and  began  the  stody  of  anatomy  nnder 
his  father,  apnysioian  at  Foncin,  and  afterward 
attended  lectnres  at  the  hospital  of  Lyons. 
Driven  from  Lyons  again  bythe  revolution,  he 
went  in  1708  to  Paris  to  study  surgery  nnder 
Desanit  at  the  HAtel  Dien,  who,  pleased  with 
his  zeal  and  ability,  invited  him  to  rewde  in  his 
own  house,  snbeeijnentiy  adopted  him  as  his 
son,  and  destined  him  to  be  his  successor.  After 
the  death  of  Desault  (1795)  Bl<jiat  arranged 
and  published  the  works  of  bis  master,  and 
opened  a  school  of  anatomy,  physioli^y,  and 
snidery.  He  also  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  chemical,  physical,  phyriologicol, 
and  vital  properties  of  the  different  tissues  of 
the  animal  economy.  During  a  severe  attack 
of  illneaa,  caused  by  overwork,  he  passed  the 
time  in  maturing  his  views  of  anatomy  and 
physiology,  and  sKet«hed  the  plan  of  the  works 
m  which  these  views  were  afterward  devel- 
oped. As  soon  as  he  had  partially  recovered, 
he  recommenced  his  labora.  In  spite  of  in- 
creasing weakness,  he  continued  to  pass  several 
hours  a  day  in  a  damp  cellar,  maoerating  ani- 
mal tiBsnes  and  maldng  various  experiments  to 
ascertun  the  protierties  of  each  particular  kind 
of  stmctnre  m.  tne  oi^ans  of  the  body.  In  a 
short  time  he  was  seued  with  typhoid  fever, 
which  proved  fatal  in  the  course  of  14  days. 
Although  he  had  lived  less  than  81  years,  he 
had  done  enough  already  to  immortalize  his 


BIOKANEEB  623 

name.  He  was  the  first  who  undertook  a  sys- 
tematic analysis  to  rednce  the  complex  stmo- 
tnres  irf  the  body  to  their  elementary  tisanes, 
and  to  ascertain  the  pecnhar  properties,  chem- 
ical, physical,  and  vital,  which  characterize 
each  simple  tissue.  The  idea  of  such  a  work 
had  been  suggested  by  partial  analyses  before, 
bat  his  ^natomie  glneraU  formed  a  new  era 
in  the  development  of  that  branch  of  science. 
The  work  abonnds  with  minute  and  laborious 
research,  extensive  and  elaborate  experiment, 
conducted  with  intuitive  Insight  and  practical 
^11 ;  and  thongh  a  monument  of  fame,  it  was 
Ajmpleted  and  published  in  a  year.  It  was 
recognized  at  once  and  nnireraally  as  the  work 
of  a  great  genius.  Soon  aiterits  publication  be 
commenced  \a&Anatomie  detcriptive,  conceived 
on  a  new  plan ;  this  was  left  unfinished,  but 
was  completed  according  to  his  directions  by 
his  friends  and  disciples.  There  was  littie  sys- 
tematic order  in  the  stndy  of  anatomy  and 


of  snrgei?  alone,  and  not  with  any  c r-- 

benslve  view  of  general  analysis.  He  first  lud 
stress  on  the  genersl  distinction  between  con- 
scious and  unconscious  life  in  the  body,  and 
the  correspondingly  incessant  action  of  one  set 
of  organs,  sleeping  or  waking,  contrasted  with 
the  interrupted  action  of  another  set  of  or- 
gans, which  are  active  in  the  waking  state  and 
pasdve  during  steep.  He  divided  the  or^an- 
iam_,  therefore,  into  two  distinct  meohaniama 
which  be  called  the  organic  and  relational  or 
the  vegetative  and  the  animal.  These  distinc- 
tions are  admitted  at  the  present  day,  although 
the  vegetative  or  the  organic  mechanism  is 
more  commonly  subdivided  into  the  nutritive 
and  the  reproductive  systems.  He  fell  into  some 
errors  by  generalizing  too  extensively,  without 
a  sufficient  knowledge  of  minor  facts,  and  these 
errors  have  deterred  bis  followers  from  pursu- 
ing the  same  course.  His  Jteehtreket  tur  la  cm 
et  la  mort  contains  the  germs  of  a  revolution 
In  the  study  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  but 
its  defective  definitions  and  manifest  errors 
have  caused  them  to  be  overlooked.  The  same 
idea  runs  throiwh  all  his  works,  and  tiiat  is 
the  distinction  between  conscious  and  uncon- 
scious bodily  life  and  motion. 

BICBG  DE  MAR.    See  Sea  OnomiBEii. 

BIGKlini^  or  BtikiMcr.  L  A  native 
state  of  N.  W,  Hindostan,  in  B^pootona,  be- 
tween lat.  27°  30'  and  29°  66'  N.  and  Ion.  72* 
80'  and  76°  40'  E. ;  area,  17,878  sq.  m.  LPOP- 
abont  540,000.  Its  length  from  £.  to  W.  is 
200  m.,  breadth  about  ISO  m.  The  surface  is 
flat,  sandy,  and  arid,  and  the  only  prndnots 
are  various  kinds  of  pulse,  raised  by  irrigation. 
The  only  exports  are  horses  and  cattie  of  an 
inferior  kind.  The  climate  presents  extraor- 
dinary extremes  of  temperature  aceordingas 
the  sun  is  above  or  below  the  horizon.  The 
Bsjpoots  are  the  predominant  race,  but  the 
minority  of  the  population  are  Jaute.  Bioko- 
neer  was  admitted  under  British  protection  in 


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624:  BIOEEBSTAIT 

1618.  n.  A  fortified  town,  capital  of  the 
etate,  240  ta.  W.  bf  S.  of  Delhi ;  pop.  about 
60,000.  It  is  sitast«d  ia  a  deeolate  tract,  and 
b  ButToanded  by  a  wall  8^  m.  in  circumfer- 
enoe,  with  numerons  round  towera  and  battle- 
meats.  There  are  some  elevated  buildings  and 
temples,  and  a  citadel  Bnrronnded  bj  a  wall  SO 
n.  high,  containing  the  residence  of  the  r^ah  ; 
hat  moat  of  the  dwellings  are  mere  hdts  with 
mnd  walls  punted  red. 

B1CEIB8UIF,  buc,  a  BriUah  dramatist,  bom 
in  Ireland  abont  17S6,  suppoaed  to  have  died 
on  the  contdaent  lata  in  the  16th  or  early  in 
the  19th  century.  After  havinK  been  one  of 
the  pages  of  Lord  Chesterfield  at  the  yice- 
regal  court  of  Dublin,  he  reoeived  a  commis- 
aion  in  the  maiines,  in  which  service  he  was 
lientenant  when  compelled  to  retire  in  dis- 
grace. He  wrote  nomeroas  comeilies  and 
comic  operas,  which  were  produced  under  Gar- 
tick's  management,  and  were  at  one  time  very 
popular.  His  best  known  pieces  are  "  The  Haid 
of  the  Mill,"  "The  Captive,"  "Love  in  a  VU- 
lage,"  "ThePadlook,"andthecomedyof  "The 
Hypocrite." 

nCKEBmnV.  L  Edward,  an  English  cler- 
gyman, bom  at  Eirkby  Lonsdale,  March  19, 
1760,  died  at  Watton,  Feb.  24,  18C0.  He  was 
for  several  years  a  post  office  clerk  in  London, 
till  in  1812  he  heaan  buMuess  as  a  solicitor  in 
Norwich.  Here  he  became  interested  in  reli- 
nous  and  benevolent  movements,  and  was  or- 
d^ned  in  1816  as  a  deacon  in  the  established 
church.  He  was  sent  in  1616  to  Africa  to  re- 
organize the  stations  of  the  church  missionary 
society,  and  daring  the  next  IG  years  he  was 
secretory  and  chief  acting  officer  of  that  so- 
ciety. In  1680  he  resigned  this  position  and 
became  rector  of  Watton,  Hertfordshire.  He 
belmiRed  to  the  evangelical  aection  of  the  es- 
tabli^ed  chorch.  His  most  popular  mannaL 
"The  Scripture  Help,"  has  oeen  translated 
Into  French  and  other  languages,  and  reached 
a  sale  of  over  1CD,000  copies.  A  uniform  edi- 
tion of  his  principal  works  was  published  in 
17  vols,  in  186S,  and  there  are  5  vols,  more  of 
his  smaller  publications.  See  "Memoir  of  the 
Kev.  Edward  Bickersteth,"  by  T.  R.  Birks  (3 
vols.,  1651).  n.  Dnry,  Lord  Langdale,  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  Jane 
18,  1788,  died  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  April  18, 
ISSl.  He  served  an  apprentice^p  to  his 
father,  who  was  a  surffeon  and  apothecary, 
after  which  he  travell^  on  the  continent  as 
medical  attendant  to  the  earl  of  Oxford,  snb- 
Bequently  studied  law,  and  rose  to  eminence  in 
the  courts  of  equity.  He  was  appointed  mas- 
ter of  the  rolls  and  raised  to  tne  peerage  in 
1839  as  Lord  Langdale.  As  he  died  childless, 
the  title  became  extinct.  His  vcidow,  sister 
of  the  earl  of  Oxford,  was  licensed  in  1658  to 
aasnme  her  family  name  of  Harley,  and  died 
Sept  1,  1872.  IlL  Edward,  an  English  clergy- 
man, nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Acton, 
Suffolk,  in  1614.  After  holding  various  ecole- 
dastical  portions,  he  became  in  1863  vicar  of 


Aylesbury  and  archdeacon  of  Bnckingham.    Id 

December,  18fl6,  he  was  elected  for  the  third 
time  prolocntor  at  the  convocation  of  Can- 
terbury, and  he  is  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  tor  the  reviwon  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. His  charges  at  his  different  visitations 
between  1SG5  and  1670,  as  well  as  many  of  hia 
sermons,  have  been  published.  IT>  Bvbcrt,  an 
English  prelate,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Acton,  Aug.  24,  1610.  He  is  a  gradnale  of 
Qaeen's  college,  Cambridge,  and  has  been  suC' 
cessively  curate  at  Sapcote  (1841),  at  Reading 
(184S-'4),  Clapham  (164G),  rector  of  St.  Giles 
in  the  Fields  (1851),  and  canon  re^dentiary  of 
Salisbury  (1854).  In  1860  he  was  appointed 
bisbop  of  Ripon.  His  publications  include 
"Bible  Landmarks"  (1860),  "Lent  Lectures, 
Means  of  Grace"  (1651),  "Sermons"  (1  vol., 
1866),  and  charges  delivered  to  the  clergy  of 
his  diocese.  V>  Edward  Hmr,  on  En^ah 
clergyman  and  ^et,  son  of  Edward  Bicker- 
steth, rector  of  Watton,  bom  in  London,  Jan. 
26j  1825.  He  studied  at  Trinity  coU^e,  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  curate  at  Birmingham  in 
1846,  and  at  Tunbridge  Wells  in  1652.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Hin- 
ton  Martell,  Dorsetshire;  in  1655  vicar  at 
Christ  chorch,  Hampsteadj  and  in  1861  private 
chaplain  of  bis  relative,  the  bishop  of  Sipon. 
Hispublioatioas  include  "Poems"  (1646);  "The 
Rock  of  Ages"  (1856);  "Yesterday,  To-day, 
and  for  Ever,"  a  poem  in  12  books  (1866) ;  and 
"  The  Two  Brothers,  and  other  Poema"  (1871). 

BICTCLG.    Bee  snpplement. 

BIDlSBOi,  a  river  of  Spain,  45  ra.  long,  tha 
last  12  m.  forming  the  boundary  hetweea 
France  and  Spun.  It  rises  in  Navarre,  and 
falls  into  the  bay  of  Biscay  near  Fnenterrabia, 
watering  the  Bastan  and  other  beautiful  val- 
leys. The  river  is  locally  called  Bastan  Znbi 
in  the  npper  part  of  ite  course,  the  name  of 
Bidassoa  heing  generally  applied  to  it  only  af- 
ter iu  entrance  into  the  volley  of  Son  Esteban- 
It  has  many  small  afBuenta.  Near  Iran,  where 
the  French  had  a  t^te-de-pont  oonHtmcted  in 
1818,  is  the  Pheaaanta'  island,  a  sort  of  nentral 
ground,  also  called  the  Conference  island  from 
tiie  many  Franco-Bpanish  conferences  held 
there.  Tlie  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  was  uvgo- 
tiated  at  this  place  in  1659.  The  Spaiush 
crossed  the  Bidassoa  thrice  in  1798,  defeating 
the  French,  who  in  July  were  finally  victo- 
rious. A  French  army  of  18,000  men  under 
Soult  wos  defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Bida»- 
soa  at  San  Morcial,  Aug.  81,  1813,  by  6,000 
British  and  Spanish  troops  under  Wellington. 
On  Oct.  7  of  the  same  year  Wellington  drove 
Uie  Frendi  troia  thew  strong  intrenchmente  at 
the  same  point. 

BIDDEFOU),  a  city  of  York  county,  Uune, 
on  the  Saco  river,  at  the  falls,  S  m.  from  ita 
mouth  and  opposite  the  town  of  Saco,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  500  ft  long; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,286.  The  water  power  is  ex. 
ceUent  and  inexhaustible,  the  fall  twing  43  f«^ 
About  a  dozen  cotton  mills,  dtoated  on  both 


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■Ides  of  the  river,  are  worked  by  it ;  there  are 
mlao  eitenaire  naunfoctoriea  of  woollen  goods 
and  hardware,  iron  foonderies,  and  large  saw 
TTiiHs,  and  the  place  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber. 
The  valuation  of  property  in  1870  was  $5,682,- 
402 ;  in  I860,  14,593,647.  The  city  has  two  na- 
tional banks,  2  savings  banks,  1  Gongregatioual- 
ist,  1  Methodist,  2  Baptist,  1  Universalist,  1  Epis- 
copal, and  2  Oatholic  churches,  &4B(:hoola,  and 
S  weekly  newspapers.  There  are  lai^  ihiit 
nDTseries.  The  Portland,  Saco,  and  Port»- 
month  railroad,  passing  throngh  the  city,  con- 
nects it  with  Portland  and  Boston.  The 
"  Pool,"  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where 
there  is  a  fine  beach  several  miles  in  extent,  is 
a  place  of  gnmrner  resort.  Biddeford  was 
settled  abont  1680,  and  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  1718,  and  aa  a  city  in  1BS5.  It  was  named 
&om  Bidcford,  in  England. 

BIDDLG.  L  CkBeat,  an  American  soldier, 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  Hay  10, 1740,  died  there, 
Jnly  14,  1814.  He  was  a  member  of  the  so- 
ciety of  Friends,  a  descendant  of  an  early  Quaker 
settler  and  proprietary  of  West  Jersey,  and  was 
engaged  ih  commercial  pnreaits.  In  1764  he 
Joined  in  raising  a  military  corps  for  the  pro- 
tection of  fiiendl;  Indiana  against  a  lawless 
band  called  the  Parton  boys ;  and  in  1775  he 
was  an  officer  of  the  "  Quaker  "  company  of 
vdnnteers  raised  in  Philadelphia.  In  1776  be 
was  appointed  by  congress  depnty  qnart«r- 
maeter  general  for  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey,  and  took  ))art  in  the  battle 
of  Trenton,  and  in  coi^imiction  with  another 
officer  was  ordered  by  Washii^ton  to  receive 
the  swords  of  the  Hesnan  cmcers.  He  also 
participated  In  the  victory  of  Princeton,  the 
retreat  at  Brandywine,  and  the  enterprise  of 
Oennantown.  During  the  winter  of  I777-'8 
he  shared  the  snfferings  of  the  American  army 
at  Valley  Forge,  rendering  important  service 
especially  during  the  famine.  After  the  battle 
of  Monmouth  he  retired  from  the  army  (Sep- 
tember, 1780).  In  1781  he  was  appointed  at 
the  urgent  request  of  Greene  qnartermaater 
general  of  Pennsylvania,  In  1794  he  served 
agunst  the  whiskey  insurgenta.  He  was  at  tbe 
same  time  an  active  politician,  urging  the  adofi- 
tion  of  the  state  oonstitntion  of  1776,  of  which 
bis  brother  Owen  was  one  of  the  framers. 
After  the  organization  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  1787,  he  was  a[)pointed  United  States 
marHhal  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  held  in 
high  regard  by  Washington,  with  whom  he 
was  in  frequent  intercourse  and  active  cor- 
respondence, n.  OcHcal  GantD,  an  American 
pohtioal  economist,  son  of  the  preceding,  horn 
in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  24,  1784,  died  Ang.  21, 
1865.  He  early  entered  tlie  naval  service,  but 
soon  left  it  and  became  a  lawyer.  The  out- 
rage upon  the  U.  S.  ship  Chesapeake  in  June, 
1807,  led  him  to  solicit  militaiy  employment, 
and  he  was  appointed  oaptun  of  dragoons,  but 
resigned  his  commission  on  the  speedy  settle- 
ment of  this  difficulty.  In  1812  he  raised  a  com- 
pany of  volunteere,  called  the  "StateFendbles," 


DLE  625 

and  was  afterword  elected  colonel  of  a  volunteer 
regiment ;  but  the  retreat  of  the  British  from 
Baltimorelefl  no  opportunity  for  active  service. 
Alter  the  restoration  of  peace  he  devoted  him- 
self chiefly  to  political  economy,  preparing 
notes  and  additions  to  the  translation  of  Say's 
"  Treatise  on  Political  Economy  "  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1821;  new  ed.,  Philadelphia  1851), 
which  were  commended  by  Dngald  Stewart. 
In  tJie  free  trade  convention  in  Philadelphia  in 
1881  he  bore  a  prominent  part ;  and,  although 
occupying  no  public  position,  he  condibnted  hi 
mould  the  policy  of  the  government  with  re- 
gard to  the  currency  and  foreign  commerce. 

■IDDLE,  JsHM,  an  officer  of  the  United 
States  navy,  bom  in  Philadelphia  in  February, 
1783,  died  there,  Oct  1,  1848.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  February,  1800. 
During  the  war  with  Tripoli  he  served  on  the 
Oonstellation  and  Philadelphia,  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  detained  until  the  conclusion  of 
peace.  When  war  was  declared  agdnst  Qroat 
Britain  he  sailed  as  lieutenant  on  hoard  the 
Wasp,  which  soon  captnred  the  Frolic,  and 
was  nut  in  command  of  the  prize;  but  both 
vessels  were  soon  after  taken  by  the  Poictiers, 
a  British  74-gnn  ship,  and  carried  to  Bermuda. 
Having  been  exchanged  (Uarch,  1818),  Biddle 
waa  ^aced  in  command  of  the  gnnboats  on 
the  Delaware,  but  was  soon  transferred  to  the 
Homet,  one  of  Decatur's  squadron.  He  was 
for  Dian>  tnonths  bloofeaded  in  the  harbor  of 
New  London  ;  but  making  his  escape,  he  waa 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Hornet,  which 
was  ordered  to  the  East  Indies ;  and  in  Febru- 
ary, IBIS,  he  waa  made  captain.  On  March 
as,  off  the  island  of  Tristan  d'Acunha,  he  cap- 
tured the  Penguin,  being  severely  wounded  in 
the  action.  For  this  be  received  a  gold  medal 
from  congress,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  captun.  After  the  war  be  held  several  im- 
portant commands,  including,  in  1880-'82,  that 
of  the  Mediterranean  sqnadron,  being  also  ap- 
pomted  a  commissioner  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
with  the  Ottoman  government. 

VIPDLE,  Jefea,  an  English  theologian,  called 
"the  father  of  English  Unitarians,"  bom  at 
Wotton-under-Edge,  GlonoesterBbire,  in  161B, 
died  in  London,  Sept  23,  1662.  He  waa  the 
son  of  a  tradesman,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  elected  master  of  the  free  school  of 
Gloucester.  His  tract  entitled  "  Twelve  Argu- 
ments drawn  out  of  the  Scripture,  wherein  the 


his  dismissal  from  this  poet  and  to  his 
arrest  (Dec.  2,  lS4fi)  and  imprisonment,  the 
house  of  commons  ordering  all  printed  copies 
of  the  book  to  be  burned  by  the  common  hang- 
man. While  yet  in  prison  he  printed  a  "  Oon- 
fesaon  of  Faith  concerning  tne  Holy  Trinity 
according  to  the  Scriptnreo,  with  the  Testi- 
monies of  several  of  the  Fathers  on  this  head  " 
(Xondon,  1648).  This  was  followed  by  "The 
Testimonies  of  Irenffius,  Justm  Martyr,  Nora- 
tianna,  Theophilua,  Ac,  concerning  the  Persons 


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of  the  H0I7  Trinity."  The  Preabyteriana  passed 

a  measnre  throoeh  parliament,  by  which  erery 
one  who  denied  ttie  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
aboold  be  pnniahed  with  death.  This  was 
Eumed  at  Biddle,  and  he  was  abont  to  suffer, 
when  a  aadden  oppoaitioD  arose  to  it  among 
the  lodepeadents  and  the  army.  When  the 
Independents  gained  the  npper  band  (1^9),  the 
penal  laws  against  heretics  were  mitigatod  or 
repealed.  Biddle  was  released,  and  retired 
into  Staffordshire,  where  he  was  warmly  wel- 
comed by  a  magistrate,  who  procured  him  a 
congregation,  made  him  a  private  oh&plain,  and 
left  Dim  a  legacy.  Bradshaw,  pretddent  of  the 
coonoi],  however,  remanded  aim  to  prison. 
He  had  now  lost  not  only  his  fortune  and 
hie  liberty,  bat  his  Mends.  Dr.  Gunning, 
afterward  bishop  of  Ely,  was  the  only  theolo- 
gian who  visited  him  in  prison.  He  suffered 
great  privations,  but  his  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  Qreek  Bcriptnres  Indnced  Roger  Daniel, 
a  London  printer,  to  ^ve  him  for  correction 
the  proof-sheets  of  a  Greek  Septnagint,  and 
thia  relieved  his  wants.  In  1661  an  act  of  in- 
demnitj  and  oblivion  for  ail  heretaool  offenoea 
was  passed  by  parliament,  and  Biddle  was 
again  released,  and  coUected  aronnd  him  those 
whom  his  writings  had  brought  to  his  way  of 
thinking.  Their  fnndamental  law  was  that 
"  the  unity  of  God  is  a  nnity  of  person  as  well 
AS  nature."  The  membera  of  tnia  new  sect 
were  called  BiddelUona,  and,  when  their  har- 
mony with  the  d(«trines  of  Sooinus  was  per- 
ceived, Socintans.  A  translation  of  Bidole's 
•  "Twofold  Scripture  Catechisms "  (London, 
1654),  for  the  use  of  foreigners,  bronght  him 
ogun  to  the  bar  of  the  house,  of  commons ;  and 
on  his  refusal  to  criminate  himaelf  he  was 
committed  for  contempt,  and  the  death  penalty 
ordinance  was  revived  against  him.  When 
Cromwell  dissolved  thepsrliament,  Biddle  once 
more  regained  his  liberty  after  10  months'  con- 
finement. A  whole  Baptist  congregation  be- 
come converted  to  Biddle's  views,  and  thia  was 
eo  displeasing  to  the  Baptist  minister,  Mr. 
Griffin,  that  he  challenged  Biddle  to  a  nnblic 
controversy.  The  latter  accepted  the  challenge, 
and  spoke  in  a  derogatory  manner  of  Christ's 
divine  nature.  He  was  thrown  into  the  Poul- 
try Compt«r,  July  8,  less,  and  thence  removed 
to  Newgate,  and  tned  for  his  life  under  the 
long  parliament  ordinance  against  blasphemy 
and  heresy.  As  the  case  was  evidently  going 
against  him,  Cromwell  interposed,  the  trial  was 
stopped,  and  Biddle  was  remanded  to  jail.  In 
order  to  shelter  him  yet  more  securely  from 
bie  persecutors,  Cromwell  banished  him  to 
Star  castle,  in  St,  Mary's,  one  of  the  Scilly 
islands,  with  an  annnal  snbristenoe  of  100 
crowns  (October,  16S6).  Here  he  continued  to 
devote  himself  to  the  study  of  theolt^.  After 
three  years  he  was  released  on  a  writ  of  Itabea* 
eorpiu,  and  returning  to  London,  became  pas- 
tor of  an  Independent  congregation ;  but  fearing 
the  Presbyterians,  who  came  aedn  into  power 
after  the  deatii  of  OrMnwell,  he  retired  into 


the  cotmtry.  Upon  the  final  dissolntioi  ttf  tbe 
rump  parliament,  he  again  went  to  London  and 
renewed  his  ministrations.  The  re«toratioa 
of  Charles  II.  once  more  cansed  him  to  retire 
from  publicity;  but  he  suddenly  r^oined  his 
congregation  in  1062,  while  meeting  in  « 
private  honse.  Biddle  was  fined  ^100,  ud 
each  of  the  audience  £20,  with  confinement  in 
debolt  of  payment.  The  prison  was  kept  in 
such  a  manner  that  five  weeks'  residence  m  it 
was  enongh  to  cause  bis  death.  Among  bis 
writings  are  a  "History  of  the  TJaitariana" 
and  several  pieces  translated  from  the  works 
of  the  Polish  Unitarians,  He  denied  the  doc- 
trines of  ori^nal  sin  and  the  atonement  The 
Rev.  Joshua  Touhnin,  an  English  Unitarian 
minister,  wrote  a  "  Review  of  the  Life,  Char- 
acter, and  Writings  of  John  Biddle  "  (ITSfi), 

BIDDLE,  KlcMu,  an  American  naval  com- 
mander, bom  in  Philadelphia,  Sept  10,  1760, 
killed  at  sea  March  7,  1778.  In  176S,  on  « 
voyage  to  the  West  Indies,  he  was  left  with 
two  others  on  an  nninhabited  island,  and  lived 
there  two  months.  In  1770  be  entered  the 
British  navy.  When  OapL  Fhippa,  afterward 
Lord  MulgravB,  was  about  to  start  on  his  ex- 
ploring expedition,  yonng  Biddle,  though  a 
midshipman,  destuled  his  own  vessel  and 
abipped  as  a  seaman  on  the  Carcass,  serving 
through  the  cruise  with  Nelson,  who  waa  a 
mate  of  Phipps's  vessel.  On  the  commence- 
ment of  the  American  revolution  be  returned 
to  America,  joined  the  coloniata,  and  was  made 
captain  of  the  Andrew  Doria,  a  bri^  of  llgniu 
and  180  men,  in  which  he  participate  in 
Commodore  Hopkins's  attack  on  New  Provi- 
dence. After  refitting  in  New  London  he  was 
ordered  on  a  cruise  to  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland, and  in  1776  took  among  other 
prizes  two  transport  ships  with  valuable  cargoes 
and  with  a  battalion  of  Highlanders.  He  waa 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Randolph, 
a  8S-gnn  frigate,  in  February,  1777,  and  apeed- 
ily  carried  into  Charleston  four  prizes.  He 
was  now  made  commander  of  a  small  fieet  for 
a  cruise  in  West  Indian  waters.  In  March, 
1778,  he  was  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 
Yarmouth,  an  English  ship.  While  under  the 
hands  of  a  sniveon.  he  was  blown  up  with  the 
ezplodon  of  tna  magazine,  the  816  men  on 
board  the  Randolph  all  perishing  except  fonr. 

IIDDL^  jflckAs,  an  American  banker,  bmn 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  8, 17B6,  died  there,  Feb. 
27,  1844.  He  was  a  son  of  Charles  Biddle, 
vice  president  of  Pennsylvania  when  Benja- 
min franklin  was  the  president,  and  nephew 
of  Commodore  Niohotsa  Biddle.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Princeton  college,  and  became  sec- 
retary of  legation  in  Paris  under  Gen.  Arm- 
strong, and  in  London  nnder  Monroe.  In  1807 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  the  law.  He  edited  the  "Port 
Folio"  for  a  time  in  eo^jnnction  with  Joeeph 
Dennie,  compiled  a  "  Commercial  Digest,"  and 
prepared  the  narrative  of  Lewis  snd  OUrke'a 
expedition.    He  was  in  the  house  of  repre- 


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BIDDLE 

«entati7M  of  PennsrlTanU  1810-'ll,  and  was 
diBtingnUhed  hj  his  efforts  to  establi^  a  gener- 
al s^atem  of  edacation.  Toward  the  olo«e  of  the 
war  of  1812-'tfi  he  whh  a  member  of  the  state 
senate,  and  ardentlj  supported  the  war.  Be 
wrote  the  report  of  the  senate  oommittee  npon 
the  propoBitioDB  from  the  Hartford  conveation, 
wbich  attracted  great  attention.  In  1817  he 
waa  the  candidate  of  the  democratic  part^  for 
congress,  but  was  defeated  b;  the  federalistH. 
In  1819  President  Monroe  appomted  him  a 
government  director  of  the  United  States  bani, 
and  in  1828,  on  the  resignation  of  Langdon 
OheveB,  he  became  its  preddent,  retaining  this 
place  dnring  the  Tiolent  agitations  conoeming 
that  insdtntion  under  Gen.  Jaokson,  till  the  ter- 
mination of  its  oharter  in  1886.  He  was  then 
ohosen  president  of  the  newij  established 
TTnited  States  bant  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1889, 
his  health  hdng  mbch  impaired,  he  resigned, 
leaviiig  the  bank  apparently  in  a  prosperous 
eondiuoD.  Two  years  afterward  it  waa  de- 
clared insolvent,  on  wliich  ooeasion  ha  pnb- 
liahed  a  series  of  letters  in  vindioation  of  his 
administration.  He  was  an  earnest  promoter 
of  poblio  improvements,  and  ezeroised  by  his 
{lopnlar  manners,  force  of  character,  and  finan- 
tial  ability,  a  oommanding  inflnenoe.  He  was 
preddent  of  the  tmstees  of  Girard  oolle^.  His 
epeechea  and  writings  are  elegant  snd  ngoroua. 

BIDHiE,  Uehirtf,  an  American  lawyer  and 
anthor,  brother  of  *e  preceding,  bom  in  Phil- 
adelphia, Uaroh  25,  1706,  died  in  Pittsbnrgb, 
July  7,  1847.  He  early  became  the  loader 
of  the  Rttsbnrgh  bar.  In  1827  he  visited 
England,  and  while  there  published  a  critical 
"Review  of  Oapt  BosU  Hall's  Travels  in 
North  America"  (1880),  and  "A  Memoir  of 
Sebastian  Oabot,  with  a  Review  of  the  History 
rf  Maritime  Discovery"  (London  uid  Phila- 
delphia, 1881).  He  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  1887  to  1840. 

BIDEFOBD,  a  seaport  town  of  Devonshire, 
England,  on  both  rides  of  the  Torridge,  which 
is  bere  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  24  arches  and 
677  ft.  long,  8S  m.  N.  W.  of  Exeter;  pop.  in 
1871,  e,05S.  The  town  has  a  large  mediraval 
ohorch  with  intereatlng  monnments,  a  fine 
qnay  1,200  ft.  long,  and  mannibotnres  of  ropes, 
sails,  earthenware,  and  leather.  It  is  health- 
fol,  and  is  a  place  of  summer  resort. 

BiDLOO,  (MftM,  a  Datch  anatomist,  bom  in 
Amsterdam,  March  13,  1849,  died  in  Leydea 
in  April,  1718.  He  was  a  sarcoon  in  the 
army,  professor  at  the  Hagne  and  at  Leyden, 
and  nearly  eight  years  physician  of  William 
III.  of  England.  Snbseqnently  he  retnmed  to 
his  chair  at  Leyden,  teaching  anatomy,  snr- 
gery,  and  chemistry.  His  principal  work, 
Anatomia  Mumani  Corpora  (Amsterdam, 
168S;  Utrecht,  1750),  thongh  inaooorate  in 
some  respects,  was  an  important  advance  npon 
theectence  of  the  period.  Oowper,  theEnglish 
anatoraiet,  boogbt  300  copies  of  the  plates  of 
tliis  work,  and  publiehed  them  with  alterations 
M  his  own  at  Oxford  in  1998. 


BIDPAT,  or  P^j,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
collection  of  ancient  Hindoo  fables,  which  have 
been  Evread  for  2,000  years  tbrooghout  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  have  been  translated  into 
almost  all  languages.  Eighteen  of  the  fables 
of  La  Fontaine  are  copies  or  close  imitations 
of  them.  Recent  savants  are  of  opinion  that 
the  author  of  the  fables  of  Bidpay  was  a  Brah- 
man named  Yiehnn-Sanna,  and  that  they  origi- 
nated from  the  ancient  Hindoo  collection  Pan- 
tehatantra  ("  Five  Sections  '0,  of  which  an 
edition  in  Sanskrit  has  been  pnblished  by  Kose- 
garten  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1848-'Se),  and  a  Ger- 
man verdon  by  Benfey  (8  vols.,  Leipsic,  1869). 
The  same  materials  were  subsequently  worked 
np  in  the  Sanskrit  Hitopadeta  {"  Salutary  In- 
struction"), of  which  an  English  translation 
by  Wilkins,  a  Ijitin  by  Schlegel  and  Lassen,  and 
a  German  by  Mas  Moller  have  been  pobUebed. 
The  principal  source  of  the  numerons  medi- 
iBval  imitations  was  the  Pehlevi  version  pre- 
pared for  Obosroes  I.,  and  preserved  in  an 
Arabic  translation  of  the  8th  century. 

BIEBKICB,  or  Btekerich,  a  town  of  Pmseia, 
in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassaii,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  8  m.  S.  of  Wiesbaden ;  pop. 
in  1871,  inoladmgMoebaoh,  8,642.  The  palace 
of  Biebrich,  a  fine  modem  building,  tnough 
somewhat  dilapidated,  has  long  been  the  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  dukes  of  Nassan,  several 
of  whom  are  bnried  in  the  church  here.  The 
a^oining  gardens  are  very  pretty  and  exten- 
sive, and  accessible  to  the  pnblic.  They  con- 
tiun  fine  alleys,  famoas  greenhouses,  and  a 
large  fountain ;  and  within  their  clronit  is  a 
miniatnre  castle  built  on  the  rnina  of  the  old 
castle  of  Moabaoh,  on  the  bank  of  a  small  ar- 
tificial lake.  Many  Roman  antiquities  were 
removed  to  the  castle  fHnn  the  former  abbey 
of  Ebersbaoh.  S.  E.  of  Biebrich,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Castel  (opposilfl  Ment*),  are  traces  of  a 
Roman  fort.  Cfesar  in  his  second  expedition 
against  the  Suevi,  and  Agrippa,  are  sapposed 
by  some  authorities  to  have  crossed  the  Rhine 
in  this  vicinity,  Biebrich  liecame  a  free  port 
in  1881,  and  is  aocesdble  to  steamers  and  large 
sailing  vessels. 

BIEFTE,  Edsurd  de,  a  Bela^  painter,  bom 
in  Brussels,  Deo.  4.  1808.  He  studied  in  Pa* 
ris  tinder  David  d' Angers,  and  on  his  retnm  to 
Bel^nm  excelled  by  his  historical  pictures  and 
portraits.  His  "  Oompromise  of  the  Bmssels 
Kobles  of  Feb.  16,  1C66,"  executed  by  order 
of  his  government  was  mnch  admired  at  the 
Paris  exhibition  of  18GG,  and  is  in  the  mnsemn 
of  Bmssels.  For  the  kins  of  Frusria  he  paint- 
ed ' '  The  Knights  of  the  Tentonio  Order  recog- 
nizing the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  as  their 
Grand  Master."  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Introduction  of  Bubens  to  Charles  V.," 
"  Masaniello,"  "  Ugolino,"  and  "Raphael  and 
La  Fomorino." 

Bin.    SeeBisiniE. 

nEU,  WUMte  TM,  baron,  a  German  sol- 
dier and  astronomer,  bom  at  Rosla,  near 
Nordbaosen,  March  19,  1782,  died  in  Venice, 


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628  BIELEFELD 

Feb.  18,  1S66.  He  wu  on  officer  in  the  Ans- 
trian  armf ,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  ma- 
jor. He  discovered  telescopic  comets  in  1828 
BDd  1826,  and  acqiiired  celebrity  in  1B26  by 
the  discovery  on  Feb.  37,  while  stntioned  at 
Josepbstodt,  Bohemia,  of  a  periodical  comet 
viable  every  9}  years,  and  whicli  ia  called  after 
him.  Hi*  moat  important  contributions  to  as- 
troDomicoI  science  are  contained  in  Schoma- 
cher^B  AttTonmniiehe  NaehriehUn. 

BiaEFELD,  a  town  of  Prassia,  in  the  West- 
phalian  district  of  Minden,  divided  by  the  amaU 
river  Dntter  into  an  old  and  new  town,  Eli  m. 
S.  W.  of  Minden;  pop.  in  I87I,  21,808.  Itiaa 
celebrated  centre  of  the  flax  and  linen  trade, 
the  renowned  Ravensbar^  fiax  manufactory 
having  nearly  S0,000  looms,  inuladine  about 
S,000  in  the  branch  establishment  at  Wolfen- 
battel.  The  bleaoheries  are  after  the  Irish 
and  Belgian  systems,  and  produce  annnally 
over  160,000  pieces  of  linen  and  60,000  cwt 
of  yarn.  The  ready-made  linen  factories  here 
employed  in  18T0  over  2,000  women.  There 
are  also  mannfitotoriea  of  mlk,  velvet,  glass, 
machines,  and  other  articles.  Bielefeld  be- 
came a  Hanse  town  in  1370,  and  m  the  17th 
oentory  it  passed  with  the  county  of  Ravens- 
berg  into  the  possession  of  the  hoose  of  Bran- 
denbnrg.  The  neighboring  castle  of  Sparren- 
barg  on  the  Sparren  monntdn,  formerly  a  bone 
of  contention  in  timee  of  war,  is  at  present 
nsed  as  a  prison. 

BIHiET,  a  town  of  Roasia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tula,  ^tuated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Oka,  about  156  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Mosoow ; 
pop.  in  1867,  8,133.  It  has  considerable  trade, 
the  chief  artaolea  of  which  are  grain,  hemp, 
and  linseed  oiL  Two  great  fairs  are  annaally 
held.  The  town  has  several  tallow,  oil,  and 
rope  factories,  a  sugar  factory,  19  chnrches, 
and  8  monasteries.     On  May  16,  1826,  the  em- 

EresB  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Alexander  I.,  died 
ere,  and  a  monament  to  her  memory  has  been 
erected.  The  house  in  which  she  died  has  been 
converted  into  a  widows'  home. 
BIELGOKOD.  See  Bsloobod. 
BIEUTZ,  a  town  of  Aastrian  Silesia,  on  the 
N.  W.  declivity  of  the  Oarpathian  mountains, 
and  on  the  river  Biala,  oppo«t«  the  Galician 
town  of  Biala,  and  18  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Teschen ; 
pop.  in  1869,  10,721,  chiefly  Protestants.  It 
is  well  built,  contains  a  fine  castle  and  park, 
and  ia  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  condstory  with 

f'urisdiction  over  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia, 
t  is  the  principal  depot  of  Galician  salt  for 
Moravia  and  Silesia.  Cloth  and  other  articles 
are  manafbotared,  and  the  dye  works  ore 
renowned.  The  town  dates  from  the  ISth 
century.  It  was  formerly  part  of  the  dochy 
of  Teschen,  and  after  having  been  for  some 
time  independent,  the  emperor  Francis  I.  raised 
it  in  1762  to  a  principality  for  Prince  Alexan- 
der Joseph  Solkowski.  The  neighboring  vil- 
lage of  Old  Bielitz  has  over  3,000  inhabitants. 
BIEUil,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Novora,  Piedmont,  on  the  Cervo  and  Aurena, 


villagi 


BIENHE 

m  a  hilly  nei^borhood,  12  m.  N.  E.  of  Ivrea; 
pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral  with  pictures  by  Ca- 

Sliari,  besides  other  chnrches,  and  a  college. 
te  trade  is  active,  and  cloth,  silk,  linen,  and 

ler  are    mannfactnred.     The    neighboring 

[age  of  Oropa  has  a  famous  pilgrim  church. 

BULOWSKl,  Aignt,  a  Pohsh  writer,  bora  at 
Krcchowiec  in  G^icia  in  1806.  He  studied  at 
Lemberg,  devoting  himself  especially  to  litera- 
ture and  history.  After  completing  his  stu- 
dent's course  he  pursued  his  literary  studies  in 
the  same  town,  and  after  a  time  was  made 
Hbrarian  of  the  Ossolinski  library  there.  He 
published  in  1S30  a  volume  of  poems  and 
translations  of  Servian  songs  under  the  title 
Balietaain.  His  other  prindpal  works  are 
Wypratea  Igora  na  Polowedu  ("  Igor's  Expedi- 
tion against  the  Polovtzi,"  Lemberg,  1888), 
and  Wgitm  krytf/etng  do  diiejdta  PoUki 
{■'Critical  Introdnction  to  the  History  of 
Poland,"  1860).  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
Polish  translation  of  Goethe's  FtmMt,  and  (d 
numerous  articles  in  Polish  periodicals. 

BIOAHtBLE,  a  cave  in  the  Bielstein,  one  of 
the  mountains  of  the  HartK,  lying  near  th« 
ri^t  bank  of  the  Bode  river,  ^bout  6  m.  from 
Blankenbnrg,  in  Brunswick,  northern  Ger- 
many. It  was  discovered  in  1762,  and  in  1768 
a  man  named  Becker  arranged  a  passage  or 
path  by  which  it  might  be  easily  reached.  The 
cavern  is  about  600  ft.  in  depth,  and  its  en- 
trance lies  a  littie  more  than  100  ft.  above  the 
Bode.  It  oont^na  11  chambers,  besides  an 
npper  cave,  entered  through  the  roof  of  the 
seventh  division  of  the  main  portion.  Stalac- 
tites of  pictnrestne  form  and  arrangement  are 
the  chief  feature  of  interest  in  the  cavern ;  in 
the  eighth  chamber  their  masses  resemble  an 
immense  organ,  and  in  the  ninth  the  stalog- 
nutee  take  the  form  of  waves.  According  to 
tradition,  the  forest  god  Biel,  a  divinity  of  the 
old  Saxons,  was  once  worshipped  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of,  if  not  in  this  cave ;  and  a  shnne 
near  by  contained  his  image,  which  the  legend 
says  was  destroyed  by  St.  Boniface. 

BliUKI,  HardH,  a  Polish  historian,  bom  at 
the  family  estate  of  Biala,  near  Bieradz,  died 
there  in  1676.  He  served  in  the  army,  and 
participated  in  1680  in  the  battle  of  Obertyn. 
His  Eronika,  iuiata  (Cracow,  1660  and  1664), 
a  universal  history,  and  his  Kronika  peUta,  a 
history  of  Poland,  brought  down  by  his  son 
Joachim  to  the  year  1687  (Cracow,  1697; 
Warsaw,  1764),  were  the  first  historical  works 
published  in  the  Polish  language,  ''''■ey  were 
mterdicted  in  1617  by  the  bishop  of  Cracow 
on  account  of  alleged  heterodox  statements. 

BtENHE  (Ger.  Bui).  1.  A  town  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Bern,  pleasantly  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  the  Snze  (Qer. 
Seh&*»),  at  the  E.  foot  of  the  Jura,  about  1  m. 
from  the  head  of  the  lake  of  Bienne,  16  m.  N. 
W.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  8,113,  chiefly  Prot- 
estants speokmg  the  German  langnage,  al- 
though in  neighboring  villages  a  French  patois 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


premla.  It  ia  aurrntmded  by  walls  and  watoh 
towen,  and  has  an  old  caatle  used  aa  a  town 
hall,  a  fine  pariah  chorch  and  gTmnaainm,  and 
other  pablic  baildinga.  The  town  ia  eapeciallj 
noted  for  its  manufactures  of  natebes  and  of 
cotton  prints,  beaidea  which  oigara,  leather, 
and  other  articles  ere  made.  Formerly  noder 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  aee  of  Basel  and  involved 
in  a  protracted  conflict  with  that  biahopric,  it 
fell  to  France  in  1798,  and  in  1816  to  the  can- 
ton of  Bern.  IL  Uk«  tt  (Ger.  SUUrite),  a 
sheet  of  water  about  10  m.  long  and  nearly 
S  m.  wide,  commencing  8  m.  N.  of  the  lake 
of  Nenfch&tc],  and  extending  along  the  Jura 
monntaina.  It  ia  aboat  1,400  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  aea,  and  abonnda  in  flah  at  a 
depth  of  over  200  feeL  It  haa  for  its  only  of- 
flaent  a  branch  of  the  Bnze  or  SohUas  river, 
and  reoaivea  the  watera  of  the  lake  of  Neof- 
obitel  at  ita  8.  end  throogb  the  Thiele,  dia- 
charging  them  again  at  the  N.  E.  end  throngh 
the  same  river.  One  of  the  shorea  ia  dotted 
with  viitages  and  villaa,  while  the  other  te 
rather  desolate.  Szoellent  wine  ia  produced 
at  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  lake  tietween  Neave- 
ville  and  BOzingen.  The  acenery  ia  attractive 
without  being  very  striking,  and  the  lake  ac- 
quired celebrity  through  Ronaaean,  who  reaided 
for  Bome  time  in  1786  on  the  island  of  8t.  Pierre, 
crowned  by  a  grove  of  fine  oaka,  about  6  m. 
from  the  town  of  Bienne,  and  who  gave  a  glow- 
ing description  of  it.  Hia  room  la  preserved 
nearly  in  tne  state  in  which  he  left  it.  On  the 
8.  E.  abore  of  the  lake  is  the  most  eiten^ve 
p«at  moaa  of  Switzerland,  the  peat  being  manu- 
factured into  petroleum,  benzine,  and  pigments, 
in  an  establishment  which  waa  formerly  known 
as  the  Gothic  abbey  of  St.  John.  An  ancient 
laoostrine  village  baa  been  dug  out  recently 
from  the  morasa. 

BUnflLLE,  a  K  W.  pariah  of  Louiaiana, 
bounded  W.  by  Lake  Biatmean,  which  commu- 
nicates with  Red  river;  area,  681  aq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,e8S,  of  whom  6,047  were  colored. 
It  is  traversed  by  Black  Lake  and  Saline  ba- 

EHia,  and  intersected  in  its  9.  E.  comer  by 
ugdemona  river.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  192,184  bushels  of  Indian  com,  27,- 
621  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  7,253  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  1,818  hor»e3,  2,789  milch 
cows,  G,ei2  other  cattle,  4,840  sheep,  and 
12,486  swine    Capital,  Sparta. 

HEKYIUE,  9nm  laptUa  h  VarM,  aienr  de, 
French  governor  of  Louisiana,  bom  in  Mon- 
treal, Feb.  28,  1860,  died  in  France  in  1768. 
He  was  son  of  Charles  le  Moyne,  and  the  third 
of  fonr  brothera  (Iberville,  Serigny,  Bienville, 
and  Ghtteaeguay)  who  pitted  imporiiont  parts 
In  the  early  history  of  Lonifdana.  Bienville 
while  a  lad  waa  severely  wonnded  in  a  naval 
action  off  the  coast  of  New  England,  in  which 
the  French  ship  Pelican,  42  guns,  commanded 
by  Iberville,  suoceasfally  encountered  three 
English  vessels,  each  of  fully  equal  power 
with  hia  own.  In  1698  Iberville  act  out  from 
France  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the 


Mississippi,  taking  with  him  hia  brother  Bien- 
ville, and  Sauvalle.  The  first  settlement  was 
mode  at  Biloii,  where  Sauvolle  was  left  in 
command,  while  Bienville  was  engaged  in  ex- 
ploring the  surrounding  country.  Iberville, 
who  had  returned  to  France,  came  back  with 
a  commisaion  appointing  Sanvolle  governor  of 
Loaisiana.  In  1700  Bienville  constrnoted  a 
fort  64  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
SauvoUe  died  in  1701,  and  Bienville  succeeded 
to  the  direction  of  the  colony,  the  seat  of 
which  was  transferred  to  Mobile.  In  1704  he 
waa  Joined  by  hia  brother  ChAteauguay,  who 
brought  from  Canada  17  settlers.  Aabipfrom 
France  brought  20  females,  who  had  been 
sent  out  to  be  married  to  the  settlers  at  Mobile. 
Iberville  soon  aft«r  died;  troubles  arose  in  the 
colony,  Bienville  waa  charged  with  varioua 
acts  of  misconduct,  and  in  ITOT  was  dismissed 
from  office;  but  his  successor  dying  on  the 
voyage  from  France,  Bienville  reUuned  the 
command.  Meanwhile,  the  attempt  to  culti- 
vate the  land  by  Indian  labor  having  f^ed, 
Bienville  proposed  to  the  home  government  to 
send  negroes  from  the  Antilles  to  be  exchanged 
for  Indiana,  at  the  rate  of  three  Indiana  for 
two  n^roes.  In  1709  and  1710  the  colonr 
waa  reduced  to  famine.  In  1713  the  Frencu 
king  granted  to  Antoine  Crozat  the  excluuve 
right  to  trade  in  Louisiana,  and  to  introduce 
alaves  from  Africa.  In  171S  Cadillac  was  sent 
ont  OS  governor,  bringing  with  him  a  commis- 
sion for  Bienville  as  nontenant  governor. 
Qnarrels  arose  between  them,  and  the  gov- 
ernor aent  Bienville  on  an  expedition  to  the 
Natcbex  tribe,  hoping  that  he  would  loae  his 
life.  But  Bienville  succeeded  in  inducing  the 
Natchez  to  bnild  a  fort  for  him,  in  whidi  he 
left  a  garrison,  and  retnmed  to  Mobile.  In 
1717  Cadillac  was  superseded  by  Epinay,  and 
Bienville  received  the  decoration  of  the  cross 
of  St.  Louis.  Crosat  surrendered  hia  chart«r 
in  1717,  and  Law's  Mississippi  company  was 
formed  the  same  year,  its  first  expedition  ar- 
riving in  1716,  with  a  ootnmission  for  Bienville 
as  governor.  He  now  founded  the  city  of  New 
Orteona.  War  breaking  out  between  France 
and  Spain,  Bienville  tcKtk  Fenaacola,  placing 
Chilteaugnay  in  command.  In  1728  the  seat 
of  government  waa  transferred  to  New  Or- 
leoDS.  The  next  year  Bienville  was  summoned 
to  France,  to  answer  charges  which  had  been 
brought  against  him.  lie  left  a  code  regu- 
lating the  condition  of  the  slaves,  banishing 
the  Jews,  and  prohibiting  every  religion  ex- 
cept the  Roman  Catholic.  In  1726  he  was 
removed  from  office,  and  Chiteauguay  waa 
also  diaplaced  as  lieutenant  governor,  and  or- 
dered back  to  France.  Bienville  remained  in 
France  till  1783,  when  he  was  sent  back  to 
the  colony  aa  governor,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant general.  In  1786,  1780,  and  1740,  he 
made  unsuccessful  expeditions  against  the 
Chickasaws,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
superseded,  and  in  1748  returned  to  France, 
where  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


630  BIERNACEI 

BiraNlCU,  IMij  PiWTi  &  Polish  agricnltn- 
ral  reformer,  bom  near  Kalisz  in  1778,  died 
in  Paria  in  Angast,  18G6.  He  devoted  himself 
to  Boientific  agricultare,  and  established  on  his 
estates  a  school  of  mutuol  instruction  oo  the 
Lanoasterian  method.  He  improved  the  breed 
of  sheep  hy  introdacing  into  Poland  merinos 
of  a  saperior  qnaiitr,  and  to  his  indefatigable 
esertioDs  Poland  is  greatl;  indebted  for  ami' 
onltarat improvements.  Hiseatate,  Bnlislawice, 
near  Kalisz,  was  the  earliest  model  fann  in 
Poland,  established  at  his  own  cost,  long  before 
tbe  existeooe  of  an;  other  similar  InBtitalion. 
He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  constitutional 
part;  nnder  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas,  and  dn- 
ring  the  revolution  of  1S80-'81  was  for  a  short 
tdrae  minister  of  flnanoe.  After  the  soppresfdon 
of  the  revolation  he  emigrated  to  Pans,  where 
be  lived  in  stadions  occnpation  till  his  death. — 
His  elder .  brother  Jdzar,  also  of  high  mental 
acoomplishments,  aferventand  devoted  patriot, 
fbneht  in  the  french  TevolotionBr7  army  in 
Italj-  against  the  Anstrians  and  Rosnana,  and 
aft«r  participating  in  the  Polish  revolntion  of 
1880-81,  and  in  some  sahseqaent  movements, 
he  died  in  193S,  a  state  prisoner  in  Russia. 

BmSTADT,  ilknt,  an  American  artist,  bom 
in  Dflaaeldor^  Gemianv,  in  1829.  When  he 
was  two  years  of  age  his  family  emigrated  to 
Haasaohnsetts,  and  finally  settied  In  New  Bed- 
ford, where  his  yonth  and  early  manhood  were 
passed.  He  soon  discovered  a  talent  for  draw- 
ing, and  in  18S1  began  to  ptunt  in  oils.  Two 
yeifslator  he  went  to  Europe  and  entered  apon 
a  course  of  stody  at  DtlsHelaorf.  For  four  years 
he  labored  aaddnonsly  at  his  art,  spending  the 
sammer  months  in  sketohin^  tonrs  m  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  and.passmg  one  winter  in 
Bome.  In  165?  be  retnmed  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  accom- 
panied Qen.  Lander  on  hie  expedition  to 
Hurey  and  constmct  a  wason  route  to  the 
Pacific  coast.  From  this  and  snbsequent  visits 
to  the  great  pl^ns  and  the  Rocky  mountains 
he  obttuned  the  materials  for  a  s«ies  ot  large 
landscapes,  on  which  his  reputation  as  a  painter 
mainly  rests.  They  compriee  "The  Rocky 
Monnt^ns — Lander's  Peak"  (which  was  ex- 
hibited in  the  United  States  and  Enrope,  and 
received  marked  attention  in  the  Paris  expori- 
tion  of  1867),  "  The  Bomes  of  the  Yo-8emite," 
"Looking  down  the  Yo-8eraite,"  "Btonn  in 
the    Rocky    Mountuns,"    "  Laramie    Peak,'' 


For  several  of  the  larger  pictures  be  obtained 
very  high  prices  for  this  class  of  works.  They 
are  effectively  punted,  and  in  many  points  re- 
call the  general  style  of  the  DQsseldorf  school, 
thongh  his  works  are  executed  with  ^eater 
boldneas.  He  has  lately  been  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  engaged  npon  new  pictnres  relating  to 
that  region.  In  1871  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  of  St.  Petersburg. 

8IES-B0BCH,  a  marshy  lake  of  the  Nether- 
lands, between  the  provinces  of  South  Holland 


BIGELOW 

and  North  Brabant,  comprising  abont  76  aq. 
m.  It  is  very  shallow  and  contains  namerona 
islands.  The  Maas  flows  into  it,  and  issues 
from  it  nnder  the  name  of  Holland's  Diep. 
The  take  was  formed  Nov.  16  and  19, 1421,  by 
an  inundation,  which  is  said  to  have  submeriged 
7g  villages,  drowning  1CK),000  people. 

BIGAMY,  the  wilfully  contracting  a  second 
marriage  with  knowledge  that  the  first  is  still 
subsisting.  If  the  first  marriage  was  vojd  or 
has  been  dissolved  by  the  death  of  one  party, 
or  by  a  divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony, 
the  offence  is  not  oommitted ;  bnt  a  divorca 
from  bed  and  board  is  no  defence.  By  the 
English  statate  a  person  whose  hnsbandorwife 
shall  have  remamed  abeent  for  seven  years 
withont  bein^  heard  from  is  excnsed  bam  th« 
penalties  of  bigamy ;  and  in  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican states  there  are  similar  statutes.  In  pros- 
ecations  for  bigamy  strict  proof  of  the  mar- 
riages is  required ;  they  cannot  be  made  ont  by 
repntatioa. 

BIG  BUCK  UTEB,  a  river  which  rises  in 
Choctaw  county,  Hiss.,  and  after  a  8.  W.  ooni«e 
of  about  200  m.  enters  the  Misdssfppl  throngh 
two  mouths,  one  of  which  Is  in  Warren  oounty, 
and  the  other  in  Claiborne  oounty,  at  Grand 
Gulf.  It  is  bordered  throughout  most  of  its 
course  by  rich  cotton  plantations. 


BIG    BOHE   UCK, 


salt 


spring 


in  Boone 


county,  Ey.,  eapeoially  Interestmg  to  geologists 
and  naturalists,  on  account  of  the  deposUa  of 
fossil  bones  of  the  mastodon  and  several  species 
of  mammalia  found  there.  The  soil  containing 
the  depoait  ia  dark-oolored  and  marshy,  gener- 
ally overlaid  with  gravel,  resting  on  blue  ola^. 
BIGOAV,  bailai  Bri^UW,  an  American  in- 
ventor, horn  at  West  Boylston,  Mass.,  in  April, 
1814.  He  was  intended  for  a  physician,  bnt 
his  &ther  having  failed  in  busmese,  he  was 
unable  to  pursue  his  stodies,  and  turned  his 
attention  to  mechanical  inventions.  Before  ha 
was  18  he  had  invented  a  hand  loom  for  weav- 
ing suspender  webbing,  and  another  for  making 
piping  cord.  In  1838  he  obtained  a  patent  for 
an  automatic  loom  for  weaving  knotted  coun- 
terpanes, and  contracted  to  build  three  of  the 
machinea ;  hut  having  seen  some  imported 
counterpanes  which  would  supersede  those  to 
be  proonced  by  his  loom,  he  consented  to  the 
cancelling  of  the  contract,  and  in  a  few  months 
invented  a  loom  capable  of  producing  the  new 
&brio.  In  18S9  he  entered  mto  an  agreement 
with  the  Lowell  manufacturing  cwnpany  to 
construct  a  power  loom  for  weaving  two-ply 
ingrun  carpets,  heretofore  woven  exclusively 
by  the  tiand  loom,  which  could  only  prodnce 
8  yards  a  day.  Hr.  Bigelow's  first  loom  pro- 
duced 10  or  12  yards  a  day,  and  it  baa  since 
been  greatiy  improved  by  the  inventor.  In 
the  mean  time  ne  had  invented  a  loom  for 
weaving  coach  lace.  In  1863  he  proposed  a 
scheme  of  uniform  taxation  throughout  the 
United  Sutes,  and  published  "  Tbe  Tariff  Qura- 
tion  considered  in  regard  to  the  Policy  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Interests  of  tbe  United  States.'' 


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BIGELOW 

He  Is  the  fooader  of  the  fionriabing  nunntao- 
turing  villaffe  of  Olinton,  Worcester  ooimtj, 
Maaa.,  in  wniob,  besides  other  large  mauufko- 
toring  edtabliahmenta,  are  the  exteoeive  woAa 
of  the  Bigelow  carpet  compsDy. 

BlfilXOW,  JMrt,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  Amerioan 
phjuciao  and  writer,,  bom  in  Sadborj,  Haas., 
in  1T87,  died  in  Jannary,  18T9,  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  oniverBity  in  180fl,  and  oonunenced 
.  practice  in  Boston  iu  1810.  He  early  became 
known  as  a  akilfol  imtanist,  had  an  extensive 
European  correspondence,  and  different  plants 
were  named  for  him  by  Sir  J.  E,  Smith,  in  the 
sapplement  to  "  Rmb'b  Cyclopiedia,"  by  Sohra- 
der  in  Qermany,  and  De  OandoUe  in  France, 
Ha  pobliahed  Florula  SotlonimtU  (8ro,  1814; 
enlarged  eds.,  1S24  and  1840),  and  "  American 
Medical  Botany  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  181T-'21).  For 
more  than  40  years  ha  waa  an  active  practi- 
tioner of  mediune  in  Boston ;  during  halt  of 
this  time  he  was  a  physician  of  the  Massachn- 
letts  general  hospital,  and  held  the  offices  of 
professor  of  materia  medioa  and  of  clinical 
raedioine  in  Harvard  university.  He  also  for 
10  years  (1819-'2r>  delivered  lectures  on  the 
application  of  scienoe  to  the  osefol  arts,  at 
Cambridge,  as  Ramford  professor;  these  were 
afterward  published  nnder  the  title  of  "  Ele- 
ments of  Technology  "  (new  ed.,  "  The  Usefal 
Arta  considered  in  connection  ntth  the  Ap^- 
cations  of  Science,"  2  vols.  l£mo,  1840).  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  selected  in 
1820  to  form  the  ''American  Pharraaoopcela;" 
and  the  nomenclature  of  the  materia  medica 
afterward  adopted  by  the  Britiah  colleges,  which 
substituted  a  single  for  a  double  word  when 
practicable,  is  due  in  principle  to  him.  He 
published  nnmerons  medical  essays  and  dia- 
conraea,  aome  of  which  are  embodied  in  a  vol- 
ume entitled  "  Nature  in  Disease  "  (18K4) ;  one 
of  these  essays,  "A  Biscoarae  on  Self-Limited 
Diseases,"  delivered  before  the  Massaobnaetts 
medical  society  in  183&,  had  nnqaestionably  a 
great  inflnence  in  modifying  the  practice  of 
physicians  at  that  time  end  since.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Mt  Auburn  cemetery,  near  Boston, 
the  first  establishment  of  tbekiadintheCnited 
States,  and  the  model  of  those  which  have 
followed;  the  much  admired  stone  tower, 
chapel,  gate,  and  fence  were  all  made  after  bis 
designs.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  aooom- 
pliabed  claaaical  acholar,  and  was  an  oooasionol 
contributor  to  the  Uterary  periodicals  and  re- 
views; he  was  an  excellent  humorous  writ«r 
both  In  profle  and  verse,  and  a  volume  of 
poems,  entitled  "  Eolopoeeis,"  has  been  at- 
tributed to  him.  He  waa  for  many  years  the' 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  medical  society, 
and  of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and 
Bciences.  In  commemoration  of  hia  services, 
the  trustees  of  tbe  hospital  in  18G6  ordered  his 
marble  bust  to  be  placed  in  the  hall  of  that 
institution.  After  his  retirement  from  active 
practice  he  had  given  much  thought  to  mat- 
ters of  edocation,  and  had  been  specially  tn- 
lereoted  in  technologioal  schools,  or  such  as 


Bia  HORN  BIVEB 


631 


are  designed  to  give  a  technical  or  utilitarian 
education  as  contrasted  with  a  classical  or  lit* 
erary  one.  He  waa  a  pioneer  iu  the  so-called 
"new  education,"  which  aims  to  employ  the 
time  and  labor  of  the  student  in  the  puranit  of 
special  technical  branches  of  knowleuge,  with- 
oat  wasting  his  energy  on  claaaical  or  other 
subjects  irrelevant  to  his  special  vocation. 
See  an  addreaa  delivered  by  him  in  I86S,  be- 
fore the  Massaohusetts  institute  of  technology, 
"On  the  limits  of  Education." 


anther,  bom  at  Maiden,  Ulster  county,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  as,  1817.  He  graduated  at  Union  college 
in  18as,  waa  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York 
city  in  1839,  became  connected  with  journalism, 
and  editor  of  Gregg's  "  Commerce  of  the  Prai- 
ries" and  other  books  of  travel.  In  184C  he 
waa  appointed  cue  of  the  inspectors  of  tbe  Bing 
Bing  state  prison,  serving  tilt  1848.  Jn  Kovem- 
ber,  1850,  he  became  a  partner  with  Mr.  Bry- 
ant in  the  ownership  of  the  "  New  York  Even- 
ing Post,"  and  was  tbe  managing  editor  of  that 
jourual  till  13S1,  when,  after  the  aooession  of 
President  Lincoln,  he  went  as  United  States 
consul  to  Paris,  After  the  death  of  Mr.  Day- 
ton in  1866  he  beeame  minister  to  France, 
where  be  remiuned  till  18SS.  In  1869,  after 
the  death  of  Mr.  Raymond,  he  was  for  a  short 
time  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Times."  Since 
1872  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  demooratio 
party,  and  in  I870-'8  he  was  secretary  of  state 
of  New  York.  Hie  works  inclnde  "  Jamuca 
in  1860,"  "Life  of  Fremont"  (18Bfl),  and  let 
StaU-UnU  d'Amirigve  en  18S8  (Paris).  In 
1868  he  edited  tbe  autobiography  of  Franklin 
from  materials  collected  in  France;  and  in 
18B9  be  published  "  Some  Reoolleotions  of  the 
late  Antoine  Herre  Berryer." 

M6fli0W,  Itostty,  an  Amerioan  lawyer,  bom 
in  Worcester,  Mass.,  April  80, 1767,  died  May 
18,  1821.  Be  waa  the  son  of  Ool.  Timothy 
Bigelow,  who  served  in  Arnold's  expedition  to  ' 
Qoebec.  He  graduated  at  Harvatd  college  in 
1788,  and  practised  law  at  Oroton,  Mass.,  from 
1769  to  1807,  when  he  removed  to  Boston.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  a  firm  federal- 
ist, was  for  20  yeara  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature,  and  11  years  speaker  of  the  honie 
of  representatives,  end  a  member  of  the  Hart- 
ford oonventioo.  He  stood  at  the  head  of  his 
professi<»t,  and  in  the'courge  of  32  years  was 
supposed  to  have  aigned  10,000  cases. 

BIfi  BMH.    Bee  Sheep. 

B16  BMN)  tbe  8.  E.  oonnty  of  Montana  ter- 
ritory, bounded  E.  by  Dakota  and  8.  by  Wyo- 
ming territory ;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  88.  It  is  intersected  by  Yellowstone 
river,  and  watered  by  its  tributaries  and  by 
Mussel  Shell  river.  Thick-Timbered  river 
crosses  the  S.  E.  comer.  There  are  mountains 
in  the  E.  part.  The  Northern  Pacific  railroad 
will  pass  through  the  N,  part, 

Bie  HORN  SIVHt,  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  Yellowstone,  rising  tn  tbe  Rocky  moun- 
tains a  little  N.  of  Fremont's  peak,  in  the  N. 


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633  BIG  STONE 

W.  part  of  Wyoming  territory,  where  it  U 
known  aa  Wind  river.  Fnrsuing  first  a  S.  E., 
then  a  N.  ooaree,  for  abovt  360  m.,  during 
which  it  receives  seTeral  tribntarieB,  it  falls 
into  the  Yellowstone  at  Big  Horn  City,  Mon- 
tana territory. 

Nfi  §TONE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
chiefly  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Minnesota  river, 
which  crosses  the  N.  portion,  and  W.  by  Da- 
kota territory  and  Big  Stone  iake,  the  main 
Bonrce  of  the  Minnesota;  area,  about  1,700  sq. 
in,  ;pop,  inl8T0, 24.  Itiawell  watered  by  slflu- 
enta  of  the  Minnesota. 

BIHIB,  the  largest  county  of  Hungary,  situ- 
ated E.  of  the  Theiss  and  W.  of  Transylvania, 
and  traversed  by  the  Swift  and  Black  EdrCs 
and  other  rivers ;  area,  4,260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  In 
1870,  CeT,3ST,  chiefly  Magyars  and  WaJlachs. 
It  is  mountsinoQB  or  hilly  in  its  eastern  portionB, 
and  level  in  the  western,  and  generally  fertile, 
producing  grains,  fraits.  tobacco,  and  vines  of 
good  qneJity.  It  is  ricn  in  cattle,  borses^and 
sheep.  The  principal  towns  are  Orosa-War- 
dein  ^Hon.  Sagy-  Vdrad),  the  capital,  and  De- 
breczin. 

BUINAGIIK,  or  MflUKar,  a  rained  city  of 
southern  India,  on  both  sides  of  the  Tunibnd- 
dra,  here  800  yards  wide,  80  m.  N.  W.  of  Bel- 
lary.  The  city  stands  in  a  plain  surrounded 
by  enomtoos  masses  of  granite,  and  strewn 
with  blocliB  of  that  material,  with  which  the 
streets  are  paved.    The  remains  of  numerous 


BILBAO 

t«mp1es  and  other  buildings,  aQ  of  granite,  ex- 
hibit the  purest  style  of  Hindoo  architecture. 
The  portion  of  the  city  B.  E.  of  the  river  is  en- 
closed by  walls  or  blocks,  and  is  8  m.  in  cir- 
cuit. It  ooutajns  a  splendid  temple  dedicated 
to  Maliadeva,  surronnded  by  nnmerons  cells 
for  worshippers,  with  a  pyramidal  portico  fil- 
ing the  east,  which  is  150  ft.  high,  and  is  divi- 
ded into  10  stories.  Many  pilgrims  resort  to 
the  annual  festival.  Near  the  centre  of  the 
city  is  another  temple  sacred  to  Wittobo,  which 
consists  of  a  group  of  buildings  occupying  a 
space  of  about  400  ft.  by  200.  The  colmnns 
supporting  the  roof  of  the  chief  edifice  are  or- 
namented with  figures  of  lions,  and  the  ceiling 
is  also  sculptured.  That  portion  of  the  city 
N.  W.  of  the  river,  also  known  asAnnagoondy, 
contains  a  temple  sacred  to  Krishna.  Biiana- 
gur  was  bnilt  between  1386  and  134S,  and  was 
the  metropolis  of  the  Brahmanical  kingdom  of 
B^ayanagar.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Moham- 
medan oonfMeracy  of  the  Deccan  in  16&4. 

BUiWCB,  or  Bciwo',  a  state  of  Bondelcnnd, 
Hindostan,  between  lat.  24°  82'  and  26°  N. 
and  Ion.  78°  68'  and  79°  BO'  E. ;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  60,000.  The  slate 
maintwns  a  small  military  force,  and  has  an 
annual  revenue  of  about  1125,000.  Capital, 
B\jawur,  a  small  town  38  m.  S.  of  Chntterpore. 

BILBAO,  a  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  B88<iae 
province  of  Biscay,  46  m.  W.  of  St.  Sebastian, 
oD  the  Nervion,  about  9  m.  above  its  entrance 


into  the  sea  at  Portugalete;  pop.  about  18, TOO. 
It  ia  a  fine  city,  consisting  of^a  new  and  an  old 
town,  connected  by  bridges,  with  rich  convents, 
a  nnmber  of  churches,  schools,  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  corporation  derives  a  large  reve- 
nue tcoia  tolls  on  imports  and  the  monopoly  <^ 


beef.  Theabattoirsoffhecityareamongthebest 
in  Spain.  Rope,  anchors,  leather,  hardware,  pa- 
per, hate,  tobacco,  earthenware,  and  other  arti- 
ctes  ore  manufactured,  and  there  are  several  ship 
yards.  Not  iex  from  the  city  are  the  hi^y  pro- 
anctive  iron  mines  of  Veneres.    Bilbao  ia  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


chief  seaport  of  H.  Spain,  thoogh  only  small  craft 
coo  come  op  to  tlie  cit;,  \eige  ones  landioff 
goods  at  Olaveaga,  2  m.  below.  There^stered 
ehippJDg  is  between  600  and  600  vessels,  and 
the  flaheries  are  important.  The  annual  value 
of  imports  exceeds  $13,000,000.  The  exports 
of. wool,  once  so  important,  have  fallen  off, 
owing  to  the  preference  given  to  Saion  wools ; 
and  the  value  of  exports,  consisting  chiefly  of 
wine,  lead  ore,  zinc,  iron,  com,  and  fionr,  has 
declined  to  aboat  $1,000,000.  The  Bilbao  and 
Tndela  railway,  completed  in  1863,  intersects  at 
Miranda  the  North  of  Spain  line,  slid  places  Bil- 
bao in  direct  commanication  with  Madrid  and 
with  France.  There  are  steamers  to  Spanish, 
English,  French,  and  Dntch  purt«.  Bilbao  was 
founded  in  1800,  was  occapied  by  the  French  in 
the  Napoleonio  wars,  and  was  bravely  defended 
ag^nst  the  Garlist  general  Znmalacarregny, 
who  was  mortally  wounded  here  in  ISSS.-^ 
The  province  of  Biscay  is  also  called  Bilbao. 
(See  BiecAv.) 

IILBEKBT,  or  HMttMTTi  the  name  of  a  shrub 
and  its  fruit,  a  species  of  vaeetnium,  or  whorfle- 
berry.    There  are  two  kinds  of  this  ^mb :  a 


Bnbeirr  (Vudatnm  mynUhu). 

taller  and  a  dwarf  variety.  The  fruit  of  the 
dwarf  shrub  in  Europe,  and  that  of  the  toller 
variety  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  are 
both  called  bilberry. 

BILDEKDIJK,  WlUeH,  a  Dntch  poet,  born  in 
Amsterdam,  Sept.  T,  17G6,  died  in  Haarlem,  Dec 
18,  1831.  He  was  edccated  at  Leyden,  pnb- 
lisbed  in  1TT9  a  volume  of  poems,  consisting 
principally  of  imitations  and  translations  of  the 
Greek  poets,  and  the  nest  year  gained  a  prize 
ft-wn  tile  literary  society  of  Leyden.  He  prac- 
tised as  an  advocate  at  the  Hague,  attached 
himself  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and  was  obliged 
to  emigrate  when  the  French  invaded  Hol- 
land in  17B5.  Ho  visited  Germany,  remaining 
two  years  at  Brunswick,  where  he  published 
various  small  pieces,  a  didactic  poem  on  astron- 
omy, and  a  translation  of  Voltaire's  Ceqm  plait 


pasi 

don,  where  he  lectured  upon  literature  and 
jnrispmdence,  and  translated  into  Dutch  many 
of  the  poems  of  Ossian.  Returning  to  Amster- 
dam in  1806,  hewasappointed  by  Louis  Bona- 
[>arte  member  and  professor  of  the  newly  estab- 
ished  institute  of  Holland ;  but  upon  the  king's 
abdication  in  1810  he  lost  the  pension  which 
the  latter  bad  given  him,  and  retired  to  Haar- 
lem. Though  not  as  remarkable  fur  his  artistjo 
taste  as  for  his  vigor  of  thought,  his  countrymen 

Eiace  himby  the  side  of  Schiller  and  Byron,  and 
e  is  better  known  out  of  Holland  than  almost 
any  other  Dutch  poet.  Besides  smaller  poems, 
translations,  and  patriotio  f^^gments,  he  left  a 
number  of  tragedies,  and  an  epic,  "The  Destruc- 
tion of  the  First  World  "  {De  ondergang  der 
tente  ietreld,  Amsterdam,  1820).  His  histori- 
cal work  on  Holland,  OaehiedmiU  de»  tader- 
land*,  was  edited  after  his  death  by  T\)demanii 
(18  vols.,  Leyden,  1832-'B);  and  his  eoraplet« 
poetical  works  {Diehtaerktn)  were  published 
at  Haarlem  in  1857-'60,  in  16  vols.— His  second 
wife  (1777-1880)  wrote  excellent  poetry  {IHekt- 
wtfriwn,  a  vols.,  1859),  besides  tragedies.  A 
translation  of  Southey'a  "  Roderick  "  into 
Dutch  verse  (Rodrigo  de  Goth)  is  one  of  her 
finest  productions. 

BUJi,  the  green  and  bitter  liquid  secreted  by 
the  liver.  This  liquid  presents  differences  in 
(he  various  classes  of  animals,  although  its  prin- 
cipal characters  are  everywhere  the  same. 
Taken  from  the  gall  bladder,  it  is  a  mucous, 
viscous,  somewhat  transparent  fluid,  capable  of 
being  drawn  out  in  threads  of  a  green  or  brown 
color,  of  a  bitter  but  not  astringent  taste,  some- 
times leaving  a  rather  sweet  after- taste,  and  of 
a  peculiar  odor,  often  having  when  wormed 
the  smell  of  musk.  It  is  usually  weakly  alka- 
line, often  perfectlyneutral,  and  only  in  disease, 
in  rare  caaes,  acid.  It  differs  ftom  other  ani- 
mal juices  In  long  resisting  putrefaction,  when 
the  mucoB  mixed  with  it  has  been  taken  away. 
The  chemical  composition  of  bile  is  still  but 
little  known,  the  best  chemists  being  in  com- 
plete disagreement  in  this  respect.  However, 
there  are  some  points  which  seem  to  he  decided. 
For  instance,  tiiere  is  in  bile  a  resinons  sub- 
stance, which  is  a  combination  of  one  or  two 
adds  with  soda;  there  is  a  coloring  principle 
(the  biliverdine],  a  peculiar  fatty  matter,  the 
cholesterine,  and  other  fatty  substances,  salts, 
and  water.  According  to  Demoreay,  the  bile 
of  oien  bas  the  following  composition: 


Coterlns  ud  IktlJ'  mtUOTa,  n 


Demar^ay  admitted  only  one  acid  in  bile,  and 
he  considered  this  liquid  as  a  fluid  soap,  result- 
ing tVom  the  combination  of  this  acid  (cholio 
acid)  with  soda.  Strecker  has  found  that  the 
eholic  acid  of  the  French  chemist  is  a  complex 
one,  and  he  has  shown  that  it  is  composed  of 
two  acida,  one  of  which  he  calls  eholic  and  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


634  BI 

other  oboleio.  Aooording  to  th«  researches  of 
Beascli  and  Streoker,  the  choleate  of  aoda  is 
the  chief-  principle  of  bile,  as  regardB  its  relative 
qoantitj,  and  also  its  importance.  The  choleio 
acid  is  a  nitrogenized  sabBtance,  coataioing 
sulphur  in  greater  proportion  than  the  other 
nitrogenized  matters.  As  in  the  bile  of  most 
animals  suiphnr  exists  onlj  in  the  oboleio  acid, 
and  in  the  proportion  of  6  per  cent.,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  ascertain  easily  the  quantity  of  this  acid 
in  any  kind  of  bile.  It  has  thns  been  found 
that  almost  the  whole  of  the  alcoholic  extract 
of  bile  ooDsists  in  cboleic  acid  in  the  fox,  the 
sheep,  the  dog,  &c.,  while  in  the  bile  of  the  ox 
there  is  as  much  cholic  as  choleio  acid.  The 
aalte  formed  by  these  two  acids  amount  to  at 
least  76  per  cent,  of  the  wbde  of  the  solid  con- 
stituents of  bile.  Normal  hnman  bile  contuns. 
according  to  Frerichs,  about  14  per  cent,  of 
solid  constituents;  but Lehmannjnstly remarks 
that  the  quantity  of  water,  and  conseqaentlj 
the  proportion  of  solid  constituents,  may  be  as 
variable  in  bile  as  in  most  of  the  other  secre- 
tions. Oorup-BesaneE  found  9'18  per  cent. 
of  solid  constituenta  in  the  bile  of  an  old 
man,  and  IT'19  per  cent,  in  that  of  a  child 
aged  12  years;  bat  many  more  proofs  are 
necessary  to  detemiiae  that  bile  is  more  aque- 
ous in  old  age  than  in  childhood.  Lehmann 
says  that  the  organic  constitnenta  of  human 
bile  amount  to  about  87  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  solid  residue.  The  proportion  of  the 
otlier  elements  of  bile,  i.  «.,  bile  pigment  (bili- 
verdtne),  cbolesterine,  fats,  and  mineral  salts, 
has  Dot  yet  been  positively  detennined.  The 
two  special  organic  acids  of  bile  can  be  decom- 
posed into  various  substances.  They  both, 
when  treated  by  alkalies,  give  origin  to  cholalio 
acid,  and  t«  dysljsine,  but  one  of  them  (the 
cholic  acid)  produces  also  glycocoil,  and  the 
other  (the  choleio  acid)  taurine.  When  treated 
by  powerM  acids,  ohotio  acid  gives  ori^n  to 
choloidic  acid,  glycocoil,  and  dyslysine,  while 
choleio  acid  prodaces  tacrine,  choloidic  add, 
and  dyslysine.  Cbolesterine  and  mai^aricand 
oleic  acids  are  kept  in  solution  in  bile  by  the 
two  principal  organic  acids  of  this  secretion. 
The  biliverdiae,  or  the  coloring  principle  of 
bile,  is  a  substance  resembling  in  its  composi- 
tion the  hematodne  or  coloring  principle  of 
blood.  It  contains  nitrogen  and  iron,  as  do  all 
the  organic  coloring  matters,  aooordiug  to  M, 
Verdeil.  The  biliary  sngar,  or  picromel,  seems 
to  be  only  a  product  of  decompoMtlon  of  some 
of  the  oonstitnente  of  bile.  The  biline  of  Ber- 
7elius  and  Mulder  seems  to  be  a  mixture  of  al- 
kaline chelates  and  oboleates. — The  ancient 
physicians  and  physiologists  used  to  consider 
the  organ  which  secretes  bile,  the  liver,  as  a 
most  important  one  ;  but  after  Aselli,  in  1622, 
had  disoovered  the  lymphatic  vessels,  a  reac- 
tion took  place  against  the  importance  attriba- 
ted  to  the  liver,  and  some  physioiogiste  went  so 
far  as  to  think  that  its  share  in  the  vital  actions 
was  almost  null,  In  France  the  researches  of 
many  physiolo^Bts,  and  portioularly  of  Prof. 


Semard,  hare  abown  that  the  liver  is  (me  of 

our  most  important  organs,  and  recent  experi- 
ments.have  proved  that  bile  is  a  very  usefhl 
secretion,  if  not  an  essential  one.  Schwann 
opened  the  abdomen  and  the  gall  bladder  in 
many  dogs,  and  succeeded  in  forming  a  biliary 
fistula,  otter  having  tied  the  bile  duct.  Nine 
of  these  animals  very  quickly  died ;  ^x  Uved  7, 
18,  IT,  25,  ft4,  and  80  days;  two  only  survived 
definitively,  bnt  in  them  a  new  bile  canal  was 
formed.  Of  the  six  dogs  that  lived  from  7  to 
80  days,  four  seemed  to  die  starved,  having 
lost  their  fat.  The  two  others  after  a  few  days 
began  to  regun  their  fat,  and  reached  th^ 
initial  weight  np  to  a  certain  time,  when  th^ 
became  agtdn  emaciated  and  finally  died. 
Blondlot  has  seen  a  dog  living  five  years  afler 
the  ocolumon  of  the  hue  duct,  aiid  the  forma-  ' 
tion  of  a  biliary  fistula,  throogh  which  the  bile 
flowed  out.  During  this  long  period  tiie  health 
of  the  animal  was  nsnally  very  good.  More 
recently  Schwann  has  repeated  his  experiments 
on  80  ilogB,  out  of  which  only  two  sorvived, 
one  four  months,  and  anollier  a  year.  Nasse 
kept  a  dog  alive  five  months  with  a  biliary  fis- 
tula. Its  appetite  was  good,  and  it  ate  abont 
double  the  quantity  of  meat  that  ahealtbydog 
of  the  same  size  would  have  taken,  and  never- 
theless it  died  almost  completely  deprived  of 
fat.  It  results  fh>m  very  careful  experiments  of 
Bidder  and  Schmidt,  and  of  their  pupil  Schell- 
bach,  that  the  canse  of  death,  when  bile  is  not 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  bowels  and  passes 
out  of  the  body,  is  that  the  animal  has  a  great 
difficulty  in  repairing  the  loss  of  fat  and  of  ni- 
trogenized snbstanoes  which  go  out  with  the 
bile.  In  a  dog  operated  upon  by  these  phyn- 
ologists,  the  quantity  of  food  taken  was  muck 
greater  than  before  the  operation,  and  the  con- 
sequence was  that  the  animal  did  not  lose  his 
forces  and  remained  fat,  though  less  eo-than 
before.  Prof.  Bernard,  according  to  Dr.  Por- 
chat,  has  ascert^ned  that  if  adult  d*^  may 
live  many  months  when  bile  Bows  out  of  their 
body  by  a  biliary  flstnla,  it  is  not  so  with  yonng 
dogs,  in  which  death  always  occurs  quickly  in 
such  circnmBtances.  Some  &ctfi  observed  in 
men  (in  children  by  Br.  Porchal,  In  sdulu  by 
Dr.  Budd)  seem  to  prove  also  that  adults  m^ 
live  much  longer  than  children  when  there  u 
no  bile  pasring  into  the  bowels.  It  seems  very 
probable  that  bile  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  digestion,  as  some  animals  have  Uved  a  long 
while  without  bile ;  bnt  even  in  these  cases 
there  is  room  for  donbt  For  instance,  Blond- 
lot's  dog  was  not  prevented  licking  its  wonnd, 
and  probably  swallowed  a  little  bile,  as 
Schwann  has  seen  his  6i^  doing ;  and  Bidder 
and  Bchellbach,  we  cannot  understand  why,  at 
times  gave  pieces  of  liver  (oontaiiung  bile)  as 
food  to  the  one  of  their  dogs  that  was  the  least 
afiected  hy  the  operation.  We  may  EOin  up 
thus:  1.  Bile  has  not  yet  been  positivdy 
proved  not  to  he  absolutely  necessary  to  diges- 
tion and  to  life.  2.  It  seems  probable,  how- 
ever, that  its  fonotion  is  not  absolotely  eaa»i- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


tial.  8.  When  bile  is  miadiig  in  tbe  bowels 
(and  flowing  oat  of  the  body  bj  a  fietala),  the 
princip&l  canse  of  death  is  the  loss  of , fat  and 
of  albaminouB  matters.  We  will  add  to  this 
last  coDclnsion  that,  aooordiiiK  to  Dr.  Brown- 
SSquard,  it  would  be  yery  important  to  repeat 
the  experiments  of  Bloodlot,  Bidder,  and  oth- 
ers, ia  trjing  to  repwr  by  food  the  loss  of  cer- 
tain materials  of  tbe  body  which  go  ont  with 
bile,  and  which  are  not  preaent  in  anffloient 
amount  in  meat  and  bread.  Among  these  ma- 
terials sulphur  is  tbe  piincipal,  and  it  would  be 
easy  to  ^ve  a  great  deal  of  it  by  feeding  the 
animals  upon  eggs  and  other  t^nds  of  food 
which  contain  more  snlphnr  than  meat  and 
bread.  This  view  of  Dr.  Brown-S^qnard  is 
grounded  not  only  on  the  ^t  that  bile  flowing 
ont  of  tlie  body  takes  away  a  great  qnatitity 
of  snlpbnr  and  other  principles,  but  mso  that 
when  bile  passes  freely  into  uie  bowels,  its  ele- 
ments, and  particular^  soda  and  sulphur,  ao- 
cordbg  to  Liebig,  are  absorbed. — A  question 
which  is  intimately  connected  with  .that  we 
have  examined  already  concerning  the  impor- 
tance of  bile,  is  whetiier  this  liquid  is  to  be 
considered  as  an  excrement  or  as  a  nseful  se- 
cretion. It  appears  to  be  certain  that  some,  at 
least,  of  the  principles  of  bile  ore  absorbed  in 
the  bowels,  if  not  most  of  them,  as  Uebig 
thought,  and  that  therefore  bile  cannot  be  said 
to  )>e  entirely  an  excrement.  However,  some 
of  the  compound  constituents  of  bile  are  trans- 
formed in  the  bowels,  aa  Mulder  and  Freriohs 
have  shown,  and  they  are  expelled  with  the 
fecal  matters.  We  are  consequently  led  to  con- 
clude that  bile  is  only  partly  an  excrement,  if  it 
is  so  at  all.  We  say  if  it  is  so,  because  the  part 
of  it  which  is  expelled  with  the  fecat  matters 
may  bare  some  use  before  being  expelled. — The 
fact  that  there  is  a  very  great  quantity  of  bile 
aeoreted  in  a  day  throws  some  light  on  the 
question  of  its  reabsorptJon.  IJiondlot  says 
that  a  dog  of  a  medium  size  secretes  from  40  to 
fiO  grammes  (nearly  1}-  ounce)  a  day.  Nasse 
and  Platner  speak  of  200  grammes  (61  onncee) 
as  the  secretion  of  bile  in  a  dog  weighing  10 
kilogrammes  (22  lbs.),  which  gives  a  propor- 
tion of  I  to  50.  Bidderand  Schmidt  have  foond 
that  the  quantity  of  bile  varies  extremely  with 
tbe  species  of  the  ammal  experimented  npon. 
While  for  each  8  pounds  of  the  body  of  a  cot 
there  ia  a  seoredon  of  li  grammes  (t  ounce) 
of  bile  in  a  day,  in  the  dog  there  is  simost  20 
grammes  (^  ounoe),  in  the  sheep  25^  grammes 
(f  ounce),  and  in  the  rabbit  the  enormoos  qnan- 
tity  of  186  grammes  (4J  ounces).  In  weigh- 
ing the  solid  residue  of  the  fecal  matters  of  a 
dog  for  many  days,  and  comparing  the  result 
obtained  in  so  doing  to  the  weight  of  the  solid 
residue  of  bileduring  tbe  same  time,  Biddernnd 
Schmidt  have  found  that  the  two  quantities 
were  nearly  alike,  BO  thatneoessarily  a  good  part 
of  the  principles  of  bile  is  absorbed  in  the  bow- 
els. They  have  also  ascertiuned  that  almost 
all  the  sulphur  of  the  bile  is  absorbed.  They 
think  that  only  a  small  qoantil^  of  bile,  trans- 


formed into  an  insoluble  substance  (dyslysine), 

remains  unabsorbed  and  goes  out  with  the  ex- 
crements. ~^ylvins  de  la  BoS,  and  afterward 
Boerhsave,  imagined  that  bile  is  employed  to 
neutralise  the  product  of  gastric  digestion, 
chyme,  which  is  very  acid.  This  view  has 
been  considered  qnite  wrong  by  almost  every 
one,  but  Lehmann  Justly  remarks  that  there  is 
some  truth  in  it,  and  he  affirms  that  bile  cer- 
t»nly  contributes  to  the  neutralization  of  the 
fVee  acids  of  chyme.  Bile  no  doubt  acts  as  a 
solvent  of  fat,  at  least  by  one  of  its  constitu- 
ents, the  oholeate  of  soda,  as  has  been  shown 
by  Strecker,  although  Bidder  and  Schmidt  have 
fonnd  no  difference  in  the  quantity  of  fat  ab- 
sorbed, whether  the  bowels  contdned  bile  or 
not.  But  their  mode  of  deciding  this  question 
is  open  to  many  olgections.  It  has  been  said 
that  bile  prevents  [jntrefaction  taking  place  in 
chyme,  or  at  least  in  fecsl  matters.  Uost  of 
the  recent  experimenters  agree  with  Tiede- 
mann  and  Omelin  in  admitting  this  influence 
of  bile.  Dr.  Porcbat  has  observed,  in  children 
in  whom  bile  could  not  pass  in  the  bowels 
on  account  of  the  occlusion  of  the  bile  duct, 
that  the  fecal  matters  were  putrefied,  as  Bid- 
der and  Bohmidt,  Frerichs,  and  others,  have 
observed  in  animals  in  which  they  hod  tied 
this  duct.  However,  it  seems  that  in  some 
cases  tbe  absence  of  bile  is  not  sufficient  to  al- 
low putreGiction  to  take  place  in  the  fecal  mat- 
ters, as  Blondlot  says  that  he  has  observed  no 
•Terence  between  these  matters  in  dogs  in 
good  health  and  in  those  operated  upon.  The 
water  contained  in  bile  helps  in  the  dissolution 
of  certain  elements  of  chyme,  and  in  so  doing 
renders  their  absorptjon  more  easy. — Bile  acti 
as  an  excitant  on  tbe  mucous  membrane  of  the 
bowels,  to  produce  reflex  contractions,  favor- 
ing in  this  way  the  propulsion  of  food  and  of 
fecal  matters.  According  to  Schiif,  bile  pro- 
duces contractions  in  the  intestinal  villi,  it  is 
said  slso  that  bile  increases  tbe  secretion  of 
tbe  intestinal  mucus,  and  prevents  constipa- 
tion. All  these  views  may  be  partly  true,  but 
it  is  certain  that  without  bile  the  expulsion 
of  fecal  matters  takes  place  regularly. — Many 
physiologists  think  tbst  bile,  lilie  most  of  the 
secretions,  contains  some  effete  matters  which 
cannot  be  of  any  use  in  the  blood,  or  which 
might  be  deleterious.  In  opposition  to  tbe 
views  of  those  who  admit  thst  tbe  secretion 
of  bile  ia  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the 
blood,  and  who  still  regard  this  liquid  merely 
as  an  effete  carbonaceous  mutter  which  the 
respiration  has  not  removed,  Lehmann  says  that 
tbe  bile — a  secretion  by  no  means  poor  in  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen — is  not  separated  in  any 
increased  quantity  when  the  process  of  oxida- 
tion in  the  lungs  happens  to  be  disturbed  ;  that 
there  are  no  pathologico-anatomical  facts  which 
favor  tbe  view  that  the  liver  can  act  vicarious- 
ly for  the  lungs ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  separa- 
tion of  carbon  by  the  liver,  as  compared  with 
that  by  the  lungs,  Is  so  trifling,  as  shown  by 
Bidder  and  Schmidt,  that  the  liver  con  hardly 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


636  BILE 

be  regarded  as  easentiall;'  a  blood-purifying  or- 
gan, insofarBstbeelimiuation  of  carbon  is  con- 
corned.  However,  it  ia  certain  that  when  bile 
18  not  excreted  freely  in  man,  jaundice,  and  tre- 
qaentlj  certain  nervouB  diittnrbancea,  are  pro- 
duced, and  tLese  phenomena  must  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  action  of  aonie  of  ita  prinoiplea. 
But  three  explanations  may  be  given  coocem- 
ing  the  production  of  these  phenomena,  and 
we  do  not  yet  positively  know  which  is  the 
best  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  that  the 
principles  of  bile  preexist  in  the  blood,  and  that 
when  they  are  not  secreted,  their  quantity  in- 
creasing, they  produce  the  deleterious  influence 
which  Bometimes  results  in  jaundice;  in  the 
■econd  place,  they  may  be  secreted,  and,  in 
consequence  of  some  obstruction  of  the  bile 
dnot,  they  may  be  absorbed,  and  then  produce 
their  ill  effects ;  in  the  third  place,  tliey  may 
be  changed  into  toxical  substances  either  in 
the  blood  or  in  the  liver  or  the  biliary  dncta. 
Aa  regards  the  first  of  these  views,  Lehmann 
has  tried  to  prove,  on  good  grounds,  that  the 
secretion  of  bile  ia  not,  like  too  urinary  secre- 
tion, a  mere  sepamtign  of  certain  principles 
from  the  blood ;  and  therefore  we  may  con- 
dnde  that  it  is  not  probable  that  bile,  even  if 
it  contains  toxical  substances,  results  from  a 
depuration  of  the  blood.  If  we  admit  the 
second  view,  that  the  liver  produces  most  of 
the  principles  of  bile,  and  that  these  princi- 
ples are  absorbed  in  cases  of  jaundice,  we  And 
that  we  cannot  explain  the  toxical  phenomena 
which  then  sometimes  take  place,  because  they 
are  not  constant,  and  they  exist  in  cases  where 
jaundice  is  or  is  not  very  considerable,  while 
they  may  not  appear  in  cases  of  deep  jaundice. 
Dr.  Bndd  has  been  led  to  the  third  view  above 
stated,  which  is  that  poisonous  substances  are 
formed  in  the  blood  from  the  principles  of  bile. 
The  function  of  deporation  of  the  blood,  at- 
tributed to  the  liver,  seems  therefore  to  be  of 
mncb  less  importance  than  some  persons  have 
thought.  Dr.  Budd  relates  several  cases  in 
whii£  the  passage  of  bile  into  the  bowels  was 
entirely  prevented  by  the  complete  closure  of 
the  bile  dnct,  and  in  which,  nevertheless,  life 
was  prolonged  fur  many  months.  We  must 
soy,  however,  that  the  secretion  of  snb- 
itances  which  may,  when  thej  are  absorbed, 
and  when  they  accumulate  in  the  blood,  be 
transformed  into  a  poison,  ought  in  some  re- 
spects to  be  conndered  as  a  depuration.-— It 
has  been  a  much  debated  question  whether 
bile  is  secreted  from  the  blood  <^  the  portal 
vein  or  that  of  the  hepatic  utery.  Experi- 
ments on  animals  and  pathological  facts  have 
been  mentioned  in  favor  of  both  these  opinions. 
When  a  ligatnre  is  placed  on  the  portal  vein, 
bile  not  only  continues  to  be  secreted,  but  the 
other  fonctions  of  the  liver  also  continue ;  hut 
this  fact,  as  Brown-S^quard  remarks,  cannot 
prove  that  the  blood  of  the  portal  vein  is  not 
necessary  fbr  these  functions,  as  this  blood 
after  the  ligature  passes  into  the  vena  cava, 
and  afterward  into  the  arterial  circulation,  and 


BILDT 

therefore  into  the  liver,  by  the  hepatic  artery. 
It  seems  very  probable,  indeed,  from  the  great 
quantity  of  bile  produced  in  a  day,  that  the 
portal  blood,  if  not  the  only  source  of  the  se- 
cretion of  bile,  is  at  least  employed  in  a  great 
measure  for  this  secretion. 

BlLEIMIUiaUD.    See  BBLEn-uL-jBBm. 

BDJUeEE,  or  NIOAger,  Gcms  Bcnteri,  a 
German  philosopher,  bom  in  Cannstadt,  Jan. 
28,  1693,  died  in  Stuttgart,  Feb.  18, 1T60.  The 
name  of  the  family  proceeds  from  the  hered- 
itary poseession  of  a  axth  finger  and  toe,  which 
in  his  instance  were  removed  by  an  operation. 
A  disciple  of  Wolf  and  Leibnitz,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Peter  the  Great  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  St  Petersburg.  He  won  a  prixe 
there  for  his  improved  system  of  fortification, 
and  another  from  the  French  academy  for  his 
memoir  Sur  la  cautt  dt  la  ptiantew  da  cvrpt. 
Afterward  he  became  a  professor  of  theology 
at  Tubingen,  and  was  appointed  privy  conn- 
cillor  of  WQrtemberg,  in  which  office  he  de- 
voted himself  eepecially  to  education,  com- 
merce, and  agriculture.  Prominent  among  hit 
many  works  are  EUmenUt  Phytiet*  (Leipso, 
1742)  and  Noweau  tyttime  dt  fortyficaUon 
(Stuttgart,  1784). 

BiLGVEB,  Pm  Baiair  vm,  a  German  chess 
player,  bom  at  LudwigslnBt,  Sept  21, 1B16,  died 
m  Berlin  in  September,  1840.  He  was  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Pruswan  army,  and  retired  on 
account  of  his  health.  In  1840  at  Berbn  be 
played  three  games  at  once  with  as  many  dif- 
ferent opponents,  condnctdng  two  of  the  con- 
tests without  seeing  the  boards  and  men.  Hts 
ffandbuch  dt*  SekaehuiieU  (Berlin,  1848),  com- 
pleted and  pnblished  after  his  death  by  bis 
friend  Von  Heydebrand  von  der  Lasa  (4th  ed., 
Leipsic,  1664),  is  still  the  best  practical  work 
on  that  game. 

BILIIKT  DVCn,  small  ducts  through  which 
the  bite  flows  from  the  liver  and  the  ^11  blad- 
der to  the  duodenum.  The  main  biliary  duct, 
which  leads  directly  from  tiie  liver  to  the  duo- 
denum, sives  off  a  branch  which  leads  into  the 
coll  bladder,  in  which  the  sail  is  collected. 
This  branch  is  called  the  cystic  duct,  and  that 
part  of  the  bile  duct  which  leads  from  the 
liver  to  the  junction  with  the  cystic  dnot  fs 
called  the  hepatic  duct;  while  the  rest  of  the 
bile  duct,  leading  irom  this  point  exjunction  to 
the  duodenum,  is  called  the  dnetut  eommvnit 
eholedoehvi.     This  is  about  the  Mze  of  a  goose 

Siill,  and  three  inches  long.  It  terminates  in 
e  descending  portion  of  the  dnodennm,  abont 
fonr  inches  from  the  pyloric  eztt«mit7  of  the 
stomach. 

BILn,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Bila,  43 
m.  N.  W.  of  Prague ;  pop.  in  1869,  8,620.  It 
has  two  castles,  and  manufactories  of  mag- 
ne^a,  beet- root  sugar,  cloth,  and  earthen  Saslu, 
It  is  chiefly  noted  fwr  its  mineral  q)rings  (alka- 
line), four  in  number.  The  water  is  dear,  haa 
a  sourish  taste,  and  a  temperature  of  5V~W 
F.  The  springs  are  not  much  resorted  to,  bnt 
from  80,000  to  100,000  flasks  of  the  water  are 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BILIOUS  FEYER 

yearly  sent  to  the  other  Bohemian  watering 

pUcea.        

BlliOVS  niVEB,  a  teim  heretofore  applied 
to  eases  of  intemuttont  and  remittent  fever. 
Its  u»e  was  based  on  the  conjecture  that  the 
disease  involved,  bb  an  essential  pathological 
condition,  a  superabnndance  of  bile,  The  name 
"  bilious  "  has  also  been  applied  to  many  aSec- 
tiona  which,  in  like  manner,  were  sapposed 
to  depend  more  or  less  on  an  eioesdve  secre- 
tion of  bile.  At  the  present  time  the  term,  as 
applied  either  to  diseases  or  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease, is  not  maoh  nsed  by  medical  writers. 
It,  is,  however,  a  popnlar  torm  as  applied  to 
disorders  of  the  digesdve  system.  An  acote 
form  of  dyapepsia  is  popntorly  known  as  a 
"  bilious  attack,"  and  this  name  is  not  nnfrs- 
qneutly  used  by  physicians.     (See  Stomaoh, 


BILL 


637 


£» 


'■) 


mx,  the  proposed  form  of  a  legislative  act 
or  statute,  while  in  the  couise  of  legislation, 
and  before  it  becomes  a  law.  In  American 
legidation  a  joint  resolution  or  resolve  is  also 
properly  speaking  a  bill.  A  pnblic  bill  Is-  one 
which  pertains  to  matters  in  which  the  whole 
community  is  interested.  A  private  bill  is  one 
for  the  beneflt  or  particnlar  interest  of  individ- 
aals,  or  distinct  bodies  of  individoals,  as  a 
single  person,  or  a  town,  or  a  county.  In  an- 
cient times  the  chief  pnrpose  of  sommoning 
the  commons  to  parliament  was  that  they 
shonld  famish  supplies  to  the  orown ;  but  be- 
ing convened,  they  took  occasion  to  submit 
petitions  on  various  sul^jects  to  the  sovereign, 
and  his  answers  to  them,  made  with  the  con- 
onrrence  of  the  lords  and  prelates,  together 
with  the  petitions,  were  entered  on  the  rolls 
of  parliament,  and  at  the  close  of  the  sesdon 
the  judges  or  others  of  the  king's  council  pnt 
Qiese  matters  into  the  form  of  an  act.  But  it 
often  happened  that  by  additions  to  or  modifi- 
cations of  the  matter  submitted,  or  of  the 
orown's  answer  to  it,  the  actual  purpose  of  the 
parties  to  the  proceeding  was  defeated.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  V.  remonstrances  were  made 
by  the  commons  touching  these  evils.  They 
demanded  that  the  statutes  should  be  made 
according  to  the  tenor  of  their  petitions,  and  in 
this  reign  or  that  of  Heniy  VI.  the  practice 
was  established  of  presenting  the  su^eot  to 
which  the  approval  of  the  sovereign  was  soli- 
cited in  the  form  of  a  bill.  Ever  since  that 
time  it  has  been  a  mle  of  the  English  oonstitn- 
tional  law  not  only  that  nothing  shall  be  enact- 
ed without  the  consent  of  the  commons,  but  also 
that,  although  the  orown  may  r^ect  or  assent 
at  pleasnre  to  bills  in  parliament,  it  may  not 
alter  them.  But  if  the  crown  Is  specially  in- 
terested in  a  bill,  its  assent  to  it  must  be  pro- 
cured at  some  stage  of  its  progress  before 
its  passage  by  the  honses ;  and  if  the  bill  in- 
terferes with  the  royal  patronage  in  any  way, 
the  royal  assent  to  it  must  be  had  before  it  can 
proceM  at  alL  The  tenor  of  bills  pertaining 
to  attainders  or  for  granting  titles  must  be 
commonioatAd  to  tlie  sovereign  before  they  are 


presented  in  parliament.  The  honae  of  com- 
mons will  not  entertain  a  supply  bill  unless  it 
is  first  oommnnicaled  to  it  by  the  crown;  and 
a  bill  for  a  pardon  is  regularly  first  dgned  by 
the  king  before  it  proceeds  at  all,  and  it  is  rend 
only  once  in  each  of  the  houses.  But  in  gen- 
eral bills  are  entertained  b;  one  house  or  the 
other  in  the  8rsC  instance  and  independently 
of  the  orown,  though  they  cannot  become  laws 
nntil  they  have  received  its  assent.  Practically 
assent  is  never  withheld,  and  it  is  given  either 
by  the  sovereign  in  person  in  the  house  of 
lords,  the  commons  being  called  into  that  house 
for  the  occasion,  or  more  usually  it  is  signified 
b^  the  royal  commission.  For  the  most  part 
bills  may  originate  in  either  house  indifferently, 
but  bills  for  supply  must  begin  in  the  commons, 
and  bills  relatiDg  to  the  peerage,  or  to  restito- 
tion  of  blood,  must  beg^n  in  the  lords.  In  the 
oommons  ngun  certain  bills  mnst  ori^nate  in 
the  committee  of  the  whole  honse,  such  bills 
for  example  as  those  for  granting  money,  or 
those  relating  to  trad&  or  to  the  tuteration  of 
the  laws  concerning  rdigion.  But,  with  these 
and  a  few  other  exceptions,  any  member  of  the 
commons  may  ask  leave  to  introdnoe  a  pnblio 
bill.  If  the  motion  prevails,  it  is  ordered  that 
the  bill  be  prepared  and  brought  in  by  the  mover 
or  by  a  select  committee  to  whom  the  matter  is 
referred.  In  the  lords  any  member  may  offer 
a  bill  without  first  obtaining  leave.  In  either 
honse  a  publio  bill  goes  regidarly  through  five 
stages,  namely :  the  first  readii^,  the  second 
reading,  the  commitment,  the  third  readug,  and 
finally  the  motion  for  its  passage.  The  bill  ia 
nsnallyfiret  read  when  it  is  presented.  It  is  not 
common  to  debate  it  at  this  stage,  thongh,  if  it 
appears  to  be  of  a  mischievona  or  extraordinary 
character,  it  may  be  discussed  then.  The  first 
disoosnon  of  the  bill  usually  takes  place  on  the 
second  reading.  The  commitment  is  a  refer- 
ence to  a  committee,  either  of  the  whole  honse, 
or  if  the  subject  of  it  is  of  a  technical  natore, 
or  for  any  reason  it  b  desired  to  have  Bpecial 
information  abont  it,  the  bill  goes  to  a  special 
committee,  and  m  that  case  it  must  still  go  to 
the  committee  of  the  whole  house  before  it 
passes  to  a  third  reading.  In  this  committee 
the  whole  bill  is  read  and  oonmdered  clause  bv 
clause,  and  approved  as  it  is  drawn,  or  amended, 
as  may  be  necided.  The  chairman  of  the 
committee  then  reports  the  bill  as  approved  to 
the  house  itself,  and  it  is  then  discussed  agun 
clause  by  clanse,  and  the  amendments  made  by 
the  Dommittoe,  or  any  new  amendments  pro- 
posed by  the  honse,  are  debated.  Alter  the 
consideration  of  the  bill  upon  the  renort  of  the 
committee  of  the  whole  honse,  it  aavances  to 
the  third  reading.  In  the  honse  of  commons 
no  substantial  amendment  can  then  be  made. 
After  the  bill  has  been  read  for  the  third  time 
the  vote  is  taken  on  its  passage,  and  when  it  is 
passed  and  the  title  a  added,  it  is  sent  to  the 
other  honse  for  its  concurrence ;  and  there  it 
goes  throagh  the  same  course  as  in  the  com< 
mons.    If  the  lords  pass  the  bill,  they  comma- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


oicate  their  absent  to  the  commotui,  and  onlew 
it  be  a  supply  bill  it  remaioB  witb  the  upper 
house.  If  the  lords  reject  the  bill,  it  fuls  to 
become  a  law ;  and  if  thej  amend  it,  thej 
send  it  with  their  ameodmenta  to  the  commoos, 
who  if  tliey  accept  them  tagnity  their  concur- 
rence to  the  upfher  booBe,  or  if  not  they  may 
ohIc  a  conference  on  the  bill.  When  the  two 
honseu  have  fiaallj  aRreed  apon  a  bill,  it  is  de- 
posited with  the  lords  to  receive  the  royal  as- 
sent, tlioogh  if  it  is  a  supply  bill  it  remains 
with  or  ii  sent  to  the  commooB.  SubHtaotiBlly 
the  same  course  of  proceeding  here  detailed  is 
followed  in  the  case  of  a  onblio  bill  which 
originates  with  the  lords. — With  reference  to 

Srivate  bills  the  prooedare  is  in  some  respects 
ifferent,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages.  By 
certain  standing  orders  bills  relating  to  local 
improvements  or  to  public  works  Me  railways, 
involving  condemnation  of  lands  and  other 
property,  or  to  municipal  regulation^  cannot 
be  mtroduced  except  on  petitions  which  have 
been  for  a  certain  period  deposited  in  the  pri- 
vate bill  office,  and  after  certain  notices  have 
been  given  to  persons  whose  interests  are  to  be 
affected.  Officers  called  examiners  inquire  in- 
to and  repwrt  upon  the  regnlarity  of  these  pre- 
liminary proceedings  before  the  promoters  of 
snch  a  bill  con  introdace  it.  The  bill  is  alter 
its  introduction  referred  to  a  special  com- 
mittee, who  inquire  turther  into  the  merits  of 
the  proposed  enactment  Petitions  against  the 
bill  may  be  presented,  and  the  remonstrants 
and  petitionerB  are  heard  by  the  committee, 
who  report  the  results  to  the  bouse  at  different 
stages  of  the  bill. — The  course  of  proceeding 
upon  bills  in  our  le^ative  aseembues  is  very 
snnilar  to  that  observed  in  the  British  parba- 
ment,  upon  the  practice  and  usa^  of  which 
indeed  our  parliamentary  law  is  modelled. 
In  onr  legialatnres  bills  are  presented  withoat 
any  special  formality.  A  member  who  wishes 
t«  introduce  one,  whether  reported  by  a  com- 
mittee or  otherwise,  makes  a  suggestion  to  that 
effect  in  the  houBe,  and  the  bill  is  received  if  no 
otgection  is  made.  In  oongreBS  one  day's  no- 
tice of  the  presentment  of  the  bill  most  be 
E'lven.  Bills  which  have  ori^nated  in  one 
DUse  ore  presented  by  it  to  the  oljier  by  mes- 
sage. By  an  old  rule  of  congress  it  is  declared 
that  the  first  reading  of  a  bill  is  for  informa- 
tion, and  if  onpoidtion  be  mode  to  it  the  ques- 
tion is  put  woether  the  bill  shall  be  r^ected ; 
if  that  IS  decided  in  the  negative,  or  if  there  is 
no  oppo»tion  to  the  reception  of  the  bill,  it 
goes  to  a  second  reading.  The  second  reading 
nsnolly  takes  place  at  some  later  day  than  that 
of  the  first  reading,  but  in  cases  of  urgency 
not  only  both  these  readings  but  all  the  pro- 
ceedings on  the  bill  may  take  place  on  the  same 
day.  The  second  reading  is  the  most  Impor. 
tant  stage.  The  principles  and  merits  of  the 
bill  are  then  thoroughly  discussed.  Then  fol- 
lows the  commitment,  public  bills  being  refer- 
red to  the  committee  of  the  whole  house  and 
private  bills  being  sent  to  special  committees. 


The  object  of  the  commitment  is  to  pnt  the 

bill  into  the  form  which  will  effectuate  its  ob- 
ject In  this  stage  it  receives  amendments 
or  additions,  amendments  being  changes  in  the 
matter  of  the  bill  as  it  is  proposed,  and  ad- 
ditions  being  substantive  interpolations  in  the 
form  of  quJi^ing  or  restrictive  clauses,  snch 
as  provisos.  The  report  of  the  committee 
either  approves  the  bill  as  it  is  proposed,  or  re- 
turns it  with  such  amendments  or  additions; 
and  it  is  presented  to  the  house  by  its  cluur- 
man.  The  next  proceeding  is  engrossment  of 
the  hill  preparatory  to  the  third  reading.  The 
engrossment  of  bills  has  been  discontinued  in 
the  British  parliament  since  1849,  but  it  is  still 
practised  in  congress  and  in  many  of  onr 
states.  The  proceedings  in  committee  of  the 
whole  house  and  on  the  third  reading  are 
Bubstontialty  like  those  in  the  English  parlia- 
ment In  some  of  the  states  it  is  ordered 
by  constitutional  provi^ons  that  the  bill  be 
read  three  times,  and  in  others  that  the 
readings  be  on  three  different  days  before  it 
can  'become  a  law,  though  in  some  instances 
this  requirement  may  be  dispensed  with  by  a 
vote  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the  members 
of  the  legislature.  It  has  been  mentioned  that 
money  bills  in  England  must  originate  in  the 
honse  of  commons.  A  provision  of  a  similar 
character,  requiring  such  bills  to  proceed  from 
the  lower  or  popular  branch  of  the  legislature, 
exists  in  the  constitution  of  the  Unit^  States, 
and  In  many  of  our  state  constitutions;  but  it 
does  not  exist  in  those  of  New  York,  Connecti- 
cut Illinois,  Michigan,  California,  and  several 
others. — The  practice  in  this  country  with  ref- 
erence to  bills  after  they  have  passed  both 
houses  is  regulated  by  the  rules  of  these  bodies 
in  the  several  states.  The  practice  in  congress, 
which  is  followed  in  many  of  the  states  substan- 
tially, is  governed  by  a  rule  adopted  in  1794. 
After  passmg  both  houses  the  bill  is  engrossed 
on  parchment  then  certified  by  the  clerk  of  the 
house  in  which  it  ori^nated,  and  then  deliv- 
ered to  the  committee  on  enrolled  bills  for  ex- 
amination. ^Enrolled  bills  after  their  examina- 
tion are  mgned  by  the  speaker  of  the  house 
and  by  the  prendent  of  the  senate  and  entered 
on  the  jonmal  of  each  houBO.  The  committee 
then  presents  the  bill  to  the  executive  tor  his 
approval.  There  is  ordinarily  no  time  pre- 
scribed in  which  the  bill  is  to  be  presented  to 
the  executive,  and  it  may  be  immeoiately  upon 
the  passage  of  the  bill  and  before  the  close  of 
the  session.  If  the  executive  does  not  approve 
the  bill,  be  is  required  to  return  it  with  his  ob- 
jections to  the  house  in  which  it  orif^nated 
within  a  certuu  namber  of  days,  and  if  it  is  not 
retmned  within  that  time  it  becomes  a  law  as 
if  he  had  signed  it  though  in  some  of  the 
states  it  is  provided  that  tiie  omission  on  the 
part  of  the  executive  shall  not  render  the  bill 
a  law  if  the  honse  adjourns  within  a  certain 
period  after  the  bill  is  sent  to  him.  The  period 
within  which  the  executive  most  sign  tne  bill 
varies  in  the  different  states.    In  many  it  is 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BILL 

ten  da^s,  In  othera  nx,  In  others  Ave,  and  in 
ono  or  tvo  cues  three.  It  is  nsoall;'  provided 
however  by  the  state  eongtitntions  that  thoogh 
a  bill  is  reCnmed  nnsi^ed  and  with  objeotioas 
ij  the  eieontive,  yet  if  on  a  reconsideration  it 
be  passed  by  the  booses  bj  certain  majorities 
it  shall  become  a  law  notwithstanding  the 
veto.  This  constitutional  m^oritj  differs  in 
dilferent  states.  In  some  it  is  two  thirds  or 
other  proportion  of  the  actual  members  of  the 
lefpslative  body,  and  iu  some  such  proportion 
of  the  members  actually  present-^The  consti- 
tntions  of  most  of  our  states  contain  provisions 
relating  to  the  form  of  bills.  Thus,  to  prevent 
abases  by  putting  in  the  body  of  a  bill  matters 
which  are  not  suggested  by  its  title,  by  wJiioh 
contrivance  the  iegialatnre  or  the  people  may 
be  misled  and  deceived  as  to  the  real  purport 
of  an  enactment,  it  is  declared  in  many  of  the 
states  that  no  bill  shall  embrace  more  than  one 
subject,  and  that  that  shall  be  expressed  in  its 
title.  In  some  of  the  states  this  prohibition 
is  restricted  to  private  or  looal  bills;  and  in 
some  of  them  it  is  declared  that  when  this  re- 
quirement is  violated  the  bill  shall  be  invalid 
only  as  to  so  much  of  it  as  is  not  disclosed  by 
the  title.  — When  an  enacting  style,  as  it  is  called. 
Is  fnmished  by  constitation  or  statute,  it  must 
be  followed  in  the  langaago  of  the  bill  or  it 
cannot  become  a  law.  In  England  the  present 
form  is;  "Be  it  enacted  by  tne  queens  most 
excellent  majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  lords  spiritoal  and  temporal  in 
this  present  parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
Butbority  of  the  same."  The  constitation  of 
the  United  States  provides  no  such  enacting 
clause,  nor  was  there  any  statnte  upon  the 
snlfject  until  the  year  1871.  By  an  act  of 
Feb.  25  of  that  year  (oh.  71)  it  is  provided 
that  the  enaating  clause  of  all  acts  of  oongress 
henceforth  shall  be  in  the  following  form ;  "Be 
it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  house  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  in  congress 
assembled ; "  and  the  like  clause  of  joint  reso- 
lutions shall  be:  "Resolved  by  the  senate  and 
hoose  of  representatives  in  congress  assem- 
bled ; "  and  no  further  enacting  or  resolving 
words  shall  be  used  in  any  subsequent  section 
or  resolution  after  the  first. — The  constitution 
of  the  United  States  prohibits  congress  from 

Cussing  any  bill  of  attainder  or  ax  poil  facio 
iw,  and  prohibits  the  states  fVom  passing 
either  of  these  or  any  law  impairing  the  obli- 
gation of  contracts.  Stune  of  the  states  forbid 
their  legislatures  from  paedng  bills  of  attainder 
for  treason  or  felony.  Hany  of  the  state  con- 
stitutions also  forbid  the  enactment  of  retro- 
spective laws.  This  prorision  covers  as  well 
civil  as  criminal  coses,  and  is  therefore  of  wider 
scope  than  the  prohibition  of  tn  petljaeto  laws, 
which  refers  to  criminal  taws  only.  In  some 
states  the  passing  of  Judicial  bills  such  as  those 
which  grant  divorces  is  also  prohibited. 

BILL,  BrtwiUD,  Glaive,  Tealgc,  or  Glsarws,  all 
names  for  nearly  the  same  instrument,  which, 
with  some  slight  modification,  was  the  stand- 


BILL  IN  EQUITY  g39 

ing  weapon  of  the  English  infantry  at  close 
quarters,  from  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Has- 
tjngs  till  that  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  origi- 
nal brownbilL  was  a  pionderonB  cutting  weapon 
with  two  edges,  that  forward  of  the  &aft  hav- 
ing a  concave  or  sickle  blade,  that  to  the  back 
a  sort  of  angolar  catting  tiice,  the  npper  part 
projecting  before  the  base,   so  as  to  give  a 


■^ 


drawing  blow.  This  terrible  instrument  was 
nearly  8  ft.  in  length  and  10  or  12  lbs.  in 
weight,  set  erect  on  a  shaft  of  8  or  4  fL  It 
was  wielded  with  both  hands,  and  could  sever 
a  horse's  head  or  a  man's  thigh  or  shonlder, 
through  the  strongest  mail  or  plate  armor. 
The  weapon  was  afterward  lengthened  and 
light«ned,  and  provided  with  a  spear  head,  so 
that  the  holder  could  charge  it  like  a  lance, 
and  sometimes  with  a  cutting  hook,  fpr  sever- 
ing the  bridles  of  the  men-at-arms,  or  palling 
them  out  of  their  saddles. 

BILL  OF  CBEDIT,  paper  issued  by  the  au- 
thority and  upon  the  faith  of  the  state,  and  de- 
signed to  circulate  as  money.  By  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  the  smes  are  pro- 
hibited from  issuing  bills  of  credit;  but  it  has 
been  held  that  the  bills  of  banking  corporations 
chari^ered  by  the  state  do  not  oome  within  the 
inhibition,  even  though  the  state  may  be 
owner  in  whole  or  in  part  of  the  stock. 

BlU.  IN  EttniT,  the  statement  of  the  plain- 
tifif'scase  in  an  equity  suit.  In  English  law  it 
is  addressed  to  the  lord  chancellor,  and,  com- 
mencing with  the  names  of  the  plaintiff^  pro- 
ceeds to  state  the  circumstances  of  their  case 
and  the  grievance  to  be  redressed,  setting  out 
or  making  reference  to  all  documentary  evi- 
dence relied  on.  From  the  statement  it  pro- 
ceeds to  charge  a^inst  the  defendants,  col- 
lectively or  individually,  the  various  facta 
which  either  specifically  or  by  induction  con- 
stitute the  gravamen  of  the  case,  It  conclndes 
with  the  prayer  for  relief,  and  with  interroga- 
tories, both  general  and  specific,  to  which  Uie 
plaintifilb  require  an  answer.  The  bill  may  not 
join  distinct  subjects  of  complaint ;  if  it  does.  It 
IS  objectionable  for  multifariousness.  It  must 
contain  no  irrelevant  matter,  otherwise  it  may 
be  excepted  to  for  impertinence ;  nor  scandal- 
ous matter,  that  is,  the  narrative  of  mere  hear 
say  report,  or  personally  offensive  expressions, 
which  may  be  expunged.  The  introductory  or 
narrative  part  must  support  the  charing  part ; 
the  charges  must  cover  all  the  case  intended 
to  be  made  against  the  defendants,  and  the  in- 
terrogatories must  demand  specific  informa- 
tion, either  affirmation,  denial,  or  explanation, 
upon  all  those  points  which  are  important  to 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


040 


BILL  OP  EXCHANGE 


the  establisbnieiit  of  the  plaintiffs?  case.  Ah 
new  facta  come  to  the  plain tvlFs'  knowledge, 
either  from  tbe  defendanta'  admiasiona  or  from 
other  Boorcea,  the  bill  may  be  amended,  and 
new  interrogatoriea  added;  while  bills  of  re- 
vivor and  supplement  are  filed  to  bring  the 
repreaentativeB  of  deceased  parties,  assignees 
of  parties,  or  newly  bom  children  before  the 
court  The  bill  is  mot  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
fendants either  by  demurrer,  which  admita  the 
facts  alleged,  but  denies  that  they  make  out  a 
canse  of  equitable  jurisdiction;  or  by  plea, 
which  presents  some  single  ground  of  defence 
aupposed  to  constitute  a  bar;  or  by  answer, 
which  is  a  specifio  reply  l«  the  various  allega- 
tions of  the  bil).  A  demurrer  or  plea  will  pre- 
aent  an  isano  of  law  for  argument;  but  if  the 
plaintiff  wiehes  to  dispute  the  facts  set  up  in 
the  plea  or  anawer,  he  will  do  so  by  replica' 
tioD,  whereby  an  issne  will  be  made  tipon 
which  pioofo  can  be  taken.  The  pl^ntiff  in 
equity  la  called  comnlainant,  and  in  addressing 
tbe  court  in  hia  bill  he  will  style  himself  "  your 
orator." — By  codes  in  New  York  and  many 
Other  American  atatea  the  old  forma  of  equity 
pleading  are  abolished,  and  a  simple  complaint 
reciting  the  facts  constituting  the  supposed 
cause  of  action  is  snbstitnted  for  the  biU. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE.     8ee  Exchanok. 

BILL  OF  HEILTH.    See  Quasanthtb. 

BIUi  OF  INDICniEirr.    See  Indictubkt. 

BILL  OF  L^Uie,  a  commercial  inatrument, 
signed  by  the  master  of  a  ship  as  the  receipt 
for  cftr^o  to  be  conveyed  as  freight  This 
document  apecifiea  tlie  goods,  tiie  ship,  the  con- 
signor and  consignee,  the  price,  and  the  port 
of  delivery,  with  auch  other  particulars  as  may 
be  requisite.  It  atipnlates  for  their  safe  de- 
livery, and  constitutes  the  contract  between 
the  diipper  and  the  ship  owner.  It  is  generally 
signed  in  duplicate,  the  two  parts  of  which  are 
tranamitted  to  the  consignee  by  different  chan- 
nels. Certain  exceptiona  are  usually  men- 
tioned, against  which  the  carrier  doea  not 
guarantee  tbe  gooda,  as  the  acta  of  God,  ene- 
mies in  time  of  war,  fire,  and  the  accidents  of 
navigation.  The  goods  are  usually  deliverable 
to  consignees  or  their  order,  sometimes  to  the 
order  of  tbe  shipper,  upon  payment  of  freight, 
as  mentioned,  pnmage,  and  average.  Primage 
is  a  perquisite  to  the  master — a  small  percent- 
1  the  freight    Average  is  the  share 


aangnable,  and  transfers  the  ownership  of  tbe 
goods,  sabject  to  the  shipper's  right  of  stop- 
page in  tranHtu.  Accordingly,  the  assignee 
can  maintain  an  action  for  recovery  of  the 
goods  from  tlie  carrier.  The  master's  con- 
tract ia  complete  on  delivery  of  the  goods,  in 
good  order,  at  the  usual  place  of  delivery  of 
the  port,  and  upon  notice  given  thereof  to  the 
consignee,  nnless  there  be  any  particalar  atipn- 
lation  aa  to  the  mode  of  delivery. 

BILL  OF  BIGffrS,  in  English  constitutional 
law,  properly,  tbe  act  of  parliament  1  William 


BILLAtlD-VAEENNE 

and  Mary  (sees.  2,  o.  ii.),  by  which  certain 
claims  contuned  in  the  declaration  of  rights 
were  enacted  aa  fundamental   principles  of 

SDlitieal  liberty.  The  declaration  had  been 
eUvered  at  the  time  the  crown  was  tendered 
to  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13, 
1689.  It  recited  the  principal  grievances 
which  the  nation  had  sufiered  under  the  pre- 
ceding reign,  viz. :  the  aasmnption  as  a  royal 
prerogative  to  grant  a  dispensation  from  {lenal 
acts  of  parliament ;  the  establishment  of  a  new 
tribunal  to  determine  eccleaastical  qnestlona 
levying  taxes  without  consent  of  parliament; 
matntaining  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace; 
interfering  with  the  administration  of  justice 
and  the  freedom  of  elections;  exacting  exces- 
sive bail  from  prisoners;  inflicting  barbaroua 
and  unusual  punisbmenta;  and  treating  as 
criminal  petitions  for  a  redress  of  wrongs — ell 
of  which  acts  were  declared  to  be  illegal.  It 
then  asserted  the  right  of  aubjecta  to  petition; 
the  right  of  parliament  to  freedom  of  debate; 
the  right  of  electors  to  choose  repreaentatives 
freely;  and  various  other  privileges.  These 
were  reiterated  in  the  act  of  parliament  above 
referred  to,  with  some  additional  stringency, 
aa  in  respect  to  the  diapenaing  power,  which 
by  the  declaration  had  been  condemned,  as  ex- 
ercised by  Jamea,  as  unlawful,  but  by  the  act 
was  absolutely  and  for  ever  tAken  away.  These 
rights  were  again  asserted,  with  some  addi- 
tions, in  the  act  of  settlement,  by  which  the 
crown  WHS  limited  to  the  Hanover  family  (12 
and  18  William  III.,  c.  ii.).  Similar  provisions 
were  appended  to  the  constitution  of  th« 
United  states,  as  amendments  thereto.  Tbey 
are  chiefly  declaratory  of  the  freedom  of  speech 
and  of  the  press ;  of  the  right  of  citizens  peace- 
ably to  assemble  and  petition  government  for 
the  redress  of  grievances ;  of  the  right  of  trial 
by  jury ;  that  private  property  ahall  not  be 
taken  for  public  use  without  just  oompensa- 
tion ;  that  no  law  shall  be  passed  by  congress 
for  the  establiabment  of  any  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof.  In  the  con- 
stitutions or  laws  of  several  states  of  the 
American  Union  ia  to  be  found  a  aimilar  recital 
of  rights,  usually  including  the  privilege  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpua. 

BILL  OF  SALE,  an  inatrnment  in  writing  by 
which  personal  property  is  transferred.  It  is 
not  neceasary  that  it  shonid  be  under  seal,  nor 
would  a  seal  create  any  difference  in  tbe  legal 
effect,  other  than  that  the  aeal  imports  a  con- 
sideration. A  bill  of  sale  of  a  ship  or  vessel  is 
a  muniment  of  title  of  peculiar  importance.  In 
most  countries  it  is  either  by  cnatom  or  statute 
absolutely  required.  In  tiiis  country  every 
transfer  of  a  registered  ship  mnst  be  accom- 
panied by  a  bill  of  sale  setting  forth  the  certifl' 
cate  of  registry. 

BILLlDD-VllENirE,  Jca  NMm,  a  Fr«nch 
revolationiat,  bom  at  La  Rochelle,  April  S3, 
1760,  died  in  Hayti,June8,  1819.  Hewaaaa 
advocate  of  Paria,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution  became  con^icuoos  for  his  noetilitj 


Digitized  byGoOglt^' 


BILLE 

to  the  government  and  tho  clergy,  whom  he 
asMiled  in  BaveroJ  publi  cat  ions.  Oa  Juij  1, 
1791,  at  one  of  the  raeetingi  of  the  "Frienda 
of  the  Con^itation,"  he  proposed  to  change 
the  French  monarchj  into  a  repablic ;  the  same 
year  he  poblixhod  his  celebrated  pamphlet 
Aeiphaloeratie,  and  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  commune  of  Paris.  In  ITBS  he  took  his 
seat  in  tlie  convention,  where  he  voted  not 
only  for  the  death  of  the  hing,  bnt  for  that  of 
the  qneen  and  miniaters.  He  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  convention,  and  member  ot  the 
committee  of  poblic  safety,  and  in  this  capacity 
foanded  the  still  existing  Bulletin  det  lou,  and 
was  the  framer  of  the  revolntionarj  govern- 
ment. In  1TS4  he  took  part  in  the  overthrow 
of  RobesTiierre,  but  was  himself  soon  after  ac- 
cused by  his  new  allies  (May  25,  1T90),  and  to- 
gether with  OoUot-d'HerboiB,  Barr^re,  and  Ya- 
dier  sentenced  to  transportation.  For  20  years 
he  lived  at  Cayenne,  refusing  to  avail  himeelf 
of  the  amnesty  offered  by  Napoleon  afler  tiie 
18th  Brumaire.  In  1816,  however,  heeseaped, 
and  established  himself  at  Port-aa-Prinoe, 
where  he  barely  made  a  living  by  the  law. 

BIEXE,  Steel  iBderaea,  a  Danish  naval  officer, 
horn  in  Copenhagen,  Dec.  6,  1797.  He  is  the 
son  of  a  distinguished  admiral,  served  alter- 
nately noder  the  Danish  and  French  flags,  and 
was  on  board  the  Bellone  during  the  exptedi- 
tion  of  that  vessel  to  Sooth  America  in  1840. 
In  1845  he  made  in  the  Danish  corvette  Gala- 
tea, a  voyage  round  the  world,  an  account  of 
which  he  pnblisbed  at  Copenhagen  in  8  vols. 
(184B-'51).  During  the  Sc  hies  wig- Holstein  war 
he  was  employed  in  the  blockade  of  the  Elbe 
and  Weser,  and  of  the  Holstein  coast  In  1852 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  marine,  council- 
lor, and  rear  admiral,  and  retired  in  18G4. 

klLLilBPS,  a  game  played  with  ivory  balls, 
propelled  by  a  one  or  tapering  wooden  wand 
m  the  hands  of  the  plaver,  upon  an  oblong 
level  table.  The  billiard  tables  m  common  nse 
in  America  are  of  three  sizes :  S  ^  in  width  by 
n  in  length,  5  by  10,  and  4  by  8.  They  con- 
sist of  a  heavy  frame  of  _ 
wood  (generally  rosewood 
or  walnut),  which  supports 
8  bed  of  marble  or  slate. 
This  bed  is  covered  with  a 
heavy  and  very  fine  green 
cloth,  stretched  tightly,  so 
that  the  surface  of  the  table  presents  not 
even  the  most  trifling  inequality.  This  sur- 
face should  be  about  32  inches  above  the 
floor ;  and  its  horizontal  position  must  be  estab- 
lished with  mathematical  exactness.  Around 
the  bed  the  frame  of  the  table  rises  in  a 
rim  about  an  inch  and  a  half  high ;  the  in- 
side of  this,  toward  the  bed,  is  Imed  with 
elastic  cushions  composed  of  vulcanized  rubber 
combined  with  other  sabatonces,  horizontal  on 
the  top,  and  slanting  upward  and  inward  from 
the  bottom  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  a  thin 


BILLIABDS 


641 


edge  to  be  strack  by  the  ball 
ag^QSt  it    These  cushions  mnst 


the  greatest  care,  as  a  very  great  part  of  the 
skill  attainable  in  the  game  consists  in  the 
proper  calculation  of  the  angles  of  incidence 
and  reflection  of  the  balls,  in  striking  and  leav- 
ing the  elastic  sides.  The  cushions,  as  formerly 
constmcled,  were  of  heavy,  hard  cloth,  or  of 
simple  India  roliber  in  what  is  called  the 
"raw"  state.  Both  kinds  were  found  ex- 
ceedingly defective ;  the  cloth  was  deficient  in 
elasticity,  making  the  angle  of  reflection  more 
obtuse  than  it  ^onld  have  been ;  while  at- 
mospheric changes  bo  affected  the  rubber  as  to 
make  it  on  a  cold  day  as  hard  and  dead  as 
wood,  and  on  a  warm  day  so  soft  that  the  ball 
sank  into  it,  rebounding  at  a  more  acute  angle 
than  was  expected.  The  combination  caehions 
now  in  use  were  patented  in  185?  by  Michael 
Phelan,  a  celebrated  American  player.  They 
are  manufactured  by  combining  with  the  raw 
rubber  strips  of  other  materials,  and  then  vul- 
canizing tlie  whole.  Billiard  tables  are  divided 
into  three  classes:  they  may  have  four  "pock- 
ets," six,  or  none  at  all.  A  fonr-pocket  table 
has  at  each  comer  an  opening  between  the 
cushions,  allowing  a  boll  to  pass  through  and 
tall  into  a  bag  or  pocket  of  network  han^ng 
below.  A  six-pocket  table,  besides  pockets  at 
the  comers,  has  one  pocket  in  the  middle  of 
each  side.  In  a  table  with  no  pockets,  called 
a  carom  table,  the  cushions  continue  uninter- 
ruptedly around  the  whole  perimeter.     Upon 


the  cloth  of  every  table  there  ore  two  black 
spots,  situated  as  represented  in  the  engravings 
given  herewith,  and  nsed  to  mark  the  positions 
of  the  balls  under  certain  circumstances  to  be 
hereafter  explained.  The  balls  should  be  of 
the  flnest  ivory  (the  £ast  Indian  is  the  best), 
turned  with  the  greatest  care,  and  of  uniform 
sise.  The  cne  is  a  staflf  or  wand  of  hard  wood, 
generally  ash,  varying  in  length  from  5  ft.  to 
6  ft.  6  or  6  inches,  and  in  weight  from  7  to  24 
OE. :  it  tapers  from  the  butt  which  ia  about  an 
inch  thick,  to  the  point,  which  is  about  half 
an  inch  m  diameter.  The  tip  is  formed  of  two 
layers  of  leather :  a  hard  piece  of  sole  leather 
is  glued  to  the  wood:  and  gloed  to  this  is  a 


piece  of  fine  French  leather,  slightly  convex, 
and  somewhat  rongh  on  its  exposed  surface  to 
prevent  its  slipping  fh>m  the  balls;  chalk  is 
applied  to  it  at  short  intervals  while  playing, 
for  the  same  purpose.    The  mace,  a  st^  ci 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


642  BHU 

li^t  wood  with  B  boxwood  head,  »qnar&- 
fronted,  and  bevelled  io  as  to  sUda  oloiw  the 
eloth,  is  Btill  used  to  some  extent  by  ladieB 
and  children  in  placing  billiards,  and  it  was 
the  first  inEtmnmQt  employed  in  the  gome.  A 
roagh  form  of  cae  was  drat  ns^  about  the 
begnming  of  this  oentarT',  and  the  improved 
leather-tipped  cne  inveated  by  M.  Uingand,  a 
PariBian  biUiard  player,  some  years  later.  Oniy 
after  the  introduction  of  this  inBtriiment  did 
any  really  great  skill  in  playing  become  pos- 
sible.— In  maying,  the  cue  should  be  loosely 
held  near  uiebutt  by  the  right  hand,  the  por- 
tion near  the  tip  resting  on  a  "  bridge  "  formed, 
as  represented  in  the  cut,  by  the  lelt  hand, 


lAiich  is  to  be  struck  with  the  cue.  The  stroke 
of  the  cue  shonld  be  given  by  the  force  of  the 
wrist  and  forearm  only,  and  should  be  quick 
and  firm,  not  heavy  even  in  the  strongest 
shots.  Skill  and  quickness  are  required  ra&er 
than  muscular  strength.  To  strike  with  his 
own  boll,  in  a  single  play,  and  either  directly 
or  by  rebounding  from  the  cushions,  more  than 
.  one  of  the  other  balls  on  the  table — that  is,  in 
technical  phrase,  "to  make  a  carom" — may 
bo  said,  in  brief^  to  be  the  main  object  of  each 
player  in  the  game  of  billiards ;  for  those  forms 
of  the  game  in  which  a  principal  aim  is  to 
drive  the  balls  into  the  pockets  are  rapidly 
passing  out  of  nse.  In  tne  game  of  billiards 
most  common  in  America,  four  balls  are  ased 
— one  red,  one  pink,  one  entirely  white,  and 
the  fourth  white  with  a  black  point,  from 
which  it  is  commonly  called  the  spot  ball,  or 
riniply"the  spot."  At  the  beginning  of  the 
game  tba  red  balls  are  placed  upon  tne  spots 
marked  A  and  B  in  the  eugravings.  One  play- 
er takes  the  white,  the  other  the  spot  ball,  and 
the  question  of  the  first  play  or  "lead"  is 
decided  as  follows:  The  players,  piecing  their 
balls  aa  they  choose  at  the  end  of  the  table 
known  as  the  head — it  being  only  necessary 
tliat  both  shall  be  inude  an  imaginary  line  (the 
string)  drawn  across  the  table  at  the  point  A 
— proceed  to  play  against  the  cushion  at  the 
Other  end ;  he  who  saceeeda  in  malting  his  ball, 
on  rebounding  from  it,  approach  the  nearer 
to  the  head  ciMhion  from  the  vicinity  of  which 
he  played,  leads  in  the  game.  The  loser  in 
"  stringing  for  the  lead,"  as  this  is  cslled,  now 
places  his  ball  near  tlie  foot  of  the  table,  and  in- 
side on  imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  point 
B ;  and  ttie  play  begins  by  the  leader's  play- 
ing from  witnin  the  string  on  the  ball  of  his 
antagonist.  After  the  first  shot  no  regard  is 
paid  to  the  string,  to  its  corresponding  Umit  at 


the  foot  (d  the  table,  or  to  the  spots,  unless  one 
of  the  balls  is  accidentally  played  off  the  table, 
when  if  it  be  a  player's  ball  its  owner  must 
play  next  time  from  within  the  string,  and  if 
it  be  a  red  ball  it  must  be  placed  on  its  ap- 
propriate spot.  A  carom  on  a  red  and  white 
ball  counts  two,  in  the  regular  rules  of  the 
game;  one  on  the  two  reds  counts  threcL  and 
on  all  the  balls  six.  Bnt  these  methods  of 
counting  are  very  frequently  varied ;  it  being 
common  to  count  every  carom  three,  or  as 
often  to  count  each  carom  one.  Tlie  game  is 
won  by  the  player  who  first  makes  a  certain 
number  of  points;  100,  GO,  84,  and  SI  are 
common  QUmber&^  according  to  the  different 
games  played,  where  a  pocket  table  is  nse<1 
and  a  pocket  game  played,  to  pocket  a  red  ball 
oonnta  three;  an  adversary's  ball  (though  this 
is  seldom  done  by  good  players),  two;  to 
pocket  one's  own  ball  loses  three  if  ofi"  a  red, 
two  if  off  an  adversary's,  three  if  direct.  In 
beginning  play  again  with  or  upon  pocketed 
baUa  the  same  rules  apply  for  replacing  them 
that  have  just  been  given  for  replacing  balls 
played  off  the  table. — In  England,  two  white 
balls  and  one  red  are  generally  used  on  a  sii- 
pocket  table,  and  the  pocketing  of  a  ball  is 
called  a  "hazard;"  a  "red  winning  hazard'' 
(counting  three)  if  the  red  be  pocketed ;  a 
"  white  winning  hazard  "  (coimting  two)  if  the 
white.  Should  the  player  pocket  his  own  ball 
off  the  red,  it  is  a  "  red  losmg  hazard  "  Oosing 
three);  if  off  the  wliite,  a  "white  losing  haz- 
ard "  (losing  two).    £ac}i  carom,  called  in  £ng- 


BU-paekM  Tible. 

land  "cannon,"  counts  two,  T 
limits  for  the  game  ore  21  and  60. — The  game 
played  in  France  is  that  best  calculated  to  call 
out  ^11  in  the  player.  Three  bolls  are  need, 
two  white  and  one  red.  on  a  carom  table. 
Soch  carom  counte  one.  This  method,  though 
unirersally  called  the  French,  is  becoming  very 
common  among  the  better  players  in  America, 
and  is  undoubtedly  the  highest  form  of  bil- 
liards.—In  speaking  of  the  gome  thas  far,  we 
have  assumed  tliat  only  two  players  are  en- 
gaged ;  bat  billiards  can  also  be  played  by  four, 
in  two  sets  of  partners  ■  and  a  "  three-handed 
game,"  tliough  somewhat  irregolar,  is  aliHi 
frequently  made  up,  each  player  uiung  that 
white  ball  which  his  predecessor  had  not  used 
—playing  with  "the  still  ball,"  as  is  techni- 
oolly  said. — It  is  of  conrse  impossible  in  tliis 
article  to  describe  or  pve  directions  for  any 
of  those  peculiar  methods  of  play  which  only 
practice  can  teach,  and  by  which  the  bolls  can 
be  made  to  perform  such  apparently  imposuble 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


/data.  For  these  uid  their  techidcal  names  ref- 
«reac6  mast  be  made  to  special  works  on  bil- 
liardB.  The  best  of  thwe  tnibllsbed  in  Amerioa 
is  "  Tbe  Game  of  BiUiards,^'  b;  Uiabael  Phelfln. 
In  this  mannal  will  also  be  fomid  desoriptions 

'  of  other  games  played  on  the  billiard  table, 
snob  as  pyramid  pool,  pin  pool,  &c. — The  ori- 

'  ftln  of  billiards  ia  unimown,  bnt  it  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Europe  ^m  the 
East  tit  the  time  of  the  crusades,  when  it  be- 
came a  popular  game  among  the  templars,  and 
one  of  the  favorite  amnseraenta  of  monka  in 
tbeir  monasteries.  Little  is  known  of  its  his- 
tory nntil  tlie  time  of  Lonis  XI.  of  Franoa, 
who  introdaoed  it  into  his  comt.  Henry  III. 
of  France  was  also  a  prominent  patron  of  bil- 
liards, and  after  his  time  it  became  common 
among  the  higher  classes  on  the  continent,  and 
was  ^wlntilly  introdnced  into  England. 

BILUNf^  <lsae^,  an  English  navigator  in  the 
iwrvioe  of  Rnssia,  lived  at  the  end  of  the  16th 
oentnry.  He  accompanied  Cook  in  his  last 
voyage,  and  wa»  introated  with  the  astronom- 
ictd  department.  In  1T8S  Catharine  II.  took 
him  into  her  service,  and  sent  him  on  an  espedi- 
tioo  to  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  seas  ritnated 
iMtween  Siberia  and  the  continent  of  America. 
He  set  OQt  overland  in  October,  17S5,  reached 
the  Kolyma  river  in  N.  Siberia,  and  pnt  to  sea 
with  two  vessels  in  1T37.  Tlie  expedition  sail- 
ed toward  the  Arctic  ocean,  went  five  leagnea 


nderable  diatanoe.  At  Okhotsk,  on  the  Pacifio 
coast,  he  built  two  ahipa  for  the  American  ex- 
pedition, atarted  anew  in  September,  1789, 
lost  one  of  his  ahips,  and  cast  anchor  at  the 

Eirt  of  Petropavlovsk,  where  he  wintered.  In 
arch,  1760,  he  aet  oat  to  viMt  the  iaianda 
on  the  aonth  of  Alaska,  landed  at  TJnalaehka, 
traversed  the  ialond  of  Unimak,  and  cast  an- 
chor at  Kadiak.  In  July  he  penetrated  into 
Prince  William  sonnd,  and  cast  anchor  where 
Cook  had  been  in  1778.  He  examined  Cook 
strait  thoroughly.  His  proviaons  now  began 
to  mn  short,  and  not  having  means  to  winter 
in  these  savage  regions,  he  retamed  to  £am- 
tchatka  in  1701.  An  accomit  of  his  voyage, 
written  by  Martin  Saner,  was  published  in 
Engliah  at  London  in  1802. 

B1UJNG8,  WlDlaB,  an  American  composer, 
bom  in  Boston,  Oct.  7,  1746,  died  there,  Sept. 
28,  1600.  He  forsook  the  trade  of  tanner  to 
become  a  teaoher  of  «n^ng  and  a  composer  of 
psalm  tnnes,  which  eventually  found  their  way 
into  every  ohurch  choir  of  New  England.  Be 
published  six  collections  of  tnnes,  which,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  were  of  his  own  composition. 
Though  his  musical  education  was  very  slight, 
he  had  a  taste  in  melody,  and  his  tnnes  became 
very  popular.  Many  of  them  were  sung  and 
played  wherever  New  England  troops  were 
stationed.  Billings  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Samnel  Adorns,  who  frequently  sat  with  him  at 
charcb  in  the  Hnging  choir.  He  is  the  6rst 
Amerioan  composer  <S  whom  there  is  record. 


BILSTON 


HUnCTOlT,  BUateth,  an  English  singer, 
bom  in  London  in  17S9,  died  near  Venice 
in  Angust,  1818.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
German  muucian  named  Weiobsel,  and  at 
the  age  of  11  played  her  own  compomtions 
in  London.  She  married  her  music  master, 
Hr.  Billington,  whom  she  accompanied  to 
Dublin,  where  she  made  her  first  appearance 
on  the  stage.  She  remained  there  till  1786, 
when  she  returned  to  London;  bat  meeUng 
with  no  BQcoeas  she  went  to  Paria,  and  took 
lessons  from  Sacohini,  by  whose  advice  she 
visited  Italy  in  1794,  to  perfect  herself  in  her 
art.  She  lost  her  husband  in  Italy,  under  sua- 
pioiona  circnmstanoea,  and  married  at  Lyons  a 
M,  Florissant.  On  her  return  to  England  in 
1801,  she  was  greatly  admired  both  for  the 
richness  and  culture  of  her  voice  and  her  per- 
sonal graces.  She  sang  at  Oovent  (lardeu  and 
Drury  Lone  theatres  alternately.  In  1809  she 
retired  from  the  stage.  Her  husband  left  Eng~ 
land  in  consequence  of  the  alien  act,  and  she 
IbUowed  him  fn  1817. 

BILUTOS,  an  island  of  the  Ualay  archipel- 
ago, separated  by  the  Carimata  or  Billiton  pas- 
sage from  Borneo,  and  by  Gaspar  strait  from 
Banco.  Its  •■i-i"'-*  "--^  -'—  »-  w  wr  .,-j». 
which  is  a,e 
108°  7' E.; 

1889  estimated  at  39,000. '  It  is  noted',  f: 
neighboring  island  of  Banco,  which  it  resem- 
bles in  geological  formation,  for  ite  production 
of  grain  tin  from  allnvial  deponts.  Iron  pos- 
sessing strong  magnetic  properties  is  found  in 
abundance;  and  the  pecmiar  white  iron,  called 
pamor,  nsed  in  damasking  the  Bomean  Dyak 
sword  blades,  is  found  here  in  small  quantities, 
Billiton  and  Celebes  being  the  only  countries 
where  it  is  found.  Iron  has  been  worked  sinoe 
an  early  period  by  the  native  Sikas ;  but  the 
mining  of  tin  did  not  commence  till  1860. 
The  mines  are  worked  by  Chinese  colonies. 
The  soil  is  generally  sterile,  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  rice  for  the  oonsnmption  of  the 
miners  ia  brought  from  Java  and  Bali.  Odor- 
iferODH  woods  are  exported  to  some  extent. 
The  aborigines,  a  mde  race  called  Bikas,  sub- 
nst  chiefly  by  fishing,  and  are  accused  of  being 
prone  to  piracy.  The  island  is  a  dependency 
of  Holland. 

klUOIl,  Hmui,  on  English  divine  and  author, 
bom  in  Winchester  in  1688,  died  in  Westrain- 
ater,  June  18,  1616.  In  1696  he  waa  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Worcester,  and  the  following 
year  became  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  waa 
sworn  of  the  privy  council.  He  pnbliahed 
"  The  true  DiflTerence  between  Christian  Sub- 
jection and  Unchristian  Rebellion  "  (4to,  Ox- 
ford, 1G95),  a  vindication  of  the  supremacy  of 
Queen  Elisabeth  and  her  policy  in  the  Low 
Countries;  "The  Perpetual  Government  of 
Christ's  Church  "  (ito,  London,  1598 ;  new  ed., 
Oxford,  1842),  on  argument  for  epLicopacy ; 
and  other  works. 

BIUTOR,  a  market  town  of  Staffordshire, 
En^and,  8  m.  S.  £.  of  Wolverhampton;  pop. 


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644 


BIMA 


abont  25,000.  It  18  the  centre  of  extensive 
coal  mines,  and  of  a  large  iron  trade,  the  foon- 
deriea  being  engaged  in  everj  kind  of  iron 
work,  as  well  as  in  the  manofaotare  of  Bteel 
and  japanned  wares.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  re- 
markable qtiarrj',  the  stone  of  whidi  is  man- 
ufactnred  into  grindstones,  whetstones,  and 
millBtones.  At  Bradley,  an  adjoining  village, 
is  a  coal  mine  which  has  been  on  fire  for 
aboat  80  years.  A  market  hall  has  recenUy 
been  erect«d.  The  "orphan  cholera  school" 
was  endowed  in  1833,  for  the  edacation  of 
the  children  of  victims  of  the  cholera,  which 
had  carried  off  great  nambers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants in  the  previons  year.  Nnmeroos  canals 
facilitate  transportation.  It  was  at  Bilston 
that  James  Watt  first  applied  the  steam  blast 
to  furnaces.  The  town  is  inoladed  in  the  par- 
liamentary boroDgh  of  Wolverhampton. 

BUU,  the  principal  state  of  the  island  of 
Snmbawa,  and  seat  of  a  Dutch  residency,  occu- 
pying the  £.  part  of  the  island.  The  Duteh 
fort  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Bima  is  in  lat 
8°  36'  S.,  Ion.  118°  40'  E.  Before  the  eruption 
of  the  monuti^n  Tomboro  (1816),  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  the 
island,  which  was  the  most  terrifio  volcanic 
emption  on  record,  the  inhabitants  numbered 
90,  OOO,  bnt  at  present  there  are  only  abont  46,- 
000.  It  ia  governed  by  a  sultan,  who  acknowl- 
edges the  sovereignty  of  Holland.  The  soil  is  nn- 
prodactive.  The  surface  consists  of  tracbytio 
ridges,  separated  by  ravines  often  very  deep, 
in  which  run  streams  impetuous  in  the  rainy 


BINGEN 

season,  and  very  small  in  the  dry.  The  chief 
productions  which  have  attracted  Europeans 
are  saudal  and  saltan  wood;  salt  and  rice  are 
also  produced.  Saltpetreandsulphurarefound, 
and  beeswax  and  horses  are  exported  to  Java. 
The  horses  of  Bima  are  mnch  esteemed  in  the 
Indian  islands.  The  inhabitants  speak  a  lan- 
guage which  has  been  regarded  by  some  philol- 
ogists as  distinct  from  the  Malay  or  any  other 
language  of  the  archipelago.  The  Dutch  fort 
has  a  small  garrison.  There  are  also  several 
tboosand  Bughis  settlers  in  the  territory.  Tbe 
inhabitants  are  principally  Mohammedans.  The 
chief  town  and  port  also  is  called  Bima. 

BIHBI1U.ISIL     Bee  supplement. 

Bimtll,  an  imaginary  island  of  the  Bahamsa, 
said  to  contain  the  fountain  of  youth,  in  search 
of  which  Poncede  Leon  set  out  from  Porto  Rico 
in  March,  1613,  on  the  expedition  which  re- 
sulted in  the  discovery  of  Horida. 

BINABT  iSlTBHEnC     See  AmTnuBTtO. 

BINDRUnni,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
British  district  of  Muttra,  Northwestern  Prov- 
inces, on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Jnmna,  about  35 
m.  N.  W.  of  Agra;  pop,  20,000.  It  is  a  place 
of  resort  for  Hindoo  pilgrims,  who  hold  it  in 
veneration  as  the  residence  of  the  god  Erishns 
during  his  youth.  It  contains  a  nnmber  of  tem- 
ples, and  the  river  for  about  a  mile  is  hned 
with  red  stone  steps,  where  the  devotees  per- 
form their  ablations. 

BIMGEX  (anc.  Vinevm  or  Bingmtii),  a  town 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  opposite  Rftdedbeim,  on 
the  lett  bank  of  the  Rhme,  at  the  month  of  the 


Nabe,  17  m.  W.  of  Mentz ;  pop.  in  ISTl,  6,93S.  I  Bingen  hole,  a  compression  of  the  Rhine  u 
A  famous  wine  called  Scbarlachberger  is  pro-    a  narrow  stnut  between  towering  rooks.  High 

dncoduj      ^      .  .      „  .         .       - 

monntam. 


■duponthcneighboringScarlotorSchBrlach    above  them  rises  tbe  MSosetharm,  or  mice 
ntam.    Near  Bingen  is  the  Bingerloch,  or  |  tower,  so  called  ft«m  the  legend  that  Arch- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BINGHAU 

tiUhop  Hatto  of  Htmtz,  who  osed  it  as  a  gran- 
orj  for  specnlative  purpoies  during  timea  of 
&mine,  waa  gnawed  to  death  there  by  mice 
in  969.  According  to  another  tradition,  the 
original  name  of  the  tower  was  UaDtbthnrm, 
or  toll  tower.  This  tower  waa  in  a  very 
dilapidated  coadition  tjll  1866,  when  it  was 
restored.  The  piotnreei^ne  aspect  of  Bingen  is 
enhanced  bj  the  adjoining  Rnperteberg,  with 
the  ruins  of  a  convent,  and  the  Bochuabcrg, 
upon  the  Bummit  of  which  stands  a  chapel,  an- 
nnollj  visited  by  nilgrims,  as  well  as  the  mina 
of  an  ancient  oaatte,  where  in  HOC  the  German 
emperor  Eenr;  IV.  waa  imprisoned  by  his  son. 
In  the  time  of  the  Bomans  the  town  formed 
part  of  Belgio  Gaol.  The  castle  built  by  the 
Romans  upon  the  Rochnaberg  bore  in  the  mid- 
dle agea  the  name  of  EIopp  castle.  The  name 
of  its  principal  tower  is  Drasasthnrrn.  Hence 
the  name  of  DmaoabrDoke  applied  to  the  beau- 
tiftil  bridge  over  the  river  Nahe.  The  Nibfi- 
Ivitffenhort,  or  the  treaanre  of  King  Nibelang, 
which  gave  the  name  to  the  celebrated  Nibe- 
lunganlud,  was,  according  to  tradiUon,  sunk  in 
the  Rhine  not  far  from  Bingen. 

BDfGHlM,  jMeM,  an  Engliah  scholar  and 
divine,  bom  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  Sep- 
t«mber,  1663,  died  Aug.  IT,  1723.  An  unfor- 
tunate controversy,  in  which  he  took  a  prom- 
inent part,  forced  him  to  resign  his  fellowship 
at  Oxford  ;  he  was,  however,  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Headboum-Worthy,  in  Hampshire. 
There  he  began  his  famous  "Orii^nes  Eeclesi- 
asticw,  or  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Cbnrch  " 
(10  vols.,  lT0&-'22).  In  1T12  he  was  present- 
ed to  the  rectory  of  Havant,  mear  Portsmouth. 
In  1T20  he  waa  one  of  the  many  that  were  ra- 
ined by  the  Sonth  sea  bnbbte. 

SHfiHlimHI,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Broome 
county,  N,  Y.,  Mtnated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Chenango  and  Susquehanna  rivera,  abont  3 
m,  from  the  Pennsylvania  boundary,  and  118 
m.W.  8.  W.  of  Albany;  pop.  in  1870,  12,962. 
It  is  on  the  Erie  railway,  at  the  terminus  of 
the  Albany  and  Susquehanna,  Syracuse  and 
Binghamton,  and  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  railroads,  and  also  on  the  Chenango 
canal.     It  is  handsomely  laid  out ;  is  well  snp- 

Elied  with  water  power  by  the  Chenango  river ; 
as  numerous  manufactures  and  an  extensive 
floor  and  lumber  trade ;  and  contains  15  schools, 
11  churches,  2  newspaper  offices,  and  several 
banks.  The  state  inebriate  asylum  is  located 
here.  Binghamton  was  settled  in  1T3T  by 
William  Bingham  of  Philadelphia,  and  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1867. 

BDiGTlNfi,  or  Blatuv,  an  island  of  the  Rhio- 
Linga  group,  in  the  Malay  arcliipela^.  Mt. 
Biugtang,  its  highest  peak,  1,368  ft,  high,  is  in 
lat.  1°  4'  N.,  Ion  104'' 28'  E.  Rhio,  the  Dutch 
free  port,  is  in  lat.  1°  64'  N.,  Ion.  104°  28'  E. 
Area  of  the  island,  abont  4^0  sq.  m ;  pop.,  with 
Rhio,  situated  on  Tar\Jong  Pinang,  an  a4join- 
Ing  islet,  abont  20,000.  Iron  and  tin  are 
found,  bnt  not  extensively  mined.  The  gam- 
bier  plant  (vnearia  ffambir),  which  produces 


BINNEY 


615 


terra  japoidca,  is  the  chief  product  of  the  isl- 
and. A  large  number  of  gtunbier  plantations, 
yielding  abont  4,000  tons  a  year,  are  cultivated 
by  Chinese  colonists,  who  r^se  black  pepper 
at  the  same  time.  Other  produetjons  are  cocoa- 
nuts,  dnrian  fruit,  much  prized  by  the  natives, 
caoutchouc,  gutta  percha,  and  damar.  The 
native  Malays  are  outnumbered  by  the  Chi- 
nese. The  island  is  subject  to  the  sultan  of 
Johore,  on  the  peninsula. 

BUfflAOiE  (formerly  spelled  bittacle ;  Fr.  Aa- 
MtaeU,  a  little  habitation),  a  case  or  box  in 
which  the  compass  and  lights  are  kept  on 
board  ship.  It  is  sometimes  divided  into  three 
compartments,  the  two  sides  containing  a  com- 
pass, and  the  middle  division  a  lamp.  In  order 
that  the  needle  may  not  be  affected,  the  bin- 
nacle is  put  together  without  nails  or  any  iron 
work.  On  board  iron  steamers,  it  is  an  ol^ect 
of  the  first  importanoe  to  isolate  the  binnacle 
aa  completely  as  posuble. 

BUTNET,  iiMS,  an  American  savant  and  pat- 
ron of  art  and  science,  bom  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct  18,  1803,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  18,  1847. 
He  was  educated  at  Brown  university  and 
studied  medicine,  but  engaged  in  meroantjle 
pursuits,  and  devoted  a  great  deal  of  time  to 
science,  especially  mineralogy  and  concholi^y. 
Ha  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Boston  so- 
ciety of  natural  history,  and  its  prendent  from 
1343  to  1847,  a  member  of  all  the  scientific  so- 
cieties in  the  country,  and  active  in  the  for- 
mation and  promotion  of  the  American  asso- 
ciation of  geologists  and  naturalists,  of  which 
he  was  the  president  elect  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  When  a  member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture he  used  his  inflaenoe  to  sustain  the  geolo- 
^cal  survey  of  the  state,  and  succeeded  in 
having  attached  to  it  a  commission  for  the  zo- 
ological and  botanical  survey  also,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  important  volumes  of  Harris  on 
insects  iqjurions  to  vegetation,  Kmerson  on 
forest  trees,  Storer  on  fishes,  Gould  on  Inverte- 
brata,  Ac.  He  wrote  many  valuable  papers  in 
the  proceedings  and  the  journal  of  the  Boston 
society  of  natural  history,  devoted  many  years 
to  the  study  of  the  terrestrial  moUusks  of  the 
United  States,  and  fitted  out  several  expedi- 
tions to  Florida,  Texas,  and  other  nnezplored 
re^ons,  to  collect  materials.  He  employed 
the  best  artists  to  delineate  and  engrave  figures 
for  his  work  on  this  subject,  "Terrestrial  and 
Air-breathing  MoUusks  of  the  United  States 
and  adjacent  Territories  of  North  America," 
which  waa  published  after  his  death,  under  di- 
rection of  his  friend  Dr.  A,  A.  Gould  (2  volfl. 
of  text  and  1  vol.  of  plates,  Boston,  1351). 

BINNET,  Bsnce,  an  American  lawyer,  bora 
In  Philadelphia,  Jan.  4,  1730,  died  Aug.  12, 
1875.  He  waa  long  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Philadelphia  bar,  and  published  "  Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1799  to  1814  "  ("6  vols.,  I809-'15),  and  a 
number  of  legal  pamphlets,  siddresses,  &o.  He 
WHS  (or  many  years  director  in  the  first  bank 
of  the  Onited  States,  and  aoted  aa  trustee  in 


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646 


BINNEY 


viading  np  the  a&irs  of  that  inBtitatioD.  He  | 
took  no  prominent  P&rt  in  national  politics  | 
antU  the  election  of  Gen.  Jackson ;  but  he  tlien  | 
came  forward  in  opposition  to  that  adminiatra-  | 
UoQ,  and  was  elected  to  congress.  In  that  : 
bodj  he  immediately  obtained  a  commanding  < 
poaition.  Since  his  retirement  from  political  ' 
life  bis  moat  celebrated  effort  was  the  defence 
of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  in  the  supreme 
coDrt  against  the  suit  bronght  by  the  heirs  of 
Stephen  Girard.  The  argumeaU  of  Ur.  Binnej 
and  others  in  this  ease  have  several  times  been 
printed  in  book  fonn  hj  the  city  of  Philadel- 

Shia.  His  sketch  entitled  "  The  Leaders  of  the 
•Id  Bar  of  Philadelphia  "  (1869)  gives  a  vivid 
portraitare  of  some  of  the  reraarkable  jariats 
of  the  time.  In  1662  he  published  two  pam- 
phlets on  "  The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas 
Oorpns  under  the  Constitution,"  in  defence  of 
the  power  of  the  president  to  suspend  the  writ 
without  a  previous  anthoritj  from  congress. 
In  a  third  essay  written  in  1868  he  showed 
that  the  suspenuon  of  the  writ  does  not  involve 
the  right  to  proclaim  martial  law  or  arrest  a 
citizen  without  a  warrant  and  cause  assigned. 

SDUIEI,  nsWH,  an  English  dissenting  oler- 
(mnan,  bom  at  Newoastle-on-Tyne  in  1798. 
He  studied  at  Wymondley  college,  was  for 
some  time  minister  of  an  Independent  chapel 
at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  and  from  1839  to 
1871  of  the  King's  Weigh-house  chapel,  then 
in  Eaetcheap,  afterward  in  the  new  building 
on  Fish  street  hill,  London.  The  degree  of 
LL.  D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  university 
of  Aberdeen,  and  that  of  D.  D:  he  received 
in  the  Uuitod  States,  which  he  visited  in  1846 
as  well  as  Canada;  and  in  18G7-'9  he  visited 
Australia.  He  introdaoed  chanting  Into  the 
service  of  Independent  congregations,  improved 
the  psalmody  by  his  "Service  of  Song  in  the 
House  of  the  Lord,"  and  acquired  renown  as 
one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  England. 
He  has  published  many  works  of  a  religions 
charooter,  several  being  expressly  deeigned  for 
the  young.  Among  them  are :  "  Fiat  Jus- 
titia,  a  series  of  pamphlets  treating  upon 
topics  which  have  agitated  the  religious  public; 
"Dissent  not  Schism,"  "The  Christian  UiQ- 
iatry  not  a  Priesthood,"  and  others  of  a  polem- 
ical natore.  "  The  Practical  Power  of  Faith  " 
(1880)  is  a  series  of  sermons  on  the  11th  chap- 
ter of  Hebrews.  The  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas 
Fowell  Buxton,"  and  "  Is  it  Posrible  to  Make 
the  Best  of  Both  Worlds? "  were  originally  de- 
livered as  lectures.  During  his  visit  to  Austra- 
lia he  wroto  a  review  of  the  bishop  of  Ade- 
laide's "Idea  of  the  Church  of  the  Future," 
which  he  afterward  expanded  into  the  "  Lights 
and  Shadows  of  Church  life  in  Australia."  In 
1888  he  published  "From  Seventeen  to  Thirty," 
a  work  for  the  yonng;  and  in  1869  a  volume 
of  sermons.  Other  works  are,  "  St  Paul,  his 
Life  and  Ministry, "  "MicahthePriestrmaker," 
and  "Thoughts  on  some  Things  at  Home." 

BIOBIO,  a  river  of  Chili,  which  rises  in  Lake 
Hnehoeltui,  about  lat.  38°  S.,  Ion.  71 '"  W.,  and 


BIOT 

flows  N.  W,  thnHigh  the  provinces  of  Aranco 
and  Concepcion,  partly  separating  them.  It 
recdves  several  mountain  streams  and  small 
rivers,  and  after  a  course  of  180  m.  falls  into 
the  Pacific  at  the  city  of  Concepcion,  throng 
a  channel  If  m.  wide,  with  a  bar  which  im- 
pedes the  entrance  of  large  vessels.  It  is  navi- 
gated most  of  the  year  by  small  craft  and  bar- 
ges to  Naoimiento,  80  m.  fhHu  its  mouth,  and 
in  most  parts  is  very  pictnresque.  The  Bio- 
bio,  called  by  the  aborigines  Bin-bin  (doable 
string),  or  Bntanlenvn  (great  river),  was  tiie 
scene  of  Valdivia's  first  onslaught  against  the 
Arancaniana,  and  of  numerous  battjee  during 
the  wars  of  conquest  and  of  independence. 

BHH.OGT  (Gr.  filos,  life,  and  Wyoc,  doctrine), 
the  study  of  the  conditions  and  phenomena  of 
life  and  living  beings.  This  term  was  introdnced 
by  Lamarck  and  TVeviranus  in  1808,  and 
has  been  used  by  Carns,  Oken,  Sobelling,  and 
other  German  philosc^hera,  to  denote  the  ulti- 
mate conditions  of  human  life.  It  was  par- 
tially revived  by  Comte  {Philotophia  mritive) 
in  1886,  and  has  since  been  employed  by  Bom« 
writers  in  preference  to  physiology,  as  oebg  A 
term  of  greater  scientinc  comprenenrivenoae 
and  exactitude.  We  have  accordingly  the  "  Bi- 
ological Journal"  and  the  "Society  of  Biolo- 
gy," and  Herbert  Spencer  has  made  biology 
the  title  of  one  of  the  departments  in  his  sys- 
tem of  "Synthetic  Philosophy," 

HON,  a  Greek  pastoru  poet,  bom  near 
Smyrna,  flourished  about  280  B.  0.  On  at- 
taining manhood  he  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where 
he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  and  died  of 
poison.  His  poems  are  all  in  hexameter 
verse,  some  of  them  erotic.  A  few  remain  en- 
tire, and  fragments  of  others  are  extant ;  they 
are  generally  printed  with  the  bncolto  poema 
of  bis  disciple  Moechns  and  of  Theocritus: 

BIOT,  Jeaa  Baptlsto,  a  French  savant,  b^ti  in 
Paris,  April  21,  1TT4,  died  Feb.  8,  186S.  He 
served  for  some  time  in  the  artillery,  entered 
the  polytechnic  school  in  1794,  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  central  school  of  Beauraia,  and 
in  1800  professor  of  pbyncs  in  the  college  de 
France.  In  180S  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  academy  of  sdences,  and  the  following 
year  entered  the  observatory  of  Paris.  In  ood- 
Jnnction  with  Arago  he  continued  the  re- 
searches into  the  refracting  power  of  gases, 
already  bc^n  by  Borda.  In  1806  he  was  as- 
sociated with  Arago,  in  Spdn,  in  ineasanDg 
an  arc  of  the  meridian.  He  was  next  ap- 
pointed professor  of  phyMCol  astronomy  in  tbe 
faculty  of  sciences,  and  in  1817  he  made  a 
journey  to  the  Oroades  for  the  purpose  of  cor- 
recting the  observations  relating  to  tlie  meaenre 
of  the  meridian.  In  1866  he  became  a  member 
of  the  French  academy.  His  fame  rests  chiefly 
upon  his  astronomical,  mathematical,  and  phys- 
ical writings.  His  TVaiti  de  phptigve  expiri' 
mtKtalt  el  mathimatique  (4  vols.,  Parw,  1816) 
is  regarded  as  his  masterwork.  A  third  edition 
of  his  Traiti  iUmentaire  d'attrotMmie phytifut 
was  completed  in  5  vols,  in  1867.     In  1658  he 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIPONT  EDITIONS 

collected  tbree  volames  of  his  Milanget  leien- 
tifiques  et  Uttiraire*. 

UPOBi'T  EDmONS,  famoas  editions  of  the 
Latin  clasaicB,  published  in  the  city  of  Deus- 
Ponts  or  ZweibrQcken  (Lat.  Sipontitim),  Is  the 
Rheniah  Palatinate.  The  publication  was  be- 
grnn  in  1TT9,  but  alter  the  French  conqnest  was 
finished  in  Btrasbnrg.  The  collection  forms  50 
vols.  8fo, 

BUUH  (betula),  a  genns  of  moniecione  trees 
or  shrubs,  which  have  oa  generic  features  both 
Sterile  anil  fertile  flowers  in  ecalj  catkins,  three 
of  each  ander  each  bract,  with  no  involucre  to 
the  broadlj  winged  nutiet  which  results  from  a 
naked  ovarj.  The  sterile  catkins  are  long  and 
drooping,  formed  in  snniDier,  remaining  naked 
through  the  succeeding  winter,  and  expanding 
their  golden  flowers  in  earlj  spring,  preceding 
the  leaves.  The  fertile  catkins  are  oblong  or 
cjlindricat,  protected  bj  scales  throagb  the 
winter,  and  developed  with  the  leaves.    The 


LcaTet  md  Citkln  of  While  BInh. 

outer  bark  is  nsaallj  separable  in  thin  horizon- 
tal sheets;  the  twigs  and  leaves  are  often  spioy 
and  aromatic,  and  the  foliage  is  mostly  thin  and 
light  The  birch  and  the  alder  (alnut)  were 
classified  in  the  same  genus  by  Linntena  in  his 
later  works,  but  are  now  generally  regarded  as 
distinct  by  iwtanistfl.— There  are  18  recognized 
species  of  birch,  for  the  most  part  lofty-growing 
and  omaioental  trees,  found  native  in  Asia,  Eu- 
rope, and  America,  and  almost  all  preferring 
the  cold  regions  of  the  northern  latitudes.  The 
most  widely  extended  of  them  is  S.  alba,  or 
eominon  white  birch,  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
found  in  America,  near  the  coast,  from  Penn- 
ayivania  lo  Maine,  which  thrives  in  every  kind 
of  difficult  and  sterile  soil,  but  decays  where 
the  ground  is  rich.  It  is  found,  though  dwarfed 
in  size,  higher  on  the  Alps  than  any  other  tree, 
approaches  near  to  the  icy  regions  of  the  north, 
and  is  almost  the  only  tree  which  Greenland 
produces.  Ithasach^-whitebark,  and  trian- 
gular, very  taper-pointed,  shining  leaves,  tretn- 


olons  as  those  of  an  aspen.  It  serves  many  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy.  The  bark  is  em- 
ployed by  the  Greenlanders,  Laplanders,  and 
mbabitonta  of  Eamtchatka  in  covering  their 


'nnnk  of  White  Bh\Ji. 

huts  and  in  making  baslcets  and  ropes.  An  in- 
fusion of  the  leaves  makes  a  yellow  dye,  and  is 
also  drunk  like  tea  by  the  Finns ;  and  the  Rus- 
sians and  Swedes  prepare  from  the  sap  of  the 
trunk  afermentedliquorresembling  champagne. 
— The  most  graceful  tree  of  the  genua  is  the  R 
pendvla,  growing  both  in  mountainous  situa- 
tions and  bogs,  from  Lapland  to  the  subalpine 
parts  of  Italy  and  Asia.  Its  popular  name  is 
the  weeping  birch,  and  it  is  distinguished  for  ite 


sapplenessand  the  graceful  bend  and  falling  in- 
clination of  its  long  boughs.  Its  picturesque 
appearance,  with  its  white  and  brilliant  bark 
and  gleaming,  odoriferous  leaves,  makes  it  a 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


cberiy  or  bfacb  birch,  called  also  the  monnC^a 
mahogany  fhiia  the  hardness  of  its  wood,  has 
a  dark,  cheatiiDt-brown  bark,  and  abounds  par- 
tioalarl;  from  New  En^and  to  Ohio,  and  on 
the  Bummits  of  the  AlleghaDy  mountains.  Its 
leaves,  bark,  and  wood  are  aromatic ;  the  wood 
is  rose-colored,  fine-grained,  and  valuable  for 
cabinet  work. — The  S.  papyraeea,  or  paper 
biroh,  b  that  from  which  the  abori^nes  of 
America  make  the  canoes  with  which  the; 
navigate  lakes  and  rivers,  and  hence  it  is  also 
called  the  canoe  birch.  It  is  a  native  of 
Canada  and  the  northern  United  States,  and 
h  superior  to  all  other  species  for  its  tough 
bark,  in  paper-like  layers,  which  is  so  dnrable 
that  the  wood  of  the  fallen  tree  will  rot  en- 
tirely away  while  the  case  of  bark  remains 
sonnd  and  solid. — The  B.  nigra,  the  river  or 
red  birch,  is  an  alder-like  American  species, 
with  whitish  leaves  and  reddish-brown  bark, 
found  from  Uoaeachnsetts  to  the  southern 
states.  Barrel  hoops  are  made  from  its 
branches,  snd  its  tough  twigs  are  the  best  ma- 
terials for  coarse  brooms.  The  negroes  also 
make  veaaela  fb-om  it  to  contain  their  food  and 
drink. — The  B.  nana,  dwarf  or  Alpine  hirch,  is 
a  native  of  the  Alps  and  of  the  monntains  of 
Lapland.  The  Laplanders  hum  it  on  sammer 
nights  to  drive  off  a  kind  of  mosqaito,  and 
Bleep  in  the  fragrant  smoke.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  and  appears  as  a  small 
shrub  on  the  summit  of  mountuns  in  Uaine 
and  Kew  Hampshire,  and  in  other  frigid  utua- 
tiuna  northwara. 

BDtCB,  Samiel,  an  English  Egyptologist,  bom 
ta  London,  Nov.  8,  1818.  He  is  tlie  son  of  a 
clergyman,  entered  tlie  office  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  public  records  in  1834,  and  in  1838 
became  connected  with  the  erchsological  de- 
partment of  the  British  museum,  where  from 
1861  to  1S70  he  had  charge  of  the  oriental, 
mediffiva],  and  British  antiquities  and  ethnog- 
raphy, but  since  1870  only  rS  the  Egyptian 
and  oriental  antiqaities.  His  publications  in- 
olnde  descriptions  of  anti<^uities  of  the  British 
museum  ("Gallery  of  Anti^juities,"  1842);  the 
test  for  Owen  Jones's  "  Views  on  the  Nile  " 
(1818);  ''Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Etrnscan 
Vases  in  the  British  Museum,"  in  coi^unction 
with  Mr.  Newton  (1851);  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphs,"  contribut- 
ed to  Wilkinson's  "  Egyptians  m  the  Time  of 
the  Pharaohs  "  (I86T) ;  "  History  of  Ancient 
Pottery  "  (3  vols.,  1868) ;  and  "  Description  of 
the  Papyrus  of  Naa-Khem,"  privately  printed 
in  1BG8  at  the  request  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
under  whose  direction  this  discovery  had  been 
madeat  Thebes,  lie  also  prepared  brief  stones 
rnd  romances  from  the  Chinese,  including  in 
1888  "The  Elfin  Fosea."  At  the  request  of 
his  friend  Bunsen  he  edited  after  his  death  and 
wrot«  the  greater  part  of  the  Gth  and  last  vol- 
ume of  his  work  on  Egypt,  bringing  the  Egyp- 
tological discoveries  down  to  1867  in  this  as 
well  as  in  bis  seccod  edition  of  the  first  volume. 


HRCH,  IKaas,  D.  D.,  an  English  historical 

and  biographical  writer,  born  in  London,  Sot. 
28,  170G,  died  by  falling  from  his  horse,  Jan.  ». 
1766.  He  was  of  Quaker  parentage,  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  church  of  England  with- 
out a  university  education,  and  became  secre- 
tary of  the  royal  society.  "  Thorlow's  State 
Papers,"  "  Lives  of  Archbishop  Tillotson  snd 
Eon.  Robert  Boyie,"  editions  of  Hilton's  prose 
works  and  of  the  works  of  Raleigh,  "  A  Gen- 
eral Dictionary,  Historical  and  Critical,"  and 
"A  Series  of  Biographical  Memoirs,"  are  among 
his  publicationa 

BUCH-PFHiTia,  Ckiri«tt«,  a  German  actress 
and  dramatist,  bom  in  Stuttgart  in  1800,  died 
in  Berlin,  Aug.  26,  1868.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Pfeiffer,  and  she  married  in  1826  Dr. 
Birch  of  Copenhagen.  For  about  SO  years  she 
performed  in  the  various  theatres  of  Germany, 
made  eicursionsto  St.  Petersburg,  Pesth,  Am- 
sterdam, and  other  cities,  and  in  1837  under- 
took the  management  of  the  Zflrich  theatre, 
which  she  retained  till  1848,  when  she  received 
an  appiointment  at  the  royal  theatre  of  Berlin. 
She  wrote  several  novels  and  some  70  plays. 

K1U>,  Edwari,  an  English  painter,  bom  In 
Wolverhampton,  April  12,  1772,  died  in  Bris- 
tol, Nov.  2,  1819.  He  was  the  son  of  a  car- 
penter, and  after  serving  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  painter  and  japanner,  opened  a  drawing 
Bcliool  at  Bristol  He  succeeded  best  with  do- 
mestic and  general  subjects. 

BIED,  Gfldig,  an  English  physician  and 
author,  bom  in  Norfolk  in  181G,  died  at  Ton- 
bridge  Wells  in  October,  1854.  He  early  re- 
ceived a  prize  from  the  apothecaries'  company 
for  his  proficiency  in  botany,  and  in  his  2!d 
year  he  became  lecturer  on  natural  philosophy, 
and  subsequently  also  on  materia  medica,  at 
Guy's  hospital,  London.  He  had  besides  an  ex- 
tensive medical  practice.  His  "Elements  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  being  an  Experimental  In- 
troduction to  the  Physical  Sciences"  (in  con- 
cert with  C.  Worth,  London,  2d  ed.,  1844),  is  a 
standard  work  of  great  popularity  in  England 
and  in  the  United  Statea.  His  other  publica- 
tions are:  "lectures  on  Electricity  and  Gal- 
vanism in  their  Phynological  and  Therapeutical 
Relations  "  (reused  and  enlarged  ed.,  1 847),  and 
"  Urinary  Deposits  "  (6th  ed.,  by  E.  L.  Birkett. 
1867).  Bee  "Biographical  Sketches  of  the  late 
I>r.  Golding  Bird,"  by  John  Hutton  Balfour 
(London,  1866). 

BUD,  BoWrt  HtatgtacrT)  in  American  phyn- 
cian  and  author,  born  at  Newcastle,  Del,  in 
1803,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  22,  18G4.  Be 
was  educated  in  Philadelphia,  wliere  he  began 
the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  made  his  first 
literary  ventures  in  the  colarans  of  the  "  Month- 
ly Magazine."  His  tragedy  of  "  The  Gladiator "' 
long  retained  its  popularity  upon  the  stage, 
chiefly  through  the  personation  of  Mr.  Edwin 
Forrest.  His  novels,  published  at  intervals  be- 
tween 1830  and  1840,  are  chiefly  historical  ro- 
mances. The  scene  of  "Calavar"  and  "The 
Infidel "  is  in  Mexico,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIRDE 

oonqaest ;  that  of  "  Nick  of  the  Wooda,  or  the 
JibbenaiDusa?,"  in  Kentnckj,  at  the  close  of 
the  war  of  the  revolution;  "Pet«r  Pilgrim" 
ooDtuns  a  ininiit«  description  of  the  Maininoth 
cave  in  Kentucky;  and  "The  Adventarea  of 
Robin  Day "  is  the  story  of  a  shipwrecked 
orphan.  Dr.  Bird  waa  for  some  time  editor  of 
the  ''  North  American  Gaiett*." 

BKDE,  or  2jH,  WUHui,  an  English  composer, 
.bom  abont  1540,  died  Jul^  21,  1628.  He  wea 
a  pQpil  of  Tallis,  and  in  1588  was  chosen  or- 
ganiHt  of  Lincoln  cathedral.  In  156S  he  was 
appointed  gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal,  and 
six  years  afterward  organist  to  Qneen  Eliza- 
beth. The  number  of  his  vocal  compoaitionii, 
chiefly  aacred,  was  enormons;  and  his  pieces 
for  the  organ  and  virginals  were  ahnost  aa  nu- 
merous. Among  the  latter  is  a  collection  of 
nearly  70  MS.  compositions,  known  as  Qneen 
Elizabeth's  virginal  oook.  The  fine  canon,  Non 
fu>bis,  Domine,  ft'c<|uently  snog  in  England,  is  a 
good  specimen  of  his  sacred  vocal  music. 

BIRD  ISLANDS,  a  cluster  of  the  Leeward 
islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  immediately  N. 
of  the  gnlf  of  Triste,  Venezuela.  They  are  so 
named  from  the  immense  numbers  of  birds 
that  fVeqnent  them.  They  belong  to  the  Batch, 
and  are  inhabited  by  onlj  a  few  fishers. 

BIRD  LIME,  a  glutinous,  viscid  substance,  of 
greenish  color  and  bitterish  taste,  prepared  by 
boiling  the  middle  bark  of  the  European  holly 
(ilei  aouifolium),  or  the  young  shoots  of  elder 
and  otner  plants,  as  the  mistletoe  and  other 
parautes,  separating  the  gummy  matter  from 
the  liqnid,  and  leaving  it  for  a  fortnight  in  a 
moist  cool  place  to  become  viscid.  It  ia  next 
ponnded  intoa  tongh  paste,  well  washed,  and  put 
aside  for  some  days  to  ferment.  Some  oil  or  thin 
grease  is  incorporated  with  it,  when  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Its  characteristic  properties  appear 
to  identify  it  with  the  principle  ffla  of  the 
French  ohemista,  which  exudes  spontaneously 
from  certain  niants.  It  differs  from  resins  in 
being  insoluble  in  the  Szed  oila  Bird  lime  is 
so  tenacious  that  small  birds  alighting  npon 
sticks  daubed  over  with  it  are  unable  to  escape. 
It  is  used  for  this  pnrpose  and  also  for  destroy- 
ing insects.  Large  quantities  of  it  were  for- 
merly exported  from  Great  Britain  to  India,  bat 
it  is  now  imported  into  England  from  Turkey. 

BIRD  OF  PlRlDI3E(genDB;iaraJu«a,  Linn.), 
a  name  given  to  a  group  of  moderate-sized, 
cone-billed  birds  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
noted  for  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  plumage,  its  extreme  delicacy,  and  brilliant 
colors.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  a  long, 
strong  bill,  with  the  culmen  carved  to  the 
emarginated  tip,  and  the  sides  compressed ;  the 
nostrils  lateral  and  covered  by  short  feathers 
which  conceal  the  base  of  the  mandible ;  the 
ivings  long  and  rounded,  with  the  4tli  and  6th 
quills  eqn^  and  longest;  the  tail  is  of  various 
lengths,  even  or  rounded ;  the  tarsi  as  long  as 
the  middle  toe,  robust  and  covered  by  a  single 
lengthened  scale ;  the  toes  very  long  and  strong, 
the  ooter  larger  than  the  inner,  and  united  at 


BIRD  OF  PARADISE 


649 


[  the  base,  the  hind  toe  long  and  robust ;  the  daws 
long,  strong,  much  curved  and  acute ;  the  sides 
of  the  body,  neck,  breast,  tail,  and  sometimes 
the  head,  oniament«d  with  prolonged  showy 
feathers.  These  birds  are  active  and  lively  in 
tbeir  movements,  and  are  usually  seen  on  the 
tops  of  high  trees,  though  they  descend  in  the 
morning  and  evening  to  the  lower  branches  to 
search  for  food,  and  to  hide  in  the  thick  foliage 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  food  consists 
chiefly  of  the  seeds  of  the  teak  tree,  and  of  a 
species  of  fig;  they  also  devour  grasshoppers 
and  other  insects,  stripping  off  the  wings  and 
legs  before  swallowing  them ;  in  confinement 
they  will  eat  boiled  rice,  plantains,  and  fflmilar 
food.  Their  cry  is  loud  and  sonorous,  the  not«s 
being  In  rapid  succession;  the  first  four  notee 


are  said  by  Mr.  Lay  to  be  rlear,  exactly  in- 
tonated, and  very  sweet,  while  the  last  three 
are  repeated  in  a  kind  of  oaw,  resembling 
I  those  of  a  crow  or  daw,  though  more  refined. — 
I  The  best  known  species  is  the  greater  paradise 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


650 


BIRD  OF  PARADISE 


bird  (P.  apoda,  Linn.),  whose  body  is  aboDt  as 
large  as  a  tbruah,  though  the  thick  plamage 
makes  it  appeor  as  large  aa  a  pigeon  it  is 
aboat  12  incnes  long,  the  bill  being  1^  inch 
The  head,  throat,  and  neck  are  covered  with 
yetj  short  dense  feathers,  of  a  pale  golden  color 
on  the  head  and  hind  part  of  the  neck,  the 
base  of  the  bill  being  sarrooncled  with  black 
velvety  ones,  with  a  greenish  gloss  the  fore 
part  of  the  neck  is  green  gold,  with  the  faind 
part,  back,  wings,  and  tail  chestnut,  the  breast 
chestnat,  inclining  to  parpie.  Beneath  the 
wings  spring  a  large  nnmber  of  feathers,  with 
very  loose  webs,  some  18  inches  long  resem 
bliug  the  downy  tuits  of  feather  grass  these 
are  of  different  oolors,  some  chestnut  and  pnr 

511^  others  yellowish,  and  a  few  nearly  white 
rom  the  rnmp  spring  two  middle  tau  feath 
era,  without  webs  except  for  the  first  few 
inches  and  at  the  tip,  and  nearly  three  feet 


ed  that  tiiey  lived  In  the 
air,  buoyed  np  by  their  light  plnmage,  never 
desceoding  to  tbe  grouno,  and  resting  at 
tugbt  suspended  fi-om  the  trees  by  the  long 
t^  feathers ;  hence  their  specific  name.  Other 
hibles,  snch  as  that  they  fed  on  the  morning 
dew,  hatched  tlteir  eggs  out  between  the  shonl- 
ders,  and  came  &om  the  "  terrestrial  paradise," 
were  added  in  order  to  increase  the  valae  of 
these  beantiful  birds  in  the  Indian  markets. 
From  the  nature  of  their  plnmage  they  cannot  fly 
except  agfunst  the  wind;  when  the  feathers 
get  oisoi^ered  by  a  contrary  breece  they  fall 


to  the  gronnd,  from  which  they  cannot  read- 
ily rise;  in  this  way  many  are  canght;  othen 
are  taken  by  bird  hme,  or  shot  by  blnnt  ar- 
rows,  or  so  stupefied  by  eoeeulut  ItitUcui  as  to 
be  caught  by  the  hand.  When  at  rest  they 
seem  to  be  very  proud  of  their  beaaty,  oare- 
fhllj  pickmg  frcin  their  feothera  every  particle 


ofdnst  They  are  shy  and  difficult  of  approach. 
Batavia  and  Singapore  are  the  chief  porta 
whence  these  birds  are  exported  to  Europe: 
the  Bughis  of  Celebes  brtog  great  numbers  of 
them  thither  in  their  boats  from  Ptmna  and  tbe 
Arroo  group.  The  whole  bird  is  a  nighly  cov- 
eted ornament  for  the  heads  of  the  East  Indian 
grandees,  as  well  as  for  the  bonnets  of  the  civil- 
ized fwr  sei,— The  P.  Popuona  (Bechst)  is  a 
smaller  bird,  of  the  same  general  appearance, 
with  the  throat  and  neck  before  green;  top  of 


Soperti  Bin]  of  PindUe  (Lopbactnii  Mn), 

the  head,  nape,  and  neck  ferru^ous  yellow; 
Wkyellowwithagrs?lBh tinge;  breast, belly, 
and  wings  chestnut.  This  and  the  preceding 
species  are  said  to  fly  in  flocks,  led  tiy  a  king 
who  flies  higher  than  the  rest — The  P.  mbru 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIRD  OF  PARADISE 


651 


(YieiU.)  is  about  9  inohee  long,  and  principally 
charaeteriied  by  the  fine  red  color  of  tha  Bnb- 
axilUry  feathers,  aad  the  two  long,  slender,  rib- 


Oold-bi 


a  Bird  of  PindiM 


bon-like  shafla.— Since  the  time  of  LinneeDB 
tlie  geons  paraditea  baa  been  snbdJTided  into 
several  others.  To  the  genus  eicintturia  be- 
longs the  king  paradise  bird  (C.  regini),  about 
7  inches  long ;  it  has  the  head,  necit,  back,  tail, 
and  wings  purplish  chestnut,  with  the  crown 
approaching  to  yellow  and  the  breast  to  blood- 
Tea,  all  with  a  satiny  gloss ;  on  the  breast  is  a 
broad  bar  of  brilliant  green,  below  which  the 
belly  is  white;  the  subBiillary  feathers  are 
grayish  white,  tipped  with  shining  green ;  the 
middle  tul  feathers  are  spirally  coiled,  with 
the  webs  of  a  glossy  green  color.     The  anperb 

Eitradise  bird  {lophorina  aCra,  YieiU.)  has  a 
lack  crest,  with  the  head,  hind  neck,  and 
back  of  a  greenish  gold  color,  of  a  velvety 
appearance,  and  overlying  each  other  like  the 
scales  of  a  fish ;  the  wings  a  dull  deep  block ; 
tall  black,  with  a  blue  gloss,  and  even  ot  the 


end ;  throat  changeable  violet ;  belly  bright 
golden  green ;  subarillary  plnmes  black  and 
velvety,  tising  upon  the  back  and  resembling  a 


seoond  pair  of  winga.  The  gold-breasted  para- 
dise bin!  {Parotia  »e!tpennU,  Vieill.)  is  also 
crested;  the  top  of  the  head,  cheeks,  and 
throat  changeable  violet  black;  fore  neck  and 
breast  brilliant  changeable  green ;  back  deep 
black,  with  a  violet  gloss ;  wings  and  tail  black ; 
the  sabaiillary  feathers  are  long  and  black, 
with  loose  webs  like  those  of  an  ostrich ;  on 
each  side  of  the  head  are  three  long  feathers, 
webless  except  at  the  end,  where  they  are 
spread  into  an  ova!  form.— Mr.  A.  R,  Wallace, 
in  his  "Malay  Archipelago,"  describes  and 
figures  18  species  which  are  called  paradise 
birds.  Of  these  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  magnificent  bird  of  paradise  (diphylioda 

riota),  the  generic  name  being  derived  from 
donble  mantle  which  covers  the  back.  It 
is  of  a  general  rufous  color  abov&  and  of  bril- 
liant green  below,  with  a  tuft  of  beantiful  yel- 
low feathers  on  the  hind  neck,  marked  at  the 
end  by  a  black  spot.    A  more  rare  and  beanti- 


pendages  prolonged  from  the 
plumes  on  the  sides.    The  long-tailed  paradtM? 
bird  (epimaekut  magnv)  has  the  tml  more  than 
2  feet  long,  glossed  with  most  beantiful  colors. 


^ 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


653  BIl 

and  broad  plumeB  aprinffiag  from  tLe  udes  of 
the  breast.  Several  ot^er  birda,  of  estquiiite 
plumage,  iDt«nnediat«  between  tbe  aljove 
families,  are  deacribed  hj  Mr.  Wallace. — No 
description  can  ^ve  any  idea  of  the  graceful 
forms  and  brilliant  hues  of  the  paradise  birds; 
our  own  beantiful  humming  birda  come  nearest 
to  them  in  fairj-like  structure  of  their  plumage, 
and  in  tlie  gorgeous,  metallic,  and  ever-chang- 
ing Instre  of  their  colore. 

BUDS  {ares),  a  claas  of  vertebrate  biped 
animala,  eselnsively  oviparoas,  and  with  very 
few  excepdona  covered  with  a  feathered  coat, 
adapted  more  or  less  perfectly  for  flight.  They 
have  frames  penetrated  through  all  their  parts 
by  air  cells,  which  facilitate  motion  by  impart- 
ing lightneas.  By  means  of  nests,  which  serve 
as  substitutes  for  internal  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion, they  develop  their  young  after  the  eictn- 
sion  of  the  ova.  The  last  two  peculiarities 
distingnish  birds  trora  ^1  other  animals.  The 
familiea  which  have  not  the  power  of  flight 
are  few  both  in  regard  to  the  number  and 
varieties  of  species,  and  to  the  individuals  com- 
posing tliera.  They  are  all  formed  either  for 
motion  on  the  land  or  in  the  wat«r  exclusively. 
In  all  these  instances  the  feathery  covennga  are 
incompletely  developed,  possessinga  proximate 
resemblance  to  tlie  hairy  covering  of  certain 
lond  and  water  animals.    The  ostricli  and  the 

Sengnin  may  be  named  as  typical  of  these  two 
istinct  forms  of  exception,  both  in  regard  to 
their  inability  to  raise  themselves  into  the  air 
and  their  exceptional  hair-like  plumage. — In 
tlie  internal  organization  of  the  entire  class  of 
birds  there  are  other  and  more  noticeable  an- 
atomic pecnliarities.  Their  skolls  are  without 
the  snturea  that  are  found  in  mammalia,  form- 
ing consolidated  bones.  These  are  joined  to 
the  neck  or  spinal  column  by  a  joint,  so  con- 
structed as  to  give  fVeedom  of  motion  in  hori- 
zontal and  lateral  directions,  without  danger 
of  dislocation  or  injury.  In  the  place  of  teeth 
ihey  have  upper  and  lower  jaws,  forming 
unitedly  the  bill,  and  composed  of  a  hard  horny 
substance.  In  several  familiea  of  birds,  as  the 
parrots,  the  upper  part  of  the  bill  is  articulated 
with  the  skull.  More  commonly  the  skuU  and 
upper  Jaw  are  united  by  means  of  an  elastic  bony 

Elate,  by  the  interposition  of  which  the  brain 
I  protected  from  itduries  to  which  it  would 
otherwise  be  exposed.  The  upper  extremities 
of  birds,  homologous  with  the  arms  or  fore 
legs  of  other  animals,  differ  essentially  in  never 
being  used  as  prehensile  organs,  or  for  motion 
in  contact  with  the  earth,  as  in  walking  or 
rnnning.  Their  use  is  almost  exclusively  for 
flight,  and  they  serve  aa  the  basis  of  the 
winga.  The  cervical  vertebrte  of  birda  are 
more  numerous  than  those  of  mammals.  In 
the  latter  their  number  is  uniformly  7,  while 
in  birds  there  are  never  fewer  than  10,  and 
in  some  instances  there  are  as  many  as  3S. 
The  dorsal  vertebrre  are  more  fixed  and  limited 
in  their  motion  than  the  cervical,  and  are  nsn- 
^y  10  in  number,  rarely  11,  and  in  some  in- 


stancea  only  7  or  8.  The  pelvis  in  birds  ia  a 
simple  elongated  plate,  open  below,  terminated 
by  the  rump,  which  supports  the  tail  feathers. 


A  Bdd.—I.  Bkclefam.    9.  NIctltilliie  Men 


:nium  or  ata 


:  Bone. 


The  breast  bone  or  lUmvm  is  perhaps  the 
most  noticeable  feature  in  the  bony  skeleton 
of  birda.     It  ia  also  one  of  t]ie  must  important 

Sorts  of  the  osseous  framework,  as  it  forms  the 
aae  for  the  insertion  of  the  most  powerful  of 
the  muscles  of  flight.  Ita  prolongation  or  crest 
determines  with  infallible  accuracy  the  degree 
of  power  of  flight  of  ita  possessor,  and  is  en- 
tirely wanting  in  those  destitute  of  the  power 
of  raising  themselves  in  the  air.  The  merry- 
thought (/ercvia)  should  be  here  mentioned  aa 
another  pecnliarity  in  birds  of  flight,  and  want- 
ing only  in  those  not  possessed  of  that  power. 
The  bony  framework  of  the  lower  extremities 
comprises  a  thigh  bone,  two  leg  bones,  a  meta- 
tarsal or  natle  bone,  and  the  bones  of  the  toes. 
The  last  vary  in  number,  and  terminate  in 
nails,  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  the  an- 
imal economy,  according  to  the  habits  of  the 
family  possessing  them.  The  variations  in  tlio 
mechanism  of  the  lower  extremities  are  often 
very  curious  and  striking.  The  birds  which 
roost,  and  more  eBpeciolly  those  which  are  in 
the  habit  of  standing  long  at  a  time  upon  one 
leg,  are  enabled,  by  tbe  remarkable  arrange- 
ment of  the  booea  and  the  muscles  attached  to 
them,  to  do  either  with  very  little  effort  or  fa- 
tigue. Aa  might  he  expected,  in  birda  of  vig- 
orous flight  we  find  tbe  pectoral  muscles  pre- 
senting the  greatest  development.  These  olten 
exceed  all  the  other  muscles  in  weight  and 
bnlk.  The  great  jiectoral  and  the  middle  pec- 
toral are  antagonistic  forces,  alternately  de- 
pressing and  elevating  the  wings,  while  the 
small  pectorals,  or  third  pair,  aid  in  varpng  the 
manner  and  character  of  the  flight.  Tbe  mus- 
cles of  the  lower  extremities  vary  greatly  with 
the  habits  of  the  bird,  and  especially  according 


Digitized  byGoOglC- 


aa  they  are  (-limbers,  wtiders,  svimmera,  perch- 
era,  &c.  Bvsides  their  muscalar  intef^ments, 
all  birds  have  horaj  l>eekB  and  nsits,  a  Heeh^ 
cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  seal?  covering 
to  the  lower  eitremities,  wherever  they  are 
liare.  Tiieir  pecuiiar  covering,  found  more  or 
less  perfectly  m  the  whole  class,  and  in  no  oth- 
er kind  of  animals,  ia  their  plumage.  In  cer- 
tain families,  as  that  of  the  ostrich,  the  plu- 
mage makes  a  remarkably  close  approach  to  the 
hairy  coverings  of  land  mammalB.  In  other 
famUies,  such  as  the  divers,  the  aloadce,  the 
guillemots,  &c.,  the  plumage  more  nearly  ap- 
proaches the  furry  coats  of  the  otter  and  the 
seal.  The  plumage  of  all  birfs  of  this  order 
is  close,  oily,  and  often  glos!iy,  and  the  skin  is 
moreover  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  down. 
In  the  young  of  birds  the  proximate  resem- 
blance of  their  plumage  to  the  hairy  covering 
of  mammals  is  even  more  marked.  The  bills 
of  birds  enable  the  raptorial  Eamllies  to  tear 
tbeir  prey  inta  fragments;  they  supply  to  the 


I  DlgeBUTe  Apinntiis:  o,  Ciop;  ff,  titeariL  *.  Tnrim. 
6,6.  UroDchlal  TntHL    H  Lungfc    i.  Boo«  of  [ho  Wing. 

fly-catcher,  the  awallow,  and  the  whip-poor- 
will  eiqnisitely  contrived  insect  traps ;  they 
give  to  the  woodcock,  the  snipe,  and  other 
waders,  the  power  of  determining  what  is  suit- 
able for  food,  with  no  other  aid  than  the  most 
delicately  senutive  nervous  membranes  of  their 
long  probe-like  jaws.^-In  birds,  the  alimentary 
canal  comprises  an  (esophagus,  a  crop,  a  mem- 
branous stomach,  a  gizzard,  an  intestinal  canal, 
and  a  cloaca,  in  which  the  nrinary  ducts  also 
terminate.  The  gizzard  is  a  powerful  organ 
in  promoting  digestion,  especially  with  galli- 
naceouB  and  other  graminivorous  birds.— That 
peculiority  of  structure,  however,  which  moat 
fully  distinguishes  this  from  every  other  class 
of  animals,  is  the  immediate  and  constant  con- 
nection of  the  Inngs  with  numerous  air  cells 
*hat  permeate  the  entire  frame,  extending  even 
throughout  the  bony  portions.  These  roem- 
branouB  air  cells  occupy  a  very  considerable 


DS  6S3 

portion  both  of  the  chest  and  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  have  the  most  direct  and  uninter- 
rupted communication  with  the  lungs.  The 
long  cylindrical  bones  are  so  many  air  tubes. 
Even  the  ftat  bones  are  occupied  by  a  cellular 
bony  network,  filled  with  air.  The  large  bills 
in  certain  genera,  even  the  very  quiU  feathers 
when  fully  developed,  receive  more  or  less  air 
from  the  limgs,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  birds. 
By  these  means  the  erectile  crests  of  a  number 
of  species  ore  alternately  depressed  or  elevated. 
The  design  of  these  chains  of  ^r  cells,  pene- 
trating into  every  portion  of  the  structure  of 
birds,  is  obvious.  Lightness  of  the  body  for 
motion  in  the  air  or  water,  or  on  the  land,  is 
indispensable.  Hence  we  had  in  birds  of  the 
highest  and  most  rapid  flight  the  largest  supply 
of  air  cells.  This  pneumatic  apparatus  is  also 
supposed  to  assist  materially  in  the  oxidation 
of  tne  venous  blood,  and  the  air  cont^nad  in 
tlie  cells  is  presumed  to  operate  upon  the  blood 
vessels  and  lymphatics  in  contact  with  them. 
The  volume  of  air  which  birds  are  thus  enabled 
to  introduce  into  their  bodies,  and  the  esse  and 
power  with  which  they  can  at  will  expel  it, 
taken  in  connection  with  their  peculiar  organs 
of  Toicef  explain  how  some  of  the  smallest 
members  of  the  class,  aa  the  common  oanaty 
bird  or  the  black-poll  warbler  of  North  Ameri- 
ca, are  enabled  to  give  utterance  to  snob  pow- 
erfiil  notes,  and  to  continue  them  so  long  with- 
oat  any  apparent  effort.  The  construction  of 
tlie  larynx  m  this  class  is  very  pecniiar,  beat- 
ing a  remarkable  resemblance  to  certain  wind 
instruments.  This  organ  is  made  up  of  two 
parts,  the  true  rima  glottidu,  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  windpipe,  and  the  bronchial  larynx, 
which  is  fiimished  with  a  peculiarly  tense  mem- 
brane, perfonning  the  same  duty  as  the  reed 
in  the  clorineL  The  song  of  birds  is  the  ex- 
pression of  amorons  desire.  It  is  confined  to 
the  males,  and  in  a  state  of  nature  is  beard 
only  during  the  breeding  season.  Many  birds 
have  no  power  of  song.  The  call  of  birds, 
however,  is  common  to  both  sexes  and  oU 
species,  and  is  their  nniversal  language.  Many 
birds,  which  are  mute  in  the  countries  to 
which  they  migrate  in  the  winter  months,  and 
have  the  reputation  of  being  entirely  voice- 
less, are  clamorous  when  they  breed,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  European  woodcock  (teolopaa 
ru*ticola\  and  the  jacksnipe,  or  judcock  {tcolo- 
pax  gallinuta).  bome  birds  are  known  by 
their  clang  of  tongues  in  their  migrations, 
clamoring  in  order  to  regulate  their  squadrons, 
OS  wild  geese,  cranes,  and  man;  of  the  waders, 
whioli  rise  voiceless  when  they  are  alarmed  by 
the  sportsman,  and  feed  in  the  daytime  silent 
Others  are,  so  far  as  we  know,  silent  at  all 
times,  except  when  they  spring  upon  the  wing, 
in  any  sudden  alarm.  Some  again,  as  the  pas- 
senger pigeons,  make  their  migrations  in  ulence, 
take  wmg  in  silence  when  alarmed,  yet  when 
alone  in  the  woods  make  the  solitudes  sono- 
rous; others,  like  rooks,  are  habitnolly  noisy, 
especially  in  the  breeding  season,  yet  rise  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


654  BE 

tiocka  without  mnnd  or  rignal.  In  some  epe- 
ciefl  which  do  not  sing,  there  is  m  atnatoiT'  oall 
whicu  answers  the  purpose  of  soiu;,  peoojiar  to 
the  mftle  bird  during  the  seaeon  of  the  female's 
incnbation,  as  the  clear  donble  whistle  of  the 
American  quai),  the  crj  of  the  cockoo,  the 
cooing  of  the  dove,  the  harsh  craik  of  the'  land- 
rail, and  the  iti-Ibti-iet  of  the  male  of  the 
English  snipe,  as  it  isfalselj  called  in  the  United 
States  (leotopwt  WiU»nii),  which  is  either  dis- 
continned,  or  changed  into  something  different, 
when  the  season  and  the  desire  for  reproducing 
their  species  have  passed  away.  As  a  general 
rule,  aquatic  fowl  are  more  nois^  than  land 
bird^  sea  fowl  than  fresh-water  birds,  noctur- 
nal than  diornal  birds,  domesticated  fowls  than 
those  in  a  state  of  nature,  birds  which  congre- 
gate than  those  of  soiitary  habits,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  common  poultry,  migratory 
birds,  which  pass  much  of  their  time  on  the 
wing,  than  those  which  dwell  on  the  ground. 
Nevertheless,  while  some  sea  birds  which  con- 
gregate are  deafenmg  in  their  clangor,  they  tiy 
totally  indepeudent  one  of  the  other,  not  regn- 
lating  their  movements  by  Mgnals  of  any  kind ; 
others,  as  many  varieties  of  the  tringm,  leolo- 
paeida,  and  eKaradriada,  while  thef  otter  no 
sounds,  yet  wheel  as  regularly  and  orderly,  in 
obedience  to  some  concerted  ngnal,  as  a  well 
disciplined  regiment  of  horse.  And  again, 
while  some  migratory  birds  are  Tociferous  in 
the  extreme,  others  are  totally  silent,  and  some 
non-migratory  species,  socb  as  jackdaws  and 
rooks,  exceed  all  others  in  fondness  for  their 
own  voices. — The  large  proportionate  develop- 
ment of  the  brain  and  of  the  nervoos  system  of 
birds  is  another  distinguishing  feature  of  their 
organization.  In  many  cases  they  exhibit  an 
apparent  superiority  to  the  corresponding  or- 
gans in  mammalia  of  the  same  relative  size  and 
weight  Thus,  for  instance,  while  in  man  the 
size  of  the  brain  in  proportion  to  that  of  the 
whole  body  varies  from  A  to  ^  part,  that  of 
the  common  canary  bird  is  ^.  There  are, 
however,  great  Tariations  in  this  respect  in 
different  families  and  even  in  different  genera 
of  the  same  fiunilies.  Thus,  while  the  brain 
of  the  goose  is  ^Ve  ^  ^^^  entire  body,  that  of 
the  eagle  is  7^,  and  that  of  the  common  Euro- 
pean sparrow  is  ^.  It  differs  chiefly  from  the 
same  organ  in  mammalia  in  the  presence  of 
certain  tabercles  corresponding  to  the  eorporti 
ttriata  of  other  animals,  and  the  absence  of 
several  parts  fonnd  in  the  brains  of  the  latter. 
— The  senses  of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing  are 
BQpposed  to  be  most  acute  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  families  of  the  class,  much  more  so 
than  that  of  taste,  which  is  found  well  de- 
veloped in  only  a  few  families,  and  still  more 
than  that  of  touch,  which  is  presumed  to  be 
totally  wanting.     The  organs  of  siaht  are  of 

Seat  proportionate  magnitude,  and  occupy  a 
[■go  proportion  of  the  cerebral  developments, 
They  are  constructed  with  a  wondernil  con- 
trivance not  inaptly  compared  with  so  many 
peculiar  kinds  of  " self-ai^nsting  telescopes." 


They  are  also  all  provided  with  a  very  cnrtona 
apparatos  called  the  nictitating  membrane. 
This  is  a  fold  of  the  tvniea  eonjwietita,  to  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  capable  of  being  drawn  ont  to 
cover  the  eye  like  a  curtain,  and  to  be  with- 
drawn at  will,  enabling  the  possessor  to  meet 
the  brightest  rays  of  the  aun  nndazzled  by  iu 
brilliance,  and  protecting  the  oigan  from  in- 
juries. With  only  a  few  exceptions,  birds 
have  no  external  organs  of  hearing  correspond- 
iag  to  an  ear.  We  And  instead  the  aperture 
called  fotatia  avdiloriiu.  The  internal  mem- 
branes of  this  organ  are  connected  with  each 
other  by  means  of  the  ur  cells  of  the  skull,  and 
have  but  a  single  auditory  bone.  Among  dif- 
ferent authors  there  is  much  diversity  of  opin- 
ion in  regard  to  the  development  of  the  sense 
of  smell  in  birds.  The  experiments  of  Audu- 
bon and  Bachman  would  seem  to  prove  that, 
even  in  those  families  in  which  this  sense  is 
presumed  to  reach  ita  highest  point  of  perfec- 
tion, the  members  are  directed  by  sight  rather 
than  by  smell  to  their  prey.  Still  it  is  quite 
certdn  that  they  possess  certain  nervous  de- 
velopments corresponding  to  olfactory  organs, 
which,  if  not  designed  for  smell,  possess  no 
very  apparent  pnrpose.  The  sense  of  taste  has 
a  limited  degree  of  development  in  a  few  fami- 
lies, snch,  for  instance,  as  the  divers,  the  wa- 
ders in  part,  and  the  several  families  of  hum- 
ming birds,  honey-snckers,  and  a  few  other*. 
As  a  general  rule  it  is  very  imperfect,  or  even 
wholly  wanting.  (For  the  character  of  tlie 
earliest  birds,  see  Arcraoptertz,  and  FoeeiL 
FooTPBiNTS.)— The  various  contrivances  and 
instinctive  expedients,  by  means  of  which  the 
entire  class  of  avet  develop  tlie  germs  of  their 
mature  or  perfect  ova,  are  remarkable  as  well 
as  distinguishing  features  in  the  economy  of 
their  propagation.  They  are  pecnliar  to  the 
class,  and  are  without  any  known  exceptions. 
They  are  shared  with  them  by  no  other  clas« 
of  animals,  with  only  occasional  but  remote 
approximations,  apparent  exceptions  rather 
than  real.  Every  mdividoal  of  toe  entire  rlass 
deposits  the  matured  egg  without  any  di»- 
tinguiahable  development  of  the  young  bird. 
Lightness  and  buoyancy  of  body,  whether  for 
ftiglit  in  the  air  or  for  freedom  of  motion  on 
land  or  in  water,  are  essential  prerequisites  in 
the  animal  economy  of  all  the  various  familiea 
of  the  class.  80,  to  nearly  the  sane  extent, 
is  also  their  abundant  reproduction.  The  vast 
nombers  of  their  enemies,  and  the  many  cas- 
ualties to  which  tliey  are  exposed,  render  a 
large  and  constant  propagation  necessary  for 
their  preservation.  It  is  quite  evident  tbat 
any  habit  at  all  corresponding  with  the  gesta- 
tion of  viviparous  animals  would  be  inconsis- 
tent with  bolli  of  these  reqniremeuts^  It 
would  destroy  lightness  of  body,  prevent  free- 
dom of  motion,  expose  to  innumerable  danger* 
from  enemies,  hiuaer  from  procuring  food,  and 
make  fecundity  an  imuos^bility.  Thus  the 
common  qnul  or  partriage  {ortyx  Virginiana) 
of  the  Atlantic  states  has  been  known  to  bavc 


Digitized  byGoOglc.. 


S6  fl^p  in  a  dngle  nest  B«fbre  matorit;  the 
produiit  of  this  nest  ezoeeda  in  weight  their 
parent  at  least  SO  fold.  To  provide  for  these, 
or  but  one  of  them,  by  internal  organs  of  do- 
velopment,  would  be  imposaible.  The  nests 
oorrespond  in  their  uges  to  the  uterine  organs 
of  reproduction  of  manmalia,  and  yet  more  to 
the  marsupial  poaches  of  certain  Australian 
quadrupeds.  They  serve  as  external  organs 
indiapeosable  to  the  developmeDt  of  the  im- 
mature young,  tram  the  first  appearanoe  of 
the  germ  in  the  egg  to  a  maturity  more  or 
less  advanced,  and  Tarying  greatly  with  the 
&mily;  from  the  oetrieh  that  comes  into 
the  world  able  to  shift  tor  itself  from  the 
very  shell,  to  th^  blind  and  naked  oKpring  of 
other  families  that  are  utterly  helpless  when 
first  hatched.  For  this  development  of  tiie 
young  birds  there  are  two  essentials — the 
external  receptacle  which,  though  not  always 
with  eiaotness,  we  call  nests,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  a  certain  nearly  flxed  or  uniform  amount 
of  caloric.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  latter  ia  gen- 
erated by  contact  with  the  bodies  of  the  parent 
birds.  In  some  it  is  aided  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  In  a  few  instances  it  is  effected  by  heat 
derived  &om  vegetable  decomporition^  or  from 
the  sun's  rays,  without  any  parental  mterven- 
tion  after  the  deposition  of  the  e^. — Attempts 
have  been  made,  with  partial  snooess,  to  clas- 
sify the  various  architectural  contrivances,  or 
their  substitutes,  to  be  found  connected  with 
the  nesting  and  incubation  of  birds.  According 
to  the  system  of  Prof  James  Rennie  of  King's 
college,  London,  the  entire  class  are  ranged  in 
IS  groups:  miners,  ground  hnildera,  masons, 
carpenters,  platform  builders,  basket  makers, 
weavers,  tailors,  felt  makers,  cementerH,  dome 
builders,  and  parasites.  The  objections  to  this 
arrangement  are,  that  it  is  imperfect  in  itself 
and  that  it  corresponds  to  none  of  the  usual 
systems  of  ornithological  classification.  The 
large  number  of  species  which,  withcnt  being 
miners  or  carpenters,  invariably  oocnpy  for 
their  nests  corresponding  wtes,  namely,  holes 
in  the  earth  or  hollow  trees,  have  no  appro- 
priate place.  Some  of  these  have  been  improp- 
erly classed  as  parasites.  Nor  is  there  a  well 
defined  place  for  the  large  variety  of  species 
belonging  to  every  order  which  resort  to  the 
bare  ground,  making  no  perceptible  nest,  or 
for  that  remarkable  family  of  Australian  birds, 
the  mound  builders,  which  combine  something 
both  of  tlie  miner  and  the  ground  builder.  It 
seldom  if  ever  conforms,  in  a  single  family 
eveiL  with  any  known  classification.  Thus,  the 
hawks  are  platform  builders,  ground  builders, 
OHJCupants  of  hollow  trees,  &c. ;  the  swaUows 
are  miners,  cementers,  dome  builders,  masons, 
&o. — The  mining  birds  compose  a  very  large 

K>np,  belonging  to  nearly  every  order,  and 
ring  DO  other  common  peonliarity.  They 
may  be  divided  into  two  well  marked  subdi- 
visions :  the  true  miners,  which  excavate  holes 
for  thenuelres,  in  which  they  constmot  their 
nesta ;  and  those  whieh,  without  mining,  occupy 
94  TOL.  11.-42 


DS  655 

rites  precisely  unular.  Of  these  a  portion  are 
supposed  to  be  parasitic,  availing  themselves  of 
the  labors  of  others.  Among  the  true  miners 
may  be  named  the  common  bank  swallow, 
found  nearly  throughout  the  habitable  globe, 
the  bee-eaters  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  tht 
whole  genus  known  as  storm  petrels  or  mother 
Carey's  chickens:  as  also  the  several  genera 
of  puffins,  kingfishers,  penguins,  &c.  Among 
miners  only  by  occupancy  may  be  named  the 
wood  wren  and  the  winter  wren  of  North 
America,  the  black  guilleraot,  and  the  burrow- 
ing owls  of  North  and  South  America.  The  last 
are  parasitic  miners,  occuOTing  invariably  holes 
dug  by  other  animals. — -^e  ground  builders 
include  by  far  the  largest  group  of  birds  of 
every  order,  and  nearly  of  every  tamily,  and 
cannot  be  defined  with  exactness.  In  it  must 
be  classed  many  which  build  no  nest;  others 
that  do  or  do  not  construct  nests,  according  to 
circumstances ;  those  which  build  on  the  ground 
nsnally,  bat  frequently  elsewhere ;  some  that 
are  usually  ground  bmlders,  but  at  times  true 
miners,  like  the  skylark  of  Eon^  &b.  The 
nighthawks  and  whip-poor-wills  of  America 
make  no  nest,  the  former  depositing  their  ^^ 
upon  the  bare  earth,  always  selecting  a  site 
corresponding  in  color  to  their  eggs,  the  latter 
selecting  dried  leaves  as  better  sailed  to  the 
same  purpose  of  concealment.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  the  shore  birds,  waders,  gulls,  &c., 
make  nse  of  the  bare  sand,  with  only  a  slight 
excavation  for  a  nest.  Others  of  the  same 
species  are  more  painstakingj  and  construct 
well  formed  nests.  The  herring  gulls  osaally 
build  a  slight  nest  on  the  ground,  but,  after 
having  be«i  repeatedly  robbed  by  eggers,  the 
same  birds  are  known  to  construct  large  and 
elaborate  nests  in  trees  or  on  precipitous 
digs.  The  mound  builders  of  Australia  (see 
Bbcbh  Tcrkbt)  combine  in  part  the  habits  of 
the  miners  with  those  of  the  ground  builders, 
in  a  manner  peculiar  to  that  remarkable  family. 
Among  the  true  ground  builders  may  be  cited 
nearly  all  the  valtares,  the  entire  snb-family 
of  eiretda  or  hen-harriers,  the  eonotrickia  or 
song  sparrows  of  America,  nearly  all  the 
waders,  ducks,  geeae,  swans,  guUs,  terns,  Ac, 
with  more  or  fewer  representatives  in  every 
order. — The  birds  classed  as  masons  are  com- 
paratively few  in  number  of  species.  They  are 
so  called  because  they  construct  their  nests,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  with  walls,  coverings,  barri- 
cades, Ac,  of  mud  or  clay.  Of  this  class  the 
cliff  swallow  of  North  America  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  examples.  The  house  swal- 
lows both  of  Europe  and  America,  the  thmah 
and  blackbird  of  Europe,  the  robin  and  the 
pewit  flycatcher  of  North  America,  areamons 
the  most  familiar  examples.  The  baker  bird 
of  South  America,  the  most  skilful  and  remark- 
able of  this  class,  constracts  a  neat  in  the  most 
exposed  sitnationB,  hut  at  a  considerable  height, 
hemispherical,  or  in  the  form  of  a  baker's  oven. 
The  opening  of  this  nest  is  lateral,  and  is  twice 
as  high  as  it  is  wide,  and  the  interior  is  divided 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


656 

into  two  ohambera  bj  a  partition  beginaing  at 

the  ^trance. — Tlie  tme  carpenters  are  also  a 
oomparatiTelj  small  Kronp,  oonaiHting  of  those 
which  eicavate  bj  their  own  labor  holes  for 
their  nesta  in  trees.  The  large  and  widely  dis- 
tributed family  of  woodpeckers  are  the  most 
familiar  examples  of  the  carpenter  bird.  With 
them  are  also  classed  the  toucans  of  South  Ame- 
rica, the  tomtits,  the  wtTneota,  and  the  nnt- 
hatchee.  Among  the  more  common  examples 
of  the  birds  which,  withont  being  trne  carpen- 
ters, resort  to  similar  places  for  their  nests, 
may  be  mentioned  the  sparrowhawk,  the  bine- 
bird,  the  purple  martm,  the  whit«-bellied 
swallow,  and  the  hoose  wren  of  North  Amer- 
ica, several  species  of  owls,  and  many  other. 
— The  platform  builders  are  a  small  bat  distinct 
class,  embracing  most  of  the  hawk  tribe,  the 
wood  pigeons,  the  cuckoos  of  America,  &o. 
All  the  eagles  ore  true  platform  bnilders,  and 
many  of  them  oonstraot  elaborate  and  remark- 
able nests.  The  nest  of  the  white-headed  eagle 
is  a  massive  sCmctQre,  sometimes  forming  en 
exact  cnbe  five  feet  sqnare.  The  martial  eagle 
of  soathem  Africa  also  constmcte  a  large  plat- 
form, said  to  be  able  to  support  the  largest 
man.  These  nests  are  perfectly  flat,  with  no 
other  secnrity  against  the  eggs  (always  few  in 
number)  rollmg  off  than  the  constant  presence 
of  one  of  the  parents.  The  common  passenger 
pigeon,  the  tm^e  dore,  and  the  yellow-billed 
ouokoo  of  North  America  are  the  most  famil- 
iar examples  of  this  class;  as  also  in  Europe 
are  the  wood  pigeons,  the  ringdoves,  the  her- 
ons, and  the  storks. — Another  larger  class, 
whose  architectural  accomplishments  are  even 
more  remarkable,  are  the  basket-makers.  Many 
of  these  exhibit  an  elaboration  and  an  ingenuity 
beyondtbepowerof hnmanskilltoimitate.  The 
vireos  of  North  America  weave  a  cnp-ahaped 
basket  nest,  pendent  from  some  convenient  twig, 
the  leaves  of  which  conceal  them  from  enemies. 
The  European  bnltfinch,  the  American  mock- 
ing bird,  the  red-winged  blackbird,  the  yellow- 
headed  troopials  of  North  America,  the  ravens, 
crows,  and  magpies,  and  the  eyanoti*  omnieolor 
of  Chili,  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  more 
familiar  or  remarkable  of  this  interesting  group. 
The  last-named  bird  attaches  a  nest  of  singnlar 
beauty  and  elaborateness  to  the  stems  of  the 
large  reeds  of  that  coontry,  tonstmcted  to  re- 
semble BO  closely  the  ripened  seed  vessels  of 
the  plant  aa  to  deceive  even  the  most  wary. 
The  locDst-eating  thmsb  of  sonthem  Africa 
bnilde  a  large  basket  fabric,  containing  many 
cells  or  separate  nests,  from  S  to  20  In  number, 
the  joint  producte  of  and  occupied  by  as  many 
purs.  The  pensile  grossbeak  swings  its  basket 
nest  from  a  pendent  twig  over  a  running 
etreonLand  makes  its  entrance  from  the  bot- 
tom. The  sociable  grossbeaks  unite  in  the 
oonstmction  of  a  laige,  basket-like  cluster  of 
nests,  sometimes  contaming  200  or  800  in  a 
ringle  stmcture.  The  weavers  are  closely  al- 
lied to  the  preceding  clara,  differing  chiefly  in 
their  more  pensile  nests,  and  in  the  Rnpa4or 


,  nicety  of  thdr  stmotnre.  The  weaver  oriole 
of  Senegal  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
this  class.  The  Baltimore  oriole  of  America, 
the  Indian  sparrow  of  southern  Asia,  the 
crested  fiy-oatcher  of  sonthem  Africa,  and  the 
yellowhanimer  of  Enrope,  are  among  the  more 
familiar  and  distinpiuhing  instances  of  the 
weavera.  Hardly  distingoishable  from  the  two 
preceding  gronps  are  the  few  speciee  classed 
as  tailors.  The  orchard  oriole  of  America  is 
hardly  entitled  to  be  so  classed,  though  nsnally 
quoted  as  a  true  tailor.  The  best  known  in- 
stance is  that  of  the  »i/hia  tatoria  of  the  east- 
ern continent,  which  sews  a  dead  leaf  to  a 
living  one,  and  between  them  oonstmcta  its 
tiny  nest.  The  blue  yellow-back  warbler  of 
America  is  another  remarkable  tulor,  though 
its  wondered  skill  is  as  yet  little  known  or  ap- 
preciated.— The  felt  makers  form  quite  a  large 
and  well  marked  gronp  of  artificera  among 
birds.  These  arrange  the  materials  of  their 
nests,  though  more  loosely,  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  in  which  are  put  together  the  fibres  of 
felt.  These  materials  are,  to  all  appearances, 
corded  together.  How  ttiis  is  done  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  e^laiued.  The  chafiinch  of  Eu- 
rope, the  goldfinch  of  America,  the  canai; 
bird,  and  the  whole  family  of  humming  birds, 
may  be  given  as  exemplifications  of  this  pteon- 
liar  and  interesting  group. — The  cementers 
compose  a  very  small  but  well  distinguished 
clasB,  all  the  members  cS  which,  so  far  as  is  at 

E resent  known,  belong  to  tlie  family  of  awal- 
>ws.  These  birds  secrete,  from  glands  on 
each  side  of  the  head,  a  strongly  adheuve 
glue,  which  is  dissolved  in  their  saliva,  and 
witii  this  unite  the  materials  of  their  nests,  and 
fasten  them  to  their  proposed  sites.  The  chim- 
ney swallow  of  North  America  is  the  most 
familiar  example  of  this  group,  while  the  eaon- 
lent  swallow  of  the  East  is  the  moat  remark- 
able.— The  dome  builders  might  withont  in- 
convenience be  merged  in  the  several  gronps 
of  weavers  and  basket^makers.  Tbey  consist 
of  a  large  number  of  species  belonging  to  a 
great  variety  of  families,  which  construct  cov- 
ered nests,  entered  by  holee  in  the  side.  Thew 
nests  are  more  common  in  tropical  than  in 
cold  countries.  The  marsh  wrens,  several  of 
the  tylviecla  (as  the  Maryland  yellow-throat), 
the  golden-crowned  thrush  or  oven  bird,  th« 
meadow  lark,  and  the  quail,  of  North  America, 
are  among  ^e  most  &miliar  representatives 
of  this  group  on  this  continent.  In  Europe  it 
embraces  the  common  wren,  the  chiff-cha^ 
the  hay-bird,  the  wood  wren,  the  sparrow,  the 
magpie,  and  the  bottie-tit,  among  its  best 
known  members. — The  last  group  is  one  which 
it  is  not  easy  to  clasnfy.  The  true  parautea, 
those  which,  like  the  cnokoo  of  Europe,  the 
cow  blackbirds  of  North  America,  and  its  oon- 
gener  of  South  America,  never  rear  their  own 
young,  but  intrude  their  offspring  upon  stran- 
gers, always  laying  their  eggs  in  the  nesta  of 
other  species,  are  a  small  bnt  well  marked 
olaas.    The  larger  number  which  resort  to  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIRD'S  BEST 

chosen  Blt«B  oFottier  birds,  bat  haSA  their  own 
nests  and  resrtheir  own  jonng,  are  less'dearlj 
defined,  becsnse  thej  ore  not  oniformlj  psra- 
sitio  in  tbeir  habits.  Of  this  latter  class,  the 
house  sparrow  of  Enrope  as  often  makes  its 
own  nest  as  it  seizes  npon  that  of  another 
epeoies.  Nearlj  or  quite  all  of  this  class, 
nsnallT  marked  as  parasites,  are  so  onl;  occa- 
rionall;,  and  bj  force  of  ciroamstanoeB.  The 
tme  members  of  the  gronp  are  not  manj,  and, 
so  far  aa  is  at  present  known,  are  confined  h> 
the  two  genera  etteulvt,  or  true  onokoos,  and 
molothrut,  or  cow  birds. — According  to  Mr,  A, 
R.  Wallaoe,  birds'  nests  maj  be  divided  into 
two  clssses;  those  which  are  exposed  or  im- 
perfectly concealed,  and  those  which  are  cov- 
ered, or  so  placed  that  the  sitting  bird  is  ef- 
feotoolly  hidden.  Birds  may  also  be  divided 
into  two  gronps,  aceordii^  to  the  difference  of 
coloration  in  the  sexes:  in  some  speoiss  varied 
and  brilliant  colors  oooor  in  both  sexes;  in 
others,  a  more  nnmerons  class,  the  male  is 
brighter  than  the  female.  With  bnt  few  ei- 
ceptions,  Ur.  Wallace  finds  that  birds  of  oon- 
spionons  color  bnild  concealed  nests,  while  in 
species  where  the  female  is  dull  the  nest  is 
fally  exposed.  Among  American  birds  in 
which  the  females  ore  bright  and  oonspicuons, 
and  which  accordingly  conceal  their  nesta,  or 
make  them  of  a  color  to  deceive,  or  of  a  form 
or  depth  to  hide  the  sitting  bird,  are:  the 
kingflaher,  woodpecker,  Oarolina  parrot,  Bal- 
timore oriole,  humming  birds,  magpie,  many 
bright  warblers,  sparrows,  and  finches,  meadow 
lark,  Zenaida  dove,  wild  turkey,  qneul,  Oaoada, 
peonated,  and  willow  grouse,  and  summer 
duck.  Among  onr  birds  in  which  both  sexes 
are  dull,  and  a  oonoealed  nest  unnecessary,  are 
the  thmshes  and  orioles,  and  the  passenger 
pigeon.  'Among  those  in  which  the  male  is 
bright  and  the  female  dull  are  the  yellow- 
breasted  warbler,  goldfinch,  grosabeaks,  scarlet 
tanager,  redstart,  bobolink,  red-winged  black- 
bird, kingbird,  many  flycatchers,  and  tlie  mffed 
grouse.  Another  interesting  coincidence  is 
that  in  the  concealed  or  conoesliug  nests,  the 
eggs,  as  a  general  rule,  are  white,  as  with  the 
owls,  swallow B,  kingftshers,  woodpeckers,  hum- 
ming birds,  quails,  and  doves.— -See  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,"  for  18B7,  and  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory," toI.  li.,  pp.  819-821,  1867.  (For  the 
systematic  clsMification  of  birds,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  science,  see  OunrHOLOOT.) 

nKD>8  REST,  EdIUe,  the  nest  of  the  sea  swal- 
low of  the  Ha^y  archipelago,  called  lawit  in 
Java  and  saZan^anein  the  Philippia'es  (himndo 
tKuUnta).  The  bird  is  uniformly  dark-colored, 
inclining  to  green  on  the  back  and  blue  on  the 
breast,  has  a  short,  strong  bill,  broad  at  the 
base,  and  is  a  httle  smaller  than  our  swallow 
martin.  It  gathers  from  the  coral  rocks  of.^e 
a  glutinous  weed  or  marine  fticus,  which  it 
"     "  •   '■  -  then 

}  the 


BIBEENHEAD 


657 


applies  this  vomit  witii  its  plai 


sides  of  deep  caverns,  both  inland  and  on  the 

seacoBSt,  to  form  its  nest.  When  complete  the 
nest  is  a  hollow  hemisphere,  of  the  dimensions 
of  an  ordinary  cofiee  cnp.  When  fresh  made 
it  is  of  waiy  whiteness,  and  is  then  esteemed 
most  valuable ;  of  second  qnality,  when  the 
bird  has  laid  her  eggs;  and  of  third,  when  the 
young  are  fledged  and  flown.  The  lawit  fre- 
quents mostly  the  deep,  surf-beaten  caves  of 
the  B.  coast  of  Java,  principally  those  of  Karang 
Bollong  (hollow  reets),  in  the  province  of  fiag- 
lea.  These  caves  open  at  tlie  base  of  a  per- 
pendionlar  face  of  rock,  nearly  BOO  ft.  hish, 
the  mouths  being  from  IB  to  2C  ft.  in  breadth 
and  80  it.  in  height;  within  they  continne  to 
expand,  until  they  attain  the  «umen»ons  of 
from  100  to  120  ft.  in  width  and  4G0  ft.  in 
height,  and  for  many  hundred  feet  within  the 
waves  break  with  terrific  fm^.  The  collectors 
of  the  nests  are  lowered  over  fearftil  chasms, 
and  move  along  a  slippery  foothold,  at  the  risk 
of  instant  destruction.  The  collections  take 
place  in  April,  Au^st,  and  December.  These 
nests  are  also  obtomed  in  other  parts  of  Java, 
and  the  islands  eastward,  on  the  coasts  i^ 
Borneo,  and  in  the  limestone  caves  of  the 
Philippines.  The  whole  product  of  Java  and 
Netherlands  India,  which  is  a  government  mo- 
nopoly, is  40,000  or  60,000  pounds  annually, 
worth  from  $5  to  {SB  a  ponnd;  some  of  the 
finer  sorts  sell  in  Chinese  markets  for  twice 
their  weight  in  ^ver.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  edibie  nest  is  a  whimwcal  culinary  fanoy 
of  the  Chinese  alone ;  they  use  it  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  their  most  refined  soups.  Alone  it 
has  an  insipid  glutinous  taste.  The  Chinese 
attribute  to  it  peculiar  strengthening  qualities; 
but  this  sensual  people  chiefly  prize  it  for  its 
alleged  properties  as  an  aphrodisiac 

BUULENFHJ),  an  outlying  principality  be- 
longing to  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  Ger- 
many, Burrounded  by  the  Kheniah  Prussian 
districts  of  Treves  and  Coblentz ;  area,  194  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1871,  86,128,  of  whom  7,800  were 
Roman  Oatbolios.  The  soil  is  poor,  though 
well  cnltivated  wherever  practicable.  The  sur- 
face is  covered  with  forests  and  mountains. 
The  principality  possesses  iron  mines,  and 
produces  agates,  ohaloedony,  Ac.,  whidi  are 
wrought  for  exportation.  It  has  a  market  town 
of  the  Bamename,9Sni.KS.E.  of  Treves;  pop. 
2,249.  The  principality  was  from  early  tunes 
a  separate  state  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
palatines  of  Deax-Ponta.  In  1602  it  came  into 
possession  of  France,  and  in  1816  of  Prussia, 
which  in  1817  ceded  it  to  Oldenburg. 

BUK£NB£1D,  a  market  town  and  port  of 
Cheshire,  England,  on  the  estnary  of  the  Mer- 
sey, oppodte  Liverpool,  with  which  it  has  con- 
stant eommnnication  by  several  steam  ferries ; 
pop.  in  1871,  65,980.  A  railway  16  m.  long 
connects  it  with  Chester,  whence  other  roads 
diverge  to  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Al- 
though a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  hav- 
ing been  founded  at  least  as  early  as  the  13th 
century,  it  dates  its  present  prosperity  from  a 


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658 


BIRKENHEAD 


very  recent  period.  Originallr  a  poor  fiahing 
village,  nnmbering  in  1818  scarcely  60  inhabi- 
tants, it  crew  with  a  rapidity  seldom  witnessed 
in  the  old  world,  and  its  popnlation  has  nearly 
trebled  since  1861.  This  increase  is  mainly 
owing  to  its  docks.  In  1824  large  ship-bvild- 
jng  £)ck8  were  erected  on  Wallasey  pool,  on 
the  N.  W.  side  of  the  town,  and  in  1844  a 
series  of  splendid  works,  embracing  a  sea  wall 
from  Woodside  to  Seacomb,  docts  at  Bridge- 
end,  a  tida]  basin,  and  a  great  float  with  a 
minimnm  depth  of  22  it.,  were  commenced. 
The  first  dock  was  opened  in  1847.  The  prin- 
cipal works  now  inclnde  two  ^ontjo  wet 
docks  or  floats  on  "WaUaaey  pool,  embracing 
withsobudiar;  basinsa  water  area  of  16S  acres, 
with  10  or  11  m.  of  qnaya,  and  three  graving 
docks  with  a  length  of  1,928  ft.  Other  im- 
mense works  have  been  planned ;  but  the 
original  undertakers  of  the  Birkenhead  docks 
were  heavy  losers  by  the  specalation,  and  the 
nnfliushed  structarea  were  bought  and  con- 
tinued by  the  corporation  of  Liverpool.  Ware- 
houses on  a  large  scale  have  been  erected  in 
connection  with  the  docks.  The  town  is  well 
laid  out,  well  lighted,  paved,  and  drained,  and 
well  supplied  with  water.  The  streets  are 
wide  and  regular,  the  main  thoroagh fares,  five 
in  number,  runiiing  nearly  east  and  west,  and 
the  shorter  streets  crossing  them  at  right 
angles.  On  Conway  street,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal avenues,  is  a  public  pork,  with  an  area  of 
180  acres.  A  market  4S0  ft.  long  by  181  ft. 
wide,  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  town.  There 
are  numerous  churches  and  ohapels,  a  the- 
olc^cal  college  (St,  Aidan's,  established  In 
184fl),  a  court  house,  gas  and  water  works, 
an  iimrmary,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and  many 
free  sohools  in  connection  with  the  different 
churches  and  chapels.  There  is  no  custom 
house,  the  entries  being  mode  at  Liver- 
pool. Mann^tnres  are  carried  on  with  ac- 
tivity, and  embrace  pottery,  varnish,  boilers, 
gnna,  Ao.  There  are  alio  eitensive  iron 
founderies.  Birkenhead  returns  one  member 
to  the  honse  of  commons. — A  priory  was 
founded  here  by  Karris  de  Masaej  in  1150,  and 
richly  endowed.  It  was  occupied  by  the  royal- 
ists in  1 G44,  and  taken  from  them  by  the  parlia- 
mentary troops.  In  1848  it  was  demolished, 
and  nothing  now  remains  but  a  portion  of  the 

Kble  and  one  Gothic  window,  which  formerly 
longed  to  the  refectory. 
•lEEENHElD,  Sir  Jaki,  an  English  satirical 
and  political  writer,  bom  at  Northwich,  Che- 
shire, 1616,  died  in  Westminster,  Dec.  4,  1679. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  appointed 
secretary  to  Archbishop  Land.  In  1642  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  the  "Mercurios 
Aulicus"  or  court  journal,  through  which  dur- 
ing tlie  civil  war  the  courii  communicated 
with  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  He  satirized 
the  Presbyterians  in  "The  Aasembly  Man" 

S.662-'3),  and  wrote  also  "Two  Centuries  of 
t.  Paul's  Churchyard"  (1649),  "The  Four- 
legged  Quaker,"  &o.     He  was  persecuted  dnr- 


BIKMnHGHAU 

ing  the  commonwealth.  At  the  restoration  he 
was  knighted  and  received  several  offices. 

BIKKET-iX-SEBOON  (Arab  ..lake  of  the  horn), 
a  lake  in  Fayoom,  central  Egypt,  so  nom^ 
&om  its  shape,  or  perhaps  from  the  shape  of 
the  projecting  spouta  of  a  castle  which  stands 
on  its  banks ;  length  about  SO  m.,  greatest 
breadth  6  m.  Its  shores  are  bluff,  except  OD 
the  S.  side,  where  they  are  low  and  sandy. 
The  lake  communicates  with  the  Nile  end  with 
the  canal  which  popular  tradition  ascribes  to 
Joseph.  In  antigmty  it  was  connected  by  ca- 
nals with  the  arbiicial  lake  Mceris,  with  which 
it  has  often  been  erroneously  identified.  (See 
McBBis.)  It  abonnils  with  fish,  and  is  farmed 
out  to  flshenneu. 

BIKMUTGHiM,  a  manufacturing  and  market 
town,  manioipal  and  parliamentair  borough  of 
Warwickshire,  Englond,  17  m.  N.  W.  of  War- 
wick and  100  m.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop,  in 
1861,  233,841  ;  1861,  296,OY6_;  1871,  34S,6»fl. 
It  is  situated  in  the  N.  W.  portion  of  the  comi- 
ty, and  stands  on  undulating  ground  doping 
down  to  the  river  Bea  The  railway  lines  cen- 
tring here  are  the  London  and  Nurthwestem, 
the  Great  Western,  the  Hidland,  the  Birming- 
ham and  Oxford,  the  Birmingham.  Dudley,  and 
Wolverhampton,  and  the  Birmingham,  Wol- 
verhampton, and  Shrewsbury.  Several  canals^ 
radiating  from  Birmingham,  commnnicate  with 
other  towns  and  with  tlie  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
The  town  is  divided  into  18  wards,  audits  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  a  mayor,  record- 
er, 16  aldermen,  and  48  common-councilmen. 
There  are  three  public  parka,  viz. :  Adderlej* 
pork,  triangular  in  shape  and  prettily  laid  out, 
which  was  opened  in  1866;  Calthorpe  pai^ 
near  the  Rea,  opened  in  1867;  and  Aston  Peo- 
ple's park,  dedicated  in  1868,  which  contains 
'" and  is  covered  with  fine  trees.    The 


mestio  architecture,  while  the  modem  portion, 
on  high  ground,  contains  many  fine  and  coet- 
ly  buildings,  principally  of  brick,  and  spacious 
streets.  The  town  hall,  of  brick,  faced  with 
Anglesea  marble,  160  R.  long,  100  ft.  wide, 
and  83  ft.  high,  is  built  on  the  model  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Btator  at  Rome;  and  the 
public  hall,  146  ft.  long.  66  ft.  wide,  and  66  ft. 
nigh,  contains  one  of  the  most  poweribl  organs 
in  England,  with  4,000  pipes  and  78  stops. 
The  free  grammar  school  was  founded  by  Ed- 
ward yi.  Its  present  building,  a  beantifU 
structure,  erected  in  1884  at  acost  of  £60,000, 
is  174  ft.  in  front,  126  ft.  deep,  and  60  ft.  high. 
The  scbo<^  contains  a  classical  and  a  commer- 
cial department,  and  has  an  income  of  £12,000 
a  year.  There  are  about  470  pupils  in  the  main 
establishment,  and  1,000  in  tne  four  branches 
that  have  been  established  for  the  children  of 
artisans,  &:c.  The  parish  church  of  Bt.  Martin, 
a  very  ancient  edifice,  with  a  massive  tower 
and  bsndsome  spire  210  ft.  high,  recently  re- 
built, contains  some  curious  monuments  of  the 
De  Berminghams,  the  ancient  lords  of  the  place. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


St  Philip's  oliarob,  erected  in  1715,  but  latol; 

repaired,  is  a  fine  structure  in  the  Italian  stjle, 
with  a  tower  Burmounted  bj  a  dome  and  cnpo- 
ia.  There  maj  also  be  mentioned  St.  Georgo^s 
ohnroh,  in  the  decorated  Engliab  st^le-  St. 
Thomas's,  a  Doric  Htmctnre ;  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic cathedral,  erected  at  a  coat  of  ^60,000; 
the  London  and  Northwestern  railway  station ; 
Queen's  college,  which  confers  degrees  in  arts, 
law,  and  medicine;  the  Midland  institate,  a 
philosophical  institution;  the  exchange  hnild- 
mga,  the  masonic  and  odd  follows'  halls,  fto. 
Besides  the  free  grammar  schcKil  and  Queen's 
college,  the  most  notewortlij  educational  in- 
ititntions  are  the  blne-ooat  school,  giving  ele- 
mentary instmction  to  140  boys  and  60  girls; 
the  Prot«stant  dissenters'  charity  school,  edu- 
cating 40  girls ;  St.  Philip's  industrial  free 
echool,  adraittiug  220  children ;  SpringbiU  col- 


lege, a  tbeolo^oal  imrtitntion  of  the  Indepen- 
dents; Sydenham  medical  college;  and  the 
government  school  of  design.  In  tlje  vicinity 
of  Birmingham  are  the  Roman  Catholic  semi- 
nary of  Oscott,  and  a  diocesan  training  institu- 
tion at  Saltley.  There  is  a  public  subscription 
library  in  the  town,  containing  30,000  or  40,000 
volomes,  a  society  of  arts,  an  odd  fellows'  liter- 
ary institute,  free  libraries  erected  by  the  cor- 
S oration,  and  two  reformatory  institutions. 
if  the  chsriUihle  institntioDB,  the  most  impor- 
tant are  the  general  hospital,  Queen's  hospital, 
the  deaf  and  damb  asylum,  the  institution  for 
the  blind,  and  various  dispeuaarieB  and  infirma- 
ries. There  are  34  churches  belonging  to  the 
estahlishment,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and 
three  or  four  chapels,  and  namerous  places  of 
worship  for  dissenters.  There  are  two  thea- 
tres, three  music  halls,  an  art  gallery,  and  three 


cemeteries.  Birmingham  has  a  branch  of  the 
bank  of  England  and  mr  other  banks,  on  the 
joint  stock  principle.  The  savings  bank,  which 
was  one  of  the  largest  in  England,  has  been 
merged  in  the  post  office  system. — The  town 
OWM  its  rapid  growth  and  great  prosperity  to 
the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manufactures. 
Situated  near  the  centre  of  England,  on  the 
border  of  a  great  coal  and  iron  district,  with 
an  admirable  canal  and  railway  system,  it  has 
eiyoyed  unrivalled  advantages.  Birmingham 
has  been  known  for  centuries  for  its  iron  and 
steel  manufactures,  hut  it  bus  atttuned  its  pres- 
ent preeminence  within  this  century.  While 
there  are  many  extensive  establishments,  em- 
I>loying  a  large  capital,  yet  a  ^reat  propor- 
tion of  the  manufacturing  is  earned  on  by  men 
of  small  means,  who  generally  employ  their 
workmen  by  the  piece.    The  latter  frequently 


work  at  home,  and  when  they  require  the  ud 

of  machinery  hire  one  or  more  rooms,  furnished 
with  steam  power,  in  buildings  which  are  kept 
for  that  purpose.  In  18()6  the  number  of  steam 
engines  m  the  town  was  724,  with  9,910  horse 
power,  consuming  600  tons  of  coal  daily.  There 
were  1,013  smelting  and  casting  furnaces  at 
work,  and  20,000  families  were  engaged  in  man- 
ufactories. The  value  of  hardware  and  cutlery 
exported  in  1864  was  over  £4,000.000.  At 
the  same  time  the  exports  of  firearms,  glass, 
leather,  machinery,  iron  and  steel  wire,  plate, 
copper,  brass,  zinc,  tin,  and  cool  amonnted  to 
over  £37,000,000.  Of  firearms  5,000,000  wore 
furnished  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  dur- 
ing two  years  of  the  American  civil  war  1,027,- 
336  wore  exported  to  the  United  States.  Be- 
sides glass  manufacturing,  glass  punting  or 
etuning  is  an  important  branch  of  industry. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


660  BIBMINGHAK 

The  quantity  of  gold  ware  assayed  and  marked 
at  the  assay  office  sveragea  80,000  onnoM  an- 
nually; of  mlver  ware,  100,000.  Large  qnan- 
titias  are  also  niAQufactured  and  sold  withoat 
being  marked.  Large  nnmbers  of  go!d  rings 
are  produced,  nearly  80, 000  wedding  rings  hav- 
ing in  some  yeara  been  assayed  and  marked  at 
the  assay  office.  Abont  800,000  ounces  of  sil- 
ver-plating  are  consumed  yearly.  The  mann- 
factnre  of  steel  pons  is  very  important.  The 
eBtablishment  of  the  late  Mr.  Gillott  employs 
SOD  workmen  and  mannfactares  1,000,000  gross 
umnally.  The  whole  number  of  steel  pena 
made  yearly  in  Birmingham  is  estimated  at 
900,000,000,  consuming  BOO  tuna  of  steel.  Rns 
and  buttons  are  also  made  in  vast  qnantitiea, 
and  aeveral  hundred  tons  of  mother-of-pearl 
are  annually  consumed  in  the  latter  manufao- 
tare.  The  mannfaotore  of  swords  and  bayo- 
nets b  also  eitendvely  carried  on.  At  Smetb- 
wick  in  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham  steam  en- 
gines are  largely  made.  Many  hands  are  em- 
K'  >yed  in  iapanoing  and  electro-plating.  An 
portant  branoh  is  the  mannfacCnre  of  fancy 
aeals,  brooches,  clasps,  and  other  trinkets,  of 
what  is  known  as  Birmingham  gold,  as  well  as 
<tf  polished  steeL  There  may  be  mentioned  in 
addiljon,  among  the  industries  of  Birmingham, 
wire-drawing,  scale  making,  railway  carriage 
bnllding,  brass  founding,  iron  casting,  works  u 
bronze,  and  mannfactnres  of  lamps,  metallic 
bedsteads,  gas  flctings,  leather  and  wood  caaee, 
nails,  articles  of  papier  mach^  tools,  percussion 
caps,  and  sewing  machines.  The  machinery 
employed  in  the  various  manafactnree  la  re- 
markable for  the  combination  of  power  with 
delicacy  and  precision  of  movement.  There 
are  two  annual  fairs,  each  lasting  three  days, 
one  in  the  spring,  the  other  in  autumn. — Bir- 
mingham is  nrst  mentioned  in  Doomsday  Boot 
onder  the  name  of  Bermingeham.  It  remained 
an  obscure  village  for  centuries.  The  first 
great  impetus  was  given  to  its  growth  toward 
the  dose  of  the  last  century  by  the  introdno- 
tion  of  the  steam  engine  and  the  demand  for 
muskets  created  by  the  American  revolution 
and  the  French  wars.  A  still  greater  aoceasion 
of  strength  and  prosperity  has  been  recei  ved  in 
the  last  40  years  from  the  railway  system. 
Birmingham  was  con8titnt«d  a  borongb  by  the 
reform  act  of  1883,  with  the  privilege  of  send- 
ing two  members  to  parliament;  an  additional 
member  was  given  by  the  act  of  1S67.  The 
municipal  charter  was  granted  in  1888. 

HBHIirGHlK,  a  monnfacturing  village  of 
Oonnectiont,  in  Derby  township,  New  Haven 
county,  on  an  eminence  at  the  junction  of  the 
Honsatonic  and  Naugatuck  rivers,  11  m.  W. 
of  New  Haven;  pop.  in  1870,  2,103.  It  is 
neatly  laid  out,  ana  contains  a  number  of 
churches  and  schools,  most  of  which  face  a 
handsome  public  square  in  the  centre  of  the 
village.  The  first  considerable  pin  factory  in 
the  United  States,  established  in  New  York  in 
1686,  waa  transferred  to  this  place  in  1886. 
Tber»  are  rolling  mills  for  copper,  iron,  and 


BIRNEY 

steel,  f^nries  of  carriage  springs  and  ailai^ 
bolts,  augers,  well  chains,  tacka,  and  other  ar- 
ticles, and  lumber  and  coal  yards.  A  bridge 
across  the  Nangatuck  connects  Birmingham 
with  Derby,  which  is  a  atatjon  on  the  Nen- 
gatuck  railroad,  and  haa  steamboat  commnni- 
cation  with  New  York. 

BllHDffiHlMfaboronghofADegbenycouitT, 
Penn.,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Mononrahela, 
about  2  m.  above  its  confluence  with  Oie  Al- 
leghany; pop.  m  1870,  8,808.  It  is  a  suburb 
of  Pittsburgh,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
steam  ferry  and  a  suspension  bridge  1,C00  feet 
long.  It  has  import^t  manufactories  of  iron 
and  glass,  and  several  breweries.  East  Bir- 
mingham, with  e,4S8  inhabitants,  a^oins  it  on 
the  east. 

BIKNIH,  a  hill  of  Perthshire,  in  the  western 
highlands  of  Scotland,  near  the  S.  hank  of  the 
Tay,  14  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Perth,  1,824  fL  high. 
It  was  anciently  included  in  a  royal  forest,  and 
is  mentioned  aa  Bimam  wood  in  Shakespeare's 
"  Macbeth."    It  is  now  destitute  of  trees. 

BIRNEE,  UU,  the  capital  of  the  kmgdom  of 
Bomoo,  in  central  Africa,  TO  m.  W.  of  Kuka, 
on  the  Eomadugn  Waube;  pop.  about  10,000. 
It  is  said  to  have  fonneriy  had  200,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  mins  of  the  stone  walls  by  which 
it  was  enclosed  are  still  visible. 

BUHET,  JaMtt  £.,  an  American  politician, 
bom  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,  1793,  died  at 
Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  26, 18B7.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in  leiS, 
Btndied  law,  and  removed  early  to  Alabama, 
where  he  practised  law  at  HnnUville,  held  the 
office  of  diatrict  attorney,  and  waa  a  member 
of  the  legialature.  In  1888  he  interested  him- 
self in  the  organization  of  a  branch  of  the 
colonization  society  for  the  state  of  Alabama. 
Soon  afterward,  returning  to  Eentncky,  and 
becoming  a  professor  in  the  univeruty  at  Dan- 
ville, he  organized  a  colonization  society  there 
elao,  of  which  he  became  preddent.  In  1884 
be  espoused  the  cause  of  immediate  emancipa- 
tion m  a  public  letter,  at  the  same  time  eman- 
cipating all  bis  own  slaves,  about  SO  in  nom- 
ber.  He  subsequently  removed  to  CiniHnnatl 
where  he  began  to  iE8ne,"The  Philanthropist, 
on  anti-slavery  newspoper,  which  met  with 
mu(^  opposition.  Ita  office  was  repeatedly 
sacked  and  its  presses  destroyed  by  moba. 
About  the  year  1888  he  went  to  New  York,  ai 
secretary  m  the  American  anti-slavery  society, 
and  for  many  years  devoted  himself  to  the  fnr- 
therance  of  the  object  of  that  society,  by  let- 
ters, articles  in  the  press,  and  public  addresses. 
He  took  an  important  part  in  the  orgnniza- 
tion  of  the  "liberty  party,"  by  which  dur- 
ing his  absence  in  England  he  was  nomina- 
ted in  1840  for  the  prewdency.  Ho  waa 
again  nominated  by  the  same  party  in  1844. 
Previous  to  this,  in  1842,  Mr.  Bimey  had  be- 
come a  re^dent  of  Michigan,  where  he  wsa 
disabled,  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  not  Iratg 
afterward,  from  taking  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tioa. — Hia  son,  D^vin  Bell,  bom  at  HnntsviUe, 


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BIEON 

AliL,  Uar  26, 18S5,  praotised  lav  in  Philftdel- 
phia,  &iid  daring  Uie  aivil  war  diBtingDishad 
ainuelf  as  a  brigadier  and  m^jor  geEieral  of 
volonteers  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  par- 
ticularly at  Yorktown,  Willianubnrg,  and  the 
battles  before  Riobmond,  and  at  the  second  bat- 
Ue  of  Boil  Gnu.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  OaL 
18,  1864. — Another  too,  Wiluah,  entered  the 
armj  as  captain  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
rose  to  the  rank  of  m^or  general  of  volnnteers, 
and  now  (18TS)  lives  in  Florida. — A  third  son, 
the  youngest^  Fiiz  Huon,  died  in  the  service 
with  the  rank  of  ooloneL 

BUON.  1.  Inuai  de  GMtiat,  baron,  after- 
ward dnke  de,  a  French  general,  bom  abont 
1BS4,  killed  July  26,  IfiSS.  He  waa  educated 
among  the  pages  ofM&rgaret,  queen  of  Navarre^ 
served  in  Piedmont  under  Marshal  Brissao, 
distingaished  himself  daring  the  religions  wars 
in  tike  Oatholio  array,  fighting  at  tae  bsttlea 
of  Drem,  St.  Denis,  and  Moncoatour,  and  was 
created  grand  master  of  artillerj  in  1G60.  He 
was  suspected  of  a  secret  incllnatioa  to  Protes- 
tantifon,  and  owed  his  safety  on  the  eve  of  St. 
Bartholomew  to  his  precaution  in  shatting 
himself  np  in  the  arsenaL  He  negotiated  with 
the '  Hugaenots  the  peace  of  St.  Germain,  re- 
ceived tiie  baton  of  marshal  of  France  in  1Q7?, 
held  various  commands  in  Gnienne  and  the 
Low  Conntries,  was  one  of  the  flret  to  recog- 
nize Henry  IV.,  contributed  to  the  victories  of 
Arqnes  and  Ivry,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
^pemay.  He  was  the  godfather  of  Cardinal 
Rtohelian.  IL  Chuki  *t  GMtaat,  duke  d& 
son  of  tlie  preceding,  a  French  general,  called 
the  "  lightning  "  of  France,  bom  in  1SS3,  be- 
headed Jaly  81,  1602.  His  valor  was  dis- 
tinguished Bt  the  battlee  of  Arqnes  and  Ivry, 
at  the  sieges  of  Paris  and  Bouen,  of  Amiens 
and  La  Fere,  and  in  the  enoonnter  at  Amnale. 
He  was  made  admiral  of  France  in  1B92,  mar- 
shal in  15B4.  governor  of  Burgundy  in  159G, 
dnke  and  peer  m  1698,  and  was  ambassador  to 
the  court  of  Elicabeth  of  England  and  to  the 
Swiss  oantona.  Notwithstanding  the  favors 
bestowed  upon  him  by  Henry  Iv.,  excited  by 
mercenary  motives,  he  plotted  with  Savoy  and 
Spain  for  the  dismemberment  of  France.  His 
intrigues  were  discovered  by  the  king,  who 

Esrdoned  him  onoe,  and  even  after  he  renewed 
is  trearon  Henry  was  disposed  to  indidgence, 
provided  he  would  confess  and  repent  of  his 
crime.  Biron,  however,  denying  everything, 
was  committed  to  the  Bastile,  and  speedily  con- 
demned and  eieonted.  IIL  inuid  LhIs  4e 
Gttfut,  duke  de,  bom  in  Paris,  April  15,  1747, 
eseonted  there,  Dec  81,  1798.  He  is  better 
known  as  the  duke  da  Lanznn,  which  was  his 
title  till  176S,  when  he  sacceeded  his  nncle  as 
dnkedaBiron.  InlT78hapub!ishedapamphlet 
on  the  state  of  defence  of  England  and  its  foreign 
possessions,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  an 
expedition  against  the  British  colonies  of  Sen- 
egal and  Gambia,  AiHca,  which  be  reduced 
early  in  1779.  Having  squandered  his  fortune, 
he  Joined  t^i^ette  in  1780  in  America,  and  in 


BIRON  661 

July,  1781,  oommanded  an  nnsncccssful  expe- 
dition danraed  to  captnre  New  York  from  the 
British.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  York- 
town,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of 
Oomwallis.  In  1789  he  was  chosen  by  the 
nobility  depnty  to  the  states  general,  and  after- 
ward accompanied  Talleyrand  in  his  mission 
to  England.  In  July,  1792,  he  was  appointed 
gener^-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and 
m  Uay,  1793,  of  the  army  of  the  coast  at  La 
Rocbelle.  He  captured  Sanmar,  and  defeated 
the  Yendeans;  but  l>eing  accnsed  of  inoiviem 
for  having  twice  offered  his  rengnation,  and 
for  his  leniency  toward  the  Vendeans,  he  was 
brought  before  the  revolutionary  tribnnal  of 
Fonquier-Tin villa,  and  condemned  to  death  <m 
the  charge  of  having  con^ired  against  the  re- 

lUOK  (originally  Bibkn  or  BOsbbh),  BmK 
Jtha,  duke  of  Oonrland,  bom  in  1667,  died 
Oct  28,  1773.  The  grandson  of  a  groom, 
he  entered  as  eqnerrj  the  household  of  Anna 
Ivanovna,  niece  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  be- 
came her  favorite  and  lover  during  her  reign 
in  Oourland  and  residence  in  Mitau.  Aiter 
Anna  became  empress,  she  took  him  with 
her  to  SL  Petersburg  and  made  him  grand 
ohamberlain.  He  now  adopted  the  coat  of 
arms  and  the  name  of  the  celebrated  French 
ducal  family  of  Biron.  As  the  favorite  of  the 
empress,  he  ruled  absolutely  over  Russia;  and 
hnndreds,  if  not  thousands,  were  put  to  death 
by  his  command.  The  nobility  of  Oourland, 
who  a  few  years  before  had  refused  to  ad- 
mit his  name  in  the  rolls  of  their  caste,  fright- 
ened by  his  ferocity,  elected  him  as  tiimr  sov- 
ereign duke.  Named  by  Anna  regent  of  Ihe 
empire  and  tutor  of  her  nephew  and  succes- 
sor Ivan  during  his  minority,  the  ambitious 
adventurer  was  suspected  of  a  design  to  pnsh 
aside  his  pnpil,  and  to  seize  the  imperial  crown 
for  his  own  eldest  son,  marrying  him  to  the 
grand  duchess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great  His  reign  as  regent  lasted  hot  a  few 
weeks.  As  early  as  1740,  Field  Marshal  MOn- 
nich,  onoe  his  accomplice,  secretly  conspired 
agmnst  him,  and  on  the  night  of  Nov.  20  gave 
orders  to  seize  him  in  his  bed  and  to  put  him 
in  irons.  He  was  shnt  up  first  in  the  fortress 
of  SohlOsselbnrg ;  then  after  his  condemnation 
to  death  in  1741,  and  the  commutation  of  this 
penalty  into  exile  for  life,  he  was  sent  to  Pelim 
in  Siberia,  and  confined  in  a  prison  specially 
prepared  for  him  by  the  orders  of  Mfinnich. 
The  princess  Anna  Garlovna,  mother  of  the  in- 


thrown  in  1741  by  Elizabeth,  who  sent  Mdnnioh 
to  Silieria,  to  replace  Biron,  whom  she  recalled 
from  his  prison  and  exile.  Biron  was  ordered 
to  rende  in  the  city  of  Yaroslav.  When  Peter 
III.  succeeded  Elizabeth  in  1762,  he  recalled 
Biron  to  St  Petersbnn;,  and  Catharine  II.  snb- 
sequentiy  restored  to  him  bis  forfeited  duchy  of 
Oonrland.  On  Jan.  20,  1768,  Biron  entered 
his  capital  of  ffitau,  and  his  ride  was  jost  and 


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mild  antil  his  death. — He  left  two  iions,  the 
eldest  of  wboiD,  Pbtbb,  BDcoeeclad  to  the  dake- 
dom  of  Conrland.  Diiven  thence  in  ITSG,  he 
went  to  Pnigsia,  where  he  acquired  by  pur- 
chase several  ducal  estates,  among  others  that 
of  Saean.  He  died  on  one  of  bis  estates  in 
1800,  leaving  fonr  daughters,  one  of  whom  wsa 
known  in  the  poiitical  world  first  as  duchess  of 
Dino,  and  afterward  as  duchess  of  Sogtm. 

BlU'    Bee  PaBSONaTOWN. 

IKS  NmCD.    See  Babei. 

UBOTiLL,  a  parish  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
in  the  West  Bitoig,  7  m.  S.  W.  of  Leeds ;  pop. 
in  18T1,  48,S0G.  It  contains  a  large  numbar 
of  woollen  and  worsted  mills,  Imndes  cotton 
and  silk  mannfactories,  and  mines  of  coal  and 
iron.  A  branch  of  the  London  and  Northwest- 
ern railroad  passes  through  the  parish. 

BIRTB.    See  Obbtbtbicb. 

BIBICCU,  a  town  of  B.  Italf,  in  the  province 
of  Prinoipato  Clteriore,  80  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Avel- 
lino;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  is  built  on  a  hill, 
has  several  ohnrohes  and  a  hospital,  and  is  the 
■eat  of  a  bishop.  Ancient  remains  discovered 
here  seem  to  identity  Bisaccia  as  the  site  of 
Bomutea,  captured  by  the  Bomans  in  the  third 
BamDit«  war. 

HSiCQllINO.  or  BoHtUMh  a  town  of  Sicily, 
37  m.  6.  of  Palermo ;  pop.  abont  8,600.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  grun,  oil,  and  flax,  and 
manufactures  of  linen. 

B18UT,  one  of  the  Basque  provinces  of  Spun, 
also  called  Bilbao,  bounded  N.  by  the  bay  of 
Biscay,  E.  by  Guijiuzooa,  B.  by  Alava  and  Bur- 
gos, Ukd  W.  by  Santsnder  ;  area,  848  eq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  183,098.  It  occupies  the  north- 
ern slopes  of  the  E.  portjoc  of  the  Cantabrian 
mountains.  The  surface  is  mostly  rugged  and 
wooded,  and  the  climat«  healthy  ;  the  soil,  not 
naturally  fertile,  is  by  cultivation  made  produc- 
tive. Fruit,  Indian  com,  and  vegelables  are 
raised  abundantiy,  and  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
conntry  is  principally  divided  into  small  farms, 
in  the  hands  of  the  owners,  who  are  frequently 
the  descendsnta  of  ancient  families.  The  houses 
are  mostiy  of  stone,  and  many  of  the  old  cas- 
tles and  toners  have  been  converted  into  farm 
houses.  The  iron  of  Biscay  is  of  the  first  ex- 
cellence. The  great  mine  of  Somorrostro  pro- 
duces abont  S,000  tons  annually.  The  chief 
occupation  of  the  Biscayans,  besides  agricnl- 
tnre,  is  fishing  and  the  coasting  trade.  The 
chief  towns  are  Bilbao,  the  capital,  Somorros- 
tro, Bermeo,  and  Orozco. 

BISCiT,  Bay  af,  an  extensive  buy  of  the  At- 
lantic, N.  of  Spain  and  W.  of  France,  the  open- 
ing of  which  extends  from  Cape  Ortegal  to 
the  island  of  Ushant.  It  is  about  BOO  m.  long, 
and  800  In  width,  being  nearly  semicircular. 
It  is  exceedingly  stormy  and  teinpestnoua ;  the 
whole  force  o(  the  westerly  winds  is  felt,  while 
the  recoil  of  the  waves  from  the  coast  oauses  a 
very  heavy  sea.  A  current  sweeps  round  the 
inside  of  the  bay,  known  as  Rennell's  current, 
which  runs  sometimes  26  m.  per  day.  The 
Spanish  coast  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  bay 


BI80H0FF 

is  bold  and  rooky.  The  French  coast  Is  low 
and  sandy  as  far  as  the  Loire,  north  of  which 
it  is  of  moderate  height.  The  principal  French 
harbors  of  the  bay  of  Biscay  are  Bayonne,  B<^- 
deanx.  La  Booh^e,  Nant«8,  Vannes,  Lorient, 
and  Brest;  the  principal  on  the  Spani^  coast 
are  San  Sebastian,  Santander,  and  Gijon.  The 
rivers  of  the  north  of  Spain,  which  from  the 
contiguity  of  the  mountun  chain  to  the  coast 
are  of  little  size  or  importance,  find  their  out- 
let in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  which  receives  from 
France  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  some  small- 
er streama 

BIBCiT,  Hew.    See  Dinuiroo. 

BIBCEGUE,  a  strongly  fortified  aemori  town 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  and  21  m.  W.  N.  W. 
ofthe  city  ofBari;  pop. in  1872,  21,871.  Itis 
built  on  a  promontory,  ia  the  seat  of  a  biahop, 
and  has  a  cathedral,  two  monasteries,  a  hos- 
pital, and  a  college.  The  harbor  admits  only 
small  vessela     It  is  famous  for  its  currants. 

BIBCHOF,  Eul  Gulat,  a  German  chemiet  and 
geologist,  bom  at  WOrd,  a  sutinrb  of  Nurem- 
berg, Jan.  18,  17B2,  died  in  Bonn,  Nov.  80, 
18T0.  He  studied  atErlangen,  devoting  him- 
self at  first  to  mathematics  and  astronomy,  but 
soon  turned  his  whole  attention  to  chemistry 
and  the  pbydcal  sciences.  In  1822  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Bonn,  and  retnuned 
such  for  almost  half  a  century.  His  principal 
works  are:  Lehrbvehder  Chamie  (1S16) ;  htk-r^ 
fmeh  der  StdeMametrie  (181S);  Entwiektluitif 
der  Pfiamoimiitaiu  (^IS19)  \  Lehrbueh  der  rei- 
nen  Chemie(\^A)\  VievulkanigehenMineral- 
gvellen  DeuUchlandt  und  Frankreieht  (182S); 
Bit  Wdrmtlehre  det  Iimem  unsers  l^^tdrpen 
(1837);  "PhysicBl,  Chemical,  and  Geological 
Researches  on  the  Internal  Heat  of  the  Globe," 
written  in  English  (London,  1841).  His  great 
work,  however,  is  the  Lthrbueh  dtr  ehemitcka^ 
und  jihyntalitehm  Geologie  (2  vols.,  1847-'S4, 
enlarged  and  revised  in  186S ;  English  transla- 
tion by  Fan)  and  Drummond,  1854-'9).  His 
essay  J)a  moyent  de  loxutraire  restploitaticn 
det  minti  de  houille  avx  dangers  d^xplonoiu 
(1840)  gained  the  prize  among  14  competitiM^ 
offered  by  the  academy  at  Brussels. 

BISCHOFF.  I.  CkrMapk  Hdarick  ^ast,  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  Hanover,  Sept.  14, 
1781,  died  in  Bonn,  March  B,  1861.  He  was 
physician  of  the  general  stafi'  of  the  army  in 
the  campaigns  of  ]81S-'1G,  and  from  1819  to 
1861  he  was  professor  of  medical  science  at 
the  university  of  Bonn.  A  second  edition  at 
his  principal  work,  Hie  Zehre  con  den  ehemi- 
tehen  ffettmituln,  was  published  in  Bonn  in 
ie88-'40  (4  vols.).  U.  needer  Lwlw%  WB> 
beta,  a  German  anatomist  and  physiolcwist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Hanover,  Oct 
28,  1807.  Ho  studied  in  Daseeldorf,  Bonn, 
and  Heidelbei^,  received  his  doctor's  diploma 
from  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1882,  and  be- 
came assistant  In  the  midwifery  department 
of  that  of  Berlin.  He  contineed  his  studies  of 
anatomy  and  phyiriology  under  Ehrenberg  and 
Johann  MikUer,  in  IBSS  became  professor  of 


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BIBOHOFSWKRDA 

eomparative  aad  potholo^cal  anatom  j  st  Bonn, 
in  IMS  of  ph<rsiotog;r'i  ^"^  i"  ^^^  <^^  anatom; 
at  Gieasen,  where  he  Ibanded  a  ph/aiulo^oat 
iostitDte  and  an  anatomioal  muaeam;  and  since 
IBSS  be  has  been  profeaeor  at  the  nniverntj 
of  Mnnich.  In  the  trial  of  Ooont  OSrliti  in 
1850  he  demonstrated  the  impowibility  of 
spontaneous  combustion.  His  most  important 
contribntiiHi  to  embrjology  is  Der  BewtU 
(tor  wm  dsr  Begaitung  unaAAdnjrv"^  pariodi- 
tehta  Re\fmtg  uni  LotlStung  i»r  Eier  der 
Sangethiere  wid  der  MerueA«n  (Qiessen,  1844). 
Eia  other  works  include  &itaiekal«ngiff»- 
tekiehte  dti  Eanineheneit*  (1848),  which  re- 
ceived on  aoadeniical  prize,  del  Hundeeie* 
(1B44),  dee  Meenehieeinehene  (1S62),  and  dt» 
Seha  (l&t>4).  His  intercourse  with  Liebig  led 
to  his  pnblieatdon  of  Der  Hamttoff  aU  Maet 
det  StoffieeehMU  (I8S3);  and  in  ooqjnnctJon 
with  his  then  assistant,  Dr.  Voit,  Die  Oaetee 
der  UmAhrung  de*  FUiie}\freeter*  (1SS9). 
Amon^  his  most  recent  works  are  IHa  OroM- 
kimwmdunge»  det  Metuehen  mit  BerHektieh- 
tigung  ihrer  EnUeietelan^  bei  dem  F^tvi  und 
ihrer  Anordmmg  bei  den  Affea  (1866;  new 
ed.,  1868),  and  Ueber  die  VenehUdenAeit  ia 
der  SeAadelbildmig  dee  Gorilla,  Chimpanee, 
vitd  Orang-Utang  (1667). 

BISCBSFSWERDl,  a  cit;  of  Saionj,  on  the 
river  WeeenitE,  19  m.  £.  N.  £.  of  Dresden; 
pop.  in  188T,  4,103,  chiefly  employed  in  the 
manntacture  of  cloths  and  the  preparation  of 
granite  building  stones.  On  s  neighboring 
summit  is  the  castle  of  SL  John,  which  was 
finished  in  1856.  BisohoiswerdB  was  raised 
to  a  city  by  Benao,  bishop  of  Meissen,  in  1078. 
It  has  snfibred  several  conflagrations,  one  of 
which  was  by  the  Hussites  in  1429,  and  an- 
other in  an  engagement  between  the  French 
and  RuBsians  in  1618. 

BISGHWEILEB,  or  nachwUcr,  a  town  of  Al- 
sace, Germany,  sitoated  on  the  Moder,  14  m. 
N.  N.E.  ofetrasbnrg:  pop.  in  1971.  9,281.  It 
was  formerly  fortified,  but  was  dismantled  in 
170S.  Near  Bischweiler  ia  situated  the  rich 
iron  mine  of  MittelhardL  Woollen,  linen,  oil, 
»oap,  and  earthenware  are  toaunfactored. 

BlSflOP  (Sax.  bUeop,  from  Gr.  iiriaxowo^,  a 
snperintendent),  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  An- 
glican cbnrohes,  the  title  given  to  those  who 
are  of  the  highest  order  of  the  priesthood,  to 
the  Bucoessors  of  the  12  apostles,  in  distinction 
from  the  priesta,  who  are  the  successors  of 
the  70  disciples.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
and  Moravian  churches,  and  in  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark, 
it  is  the  title  given  to  the  highest  officers  in 
the  ministry,  who  are  not,  however,  regard- 
ed as  a  distinct  order.  The  name  was  bor- 
rowed by  the  first  Christians  from  the  lan- 
guages of  Greece  and  Rome,  in  which  it  desig- 
nated a  civil  magistrate.  Thus,  Cicero  was  at 
one  time  epitccptu  arm  Campania.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  words  bishop  and  presbyter,  or 
priest,  are  sometimes  interoliimgea,  as  in  Acts 
XX.  17,  26;  and  St.  John,  in  his  last  two  epis- 


BISHOP  663 

ties,  adopts  the  titie  (^  priest.  Yet,  as  main- 
tained by  Roman  Catboiio  writ«rs,  it  does  not 
follow  because  the  names  priest  and  bishop 
were  then  applied  indifierently,  that  there  ex- 
isted no  distinction  between  the  episcopate 
and  the  priesthood.  "There  might  have  been 
confnwon  in  the  names,"  says  St.  Thomas, 
"  but  not  in  the  character."  Bishops  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  are  regarded  as  offi- 
cers appointed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  govern 
the  ohnrch.  The  anthority  which  they  exec- 
ciae  belongs  to  their  oharact«r,  and  comes 
from  God  himself^  while  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

C nests  emanates  only  from  a  bishop,  and  can 
e  exercised  only  nnder  his  direction.  At 
first  the  bishops  were  elected  by  the  clergy 
and  people  of  the  diocese,  but  on  actMunC  of 
the  tumults  inseparable  from  popular  assem- 
blies, various  councils,  from  that  of  Laodicea  in 
the  4tb  century  to  that  of  the  Lateran  in  121S, 
restrained  and  suppressed  the  electoral  rights 
of  the  laity.  Charlemagne' and  other  of  the 
northern  kings  appointed  the  bishops  of  their 
own  kingdoms  by  thdr  own  authority.    The 

Sope,  unwilling  that  bishops  shonld  be  depen- 
ant  upon  princes,  brought  it  about  that  the 
canons  in  cathedral  churches  should  have  the 
election  of  their  bishop  which  elections  were 
usually  confiimed  at  Rome.  At  present  the 
mode  of  choosing  bishops  varies  in  different 
countries.  They  are  elected  in  some  countries 
by  cathedral  canons ;  in  others  they  are  nom- 
inated by  the  crown  or  governments.  In 
all  oases  the  names  designated  are  sent  to 
Rome  for  confirmation,  and  the  person  chosen 
is  appointed  to  his  see  by  letters  apostolic.  Ao- 
oording  to  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
the  candidate  for  this  order  must  be  of  legiti- 
mate birth,  80  years  old,  well  reputed  for  learn- 
ing and  morality,  nsuallj  a  native  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  his  bishopric  lies,  and  acceptable 
to  the  political  government  tiiereof.  Within 
three  months  from  bis  confirmation  he  receives 
the  rite  of  consecration,  which  is  performed  in 
the  cathedral  of  the  new  bishop,  according  to 
the  directions  of  the  pontifical,  by  three  bish- 
ops appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  candidate 
takes  the  ancient  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  pope 
and  the  oath  of  civil  allegiance,  subscribes  to 
the  confession  of  faith,  receives  the  insignia  of 
his  office,  is  anointed  and  solemnly  enthroned, 
and  concludes  the  ceremony  with  pronouncing 
the  benediction.  His  insignia  are  a  mitre,  the 
symbol  of  power ;  a  crosier,  in  allusion  to  his 
cjiepherd's duties ;  alinger  ring(annuJu«j»M<«- 
rcUit),  a  sign  of  his  marriage  with  the  church ; 
a  cross  on  the  breast,  distinctive  gloves  and  san- 
dals, and  an  official  robe.  The  functions  of  the 
bishop  embrace  all  the  rites  and  offices  of  the 
Christian  religion.  He  administers  five  sacra- 
ments in  common  with  priests,  and  two  others, 
those  of  confirmation  and  ordination,  ore 
his  peculiar  prerogatives.  He  examines  and 
approves  or  condemns  the  works  published 
in  his  diocese  concerning  religion,  and  takes 
port  in    the  general    councils  convoked    by 


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664  bis: 

tite  pope  for  deciding  qoestiona  of  fiuth.  The 
gaardian  of  discipline,  he  makes  statutes 
tutd  ordinances  whicli  he  judges  neoeBsarj  to 
the  mftintenance  of  it,  dispenses  with  canons 
according  to  the  canons  themselves,  judges 
the  oSeocea  of  eccleaioBtics,  and  has  power  of 
eospensioD,  excommnnicatioii,  and  ahsolotJon. 
There  ere  Catholic  bishops  who  have  no  dio- 
ceses, and  who  perform  duties  witMn  limits  as- 
signed hj  the  holy  see  as  vtoars  apostolic.  Thej 
bear  the  title  of  bishops  inpartuui  infidelium, 
becauBe  thef  are  assigned  to  sees  which  are  in 
the  possesion  of  infidels,  and  are  speciallj  dele- 
gated to  ecclesiastical  duties  elsewnere.  These 
are  cooddered  successors  of  the  bishops  ex- 
pelled by  Mohanunedan  conqneste  from  their 
dioceses  in  the  East,  and  are  appointed  by 
the  pope  as  an  eipression  of  a  perpetnal  hope 
and  a  protest  with  respect  to  those  conquered 
sees. — The  Protestant  movement  introduced 
new  conceptions  of  the  ohnrch,  and  changed 
the  form  of  ohnrch  government.  In  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  Frotestantism  there  was  sab- 
atitnted  for  bishops  either  the  presbytery  or 
eccledasticol  autmom;,  or  the  otece  of  bishop 
was  retained  with  diminished  powers.  Onlv 
in  England  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
of  the  United  States  hss  episcopacy  been  de- 
fended by  Protestants  as  a  divine  institution. 
Other  Protestants  affirm  its  post-apostolic  and 
therefore  human  ori^.  The  functions  of  the 
Andioan  bishops  are  confirmation,  ordination 
qS  deacons  and  priests,  consecration  of  other 
bishops,  dedication  or  consecration  of  religious 
edifioee  and  grounds,  administration  of  the  ef- 
fects of  deceased  persons  till  some  one  has 
proved  a  right  of  exeoutorship,  institution  or 
collation  to  vacant  ohnrches  m  their  diocese, 
saperintendence  of  the  conduct  of  the  priests 
in  the  same,  and  power  of  suspennon,  depri- 
vation, deposition,  degradation,  and  eiconunu- 
nioation.  Formerly  tiiej  had  also  the  right  of 
B^fndication  in  questions  respecting  matrimony 
and  divorce;  but  in  18CT  this  episcopal  juris- 
diction was  abolished,  and  a  matnraonial  court, 
oODsistingof  three  dvil  judges,  was  established. 
They  are  peers  of  tlie  realm  and  members  of 
the  house  of  lords.  Some  years-  ago  the  rev- 
enae  of  the  diderent  sees  was  reduced  more 
nearly  to  an  equality,  the  inootne  of  the  arch- 
Ushop  of  Canterbury  being  fixed  at  £1G,000, 
that  of  the  archbishop  of  York  at  £10,000,  those 
<rf  Tendon,  Durham,  and  Winchester  at  £8,000 
each,  and  the  others  at  from  £6,500  to  £4,600. 
The  Anglican  bishops  are  nominated  by  the 
crown,  and  then  formally  elected  by  the  chap- 
ters. The  ecclesiastical  powers  of  bishops  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  America 
resemble  those  of  the  Anglican  bishops,  but  they 
have  no  political  f^inctions.  They  are  elected 
by  the  clerical  and  iay  deputies  of  the  vacant 
diocese  assembled  in  convention,  and  before 
consecration  are  required  to  produce  certifi- 
cates before  the  house  of  bishops  and  the  house 
of  clerical  and  lay  deputies  in  general  conven~ 
tioD.    The  rights  of  this  office  are  so  restricted 


in  Germany  that  even  Roman  Catholic  mlers 
have  sometimes  been  made  bishops  in  the  Ln- 
theran  church.  In  Pruasia  and  Nassau  this 
tiUe  is  ordinarily  given  to  the  general  superin- 
tendents of  the  Evangelical  church.  Attempts 
have  been  made  without  success  to  give  this 
church  an  episcopal  orgonizBtion.— The  bishops 
of  the  Greek  church  are  appointed  by  the 
archbishops,  and  must  be  selected  frcKU  the 
monks,  and  are  therefore  always  nnmarried. 
They  have  much  less  authority  than  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops. — The  bishopric  is  the  district 
or  diocese  over  which  a  bishop  has  spiritnal 
jurisdiction.  Of  the  Anglican  church,  there 
are  in  England  (ISTS)  2  archbishops  and  26 
bishops;  in  Ireland,  S  archbishops  and  10  bish- 
ops; m  the  colonies,  46  bishops;  there  are,  be- 
sides these,  in  union  with  the  church  of  Eng- 
land 6  missionary  bishops,  and  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem.  In  the  Episcopal  church  of  Scot- 
land there  are  S  bishops.  The  Roman  Cstiiolie 
church  in  England  has  1  archbishop  and  14 
bishops;  in  Ireland,  4  archbishops  and  25 
bishops.  In  the  Dnited  States  there  are  86 
bishoprics  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
and  87  of  the  Roman  Catholic  chureh. ,  There 
are  10  bishops  in  the  northern  division  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  d  in  th« 
(outhem.  In  I8T1  there  were  in  tiie  whole 
world  eeo  bishops  of  the  Latin  and  68  of  Greek 
and  oriental  rites.    (See  Abobbibhop.) 

BISHOP.  I.  Sir  HMry  Biwtey,  an  English 
composer,  bom  in  London  in  1780,  died  April 
80,  18&G.  In  1806  he  composed  the  muucof 
a  ballet  entitled  "  Tamerlane  and  Biyaxet," 
which  was  performed  at  the  Italian  oper» 
house,  and  in  ISOB  diat  of  "  Oaractacus,"  a 
pantomime  ballet,  at  Dmry  Lane.  At  this 
theatre  in  the  following  year  was  sacceesfblly 
produced  his  first  opera,  "The  Cireasman 
Bride,"  hut  on  the  following  evening  (Feb.  34, 
1809)  the  theatre  was  burned  to  the  ground, 
and  with  it  the  score  of  the  opera.  Between 
that  time  and  1826  his  dramatic  engagementa 
of  all  aorta  were  numerona,  including  (to  nso 
his  own  words)  "operas,  borlettas,  melo- 
dramas, incidental  mnno  to  Shakespeare's 
plays,  patchings  and  adaptations  of  foreigii 
operas,  with  glees,  ballads,  canzonets,  and  can- 
tatas." During  this  time  he  was  director  i^ 
mnric  at  Oovont  Garden  theatre,  and  among 
over  SO  operas  which  he  wrote,  the  most  suo- 
oeesful  were  "  Guy  Mannering,"  "Tlie  Haniao," 
"The  Miller  and  his  Men,"  "Maid  Marion," 
"  The  Slave,"  "  Clari,"  and  "The  Englishman  in 
India."  In  1826  his  "  Aladdin  "  was  produced 
at  Drury  Lone,  but  was  not  successful.  He 
adapted  Rossini's  "  Barber  of  Seville,"  Moiart's 
"Marriage  of  Figaro,"  and  some  other  opwts, 
to  the  English  stage.  He  waa  director  of  tha 
concerts  of  ancient  mnrio  for  several  yeara, 
also  one  of  the  first  directors  of  the  philhar- 
monic concerts,  and  composed  some  sacred 
pieces  which  were  performed  at  different  mn- 
noal  festivals.  He  succeeded  Sir  John  Steroi- 
son  as  an-aager  of  the  mono  of  Mo<»re's  "Irish 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BISHOP  BTORTFOED 

MetodiM."  In  1S42  he  wat  knighted  b?  Queen 
Victoria.  He  had  in  1841  been  elected  pro- 
fessor ormnaio  in  the  oniversitj  of  Edinburgh, 
but  he  resigned  in  1B48,  about  which  time  he 
received  the  d^ree  of  doctor  of  magic  from 
Oxford,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Orotch  in 
1648  iras  elected  to  the  chur  of  mnno  in  titat 
nniversity,  which  appointment  he  held  til)  his 
death.  Toward  the  cloee  of  his  life  be  ar- 
ranged for  the  "Illaatrated  London  News"  a 
large  number  of  old  English  airs,  to  wbioh  Dr. 
Charles  Hackay  wrote  the  words.  His  style 
was  devoid  of  affectation,  free,  tlowing,  and 
harmonioas.  IL  lua  Blriraa,  an  English  to- 
oalist,  wife  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  London  in 
1814.  She  was  married  in  18S1,  and  her 
career  as  a  vocalist  b^an  in  1837.  Her  first 
anocess  was  gained  as  a  singer  of  classical  and 
oratorio  mnsic.  Later  she  tamed  her  atten- 
tion to  the  opera.  Her  professional  career  has 
been  fbllowed  in  everj  quarter  of  the  world, 
and  her  presence  is  as  familiar  in  the  concert 
rooms  of  Anstralia  as  in  those  of  England  and 
America.  In  1SB8  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Schnltz  of  New  Tork,  where  she  resides. 

BISBOP  ffrOETFMW,  a  town  of  Hertford- 
riiire,  England,  B3  m.  byrwl  N.  E,  of  London; 
pop.  about  6,000.  It  derives  the  first  part  of 
its  name  from  having  been  since  the  Saxon  era 
the  property  of  the  bishops  of  London,  and  the 
second  from  its  sitoation  on  the  river  Stort.  It 
oonsista  chiefly  of  two  Unes  of  streets,  and  con- 
tains a  fine  parish  churoh,  restored  in  1820,  a 
oapadons  market  honse  and  a  com  exchange. 
A  canal  connects  it  with  London,  and  it  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  malt. 

BISMAtCK.    See  supplement. 

HEHUCK-«CH0iIH1ISEH,  Ott«  t*IMTi  If. 
fiU,  prince,  a  German  statesman,  bom  at  tbe 
manor  of  SchOnbausen,  in  the  district  of  Mag- 
debnrg,  April  1,  1816.  His  father,  Karl  Wil- 
helm  Ferdinand  von  Bismarck,  was  captain  in 
the  royal  body  goard  of  Pmssia,  and  died  in 
1840.  His  mother,  who  died  in  1889,  was  a 
daughter  of  Cabinet  Conncillor  Menken.  The 
Bismarck  family  has  been  known  for  npward 
of  five  oenturiM,  daring  which  period  several 
members  t^it  were  prominent  chiefly  as  military 
men  nnder  tbe  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
kings  of  Pmsma.  Otto  von  Bismarck  was  one 
of  sis  children,  the  two  eldest  and  tbe  yonngest 
of  whom  died  in  infancy.  In  1882  he  studied 
jurispmdence  and  political  science  at  Got- 
tmgen.  Toward  the  end  of  1888  he  entered 
the  univeruty  of  Berlin,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  June,  1830.  In  18S6-'T  he  was 
referendary  at  Aii-la-Ohapelle  and  Potsdam. 
Ho  served  his  years  of  military  duty  partly  in 
the  latter  city  (1837)  and  partly  in  Greifs- 
wald  (1838),  where  he  familiarized  himself 
with  tee  science  of  husbandry.  In  1847  he 
attended  the  flrst  united  diet  at  Berlin  in  his 
capacity  of  district  delegate  of  the  nobility  at 
the  diet  of  tbe  province  of  Saxony,  and  became 
known  as  an  able  and  vehement  opponent  of 
liberal  reforms.    In  1848,  after  the  first  storm 


BISHABCE-SOHONHAHBEN     665 

of  the  revolution,  he  participated  m  the  gath- 
ering of  the  mral  nobility  in  Berlin,  known 
nnder  the  nickname  of  the  Junkm-  parliai 


as  a  member  of  the  second  chamber  of  the 
Prussian  diet,  he  urged  increased  powers  for  the 
monarchy,  and  the  consolidation  of  the  German 
nationality  by  the  joint  action  of  Prussia  and 
Austria.  He  combated  the  schemes  of  nnion 
discussed  at  the  Frankfort  and  Erfurt  parlia- 
ments, though  he  was  himself  a  member  of  the 
latter,  as  destructive  of  the  tme  basis  of  Prus- 
sian power;  and  in  his  reactionary  zeal  even 
applauded  Manteuffel's  surrender  to  Austria  at 
Olmttti.  After  haring  been  secretary  of  lec- 
tion, he  was  appointed  in  August,  18G1,  Prus- 
sian ambassador  to  the  Germanic  diet  at  Frank- 
fort. Here  he  soon  manifested  a  decided  turn 
in  his  international  views,  and  the  pretensions 
of  Austria  were  repelled  by  him  with  so  mnch 
bitterness  that  on  the  eve  of  the  Franco-Italian 
war  of  1859  it  was  judged  prudent  to  transfer 
him  to  8t.  Petersburg,  where  he  strengthened 
the  friendly  relations  between  Russia  and  Pms- 
sia,  and  remained  till  the  spring  of  18S2.  He 
then  became  Pruswan  ambassador  in  Paris  for  a 
few  months,  and  in  September  of  the  same 
year  snooeeded  Prince  Hohenzollcrn  as  prime 
minister,  first  provisionally,  and-on  Oct.  8  be- 
came the  virtnal  head  of  the  administration 
and  minister  of  foreign  affifUrs.  Daring  the 
long  and  exciting  conflict  between  the  diet 
and  the  government  on  the  sabjeot  of  the  in- 
crease and  reform  of  the  army,  the  new  pre- 
mier took  strong  ground  in  favor  of  strength- 
ening the  military  force,  and  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative in  general.  Despite  the  nnfriendly 
attitude  of  Anstris,  he  was  unceasing  in  his 
efforts  to  effect  a  joint  action  with  that 
power  in  the  interest  of  German  unity,  and 
succeeded  in  procuring  her  coflperation  in  the 
Schleswig-Hol stein  war  (18S4),  notwithstand- 
ing the  on  willingness  of  the  Germtmlc  diet  He 
concluded  a  new  commercial  treaty  with  Aus- 
tria in  1865.  The  Gasteiu  convention,  Ang.  14, 
1886,  put  an  end  for  a  time  to  the  Bcbleswig- 
Holstem  complications.  Bismarck  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  count,  Sept.  20,  ana  in- 
vested with  ministerial  authority  over  the  newly 
conquered  territories.  The  relations  with  Aus- 
tria, however,  continuing  unsatisfactory,  Bis- 
marck concluded  an  alliance  with  Italy,  and  war 
was  declared  against  Austria  and  her  allies  at 
the  Frankfort  diet  (June,  1868).  A  few  weeks' 
campaign  sufficed  to  crush  them,  and  the  treaty 
of  Prague  (Aug.  2S)  extinguished  Austria  as  a 
German  power,  dissolved  tiie  old  German  diet, 
secured  Schleswig-Hol  stein  to  Prussia,  and 
placed  Prussia  at  the  head  of  a  North  Ger- 
man confederation.  The  statesman  formerly 
so  nnpopular  and  even  hated,  on  whose  life 
shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  a  young  fanatic,  was  now 
idolized  by  the  Prussian  people.  The  victories 
achieved    by  Bismarck's   diplomacy  for  tbe 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


conntry,  and  the  renown  won  by  the  arraj,  pnt 
an  end  to  the  long  pBrliamentAT]'  conflict,  and 
anfttional  endowment  was  conferred  opon  him 
hj  the  chamberB.  The  annexation  of  Hanover, 
HeBse-Caesel,  Nassaa,  Frankfort,  and  Schles- 
wis-Holstein  to  Pma«&,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  North  German  confederation,  with  the 
adheuon  of  Boiony  and  other  atat^a,  were  con- 
mdered  chieSj  due  to  his  ability.  He  averted 
jwar  with  France  on  the  Lozembcrg  aneatlon 
t>j  the  treaty  of  London  (18G7) ;  but  the  new 
diplomatic  snccesa  achieved  here  by  Pmsaia,  in 
addition  to  the  prestige  gained  by  her  previona- 
ly,  increaeed  the  jealongy  of  France,  especially 
aa  Napoleon's  attem^  at  a  coalition  with  Aus- 
tria was  baffled  by  Bismarck's  secret  treaties 
with  the  South  Oerraan  states,  and  by  his  un- 
derstanding with  Italy.  The  accession  of  a 
Buhenzollem  prince  to  the  Roumanian  throne 
being  foUowed  in  1870  by  a  project  of  raiung 
anouer  prince  of  that  honse  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  Kapoleon  seized  this  incident  aa  a  pre- 
text for  a  declaration  of  war,  which  under  Bis- 
marck's influence  was  met  both  by  the  North 
German  confederation  and  the  South  German 
Btntes,  with  Prussia  at  their  head,  with  such  an 
nnprecedented  spirit  that  France  was  utterly 
prostrated  in  the  war,  while  King  WiUiam, 
victorious  ft-om  the  begnnning  to  the  end,  was 

JrodaimeJ  emperor  of  Germany  at  Versailles, 
ui.  18,  1871;  and  he  soon  afterward  pro- 
moted Connt  Bismarck,  as  the  originator  of  the 
brilliant  triumphs  of  Germany,  to  the  rank 
of  prince  with  the  title'  of  chancellor  of  the 
German  empire.  Throughout;  Uie  war  Bis- 
marck was  by  the  side  of  the  emperor,  display- 
ing at  every  step  new  talents  for  executive  and 
diplomatic  affurs.  In  internal  afiurs  liia  policy 
had  in  the  meanwhile  gradually  assumed  a 
more  and  more  liberal  complexion.  In  1872 
he  took  strong  ground  against  the  doctrine  of 

Sapal  infallibility,  caused  the  expnlsion  of  the 
esuits  from  Frussia,  and  insisted  upon  the  sub- 
jection of  the  Roman  Catliolic  church  to  the 
civil  government,  (See  PBcsaiA,  and  Gkh- 
HAKT.) — Among  the  many  recent  works  rela- 
ting to  Prince  Bismarck  are  Ludwig  Bamber- 
ger's M.  da  Biamareh  (Paris,  IfiSS;  German 
translation,  Berlin,  1868):  Dr.  Eonstantjn  RSss- 
ler's  Ornf  SitraaTek  mid  die  dvutteh^  Nation 
(Berlin,  1871);  and  Hesekiei's  "Life  of  Bis- 
marck, Private  and  Political,"  translated  into 
English  by  Kenneth  R.  H.  Mackenzie  (1870). 

BISHtfTH,  a  metal  which  shines  with  such 
brilliant  colors  that  the  name  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  the  German  WiamunatU,  or 
meadow  lawn.  The  original  word  was  con- 
tracted to  Wi»»mat,  and  finally  to  Witmuth, 
which  is  its  present  German  form.  The  an- 
cients make  no  mention  of  bismuth.  It  is  not 
more  than  100  years  since  a  number  of  the 
most  learned  scientific  men  of  Europe  stoutly 
maintained  that  it  could  be  made  artificially, 
and  was  not  therefore  a  simple  body.  After 
the  properties  of  the  metal  became  well  under- 
stood March  was  made  everywhere  for  it,  and 


it  was  found  native  In  a  number  of  localities — 
the  principal  mines  being  in  Saxony,  where  it 
is  associated  with  nickel  and  cobalt  to  the  ex-  ' 


lina;  in  Haddam,  Conn. ;  in  Vir^ia;  and  in 
several  places  in  South  America,  especially  on 
the  Andes  in  Bolivia  at  a  height  of  IG.CKH)  feet. 
At  the  mines  in  Saxony  the  impure  ore  is  eli- 

anated  or  subjected  to  a  sweating  process,  and 
le  drops  of  the  metal,  as  they  ooxe  ont,  ran 
down  the  pipes  into  iron  kettles.  In  this  way 
the  cmde  mgota  are  prepared  for  ccHnmerce. — 
Pure  bismutli  is  a  readish-wbit«  metal,  closely 
resembling  antimony.  It  is  so  brittle  that  it 
can  be  pulverized  in  a  mortar,  and  yet  at  cer- 
tain temperatures  it  is  more  or  less  tenociona, 
and  can  be  drawn  into  thin  wires.  By  fomng 
large  quantities  of  it,  say  lOD  lbs.,  in  a  kettle 
well  covered,  and  then  as  soon  as  a  thick  crust 
has  formed  piercing  two  holes,  pouring  out  the 
still  liquid  contents,  and  sawing  off  the  upper 
crust,  there  will  be  disclosed  magnificent  crys- 
tals with  cubical  facets,  and  in  clusters,  resem- 
bling a  ruined  city.  These  crystals  have  all 
the  iridescence  and  play  of  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow. The  specific  gravity  of  the  metal  is  9'83, 
and  it  melts  at  204  G.  (607°  F.).  This  point  of 
fusion  is  used  to  adjust  high-ranged  thermome- 
ters. An  alloy  of  antimony  and  bismuth,  ar- 
ranged in  a  great  number  of  small  prisms,  af- 
fords the  most  sensitive  thermometer  that  has 
been  cocstmcted.  We  can  measure  the  tj.Wv 
of  a  degree  by  this  delicate  instrument,  and  by 
it  even  the  moon  can  be  shown  to  afford  some 
heat.  The  principle  upon  which  it  is  based  is 
the  action  of  heat  to  produce  an  electric  cur- 
rent which  moves  a  carefully  adjusted  mag- 
netic needle.  The  passage  of  the  hand  before 
the  instrument,  or  the  faintest  breath,  or  any 
radiating  surface  turned  toward  it,  immediate- 
ly excites  the  electric  current,  and  causes  the 
needle  to  move  around  the  graduated  arc ; 
and  in  this  way  the  slightest  change  in  tem- 
perature can  be  measured.  Some  celebrated 
experiments  were  performed  with  it  by  the 
Italian  philosopher  Uelloni,  end  also  by  Dr. 
John  W.  Draper  of  New  York,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deciding  manjr  nice  points  in  refer- 
ence to  the  transmission,  radiation,  and  re- 
fraction of  heat.  Melted  bismuth  expands  on 
cooling,  following  the  some  law  as  iron  and 
water  on  its  conversion  into  ice.  Bismnth 
imparts  brittleness  to  other  metals,  render- 
ing even  gold  and  silver  less  malleable,  and 
forming,  it  is  said,  a  crystalline  alloy  with  iron. 
The  alchemists  looked  npon  it  as  a  bastaid 
metal,  and  sometimes  called  it  lead  asbea,  pltttn- 
hvm  cijiereum,  on  account  of  ita  close  resom- 
blance  to  antimony.  They  also  spoke  of  it  as 
ajitirnonium  femininium,  or  the  female  anti- 
mony. Its  frequent  occurrence  in  beautifrd 
dendritic  groups  also  suggested  to  the  early 
miners  that  it  could  be  cnltivated  the  same  as 
any  tree  or  Testable. — Bismnth  has  the  prop- 
erty of  imparting  fusibility  to  other  metals ; 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BISMUTH 

benoe  one  of  its  chief  nses  is  to  prepare  altoys 
tjiat  will  melt  at  rerj  low  temperatareg.  A 
mixture  of  two  parts  of  bismuth,  one  of  lead, 
aad  one  of  tin,  will  melt  gX  200°  F. ;  and  spoons 
are  often  cast  of  this  alloy,  to  be  nsed  aatoys, 
melting  away  instantlj  in  any  hot  liquid,    (!hie 

£art  (^  bismuth,  two  of  tin,  and  one  of  lead 
>rm  a  soft  solder  for  pewterers.  It  Is  also 
employed  as  a  bath  for  tempering  steel,  and 
as  a  cake  mould  for  toilet  soap.  Another  al- 
loy, composed  of  6  parts  of  bismnth,  E  of  lead, 
and  2  of  tin,  melts  at  199°  F.,  and  is  known  as 
stereotype  metal.  An  amalgam  of  20  parta  of 
biamuth  and  80  parte  of  mercury  is  estenwvely 
used  for  silvering  the  interior  of  glass  globes, 
and  for  Hirailar  ornamental  purposes.  Dr.  Wood 
of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  discovered  an  alloy  still 
more  fnsible  than  any  of  those  above  mention- 
ed. It  is  composed  of  8  parts  of  bismuth,  4  of 
lead,  2  of  tin,  and  2  of  cadniium,  and  ia  said  to 
melt  at  158°  F.  One  of  the  earliest  compounds 
of  biamnth  that  received  any  attention,  the 
preparation  of  which  was  for  a  long  time  kept 
a  profound  secret,  is  the  aubnitrate,  now  known 
nnderthe  name  of  pearl-white.  This  salt  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  enamels  on  porcelain,  and  also 
in  gilding.  It  has  great  solvent  properties  with 
otber  oxides,  especially  with  silica  and  borax; 
and  as  it  imparts  no  color,  it  is  valuable  in  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  and  of  optical  glass. 
The  nitrate,  mixed  with  a  solution  of  tin  and 
tartar,  has  long  been  employed  as  a  mordant 
for  dyeing  lilac  and  violet  in  calico  printing. 
Pearl-white  is  principally  used  as  a  oosmetio  to 
give  a  brilliant  tint  to  faded  complexions.  Snl- 
phnr  converts  the  salts  of  bismnth  into  the 
black  sulphide  of  bismuth,  so  that  the  smallest 
trace  of  snlphor  in  the  illuminating  gas  may 
gradually  turn  the  pearl-whit«  to  a  dark  hue. 
If  we  writ«  with  a  pen  dipped  in  a  solation  of 
the  nitrate  of  bismuth,  after  it  is  dry  nothing 
can  be  seen ;  but  on  plunging  the  paper  into 
water  the  writing  will  become  distmctly  visi- 
ble.— Mr.  Farmer  of  Boston  has  invented  an 
ingenious  thermo-electric  battery,  composed  of 
a  row  of  bars  of  an  alloy  of  antimony  and  bis- 
muth, which  only  require  to  he  heated  to  ex- 
cite a  powerful  galvanic  current  The  sim- 
plicity of  the  arrangement,  the  avoidance  of 
acid  fames,  the  constant  readiness  for  use.  and 
the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  set  in  action, 
commend  this  form  of  apparatus  to  the  atten- 
tion of  physicists.  It  is  evident  that  if  by  sim- 
ply heating  one  end  of  a  metallic  bar  a  suffi- 
ciently powerful  current  can  be  excited  to  pro- 
duce all  the  effects  of  an  ordinary  galvanic  bat- 
tery, this  would  afford  the  most  convenient  and 
economical  arrangement  for  the  telegraph,  for 
electro-plating,  and  in  fact  for  all  the  parpoees 
to  whicn  the  old  form  of  battery  is  now  ap- 
plied.— The  spectrum  of  bismuth  presents  a 
maltitnde  of  brilliant  rajs  in  the  green,  a  faint 
and  one  strong  ray  in  the  red,  and  a  feeble  one 
in  the  orange. — According  to  Wagner,  the  pro- 
ductJoa  of  bismuth  in  Saxony  in  1871  was 
82,000  lbs. — The  subnitrate  of  bismuth  is  nsed 


BISON 


667 


medicinally  in  painful  affections  of  the  stomach, 
such  as  cancer,  cardiolgia,  chronic  ulcer,  and 
chronic  indamination.  Its  action  seems  to  be 
a  local  one,  little  or  none  of  the  drug  being 
absorbed.  It  may  be  coD«dered  either  as  as- 
tringent or  more  probably  as  simply  protecting 
irritable  snriacea  meclumically.  It  has  also 
been  nsed  with  advantage  in  chronic  diur- 
rhoaas.  It  has  been  applied  externally  in 
eczema  and  allied  conditions  of  the  skin  and 
mucous  membranes.  The  carbonate  may  be 
employed  in  the  same  way  as  the  subnitrate, 
and  in  the  same  doses.  From  G  to  16  grains 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  Some  prac- 
titioners have  given  two  or  three  dramsatonce, 
bnt  such  doses  are  not  to  be  recommended. 

BISOK,  a  name  ^ven  to  three  species  of  the  ox 
family.  I.  TheEuropeanorEur-Adatiospecies, 
bot  uruj,  known  as  the  bonauui,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  ancient  unu  or  auroeht,  (See  Adboobs.) 
2.  The  Indian  bison  (£.  jfaunit)  is  but  partially 
known  and  imperfectly  described.    It  has  the 

Ceral  cbaraoteristics  of  the  bisons,  the  short 
ns,  hnge  h^ul,  nnshapely  forehead,  and  the 
vast  masses  of  sha^y  wool  covering  those 
parts.  It  frequents  the  Ghauts  and  the  wild- 
eatforestraDgesoftheUimalaya.  3.  Thebison, 
commonly  and  erroneously  called  buffalo,  of 
North  America  (S.  .^>n«7-{eaniu},  is  distinguish- 
ed by  its  singnlar  hump  over  theshoulders;  this 
hump  isof  an  oblong  form,  diminishing  in  height 


as  it  recedes,  soas  to  give  considerable  obliquity 
to  the  line  of  the  back.  The  eye  is  black  and 
brilliant;  the  horns  are  black,  and  very  thick 
near  the  head,  whence  they  curve  upward  and 
outward,  tapering  rapidly  toward  the  point. 
The  outline  of  the  face  is  convexly  cnrvea.  and 
the  npper  lip  on  each  side,  being  papillons 
within,  dilates  and  extends  downward,  giving 


ancient  architectural  bass  reliefs  representing 
the  beads  of  oxen.     The  physiogomy  of  the  bi- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


MS  BISSAQ08 

spedea  the  bison  ii  the  most  paoifio.  Even  in  hia 
breeding  season  the  bison  will  not  attack  man. 
In  samnier,  from  the  shonldera  baokwsrd,  it  is 
covered  with  a  very  short  fine  hair.  The  tail  is 
short,  and  totted  at  the  end.  The  color  of  the 
haJT  is  unlforml]'  dun,  but  the  long  hair  on  the 
snterior  parts  of  the  bod  j  is  to  a  certain  extent 
tinged  will)  jellowiah  or  rast  color.  The  shaggy 
masses  of  hair  which  cover  the  head,  ahonldera, 
and  neck  of  the  male,  with  his  great  beard,  are 
of  a  darker  shade  of  we  same  hue.  The  sexnal 
saason  of  the  bison  oommences  in  July,  toward 
the  latter  end  of  the  month,  and  lasts  till  the 
be^nning  of  September;  after  which  time  the 
cows  leave  the  company  of  the  baUs  and  range 
in  different  herds.  They  calve  in  April,  and 
the  calves  never  leave  the  mother  nntil  tbey 
are  a  year  old,  while  they  often  follow  her 
until  &ej  are  three  years  old.  From  Jnly  to 
the  end  of  December  the  cows  are  very  fat 
and  in  prime  oondition ;  the  boUs  are  always 
poor,  and  their  flesh  is  lean  and  hard ;  during 
the  breeding  season  it  ia  rank  and  disagreeable. 
At  this  time  of  the  year  the  roaring  of  the  bulls 
on  the  prairies  is  like  hoorae  thuDUer,  and  they 
fight  fariona  battles  among  themselves.  When 
migrating,  they  travel  in  vast  solid  columns  of 
thouaoods  and  l«na  of  thousands,  which  it  ia 
almost  impoesible  to  turn  or  arrest  in  their  pro- 

Sess,  aioce  the  rearward  masses  drive  the 
idera  on,  whether  they  will  or  no.  The  flesh 
of  the  bison,  the  cow  eapeoially,  is  like  coarae- 
grained  beef,  but  is  jnicr,  t«nder,  and  sapid  in 
Uie  highest  degree.  Tne  favorite  portion  is 
the  hump,  which,  when  cooked  in  tlie  Indian 
fa^ion,  by  sewing  it  up  in  the  hide,  singed  and 
denuded  of  hair,  and  baking  it  ia  an  earth 
oven,  wherein  a  fire  has  been  previously  kin- 
dled, and  over  which  a  second  fire  ia  kept 
burning  during  the  process,  is  considered  the 
moat  exquisite  of  dainties ;  the  tongue  and  the 
morrow  bones  are  also  greatly  prized.  Nn- 
meroua  tribes  of  Indians  are  almoat  entirely 
dependent  on  the  bison  for  their  food,  clothing, 
dwellings,  and  even  iuel;  the  dressed  hides 
with  the  hair  on  form  their  robes — denuded  of 
it,  the  covers  of  their  tents;  and  the  dried 
oranrfr—known  on  the  prairies  as  6oit  de  muiKe 
— on  the  vast  treeless  plains  of  the  west,  fur- 
nishes  the  sole  material  for  their  fires.  The 
dressed  hides  are  a  oonsiderabte  article  of  com- 
merce, and  for  these  as  well  as  for  other 
causes  the  slaughter  of  these  animals  ia  pro- 
di^oDS.  Their  original  range  appears  to  have 
bMn  the  whole  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, west  of  Lake  Ohamplain  and  the  Hudson 
river,  with  the  exception  of  some  intervals  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  south  of  the  Ottawa 
and  Columbia  rivers,  northword  of  which  its 
place  ia  supplied  by  the  musk  ox,  as  is  that  of 
thedk  and  moose  by  the  reindeer.  For  many 
years  they  have  ceased  to  exist  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Ifississippi. 

•ffiSifiWI,  a  group  of  islands  aitnated  near 
the  month  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  western  Africa, 
between  lat.  10°  and  12°  N.  and  Ion.  15"  and 


BISTBITZ 

17°  W.  Onlyie  of  them  are  of  any  tnagnitnde. 
Bissao,  the  most  important,  contains  a  Portu- 
guese settlement,  and  was  the  centre  of  the 
PortDgueae  slave  trade;  pop.  8,000, 

BlSSili^  WinUM  H.,  governor  of  Illinoia,  born 
near  Oooperstown,  K.  Y.,  April  2G,  1811,  died 
in  Bpringfield,  111.,  March  16,  ISSO.  He  took 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  Jefi'erson  medical 
college,  Philadelphia,  in  1885,  practised  medi- 
dae  two  years  at  Painted  Post,  N.  T.,  removed 
to  Monroe  county,  111.,  in  1887,  was  elected  to 
the  state  legislature  in  laio,  and  tbereeonied 
distinction  as  a  forcible  and  ready  debater. 
He  subsequently  studied  and  practised  law,  and 
was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of  St.  Clair 
county  in  1844.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war 
in  1&4S  aa  colonel  of  the  2d  Illinoia  volunteera, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Buena  Vista.  On 
his  return  home  in  1848  ho  wos  elected  with- 
out opposition  a  representative  in  oongren,  in 
which  capacity  he  served  till  1855,  reNsting 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise,  thon^ 
he  had  previonsly  acted  with  the  democratio 

Sarty,  and  gaining  much  reputation  in  the 
'oTth  by  hia  defiant  bearing  in  a  controversy 
with  Jefferson  Davis  respecting  the  compara- 
tive bravery  of  northern  and  aouthern  soliliers. 
Davis  challenged  him,  and  he  accepted  the 
challenge,  selecting  muskets  oa  the  weapons  to 
be  used,  at  so  short  a  distance  as  to  make  the 
due!  probably  fatal  to  both  parties.  Finally 
the  quarrel  was  compromised  and  the  olial- 
lenge  withdrawn.  In  1866  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Illinoia  by  the  repnblicana,  and  died 
before  tiie  expiration  of  bis  term. 

llSSin',  EsWt,  an  English  writer,  bom  In 
1T69,  died  May  14,  1B05.  He  was  a  gradnato 
of  the  univernty  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  known 
as  a  continuator  of  the  histories  of  Hume  and 
Smollett,  which  he  brought  down  to  the  end  irf 
the  reign  of  Gewge  III.  He  published  an  es- 
say on  democracy  and  a  life  of  £dmnnd  Borke 
(1786),  a  romance  colled  "Donglas,"  and  an 
edition  of  the  "  Spectator,"  with  Uves  of  the 
vorious  contributors  and  velnable  notes. 

BIBTRE,  a  reddish  brown  water  color,  gen- 
erally obtained  from  the  soot  tliat  collects  in 
chimney  fines.  This  is  pulverized  and  washed 
to  remove  the  saline  ingredients.  The  finest 
sediment  is  then  disBolved  in  vinegar,  to  whioli 
gum  water  is  afterward  odded.  It  was  former]  j 
mnoh  nsed  for  making  painters'  crayons,  and 
also  for  a  paint  in  water-color  deugns.  Sepia, 
however,  is  now  preferred  to  it. 

BlfflUTZ  (Hun.  Betttiireu),  o  free  royal 
town  of  N.  E.  Tronsylvonia,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name,  capital  of  the  Saxon  circle  of  Bia- 
triU  or  NSanerland ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,313.  It 
has  three  gates  of  entrance,  and  two  subnrba 
chiefly  tenanted  by  Wollachs.  Among  the  pub- 
lic buildings  ore  o  handsome  city  hall  and  a. 
Gothic  Protestant  church,  the  steeple  of  which 
is  260  ft.  high.  Wine,  potash,  and  cattle  sell- 
ing ore  the  chief  sourcee  of  wealth.  Near  it 
are  the  remains  of  a  castle  onoe  the  reaidesce 
of  the  Hnnyadys. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BITHOOR 


nttMT,  m  town  of 

Srovince  of  Allahabad,  on  the  Qangea,  21 
■.  W.  of  Oawnpore;  pop,  ftboot  9,000.  Ab  a 
r«tigiou.')  citj  it  eii^ojs  high  repute,  and  every 
fear  in  November  and  December  is  the  scene 
uf  B  festival.  Bendee  a  number  of  Hindoo  t«m- 
ptea,  it  has  magniflceDt  ghauts,  or  flights  of 
stops,  on  the  brink  of  the  aacred  river,  where 
the  priests  and  worshippers  of  Brahma  perform 
their  prescribed  ablations.  One  of  these  ghants 
U  held  to  have  been  honored  b;  the  presence 
of  Brahma  himself,  who  there  sacrificed  a 
horse  after  creating  the  aniverse.  A  pin  fixed 
in  one  of  the  steps,  and  believed  to  have  drop' 


GhiDt  OB  tba  OttgM. 

ped  from  the  god's  slipper  on  that  occasion,  ia 
an  ohjeet  of  deep  vcneratioD.  For  a  lonit  period 
this  town  was  the  residence  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Mahrattaa,  the  last  of  whom  died  withoot  issue 
in  1861.  His  estate  then  reverted  to  the  East 
India  companj,  to  the  exolaaion  of  the  cl^m 
of  an  adopted  son,  Dhondoo  Pont,  who  was, 
however,  permitted  to  occupy  the  town,  and 
is  known  bj  his  title  of  the  Nona  Sahib.  He 
became  the  leader  of  the  sepoy  matineers  in 
1857-'8.  In  July,  1857,  Gen.  Havolock  drove 
the  Nona  from  the  town  and  dismantled  it ;  it 
was  Bobseqnently  reoconpied  by  the  mutineers, 
and  after  a  well  fought  battle  agun  taken  by 
Havelock,  Aug.  16. 

BITHVNIl,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, bounded  F.  by  the  Eaxine,  E.  by  Pnphla- 
gonia,  8.  by  Phrjgia  and  Galatia,  and  W.  by 
the  Propontis  and  Mysia,  and  comprising  the 
N.  E.  portions  of  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Kho- 
davendigiar.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Bi- 
thyni  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Strymon 
in  Thrace,  having  been  expelled  thence  by  a 
more  powerful  horde ;  and  Thucjdides  and 
KenopDon  corroborate  this  statement  by  coll- 
ing their  descendants  Bithynian  Thracians. 
The  Bithynians  maintained  their  independence 
till  they  were  aubdaed  by  Oroeans,  king  of 


BIT8CH  669 

Lydia.  On  the  overthrow  of  tlie  Lydian  mon- 
archy they  passed  nnder  the  power  of  the  Per- 
sians, and  their  country  became  a  part  of  the 
satrapy  of  Phrygia.  In  latertimes,  however,  it 
was  Itself  constituted  into  a  satrapy,  and  even 
a  native  dynasty  sprang  no  in  it.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  on  the  Oranicus,  Bithy- 
nia  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Macedonians. 
On  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Baa, 
the  son  of  Botiras,  a  native  chief,  vonqmshed 
Catantus,  the  Macedonian  governor,  and  took 
possession  of  Bitliynia  for  himself  and  his  pos- 
terity. Nioomedes,  the  fourth  in  descent  from 
Botiraa,  was  the  first  of  this  dynasty  who  as- 
eumed  the  title  of  king.  The  kingdom  of 
Bithynia  endured  for  over  two  centuries.  Ita 
last  king  was  Nicomedes  III.,  who,  having  no 
children,  bequeathed  his  dominions  to  the  Bo- 
mans,  74  B.  C.  The  Bomana  annexed  Bithy- 
nia  first  to  the  province  of  Ada,  and  then  to 
that  of  Pontus,  In  the  reign  of  Angustna  it 
was  separated  from  the  latter,  and,  together 
with  the  western  part  of  Paphlagonia,  consti- 
tuted a  proconsdar  province.  The  inland 
districts  of  Bithynia  were  mountainons  and 
woody,  embracingtheBithynian  Olympus;  but 
the  country  near  the  coast  consisted  for  the 
most  part  of  fertile  plains,  which  were  studded 
with  villages.  Its  chief  river  was  the  Banga- 
rius  (now  Sakaria),  which  traversed  it  from 
south  to  north.  Among  ita  towns  were  Nico- 
media  and  Pmsa  (Brusa),  suoceswvoly  capitals, 
Eeraclea,  Chalcedon,  and  Nicffia. 

HTON  INO  OEOBIS,  in  Greek  legend,  sons 
of  Cydippe,  priestess  of  Juno  at  Ai^oa.  On 
one  occasion,  the  oxen  which  dragged  the 
chariot  of  the  priestess  not  bemg  at  hand,  they 
drew  their  mother  to  the  temple,  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles.  Cydippe  prayed  to  Juno  to 
grant  to  them  in  reward  what  was  best  for 
mortals.  That  night  the  brothers  slept  in  the 
temple,  and  never  awoke.  This  was  the  great- 
est boon  the  goddess  could  grant. 

BITONTO  (anc.  Bvtuntvm),  a  town  of  8. 
Italy,  in  the  province  and  10  m,  W,  of  Ban;  pop. 
in  1872, 24,078.  It  is  handsomely  built,  and  haa 
a  fine  cathedral  and  a  large  orphan  asylum.  A 
victory'was  gained  here  by  the  Spaniards  over 
the  Anstrians,  May  26,  1734,  which  gave  the 
former  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
The  ancient  Butuntom  is  only  known  from  coina. 

BIT8CB  (Ft.  Biteke),  a  town  and  fortress  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
French  department  of  Moselle,  36  m.  N.  V. 
of  Strasburg;  pop.in  1868,3,740.  The  fortia 
on  an  isolated  rocK,  defending  one  of  the  main 
roads  through  the  Vosges,  with  homb-proof 
caaemates  hewn  from  the  solid  rock,  and  is  well 
supplied  with  water.  Before  the  late  Franco- 
German  war  it  cont^ned  90  guns.  It  was  in 
vested  by  the  German  forces  in  August,  1870^ 
and  in  September  sufiered  a  severe  bombard- 
ment. It  however  held  out  until  the  prelim* 
inaries  of  peace  were  signed,  when  together 
with  the  territory  in  which  it  is  ntoated  it 
waa  ceded  to  the  Germans.    The  town  contains 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BITTERFELD 


mannfaetoriea  of  paper  and  porcelain,  and  in 
the  vicinitj  are  eitonsive  glass  works. 

BITTEBFELD,  a  town  of  Pniwian  Saxonf,  in 
the  district  of  Mereeborg,  at  the  jnnotion  of  the 
Mn]de  with  the  Lober,  17  m.  by  r^lwaj  N.  of 
Leipsic;  pop.  in  1871,  6,048.  It  is  pleaaautlj 
sitaated,  and  contuns  waterworks.  Kailway 
communication  with  all  parts  of  the  continent 
has  produced  within  the  last  few  fears  great  in- 
dustrial activity.  There  are  coalmincB  and  sev- 
eral iron  foonderies,  breweries,  and  distilleries, 
and  doth,  fiotter  J,  machinery,  and  other  articles 
are  manufactured  here.  The  town  was  fonnded 
in  the  middle  of  Che  12tii  century  by  Flemings. 

BIITEKN,  a  fon  fowl,  of  the  order  grallatoTM 
or  waders,  family  ardeida,  which  alsaiuclades 
the  herons,  old  genua  ardea  (Linn.).  There  are 
in  Europe  several  species  of  this  bird,  which 


resembles  the  heron.  The  most  common,  the 
English  bittern  (botaunu  lUllarU.  Steph.),  is 
fiunoQS   for  the  peculiar  nocturnal  booming 


BOnnd  which  it  emits 
in  the  deep  wat«rj  mo- 
rasses of  which  it  if 
an  inhabitant,  to  which 
sonnd  it  owes  several 
of  its  names,  as  the  bo^- 
bumper,  mire  -  dmm, 
&c.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  three 
species:  A.  minor  or 
boUmrwi  Uittiginonu 
(Steph.),  corresponding 
to  the  European  bit- 
tern, 26^  inches  long, 
and  of  a  browniah  yel- 
low color;  tlie  green 
bittern  or  green  heron 
(A.  [bvtorida]  tirtt- 
centy,  16  inches  long, 
very  common  in  inland 
Btreamsandmill  pondf, 
a  beautiful  bird,  but 
commonly  known  by  a 
vnlgar  and  indeiicBt«  nickname  ;  and  the  least 
bittern  {ardetta  ezilit),  an  extremely  nnall 
and  beantjfnlly  marked  bird.  All  the  bil- 
tema  are  handsome  birds,  with  long  necks, 
which  they  hold  proudly  erect;  fine,  pendnlona, 
bnt  erectile  crests ;  a  long  fringe  of  feathers 
on  the  neck,  mottled  with  yellow,  brown,  and 
black,  like  tortoise  sheU ;  and  all  their  upper 


D  Btttcnia 


n  Hsod  (BDtoridet  rlrMeaH). 


parte  variegated  with  black,  brown,  mst  color, 
yellow,  and  white,  like  those  of  the  wood- 
cock. Their  long  legs  are  bore  far  above 
the  knee,  to  enable  them  to  wade  into  dc^p 
water,  in  pursuit  of  their  fishy  and  reptile 
prey.  They  have  clear,  penetrating  eyea,  with 
a  fearless  look,  which  well  eipressea  their 
tmtd  and  self-reliant  character.  If  wounded 
or  broken -winijed,  they  will  fight  bravely  with 
their  sharp-pomted  bills,  striking  at  the  eyes 
either  of  men  or  dogs,  to  the  latter  of  which 
they  are  fonnidable  antagonists.    Their  voice 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BITTER  PRINCIPLES 

is  ft  harsh  qua^h;  their  flight  slow  and  heavy, 
rrith  their  long  legs  ontatretobed  behind. 
Their    habits    are    noctnmal ;    their     hsnnts 


BITCMEN 


en 


L««t  Bitten  (Arietta  aUs). 

fresh-water  pools,  stagnant  rivers,  and  mo- 
rasses; thej  bmld,  like  the  heron,  in  trees, 
ordinwil;  raising  two  young  ones.  Their  food 
is  small  fish,  lizards,  fWigs,  and  ftog  apawn,  of 
which  they  are  voracioos  oonanmers.  They 
are  good  eating  in  Beptember,  when  the  flrst 
frosts  are  oommenctng,  and  are  eaten  roasted, 
with  onrrant  Jelly  and  stuffing,  like  the  hare, 
which  they  somewhat  resemble. 

BnTEft  PUNCiniES,  snbetancea  extracted 
from  plants  by  digestion  in  water,  alcohol,  or 
ether,  and  which  possess  in  concentrated  form 
that  which  gives  the  bitter  taste  tii  plants. 
Excepting  this,  these  extracts  do  not  appe&r  to 
possess  other  charaoteristie  properties  in  com- 
mon; their  natnre,  however,  is  not  very  welt 
nnderstood.  Many  alkaloids,  especially  qninis 
and  strychnia,  ^seess  an  intense  bitterness, 
bat  are  not  classified  with  the  sabstances  Just 
described,  becsnse  they  possess  ether  mnch 
more  important  properties.  Some  bitter  prin- 
dples  are  crystallizable,  as  oolombine,  qaas- 
sine,   gentiopiorine,    taraxacine,    alolne,    and 

Ehloridzine,  a  snbetanoe  obtained  from  the 
ark  of  the  apple,  pear,  and  cherry;  while  the 
bitters  of  hope,  pinkroot,  and  wild  cherry  have 
not  yet  been  obtwned  in  crystals,  and  that  of 
the  last  mentioned  drug  not  even  isolated. 
Some  of  the  nnmerous  varieties  of  bitters  are 
Bolahle  in  water ;  some  only  in  alcohol  or  ether. 
They  are  generally  neutrnl  in  their  properties, 
oniting  neither  with  acids  nor  bases. —Bitters 
are  used  in  medicine  as  tonics,  and  also  as 
aperients;  and  in  the  msnnfactare  of  malt 
liquors  they  are  employed  \a  impart  to  them 
their  bitter  flavor.  In  the  healthy  condition 
bitters  do  not  assist  or  accelerate  digestion,  but 
rather  the  contrary,  as  has  been  shown  by 
direct  experiment.  When  the  digestion  is  en- 
feebled, however,  they  seem  to  impart  vigor  to 
this  process  by  atimulating  the  flow  of  gastric 
Juice  and  by  retarding  the  progress  of  ab- 
normal fermentations,  which  nave  a  tendency 
06  VOL.  IT.— 48 


to  take  the  place  of  and  intermpt  the  healthy 
process.  The  sensation  produced  by  the  irrita- 
tion of  bitters  in  the  stomach  shoold  not  be 
mistaken  for  tme  hunger. 

BITTOML     See  Bithoob. 

BnVXEir,  a  generic  name  for  a  variety  of 
substances  found  in  the  earth,  or  exnding  from 
it  npon  the  surface,  in  the  form  of  springs. 
The  liquid  varieties  become  inspissated  by  ex- 
poenre,  and  eventually  harden  into  the  solid 
form,  which  ia  asphsltam.  The  bitumens  bnm 
with  a  flame  and  thick  black  smoke,  giving  out 
the  pecniiar  odor  called  bituminous.  Some  of 
the  impure  fluid  bitumens,  and  the  solid  van- 
efy  when  melted,  closely  resemble  coal  tar. 
They  are  distinguished  from  bituminous  coal 
in  giving  no  ammonia,  or  mere  traces  of  it,  by 
distillation,  and  in  developing  negative  eleo- 
trioity  by  friction  without  being  insulated; 
also,  when  ignited  npon  a  grate,  the  bitumens 
melt  and  run  through  at  the  temperature  of 
abont  220°  F.,  bnt  the  coals  bum  to  ashea.  In 
melting,  volatile  fluids  escape  from  them  with 
no  swelling  up  other  than  that  due  to  ebulli- 
tion. This  property  of  dividing  by  heat  into 
fluids  and  solid  residues  having  a  porous  form, 
assimilates  the  bitumens  to  ordinary  turpen- 
tine and  tar,  and  renders  them  nnsuitable  for 
producing  gas  economically.  In  boiling  water 
the  bitumens  soften,  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the 


fectly  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  beniole,  i 
oil,  linseed  oil,  and  sulphnrio  ether;  while  coal, 
aft«r  long  digestion  in  the  oils,  only  colors  the 
liquid  brown,  and  to  the  sulphuric  ether  im- 
parts a  naphtha-tike  fluid  and  a  resinons  l>ody. 
The  bitumens  decompose  nitric  acid,  ooal  does 
not;  they  combine  with  sulnhuric  acid,  coal  is 
not  affected  by  it.  Droppea  npon  melted  tin 
with  a  temperature  of  442°  F.,  the  bitumens 
decompose  and  give  off  copious  fumes;  coal  is 
unaltered.  Most  of  these  points  of  difference 
were  given  in  evidence  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes 
and  Dr.  0.  T.  Jackson  of  Boston,  tn  an  impor- 
tant suit  tried  in  New  Brunswick,  to  test  the 
title  to  the  Albert  coal-mining  property,  this 
turning  on  the  point  whether  the  product  was 
coal  or  asphaltum.  Dr.  Ure  notices  that  the 
fluid  bitumens  differ  from  coal  tar  in  not  pro- 
ducing the  six  substances  extracted  from  the 
latter  by  Mr.  Mansfleld,  and  named  by  him 
alliole,  benzole,  tolnole,  campliole,  mortuole, 
and  nitro-benzole. — The  varieties  of  bitumen 
commonly  described  are;  the  liquid  oil,  naph- 
tha, or,  in  its  more  impure  form,  petroleum; 
the  viscid  pitchy  bitumen,  which  paaaes  into 
the  black  resinous  asphaltum ;  and  the  elastic 
bitumen,  or  elaterite  of  the  mineralogists.  The 
last  is  also  called  mineral  caontchouc,  from  its 
property  of  rubbing  out  pencil  marks.  It  was 
first  found  in  the  deserted  lead  mine  of  Odin, 
in  Derbyshire,  England,  by  Dr.  Lister,  in  16TS, 
and  was  called  by  him  a  subterranean  fungus. 
It  occurs  in  soft  flexible  masses  of  blackish 
brown  colors  and  resinons  lustre,  and  oonsists 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


612  BUZ 

of  about  8G  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  the  re- 
muader  hjrdrogen  with  probably  some  oxygen. 
Compact  bitumen,  or  asphaltDm,  has  been 
noticed  under  AsPHALTcai ;  but  farther  oon- 
wderation  will  be  giren  to  it  in  thie  article 
in  treating  of  the  aseg  of  the  bitomeng.  Gra- 
hamile,  fonnd  in  West  Virginia,  and  atbertite, 
in  Nova  Scotia,  are  guppoeed  to  be  inapiaaated 
and  Dijgenated  petrolenma.  Chapapote  is  an 
asphaltum  fonna  in  abundance  near  Havana, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  island  of  Cnba.  It  appears 
to  be  a  consolidated  petroleum,  a  liquid  rariety 
of  which  ia  often  eeon  near  it  oozing  throngh 
the  fisaurea  of  tlie  limestone  rooks.  The  solid 
prodact  is  of  Jet-black  color,  and  gives  a  brown 

Sowder  and  a  strong  bnt  not  nnpleaaant  odor, 
te  speciSc  gravity  is  given  by  Dr.  Hayes  at 
f^om  1'16&  to  rlTO,  It  melts  io  boiling  water 
into  a  thick  liquor,  and  forms  a  scnm  upon  the 
mr&oe.  Alone,  it  melts  at  214°  F.  into  a  uni- 
form flnid,  which  may  be  poured  from  one 
vessel  to  another;  calcined  in  close  vessels,  it 
awelle  and  leaves  a  very  light  coke ;  dissolved 
in  spirits  of  turpentine,  it  makes  a  coarse  var- 
nish. Brown-colored  and  viscid  oils  are  ex- 
tracted from  it  Petrolenm  and  nnpliUia  are 
fluid  anbstances,  called  also  rock  oil,  which 
flow  up  throngh  fissores  in  the  rocks,  and  col- 
lect in  low  places,  and  are  found  floating  upon 
the  surtace  of  the  waters  of  lakes.  Wtien  in- 
durated and  oxidized  by  exposure,  they  are 
asphaltnm.  The  purer  form,  called  naphtha, 
is  very  common  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
and  in  numerous  places  is  turned  to  good  ac- 
count as  a  fdel,  and  also  for  illumination.  (See 
Naphtha,  and  Petbolkou.)  These  different 
varieties  of  bitumen  are  found  only  in  the  sec- 
ondary and  tertiary  formations.  If  they  occur 
at  all  in  the  primary  rocks,  it  is  merely  in 
veins  and  flssurea,  which  probably  have  been 
filled  long  after  their  formation.  They  are 
very  generally  met  with  in  connection  with 
salt  springs,  or  mines  of  rock  salt.  Near  vol- 
canoes, petroleum  is  often  seen  issuing  with 
the  waters  of  springs,  or  floating  npon  uie  sea, 
famished  from  springs  at  its  bottom.  The 
ancient  Babylonians  obtained  the  imperishable 
cement  for  their  structures  from  the  fountains 
of  Is,  which  is  the  modem  Hit,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.  These  still  continue 
to  pour  out  ineihaustible  sappliea,  mingled 
with  the  strongly  saline  and  sulphnrons  waters. 
Common  aalt  is  also  prepared  here  from  the 
brine  springs.  The  water  of  the  springs  has  a 
temperature  of  about  100°  F.  As  it  flows 
slowly  along  a  conduit,  the  oily  bitamen  gathers 
on  the  surface,  and  is  skimmed  0^  and  laid  in 

Eits  exposed  to  the  air,  in  which  it  speedily 
ardens  into  flakes  of  abont  an  inch  thick, 
which  are  sold  at  Hit  for  about  live  cents  the 
owt.  It  is  much  used  for  covering  the  honses 
and  boats  of  the  region.  The  rock  formation 
is  an  argillaceous  limestone,  over  which  is 
found  in  some  places  a  coarsely  grannlar  gyp- 
sum. These  fountains  are  celebrated  as  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  Alexander  the  Great, 


Tr^an,  and  Julian.  The  bitnminoas  prodncti 
of  the  Dead  sea  in  Palatine  are  collected  on  the 
E.  and  W.  sides  of  the  lake,  and  are  eapposed 
to  he  derived  from  a  bed  of  bitumen  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  pieces  resemble  jiitch,  and,  thoagh 
one  aeventli  heavier  than  pure  water,  float 
upon  the  saline  water  of  the  Bead  sea,  the 
specific  gravity  of  whioh  is  I'2S.  They  melt  in 
boiling  water,  and  when  distilled  yield  a  vola- 
tile oil,  some  water,  and  traces  of  ammonia. 
The  residue  consists  of  charcoal,  amonutiug  to 
one  eighth  of  the  weight  of  the  aspliaitum,  its 
ashes  composed  of  silica,  alimiina,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  traces  of  lime  and  manganese.  It  is  from 
this  locality  that  the  name  Jews'  pitch  has  been 
given  to  asphaltnm.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad, 
in  the  West  Indies,  there  is  a  famons  lake  of 
asphattum  and  petroleum  called  Tar  lake,  or  by 
the  French  Le  Bru,  from  its  material  answer- 
ing the  parpoeea  of  pitch,  and  possessing  this 
additiouEiI  advantage,  that  it  keeps  off  the  tere- 
do or  borer,  which  in  warm  climates  is  so  de- 
structive to  the  timber  of  ships.  The  lake  is 
near  the  sea,  about  8  m.  in  circumference.  It 
anpeors  at  a  distance  like  water,  bat  near  by 
like  a  lake  of  glass.  In  approaching,  a  strotq; 
eulpburouB  smell  is  perceived  at  the  distance 
of  8  or  10  miles.  When  the  weather  is  hot 
and  dry,  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  so  sod  and 
sticky  one  cannot  walk  npon  it.  A  foot  below 
the  surface  it  becomes  softer,  and  contains  an 
oily  substance  in  httle  cells.  Specimens  of  thia 
bitumen,  which  were  regarded  as  pore,  and 
taken  to  Enrroe,  were  examined  by  Mr.  Hateh- 
ett,  who  foond  them  to  consist  of  a  porous  and 
argillaceous  stone  thoroughly  impregnated  with 
bitumen.    It  does  not  bnrn  readily,  bnt  becomes 

g'aatio  by  a  slight  increase  of  temperotnre. 
itnmen  ia  also  fonnd  disseminated  throngh 
calcareous  and  sandstone  rocks,  and  satorating 
slates  and  shales.  Nearly  all  the  varieties  of  it 
are  liable  to  have  many  imparities  mixed  with 
tham,  and  all  contain  volatile  oils  and  water, — 
The  bitumens  are  purified  by  first  boiling  them 
with  water.  The  sand  and  other  mineral  anb- 
stances  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  the  bitumen 
floating  or  sticking  to  the  sides  of  the  boiler  is 
skimmed  off  and  put  into  another  boiler,  by 
which  more  water  is  separated.  It  is  then 
boiled  by  itself  for  some  time,  and  is  entirely 
tned  from  water  and  oils  and  the  solid  impuri- 
ties, whioh  aubnde  to  the  bottom.  It  ia  thus 
obtained  in  the  form  of  a  thick  fatty  pitch, 
ready  to  be  barrelled  for  the  market  or  applied 
to  its  uses. — The  remits  of  the  oltimate  analy- 
sis of  the  pure  natural  bitumens,  whether  liqotd 
or  solid,  vary  but  little  frvm  66  per  cenL  U 
carbon  and  12  of  hydrt^n.  A  solid  bitamen 
of  Coxitambo,  near  Cuenca  in  Ecuador,  gave 
88'7  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  0-7  of  hydrogen, 
with  1-6  of  oxygen  and  nitrc^eu.  Nitrogen  is 
osually  present  to  the  extent  of  a  trace,  and  in 
the  solid  asphaltnm  it  has  been  found  to  the 
extent  of  12  per  cent.,  and  oxygen  also  in  the 
same  variety  about  6  per  cent.  By  treating 
ot^holtnm  with  different  solventa,  three  dis- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BITDMEH 

dnct  bodiei  may  be  8eparate<1.  Water  dia- 
■olreg  nothing.  Anh/droas  alcohol  dissolves  a 
yellow  resin  eqnal  to  ^i^  of  the  weight  of  the 
wphaltnm;  this  is  solable  also  in  ether.  The 
residae,  insoluble  in  aloohol,  treated  with  ether, 
fields  &  dark  brown  resin,  which  la  separated 
b;  evaporating  the  ether.  It  amoanta  to  -^  the 
weight  of  the  aaphaltnm.  It  dissolvea  easily 
in  volatile  oils,  and  in  oil  of  petroleum.  The 
latter  also,  as  well  as  torpentme  oil,  takes  np 
the  residae  which  the  ether  leaves. — The  fol- 
lowing formnlos,  exhibiting  the  composition  of 
petroleam  and  asphalt,  are  given  by  Dr.  Mus- 

Sratt,  as  setting  forth  in  a  striking  manner  the 
erivation  of  the  latter  hj  oxidation  of  the 
former : 


BJOBUNG 


ers 


...C„H,„ 


r  C,gH„ 


— Great  expeotatioDa  have  been  entertained  of 
tbe  important  ases  to  which  the  nataral  bita- 
raens might  be  applied;  they  have  proved  to  be 
admirably  adaptedfor  the  constmction  of  walks, 
terraces,  roofs,  and  every  kind  of  hydraulic 
work.  The  material  most  snocesaAiU^  employ- 
ed in  France  for  prodacing  the  bituminoDs 
mastJc  is  liquid  bitomen  mixed  with  a  bitn- 
minons  limestone,  which  is  ground  to  powder, 
nRed  and  stirred  into  the  boiling  asphaltam, 
fonr  parts  of  the  stone  to  one  of  uie  bitnmen. 
Dry,  common  limestone,  or  broken  bricks,  will 
answer  as  well.  The  miztnre,  when  of  homo- 
geneous consistency,  is  poured  out  upon  a  table 
covered  with  sheets  of  paper,  and  npon  which 
ssqnare  frame  is  placed  for  receiving  the  sheets 
of  mastic.  It  is  spread  smoothly  by  a  heated 
iron  roller,  sprinkled  with  sand,  and  left  to 
cool.  When  laid,  they  are  united  by  soldering 
with  a  hot  iron.  Coal  t«r  is  often  sabstitated 
for  the  natural  bitumen,  but  it  is  oonudered 
far  inferior  to  it  in  durability  and  strength. 
The  bituminous  limestone  is  found  at  V^  de 
Travera,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchitel,  in  the 
Jura  limestone  formation,  corresponding  to  tbe 
English  o6Ute.  It  consists  of  80  per  cent  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  20  per  cent,  of  bitumen. 
It  is  tough,  di£Goult  to  break  with  a  hammer, 
and  is  excavated  by  blasting.  Blightly  heated, 
it  exhales  a  ft-agrant  odor,  quite  different  from 
that  of  tbe  factitious  compounds.  The  carbo- 
nate of  lime  is  so  protected  by  the  bitumen 
that  it  does  not  effervesoe  with  mnriatic  acid. 
In  any  artificial  miztore  it  wonld  be  impossi- 
ble to  prodnce  so  intimate  a  combination  of 
these  substances  as  is  found  in  this  natural 
asphalt  rock.  Bilicioua  matters,  as  sand  and 
smooth  pebbles,  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  the 
preparation  of  dnrable  mastic  as  calcareous  sub- 
stances, because  they  have  little  attraction  for 
the  bitumen,  and  the  mixture  is  liable  to  crack 
and  crumble.  Bitumen  is  applied  also  in  the 
form  of  an  external  coating  of  mastio  to  give 
strength  and  protection  to  thin  sheet-iron  pipes 
and  glass  tubes  used  for  conveying  water,  uso 
for  roofing.  To  some  extent  aspbaltum  may 
be  used  as  a  fuel,  espedally  for  heating  meters 


in  gas  works,  when  blown  into  tbe  grate  in 
the  form  of  powder.  It  appears  to  have  been 
a  principal  ingredient  in  the  destmctive  Greek 
Are.  (See  Gbeke  Fisb.)  Bricks  of  poor  qual- 
ity saturated  with  it  are  rendered  strong  and 
impervious  to  water.  It  answers  most  of  tbe 
purposes  for  which  coal  tar  is  used.  It  makes 
the  strongest  cement  for  laying  brick  and  stone 
work.  Tiie  ancient  Egyptians  used  some  form 
of  it  for  embalming  bodies.  The  hardness  of 
the  mommies  is  probably  owing  to  the  combi- 
nation of  bitumen  with  the  animal  substanoea. 
In  France  a  procees  has  l>een  patented  for 
spreading  fluid  bitnmen  npon  canvas  sheets  or 
netting  and  passing  it  between  metallic  rolls, 
thus  coating  the  cloth  on  one  or  both  sides,  and 
to  any  dedred  thioknesB.  The  use  of  the  ma- 
terial ia  for  lining  buildings.— The  origin  of  the 
bitumens  has  been  regarded  as  very  doubtful. 
The  composition  wonld  seem  to  refer  thera  to 
vegetable  matters,  though  they  possess  very 
marked  differences  from  the  coals. 

BrmmrODS  BBALE,  a  soft  variety  of  argil- 
laceous slate,  found  usually  associated  with 
coal.  It  contains  a  variable  proportion  of 
bitnmen,  sometimes  so  mueb  of  it  that  it 
will  bom.  In  Hsusfeld,  Germany,  the  bitu- 
minous schist  fbund  immediately  over  the 
new  red  sandstone  contains  also  a  small  quan- 
tity of  copper  pyrites,  and  though  it  yields 
only  1^  per  cent  of  metal,  it  is  made  to  pay 
a  profit  by  tbe  ore  furnishing  its  own  fuel  for 
reduction.  Shale  is  sometimes  distiUed  for 
parafBne  and  illnmiuating  oil. 

BirZIES,  Ukert,  a  Swiss  anthor,  better  known 
under  the  pseudonyme  of  Jeremias  Gotthelf^ 
born  at  Morat,  in  the  canton  of  Fribonrg,  Oct. 
4,  1797,  died  at  Lotzelfiah,  in  the  Emmen  val- 
ley of  the  canton  of  Bern,  Oct.  23,  1854.  In 
early  life  he  officiated  as  pastor  in  Bern,  and 
for  some  time  took  part  in  politics;  bnt  from 
1837  till  his  death  he  devoted  himself  ex- 
clusively to  literature.  His  writings  consist 
chiefly  of  tales  descriptive  of  the  home  life  of 
Switzerland.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
in  24  vols,  was  published  at  Berlin,  18CS-'8. 
He  also  published  several  popular  almanacs. 

BIZEBTA,  or  BMxerta  (one.  ffippo  Zarytiu), 
a  fortified  seaport  town  on  the  N.  eooat  of 
Tunis,  tbe  northernmost  town  of  AfHca,  on 
a  gulf  which  communicates  with  a  lake  in 
tbe  interior;  pop,  about  8,000.  The  harbor 
was  formerly  commodious,  but  is  now  choked 
up  with  sand,  and  receives  only  small  ves- 
sels. The  adjoining  lake  abounils  in  fish,  the 
roes  of  which,  dried  and  formed  into  a  sub- 
stance called  hotargo,  are  an  article  of  Medi- 
terranean commerce. 

BJOBUNK,  GaH  Mat;  a  Swedish  prelate  and 
author,  bom  at  Westerfls,  Oct  17,  1804.  Ha 
is  a  graduate  of  Upsai,  and  became  a  teacher 
of  mothemBtioB  and  afterward  of  history.  He 
was  ordained  in  1844,  was  promoted  to  the 
deanery  of  Westeris  in  1862,  and  in  1888  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  that  diocese.  Tbe 
principal  of  his  varions  learned  works  (in  Lar 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


674 


bjOrneborg 


tin)  is  Dogmata  SdigionU  Chnitiantt  ad  For- 
mtilam  Doetrina,  &c.  (2  parts,  184T-'6S ;  2d 
edition  of  the  first  part,  18BB). 

BJOuTEBOBG,  ei  seaport  town  of  lilnland, 
in  the  province  of  Abo-Bjameborg,  near  the 
moDth  of  tlie  Kumo,  72  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Abo; 

Sop.  T,270.  The  old  town  wu  wboll;  bnraed 
own  in  1801 ;  the  new  town  is  well  and  reg- 
Dlarlfbniit.  Itexportspitoh,  tar,  pine,  oil,  and 
wooden  ware. 

UOKISOir,  VfcMUtrM.  a  Norwegian  author, 
bom  at  Evikne,  Osterdalen,  Deo.  8, 1833.  He 
is  the  eon  of  a  olergTman,  Btndied  at  the  nni- 
Terutf  of  Christlania  in  1662,  and  earlj  con- 
nected hliuaelf  with  the  press,  hia  contribu- 
tions attraoting  much  attention.  For  two  jears 
he  was  manager  of  a  theatre  at  Bergen,  and 
next  he  edited  a  political  Jonmal  in  Christia- 
nia,  enoountering  mnch  opposition,  which  drove 
him  tl'oni  Norwa;,  and  he  resid^  for  a  nnm' 
ber  of  years  mainly  in  Copenhagen,  returning 
to  Ohristiania  in  1602.  He  has  acquired  a 
wide  repQtation  by  hia  novels  and  tales,  de- 
scriptive of  Norwi^ian  popular  life,  and  by  hia 
dramas  and  poetry.  Manj  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  English,  German,  and  other 
languages.  Among  those  best  known  by  trans- 
lations in  tiie  United  States  and  in  E^land 
are  "Arne"  (London,  1868);  "The  Hsher 
Uaiden,"  translated  from  the  author's  German 
edition  by  M.  E.  Niles  (New  York,  1869 ;  trans- 
lated in  England  under  the  title  of  "  The  Fish- 
ing Girl,"  London,  1870,  from  the  Norwegian 
edition);  "The  Newly  Married  Goaple,"itnd 
"  Love  and  Life  in  Norway  "  (London,  1870). 

BjSrKSTJERIU,  Hagau  FrcMk  FerdluMi, 
count,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  author,  bom 
in  Dresden,  Oct.  10,  17T9,  died  in  Stockholm, 
Oct  6,  1817.  He  went  to  Sweden  in  1T98, 
entered  the  army,  served  in  the  war  in  Fin- 
land, and  in  Germany  at  tbe  battles  of  Desaan 
and  Leipsic,  negotiated  the  capitulation  of  LQ- 
beok  with  Uen.  Laliemand,  and,  after  taking 
an  active  piirt  in  the  military  operations  in  Hol- 
stein  and  Norway,  oonoladed  the  convention 
which  established  the  nnion  of  Sweden  and 
Norway.  In  October,  1812,  he  negotiated  at 
London  the  sale  of  Guadeloupe.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  the  theo(rony,  philosophy,  and  cos- 
mogony of  the  Hindoos,  and  another  on  tlie 
British  rule  in  India. 

BUCtS,  Plem  Uab  Jeaa  CariHlr,  duke  de,  a 
French  statesman,  bom  at  Anips,  Jan.  13, 
1771,  died  at  Gfirz,  Nov.  17,  1889.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  revolntion  he  emigrated, 
but  retomed  to  Franre  with  I^onis  XVIII., 
entered  his  cabinet,  and  became  one  of  the  in- 
timate advisers  of  the  Bonrhons.  Sent  to  Rome 
as  ambassador,  Blacas  negotiated  the  concordat 
of  181T.  He  was  afterward  ambassador  at 
Naples.  On  the  fall  of  the  Bourbons  in  1830 
Blacaa  returned  to  exile  and  offered  Charles  X. 
his  fortune,  which  the  dethroned  king  would 
not  accept 

BUCK,  Utm,  a  Scottish  publisher,  bom  in 
Edinburgh  in  1T84,  died  Jan.  2S,  1674.    In  oun- 


BLACK 

Jonction  with  his  brother  Charles  he  established 
a  publishing  firm  in  Kdinbunh,  well  known  in 
connection  with  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works,  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  and  the  " EneyclopiwiUa 
Britannica,"  to  the  8th  edition  of  which  Mr. 
Black  ooDtribnted  several  articles.  He  avowed 
liberal  opinions  at  a  time  when  thej  were  nn- 
fashionable,  and  joined  warmly  in  the  move- 
ment to  secure  parliamentary  uid  mnnioipal 
reform.  He  was  elected  twice  to  the  office  of 
lord  provost  of  Edinburgh,  which  be  occupied 
from  18til  to  1818.  Danng  a  visit  to  EiuUnd, 
while  holding  that  position,  he  declined  the 
honor  of  knifchtbood.  In  February,  1866,  on 
the  final  retirement  of  Mr.  Macaulay  from  the 
represenUtton  of  Edinburgh,  Mr.  Black  was 
nnanimonsly  chosen  to  sncceed  him,  and  heU 
theseattill  1885.  He  advocated  parliamentary 
reform  and  the  ballot. 

BUCK,  JcKBlak  S.,  an  American  lawyer, 
bom  in  the  Glades,  Somerset  co.,  Penn.,  Jan. 
10,1810.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1880, 
appointed  president  judge  of  the  judicial  die- 
triot  in  which  he  rended  in  April,  1843,  elected 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  thestate  in  1851, 
and  chosen  ohief  justioe.  He  was  reelected  in 
1864.  On  March  6,  18GT,  he  was  appointed 
by  Pretddent  Buchanan  attorney  general  of  the 
United  States,  which  office  he  held  till  De- 
cember, I860,  when  he  became  secretary  of 
state,  and  continued  in  that  p<^tion  during 
the  remainder  of  President  Buchanan's  twin. 
Since  retiring  ttoia  office  he  has  been  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

BUCK,  Jfseph,  a  Scottish  chemist,  bom  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  in  1728,  died  in  Edinburgl<, 
Nov.  2S,  1709.  He  was  educated  at  Bel&st, 
Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh,  studied  medicine, 
was  a  pupil  and  osBistant  of  Dr.  Gullen,  and 
became  distinguished  by  his  experiments  upon 
lime.  It  was  supposed  that  qnicklime  held  in 
absorption  something  of  on  igneous  charflcter; 
but  Black  discovered  that  the  cauaticity  of  the 
calcareous  earths  is  not  derived  from  any  com- 
bination, but  is  their  peculiar  property,  and 
that  they  lose  this  property  when  they  com- 
bine with  a  certain  portion  of  air,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  fixed  ur,  but  which  is  now 
known  as  carbonic  acid  gas.  Dr.  Black  was 
invited  in  1766  to  succeed  Dr.  Cnllen  at  Glas- 
gow, and  there  made  his  most  important  dis- 
covery. Ice,  he  oljserved,  being  converted 
into  water,  absorbs  a  large  amount  of  heat,  the 
existence  of  which  is  no  longer  indicated  by 
the  thermometer.  Water  being  converted 
into  vapor  absorbs  another  large  amount  of 
heat,  which  ts  in  like  manner  lost  to  the  senses 
or  the  thermometer.  I'r.  Black,  observing 
these  phenomena,  said  tliat  the  heat  is  con- 
cealed [laUl)  in  the  water  and  vapor,  and  in- 
troduced the  name  and  the  theory  of  lateut 
heat.  This  discovery  suggested  to  Watt,  who 
was  a  papil  of  Black,  his  improvements  in  the 
steam  engine.  In  1786  Dr.  Black  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chemical  chair  of  the  universii* 
of  Edinburgh,  where  his  lectures  were  very  suc- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BLACK 

ceeaful.  His  only  pablications  were  three  dis- 
sertfttioDS,  giving  an  acoonnt  of  his  experimenta 
on  magnesia,  quioklimt,  aod  other  alkaline  aub- 
Btances;  his  obBorvatioas  od  the  more  readj 
freeangof  voter  tbflt  has  been  boilei];  and  his 
aoaljBis  of  Bome  Ixiiliug  springs  in  Iceland. 

BUCK,  WUBiH.    See  supplement. 

BUCKJLI,  IMMtig,  an  English  prelate,  bom 
in  Londoa  in  1B54,  died  in  Exeter  in  1716. 
For  two  jeara  after  the  coronation  of  William 
IH.  he  rinsed  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
bat  fioallj  jielded.  In  1669  he  engaged  in  a 
controversy  with  Toland,  who  had  denied  In 
"his  "life  of  Milton"  that  Charles  I.  was  the 
anthor  of  the  "Icon  Basitike,"  and  eipressed 
deistical  opinions.  Blaclcall  was  consecrated 
bishop  ofEieter  in  1707.  His  works,  in  3  vols. 
folio,  were  published  in  17S8. 

BUCUHUT.    Bee  Bbauble. 

BLUXHRD,  a  N*.  E.  coanty  of  Nebraska, 
separated  from  Iowa  on  the  £.  by  the  Mis- 
souri river,  and  watered  by  Blackbird,  Middle, 
and  Omaha  creeks;  pop.  in  1870,  SI. 

BUGKinik  h  A  European  species  of  the 
thrush  fomily  (turdtu  mervla,  Linn.),  called 


BLACKBIRD 


675 


BtockUid  (Tnidiu  muuli). 

also  merle  in  France  and  some  parts  of  England. 
The  plumage  is  full,  soft,  and  glossy;  the 
length  in  the  male  is  10}  iDohea,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  wings  16  inches;  the  length  in  the  fe- 
male is  10  inches,  and  the  eitent  of  wings  16 
inches.  In  the  adult  male  the  bill  is  five 
sixths  of  an  Inch  long,  and  of  a  bright  orange 
color,  as  are  the  mouth,  tongue,  and  mar- 
gins of  the  lids,  the  iria  hazel,  the  feet  and 
claws  duaky  brown,  the  heel  and  soles  yellow ; 
the  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  deep  black, 
sometimes  slightly  tinged  with  brown ;  the 
primaries  are  lighter,  and  obscurely  edged 
with  brown ;  the  central  part  of  the  hidden 
portion  of  each  feather  is  light  gray.  In  the 
female,  the  bill  is  dark  brown:  the  gener^ 
color  of  the  plumage  is  deep  brown  above, 
lighter  beneath'  the  throat  and  fore  neck  pole 
brown,  streaked  with  darker  triongnlar  spots. 
The  young  are  dnaky  brown  above,  with  dull 


yellowish  streaks;  pale  yellowish  brown,  spot- 
ted with  dusky,  beneath.  Albino  specimens  are 
occanonally  seen.  The  blackbird  is  an  admira- 
ble unger,  its  notes,  tlioogb  simple,  being  loud, 
rich,  and  mellow,  most  frequently  heard  in  the 
morning  and  evening.  It  prefera  onltivoted  dis- 
tricts, in  winter  frequenting  the  neighborhood 
of  houses,  and  keeping  in  the  shelter  of  the  gar- 
den hedges.  Its  food  consists  of  snuls,  seeds 
of  grosses  and  grain,  insects,  larvs^  worms, 
berries  of  various  kinds,  and  also  fruits.  It  is 
a  very  sh^  and  active  bird,  hopping  on  the 
ground  with  toil  rdsed  and  wings  loose;  ita 
flight  along  the  hedges  ia  fitfU  and  wavering, 
bat  in  on  open  field  very  steady  and  sustunea. 
It  ia  not  gregarious,  more  than  three  or  four 
being  selaom  seen  together.  The  blackbird 
pairs  in  early  spring,  making  a  nest  externally 
of  grass  stalks,  twig^  flbroaa  roots,  and  moss- 
es, the  inside  neing  lined  with  mud  and  af- 
terward with  dry  grass;  the  nest  ia  uauslly 
placed  in  a  hedge,  bramble  thicket,  or  bushy 
pine.  The  eggs  are  from  fonrto  aix  in  number, 
of  a  psle  blnish  green,  spotted  with  pale  am- 
ber. The  female  «ts  18  days,  the  male  mnging 
till  the  young  are  hatohed;  two  broods  are 
commonly  reared,  one  hi  Hay,  the  second  in 
July.  The  flesh  is  excellent  for  food.  The 
blackbird  Is  often  kept  in  cages,  where  its 
song  is  as  joyous  as  in  its  native  haunts;  it  is 
a  troublesome  species  in  an  aviary,  as  it  pnr- 
snes  and  harasses  other  birds;  in  confinement 
it  will  eat  crumbs  and  raw  or  cooked  flesh. 
II.  A  bird  more  commonly  called  in  New  Eng- 
land red-winged  blackbird,  and  belonging  to 
the  family  of  itamidm  (nffelaitu  phanietut, 
Linn.).  The  bill  is  straight,  stroUK,  conical, 
and  black;  the  hind  toe  and  claw  the  strong- 
er. The  plumage  of  the  adult  male  is  glossy 
block,  except  the  smaller  wing  coverts,  the  first 
row  of  which  are  cream-colored,  the  rest  scar- 
let: the  length  is  9  inches,  extent  of  wings  14 
incnes.    The  female  is  nearly  2  inches  leas ; 


Bsd-viiiged  Blackbird  (Ag«l>lu  phiHil«iu). 

the  upper  port  black,  the  feathers  with  a  pale 
brown  margin,  nndemeath  streaked  with  black 
and  dull  white ;  a  baud  of  pale  brown  over  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


6T6 


BLAOEBUKN 


eje,  and  some  of  the  smaller  wing  coverts 

Blislittj  tinged  with  red.  According  to  Nut- 
tall,  thia  bird  is  found  during  the  aummer  over 
■  the  whole  of  North  America  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  Mexico.  It  arrives  in  New  York  and  New 
England  about  the  lat  of  April,  preferring 
swamps,  meadows,  and  low  sitaations ;  at  this 
season  it  lives  on  insects  and  grabs,  afterward 
on  the  yoang  and  tender  com.  It  b^ns  to 
build  its  nest  earlj  in  Hey,  on  an  alder  bnah 
ortuft  of  graaa  in  some  marsh  ormeadow;  the 
esgs,  from  tliree  to  six,  are  white,  tinged  with 
blue,  with  faint  purple  marks.  These  birds 
congregate  in  sncb  nombers  in  a  very  small 
apace,  that  great  havoc  may  be  made  at  a  sin- 
gle discharge  of  a  gun.  The  flight  is  usually 
even ;  on  the  wing  the  brilliant  scarlet  of  the 
coverts  coatrasts  finely  with  the  black  of  the 
general  plumage.  Some  of  its  notes  are  agree- 
able to  the  ear.  In  AoKuat,  when  the  yoong 
are  ready  to  associate  in  flocks,  they  do  consid- 
erable mischief  to  the  Indian  com;  they  are 
then  killed  in  abundance,  and  are  very  good 
eating.    Such  is  their  confidence  in  man,  in 

Site  of  his  persecutions,  that  when  flred  upon 
ey  only  remove  from  one  part  of  a  field  to 
another.  III.  The  name  blackbird  is  g^ven  in 
the  northwestern  states  and  Canada  to  the 
nwty  grafcle  (tcoUeophagiu  ftrrvginetu,  Wils.), 
and  in  other  parts  of  tlie  country  to  the  purple 
gralde  (oui>ca2tu  tertieolor.,  Vicill.) ;  both  be- 
long to  the  family  itwrnida,  or  atarlings. 

BUCUCRH,  a  town,  pariah,  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  22  m. 
N.  N.  W.  of  Manchester ;  pop.  in  1871,  T6,387. 
It  standa  in  the  midst  of  a  barren  district,  con- 
taining a  number  of  valuable  coal  mines,  to 
which,  as  well  as  to  its  proximity  to  the  ZJm- 
don  and  Liverpool  canal,  the  importance  of 
Blackburn  as  a  commercial  place  is  mainly  to 
be  ascribed.  Ootton  goods,  especially  of  the 
coarser  kinds,  are  manufactured  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  the  town  and  vicinity.  Blackbum  is 
Irregularly  hnilt,  bnt  contains  some  fine  edi- 
fices, one  of  which  is  a  magnificent  chnrch,  re- 
built in  181fl  at  a  cost  of  £28,000. 

njCKBDKN,  Bnry.    See  supplement. 

BUCKGiP.  I.  A  bird  of  the  family  lu§ei- 
wida,  or  warblers  (tj/lvia  atrieapiila,  Briss.), 
a  native  of  Enrope,  migrating  to  the  north  in 
early  spring.  The  male  has  the  nnper  parts 
light  yellowish  gray;  the  head  black ;  cheeks, 
neck,  and  lower  parts  ash-gray,  paler  behind 
and  tinged  with  yeilow ;  wings  and  tail  gray- 
ish brown;  length  to  end  of  tail  abont  6 
inches,  extent  of  wings  9  inches.  The  female 
is  a  trifle  larger,  but  is  colored  like  the  mole. 


hedges,  gardens  and  orchards.  With  the 
ception  of  the  nightingale,  it  is  considered  the 
finest  songster  in  Great  Britain ;  its  notes  are 
full,  deep,  and  mellow,  and  its  trill  is  exceed- 
ingly fine;  it  will  imitate  very  eiaotly  the 
notes  of  the  nightingale,  thrash,  and  blackbird. 
Its  song  is  contmued  from  early  in  April  to  the 


BLACKCOCK 

end  of  Jane,  the  period  of  pairing  and  incnba- 
tion.  This  bird  is  shy,  gomg  by  short  fiighta 
from  one  thick  bosh  to  onouier;  it  feeds  on 


insects,  larve,  and  berries.  The  nest,  whidi 
is  placed  in  the  fork  of  some  ehrab,  is  made  (^ 
dned  stalks  of  grass,  bits  of  wool,  moss,  fibrous 
roots,  and  hairs;  the  eggs  are  fonr  or  five  in 
number,  about  two  thirda  of  an  inch  long, 
and  very  nearly  as  broad,  grayish  white,  faintly 
stained  and  freckled  with  purplish  gray  and 
blackish  brown.  Both  sexes  sit  upon  the  egga. 
IL  An  American  species  of  titmouse,  belong- 
ing also  to  the  hitcinidm  {panu  atrieapillua, 
Wils.).  It  is  5^  inches  long  and  8  in  extent  of 
wings.  The  bill  is  brownisn  black ;  whole  npt- 
per  part  of  the  head  and  hind  neck,  Bui  a  large 

Eaten  on  the  fore  neck  and  throat,  pure  black ; 
etween  these  a  white  band,  from  the  bill 
down  the  Ndes  of  the  neck,  growing  broader 
behind  and  encroaching  on  uie  back,  which, 
with  the  wing  coverts,  is  ash-gray  tinged  with 
brown;  lower  parts  brownish  white;  quills 
brown,  and,  witJi  the  secondaries,  edged  with 
white,  leaving  a  conspicnons  white  bar  on  the 
wings ;  tail  brown,  white-edged.    The  Carolina 


The  blackcap  is  better  known  in  New  England 
as  tlie  chickadee,  wbioh  is  an  imitation  of  its 
note  as  it  explores  the  trees  in  search  of  the 
e^s  and  grubs  of  insects,  which  furra  its  prin- 
cipal food.  It  destroys  immense  numbers  of 
canker-worms,  doing  in  this  way  eminent  ser- 
vice to  man ;  in  the  winter  it  comes  near  the 
houses,  picking  up  seeds  and  crumbs  which  are 
thrown  out  of  doors.  It  is  an  exceedingly 
lively  bird,  running  over  trees  in  all  directions, 
and  thrusting  its  bill  into  every  crevice  where 
an  insect  might  creep.  The  severest  rold  does 
not  alfect  its  vivacity  or  nnmbers.  The  eggs 
are  six  to  ten,  of  a  white  color,  with  brownish 
red  specks,  aad  are  generally  laid  in  holes  ex- 
cavated in  trees  by  means  of  their  bills. 

BUCKCOCK,  or  Blatk  GrMH  (tetrao  Utrix, 
Linn.),  a  highly  prized  game  bird,  of  the  family 
tetraonida,   very  generally  spread  over  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLACKOOOK 

northern  parts  of  Enropo  and  Great  Britain, 
partioiilart?  in  the  wild  and  wooded  districts 
of  Scotland.     The  male  weighs  Bometimea  as 


BLAOEFISH 


677 


BtukciKk  (Teli»  t«tiix). 

mnch  as  four  ponods,  and  the  female  aboat 
two.  la  the  mala,  the  len^h  to  the  end  of 
the  tail  is  aboat  2S  inobea,  and  the  extent  of 
wing  83  inches;  bill  an  inoh  long,  strong,  and 
brownish  black;  the  iris  brown  ;  over  the  ejo 
a  bare  granulated  skin  of  a  scarlet  color ;  the 
whole  upper  plamage  of  a  steel-blue  color,  the 
scapalars  and  wings  tinged  with  brown;  the 
primaries  brown,  with  brownish  white  shaftt, 
the  secondaries  tipped  with  whitish,  forming  a 
bar  across  the  wings,  conspicuous  in  Sight ;  the 
nnder  wing  coverts  white,  a  few  of  theni  being 
viuble  when  the  wing  is  closed;  the  breast 
and  sides  brownish  black,  the  abdotninal 
feathers  tipped  with  white;  the  legs  and 
thighs  dark  brown,  with  grayish  white  specks, 
the  former  feathereid  to  the  toes ;  the  lower  tail 
coverts  white,  the  upper  brownish  black;  the 
tail,  which  is  forked,  with  the  lateral  feathers 
curved  OQtward,  deep  black.  Tlie  female  is 
about  18  inches  long  and  81  inches  in  extent 
of  wings;  she  resembles  the  other  females  of 
the  family  in  her  less  brilliant  markings;  the 
general  color  of  the  plumage  is  ferruginous, 
mottled  and  barred  witn  black  above,  and  with 
dusky  and  brown  bars  on  a  paler  gronad  be- 
low ;  the  tail  is  neiu'l]'  even  at  the  end,  straight, 
and  variegated  with  ferruginnus  and  black; 
the  wliite  about  the  secondaries  end  bend  of 
the  wing  is  much  as  in  the  raale.  The  favorite 
abode  of  the  blackcock  is  in  the  highlands  and 
glens,  among  the  hills  clothed  with  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  birch,  hazel,  wiUow,  and  alder,  wi^ 
an  undergrowth  of  deeu  fern ;  here  they  find 
abundant  food  and  shelter  from  the  winter's 
cold  and  summer's  sun.  Their  food  consiats  of 
tender  twigs,  berries,  heaths,  and  occasionally 
the  seeds  from  the  stubble  fields.  Their  flight  is 
heavy,  straight,  of  moderate  velocity,  and  ca- 
pable of  being  protracted.    They  perch  readily 


on  trees,  bnt  the  ordinary  station  is  the  ground, 
on  which  they  repose  at  night.  The  black- 
cocks are  polygamous,  and  fight  desperately 
for  the  feroales  during  April;  having  driven 
off  all  rivals,  the  male  selects  eome  eminence 
early  in  the  morning,  on  which  be  struts,  trul- 


ing  his  wings,  swelling  out  his  plumage 
the  eyes  like  a  turkey  cock; 


females  answer  to  bid  call  and  soon  crowd 
around  biin.  After  the  courting  season  the 
males  associate  together  peaceably.  The  eggs 
are  six  to  ten  in  nnmbar,  of  a  dirty  white 
color,  with  rusty  spots,  and  are  laid  in  a  very 
rude  nest  on  the  ground,  among  the  heaths; 
the  young  ore  reared  entirely  by  the  female, 
which  they  resemble  in  color.  Their  liesh  is 
on  excellent  article  of  food.  Foxes  and  rapa- 
cious birds  kill  great  numl>ers  of  them. 

BUCK  DE1TB>     See  Plaour. 

BUCSFKTr,  or  Satdka,  the  most  westerly 
tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family  of  American 
Indians,  with  a  dialect  which  differs  greatly 
from  others  of  the  family.  They  were  origi- 
nally on  the  Saskatchewan;  but  from  intestine 
dissensions  the  Satsika  or  Blackfeet  proper 
separated  from  the  Kens  or  Blood  Indies, 
and  retired  to  the  Missouri,  where  the  name 
Blackfeet  was  given  to  them  by  the  Crows, 
A  chief  named  Piegan  or  the  Pheasant  caused 
a  second  division,  making  three  bands  which 
continue  to  this  day.  They  extend  from  the 
waters  of  Hudson  bay  to  the  Missouri  and 
Yellowstone.  They  have  always  been  great 
warriora,  and,  having  early  obtained  horses, 
maintain  their  stock  by  robbery.  They  do 
not  bury  their  dead.  The  warrior  is  left  in 
his  cabin  In  fnll  array,  and  hones  are  killed  at 
the  door  for  his  use.  Their  worship  of  Natous 
or  the  sun  is  clearly  marked.  Those  in  the 
United  States  are  in  Montana,  and  were  esti- 
mated by  the  Indian  bureau  in  18T0  at  7,S00. 
Canadian  authorities  estimate  those  within  the 
British  lines  at  6,000;  but  as  they  are  con- 
stantly moving,  a  large  number  are  reckoned 
by  both.  They  have  been  constantly  at  war, 
carrying  their  predatory  incursions  into  Ore- 
gon, but  are  now  diminishing  through  intem- 
perance, and  becoming  less  formidable. 

BLACKFISH,  a  name  improperly  given  by  sea- 
men to  several  species  of  small  whales,  espe- 
cially to  the  round-headed  dolphin  (p&Sieraft- 
alus.  Less.),  (see  Dolpbis),  and  also  in  New 
England  to  a  marine  species  of  fish  of  the 
family  labrida,  the  tantog(tauto^a .Jm^rieona, 
De  Kay).  The  latter  abounds  on  the  coast  of 
New  England,  on  both  sides  of  Long  Island, 
and  off  Sandy  Hook,  New  Jersey.  Oriffinally 
they  were  not  found  north  of  Cape  Cod  ;  but 
between  1620  and  1830  a  number  of  them  were 
brought  alive  in  boats  to  Massachusetts  Bay, 
and  being  set  free  have  spread  all  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  continent.  Its  back  and 
udes  are  black;  the  lips,  lower  jaw,  and  belly, 
in  the  males  particularly,  are  white.  The  tail 
is  entire,  somewhat  convex,  the  middle  rays 
being  somewhat  longer  than  the  external  ones. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


678  BLACK  FLDX 

The  bodj  is  covered  with  sm&ll,  hard  eoales. 
Thej  vary  in  size  from  2  to  14  or  16  lbs. 
They  are  caught  early  in  the  apring,  and  through 


DiBckOth  (Tutogm  AmrioUK). 

the  mnuner,  from  off  the  rocky  1ed|;ea  of  the 
coast,  or  from  boats  anahored  over  the  reefs. 
The  fishing  for  them  is  a  favorite  sport  in  the 
warm  smnmer  weather,  and  the  fish,  thoagh 
of  dry  flavor,  are  mnoh  esteemed  when  baked. 

BUCK  FLUX,  a  miztore  of  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash and  oarbon,  obtdned  by  deflagrating  two 
or  three  parts  by  weight  of  cream  of  tartar 
(or  crude  argol)  and  one  part  of  nitre  in  a  red- 
hot  earthen  cmcible.  If  equal  weights  of  these 
•nbatances  be  taken,  the  nitric  scid  of  the  salt^ 
[letre  will  oxidize  the  carbon,  and  the  result 
will  be  a  pore  carbonate  of  potash,  or  white 
flax.  When  block  flnx  is  faaed  with  the  ox- 
ides of  copper,  iron,  or  lead,  or  with  the  aoid 
compounds  of  those  metals,  tiio  carbon  acts  as 
a  rednciag  agent,  while  the  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash takes  up  the  impnrities,  siich  as  snlphor 
and  silica.  The  redaced  metal  collects  in  a 
batton  in  the  fluid  slag,  and  on  cooling  can  be 
eatdly  separated  from  its  matrix.  Black  flax 
mnst  be  kept  in  closely  stoppered  bottles,  as 
it  rapidly  deteriorates  by  absorption  of  water 
from  the  ^r. 

BUCK  fliT,  a  small  dipterous  insect,  some- 
times called  gnat,  midge,  and  sand  fl;f,  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  rimulium.  The  length  of  the 
common  species  (S.  molatum}  is  about  one 
tenth  of  on  inch;  the  color  is  black,  with 
transparent  wings;  the  legs  short,  with  a 
brood  whitish  band  around  thera.  Tliey  be- 
gin to  appear  in  northerD  New  England  in 
May,  and  cout^ne  about  six  weeks ;  after 
them,  however,  oomes  another  species  (S.  noti- 
cum),  more  numerons  and  smaller.  These  in- 
sects are  a  perfect  pest  in  the  subarctic  repons, 
and  so  abondant  in  their  season  in  the  woods 
from  Labrador  to  Maine,  that  travellers  and 
anglers,  unless  of  the  most  determined  charac- 
ter, rarely  venture  fer  from  the  seashore.  In 
'fright  still  days  thej  ore  innumerable,  swarm- 
ing in  houses,  flying  in  one's  face,  crawling  un- 
der tightly  fitting  garments,  and  there  remain- 
iig,  biting  even  in  tlie  night.  Iliinian  beings 
and  even  dogs  pass  their  lives  at  this  senson  in 
a  state  of  contmual  tonnent,  much  worse  than 


BLACC  FOREST 

amid  the  mosquitoes  of  the  sooth.  Id  dondf 
weather,  unlike  the  mosquito,  thej  disappear. 
The  bite  is  severe  and  stinging,  each  sbowinjja 
point  of  blood,  and  followed  by  on  irritation 
and  swelling  which  lost  several  days.  No 
veils  nor  gloves  protect  against  their  attack, 
as  their  small  size  enables  them  to  penetrate 
wherever  they  choose.  The  best  remedj 
seems  to  be  a  viscid  ointment,  into  which  tar 
enters,  and  which  arrests  and  destroys  them. 
The  smaller  midges  which  succeed  them, 
called  no-see-'em  by  the  Indians  from  their 
minuteness,  would  hardly  be  seen  were  not 
their  wings  whitish  mottled  with  black ;  they 
come  forth  in  myriads  toward  evening,  creep- 
ing under  clothes,  their  bites  feeling  for  the 
moment  as  if  caused  by  sparks  of  are ;  thej 
do  not  draw  blood,  and  there  is  rarely  any 
swelling  produced;  they  are  most  troublesome 
in  Jnly  and  August,  and  nothing  seems  avail- 
able agunst  th^r  swarms,  nnlees  a  thick  smoke, 
quite  as  disagreeable,  be  considered  a  remedy. 
The  lorvo  and  pupa  are  both  at^uatio,  and  the 
former  is  in  some  ponds  as  iqjnrious  to  the 
raiser  of  young  trout  and  other  fish  as  the 
adult  insect  is  to  the  angler  for  the  adult  fie^. 
The  larva,  according  to  Hr.  8.  Green,  spina 
webs  under  water  as  perfect  as  thoee  of  the 
spider,  with  equal  mechuuoal  ingenuity  and 
rapidity,  and  in  the  same  way,  by  fastening 
the  threads  at  different  points  and  going  back 
and  forth  till  the  web  is  flnished ;  the  web  is 
strong  enough  to  destroy  the  fish  while  pro- 
vided with  the  umbilical  sac,  by  getting  wound 
round  the  fins,  head,  and  gills.  The  bnfFolo 
gnat  of  the  western  prairies,  a  much  larger 
species,  has  been  known  to  bite  horses  to 
death ;  and  an  allied  dy  (rhaffio),  according  to 
Westwood,  is  o  great  pest  to  man  and  beast  on 
the  confines  of  Hungary  and  Bervia,  and,  it  is 
said,  will  destroy  cattle. 

BUCKFOBD,  an  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  the  Salomonie  river ;  area,  180  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  18T0,  fl,272.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Fort 
Wayne,  Muncie,  and  Oincinnali,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  8t.  Louis  rail- 
road. The  surface  is  diverslfled  by  ^wns  and 
rolling  lands,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  ISTO  were  82,763  bnshels  of 
wheat,  75,848  of  Indian  com,  14,C67  of  oala, 
111,106  lbs.  of  bntter,  and  24,068  of  wooL 
There  were  2,646  horses,  1,720  miloh  cows, 
1,886  other  cottle,  7,820  sheep,  and  5,868 
BWine.    Capital,  Hartford. 

BUCK  fOaST  (Ger.  SehwaretDald ;  anc 
Siha  Mareiana,  the  S.  W.  branch  of  the  Her- 
cynian  forest),  a  range  of  woody  mountains  tn 
the  S.  W.  pairt  of  Germany,  traversing  Ba- 
den and  Wttrtemberg,  and  fbrmingthe  eastern 
boondorj  of  a  portion  of  the  bo^n  of  the 
Rhine,  the  corresponding  western  being  form- 
ed by  the  Vosges.  It  extends  about  90  m.  in 
length,  almost  parallel  with  the  course  of  the 
Rtune,  from  which  it  is  distant  in  many  places 
leas  than  20  m.,  and  bos  a  breadth  in  its  south- 
ern part  of  about  80  m.,  and  in  its  northern  part 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAOE  Gtm 

of  abont  18.  Tbe  Btook  Forest  oonsists  of  ele- 
vated pli^ne  or  table  laod.  aod  describes  iteelf 
npui  the  horizon  in  regular  UDdulatJng  linee. 
Ita  greatest  elevation  is  near  and  to  ma  east 
of  Freibtuf^,  in  the  region  where  the  Wiesen 
takes  its  rbe,  and  where  is  the  famous  defile 
called  Ilatie,  a  narrow  vallej  Bnrronnded  by 
loftj  mountuns,  and  celebrated  in  the  retreat 
of  Morean  in  ITSQ.  The  highest  sammits  of 
the  range,  the  Feldberg,  the  Belchen,  and  tbe 
Kandel,  are  between  4,000  and  6,000  ft  above 
the  level  of  the  tea.  The  descent  of  the  Black 
Forest  toward  the  Rhine  is  ver^  abrupt,  cans- 
ing  the  rivers  which  take  their  rise  on  this 
side,  the  Murg,  Einzig.  and  Eiz,  to  assume 
during  tbe  rains  tbe  character  of  torrenta. 
The  eastern  slope  la  very  gentle,  and  gives 
rise  to  the  Neokar  and  tbe  Dannbe,  the  for- 
mer soon  changing  its  direction  to  the  nortb 
and  west,  and  Joinmg  the  Rhine.  The  Black 
Forest  is  composed  mainly  of  granite,  though 
the  snr&ce  is  in  some  places  covered  with 
sand^ne,  and  gneiss  appearm  aromid  its  base. 
On  some  of  the  heighta  porphyry  ia  found,  and 
there  are  many  mines  of  diver,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  cobalL  Ita  mineral  waters  too,  es- 
peciolly  those  of  Baden  and  WUdbad,  are  very 
famous.  The  summits  of  the  Black  Forest  are 
during  eight  months  of  the  year  covered  with 
snow ;  Oiej  are  generally  destitute  of  trees, 
and  except  daring  tbe  greatest  heats  of  summer 
display  no  verdure.  Descending  from  the  top, 
the  first  trees  that  appear  are  the  pine,  the 
beech,  and  the  maple;  these  are  succeeded  by 
the  dense  fiireata  of  fir  with  which  all  the  mid- 
dle and  lower  parts  of  tbe  monnt^ns  are  cov- 
ered, and  which  furnish  masts  and  timber  for 
ships.  Near  tbe  foot  of  the  mountains  are 
many  pictnresqae  valleys,  of  which  that  of 
the  Hnrg,  sitoated  near  tbe  thermal  waters 
of  Baden,  is  particularly  distingui^ed  for  its 
natural  beauty.  Villages  and  hamlets  are  in- 
terspersed, and  the  inhabitants  are  mainly  en- 
gaged in  reariniF  live  stock,  and  in  tbe  mannfae- 
tare  of  teys.  Toe  most  famous  of  these  articles 
is  the  wooden  dock,  of  which  it  is  estimated 
that  180,000  are  annually  produced.  A^iool- 
ture  is  there  of  little  importance,  the  soil  be- 
ing nnfmitful  and  the  climate  severe,  yet  the  val- 
leys produce  excellent  fruit.  The  Black  Forest 
abonnds  in  historical  remains  and  aesociations. 
BUCK  GVH,  the  arbitrary  name  of  a  tree 
without  gnm,  a  species  of  nj/>»a  or  tupelo  ( Ad- 
anson),  which  is  the  only  genus  of  Endlicfaer's 
sub-order  nvMaetm  of  his  order  lantalaeea. 
LinnfBQS  had  it  in  polygamia  duteia;  Elliot 
placed  it  in  diaeia  penlandria,  and  Darlingbni 
m  pmtandria  monoffvnvi.  The  black  gum  is 
the  2/".  mull'^lora,  and  is  known  in  New  Eng- 
land as  snag  tree  and  hornpipe,  in  New  York 
as  pepperidge,  and  as  the  gum  tree  in  the  mid- 
dle states.  It  thrives  in  low,  clayey  soil,  and 
in  dense  forests  grows  to  a  height  of  40  ft.  Its 
external  habits  are  various,  and  it  is  often  con- 
founded with  other  trees.  It  bas  very  many 
branches,  which  are  often  crooked ;   a  dense 


BLACK  HAWK  679 

fiyramidal  head ;  leaves  one  to  five  inchea 
ong,  and  of  a  lustrous  green,  in  tnfts  of  four 
or  more  at  the  ends  of  the  branches;    green- 


Blul  Gnm  Trta  (Kjhb  molt 


The  wood  ia  close  and  tough,  and  redsts  split- 
ting, though  it  decays  sooner  in  the  weuher 
than  that  of  the  elm.    It  is  used  for  water 


BiKk  aom,  L«TH  ud  Fruit. 

pipes  in  the  salt  works  at  Syracuse;  it  is  also 
good  for  batters'  blocks,  wheel  naves,  and  cog 
wheels.  The  tree  is  very  vigorous.  It  was 
introduced  into  Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree 
in  ITSB;  it  thrives  in  the  south  of  England, 
and  even  in  Hanover. 

BUCK  HAWK,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Sac  and 
Fox  tribe,  born  abont  ITflS,  at  the  principal 
Sao  village  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  MisNssipni, 
near  tbe  month  of  Rock  river,  died  at  tne 
village  of  his  tribe  on  the  Oes  Moines  river,  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


680  BLACK  HAWK 

Iowa,  Oct.  S,  18SS.  About  1788  he  sncceeded 
hU  father  as  chief  of  tho  Sacs.  In  1604  some 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  8aos  and  Foxes  sold  their 
lands,  eiteading  for  700  m.  along  the  MiauB- 
Bippi,  for  an  annuity  of  |1,000.  Black  Hawk 
said  that  the  chiefs  were  drank  whan  the; 
signed  the  treaty.  During  the  war  of  1612  he 
took  part  with  England.  The  treaty  of  cession 
was  ratified  in  1816,  end  sanctioned  I17  a  new 
treaty  in  1816,  which  was  siji^ed  by  Black 
Hawk.  In  182B  the  greater  part  of  the  tribes 
removed  to  their  reservation  across  the  Missis- 
sippi; but  Black  Hawk  and  bis  followers  re- 
muned  behind.  In  1681,  the  land  occnpied  by 
their  Tillages  having  been  sold  to  settlers,  the 
crops  of  the  Indians  were  plonghed  np.  Black 
Hawk  threatened  to  retaliate,  and  the  militia 
of  Illinois  were  called  out.  He  then  retreated 
across  the  river,  and  engaged  not  to  reenter 
the  state  without  penniasion.  But  in  the 
spring  of  18S3  he  rocrossed  the  river;  a  band 
of  60  of  his  warriors  were  attacked  by  the 
militia  and  put  to  flight  The  Indians  now 
scattered  into  sqaads,  and  began  an  indiscrimi- 
nate massacre  of  the  whites.  Gen.  Scott  was 
sent  against  them ;  but  cholera  broke  ont  among 
the  troops  and  hindered  their  operations.  The 
Indians  were  finally  driven  to  the  'Wisconsin 
river,  where  they  were  defeated  on  July  21  by 
Gen.  Dodge,  and  on  Aug.  2  by  Gen.  Atkinson. 
Black  Hawk  was  captured,  and  a  treaty  vras 
made  by  which  the  land  of  the  tribes  was  sold, 
and  the  Indiana,  numbering  about  8,000,  re- 
moved to  the  region  about  Fort  Des  Moines. 
Black  Hawk,  two  of  his  sons,  and  seven  of  his 
warriors,  were  for  a  time  detained  aa  hostages, 
taken  through  the  principal  cities  of  the  eastern 
states,  and  then  conGned  in  Fortress  Monroe 
till  June  6,  188S,  when  they  were  released  and 
rejoined  their  tribes. 

BUCK  HIWK,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  inter- 
sected by  the  Cedar  and  Wapsipinicon  rivers; 
area,  576  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  21,706.  The 
Dnbuqne  and  Sions  City,  the  Bnrlington,  Oe- 
dar  Rapids,  and  Minnesota,  and  the  Cedar 
Falls  and  Minnesota  rulroads  traverse  the 
connty.  The  surface  is  occupied  munly  by 
prairies,  though  portions  of  it  are  well  wooded. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,806,824 
bushels  of  wheat,  902,128  of  Indian  corn,  670,- 
840  of  oats,  109,771  of  potatoes,  29,23S  tons 
of  hay,  17,236  lbs.  of  wool,  and  606,844  of 
butter.  There  were  7,466  horses,  6,407  milch 
cows,  6,004  other  cattle,  4,479  sheep,  and  13,- 
436  swine.     Capital,  Waterloo. 

BUCK  HILLS,  a  range  of  monn tains  in  S.  W. 
Dakota  and  N.  E.  Wyoming,  lying  near  the 
parallel  of  44°  N.  latitude  and  between  ion. 
108°  and  105°  W.,  about  100  m.  long  and  60  m. 
wide.  They  are  a  continuation  of  the  Big 
Horn  and  Snow  monnttuns,  which  branch  off 
from  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  base  of  these 
hills  ia  abont  2,600  or  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  the  highest  peak  is  6,700  tt.  Abont  one 
third  of  their  area  is  covered  with  vast  forests 
of  magnificent  pine  trees.     Their  geolofpoal 


BIJ.CKJE 

formation  in^catesgreat  mineral  wealth.  Gold 
has  been  discovered,  and  it  has  been  concin-. 
sively  proved  that  this  region  abounds  in  iron, 
coal,  lead,  salt,  and  petroleum,  beudes  its  val- 
uable pine  and  cedar  timber,  limestone,  and 
good  stone  for  bnilding  purposes. 

BUCK  HOLE,  a  small  close  dungeon  in  Fort 
William,  Calontta,  in  which  on  the  capture  of 
Calcutta  by  Sur^ah  Dowlah,  June  20,  1756, 
the  British  garrison,  consisting  of  148  men, 
under  the  command  of  Mr.  Holwell,  were  locked 
up  for  the  night.  It  was  a  strongly  iMrred 
room,  18  ft.  square.  There  were  only  two  win- 
dows, both  opening  toward  the  west,  whence 
□nder  the  best  of  circumstances  but  little 
air  could  enter,  which  was  further  obstructed 
by  a  projecting  veranda  outride,  and  thick  iron 
bars  within.  At  the  same  time  conflagrations 
raging  in  different  parts  of  the  fort  gave  the 
atmosphere  an  nnosual  oppressiveness.  In  a 
short  time  their  sufibriugs  ft'om  thirst  and  th« 
foul  and  stifling  air  become  terrible,  and  in  a 


HommMBt  Id  teoat  tt  tha  Bbck  HdIa. 

few  hours  several  had  died.  Only  23  survived 
till  morning,  when  they  were  released.  Among 
these  was  Mr.  Holwell,  who  published  a  nar- 
rative of  the  event  in  the  "Annual  Refpeter" 
for  1756.  The  black  hole  is  now  used  as  a 
warehouse,  and  an  obelisk  60  ft.  high,  erected 
in  memory  of  the  victims,  stands  before  the  gate. 
BUCKIE,  J*ha  Bturt,  a  Scottish  author,  bom 
at  Glasgow  in  July.  1809.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
banker,  studied  in  Scotland,  Germany,  and  It- 
aly,* and  was  professor  of  I^dn  literature  in  Ma- 
rischal  college,  Aberdeen,  from  1841  to  1662, 
when  he  became  professor  of  Greek  in  tlie 
university  of  Edinbnrgh,  which  position  he  still 
holds  (1673).  He  promoted  university  reform 
in  Scotland  and  the  abolition  of  the  test  act. 
He  is  a  popular  lecturer  and  an  active  con- 
tributor to  periodicals  and  cyclopiedias.  His 
writings  include  a  metrical  translation  of  Goe- 
the's "Fanst"  (1834),  and  of  jEschylnB{1860); 
"  Poems,  chiefly  on  Greek  Mythology  "  (1867) ; 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAOEroa 

"Poems,  EneliBh  andLatin ''(1860);  "Homer 
aod  the  ntao,"  with  a  translation  of  the  Iliad 
in  ballad  measore  (1866) ;  Mnia  EiiTtehieoia 
(1869);  and  "War  Songs  of  the  GennanB," 
with  historical  sketdtes  (1870).  He  boa  also 
publialied  "Oritioal  DisBertations "  (3  vols.), 
and  "Notes  Philological  and  Arohteolopcal " 
(4  vols.).  BJB  discouree  on  "  Democracy  "  (1867) 
has  pasaed  throngb  many  editions,  and  his  latest 
work  ia  "  Four  Phases  of  Morals  "  (1872). 

BLACKDfC,  a  preparation  applied  to  leather, 
deigned  eiUier  tu  preserve  or  to  polish  it. 
Ivorj  black,  vinegar  or  sonr  beer,  sugar  or  mo- 
lasses, and  a  little  sweet  oil  and  snlpharia  acid 
are  tbe  common  inKredienta,  The  corrosive 
propertiea  of  the  acids  are  neutralized  bj  the 
lime  in  the  ivory  black.  It  is  made  in  the 
form  of  a  paste,  and  also  liqaid.  The  following 
recipe  (patented  in  England)  is  designed  to 
give  the  leather  somewhat  of  a  waterproof 
quality:  Dissolve  18  oz.  of  caoatohono  in  B  lbs. 
of  hot  rape  oil;  to  this  add  60  iba.  ivory  black 
and  45  lbs.  molasses,  with  1  lb.  finely  ground 
gum  arable,  previously  dissolved  in  20  gallons 
of  vinegar,  of  strength  No.  24 ;  the  whole  to  be 
well  triturated  in  a  paint  mill  till  smooth. 
Then  add,  in  small  successive  qnantities,  19 
lbs.  sulphuric  acid,  stirring  strongly  for  half  an 
hour.  The  stirring  is  to  be  continued  for  half 
an  honr  a  day  during  a  fortnight,  when  3  lbs. 
of  gum  arable,  in  fine  powder,  are  to  be  added, 
and  the  half  hoar's  daily  stirring  continued  an- 
other fortnight,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  For 
paste  blaokiog  the  same  ingredients  and  qnan- 
tities  are  used,  except  that  instead  of  20  gal- 
lons of  vinegar,  12  gallons  will  answer,  and  a 
week  of  stirring  only  is  required.  A  good 
blacking  is  also  made  more  simply  by  mixing  8 
OE.  of  ivory  black,  S  of  molae^es,  a  table-spoon- 
tal  of  sweet  oil,  1  oz,  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  1 
of  gum  arable,  dissolved  in  water  and  a,  pint 
of  vinegar. — An  excellent  blacking  for  harness 
is  prepared  by  melting  3  oz.  of  mntton  suet 
with  6  oz.  of  beeswax,  to  which  are  to  be 
added  6  oz.  of  sugar  candy,  2  oz.  of  soft  soap 
dissolved  in  water,  and  1  oz.  of  indigo  finelr 
powdered,  and,  when  melted  and  well  raised, 
^11  of  turpentine.  It  is  to  be  pat  on  with  a 
inge  and  polished  with  a  brnsh.— Blacking 
stoves  may  be  made  of  finely  powdered 
black  lead,  of  which  i  lb.  may  be  mixed  with 


flpong 
f&r  si 


porter  well  stirred,  and  heated  to  nmmering 
for  about  half  an  hoiu-. 

BUCK  JACK.    See  Blende. 

BUCK  LEID.    See  GBAPuns. 

BUGKLOCK,  ntais,  D.  D.,  a  Scottish  clergy- 
man, bom  at  Annan,  Nov.  10,  1T21,  died  in 
Edinburgh,  July  7,  17S1.  He  became  blind  at 
the  age  of  wi  months.  His  father,  who  was  a 
mecbanio,  nsed  to  read  to  him  from  the  best 
English  authors.  He  early  acquired  aknowl-' 
edge  of  Latin,  and  at  12  produced  creditable 
verses.  Through  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Steven- 
son of  Edinburgh  he  was  enabled  to  pnrsue  a 


BLAOEMORE 


proficient  in  the  olasaical  and  modem  langua- 
ges and  music.  A  quarto  edition  of  his  poems 
was  published  in  1T5S,  in  London,  by  sub- 
scription. In  17fiB  he  was  licensed  as  a  minis- 
ter of  the  gos^iel.  He  married  in  1762,  and  was 
ordained  minister  of  Kirkcudbright ;  but  in 
1764  he  resided,  and  retired  to  Edinburgh  on 
a  small  pension,  which  he  eked  out  by  instmct- 
ing  a  few  young  men.  He  wrote  several  phi- 
losophical and  theological  works. 

BUCK  MilLf  a  tribute  formerly  paid  by  the 
occupants  of  lands  in  the  northern  counties  of 
England  to  some  Scottish  chieftdn  for  protec- 
tion against  the  depredations  of  border  rievers 
or  moss  troopers.  At  a  later  period,  after  civil 
order  had  been  established  in  the  border  coun- 
ties, and  agriculture  and  peaceful  habits  pre- 
vailed in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland,  the  custom 
of  paying  blaot  mail  to  the  highland  chiefs  by 
the  lowland  farmers  became  common,  and  con- 
tinued till  withia  a  century.  The  origin  of  the 
term  in  this  sense  is  doubtfhl,  some  deriving 
it  ftom  tbe  signification  of  "rent  in  kind," 
which  mail  bad  in  the  old  English  and  Scotch 
law ;  others,  from  the  moral  blackness  of  the 
custom. — The  modern  sense  of  "hnsh  money, 
extorted  hy  threats  of  exposure,"  evidently 
had  its  origin  in  the  compulsory  oharaoter  (k 
the  old  tribute. 

BUGKMIN,  Gatrga  Cirtb,  an  American  enr- 

Sion,  bom  in  Oonneoticut,  died  at  Avondale, 
bio,  July  19,  1871.  He  took  hb  medical 
degree  in  1841  at  the  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons.  New  York.  After  spending 
some  time  as  surgeon  of  a  packet  ship  between 
this  oountiy  and  Great  Bntun,  he  commenced 
practice  in  one  of  tbe  towns  upon  the  Hudson 
river.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Burgeij  in  the  medical  college  of  Ohio  at  Oin- 
oinnati.  He  was  a  bold  and  skilful  operator, 
and  there  were  hardly  any  great  operations  in 
surgery  which  he  did  not  perform,  and  many 
of  them  he  repeated  several  times.  He  trans- 
lated and  edited  Vidal's  "  Treatise  on  Venereal 
Disease,"  and  refdlled  Mott's  translation  of 
Velpeau's  "Surgery,"  with  notes  and  additions 
of  his  own.  He  was  surgeon  to  two  of  the 
Cincinnati  hospitals.  Daring  the  civil  war, 
from  ISei  to  1865,  he  served  as  medical  ofBcer, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Bhiloh  and 
the  Wilderness. 

BUCKMOKE,  Sir  BMard,  an  English  physi- 
cian, poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  bom  at 
Corsham,. Wiltshire,  about  1650,  died  Oct  8, 
1739.  After  spending  several  years  at  Oxford 
and  on  the  continent  ho  settled  in  London,  and 
became  phyucian  to  William  III.  He  wrote 
several  medical  and  religious  treatises,  "The 
Accomplished  Preacher,"  a  new  version  of  the 
Psalms,  two  voinmes  of  essays,  and  a  volume 
of  misoellaneoos  poems;  but  he  Is  best  known 
by  his  heroic  poems,  "Prince  Arthur,"  "King 
Arthur,"  "King  Alfred,"  "Eliza,"  and  "The 
Redeemer,"  and  by  his  "  Creation,"  a  philo- 
Bopbioa]  poem.    These  poems  were  mercilessly 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


682  BLACEUORE 

attacked  by  the  wits,  and  eflpeeially  by  Pope 
in  the"Diinciad;"  in  reply  be  wrote  the  "Sa- 
tire upon  Wit."  Hia  name  has  come  to  be  a 
synonyme  for  dolneBB ;  but  hia  "  Creation  "  has 
been  praised  by  Addieon,  Johnson,  and  otbera. 

BUCKHORS,  Ikterd  D.    See  sapplement. 

BUCK  KODHTAUfg,  the  onlminaUng  sronp 
of  the  Appalachian  ayrtem  (see  Appalaohias 
Uocntauib),  named  tram  the  dork  growth  of 
balsam  firs  and  olier  evergreens  which  cover 
their  BQmmits,  sitnated  in  Yancey  and  Bon- 
oomlM  counties,  North  Carolina,  between  the 
main  central  ridges  on  the  weat  and  a  portion 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  east  Unlike  the 
otJier  ridges  of  the  AUeghanies,  they  lie  for  the 
most  part  traoBverae  t«  the  general  trend  of 
the  range,  and  give  this  direction  to  the  great 
volleys  and  rivers  incladed  between  them. 
They  rise  from  a  district  of  great  elevation, 
the  heigbt  of  the  valley  at  Aslieville,  on  the 
French  Broad  Biver,  being  abont  2,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  that  of  Toe  river  at 
Bnmsville,  Yancey  connty,  abont  2,600  ft. 
From  this  plateau  the  drainage  is  toward  the 
Ohio  in  a  northerly  direction  by  the  branches 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  by  those  of  the  Hol- 
ston  and  the  French  Broad  toward  the  soutii- 
west,  and  by  those  of  the  Yadkin  and  the  Ca- 
tawba into  the  Pedee  and  Bantee  toward  the 
Bontheast.  This  position  at  the  sources  of 
streams  flowing  in  soch  diverse  directions  long 
since  pointed  out  this  district  as  probably  the 
most  elevated  east  of  the  Rocky  monnttuna. 
The  botanists  Michaax,  father  and  son,  were 
led  to  the  same  opinion  by  tlieir  observations 
upon  tlie  northern  character  of  the  forest 
growth  with  wbich  these  monnt^na  are  cov- 
ered. In  1685  the  first  attempts  to  determine 
the  elevation  of  the  greatest  heists  were 
made  by  Dr.  E.  Mitchell,  profeesor  in  the  nni- 
vermty  of  North  Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill.  The 
principal  peak,  called  Clingmsn'a  peak,  bnt 
known  in  North  Carolina  as  Ut.  Uitcbell,  he  es- 
timated to  be  0,4T8  ft.  above  the  sea ;  and  in 
ISU  he  visit«d  the  locality  again,  and  made 
the  beif^t  6,072  fL  In  18G6  the  Hon.  T.  L. 
Clingman  of  North  Carolina  made  the  eleva- 
tion e,B41  fu,  and  in  ISGfl  Prof.  Guyot  deter- 
mined the  highest  point,  which  he  then  called 
the  Black  Dome,  to  be  6,780  fL  high.  The 
following  are  the  elevations  and  names  of  the 
12  highest  points,  alt  ot  which  are  hi^er  Ihan 
Mt.  Washington  in  New  Hampshire,  as  pnb- 
lisbed  ia  1857  from  the  investigations  of  Prof 
Qnyot: 

BL*CI  HOUmADI.  * 

1.  CUdciiiui'i  Peak &Tai 

S.  Ouyof*  Pat,  ot  B«l««n  Com 8.681 

8.  BuidoE  Knob leit 

4.  HibyBur l;feT 

tt.  Cu-THI  P«t aCM 

e.  Glbbe'i  PMk. «,»*• 

J.  MlWwlT*  Port (LOTS 

5.  Sitg*r-Lo*r.  or  HdlMck  Fuk. 8,401 

».  PoOtoTop e,tfe 

10.  BlKkKnob txn 

ll.BowlW*  Pvnmti] MM 

11.  Baa  UoniitBlD (,318 

The  SDmmit  of  Mt  Washington  is  6,285  ft 


BLACK  SEA 

abore  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  1867  Dr.  Mitch- 
ell lost  his  life  in  a  third  excursion  to  these 
monntaina,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  his 
claim  to  having  first  measured  the  elevation  of 
the  highest  summit,the  honor  of  wMch  was 
also  claimed  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Chngman. 

BUCK  UTIB.  L  A  river  of  New  York, 
which  rises  in  Herkimer  county,  pannes  a  N. 
W.  ooorse  throngh  Oneida  and  Lewis  oonnties, 
and  as  &r  as  Qreat  Bend,  in  Jefferson  oonnty, 
and  thenoe  flows  W.  by  Watertown,  and  emp- 
ties throngh  Black  Blver  bay  into  Lake  On- 
tario. Near  Turin,  in  Lewis  oonnty,  it  has  a 
faU  of  abont  68  ft.    Below  the  faU  it  is  nari- 

C"  >  to  Carthage,  a  distanoe  of  40  m.  From 
hage  to  Watertown  is  a  eeriea  of  rapids, 
rendering  navigation  almost  imposnble.  A 
canal  has  been  opened  from  the  upper  falls  to 
Rome  on  the  Ene  oanal.  The  whole  t««igth 
of  the  river  is  1 26  ra.,  and  ite  breadth  at  Watei^ 
town  (6  m.  ttaai  its  month)  is  60  yards.  IL  &ee 
Bio  Black  Bivkb. 

BUCK  SEA  (anc.  Pontut  Siaaai*,  the  hos- 
pitable sea),  an  inland  sea  between  Asia  and 
Euro^  endosed  H.  and  E.  by  Ruiria  and  S 


and  S.  W.  with  the  Mediterranean  thronrii  the 
Boepoms,  the  sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Darda- 
nellee.  It  lies  between  Ion.  £7°  SS'  and  41°  SO' 
E.,  and  laL  40°  60'  and  46°  46'  N.  Its  extrane 
length  is  700  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  its  extreme 
brsadthuearly400m.  on  the  81st  meridian.  It 
has  a  coast  line  of  more  than  9,000  m,,  end  a 
superficial  area  of  abont  180,000  sq.  m.  It  re- 
ceives from  Europe  the  waters  of  Uie  Danube, 
Dniester,  Bog,  and  Dnieper,  and  through  the 
sea  of  Aeov  those  of  the  Don,  and  frotn  Ada 
the  waters  of  the  Eizil  Innak  (Halys)  and  Sa- 
karia,  bendes  smaller  rivers,  snd  drsins  a  te^ 
ritory  in  Eurofte  and  Asia  of  scarcely  lees  than 
1,000,000  sq.  m.  There  are  geological  indies- 
tions  that  the  Black  sea  was  at  one  time  mnch 
larger  than  it  is  now,  having  no  outlet  to  the 
Mediterranean,  flooiling  a  considerable  part  of 
southern  Russia,  and  reaching  even  to  the  Csa* 
pian  and  Aral  seas,  with  which  it  formed  one 
body.  Natural  features  probably  aeaisted  in 
BQggeating  the  name  of  Black,  which  is  ^ren 
it  in  all  modem  European  langnagea.  The 
ancient  name,  Euzine,  ia  sappcwed  to  have 
been  a  euphemiatic  modification  of  a  former 
appellation,  Pontas  Azenna,  meaiuoK  inhos- 
pitable sea.  The  prevalent  wind  is  from  the 
N.  E. ;  it  comes  laden  with  moisture  fh>m  a 
wide  swampy  territory,  and  fretjnently  veils 
the  sea  in  darkness  by  f<^  and  ram.  Owing, 
too,  to  the  confined  extent  of  the  water,  a 
strong  wind  quickly  lashes  it  into  a  tempest, 
and  gives  to  the  whole  sea  something  of  the 
appearance  of  a  whirlpooL  These  brief  bnt 
troublesome  tempests  are  especially  freonent 
during  the  winter.  The  difficulties  whicn  the 
atmosphere  offers  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Black  sea  are  oompensated  by  the  character  of 
the  sea  itself.    Both  its  shores  and  its  Intarin 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAOE  SEA 

Eul8  are  remarkablj  free  from  rocka,  sand 
anks,  orshaUowB,  and  sbipg  mar  alwajs  lie  tti 
or  ride  at  anchor  with  ver;  little  danger.  Tliere 
is  bat  one  inland  in  the  whole  sea,  Berp«Dt  iale, 
SO  m.  from  the  monCh  of  the  Danube,  once  a 
sacred  place,  with  a  temple,  but  imooeapted  fur 
oentoriea,  till  of  late  years  it  was  made  a  sta- 
tion for  English  and  Frenoli  vessels.  There  is 
now  a  ligh^oase  npon  it  The  principal  pen- 
insuloB  are  on  the  north,  among  them  the  Cri- 
mea. The  depth  of  the  sea  increases  regularly 
according  to  tne  distanne  from  the  shore;  and 
in  its  central  parts  no  bottom  is  reached  even 
bj  a  line  of  ISO  fathoms.  There  is  no  observa- 
ble ebb  and  flow  of  its  waters,  bat  its  large  ac- 
cessions ftvm  the  rivers  oocaaon  strong  onr- 
rent^  whioh  all  set,  with  more  or  less  direct- 
ness, toward  the  Boeporae.    When  these  oor- 


BLAOK  SILVER  683 

rents  are  also  helped  by  the  winds,  the  waters 
are  seiit  throogh  the  straits  with  saoh  violence 
that  vessels  are  sometimes  detdned  for  months 
ontside,  unable  to  enter  against  them.  An  Eng- 
lish  surveying  ship  recently  oonfirmed  the  oon- 
olosion  of  Prof,  Carpenter  that  these  currents 
are  only  superficial,  and  discovered  at  the  depth 
of  80  fotlioms  an  nnderonrrent  rnnnii^  with 
prodi^oQS  force  into  the  Black  Sea.  To  test 
the  strength  of  this  nnderourrent,  a  spedal  ap- 
paratus was  constmcted  and  attached  to  the 
ship's  boats,  when  the  boats  were  in  many 
plaoes  driving  along  against  the  upper  current 
with  greater  velocity  than  that  ot  the  steam 
launch  of  the  ship.  Its  climate  has  wide  ex- 
tremes, but  is  generally  colder  than  would  be 
inferred  from  its  latitude,  owing  to  the  prev- 
alence of  north  winds.    Ite  fisheries  are  un- 


Openin^  ot  (bfi  Blic^  8m  boa  the  Boeponu. 


Important.    The  speciflo  gravity  of  its  water 

is  1142.  It  oontsins  less  salt  than  the  ocean, 
and  freezes  easily.  Odessa  is  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  port  on  its  coast,  and  Var- 
na is  the  chief  Turkish  fortress ;  besides  which, 
the  principal  harbors  are  Sebastopol,  Sinope, 
and  Trebizond,  and  on  the  estuaries  of  the  Bog 
and  Dnieper,  respectively,  Nikolayev  and  Kher- 
son.—The  shores  of  the  Blaok  sea  are  known 
both  in  fable  and  history.  Colchis,  the  goal  of 
the  Argonantio  expedition,  was  on  its  east ;  the 
Cimmerian  region  was  upon  its  north ;  and  on 
all  its  sides  tne  Persian,  Byzantine,  Turkish, 
and  Hossisn  powers  have  acted  the  events  of 
their  history.  From  the  time  of  Oonstontine 
till  the  IGth  century  it  was  the  centre  of  the 
transplanted  Roman  world ;  and  till  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  was  discovered  and  suled  ronnd, 
it  was  a  passageway  of  tJie  Genoese  and  other 
European  trade  with  the  Indies.    The  Turks 


tor  a  time  excluded  the  ships  of  all  other  na- 
tions from  it,  and  at  one  time  Rosma  sought 
to  make  it  a  closed  sea  under  its  own  mili- 
tary oommaod ;  but  since  the  peace  of  Paris, 
which  terminated  tlie  Crimean  war,  it  has 
been  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations,  and 
the  equal  exclusion  of  all  ships  of  war  estab- 
lished by  the  nentratity  clanse  of  that  treaty 
was  abrogated  at  the  close  of  18T0. 

BLACK  SILTEB  (called  also  brittle  wlver  or 
fllance,  and  stephonite  from  the  Archduke 
Stephan,  mining  director  of  Austria),  an  ore 
composed  of  sulphur  16'2,  antimony  15'3,  sil- 
ver a8'5.  It  occurs  in  veins  with  other  silver 
ores  st  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  at  Andreasberg  in 
the  Hartz,  and  at  Zacatecas  in  Mexico.  It  is 
also  an  abundant  silver  ore  in  the  Comstock 
lode  in  Nevada,  and  occars  in  Idaho  and  in  the 
Reeee  river  and  Humboldt  mines.  Crystals  of 
it  have  been  found  altered  to  pnre  silver. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


6U 


BLACK  SNAKE 


BUCK  SS iKE  (eolnhn-  Miutrictor;  C.  'bat- 
eanion,  B.  and  G.),  a  verj  common  enake,  ven- 
erall7  dlstribnted  over  North  America.    The 
head  ia  oval  and  long ;  the  snont  prolonged  and 
ratlier  pointed;   the  nostrilH  are  iateral,  very 
larse  near  the  uiout,  and  open  outirard  and  a 
little  backward;  the  eyes  are  large  and  bright, 
the  pupil  black,  and  the  iris  very  dark  gray ;  the 
body  is  long  and  slender,  and  covered  with  large 
BTOOoth  Bcales  above,  and  with  broad  pistes 
below  ;  the  tail  is  also  long  and  slender,  and, 
according  to  Holbrook,  may  be  used  as  a  pre- 
hensile instrnment;  according  to  Dr.  Btorer, 
the  abdominal  plates  are  1&4,  and  the  candal 
scales  65.     The  color  above  is  a  dark  bluiah 
black;  below,  alate-oolored ;    chin  and  throat 
pore  white,  widi  occasionally  a  few  black  spots; 
the  margin  of  the  jaws  and  snont  yellow.    The 
nsnal  length  is  from  4  to  6  tt.,  of  which  the  head 
isli  Inch,  and  the  tail  about  IS  inches;  one  waa 
killed  at  Bing- 
ham, Maas.,  in 
1842, 7  ft.  long, 
which  had  en- 
folded and  se- 
verely crnshed 
in  ita  coil  a  rab- 
bit, and  which  l 
had  in  its  body  I 
16  quails'  eggs  f 
unbroken,  anil 
some  of  them 
containing  the 
yonng  hira.    It 
is  very  active, 
being  from  ita 
rapid    motions 
frequently  call- 

cer;"  it  climbs 
trees  with  easy 
fiicilitj,  and  is 
often  foand  en- 
twined around 
bnshes  con- 
taining birds'  nests.  It  tVequents  shadv  and 
shrubby  places  near  ponds  and  streams,  thocgh 
it  is  very  fond  of  basking  in  the  sun.  It  feeds 
on  mice,  moles,  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  eggs,  and 
yoang  birds;  the  larger  specimens  prey  upon 
squirrels,  chickens,  and  even  young  rabbits;  it 
is  very  destructive  to  yoang  birds,  and  a  noted 
robber  of  nests.  Its  first  specific  name  indi- 
oatca  that  it  possesses  the  power  of  destroying 
its  prey  by  the  constriction  of  its  folds;  this 
power  is  known  to  many  a  schoolboy,  sronnd 
wljose  leg  or  arm  it  has  coiled  when  the  hu- 
man robber  of  birds'  nests  has  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  serpent  thief  similarly  inclined. 
The  one  killed  at  Hingham  had  a  rabbit  in  its 
coil;  but  it  donbtless  seizes  its  smaller  and  or- 
dinary prey  with  its  mouth  only.  It  is  very 
daring,  and  during  the  breeding  season  will 
often  attAck  persons  passing  at  a  distance; 
its  bile  is  perfectly  harmlees.  There  is  no  good 
evidence  that  it  has  any  power  of  fascination, 


Bluk  Bnike. 


BLAGKBTONE 

OS  Implied  in  the  second  specific  name  above 
given,  its  victims  being  taken  by  activity  and  . 
direct  assault 

BLACK8T0NE,  a  town  of  Worcester  coun^, 
Mass.,  Se  m.  8.  W.  of  Boston  and  IS  m.  N.  W. 
of  Providence,  bordering  on  Rhode  Island,  and 
intersected  by  Blackstone  river;  pop.  in  ISTO, 
6,421.  it  contains  a  bank  and  several  schools 
and  churches,  4  cotton  mills,  with  42,720  spin- 
dles, producing  10,000,000  yards  of  clotL  an- 
nually, and  6  woollen  mills,  with  45  sets  of  ma- 
chinery; annual  value  of  product,  $2,000,000. 
The  Boston,  Hartford,  and  Erie,  and  the  Provi- 
dence and  Worcester  railroads  pass  through  the 

BLICKOTONE,  WUDiH,  the  first  white  inhabi- 
tant of  Boston,  died  on  Blackstone  river,  a  few 
miles  north  of  Providence,  May  26,  1676.  He 
is  supposed  t«  have  been  a  graduate  of  Emanuel 
college,  Cambridge,  and  to  have  been  a  clergj- 
man  of  the  church  of  England.  He  settled 
npon  the  present  site  of  Boston  about  1S23. 
In  April,  1683,  he  removed  to  Rhode  Island. 

BLKKSrONE,  Bir  WUILw,  on  English  lawyer, 
bom  in  London,  July  10, 1728,  died  there,  Feb. 
14,  1780.  He  was  the  posthnmons  son  of  * 
silk  mercer,  and  lost  his  mother  before  he  was 
12  years  old.  His  maternal  uncle  provided  for 
his  early  education,  and  in  his  7th  year  placed 
him  at  the  Cliarterhouse  school,  where  after 
the  death  of  his  mother  he  was  admitted  upon 
the  foundation.  Before  he  was  10  he  entered 
Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  and  in  1741  he  was 
entered  at  the  Middle  Temple,  bidding  adieu 
to  poetry  in. "The  Lawyers  Farewell  to  his 
Muse."  In  1748  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
All  Souls'  college.  Having  been  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1746,  he  spent  the  succeeding  seven 
years  in  attendance  upon  the  courts  at  West^ 
minster,  hut  failed  to  obtain  g  remnnerative 
practice,  and  resolved  to  abandon  the  profes- 
non.  In  174&  he  had  been  appointed  recorder 
of  Wallingford,  in  Berkshire,  and  he  continned 
to  discharge  the  duties  of  that  office  for  20 
years.  He  was  also  steward  of  AU  Soula' 
college,  and  for  ux  years  assessor  of  the  vice 
chanceUor's  court.  In  1763  he  opened  a  coarse 
of  lectures  at  Oxford  upon  the  English  consti- 
tution and  laws,  which  were  the  germ  of  his 
"  Commentaries."  For  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lish ing  a  permanent  course  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter, Mr.  viner,  author  of  the  "Abridgment  of 
the  Common  Law,"  founded  at  Oxford  a  pro- 
fessorship of  the  common  law,  and  Blackstone 
was  elected  the  first  incumbent  of  the  chair  in 
1768.  He  held  the  professorship  for  seven 
years,  winning  a  wide  reputation,  which  en- 
abled hira  to  return  to  the  bar,  where  he  im- 
mediately obtained  a  lucrative  practice.  In 
1761  he  was  elected  to  parliament  from  Hie- 
don  in  Wiltshire,  and  the  following  year  he 
was  made  king's  counsel.  He  had  previonslj 
declined  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  Irish 
common  pleas,  and  in  1770  he  also  declined 
the  office  of  solicitor  general.  Subsequently  be 
was  sncoeenvely  jnsdce  of  the  king's  bench  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAOKSTONE  EIVEE 

t^e  oommon  pleas  until  his  deatb.  His  "  Com- 
meDtariea  on  the  Lairi  of  England  "  were  pnb- 
lished  in  4  vols.,  at  Oxford,  lT66-'9.  Btifore 
the  publication  of  this  work  there  was  no 
moderQ  treatise  presenting  as  a  whole  the 
BfHtem  of  Enffliflh  jarispnidenoe.  Blackatone 
was  oompelleu  to  collect  his  materials  from  an 
immense  mass  of  statatoa,  reports,  digests, 
abridgments,  old  oharters,  and  ancient  treatises. 
He  succeeded  in  weaving  out  of  this  incongrn- 
ous  maaa  so  methodical  a  whole,  set  forth  in  so 
easj  and  perspicnons  a  style,  that  his  work 
continnea,  both  in  England  and  America,  to  be 
the  first  text  book  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
student  of  law.  In  parliament  Biackstone  was 
a  uniform  supporter  of  the  government.  Sev- 
eral American  editions  of  the  "  Commentaries  " 
have  been  published,  the  moat  noted  being 
those  bj  Prof.  Tucker  of  Virginia,  Judge  Shars- 
wood  of  PenDSflvania,  and  Judge  Cooley  of 
Michigan.  Prof.  Taoker's  was  aoeomponied 
with  an  elaborate  eipoudon  of  hia  views  of 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

BUCKSTONE  BlViS,  a  stream  which  rises  in 
Paxtou  and  Holden  townships,  Worcester  oo., 
Haas.,  and  flows  8.  E.  into  tne  stat«  of  Rhode 
Island,  where  it  is  called  the  Pawtncket.  It 
affords  abundant  water  power,  and  for  a  great 
part  of  its  course  Hows  through  an  almost  con- 


The  Biackstone  o&nal,  extending  through  it 
from  Worcester  to  Providence,  was  completed 
in  1820,  but  was  snperseded  by  the  introduction 
of  rulroads,  only  portions  of  it.being  now  in 
use  for  water  power  and  irrigation. 
BUCK  VOMIT,  the  last  vomiting,  in  many 
«  of  yellow  fever,  of  a  dark  macons-looking 


called  hy  this  name.  The  blood  is  blackened 
and  partially  coagulated  by  a  free  acid,  perhaps 
acetic  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which  form  in 
the  system. 

BUCKWALL,  a  suburb  of  London,  at  the  Junc- 
tion of  the  Lea  with  the  Thames,  4  m.  E.  8.  £. 
of  St,  Paul's.  It  hoa  fonnderies,  ship  yards, 
and  the  India  docks.  An  elevated  railway 
connects  it  with  the  dty. 

BUCK  WALHrr.    Bee  Walitut. 

BUCK  WABBIOB,  a  river  of  Alabama,  rises 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  state,  flows  S.  W.  and 
S.,  and  empties  into  the  Tomtugbee  just  above 
Bemopolis,  Marengo  co.  Its  coarse  is  through 
the  valuable  Warrior  coal  field;  iron  is  found 
along  its  banks.  In  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Walker 
county  it  receives  its  principal  tributary.  Mul- 
berry fork.  Above  this  point  it  is  also  known 
as  Locust  fork.  The  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  Tuscaloosa,  at  which  point  the 
water  during  floods  rises  to  a  height  of  60  feet. 
The  length  of  the  main  stream  is  nearly  160  m. 

BUCKWiTEB,  a  river  of  Ireland,  rising  in 
tlie  N.  E.  part  of  county  Kerry,  flows  E.  across 
county  Cork  and  the  8.  W.  part  of  county 
Watorford,  and    enters  the    sea  at  Youghal 


BLAC£WELL  685 

harbor.  Its  course  of  100  miles  is  through  a 
carboniferous  limestone  basin,  amid  beautiful 
scenery.    It  abounds  in  salmon. 

BUC&WELL,  UeuaiKr,  a  Scottish  physician, 
bom  in  Aberdeen  about  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  executed  in  Sweden,  Aug.  9, 
1748.  He  practised  medicine  in  London,  set 
up  a  printing  establishment,  and  becoming 
bankrupt  in  1T34  was  supported  by  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  "  Onrions  Herbal,"  which  he  pub- 
lished in  lT8T-'e,  illustrated  by  hia  wife.  He 
subsequently  published  a  work  upon  the  im- 

Srovement  of  barren  and  sterile  luids  and  the 
rainage  of  marshes,  which  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  Swedish  government.  Having 
been  summoned  to  Sweden,  he  was  engaged  for 
some  time  in  putting  his  theories  into  practice, 
but  was  convicted  of  conspiring  agunst  the 
royal  family,  and  beheaded. 

UJCKWEUi,  Hhakttt,  an  American  phydcian, 
bom  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1B21.  Her  father 
emigrated  with  his  fiunily  in  1831.  and  settled 
in  New  York,  but  removed  in  ISST  to  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  where  he  died  a  few  months  after- 
ward, leaving  a  widow  and  nine  children  al- 
most destitute.  Elizabeth,  then  IT  years  old, 
opened  a  school,  which  she  conducted  succeaa- 
fnlly  for  several  years.  Having  resolved  to  be- 
come a  physician,  she  obtdned  a  situation  aa 
governess  in  the  fkmily  of  Dt.  John  Dison  of 
Asheville,  N.  C,  where  she  remoined  a  year, 
having  access  during  that  time  to  a  medical 
library,  and  receiving  fh)m  Dr.  Dixon  some 
direction  as  to  her  reading.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  she  removed  t«  Charleston,  8.  C,  still 
acting  as  a  teacher  of  mnsic,  but  pnrsuing  her 
studies.  She  next  went  to  Philadelphia,  and 
passed  lax  months  in  study  under  Dr.  Allen 
and  Dr.  Warrington  of  that  city.  During  that 
time  she  made  formal  application  to  the  med- 
ical schools  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Boston,  for  admission  as  a  student.  In  each  in- 
stance tlie  request  was  denied,  on  the  ground  of 
a  want  of  prwedent  for  such  an  admission,  and 
of  the  impropriety  of  such  on  innovation  upon 
established  onstom.  She  was  finally,  however, 
admitted  to  themedical  school  at  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
where  she  took  her  degree  of  M.  D.  in  regular 
coDTse  in  January,  1849.  During  her  connec- 
tion with  the  college,  when  not  in  attendance 
there  upon  lectures,  she  pursued  a  course  of 
clinical  study  in  Blockley  hospital,  Philadelphia. 
The  spring  after  her  graduation  she  went  to 
Paris,  and  remained  six  months  as  a  student 
in  the  Maternity  hospital,  devoting  herself  to 
the  study  and  practice  of  midwifery.  The  next 
autumn  she  was  admitted  as  a  'physician  ttt 
walk  the  hospital  of  8t.  Bartholomew  in  Lon- 
don. After  nearly  a  year  spent  there  she  re- 
turned to  New  York,  where  she  has  dnce  prac- 
tised her  profesfflon  with  success.  In  1652  she 
Eublished  a  treatise  entitled  "  The  Laws  of 
life."  In  1854,  with  her  sister  Emily,  she 
opened  the  New  York  infirmary  for  women  and 
children,  and  in  1869  again  visited  London,  and 
delivered  a  course  of  medical  lectures. 


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686        BLACKWELL'8  ISLAND 

BLiClWEU.>S  laJSD,  the  dte  of  several 
of  the  charitable  and  penal  iiwtitntioDS  of  the 
city  of  New  York.  It  Ilea  in  the  East  river, 
oppoBite  the  city  from  50th  to  84th  street,  is 
H  m.  long  and  i  m.  wide,  and  is  included  in 
the  Iflth  ward,    (See  Nrw  Yobk.) 

BUCKWOOD,  WIDlaH,a  Scottish  bootaeller 
and  publisher,  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Not.  20, 
1TT6,  died  Sept.  IS,  1884.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  booliseller,  and  conducted  business  snoces- 
sively  in  Glasgow  and  London  till  1804,  when 
he  established  himself  in  Edinbargh  as  a  dealer 
in  old  books.  In  1817  he  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  "Blackwood'sEdinhnrghMagaxine," 
of  which  he  was  the  conductor,  although  he 
availed  himself  of  the  advice  and  BsaistODoe  of 
Wilson,  Lockhart,  and  others.  The  mag&rine 
soon  acquired  popularitj,  and  became  Uie  ac- 
knowledged organ  of  the  t«ry  party  in  Groat 
Britain.  "Blackwood"  has  oontwned  oontri- 
bntions  from  many  of  the  foremost  writers  of 
its  daj ;  and  several  novels  of  acknowledged 
merit  first  appeared  in  its  pages,  including 
"The  Caitona,"  "My  Novel,"  and  "What 
WillbeDowithit!"byBnlwer.  The  "Noctes 
Amhroeianffi,"  mainly  written  by  Wilson,  ex- 
tending to  71  nnmbers,  was  tregan  in  1833,  uid 
continued  with  occasional  iotermissions  till 
188S.  The  house  founded  by  William  Black- 
wood is  one  of  the  leading  publishing  firms  in 
Great  Britain,  and  Its  principal  place  of  buai- 
nees  has  for  some  years  Deen  in  London. 

BUDDEB,  a  mnsculo-membraDous  bag,  cyst, 
or  ponch,  which  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
urine  secreted  in  the  kidneys.  It  is  called  «&■ 
tiea  urinaria,  to  distinguish  it  fhjm  the  gall 
bladder,  a  small  oyst  connected  with  the  liver 
and  the  biliary  ducts  as  a  reservoir  for  bile. 
The  bladder  is  situated  in  the  pelvis,  immedi- 
ately behind  the  lymphyiit  puhit,  and  in  front 
of  the  rectum  or  terminal  portion  of  the  iates- 
tines  in  the  male — in  ftont  of  the  uterus  and 
vagina  in  the  female.  Thus  placed  in  the  low- 
eat  portion  of  the  trunk  in  front,  it  communi- 
oatw  by  means  of  two  long  tubes  called  ure- 
ters with  the  two  kidneys,  placed  high  up  in 
the  back,  jnst  above  the  lumbar  region,  on  each 
side  of  the  vertebral  column.  It  communicates 
with  the  exterior  by  means  of  a  single  tube 
called  the  urethra,  through  which  the  urine  ia 
voided.  In  infancy  it  is  of  a  pyriform  shape, 
and  situated  almost  entirely  in  the  abdomen  ; 
it  nndergoes  a  chuige  of  form  in  the  adult,  and 
sinks  deeper  in  the  pelvic  cavity.  It  then  as- 
sumes the  shape  of  a  short  oval,  compressed  in 
its  anterior  and  posterior  walls  ;  its  lower  gur- 
fhce  expands  on  the  rectum,  and  forms  what  ia 
termed  by  anatomists  the  baa-fond  of  the  blad- 
der. In  the  female  its  transverse  diameter  is 
greater  than  it  is  in  the  male,  owing  to  the  po- 
sition of  the  uterns  and  va^na  between  the 
bladder  and  the  rectum.  It  increases  in  dimen- 
NODS  with  advancing  age,  and  is  larger  in  fe- 
males than  in  males,  probably  from  habitual 
distention,  arising  from  constraint.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  bladder  Is  oblique,  being  inclined 


ution  by  ligaments.  Anatomists  have  diviae 
it  into  art  regions  or  snrtacea,  for  the  fadlity 
of  description  and  surgical  operation;  th«ee 
are  named  anterior,  posterior,  superior,  infM- 
or,  and  left  and  right  later^.  The  anterior 
snrfaoe  lies  behind  the  symphysis  pubis,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  loose  connective  tissue. 
When  distended,  the  bladder  rises,  and  its  an- 
terior surface  comes  in  contact  with  the  recti 
muscles  of  the  abdomen.  The  posterior  surface 
is  covered  by  the  peritoneum,  which  is  reflect- 
ed upon  it  from  the  rectum  in  the  male,  and 
from  the  ntems  and  vagina  in  the  female.  The 
lateral  and  superior  regions  are  partially  cov- 
ered by  the  peritoneum.  The  ii^erior  region, 
or  bas-fbnd,  is  the  most  important  in  a  surreal 
point  of  view.  It  ia  bounded  before  by  the 
prostate  gland,  and  behind  by  the  peritonetnn. 
Attached  to  it  in  the  male  we  find  the  vttievla 
teminala  end  tile  vata  d^erentia,  which  oon- 
vei^totbe  prostate  gland,  leavings  triangular 
space,  where  the  bladder  is  only  separated  from 
the  rectum  by  a  quantity  of  fatty  connective 
tissue  surrounding  numerous  small  veesela, 
chiefly  veins.  In  the  female  this  r^on  rests 
on  the  vagina,  which  separatee  it  from  tlie  reo- 
tnm.  The  anterior  and  inferior  regions  of  the 
bladder  being  left  uncovered  by  folds  of  the 
peritonenm,  the  surgeon  is  able  to  perform  op- 
erations on  thoee  ^arts  without  injuring  that 
membrane,  which  is  so  liable  to  dangerona  in- 
flammation from  wounds. — The  waUs  of  the 
bladder  are  composed  of  three  layers  or  coats, 
united  by  connective  tisane :  an  internal  or 
mucous  membrane,  a  middle  or  muscnlar  coat, 
and  an  external  or  serous  coat,  formed  by  folds 
of  the  peritoneum.  The  muscular  coat  Is  com- 
posed of  pole  fibres  interlacing  in  all  directiona, 
and  enabling  the  bladder  to  contract  so  per- 
fectly as  to  expel  every  drop  of  ita  contents. 
The  neck  of  the  bladder  differs  in  etmcture 
f^om  the  rest  of  the  organ,  being  composed  of  a 
somewhat  fibrous  whitish  substance,  and  form- 
ing a  connecting  medium  between  the  bladder 
and  the  urethra.  Its  posterior  part  rests  upon 
the  rectum ;  ita  anterior  is  snrroimded  below 
and  at  the  ndea  by  the  prostate  gland,  which 
is  peooliar  to  tJie  male.  This  gland  ia  com- 
posed of  an  aggregation  of  mucous  follicles, 


eating  by  means  of  small  ducts  with  the  nre 
thra.  The  inner  ooat  or  lining  of  the  bladder, 
being  a  portion  of  the  genito-nrinary  mnconc 
membrane,  not  only  lines  the  bladder,  but  if 
prolonged  upward  through  the  ureters  into  tht 
kidneys,  and  downward  along  the  urethra.  It 
is  of  a  pale  rose  color,  with  a  smooth  surface 
when  the  bladder  is  distended,  and  corrugated 
when  empty.  This  membrane  secretee  a  viscid 
flnid  termed  mucna,  which  protecta  it  fVom 
the  acrimony  of  the  urine  with  which  it  would 
otherwise  be  in  contact. — The  secretion  of 
the  mine  is  performed  by  the  kidneys,  which 
are  constantly  active,  without  any  apparent 


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BLADDER 

idtenuttion  of  action  and  repose,  bIUidii^ 
within  a  given  perii>d  they  do  more  work 
at  one  time  than  another.  The  urine  thna 
secreted  dribbles  jnceasanily  alonj;  the  nre- 
tera,  and  drops  into  the  bladder,  where  it  ao- 
cnmnlatea  nntil  the  walls  are  distended,  and  a 
general  nneasj  sensation  is  produced  which 
calls  for  an  evacnation  of  the  contents. — Con- 
genita] malformations  of  the  bladder  are  not 
nafreqnent.  Sometimes  it  is  altogether  want- 
ing; and  in  such  oases  the  ureters  emiity  into 
the  rectnm,  as  into  the  cloaca  of  biros,  or  at 
the  pobes,  or  directly  into  the  arethro.  A  still 
more  freqaent  malformation  ia  that  in  whioh, 
the  lower  portions  of  the  recti  mosclcs  b^g 
imperfeot,  and  tbe  anterior  wall  of  the  bladder 
deficient,  the  posterior  wall  ia  protrnded  and 
forms  a  red  fongna-lika  tomor  above  tiie  pnbee. 
The  tnmor  presents  two  orifices,  which  are  the 
moatha  of  the  nreter^fl-om  which  the  nrine 
constantly  dribbles.  Blasius  deacribes  a  case 
tn  which  the  bladder  was  donble.  Molinetti, 
it  is  eud,  found  in  a  female  sabjoct  five  kid- 
neys, Sve  nreters,  and  five  bladders. — Inflam- 
mation may  aSeot  tbe  coats  of  the  bladder 
singly  or  together.  When  the  mncocs  mem- 
brane is  influned,  there  is  a  sense  of  irritation 
and  a  constant  desire  to  discharge  the  contents. 
DIoera,  gaoKrenons  spots,  and  indnrations  of 
Tariona  kiaaa  may  be  produced  by  inflamma- 
tion. The  secretion  of  tlie  mucous  membrane 
may  be  increased  or  altered,  oonstitnting  what 
is  termed  catarrh  of  the  bladder.  The  mncons 
membrane  ia  sometimes  found  in  a  varicose 
state.  In  other  coses  it  gives  origin  to  cysts 
of  different  kinds,  and  fnngons  growths;  the 
latter  occnr  mostly  In  old  people.  Yarions  ac- 
cidents and  diseases  may  prevent  the  bladder 
from  eTacnatin^  its  contenta,  tn  which  case  it 
becomes  eioeaaiTely  distended,  and  unless  re- 
lieved inflammation  eosaes,  a  portion  mortifles, 
through  which  the  nrina  escapee  into  the  al>- 
domen,  and  speedy  death  Is  the  result.  After 
three  days'  retention  the  bladder  usually  at- 
tuns  its  atmost  limits  of  dist«ntion,  and  if  not 
relieved  the  contents  are  evacuated  in  small 
qoantities,  as  they  woold  be  in  a  oaae  of  mere 
incontinence  of  urine ;  and  it  is  of  great  im- 
portance therefore  not  to  miatake  retention  &>r 
inoontinenoe  where  there  is  this  point  of  simi- 
larity in  their  respective  symptoms.  When 
there  is  danger  in  delay,  and  a  catheter  cannot 
be  introduced,  the  bladder  may  be  punctured, 
either  through  the  perineum  or  the  rectum,  or 
above  the  pubes,  as  it  is  not  covered  by  the 
peritoneum  in  theee  re^ons. — Where  urinary 
calculi  exift  in  the  bladder,  they  are  removed 
by  surgical  operations.  When  email,  they  may 
be  extracted  through  the  urethra  by  a  ptur  of 
forceps  invented  for  the  purpose;  when  large, 
they  may  sometimaa  be  reduced  Into  sniall 
pieoes,  minute  enough  to  pass  away  with  the 
nrine ;  and  where  this  is  not  practicable,  they 
may  be  removed  by  cutting  into  the  bladder. — 
In  the  whole  class  of  birds  there  are  no  urinary 
bladders:  the  ureters  descend  from  th« kidneys 
96  VOL.  IL— 44 


BLAHTTILLE  687 

and  open  into  the  cloaca,  a  musonlo-memhnt* 
nous  bag,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  rectum, 
the  uterus,  and  the  bladder  of  the  higher  ani< 
mals,  and  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  sohd  eicre- 
ment,  for  urine,  and  fbr  eggs.  In  tltese  ani- 
mals the  nrine  dilnt«s  the  feces  and  forms  the 
oarbcHiate  of  lime  or  bard  substance  of  the  shell. 
The  urinary  bladder  exists  in  several  genera 
and  speciee  of  fishes. 

BLADEir,  a  S.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bounded  S.  E.  by  South  river,  and  IntMaected 
by  the  Cape  Fear;  area,  about  800  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  18T0,  18,881,  of  whom  tt,103  wen  col- 
ored. The  surface  ia  generally  level,  and  diver- 
sified by  a  number  <^  small  lakes.  Much  of 
the  land  is  occupied  by  extensive  pine  forests. 
The  chief  productions  in  18T0  were  66,e8S 
bushels  of  Lkdian  com,  08,128  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 14S  bales  of  ooti«n,  and  88,18^  lbs.  of 
rice.  There  were  478  horses,  2,880  ndloh  cows, 
4,700  other  oattie,  4,898  sheep,  and  11,686 
swine.    Capital,  Eliiabethtown. 

BLABERSBDKfi,  a  town  of  Prince  Oeorge'a 
county,  Uaryland,  on  the  east  branch  of  tiie 
Potomac,  about  S  m.  X.  E.  of  Washington ;  pop. 
in  1870,  410.  At  the  bridge  over  tbe  Potomac 
W.  of  Bladeoabnrg,  tbe  battle  with  the  Eng- 
lish preoedins  tbe  coptore  of  Waahington  by 
Cookbum  and  Roaa  took  p1ao&  Aug.  24. 1814. 

BUGDBI,  Sir  OariH,  an  En^ish  diemist, 
bora  April  17,  1748,  died  at  Arcueil,  France, 
March  2S,  1820,  He  was  for  many  years  a 
phyeioian  in  the  army,  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Sir  Joseph  Banka  and  Henry  Cavendish, 
travelled  extensively,  and  passed  much  of  hia 
later  life  in  France.    He  contributed  many  pa- 

Ci  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions  "  on 
t,  oongelation,  ancient  inks,  &o. 

HiiSOTHIWrCHENBK,  a  towu  of  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia, capital  of  the  province  of  the  Amoor,  situ- 
ated on  tbe  Amoor  and  the  Dzega,  not  far  from 
the  Chinese  town  of  Aigoon;  pop.  in  1867, 
8,107.    It  waa  fbnnded  in  18S8. 

BUnE.  L  E^mtUi,  an  American  sold)«-, 
bom  in  1741,  died  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  in  March, 
1804.  Be  entered  the  army  as  a  colonel  at  the 
commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war,  and 
was  snbsequently  made  commissary  general. 
He  was  with  Washington  in  many  of  the  most 
trying  scenes  of  the  revolution,  and  enjoyed 
his  entire  confidence.  During  the  "  dark  win- 
ter" at  Valley  Forge  the  preservation  of  the 
army  from  starratioa  waa  largely  due  to  him. 
IL  JoMM  Mt^il'i    See  supplement. 

lUranUJ^  Bml  Mirit  DHrMay  it,  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Arqnea,  near  Dieppe  in 
Normandy,  Sept  IB,  1777,  died  in  Pana,  May 
1,1850.  In  17B4  or  1795  he  entered  the  school 
ofde8ignatRoneii,andin  1 7B6  entered  aa  a  pu- 
lil  the  studio  of  Vino^t,  the  historical  painter. 
le  soon  began  to  frequent  the  lectures  on 
natural  history  at  the  jardin  des  plantee  and 
at  the  college  de  France,  beoame  one  of  the 
mo«t  diligent  disciples  of  Onvier,  and  finally 
devoted  ul  Us  time  to  the  study  of  human 
aiubnny,  obtuning  the  degree  of  M.  B.  in 


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1808.  Boring  some  yean,  in  ooiic«rt  with  the 
Oerman  n&tiiraliirt  Oppel,  he  gave  great  atten- 
tion to  the  stadf  of  reptUea  and  to  10701087. 
He  also  became  an  agaistont  to  Cuvier.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  E0OI0S7 
in  the  faoultj  of  soienoea  in  1812,  when  he 
prDdac«d  his  celebrated  thesis  on  the  orcitho- 
rhTDcbns.  Is  1826  De  Blainville  was  elected 
saecesBor  to  Lac^pMe  as  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  BdenceB,  At  the  death  of  Lamarck, 
Deo.  18,  182B,  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
the  jardin  des  ptautes  was  divided  into  several 
profeaaorshipa,  and  De  Blainville  was  appointed 
to  the  department  of  mollaeoa,  eoOphytea,  and 
wormsi  and  in  1862  he  sncoeeded  Onvier  in 
the  ohur  of  comparative  anatomy.  He  con- 
tinued the  work  of  Cnvier  on  the  foaaiLi  of 
extinct  roeciea ;  hut  while  the  latter  lud  only 
consulted  the  akeletons  of  Uvin^  species  as  a 
means  of  comparison  with  fossil  species,  De 
Blunviile  attempted  to  treat  the  osteology  of 
all  types  of  or^nism,  living  as  well  as  extinct, 
nnder  the  title  of  Oitiographie,  ou  deteriptitm 
iemofrt^higu^  eomparet  du  tqu»leiU  et  du  tyt- 
time  dentaira  da  citg  eltute*  d'animauj)  ter- 
tibrit  rietnt*  et  fouue».  He  died,  however, 
before  the  completion  of  the  work.  In  his 
Prodrome  Wwnt  noutelU  dutribation  miHto- 
diqvt  du  rigne  animal  (Paris,  1816),  be  pointed 
ont  several  modiflcationa  in  the  olaseification 
of  animals  which  have  since  been  generally 
accepted.  In  hia  Dietiimnaire  d'kUfoire  Tiaba- 
relle  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  on 
worms,  wnioh  marks  an  epoch  in  the  progress 
of  that  branch  of  acience.  He  alao  published 
a  work  entitled  Fauna  franfaiu  (Paris,  1821, 
18S0),  Maimtldtmalaeologieet  de  eonchyUolo- 
gie  (Strasburg,  182C-'T),  Couu  de  phytiolo(n» 
ginirale  et  eomparie,  pro/eui  d  la  /aculti  det 
teiencei  de  Parit  (1888),  and  Eiitoire  da  tet- 
ena»  nalurelUt  au  moyen  Age  ^mtb,  1845). 
In  the  classification  of  animals  De  Blainville 
was  of  opinion  that  the  external  form  should 
be  the  leading  characteristic  in  formius  groups 
and  families  of  allied  species;  while  omer  naC- 
nralista  maintain  that  the  internal  stmctnre  is 
of  more  importance  in  pointing  oat  affinities 
and  similarities. 

BLUB,  a  S.  central  connty  of  Pennsylvania, 
drained  by  Clover  creek,  the  Little  Jnniata, 
and  one  of  its  branches ;  area,  SSO  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8a,0GI.  The  sarfaoe  is  very  mgged, 
and  neariy  half  of  the  land  is  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. The  Alleghany  mountains  fonn 
the  weateni  boundary;  Dunnlng's  and  Bruah 
mountuns  traverse  the  interior;  and  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  connty  rises  Tussey's  moun- 
ttun.  Between  these  ridses  lie  fertile  and 
highly  ooltivatcd  volleys.  Bituminous  coal  and 
iron  are  found.  The  Pennsylvania  Central 
rulrood  and  branohea  and  the  Pennsylvania 
canal  traTerse  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  260,819  bnshels  of  wheat, 
64,B3B  of  rye,  889,029  of  Indian  com,  2fl6,S48 
of  oats,  20,077  tons  of  hay,  end  204,879  lbs.  of 
bntt«r.    There  were  4,822  horses,  4,342  milch 


oowB,  6,006  other  oattie,  8,872  abe^  and  6,761 
Bwine.    Capital,  Hollidoysborg. 

BUn.  1.  madaPniiM,  an  American  joQT- 
nalist,  bom  at  Abingdon,  V*.,  April  12,  1781, 
died  Oct.  IS,  1B76.  He  was  edooated  at 
Transylvania  nniversity,  Kentucky,  and  studied 
law,  but  never  practised.  He  earl;  took  part 
in  politics,  and  m  1824  supported  Henry  Ch?; 
for  the  presidency,  but  dissented  from  bis  views, 
especially  in  relation  to  the  United  States  hank. 
Wnen  in  1S2B  the  nullification  movement  was 
developed  in  South  Carolina,  Mr.  Blair  publish- 
ed an  article  agunst  it  in  a  Kentacky  news- 
papci',  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Gen. 
Jackson,  who  invited  the  writer  to  become  the 
editor  of  the  "Globe,"  a  democratic  jonmsl 
aboat  to  be  established  in  Washington.  The 
jonmal  was  commenced  in  November,  1830, 
and  became  the  organ  of  the  successive  demo- 
cratic administrations,  Ur.  Blair  retaining  the 
control  of  it  till  1B4S,  when  Preddent  Folk 
thonght  it  necessary  for  the  hannony  of  the 
party  that  the  oi«an  should  be  placed  in  other 
hands,  offering  Mr.  Blair  the  pciitioii  of  minis- 
ter to  Spain,  which  was  dedined.  He  then 
retired  to  his  estate  of  Silver  Springs,  Uont- 
gomery  connty,  Md.  In  1848  ne  withdrew 
from  tiie  regular  democratio  party,  and  sup- 
ported Mr.  Von  Buren  for  the  premdencv. 
After  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise 
be  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  republican  party.  IL  HntgMcry,  son  of 
the  preceding,  bom  in  Franklin  connty,  Ey., 
May  10,  1818.  He  was  educated  at  West 
Point,  graduating  in  I88fi,  and  served  in  the 
Seminole  war.  In  1886  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  army,  and  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  law  in  St  Louis ;  was  appointed 
United  States  district  attorney  for  Missouri  in 
18S9;  and  from  1848  to  1849  wasajudgettf' 
the  court  of  common  pleas.  In  1862  he  re- 
moved to  Maryland,  and  in  1666  wasappointed 
Bolidtor  of  the  United  States  in  the  court  of 
claims.  Previous  to  the  repeal  of  the  Miseoori 
compromise  he  had  been  a  democrat;  afler- 
ward  he  became  a  member  of  the  republican 

Eftrty,  and  was  in  consequence  removed  from 
is  office  by  Preaident  Buchanan  in  1668.  In 
1867  he  acted  as  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in 
the  Drad  Scott  case.  In  1860  he  predded 
over  the  repnblican  convention  of  Maryland, 
and  in  1661  woa  appt^nted  by  Preddent  Un- 
coln  postmaster  general,  which  post  he  held 
tin  1804.  He  has  dnce  acted  with  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  repnblioao  party.  I(L  Frawk  Vnh 
Um,  jr.,  brother  of  the  preoeding,  bom  at  Lei- 
inrton,  Ky.,  Feb.  19,  1821,  died  in  SL  Lonis, 
JiUy  8,  18TS.  He  graduated  at  the  college  of 
New  Jersey  in  1841,  and  b^an  the  practice  of 
law  in  St.  Louis.  In  1846  he  made  a  jonmey 
for  hia   health  to  the  Rooky  nonntaina  in 


broke  oat,  he  entered  the  army  as  a  private 
and  served  till  1647,  when  he  retumed  to  St, 
Loois  and  resamed  hia  pntfeaaioa.     bi  1818 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAIR 

heBttaohedliiiiuelfto  tlie  free-soil  brsnoh  of  the 
deraooratio  partf,  aapporting  Hr.  Van  Boreo 
for  the  prenaeR07,  pablScly  opposed  the  extea- 
fflon  of  alaTet?  into  the  temtoriee,  «iid  for  a 
time  was  editor  of  the  "HisBoari  Democrat." 
In  IBSS,  and  again  in  18H,  he  v/u  elected  to 
the  ]M(istatare  of  Uissonri.  In  1856  he  was 
eleoted  a  member  of  oongresa  aa  a  repablioan, 
and  made  a  speeoh  in  favor  of  oolonmng  the 
oolored  popnlation  of  the  TToited  States  in  Oen- 
b-al  America.  At  the  next  congreenonal  eleo- 
tbnhiademocratio  opponent  was  returned,  and 
Ur.  Blair  oontested  the  seat.  He  was  again 
elected  to  congreas  in  1800  and  ISaS.  He  en- 
tered the  army  as  oolonel  of  volonteers  in  1881, 
and  was  appointed  brigadier  guieral  Aug.  7 
and  m^or  general  Nov.  29,  18B2,  resigning  his 
seat  in  eongreaa  in  1868.  He  commanded  a 
diriuon  during  the  Vicksbnrg  campaign,  and  in 
1864--'6  the  17th  corps  in  the  armj  of  the  Ten- 
nessee in  Bbennan  s  oampEugns  from  Ohatta- 
nooga  to  Adanta,  in  the  march  to  the  sea,  and  in 
tiie  Oarotinas.  In  1668  he  was  appointed  col- 
lector of  customs  at  8t  Louis,  and  oommiBsion- 
er  of  the  Faoi£o  railroad.  Becoming  dissatis- 
fied with  the  polic}'  of  the  administration,  he 
retnmed  to  the  democratic  party,  and  in  1868 
was  its  candidate  for  the  office  of  vice  presi- 
dent. In  1870  he  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  from  Ifissoari  to  fill  a  vacaaoy,  his 
term  expiring  Uarch  4,  187S. 

MLUdf  Hi^f  a  Scottish  divine  and  aothor, 
bom  in  Edinbni^h,  April  7,  1718,  died  there, 
Dec.  27,  1800.  £i  1759  he  delivered  a  course 
of  lectnres  on  rhetoric  and  t)elles-lettree,  which 
were  so  well  received  that  the  king  was  in- 
duced to  eatabliah  a  professorship  of  rhetoric 
and  polite  literatore  at  the  nniversi^  of  Edin- 
bargn,  and  to  appoint  Dr.  Blair  its  Srgt  profos- 
Bor.  In  1T63  he  published  a  dissertation  on 
the  autbeaticity  of  Macpheraoa's  "  Ossian," 
and  in  1777  the  first  volume  of  his  sermons, 
subsequently  followed  by  four  others.  In 
1763  his  lectures  were  published  in  8  vols.  8vo. 

BLUE,  Jaace,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergyman 
and  teacher,  bom  in  Scotland  in  16^6,  died  in 
Virginia,  Ang.  8,  1746.  He  was  educat«d  in 
one  of  the  Scottish  oniversities,  took  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  chnrch  in  Scotland,  removed  to 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  and  in  1685  was  sent  by  Dr.  Oomp- 
ton,  bishop  of  London,  as  misBionary  to  Vir- 
ginia. In  1680  he  was  appointed  ecclesiastical 
commissary,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  officer  in 
the  province.  Here  he  devoted  his  ener^es  to 
tiie  founding  of  a  college,  and  having  obtained 
the  approval  of  the  colonial  gpvemment  crossed 
the  ocean  t«  ask  for  help  in  England  and  secure 
a  charter.  This  was  granted  in  1693,  and  Dr. 
Blair  was  made  first  preddent  of  William  and 
Haxy  college.  Through  his  energy  the  new 
institntion  survived  various  trials  and  disoour- 
agements,  especially  the  destmction  by  fire  of 
the  colle^  building  in  1705.  He  was  for  some 
time  president  of  Uie  council  of  the  colony  and 
rector  of  •Williamsburg.    In  1722  he  published 


BLAKE  689 

"  Our  Savionr's  IMvine  SermoD  on  the  Moimt 
expluned  and  recommended  in  divers  Sermons 
and  Discourses  "  (4  vols.  8vo).  These  disconr- 
ses  were  afterward  repnbliuied  with  a  com> 
mandatory  prefiwe  by  Dr.  Waterland  (1740). 

BLiU,  JtbB,  a  Scottish  chronologist  and 
geogrspber,  bom  in  Edinburg)^  died  June  24, 
1782.  He  early  removed  to  London,  and  in 
1764pablished  his  " Clhronological  History  of 
the  World,  from  the  Creation  to  A.  D.  1768." 
He  received  several  eoclesiaatical  preferments, 
was  appointed  in  1757  chapldn  to  the  prin> 
cess  dowager  of  Walea,  and  in  1768  was  select- 
ed to  accompany  the  duke  of  York  on  a  tour 
to  the  continent 

BUJK,  Bekeit,  a  Scottish  poet,  horn  in  Edin- 
buTKh  in  1699,  died  Feb.  4,  1743.  He  was 
mitoster  of  Atbelstaneford,  East  Lothian,  from 
1781  tillhisdeath.  Hispoemof  "TheOrave," 
in  blank  verse,  which  appeared  after  his  death 
(London,  1747),  was  highly  praised  by  Campbell, 

BLUBSnUi^  a  p<wt  borongh  of  Indiana 
county,  Penn.,  situated  on  the  Oonemaugh  river 
and  Pennsylvania  canal,  SB  m.  E.  of  Pittsburgh, 
and  abont  8  m.  from  the  Central  railroad, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  branch ;  pop. 
in  1670,  1,054.  It  is  the  diippmg  point  of 
nearly  all  the  grtun,  pork,  Inmber,  and  coal  ex> 
ported  from  the  county.  There  is  a  handsome 
Dridge  across  the  Oonemangh,  yriHi  a  riugte 
arch  of  295  ft. 

BLiKE,  GcMse  aaUk,  an  American  naval 
officer,  bom  in  Worcester,  Maaa.,  in  1803,  died 
at  Lottgwood,  Mass.,  June  24,  1871.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1818,  be- 
came lieutenant  in  1827,  and  in  1846  obtained 
command  of  the  10-gun  brig  Perry,  which  was 
wrecked  in  a  hnrricane  upon  the  coast  of  Flor- 
ida. In  1847  he  was  promoted  to  commander, 
in  which  grade  he  was  attached  for  some  time 
to  the  bureau  of  construction  and  equipment. 
He  also  served  as  fleet  captain  and  commander 
of  the  razee  Independence  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean for  three  years.  In  1B55  he  was  pro- 
moted to  captain,  and  in  18CT  was  ordered 
as  Buperintendent  of  the  TTnited  Statue  naval 
academy,  which  position  he  held  during  the 
civil  war,  the  academy  being  removed  from 
Annapolis,  Ud.,  to  Newport,  R.  I.  On  the 
reorganization  of  the  navy  in  July,  I86S,  Cqtt. 
Blake  was  promoted  to  commodore;  and  in 
1800-'9  he  was  lighthooae  inspector. 

BLIXE,  J*U  liuls,  D,  D,,  an  Americas  au- 
thor and  clergyman,  bom  at  Korthwood,  N, 
H.,  Dec.  21,  1788,  died  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  July 
6,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  Brown  univer- 
sity, graduating  in  1612,  and  in  1818  he  was 
licensed  by  the  Rhode  Island  association  of 
CoDgn^tional  ministers,  bnt  soon  alter  joined 
the  Episcopal  church,  and  organized  the  parish 
of  StPaul'satPawtnoket.  In  1820  he  retum- 
ed  to  New  Hampshire,  and,  taking  temporarv 
supervision  of  the  churches  in  Concord  and 
Hopkinton,  eatablished  at  the  fbrmer  place  a 
yonng  ladies'  seminary,  which  in  1822  he  re- 
moved to  Boston.    He  oontinned  in  this  school 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


till  18S0,  having  oh&rge  also  of  St.  Uatthew'B 
ohnrch  in  Boston  tnoat  of  the  time.  Sabse- 
qnentlj,  be  was  «ditor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Lite- 
rary AdvertUer  "  and  the  "  Gospel  AdTOcate." 
In  1814  he  pnbliBhed  a  "Text  Book  of 
Geographj  and  Chronology,"  which  passed 
through  HTeral  editions.  la  188&  appeared 
his  "Bjographioal  Dictionary,"  of  whiab  a  sec- 
ond edition  was  published  in  ISGfl  (1  toI.  large 
8to),  He  waa  the  writer  or  compiler  of  nearly 
SO  difierent  works,  at  which  the  greater  part 
were  text  boots  for  schools.  There  were  also 
two  or  three  volomes  on  roral  ecoaomy,  the 
"  Family  Oyclopfedia,"  "Letters  on  0<aiflTma- 
tion,"  a  volome  on  prayer,  eennona  and  ad- 
dreeees,  &c 

RUKE,  Brtot,  an  English  admiral,  bom  at 
Bridgewater,  Somersetshire,  in  Aiwust,  169B, 
(U6doffPlrmonth,Aiig.lT,lfl67.  Hewasthe 
eldest  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  Orford.  Althongh  attached  to  the 
principles  of  the  Paritaiis  and  theoretically  a 
repnblioan,  he  took  no  active  part  in  politics, 
bnt  in  1G40  was  returned  to  parliament  for 
BridKewater,  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  he  raised  forces  in  Somersetshire,  and  op- 
erated Bg^st  the  royalists  In  the  western  coun- 
ties. In  1048  he  commanded  a  fort  at  Bristol 
during  the  siege  of  that  city,  and  having  been 
appointed  governor  of  Taunton,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  successful  defence  of  that  place 
In  ld45  against  a  superior  force.  In  1649, 
afler  the  execution  of  the  king,  the  navy  under 
Prince  Rapert,  which  hod  continued  loyal,  had 
Aill  control  of  the  seas.  At  this  juncture 
Blake  was  appointed  to  the  oonunand  of  a 
squadron,  with  the  title  of  "  general  of  the 
sea,"  and  blockaded  Prince  Rupert  in  the  har- 
bor of  Kinsale  for  several  months.  The  prince, 
having  broken  through  the  blockading  line 
with  a  loss  of  three  ships,  proceeded  to  the 
Tagus,  whither  he  was  soon  followed  by  Blake, 
who  by  seizing  a  large  number  of  richly  laden 
Portuguese  ships  compelled  the  king  of  For- 
tngot,  who  favored  Rupert,  to  ezpel  him.  The 
two  squadrons  met  off  Malaga  in  January,  1851, 
when  the  royal  fleet,  except  two  ships,  was  de- 
stroyed. Upon  returning  home  Blake  receiv- 
ed the  thanks  of  parliament  fbr  these  exploits, 
(lad  was  made  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 
He  subseqnenUy  took  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 
the  Scilly  islands  from  the  royalists,  again 
received  the  thanks  of  parliament,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  In 
March,  1S52,  in  anticipation  of  a  war  with 
Holland,  Blake  was  appointed  sole  admiral, 
and  on  May  19,  16SS,  fought  a  battle  in  Dover 
roads  with  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Admiral  Tan 
Tromp,  which  was  terminated  only  by  night, 
when  the  Batch  withdrew,  with  the  loes  of 
two  ships  and  SO  guns.  He  agwn  met  the 
enemy  under  De  Witt  on  Sept.  S8,  and  cap- 
tured the  Dut«h  flag  ship  and  three  others. 
Subsequently  Blake  divided  his  fleet  into  sev- 
eral squadrons,  rettuning  himself  only  ST  ships, 
and  was  attacked  near  the  Goodwin  Sands, 


Nov.  39,  by  Van  Tromp,  at  the  head  of  twice 
that  number.  The  battle,  during  which  Blake 
was  wounded,  was  stubbornly  contested,  and 
at  night  the  Enalish,  having  destroyed  (mo 
of  the  enemy's  snips  and  disabled  two  oth- 
ers, and  lost  six  of  their  own,  retired  to  the 
Thames.  This  success  so  elated  Van  Tromp 
that  he  staled  through  the  channel  with  brooms 
at  his  mast-heads.  The  English  immediatelj 
strengthened  th^  fleet,  and  embarked  two 
re^ments  of  infantry  as  marines;  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, IMS,  Blake  put  to  sea  with  over  70 
vessels.  On  the  18th  he  intercepted  Van 
Tromp,  with  Y6  ships  of  war,  convoying  a  fleet 
of  800  merchantmen,  off  Portland  ialtmd,  and 
immediately  attacked  him.  A  mnning  fight 
was  maint^ed  for  three  days,  when  the 
Dutch  found  reftige  In  the  shallow  water  of 
their  own  coast,  having  lost  11  ships  of  war, 
with  3,000  men  killed  and  1,600  prisaneni, 
besides  60  of  tiheir  merchantmen.  Blake  lost 
bnt  one  ship;  his  stain  were  about  2,000. 
When  Cromwell  dissolved  the  long  parliament 
and  assumed  absolute  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, Blake  gave  bis  support  to  the  protector, 
and  kept  his  men  flrm  in  tlieir  duty  to  the  d* 
faeto  government,  saying  to  his  officers,  "It  is 
not  our  business  to  mind  state  afiUra,  bnt  to 
keep  foreigners  from  tbolingus."  He  sat  in  the 
first  two  parliaments  smnmoned  by  OromwelL 
On  June  8  and  4,  1668,  be  fought  again  with 
the  Dntch,  driving  them,  with  the  loss  of  20 
ships,  to  their  own  shore.  After  this  Blake 
WHS  obliged  by  ill  health  to  leave  the  sea,  and 
was  not  present  at  the  battle  (end  of  Jnly) 
which  closed  tbe  war.  In  November,  16&4,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  head  of 
a  strongfleet,  to  exact  reparation  for  iinnries 
done  to  British  commerce  during  the  civil  war. 
So  great  was  bis  reputation  that  the  duke  of 
Tnsoany  and  the  knights  of  Malta  at  onoe  made 
compensation,  and  Algiers  and  Tripoli  submit- 
ted to  his  t«rms.  Timis,  which  resisted,  was 
compelled  to  conclude  a  peace.  Upon  the 
bresking  out  of  war  with  Spain  in  16S6,  he 
was  sent  to  blockade  the  bay  of  Oadii,  and  od 
April  20, 1667,  he  out  out  from  nnder  the  gnus 
ofSantaOruz,in  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  afle«t 
of  Spanish  galleons  laden  with  mlver,  defended 
by  a  strong  naval  force.  This  was  perhaps  tbe 
greatest  of  bis  achievements.  He  died  of  sonr- 
Tj  while  entering  Plymouth  sound  on  his  re- 
tnm.  The  career  of  Blake  was  remarkable^ 
Without  experience  in  war,  he  distingniahed 
himself  as  a  commander ;  without  truiuns  at 
sea,  he  became  at  once  tbe  foremost  adminJ  of 
his  time.  As  a  man  he  was  of  a  binnt  and 
fearless  temper,  and  distingnished  for  strslght- 
forwardnen  and  honesty  of  character. 

BLIKB,  Winiaa,  an  Engfish  artist  and  poet, 
bom  in  London,  Nov.  38, 1767,  died  there,  Ang. 
13,  1637.  He  was  the  son  of  a  hosier,  and  »t 
tbe  age  of  14  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver, 
and  when  31  began  to  make  engravings  for  tbe 
booksellers.  Be  also  succeedea  now  and  thai 
in  finding  a  purchaser  for  a  drawing.'  He  had 


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BLAKE 

vritt«ii  poems  fram  cfaUdbood,  and  in  1761  pub- 
lished a  little  TcQome  of  TO  pages,  which  was 
with  ft  uDgle  ezoeptioa  tlie  ooIt  book  of  hia  ever 
printed  re^al&rl7  daring  hia  lifetime ;  it  met 
with  no  snocesB.  At  2S  he  married  O&tharine 
Boncber.  Though  ahe  oonid  not  read  nor  write 
at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  she  had  grace  and 
talent,  and  was  able  to  enter  into  the  tastee  and 
fancies  of  her  bnaband,  and  in  time  became  a 
akilfol  artist.  Their  mdon,  which  lasted  46 
jeoTB,  thongb  cbildlesa,  waa  one  of  nnotaal 
happiness.  In  17S8,  having  oonceiyed  the  idea 
of  printJDg  and  illostrating  hia  own  poems,  be 
inrented,  or  as  be  believed  was  spiritnally 
taught,  the  waj  to  do  thia.  TJpoa  a  plate  of 
copper  the  words  and  designs  were  drawn  with 
vamiah,  and  the  parts  not  thus  protected  were 
eaten  away  with  an  acid,  leaving  the  lett«ra 
and  lines  m  relief  as  in  a  stereotTped  pa«e. 
Impressions  were  taken  ftom  this,  at  first  by 
rnbbinK,  afterward  by  a  common  prmting  preas. 
For  ink  be  naed  the  oommon  colors  of  the 
sbopi^  which  be  gronnd  fine  and  mixed  with 
diluted  glue.  The  ink  was  applied  to  the  block 
bj  means  of  a  broshjaa  has  alwaTs  been  done 
by  the  Ohinese.  The  words  were  nsnally 
printed  in  red,  the  design  and  ornaments  in 
the  color  which  be  wished  to  form  the  tone  of 
the  picture,  blne^green,  or  yellow,  usually  a 
mellow  brown.  The  pictures  were  sometimes 
sold  in  that  shape,  and  sometimes  tinted  bke 
the  ori^bal  drawings.  His  wife  worked  oS  the 
impressions,  aided  her  buBband  In  tinting  them, 
and  bonnd  the  sets  in  thin  volumes.  A  part 
of  the  proeeea,  which  was  kept  a  secret,  was, 
be  believed,  revealed  to  him  by  hia  deceased 
brother,  tbe  remainder  by  Joeeph  of  Nazareth. 
The  prodnotion  of  these  illostrated  poems  was 
for  40  years  Blake's  chief  source  of  income, 
althongn  be  painted  many  pictures  (those  now 
extant,  with  his  drawings,  numbering  not  less 
tban  600)  and  executed  almost  innumerable  en- 
gravings. The  first  series  was  "  The  Songs  of 
Innocence,"  containing  27  pages  about  7  inches 
by  6.  The  price  of  a  tinted  set  was  20  guineas ; 
the  few  perfect  copies  now  extant  are  of  price- 
less valne.  The  "  Inventions  for  the  Book  of 
Job,"  somewhat  larger,  executed  toward  tbe 
close  of  his  life,  are  as  a  whole  the  most  strik- 
ing and  characteristio  of  bis  works.  Among 
o^ers  are  tbe  "Books  of  Prophedes,"  "Gates 
of  Faradise,"  "  Urizen,"  and  "  Visions  of  tbe 
Daughters  of  Albion  and  America,"  the  words 
and  illustrations  beii^  alike  mystical  and  ob- 
scure, though  marked  with  great  vigor.  His 
income  was  always  email ;  but  tbe  oommon 
assertion  that  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life  be 
lived  in  a  garret  and  upon  cmsta  of  bread  is 
without  fonndatdon.  He  spent  all  bis  life,  ex- 
cepting foor  years,  in  London,  where  be  al- 
ways bad  comfortable  apartments  in  a  respect- 
able street;  waa  decently  dressed,  and  rather 
fond  of  the  delicacies  of  tbe  table,  which  hia 
wife,  who  was  an  excellent  cook,  was  able  to 
prodooe  within  the  Umita  of  tb«r  means.  He 
waa  never  in  debt ;  and  when  he  died,  attbon^ 


he  left  UtQe  money,  his  pictures  and  illustrated 
poems,  sold  from  time  to  time,  brought  enongli 
to  maintain  bis  widow  in  comfort  during  ^ 
four  years  that  ahe  survived  him.  Though 
little  appreciated  during  bis  life,  and  almost  for- 
gotten for  a  generation  after  bis  death,  it  is 
now  agreed  that  in  force  and  originality  Eng- 
land bas  not  produced  bis  superior.  Some  of 
his  poems,  although  foulty  in  rhyme  and  rhythm, 
are  exceedingly  tender  and  graceful ;  otbera 
are  so  weird  and  mystical  as  apparently  to  jus- 
tly the  belief  of  his  contemporaries  that  he  waa 
half  mad.  He  had  vimous  from,  childhood  to 
old  age,  and  whatever  he  imagined  was  to  him 
as  real  as  though  it  actually  ezistod.  He  was 
thus  familiar  with  primeval  E^ypt  and  As- 
syria, where  he  saw  statues  of  wbicb  the  noblest 
Kmniens  of  Greek  art  were  only  feeble  copies, 
could  call  up  almost  at  will  the  shades  of 
the  dead,  and  from  them  draw  portraits  as  if 
they  were  before  him  iu  tbe  fiesh.  Many  of 
these  portr^ts  remun.  Borne  are  strikingly 
characteristic  of  tbe  personages ;  others,  like 
" The  Uan  who  bnilt  the  Pyramids"  and  "The 
Ohost  of  a  Flea,"  are  grotescine ;  and  others^ 
like  "Nebuchadnezzar  Eating  Grass,"  are 
almost  terrible.  Yet  be  possessed,  rather  than 
waa  possessed  by,  bis  visions.  He  knew  that 
their  reality  was  different  from  that  of  the 
aotualworld,  "  Wberedld  youseetbatr'some 
one  inquired  ren)ectingone  of  his  vi^ons,  wbich 
he  baa  been  describing  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
"Eere,"was  the  reply,  touching  his  forehead. 
Hewrote,  "I  assert  f<n' myself  dat  I  do  not  be- 
hold the  outward  creation,  and  that  it  is  bin- 
drano&  not  action.  'Whatl'itwillbequestion- 
ed, '  when  tbe  sun  rises,  do  yon  not  see  a  round 
disk  of  fire  somewhat  like  a  guinea!'  Oh  I  no, 
no  I  I  see  an  innumerable  company  of  the  heav- 
enly host  crying,  'Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the 
Lord  Ood  Almighty.'  I  question  not  my  cor- 
poreal eye  any  more  tban  I  would  question  a 
window  concerning  a  mght.  I  look  through 
it,  and  not  with  it"  Blake  retained  his  fao- 
nltiea  to  the  last  Just  before  his  deatb  be  lay 
softly  nnging.  His  wife  stopped  t«  listen. 
Looking  upon  her,  now  a  mled  woman  of 
almost  70  years,  be  said  affectionately, ."My 
beloved,  they  are  not  mine ;  no,  they  are  not 
mine."  These  seem  to  have  been  his  last 
words.  The  popular  life  of  Blake  by  Allan 
Onnningham  in  hls  "British  Pinters  and 
Bcolptors,"  IS  often  inaoonrate.  The  life  by 
Alexander  Gilchrist  (2  vols.,  London,  1668) 
contains  nearly  all  of  his  poems,  and  exact  fao- 
umiles  of  many  of  bis  works,  but  without  the 
coloring.  FJazman  said  of  him,  "Tbe  time 
will  come  when  tbe  finest  of  Blake's  derigna 
will  be  as  much  sought  for  and  treaanred  up  as 
those  of  Michel  Angelo." 

BUIHiT,  JahHtsB,  an  offloer  of  the  United 
States  navy,  bom  in  Ireland  in  October,  1781, 
lost  at  sea  in  1614.  His  parents  settled  in 
North  Carolina  while  he  was  very  yomig. 
He  was  educated  in  tbe  aiiiverntT  <^  tbi^ 
state,  entered  tbe  navy  in  1800,  and  in  1811 


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693  BIAE£Y 

oommanded  as  lieateoEuit  the  brig  EnterpriBe, 
omising  apon  llie  eastern  cobsL  In  the  same 
jear  he  was  promoMd  to  the  rank  of  master 
commandant  and  appointed  to  the  new  Bioop 
Wasp,  in  which  he  sailed  from  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  on  a  cruise,  May  1,  1814.  On  June  B8,  in 
lat  48°  86'  N.,  Ion.  11^  IB'  W.,  he  fell  in  with 
and  captured,  after  a  severe  engagement,  the 
British  sloop  Reindeer.  The  danger  of  reca^- 
tnre  heing  great,  Oapt  Blakolj  deatrofed  his 
prize  and  pot  intA  Lorient  with  his  prieonera. 
YoT  this  exploit  congress  voted  him  a  gold 
medal.  The -Wasp  eiuled  from  Lorient  Aug. 
BT  on  another  oniise,  and  made  several  osp- 
tores,  oae  a  vessel  laden  witli  gons  and  military 
stores,  whioh  was  out  ont  of  a  convoy  In  charge 
of  a  line-of-battle  ship.  On  the  evening  of 
6ept.  I  he  captured    the  Avon,  and  snbae- 

anently  took  several  other  prizes  and  destroyed 
lem.  On  SepL  91  he  csptored  the  brig  Ata- 
lanta  and  sent  her  to  Savannah  with  a  prize 
crew.  On  Oot.  B  the  Waap  was  spoken  by  a 
Swedish  brig,  hnt  was  never  heard  from  again. 
SUJjrr,  Eabert,  an  Enslish  metaphysician 
and  anthor,  born  at  Morpeth,  Northomberlond, 
in  1795.  He  published  in  1839  "The  Free- 
dom of  the  Divine  and  Human  WtUs,"  and  his 
reputation  was  increased  in  1883  by  his  "  His- 
tory of  Moral  Science,"  which  has  been  adopted 
as  a  text  book  in  several  American  colleges. 
In  1684  he  published  an  "Essay  on  L<^c,"  and 
in  188S  was  appointed  professor  of  lo^o  and 
metaphysicsinQneen's  college,  Belfast;  bat  the 
state  of  his  health  disabled  liim  from  teaching. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Philoso- 
phy of  Mind"  a  vols.,  1848;  new  ©d.,  18B0). 
The  degree  of  Ph.  B.  was  conferred  on  him 
by  ti)e  nnivernty  of  Jena.  Among  bis  other 
worka  are  "lives  of  the  Primitive  Fathers" 
(1843),  "Temporal  Benefits  of  Christianity" 
(184B),  "  Historion!  Sketeh  of  Logic  "  (1861), 
and  "History  of  Political  Literatore  "  (S  vols., 
1866  et  Mf.).  He  has  also  published  several 
volumes  on  angling  and  sportmg  topics. 

■use.  L  Jeu  JMtpk  LmIi,  a  French  politi- 
cal and  lustoriool  writer,  bom  in  Madrid,  where 
his  father  was  inspector  general  of  flQanoe  nn- 
der  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Oct.  Ji8,  1818.  His 
mother  was  a  Gormoan,  and  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  Poizo  dl  Boi^.  He  was  educated 
for  the  diplomatic  service;  but  his  father  lost 
his  fortune  in  the  revoluHon  of  1880,  and  in 
1883  the  son  became  tutor  to  a  private  family 
at  Arras,  Removing  to  Paris  in  1884,  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Bon  Srnit,  a  periodical  of 
oondderable  influence.  He  left  it  in  1888,  and 
established  Za  Betrue  dv  Progrii,  to  promote 
the  combination  of  the  democratic  associations, 
and  to  ftirther  the  cause  of  political  reform. 
A  treatise  on  the  "Organization  of  Labor," 
first  published  in  this  Jonmal,  appeared  sepa- 
rately in  1840,  and  gave  bim  a  pontion  as  one 
of  the  ablest  writers  of  the  socialistic  sohooL 
He  maintained  that  industry  ought  to  be  con- 
ducted not  for  individaal  profit,  bnt  for  the 
benefit  of  the  oonunnnity,  each  person  oon- 


BLAKO 

tnhnting  to  the  common  stock  according  to  hte 
capabilitiea,  and  receiving  from  it  oooordii^  to 
his  wants,  under  the  supervision  of  the  govem- 
ment.  This  work  was  followed  soon  after  by 
his  ffiitcirt  de  dix  am,  in  whioh  the  political 
incidents  of  the  period  from  1880  to  1840 
1  described  with  remarkable  animation  and 
sagacity,  and  the  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  and 
the  ministers  of  the  hottrgeouU  was  criticised 
with  scathing  partisan  liwic.  The  first  two 
volnmes  of  his  equally  bruliant  Hutoire  d»  la 
ritoluHon  franfaUe  (completed  in  19  vola.  in 
1863)  appeared  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  in  bringing 
about  wh^ch  the  works  of  Loois  Blanc  were 

Srobably  more  infnential  than  thoee  of  any 
emocratio  writer  of  the  epoch.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  provisional  government,  and 
procured  the  adoption  of  a  decree  abolishing 
capital  punishment  for  political  offences.  He 
also  contended  for  the  creation  of  a  ministry 
of  progress,  and,  not  beinr  able  to  carry  that 
meaaare,  withdrew  from  the  government  bnt 
at  the  request  of  his  colleagnea  took  back  his 
resignation,  and  became  the  preadent  of  a  eom- 
mission  to  conmder  the  labor  question,  which 
held  its  sittings  at  the  Luxembourg  palace,  but 
accomplished  nothing.  He  was  accused  of 
being  implicated  in  Uie  insurrectionary  move- 
ments of  May  and  June,  and  on  the  night  cf 
Aug.  2S  his  prosecution  was  authorized  oy  the 
constituent  assembly,  of  which  he  had  been 
elected  a  member.  He  escaped  to  En^and, 
where  he  remained  in  voluntary  exile  until  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  HI.  He  then  returned 
to  France,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  natimal 
assembly  (18T1),  and  aotod  with  the  radical  par- 
ty, though  he  held  himself  aloof  from  the  oaia- 
mune.  Among  his  publications  written  in  exile 
are  Fanet  d'Kittoxrt  de  la  rfxobUion  A»  Fivritr 
(18G0),  SHilationt  hiitorifuei  C18S9),  and 
SitUiire  de  la  rivolutiim  de  1848  (3  vols.,  1870), 
all  chiefly  devoted  to  the  defence  of  his  own 
course  in  the  February  revolution,  and  Ltttra 
MM-  VAngUtm-ra  (2  vols.,  1886).  In  1849-'61 
he  also  edited  and  almost  entirely  wrote  U» 
JTt)u«Muifim<20,amonth]yjoumal  (Paris).  H 
Aigisto  UatMtn  Chaita,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, bom  at  Castres,  Nov.  17,  1815.  Be  ob- 
tained distinction  as  an  engraver  and  art  critic, 
and  was  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  fine 
arts  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  from  1848 
to  1862.  In  1846  hepublished  the  first  volume 
of  L'ffutoire  det  peintree  franfaU  aa  XIX. 
liieU,  which  has  never  been  finished.  Tith 
the  assistance  of  eminent  writers  he  has  ixn- 
tinued  the  publication  of  Armengaud's  illus- 
trated Bittoire  dee  peintree  de  t«vie*  le*  JmIm 
(184S'-'60),  and  is  the  sole  anthor  of  its  bicg- 
raphiea  tk  French  and  I>ntoh  paintera.  HM 
otiier  works  Include  Le*  peintra  dee  fHn 
galantet  (18SS);  Le  trieor  de  la  eurioiiti  (9 
vols.,  1867-'8) ;  Z'oumv  eompUt  de  Beoibrmdl 
(i  vols.,  I8eB-'63) ;  and  Orammaire  det  artt 
du  dcMMt  (18S7).  He  became  editor-in-chief 
of  the  OautU  det  JSeavx  Arte,  finuided  in  1869 


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BLANO 

racceeded  Ooimt  ValeweM  in  1668  u  &  member 
of  the  ooadetn;  of  fine  arts,  and  in  1860  de- 
livered leotareB  in  Switzerland. 

BLAHC,  Ia  ft  town  of  France,  department  of 
Indre,  on  the  river  Crenee,  88  m.  8.  W.  of 
Ch&teauronx;  pof.  in  I8fl8,  6,323.  It  conttdna 
some  cloth  mannfaotoriea  and  bleaching  works. 
It  was  formerly  Btronglf  fortified,  having  a 
wall  fianked  bj  towers  and  three  forte,  of 
which  onlj  vestiffes  retnatn.  There  is  a  hand- 
some ohnToh  of  uie  13th  centnry,  dedicated  to 
St  Oinitom-. 

■tiUt^  WmL    See  Mont  Blaitq. 

BUninUUI,  MIe,  a  French  naturallBt,  bom 
in  Paris,  Htfch  6, 1820.  He  studied  zodlogy, 
anatomy,  phyriolc^y,  and  entomology,  was 
eariy  connected  wiui  the  mosenm  of  natoral 
history,  and  danified  its  entomolo^oal  oolleo- 
tion  (3  vols.,  1850-'6I).  Since  1888  he  has 
been  professor  and  cnrator  of  that  institntion. 
He  snoceeded  Isidore  Qeoffh>y-Baint-Ei]aire  as 
a  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1801, 
and  has  contributed  many  valuable  papers  to 
ite  annals.  His  prindpal  works  inclnde  Stt- 
ehtrehti  lur  rorganuaticn  det  vtn  (Paris, 
1887) ;  JTutotTB  dei  inttctet,  traitanl  de  Uun 
miminttde  Iwirtmitamorphctuenghiiral,  &o. 
(S  vols.,  1 848-'6 ;  English  transbtion  by  Duncan, 
"Transformation  of  Insects,"  London,  1870); 
La  tcoiogU  agrioole  (4to,  with  iilnstrations, 
\9M*t*eq.);  and  OrganiMtion  da  rigru  ani- 
mal (86  numbers,  4to,  1861-'4). 

BLUfCHlU^  FHnfils,  a  French  aSronant,  bom 
at  Andelys  in  1788,  died  in  Paris,  March  1, 1809. 
In  his  youth  he  spent  his  time  in  trying  to  make 
flying  machines,  and  after  the  invention  of  the 
balloon  in  1788  became  greatly  interested  in 
that  contrivance.  He  constmcted  a  balloon 
with  wings  and  a  rudder,  in  which  ho  ascend- 
ed in  Maroh^  1784.  On  Jan.  7, 1780,  he  cross- 
ed the  Britiui  chaimel  from  Dover  to  Oalfds,  for 
which  Louis  XYL  rewarded  hlin  with  a  g^  of 
13,000  francs  and  a  life  pension  of  1,300  ^ancs. 
He  invented  a  parachnte  to  break  the  fall  in 
case  of  accident,  and  first  need  it  in  London  in 
1786-  He  went  through  varions  parts  of  En- 
rope,  and  in  1796  made  a  virit  to  New  Tork, 
displaying  everywhere  bis  aSronaatic  sMlL  In 
1798  he  ascended  from  Ronen  with  16  persons 
in  a  iarge  balloon,  and  descended  at  a  place  16 
miles  distant  In  1806,  while  making  nis  66th 
asoent,  at  the  Hague,  he  had  an  apoplectic 
stroke,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  in 
the  snceeeding  year. — His  wife,  Uabu  Madk- 
iiiim  SoPBiB  AsMANT,  continued  to  make  a6- 
rialToyaffes;  bntin  June,  1819,  having  ascend- 
ed from  tne  Tivoli  garden  in  Paris,  her  balloon, 
illuminated  with  fireworks,  took  fire  at  a  con- 
siderable height,  and  she  was  dashed  to  pieces. 


French  painter,  bom  at  Gnillotitee,  Feb.  37, 
1806.  He  studied  under  Ohaseelat  and  Oros, 
and  eabseqaentlymade  extended  tonrs  in  Bp^n, 
nortfaem  Africa,  Mexico,  Germany,  and  Bne- 
sia,  the  fruits  of  which  Have  appeared  in  a  se- 
riea  of  piotnres  illnstrating  the  habits,  history, 


BLAlfOHE  OF  BOUEBON       698 

and  natoral  features  of  those  ooimtries.  He 
has  also  produced  numerous  deugns  for  illns- 
trated  periodicals,  and  is  the  author  ot  an  ilhis- 
trated  and  descriptive  account  of  a  jonmey 
from  Paris  to  Constantinople. 

BUKCHIKD,  Lnui,  an  English  writer,  bom 
at  Great  Yarmouth,  May  IS,  180S,  died  in  Lou- 
don, Feb.  16,  1346.  Jn  13S1  ho  became  act- 
ing editor  of  the  "  New  Monthly  Magazine," 
condacted  by  Bnlwer,  and  from  that  time  for- 
ward was  a  most  prolific  oontribntor  to  the 
periodical  press.  The  insanity  of  his  wife  and 
the  failnre  of  his  own  health  preyed  npon  bis 
mind,  and  soon  after  his  trife's  death  he  com- 
mitted suicide.  He  was  higlily  esteemed  by  the 
many  literar;  men  with  whom  he  associated. 
His  "  Essays  and  Sketches,"  collected  from  va- 
rious periodicals,  were  published  fbr  the  benefit 
of  his  orphans,  in  S  volumes,  with  a  biogr^hy 
by  Lord  Lytton. 

BLUCHAKD,  nsHM,  an  American  mechanio 
and  inventor,  bom  at  Sntton,  Worcester  oo., 
Mass.,  June  34,  1788,  died  in  Boston,  April  16, 
1804.  While  engaged  with  his  brother  In 
making  tacks  by  hand,  he  conceived  the  idea 
of  inventing  a  machine  for  the  purpose.  He 
wss  then  only  18  years  old,  and  it  was  nz 
years  before  the  invention  was  perfected.  H- 
nally,  so  efiective  was  the  machine,  that  by 
placing  in  the  hopper  the  iron  to  be  worko^ 
and  applying  the  motive  power,  600  tacks  were 
mode  per  minute,  with  better  finish  than  had 
ever  been  attained  before.  Soon  ailer  com- 
pleting this  task  he  undertook  to  invent  a  ma- 
chine for  turning  gun  barrels  thronghout  tiieir 
entire  length  by  one  self-directing  operation, 
and  accranplished  it  with  entire  snccess.  It 
not  only  cuts  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  bar- 
rel, bat  the  flattened  portion  as  well  without 
tiie  Intervention  of  hand  work.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  invention  of  a  lathe  for  turning 
gun  stocks  and  other  irregular  forms,  which 
came  into  general  use  at  once.  Mr.  Blancbard 
was  also  interested  at  an  early  day  in  the  con- 
stmotion  of  railroads  and  locomotives,  and  of 
steamboats  so  contrived  as  to  ascend  rapids  of 
oonaderable  force.  He  invented  a  steam  wagoa 
before  any  railroad  had  ever  been  laid.  He  took 
out  -ap-wexi  of  25  patents  during  his  lifetime^ 
from  some  of  which  he  derived  con^derabl« 
profit.  His  lost  years  he  spent  in  Boston  in 
the  business  of  bending  heavy  tirabera  to  any 
desired  form  by  a  process  of  his  own  invention. 


1311,  died  in  8 
began  Ufe  as  a  lawyer,  and  about  1846  devo- 
ted himself  to  literature,  prodnclng  otxnedies, 
dramas,  and  novels,  and  eiuting  the  Ilhutrerad 
TidniTtf.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Swedish 
diet  ill  which  he  was  noted-for  eloqnenoe  and 
zeal  for  reform.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  in  1868. 

BUNCHE  OF  KWBBOir,  queen  of  Castile, 
horn  In  France  about  1888,  died  in  Spain  in 
ISei.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  at  the  age  of  IC  was  betrothed 


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694        BLA^OHE  OF  OASTILE 

to  Pedro,  king  of  Castile,  afterward  called 
the  Oniel.  The  king  consented  to  the  esponsal 
from  poliUoal  coDdderations,  bat  all  his  affec- 
tion was  bestowed  apoo  Htuia  de  Padilla.  His 
natural  brother  Don  Federico  having  been  sent 
to  meet  the  princess  at  Narbonne,  it  was  pre- 
tended that  the  two  were  engaged  in  an  in- 
trigne;  and  tbongh  the  king  married  Blanche 
the  next  da^,  he  did  not  conceal  hie  repng- 
nance,  and  speedily  left  her  for  the  society  of 
hia  miBtreas.  She  then  accepted  the  protectjon 
of  the  king's  brothers,  who  were  canang  some 
political  mstorbanae  in  Oaattle.  The  king  de- 
clared the  marriage  told  and  ordered  her  to  be 
kept  prisoner  at  the  Aloazar  of  Toledo.  She 
escaped  &om  the  guards  in  the  citj  of  Toledo^ 
and  taking  refuge  in  the  cathedral,  aronsed  the 
Bjmpathj  of  the  people  bj  her  cries,  her  per- 
sonal beanty,  end  her  helpless  condition.  They 
attempted  to  protect  her,  but  the  city  was 
taken  by  assault,  and  the  i^aeen  was  sent  to 
the  castle  of  Medina  Sidonia,  where  she  died 
of  poison  administered  to  her  by  order  of  Pedro. 
To  avenge  her  wrongs  was  cme  of  the  principal 
iuOButiyes  of  the  men  who  a  few  years  later 
engaged  in  the  war  against  Pedro,  and  her 
atory  formed  the  SQbject  of  many  of  the  Spanish 
ballads  of  that  and  later  ages. 

nJNIfflB  OF  CABIILE,  queen  of  France,  bom 
abont  1187,  died  Deo.  1,  1263,  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Oastile,  by 
Eleonora  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry  II. 
By  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  1200,  be- 
tween King  John  and  Philip  Angustna,  it  was 
agreed  that  Blanche  should  marry  Lonis,  heir 
apparent  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  the  mar- 
riage took  place  in  the  begiiming  of  the  fol- 
lowing year.  In  pohtical  ^airs  she  gave  evi- 
dence of  ability.  In  1316,  when  her  hnaband 
was  invited  to  accept  the  crown  of  England 
by  the  lords  confederated  agunst  John,  she 
insisted  upon  his  acceding  to  their  offer,  and 
Beat  him  money  and  reinforcements.  The 
death  of  John,  however,  put  an  end  to  these 
attempts,  and  the  lords  returned  to  their  a1- 
lepance  under  his  son.  On  the  death  of  Philip 
AugtutuB  and  the  accession  of  her  husband  to 
the  throne  as  Lonis  YIII.,  she  was  more  than 
ever  his  inspiring  genius.  She  accompanied 
him  in  his  second  crusade  against  the  Albi- 


Renses,  and  on  his  death  assumed  the 
dnring  the  minority  of  their  son  Louis 
formidable  league  had    been  formed  in  the 


rMfenoy 


north  of  Prance,  claiming  the  regency  for 
Toong  Philip  Knrepel,  a  aon  of  Philip  Angustna 
by  Agnee  de  MSranie.  The  qneon  opposed  it 
most  vigorously,  and  sDoceedcd,  after  a  strug- 
gle of  nearly  four  years,  in  defeating  the  con- 
federates. Meanwhile  she  had  secured  to  the 
orown  the  rich  inheritance  of  the  counts  of 
TouloDse,  by  a  treaty  agned  at  Paris  in  1339 ; 
ahe  then  forced  to  aubmisaon  the  duke  of 
Brittany,  and  helped  her  friend  the  coont  of 
Ohampane  in  taxing  possession  of  the  king- 
dom of  Kavarre.  She  snperintended  the  oper- 
ations of  the  army  and  government  in  person, 


a 


BLAND 

and  exhibited  the  highest  degree  of  abiUty  and 
promptnea.  In  1284  she  married  her  son, 
then  19  years  old,  to  Marguerite  of  ProveucCL 
who  was  bnt  12.  When,  in  1386,  she  redgned 
her  power  into  the  hands  of  Lonis  IX.,  tho 
kingdom  was  in  a  flocriBhing  condition,  and 
had  received  many  imfiortant  territorial  acces- 
sions. The  young  king  retained  her  near  bim 
as  his  best  adviser,  bnt  engaged  in  his  cmaade 
to  the  Holy  Land  in  opposition  to  her  wishes. 
AAer  his  departure  she  resumed  the  dntiea  of 
recent,  and  displayed  her  wonted  ability  among 
the  new  difficolties  which  she  had  to  en- 
counter. She  was  forced  continually  to  send 
money  and  forces  to  her  son  to  aid  in  his  ill- 
omened  enterprise;  and  when  he  and  his 
brothers  were  defeated  and  made  prisoners  in 
it,  she  was  obliged  to  raise  a  laige  ransom 
leir  release.  This  neoesdtated  heavy  taxes, 
and  the  country  was  drained  of  its  reaonrcefc 
In  the  midst  of  these  difficulties  Blanche  had 
to  meet  the  revolt  of  the  pattovTea-ux,  which 
she  suppressed  with  a  firm  hand.  Notwilh- 
standing  her  embarrasamente  and  her  devoted 
piety,  she  withstood  the  encroachments  of  the 
ecclesiastical  power  with  great  spirit,  and  soo- 
cessfully  defended  the  prerogatives  of  the 
crown.  She  was  nnivereally  monmed  at  her 
death,  and  haa  always  been  regarded  aa  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  rulers  of  France. 

BUNCO,  a  S.  central  county  of  Texas,  wa- 
tered by  the  Pedcmales  and  San  Uaroos  riv- 
ers; area,  727  eq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,187,  of 
whom  44  were  colored.  The  surfkce  is  ohieflj 
prairie.  The  chief  productions  in  1S70  were 
1,SS1  bushels  of  wheat,  42,8S0  of  IniUan  com, 
3,216  of  sweet  potatoes,  28S  bales  of  cotton, 
and  6,178  lbs.  of  wool  There  were  2,074 
horses,  1,3S7  mitch  cowa,  9,455  other  cattle, 
S,29E  sheep,  and  4,194  swine.    Capital,  Blanco. 

BUNIK  a  8.  W.  county  of  Tirgmia,  border- 
ing on  West  Virginia;  area,  8S0sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,000,  of  whom  317  were  colored. 
The  snrface  is  mountainous.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  16,618  bushels  of  wheat, 
42,057  of  Indian  com,  S8,S92  of  oats,  and  1,8S3 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  963  horses,  l,10fi 
milch  cows,  1,861  other  cattle,  3,8BS  sheep, 
and  2,987  swine.     Capital,  Uechanicsburg. 

SLilD,  needwl^  an  American  patriot  mod 
soldier,  bom  in  Prince  George  county,  Va.,  in 
1743,  died  in  New  York,  Jane  1,  1790. 
Through  his  grandmother,  Jane  Rolfe,  he  waa 
fourth  in  descent  from  Pocahontas.  He  was 
educated  for  a  physician  at  Edinbm^i,  and 
practised  bis  profession  in  Virginia  tiU  the 
breaking  ont  of  the  revolutionary  war,  when 
he  enlisted  in  the  contest  and  bore  an  active 
part  tbronghouL  He  was  one  of  a  score  ot 
gentlemen  who  removed  from  Lord  Dnnmore'a 
palace  the  arms  and  ammunition  which  that 
nobleman  had  abstracted  ftom  the  public  ar- 
senal; and  soon  afterward  he  published  a  seriea 
of  bitterly  indignant  letters  against  the  gov- 
ernor, under  the  signature  of  "Cossioa."  He 
was  made  captain  of  the  first  troop  of  Virginia 


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BLAKSBATA 

CSTaliy,  bnt  when  mx  companies  were  enrolled 
became  lieDtenant  colonel,  with  which  rank 
he  joined  the  mtia  army  ia  1TT7.  "With  the 
exception  of  a  angle  term  in  the  senate  of  Vir- 
^a,  he  remained  in  militarj  service  to  the 
end  of  tlie  ^^  e^jojing  the  high  esteem  and 
ecmfidence  of  WaahingtMi,  who  freqnentl;  em- 
plojed  him  in  responsible  afiUrs.  Upon  the 
termination  of  the  etmg^e  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  general  congress,  which  then 
sat  at  Philadelphia,  and  ooatiiiiied  a  member 
till  178S.  Ho  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
convention  of  1788  to  ratify  the  federal  oon- 
stitDtion,  and  voted  against  that  instmment, 
bat  was  chosen  as  the  first  representative  to 
otMigress  nnder  iL  He  left  valnable  memorials 
of  uie  revolntionarT  period,  which  were  pnb- 
Bshed  in  1640  onder  the  title  of  "The  BUnd 
Pspers." 

BUntUTA,  OhkIs,  an  Italian  Unitarian,  boni 
in  the  marqoiiate  of  Saluzzo,  Piedmont,  aboat 
161S,  died  in  Ttansylvania  about  ISeo.  He  at 
flrat  practised  medicine  in  Favia,  bat  having 
onbraoed  anti-Trinitarian  dootrines  was  com- 

SUod  to  leave  Italy,  and  became  physician  to 
a  wife  of  King  Sigismnnd  Angastas  of  Po- 
land. Betnnting  to  Italy,  he  was  thrown  into 
priscoi,  bat  escaped  and  took  refoge  at  Geneva. 
finding  himself  nearly  as  obnoiioas  to  the 
Calvinists  as  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  he  re- 
tomed  to  Poland.  There,  ahhongh  Calvin 
warned  the  people  against  him,  he  acquired 
great  inflnence.  Prince  Badziwill  sent  him  as 
plenipotentiary  to  the  synod  of  I^cz6w  in 
IBfll.  Two  years  afler  this  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  beeome  phyucian  to  John  Sigis- 
mond,  prince  of  Transylvania.  Here  he  made 
many  converts,  inelnding  the  prince  and  court ; 
and  at  a  diet  held  in  1671  at  Haroa-Y6s&rhely, 
Unitarianism  was  legally  rect^ized  as  one  of 
the  reii^ons  of  the  Wd.  After  the  death  of 
John  Sigismnnd  he  was  phyncian  to  Stephen 
and  Ohristopher  B&tlion,  the  rank  of  privy 
oonndllor  being  conferred  upon  him  after  Ste- 
phen's aooesdon  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  in 
promoting  which  he  was  very  active.  Stephen 
was  not  favorable  to  his  doctrines,  and  it  is 
said  tiiai  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  his  in- 
terests with  the  king  he  gave  tbem  np.  At  all 
aventa  he  sncoeedea  in  aocunnlating  a  large 
fortune,  and  his  nephew  strangled  him  in  bed 
fbr  the  pnrpoee  of  seonring  it.  His  collected 
works,  in  Latin,  were  pablished  by  Henke 
(Helmat&dt,  1764). 

U^fiDR,  Omtrre  Ksrw  luU  FeUee,  an  Ital- 
ian composer,  bom  in  Torin,  Nov.  18, 1781,  died 
in  Paris  in  December,  1841,  He  displayed  re- 
markable mnsioal  talent  as  a  child,  and  his  flrst 
eompositions  date  (tom  his  14th  year.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  17^9,  and  was  for  several  rears  a 
SDcceesfol  composer  of  operas  there.  His  &me, 
however,  rests  chiefly  on  his  smaller  pieces, 
which  were  received  with  mach  favor,  eepe- 
dally  in  Germany,  where  he  officiated  for  some 
time  as  chwelmaster  at  the  ooart  of  tiie  king 
of  VPestpbalta.    He  retamed  to  Paris  in  1814, 


BLANQCI  695 

and  reodved  the  honorary  title  of  superinten- 
dent and  composer  of  mtwio  to  tJie  king.  His 
works  include  I7  operas. 

HiUKEirente.  I.  a  circle  in  the  daohy  of 
Brtmawiok,  Germany  ;  area,  188  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
abont  23,000.  The  sonthem  part,  bordering 
on  the  Hartz  moontaioB,  is  covered  with  for- 
ests, and  contains  valnable  iron  mines  and  mar- 
ble qnarries ;  the  northern  part  is  fertile  and 
well  oaltivated.  Until  the  12th  century  the 
district  wn«  known  aa  the  Hartingan ;  and  it 
was  sabjeot  to  tiie  counts  of  Blankenbarg  till 
1S90,  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Brunswick  on  the  deatli  of  the  last  of  the 
Blankenbarg  honse.  In  1690  it  was  ceded  to 
Lndwig  Rndolpfa  of  WolfenbOttel,  and  in  1707 
it  was  made  a  principality.  After  being  an 
independent  government  till  17S1,  it  agun 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Brunswick,  and 
remained  subject  to  that  duchy.  Il>  The  prin- 
dpal  town  of  the  circle,  situated  among  the 
Hsrtz  mountains,  14  m.  E.  of  the  summit  of 
tbe  Broeken,  on  a  small  stream  of  the  same 
name,  and  near  the  foot  of  a  picturesque  moun- 
tain called  the  Blankenstein ;  pop.  in  18T1, 
S,S28.  Near  by  is  the  palace  of  Luisenhnrg, 
which  contfuns  270  apartments  and  a  large 
collection  of  paintings ;  and  at  tlie  distance  of 
li  m.  are  the  mins  of  the  castle  of  Regenatein 
or  Reittstein,  hewn  in  part  from  solid  rook. 
In  1836  the  town  was  bweged  by  Wallenstein. 
During  the  seven  years'  war  the  court  of 
Brunswick  had  its  reeidenoe  here,  the  place 

E reserving  a  neutrality  which  was  respected 
J  all  parties.  Regenstein  was  taken  oy  the 
French  in  17B7,  but  retaken  by  the  PmsMana 
daring  the  next  year,  Lonis  XYIII.  redded 
at  Blankenbarg  from  1796  to  179S,  as  the 
count  de  Lille. 

BLUKHOF,  Ju  TeolH,  called  Jatt  Maat,  a 
Dutch  painter  of  marine  pieces,  bom  at  Alk- 
maar  in  1626,  died  in  1070.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Ossar  van  Everdingen,  and  also  stadied  in 
Rome.  HlH  pictnres  generally  represent  Italian 
ports  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
several  of  his  storm  sceDes  possese  much  merit. 
BLAHQDL  L  iiitm  AMphe,  a  French  polit- 
ical economist,  bom  in  Nice,  Nov.  20,  1788, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  28,  16S4.  His  father,  Jean 
Dominique,  was  a  deputy  to  the  national  con- 
vention, one  of  the  78  members  sent  to  prison 
on  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  (Jane  2, 1T9S),  and 
afterward  a  member  of  the  council  of  600.  *  The 
son  wss  originally  destined  to  the  atndy  of  medi- 
cine, bnt  having  become  acquainted  witb  Jean 
BaptisteSay  while  pursuing  his  Etndies  at  Paris, 
be  was  induced  to  devote  himself  to  political 
economy.  He  published  a  Eitmni  of  the  history 
of  commerce  and  Induatry  (1828),  and  this  was 
ftoon  followed  by  a  Prieii  iUmentairs  d'eeono- 
mU  politique,  and  several  minor  pablications. 
In  18S0  he  was  chosen  professor  in  the  special 
school  of  commerce,  where  his  leotores  on  the 
history  of  commerce  and  industrial  oiviliiation 
attracted  unosnal  attention.  When  Say  reth^ 
fr^  his  professorship  in  the  oonKTvatoire  del 


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696 


BLARNEY 


BLASPHEMY 


artt  et  vUtiert,  Blanqni  snoceeded  to  hia  place. 
In  1837''42  heissueabis  moBt important  work, 
UHiitoire  de  Vieonomig  poUtiqut  »n  Earope 
depuU  let  ancUnijutgti'd  notjtnirt  (5  vols.  8vo). 
In  1846-'8  Blanqni  was  a  member  of  tlie  cham- 
ber of  depaties  fWim  Bordeaux.  At  tbe  in- 
dnstrial  congress  at  Bmssels  in  1847,  his  dis- 
courses were  remarked  for  tbeir  vivacity  and 
learning.  He  viated  varioDS  coontries  of  Eu- 
rope for  the  pnrpoM  of  studjinr  their  condi- 
tion, and  embodied  the  results  m  his  books; 
and  in  16S1  be  famiahed  a  complete  acoonnt 
of  the  financial  aspects  of  London  for  the  acad- 
emy of  moral  and  political  adenoee,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  II.  Laals  Angute,  a  aocial- 
ifltic  revolutionist  and  conspirator,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  bom  in  Nice  in  180G.  In  ISSO, 
while  a  Btndent  of  law,  he  took  up  arms  ag^nst 
Charles  X.,  and  received  the  decoration  of  July. 
Tinder  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  he 
kept  up  a  constant  warfare  throngh  the  press 
on  the  existing  state  of  things,  and  became  one 
of  the  moat  active  propagators  of  the  dootrinea 
which  led  to  the  revolution  of  1B48.  In  1836 
be  was  arrested,  tried,  and  sentenced  to  one 
year's  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  200  trancs. 
A  few  months  later,  b^ng  suspected  of  oom- 
piicity  witlk  Fieschi,  he  waa  sent  to  prison  for 
two  years  and  fined  8,000  francs,  but  was 
amnestied  before  the  expiration  of  hie  term. 
As  soon  as  he  was  released,  he  renewed  his 
onslaught  upon  monarchical  government  and 
formed  an  organization  to  carry  his  ideas  into 
effect.  In  1889,  with  Barb^  and  others,  be 
attempted  an  insurrection,  which  was  speedily 
checked,  and  he  was  oondenmed  to  death,  but 
the  sentence  waa,  commuted  to  peroetual  im- 
prisonment. He  waa  released  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  immediately  organized  tbe 
revolutionary  "  Central  Eepnblioan  Sodety." 
He  led  in  the  attempt  on  May  16  to  overthrow 
the  constituent  assembly,  and  was  a  few  days 
lat«r  arrested  and  sentenced  to  ten  years'  im- 
prisonment. He  was  released  in  18G9,  but  was 
sentenced  ogun  to  four  years'  imprisonment  in 
January,  18S2.  He  appeared  again  as  one  of 
the  active  spirits  in  the  violent  agltationB  in 
favor  of  tbe  red  republic  which  onLninated  in 
the  Paris  commune  in  1871,  and  was  still  in 
1873  a  prisoner  of  state. 

ILUUTET,  a  village  of  Mnnster,  Ireland,  4  m. 
N,  "W.  of  Cork,  noted  for  its  castle,  built  by 
Oormick  UcOarty  in  1440.  This  stands  on  the 
N.  side  of  a  precipitonaridge  of  limestone  rook, 
rising  from  a  deep  valley,  and  part  of  its  base 
is  washed  by  a  small  river  called  the  Aw -Mar- 
tin. Near  it  are  the  famons  groves  of  Blarney. 
Of  the  original  fortress  there  remains  only  a 
la^e,  square,  massive  tower^  with  a  parapet 
breast  high ;  on  the  summit  is  the  famous 
atone,  which  is  sud  to  confer  on  the  person 
tismng  it  the  peenliar  property  of  saying  any- 
thing, by  way  of  coaxing,  compliment,  or  praise, 
most  agreeable  to  the  hearer.  From  the  virtue 
it  thns  commnnicates,  the  well  known  word 
blarney  is  derived.    The  actual  Blarney  stone 


BIbut  CuUa,  Cok. 

fteet  below  its  representative,  and  can  only  be 
kissed  by  a  person  held  over  tbe  parapet  by 
the  heels. 

BUSPHEHT  (Gr.  pXaefmja),  in  law,  has  been 
judicially  described  (20  Pidiering'B  Reporta, 
218)  as  "speaking  evil  of  the  Deity,  with  an 
impions  pnrpoBe  to  derogate  from  the  divine 
m^eety,  and  to  alienate  the  minds  of  others 
ftom  the  love  and  reverence  of  God.     It  ia 

Iinrposely  using  words  concerning  God  calcu- 
ated  and  designed  to  impair  and  destroy  the 
reverence,  respect,  and  confidence  due  to  him 
as  the  intelligent  creator,  governor,  and  judge 
of  the  world.  It  embraces  the  idea  of  deti«c- 
tiou  when  used  toward  the  Supreme  Being, 
as  calumny  nauatly  carries  the  same  idea  when 
applied  to  an  individual.  It  is  a  wilfiil  and 
malicious  attempt  to  lessen  men's  reverence 
of  Ood,  by  denying  his  existencB,  or  hie  at- 
tributes as  an  intelligent  creator,  governor,  and 
J'udge  of  men,  and  to  prevent  their  having  coD- 
denoe  in  bitn  as  such."  The  punishment  by 
tbe  Jewish  law  was  death.  Wherever  Ghria- 
tianity  is  tbe  prevailing  religion  of  a  country, 
whether  established  by  law  or  not,  blaai^einj 
ia  so  far  noticed  by  the  law  that  contamelions 
'eproaches  of  Jesus  Christ,  profane  and  malt- 


regarded  as  blasphemy  and  punished  aooord- 
ingly.  In  England  it  is  a  felony  at  the  com- 
mon law,  punishable  by  tine  and  imprisonment. 
In  the  early  legislation  of  the  American  colo- 
nies deatJi  was  denounced  as  the  pnolahment 
for  this  offence,  but  fine  or  imprisonment,  or 
both,  are  now  sabatituted.  It  has  sometimes 
been  argned  that  the  punishment  of  blasphemy 
by  the  state  is  inoonsistent  with  the  religious 
equality  and  freedom  which  are  a  part  of  the 
American  constitutional  law ;  but  tnis  dootrine 
has  not  obtuned  in  the  courts,  which  bsve 


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tlwaji  held  thst  one  who  malidoiulj  makes 
nae  of  langnage  oalcolatod  to  have  sn  evil  ef- 
fect in  sapping  the  foondatioiis  of  sooiety  and 
of  pablio  order,  maj  properlj  b«  ponishod  as 
an  offender  against  the  stat«.  But  a  f^  dis- 
ODSsion  in  a  decorous  maimer  of  auj  oontro- 
Tert«d  point  or  doctrine  of  religions  belief 
■tands  on  veiT'  different  ^nnd,  and  is  inno- 
cent; the  evil  motive  bemg  essential  to  this 
offbnce.  Profane  swearing  is  a  speeies  of 
blasphemj,  bnt  more  lightlj  pnnishea. 

msilNfi,  the  process  of  breaking  rooks  witii 
esplowve  oompoimdB.  It  is  employed  for  break- 
ing stone  from  qnarriee  for  building  purposes, 
for  removing  rooks  from  the  siufaoe  of  the 
earth,  tWim  the  beds  of  wataroonrsw,  and 
from  minds,  and  for  the  demolition  of  fortifi- 
cations, docks,  and  other  works.  It  fotlowB, 
tiierefoTC,  that  the  process  will  vary  consider- 
ably aecording  to  the  object  to  be  aocomplished, 
and  the  differences  in  the  material  to  be  aoted 
upon  as  to  hardness,  position,  and  mode  of 
s&atification.  Until  within  a  few  years  the 
iHdy  explosive  compound  nsed  in  blasting  was 
gunpowder.  It  is  not  known  when  this  agent 
was  first  used  for  this  parpose,  but  as  the  Obi- 
neae  were  acquainted  with  its  use  as  a  prqjeo- 
tlle  force  in  very  early  times,  it  is  not  improba- 
ble that  they  also  used  it  in  minhig  operations, 
which  were  carried  on  by  them  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  long  before  the  Ohristian  era.  In  Ea- 
rope  the  Germans  were  probably  the  first  to  em- 

Eloy  it  in  mining. — In  making  preparations  for 
lasting,  the  first  step  is  to  examine  the  rook  for 
the  purpose  of  determinmg  the  ^e,  location, 
and  form  of  the  cavity  for  the  explosive  mate- 
rial, ud  the  amount  of  the  latter  necessary  to 
overcome  the  resistance.  In  ordinary  blasting 
operations,  simple  drill  holes  are  usaally  fired, 
and  mar  be  so  placed  and  combined  in  groups 
as  to  effect  the  displaoemrat  of  great  masses  of 
rock;  but  in  large  operations  mines  an  ex- 
cavated for  the  introduction  of  the  explosive. 
In  either  case  one  of  the  prin<dpal  operations  is 
the  boring  or  drilling  of  the  rocL  DrUle  of 
various  forms  are  employed — short  and  light 
fbr  working  by  hand,  uirger  and  longer  when 
they  are  to  be  driven  with  a  sledge.  These 
driUs  are  made  by  flattening  the  end  of  a  steel 
bar,  and  drawing  it  to  a  blunt,  outwardly 
dured  edge,  which  should  be  from  one  eighth 
to  one  fourth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  di- 
ameter of  the  shaft.  The  included  angle  at  the 
«^  should  be  Irom  TO"  to  90°.  This  port  of 
the  drill  is  called  the  bit  Other  drills,  called 
Jnmpers,  ore  made  longer  and  of  a  different 
form,  and  are  intended  to  be  driven  by  the 
force  of  their  own  gravity.  The  Jumper  is 
made  of  a  bor  of  steel  or  Iron  from  B  to  8  ft. 
Itmg,  with  a  bulbous  enlargement  rather  nearer 
one  end  than  the  other.  The  bit,  which  is  of 
ateel,  has  osaaU;r  the  same  fbrm  as  !n  the  hand 
drill,  bnt  aometimea  has  two  cutting  edges, 
Armed  at  r^pbt  oiwles  with  each  other.  In 
wdng  the  jumper  irom  two  to  fbnr  men  are 
ampToyed,  who  simply  raise  it  to  the  proper 


height  and  let  It  fall,  giving  it  at  the  same  time 
a  sufficient  rotary  motion  to  canse  it  to  cut  a 
chip  from  a  bench  left  by  the  preoeding  stroke. 
The  hole  is  usually  commenced  with  one  end 
of  the  drill  and  finished  with  the  other.  Bome 
drills  which  are  propelled  by  their  own  weight 
ore  made  very  heavy  and  rused  by  steam 
power.  Other  drills,  the  most  notable  among 
which  are  the  Burleigh,  Ingersoll,  Wood,  Hotoh- 
kiss,  and  Gardner  (see  fioBiss),  are  mounted 
on  carriages  and  driven  by  steam  or  com- 
pressed ur,  which  is  delivered  by  raeans  of 
pipes  and  stout  hose  capable  of  soataining  a 

ereasure  of  from  60  to  80  lbs.  to  the  sqnare 
ich.  By  the  use  of  air  in  place  of  steam,  the 
drill  con  he  worked  in  chambers  where  the 
beat  and  mdstnre  produced  by  the  disohai^e 
of  steam  would  be  unendurable.  Revolving 
tools  worked  on  the  principle  of  augers,  with 
bits  of  various  forms  to  suit  the  tdna  of  work 
to  be  done,  may  be  advantageously  nsed  in 
soft  rook.  The  American  diamond  drill  is  a 
revolving  tool  which  is  driven  by  steam  or 
oompreesed  ur.  The  bit  is  armed  with  black 
diamonds,  which  ore  so  adjusted  as  to  cut  a 
fr«e  passage  for  the  drill  rod.  It  is  much  used 
in  deep  boring  for  ortesiui  wells  and  for  pros- 
pecting cool  and  other  mines,  bnt  is  swd  to  be 
also  well  adapted  to  boring  holes  for  blastmg. 
— Natural  fissures  in  the  rock  are  often  taken 
advantage  of  to  introduce  powder,  which  ia 
covered  with  dry  sand,  a  communication  h^ng 
retuned  by  means  of  a  fuse.  This  is  called  a 
sand  blast  For  breaking  down  the  huge  blocks 
of  native  copper  in  the  mines  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, no  other  known  method  bat  shaking 
them  by  the  sand  blast  would  be  effectual. 
Standing  upon  their  edges  in  the  v^ns,  and 
entirely  enclosed  in  solid  rock,  they  are  first 
nnoovered  along  one  of  their  ddes  by  exca- 
vating a  horizontal  drift  or  gallery.  Small 
cavities  are  then  made  behind  die  mass,  along 
ita  upper  edge,  by  repeated  blasts  in  the  tangled 
rock  and  copper.  As  these  cavities  are  enhu^ed, 
more  powder  is  introduced,  till,  if  the  moss 
bo  very  large,  several  hmidred  pounds  are 
spread  in  the  crevice  behind  it,  and  fired  at 
once ;  and  thus  it  is  flnoUy  thrown  over  into  the 
Open  space  preriously  excavated. — As  the  great 
labor  m  blasting  condsts  in  drilling  the  holee, 
which  after  all  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of 
powder,  varions  plans  have  been  devised  for 
enlai^:lng  the  cavity  at  the  bottom.  In  calcare- 
ous rock  this  has  l)een  effected  by  the  use  of 
acids,  which  dissolve  the  stone.  For  other 
rocks  a  very  ingemons  process  was  invented  by 
Mr.  A.  Stickney,  of  Ooncord^  N.  H.  After  the 
hole  (which  should  he  not  less  than  S  in.  In 
diameter)  is  bored  to  the  depth  of  G  or  6  ft., 
fragments  of  the  best  hard-wood  charcoal  are 
thrown  into  the  bottom  and  ignited.  A  blast 
is  then  blown  in  ft^nn  a  portable  bellows 
throngh  a  wrought-iron  tube,  to  which  is 
added  at  its  lower  extremity  a  tube  of  pla- 
tinnm  not  leas  than  a  foot  in  length  and  half  an 
inch  in  diameter.    The  lower  extremity  of  this 


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Is  closed,  but  Its  tddes  are  perforat«<l  vritb  nn- 
meroos  small  holes.  As  the  blast  oiroolates 
throogh  these  the  oharooal  bnms  vividly,  pro- 
dnoiDg  intense  heat  and  melting  awaj  the  sides 
of  the  cavity.  The  tnbes  must  be  frequaatly 
withdrawn  to  hook  oat  the  fragments  oi  cinder 
which  accmnnlate ;  and  as  the  raze  of  the 
chamber  incraasea  more  charcoal  is  continually 
dropped  into  the  hole  by  the  side  of  the  tubes, 
the  hole  being  left  open  for  the  escape  of  the 
gases.  In  the  coorse  of  a  few  hoars  the 
cavity  will  be  snffloiently  large  to  hold  20  or  80 
Iba.  fff  powder.  In  granido  roeks  the  effect  of 
this  operation  is  very  remarkable ;  the  ingredi- 
ents melt  down  into  a  Uqoid  slag,  and  if  a  backet 
of  cold  water  is  dashed  in  npon  the  highly 
heated  anrfaoe,  this  is  scaled  off  in  large  flakes 
by  the  sudden  chill,  and  by  the  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  the  high  steam  which  is  instantij  gen- 
erated. In  hard  silioioos  rocks,  as  the  firm 
sandstones  of  tiie  Shawangunk  range,  the  rock 
cmmbles  down  to  sand,  and  this  is  blown  ont 
of  the  hole  as  the  process  goes  on,  covering  the 
snrfbce  around.  In  calcareous  rocks  the  stone 
is  bamed  to  quiokUme,  and  a  large  cavity  is 
riqtldly  produced.  The  heat  generated  in  this 
operation  is  so  great,  that  wronght-iron  pipes 
have  been  melted  down  by  coming  into  too 
dose  a  contact  with  the  charcoal.  The  en- 
larged size  of  the  hole  at  the  bottom  is  par- 
ticvlarly  favorable  for  the  explosive  force  of  the 
powder  to  be  exerted  to  the  best  advantage. 
Huge  masses  of  rock  are  lifted  up,  and  cra^ 
of  great  extent  are  opened  to  a  depth  not 
reached  by  the  ordinary  method  of  blasting. 
These  cracks  afford  convenient  opportunities 
tor  the  use  of  the  sand  blast,  and  thus  very 
large  quantities  of  rock  are  broken  up  with 
comparatively  small  expense  for  drilling. — Fir- 
ing a  number  of  charges  simultaneously  by  the 
gaTvanio  battery  is  sometimes  adopted  with 
great  advantage,  where  lai^  bodies  are  to  be 
moved.  The  effect  produced  by  the  same 
quantity  of  piowder  is  mnch  great«r  than  if  the 
charges  were  separately  exploded.  The  same 
mode  of  firing  is  also  conveniently  applied  to 
blasting  under  water.  This  method  has  been 
said  to  have  been  flrst  practised  in  England  in 
.  1889,  by  Gen.  Pasley  in  removing  the  wreck 
of  the  Koyal  George,  and  by  Mr.  Alan  Steven- 
son in  submarine  rock  blasting.  Bat  in  vol. 
xii.  of  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  for 
1861,  is  a  letter  of  Dr.  Hare,  deaoribing  the 
operationa  of  Mr.  Mosea  Shaw,  who  bad  alnady 
applied  the  electrical  machine  to  this  purpose, 
and  then  by  advice  of  Dr.  Hare  was  making 
nse  of  the  galvanic  battery ;  and  in  vol.  xivl, 
of  the  same  Jonmal  (1884)  the  apparatus  is 
ftiUy  described,  with  drawings  which  show  that 
the  arrangement  was  essentially  the  same  with 
that  now  in  use.  In  1848  three  charges  of 
18,000  Iba  of  powder  were  fired  simultaneously 
by  this  means  at  Dover,  by  Mr.  WUliam  Onbitt 
A  chalk  cliff  400  feet  high  was  thrown  down 
with  little  report,  and  the  beach  was  oovered 
with  400,000  oablo  yards  of  ohalk  rook.    It  ia 


estimated  that  the  saving  to  the  Soatbeastem 
rMlway  company  in  tiiis  operation  over  the 
ordinary  process  was  not  less  than  £7,000. 
Very  sncceasful  blasting  waa  performed  at  the 
HoIyheadquarriesinEn^sndin  January,  1807, 
for  sQpplying  stone  fbr  Uie  breakwater  at  that 
place.  The  accompanying  diagram  (fig.  1) 
exhibits  the  ground  plui  of  the  gallenea  and 
retnm  chambers.  These  latter  were  placed  8 
ft.  below  the  level  of  the  ground  line  of  tlie 
face  of  the  quarry,  because  it  had  been  fonnd 
by  experience  that  if  tJiey  were  plaoed  above 
the  level,  a  wall  of  rook  wonld  be  left  standing, 
expenmve  to  remove.  The  method  of  estima- 
ting the  total  qnantities  of  powder  for  loading 
the  four  chambers  was  as  follows:  Ilie  cnbicu 
content  of  the  mass  to  be  dislodged  was  divided 


Fia.  1.— Orlgliul  Fte  of  B«ck,  SIO  ft.  kng.  IIS  ft.  Ugh. 

by  12,  the  minlmnm  number  of  cnbic  feet  per 
ton,  and  the  quotient  by  6,  it  being  estimated 
in  this  case  that  one  pound  of  powder  was  re- 

S[nired  to  dislodge  five  tons  of  rook.  The 
ength  of  the  face  of  the  rock  being  810  ft,  its 
height  IIS  ft.,  and  the  horizontal  depth  to  be 
removed  40  ft.,  the  proper  quantity  of  powder 
was  therefore,  in  round  numbers,  10,000  Ibe. 
The  quantities  applicable  to  charges  No.  1,  2, 
8,  and  4,  the  hnes  of  least  reelstance  being  re- 
spectively 28,  26,  20,  and  2T  ft.,  were  4,200, 
4,600,  3,800,  and  5,000  lbs.  That  these  esti- 
mates were  very  nearly  oorrect  appears  from 
the  fttot  that  the  force  of  the  powder  was  main- 
ly expended  in  displacmg  and  breaking  np  the 
rock,  but  litUe  concnssion  of  air  being  produced. 
The  report  of  Ool.  Servante  of  the  royal  eiwi- 
neers,  who  was  sent  to  witness  the  explo- 
Mon,  says :  "  The  mass  was  qnietiy  overthrown 
down  to  the  level  of  the  quarry  ground  line, 
with  very  littie  noise,  and  scareeSy  a  stone  was 
thrown  into  the  air."  "Hie  qnanti^  of  rock 
detached  was  found  to  be  120,000  tons,  in 
blocks  of  from  8  to  40  tons,  avers^ng  1^  tons 
of  stone  to  one  pound  of  powder.  The  opem- 
tions  were  conducted  by  Mr.  0.  G.  Beitheuner, 
the  engineer  employed  by  the  Messrs.  Rigby, 
the  proprietors  of  the  gnarry.  The  galleries 
and  shaft  were  tamped  witb  cla;,  and  the 
tamping  was  extended  through  the  entrance 
gallenr  to  the  surface  of  the  rock.  The  do- 
Bcription  of  the  operations  performed  in  the 
demolition  of  the  Russian  dooka  at  Sehaatopol 
by  the  English  and  French  enrinews,  which  is 
contained  in  vol.  vi.  of  the  "Frtrfbsriraal  F»- 

Skrs  of  the  Corps  of  Royal  En^oera"  of 
reat  Britain,  presents  interestiitg  examples 
of  blasting. — Tbe  choice  of  the  explodve  onn- 


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the  nstara  of  tho  vork  to 
performed.    In  qtunTing,  tfanpowd«r  of 
'  ui  preferred,  beoaoBe  it  la 


Eund  depends  npon 
performed.    In  i 
■low  igmM  _  ,  ^ 

derired  to  avoid  pnlvenution ;  bat  in  rimplr' 
cdeuing  awaj  material,  a  more  instantaneons 
•zploeiTe  ia  fonsd  to  be  more  effeotual.  Qim- 
oottOQWoansed  in  Europe  to  some  extent  soon 
after  its  disooTerj,  bat  has  nerer  been  employed 
fai  tmj  important  work  in  this  ooontrj,  except 
as  an  experiment.  Sltro-glfoerine,  or  some 
prepsratdon  of  it,  aa  giant  powder,  ie  the  com- 
ponnd  now  relied  apon  when  rapiditj  and  an 
approach  to  accorao?  of  recnlt  are  deored ;  and 
it  IB  generally  preferred  when  the  disengaging 
of  aiir&ce  portionB  of  rook  ia  the  immediate 
ol^eot.  It  often  happena  in  eome  idttutdonn, 
espeinallr  in  eionvaOngohamberg  under  water, 
wnere  it  ia  of  the  netfeat  importance  to  keep 
die  water  bed  aa  firm  and  intact  aa  possible, 
that  a  aeam;  ftnotare  of  rook  reqnires  the  nae 
of  an  exploriTO  which  wiU  expend  its  foroe  as 
mnoh  as  posMble  in  detaching  only  a  certain 
■nperfldal  mass,  npon  the  same  principle  that 
a  small  hammer,  propelled  with  a  sharp  qnick 
stroke,  is  better  adapted  to  drive  a  nsd  m  ao 
tmatabie  and  slight  bodj  than  a  heavy  one. 
When  ffonpowder  is  need,  the  holes  are  usnally 
drilled  deeper  than  for  nitro-glyoerine,  and  when 
praotioable  the  powder  is  poured  into  the  cavity 
instead  of  being  introdaoed  in  a  cartridge. 
Therefore  the  boles  are  drilled  in  a  downward 
directioD,  aa  nearly  perpendicular  as  the  coarse 
(^  lamination  and  ol^er  circumatanoee  will 
admiL  The  small  hand  drill  is  held  and  driven 
by  one  person,  and  after  each  stroke  it  is  tnmed 
soffiiuently  to  allow  of  a  chip  being  cut  from  a 
section  of  the  bottom.  The  degree  to  which 
this  tnming  is  done  at  each  stroke  is  a  matter 
of  oonsaqnenee,  aa  upon  it  depends  much  of  the 
rq>idit7  and  economy  of  the  operation.  When 
the  bottom  of  the  cavity  becomes  obatmcted, 
instmments  called  aorapers  or  dippers  are  nsed 
to  clear  it  out.  Some  of  these  tools  are  merely 
wires  bent  at  right  angles  at  one  end,  which  ia 
flattened  so  as  to  form  a  shelf  npon  which  the 
mbbiah  may  be  taken ;  but  the  flattened  end 
should  be  slightly  depressed  on  one  side,  so 
that  by  a  twisting  motion  the  shelf  or  pan 
may  be  made  to  pass  under.  A  worm  is  often 
formed  at  the  other  end  for  carrying  a  piece  of 
sponge  or  other  material  to  the  bottom  of  the 
oavi^  to  absorb  water.  It  is  Kenerally  advan- 
tageous to  ponr  water  into  tne  cavity  while 
dtwing  for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  rook, 
and  keeping  the  bit  from  heating.  It  often 
happens  that  water  percolates  into  the  cavity, 
ana  in  dther  case  some  contrivance  is  required 
to  oocosionaUy  remove  it.  When  the  hole  has 
reaohed  a  sumdent  depth  it  is  to  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  dried  with  the  scraper  and  a  piece 
of  sponge  or  cloth  attached  to  a  ttiok  or  to 
the  worm  at  one  end  of  the  scraper.  Then 
the  prmer  charge  of  powder  is  poured  in  and 
covered  with  a  tamping,  which  may  consist 
of  dry  sand,  brick  dust,  or  moist  day.  When 
dry  sand  is  used,  it  is  not  tamped  down,  bat 


brick  dost  or  day  is,  the  material  bdng  intro- 
duced in  small  qnantitiee  at  a  time,  and  ino- 
eesdvely  cranpacted  with  a  tamping  rod,  which 
is  dmply  a  straight  bar  of  oc^per,  brass,  or 
wood.  The  end  of  a  fuse,  wtuch  is  made  of 
gutta-percha  cylinder,  impervioas  to  moistore, 
filled  with  a  miitore  of  gunpowder,  charcoal, 
and  nitre,  is  passed  into  the  nole  and  inserted 
in  the  body  of  the  cliarge  before  the  tamping 
material  is  introduced,  the  other  end  remuning 
oataide  and  being  of  a  sufficient  length  to  bum 
the  desired  time  before  producing  the  explo- 
sion. When  a  fbae  is  not  employ^  a  priming 
needle  made  of  copper  is  passed  down  one  aide 
of  the  hole,  with  the  pioint  extending  into  the 
powder.  It  has  a  tapering  form,  bo  that  its 
withdrawal  w!U  not  disturb  the  tamping,  which 
in  this  case  most  be  more  w  leas  damp.  When 
the  needle  is  withdrawn  the  oanal  ia  tilled  with 
fine  powder,  and  Ita  ignition  effected  with  a 
Blow  match.  When  the  cavity,  in  consequence 
of  jteroolation  from  sorronndiog  rock,  cannot  be 
dned,  the  powder  must  be  nsed  in  the  form  of 
a  cartridge,  the  case  of  which  is  made  of  tin  or 

filtobed  paper.  When  nitro-glycerine  ia  aaed, 
t  is  placed  in  cartridges  and  exploded  by 
means  of  some  kind  of  nilminate,  aa  fulminate 
of  meron^  or  chlorate  of  potash,  or  both  to- 
gether. The  fulminate  may  be  ignited  either 
by  a  fose  or  by  a  galvanic  battery.  The  use 
of  nitro-glyoerine  in  its  raw  state  being  consid- 
ered very  dan^eroas,  preparations  of  it  have 
been  made,  which  with  careful  handling  are  no 
more  haeu^oos  tiian  gunpowder.  Of  these, 
gwit  powder  or  dynamite,  which  is  composed 
of  76  per  cent,  of  nitro-glyoerine  with  26  per 
cent,  of  a  certain  dlicious  inftisorial  earth,  holds 
the  first  rank.  When  an  exploaive  compound 
is  fired,  the  great  and  almost  instantaaeons 
expansion  of  liberated  gases,  which  in  the  caso 
of  gunpowder  is  many  hnndred  times  its  vol- 
ume, produces  on  equal  pressure  in  aU  dlrec' 
tions.  Those  surfaces  which  offer  the  lr.aBt  re- 
Bstance  of  course  give  way  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent; and  the  slower  the  explosion  and  conse- 
quent expansion,  the  more  will  these  surfaces 
be  displaced,  receiving  by  direct  action  and  re- 
action most  of  the  explosive  force,  while  the 
firmer  materid  will  be  left  undisturbed.  When, 
however,  nitro-glycerine  is  used,  the  eipanmon 
of  gasea  is  so  nearly  instantaneous,  tnat  the 
tampings,  even  when  they  are  quite  unstable, 
offer  an  amount  of  reustanoe  which  is  conrid- 
erable.  Even  when  it  is  fired  upon  the  sariaoe 
of  a  rook  under  a  depth  of  only  a  few  feet  of 
water,  so  great  is  the  reaction  produced  by  the 
inertia  of  the  water  that  a  soffldeut  foroe  ia 
exerted  against  the  rock  to  rend  it  in  some  in- 
stances to  a  large  extent.  Under  aimilar  dr- 
onmstances  even  gunpowder  will  explode  with 
considerable  efibcL  Mr.  Uaillefert  m  the  years 
1861  and  1B6S  succeeded,  by  the  use  of  gun- 
powder in  Burfftoe  blaating  under  water.  In  re- 
moving laree  portions  of  sererd  of  the  obatrac- 
tions  to  the  navigation  of  the  East  river  at 
Hell  Gate.    Ro<^  known  as  Pot  rock,  the  Fry- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ina  Pan,  and  Way's  reef,  were  Tory  conaider- 
aWy  reduced  by  amply  esploding  large  oani- 
ttaa  of  gonpowder,  by  means  of  a  galvanic  bat- 
tery, Wp&a  toeir  surfftoes.  From  Aqk.  19,  18G1, 
when  the  first  blast  was  fired,  to  Maroh  26, 
1802,  384  chargea,  containing  M,231  lbs.  of 
powder,  were  exploded  upon  Pot  rock,  re- 
moving abont  10  feet  of  its  depth,  as  careful 
soDudiDga  have  since  shown,  although  it  was 
asserted  at  the  time  that  more  had  been  re- 
moved. On  Frying  Pan  and  Way's  reef  S40 
charges,  oontaining  abont  28,000  lbs.,  were  ex- 
ploded, increasing  Che  depth  of  water  ooDaider- 
ably.  Since  this  pioneer  work  of  Mr.  UuUefert 
nitro-glyoerine  has  been  used  in  dmilar  opera- 
tiona  with  much  greater  and  more  satisfactory 
resoltB.  In  &ot,  this  oompoond,  or  some  prep- 
aration of  it,  is  now  employed  by  the  en^eer 
as  though  it  were  a  kind  of  chisel  for  chipping 
away  prqjections  of  rock  wherever  they  pre- 
sent tLemselvea.  Surface  blasting  has,  how- 
ever, been  abandoned,  except  for  the  removal  of 
saperficial  or  unimportant  masses  of  rook.  It 
has  been  foond  that  when  live  rook,  as  Snn, 
nndetached,  and  nndiaintegreted  rock  is  called, 
has  been  reached,  the  sorfaoe  blast,  even  when 
made  with  nitro-gljcorine,  makes  so  little  com- 
parative impresaion,  that  it  is  more  expeditious 
and  eoonomical  to  drill  and  introduce  the 
charge  into  the  body  of  the  rock.  When,  how- 
ever, it  forms  so  much  of  an  obstmction  as  to 
require  several  feet  in  depth  and  a  oonsidera- 
blo  horizontal  section  to  be  removed,  it  has 
been  found  preferable  to  make  large  exoavo- 
tjons  into  the  body  of  the  rock  from  beneath, 
proceeding  according  to  the  method  of  mining, 
and  to  remove  the  shell  by  the  simnltaneous 
explosion  of  charges  introduced  into  it.  Prao- 
titwl  applications  of  this  method  will  be  noticed 
fhrther  on. — When  it  is  designed  to  bore  a  tun- 
net  into  a  mountain,  a  heading,  as  it  is  called, 
is  commenced  at  the  floor  of  the  tunnel  and 
driven  in  the  direction  of  its  axis.  If  the  plane 
of  the  floor  is  not  beneath  the  plane  upon 
which  the  work  is  begun,  and  the  surface  of 
the  rock  is  sufficiently  perpendicular,  the  work 
may  be  commenced  by  bringing  a  carriage,  arm- 
ed with  one  or  more  Barleigh  or  other  drills, 
to  the  face  of  the  rock,  dnlling  a  horizontal 
line  of  perforations  a  short  distance  above  the 
plane  of  the  floor  of  the  tunnel,  driving  the 


Fra.  I.— Bnridch  Drill  it  Wot. 

drills  in  an  obliquely  downward  direction,  at  an 
an^e  of  abont  46  ,  charing  the  holes  with 
gunpowder  or  nitro-glyoenne,  and  firing  them 
simultaneously  by  meanaof  the  galvanic  battery. 


(See  fig.  a.)  Ifneoeasary,  this  operation  Is  to  be 
repeated  until  a  step,  fadng  downward  and  of 
sufficient  depth,  is  formed  to  afford  the  most 
eflSoient  displacement  of  rock  by  subsequent 


Jls,  >.—llal«  at  roimlBg  Blepi  ("BbqilBC'^ 

blasts.  Then  another  Ibe  of  perforations  ia 
drilled  in  the  atep,  in  a  plane  parallel  with 
its  under  surface,  at  a  suitable  distance  above 
its  edge,  which  are  also  charged  with  the  ex- 
plosive and  fired.  (See  fig.  8.)  This  prDoeaa 
IS  to  be  repeated  nntjl  the  arch  or  crown  of  the 
tunnel  is  reached,  and  then  a  new  bench  is  to 
be  formed.  This  work  can  be  advantageously 
performed  byhanddrilling,  but  when  it  ie  con- 
venient to  work  a  power  drill  its  employment 
will  generally  afibrd  the  greatcet  progren. 
When  the  tnnnel  ia  of  soffident  height  it  is 
_  usual  to  drive  Uie  head- 
ing (H,  fig.  4)  forward 
buieath  the  crown,  and 
to  follow  with  one  or 
mora  benobea  (B  and 
BO.  The  work  is  al- 
ways driven  against 
the  perpendicular  facea 
of  the  headings  and  benches,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  tunnel ;  but  the  lamina- 
tion of  the  rock  may  he  such  as  to  make  it 
preferable  to  drill  the  holes  in  the  upper  surface 
of  a  bench,  as  at  b,  and  throw  the  rock  hori- 
zontally from  the  face,  instead  of  commencb^  at 
b'  and  throwing  it  downward.  Nitro-glycerme 
may  be  placed  in  the  drill  holes  in  cartridges, 
and  fired  without  tamping  or  witli  water  tamp- 
ing, its  action  being  so  instantaneous  that  a  aep- 
aratjon  is  readily  effected  in  the  lateral  direction, 
toward  the  under  surface  of  the  bench.  When 
the  floor  of  the  tnnnel  lies  beneath  the  suriace 
and  it  cannot  so  readily  he  reached  otherwise, 
or  where  counter  tunnelling  is  desirable,  a 
shaft  is  sunk  to  the  reauired  plane.  The  pro- 
cess of  excavating  a  shaft  is  conducted  upon 
principles  idmilar  to  those  which  govern  the 
driving  of  the  tunnel,  m  so  for  as  the  forming  of 
benches  and  the  detaching  of  the  rook  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  line  of  least  rerastonce  is  concern- 
ed, although  a  heading,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  conid  not  be  driven  downward  in  advance 
of  therest  of  the  shaft  with  any  advantage.  The 
working  will  of  course  be  varied  according  to  the 
atmotnre  and  composition  of  the  rock,  and  the 
position  of  its  strata.  It  may  happen  at  times 
that  considerable  portions  can  oe  removed 
with  wedges  and  levers,  and  this  may  be  the 
case  in  the  tnnnel  as  well  as  in  the  ahait,  but 
not  so  frequenUy.  In  sinking  a  shaft  a  bench 
is  formed,  and   sucoeadve  portions  are  de- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


Fn.  B,— Coinr  Dun. 


Uohed,  dther  bj  blaetiiig  or  other  means,  until 
the  wbol«  U  removed  &nd  a  aew  benoh  formed. 
The  progreas  [iud«  in  bUstiog  at  the  Hooaao 
tonuel  in  Uawuhosetts  during  the  month  of 
March,  18T2,  in  the  eaat  end,  at  a  distance  of 
10,M6  ft.  from  the  entrance,  vu  120  fL  of 
heading  24  ft.  wide  and  S  ft  hiflh.  Thia  head- 
ing was  attacked  bj  13  Barldgli  drills,  moonb- 
ed  Ml  two  carriages  manned  b;  eight  men  and 
a  foreman.  On  Dec.  12  of  tbe  same  ^ear  the 
last  portion  of  roclc  that  divided  the  eioa- 
vations  was  removed,  and  it  was  foond  that 
the  axes  of  tha  two  only  differed  bj  the  re- 
markably small  error  of  five  nxths  of  an  inch 
latertillj,  and  an  inoh  and  a  half  vertioall;. 
(See  TiniBBt,) — In  submarine  blastingon  a  large 
•cale,  by  the  modern  method,  a  coffer  dam  is 
erected  over  the  rock 
and  a  shaft  sank  into 
it,  from  which  tun- 
nels are  excavated  in 
radiating  directions, 
and  tjieie  oonneoted 
bj  concentric  galle- 
ries, while  columns 
of  rock  are  left  as 
supports  to  tbe  roo^  and  to  maintain  the  water 
bed  till  the  work  is  oompteted.  A  safficient 
nmnber  of  charges  of  an  expIo«ive  compound  are 
then  introdnced  into  the  columns  in  chambers, 
and  in  the  she]],  and  simoltoneoasly  fired  by 
means  of  a  galvanio  battery.  When  the  work 
is  not  too  extensive  and  the  snperincombeut 
pressure  of  rook  and  water  is  not  too  great, 
the  columns  of  rock  supporting  the  roof  may 
be  replaced  by  wooden  onee,  thus  allowing  of 
the  removal  of  a  larger  amount  of  material  be- 
fore the  final  esplodon  takes  place.  This  Is 
an  advantage,  nnce  its  removal  in  this  way  is 
less  expensive  than  by  rakes  and  grappling 
irons  otter  it  is  broken  up  and  lying  beneath 
the  water.  In  such  excavations  many  precau- 
tions are  required  whicb  are  unnecessary  in 
boring  a  tunnel  through  a  mountain.  Mathe- 
matical calculfltJons  and  eatimotos,  requiring 
eitenMve  engineering  knowledge  and  sound 
judgment,  must  be  made  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  amount  of  resistance  required  in  the  arches 
and  in  the  columns  of  support,  composed  as 
they  are  of  rock  of  varying  composition,  tex- 
ture, and  degree  and  direction  of  stratification. 
If  a  breach  should  be  made  in  the  water  bed, 
the  works  would  be  fiooded,  caudng  serious 
delay  and  expense  in  making  repwrs,  which 
maat  be  done  by  sinking  rockti  and  cement 
into  the  breach  and  pumping  the  water  from 
the  caverns.  Moreover,  the  breach  might  be 
so  eitennve  as  to  i>e  irreparable,  in  which 
case  the  remainder  of  the  rook  which  had  been 
tunnelled  would  have  to  be  removed  by  sur- 
face blasting.  It  frequently  happens  that  small 
fiasnreH  are  opened,  whidi  under  the  great 
pressure  of  water  from  above  cause  serious 
annoyance,  and  all  the  ingenuity  and  knowl- 
edge that  can  be  brought  to  bear  are  required 
to  stop  the  leak.    To  avoid  disturbing  the  water 


raiG  701 

bed,  it  is  also  safer  to  Ire  the  blasts  of  mtro- 
glycerine  singly  with  a  foae,  and  not  in  nam- 
here  rimultaneoosly.  It  is  thns  perceived  that 
blasting  as  now  practised  is  an  important 
branch  of  the  science  of  civil  engineering 
WtUi  the  materials  and  appliances  at  liand,  m 
the  form  of  gunpowder,  nitro-glycerine,  per- 
fect safety  fuse,  tne  ready  and  facile  command 
of  galvanic  electridty,  properly  constructed 
drills,  and  compressed  air  en^^es  to  propel 
them,  the  problems  presented  to  the  civil  en- 
^eer  are  exceedingly  interes'ting,  and  offer  no 
otistaoles  whicb  oaretnl  and  correct  calculation 
cannot  overcome. — The  removal  of  Blossom 
rock  in  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  process  of  removing  submarine 
rucKs  by  conducting  the  excavation  from  with- 
in. It  is  the  only  operation  of  the  kind  which 
has  been  completed,  although  another  and  more 
extensive  one,  previously  commenced,  is  now 
(187S)  in  progress  at  Hallett's  point  in  the  Esst 
river,  oppofflte  New  Tort  The  top  of  Blos- 
som rook  was  about  0  ft.  below  tne  surface 
of  the  water  at  mean  low  tide.  A  horizontal 
section  at  the  depth  of  24  ft.  measured  19S  x 
IOC  ft  The  quantity  of  rock  contained  with- 
in these  boundaries  was  about  C,000  cubic 
yards,  and  oonraeted  of  a  metsmorphio  sand- 
stone of  irregular  stratifioation.  The  great  mass 
of  it  was  BO  soft  as  not  to  require  blasting.  In 
October,  186S,  brevet  Brig.  Gen.  B.  S.  Alex- 
ander, lieutenant  colonel  of  engineers  TJ.  S.  A., 
commnnicated  a  plan  for  the  removal  of  this 
rock  to  Lieut  Cot.  R.  S.  Williamson,  mqjor  of 
engineers,  who  hod  been  placed  in  chaise  of 
its  survey.  Oen.  Alexander's  plan  is  briefly  ex- 
plained in  the  following  extract  from  his  oom- 
mnnication:  "I  propose  to  enclose  a  small 
surface  of  the  rock  by  a  water-tight  coffer 
dam ;  in  this  space  to  sink  a  rectangular  shaft 
about  4  by  9  ft.,  which  is  the  size  I  have  seen 
in  coal  mines;  from  the  bottom  of  this  shaft 
to  nm  tunnels  and  make  powder  chambers  in 
such  positions  that  when  exploded  the  whole 
rock  down  to  the  level  of  24  ft.  l>elow  the  level 
of  the  water  will  be  lifted  in  the  air  and  shiv- 
ered to  pieces."  In  November  following,  Mr. 
A.  W.  von  Bolunidt,  a  civil  en^eer  of  San 
Frandsco,  sent  in  a  plan  for  the  removal  of 
the  rock,  and  offered  to  perform  the  work 
for  {76,000,  which  piaa  and  offer  were  in 
due  time  aocepted.  His  plan  was  similar  to 
Gen.  Alexander's,  except  that  instead  of  the 
ordinary  ooffer  dam  he  proposed  to  wnk  an 
iron  oyunder  6  ft.  in  diameter,  carrying  an  in- 
dia-rubber flap  at  its  lower  end,  pump  out  the 
water,  bore  into  the  rock,  and  slide  another 
cylinder  inside  of  the  first  down  into  the  ex- 
cavation and  secure  it  by  cement.  It  was, 
however,  found  difficult  to  place  the  iron  cyl- 
inder in  position  without  first  resorting  to  the 
ordinary  cribwork  coffer  dam.  The  wnking  of 
the  shaft  was  commenced  Dec.  7,  1B69.  Only 
one  man  could  work  at  a  time,  but  in  the  space 
of  four  weeks  a  depth  of  80  ft  below  low 
water  was  reached.    Drifts  were  then  run  into 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


the  longer  and  shorter  axes  of  the  rook,  snd 
Btoam  was  used  in  hoisting.  The  rnbbieh  wob 
domped  apon  one  side  of  the  rook,  from  which 
most  of  it  was  washed  bj  the  tide.  During 
the  month  of  Juin&rj,  1870,  eight  men  foand 
room  to  work.  Most  of  the  rock  was  removed 
bf  picks  and  sledges,  only  10  lbs.  of  explosive 
(pant  powder)  being  nsod  in  the  whole  opera- 
tion. In  Febroarj  16  men  foand  space  to 
work,  and  b;  the  30th  of  April  the  dimensions 
of  the  CAvitj  were  140  bj  60  ft.,  with  a  maxi- 
mum height  of  13  ft.  Colomna  of  rock  were 
at  first  left  for  support,  but  thej  were  from 
time  to  time  replaced  with  upright  timbers 
ttom  8  to  10  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  ex- 
oeptjon  of  four,  which  were  left  standing  near 
the  shaft.    Preparations  were  now  made  to 


7».  B.— Totial  Sactlon  af  Coffer  Dim  ud  EicstMIod  U 
Blooom  Bock. 

blow  up  the  shell.  The  foUowiug  diagram, 
copied  from  the  official  report,  wiU  explun  the 
method  of  condncting  the  explosion.    Powder 


Fis.  T.— norlioDUl  SeetVm,  abowliig  Qurgei, 

was  used  as  the  explodre,  nitrate  of  soda 
taking  the  place  of  nitrate  of  potash  in  its 
oomporition.  The  quantity  used  was  43,000 
lbs.  The  vessels  for  containing  it  were  8S  ale 
casks  of  60  gallons  each,  and  seven  old  tanks 
made  of  boiler  iron,  holding  about  SOO  lbs.  of 
powder  each.  The  explosion  was  effected  bj 
a  galvanic  batter;  stationed  in  a  boat  about 
800  ft.  from  the  rock.  A  column  of  water 
about  200  feet  in  diameter  was  thrown  into  the 
air  to  a  height  of-300  to  800  ft.,  and  pieoes  of 
rock  and  timber  were  thrown  high  above  the 
water  column.  The  rock  was  found  to  be  ef- 
feotnallj  demolished,  although  if  the  excava- 
tions had  been  carried  to  a  greater  depth  much 
after  labor  in  clearing  awa;  rubbish  and  pro- 
jecting points  would  have  been  saved.  The 
contract  was  follj  carried  ont  by  Mr.  Von 
Schmidt,  nnder  the  immediate  inspectitxi  of 
IJeut.  W.  H.  Hener  of  the  corps  of  engineers. — 
At  New  Tork,  the  operations  of  Mr.  Mullefert 
in  surface  blasting  had  great!/  improved  the 


navigation  of  the  East  river;  bat  no  oompre- 

hensive  plan  was  projected  till  the  sommer 
of  1886,  when  brevet  M^jor  Gen,  John  New- 
ton was  assigned  b?  the  war  department  to 
the  dutj  of  examining  the  obstructions,  and 
making  estimates  of  the  work  necessary  to  be 
done.  He  submitted  three  plans,  each  of  which 
included  the  removal  of  tne  rock  st  Hallet's 
point.  Some  work  was  done  on  some  of  the 
smaller  rocks  bj  Hr.  S.  F.  Shelboume,  who  tried 
experiments  with  a  rotating  diamond  drill,  and 
afterward  constmoted  a  percussion  drill  of 
laner  size,  which  was  destrojed  by  a  collision 
before  it  was  brought  to  the  test  of  drilling. 
In  the  spring  of  1889  oongress  appropriated 
1176,000  for  improvements  at  Hell  Gate,  and 
Gen.  Newton  proceeded  to  complete  the  plans 
for  the  performance  of  the  work.  The  re- 
moval 01  the  submarine  rock  at  Ballott^s  point 
was  the  first  work  decided  upon.  This  rock, 
projecting  some  SOO  ft.  into  the  stream,  and 
throwing  the  tide  from  Long  Island  sound 
agunst  on  opposing  rook  called  the  Gridiron, 
makes  the  navigation  at  that  place  very  diffi- 
culL  The  plan  of  operation  was  to  sink  a  shaft 
upon  Ilallett's  point,  and  fhnn  it  excavate  tun- 
nels in  the  rook  in  a  radiating  direction  nnder 
the  river  and  conneot  them  with  concentrio 
galleries ;  then,  after  removing  from  the  inte- 
rior as  much  of  the  rock  as  possible  without 
danger  of  letting  in  the  water,  to  blow  up  the 
roof  and  supporting  columns.  The  work  was 
commenoed  m  July,  1869.  A  coffer  dam  in 
the  form  of  an  irregular  pentagon,  whose  great- 
est diameter  was  140  ft.,  was  erected  on  the 
shore,  and  a  shaft  IOC  by  BS  ft.  in  diameter  was 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  B2  ft.  below  mean  low  wat«r. 
Diver^ng  tunnels  were  then  commenced,  ood 


Tis.  B^-OrooDd  Plin  or  Ti 


U  ud  Odhriei  It  niHatri 


after  they  were  sufficienUy  advanced  conoen- 
tric  galleries  were  excavated,  and  as  the  work 
proceeded  their  number  increased,  until  at  the 
present  time  (November,  1872)  there  ^  19 
tunnels,  some  of  which  are  neariy  completed, 
extending  from  190  to  340  ft.  beyond  the  shaft, 
and  connected  by  seven  concentric  galleries, 
from  whioh  86,000  cubio  yards  of  rock  have 
been  removed.  The  rock  is  a  tough  horn- 
blende gneiss,  and  lies  in  strata  of  varions  de- 
grees of  inclination,  presenting  interesting  prob- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLAYE 

lams.  The  work  h»a  been  fn  satisfactory  pro- 
gress since  the  sammer  of  1860,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  interva!,  when  the  arailable  fnnds 
were  exhausted;  but  the  appropriations  have 
never  been  nearlj  eqaal  to  what  coald  have 
been  economically  expended.  The  Bnrleish 
drill  has  been  in  oonstant  use,  bat  hand  drilU 
are  also  worked  with  ^reat  advantage,  as  in  the 
progress  of  the  work  it  is  found  expedient  to  nae 
many  small  blasts  of  giant  powder.  When  the 
excavation  is  completed  it  is  deidgned  to  intro- 
duce an  explosive  componnd  into  the  columns 
and  various  parts  of  the  roof,  and  produce  a 
simnltaneous  explosion  with  a  galvanic  current. 
Topographic^  surveys  are  continoolly  made 
during  the  progress  of  the  work  to  determine 
the  direction  and  extent  of  the  excavation,  the 
usual  methods  of  triangulation  and  levelling  be- 
ing employed.  There  have  been  21,000  sound- 
ings and  B,000  borings  of  the  bed  of  the  ri' 


of  nitro-glycerine,  owing  to  the  care  with  which 
it  is  preparad,and  the  prudence  with  which  It 
is  handled.  With  regard  to  the  preparations 
of  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite  or  giant  powder 
is  considered  by  those  who  use  it  to  be  a  safer 
explosive  than  gunpowder.  Dnalline,  which  is 
a  somewhat  similar  preparation,  has  also  been 
used  with  satisfactory  results.  The  danger  in 
u^ng  nitro -glycerine  arises  principally  fkim  the 
collection  of  vapors  liable  to  talie  place  when 
it  is  confined. 

BLilE  (anc.  Blavia),  a  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Gironde,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Gironde,  20  m.  N. 
by  W.  of  Bordeaux  ;  pop.  in  1886,  4,761.  The 
upper  part  of  the  town,  with  the  citadel,  lies 
on  a  steep  rcwk ;  in  the  citadel,  which  waa  built 
by  Vanban,  the  dnchess  of  Berry  was  im- 
prisoned in  1832.  On  the  opposite  wde  of  the 
river  is  Fort  MMoo,  and  on  an  islet  between 
them  is  a  fortiSed  tower  called  the  PAt^  de 
Blaye.  The  town  has  been  a  military  station 
once  the  times  of  the  Romans.  It  has  a  school 
of  hydrography  and  an  active  coast  trade. 

BLElcillNfi,  the  process  of  removing  colors 
from  fabrics  and  raw  materials  and  leaving 
them  white.  The  principal  sul>stanoes  to  which 
bleaching  is  applied  are  woo!  and  silk,  in  the 
animal,  and  cotton,  flax,  and  straw,  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  The  coloring  matter  in 
these  bodies  is  not  essential  to  their  texture, 
and  fortunately  can  be  removed  by  chemiGaJ 
agents  without  injury  to  the  structure  of  tiie 
rest  of  the  material.  Steeping  cloths  in  lyes 
extracted  from  the  ashes  of  planta,  and  after- 
ward repeatedly  washing  and  exposing  them 
to  the^ction  of  sunlight,  was  praotised  by  the 
andettt  Egyptians ;  but  nothing  more  than  this 
is  known  of  their  process.  There  was  scarcely 
any  progress  in  the  art  for  thousands  of  years, 
or  until  the  18th  century,  when  soma  improve- 
ments were  made  in  Holland.  The  Dutch  pro- 
cess consisted  in  pouring  the  alkaline  solution 
over  the  goods  in  a  boiling  condition,  and 
97  VOL.  II. — IS 


steeping  them  in  it  for  about  a  week,  and, 


thoroughly  washed  and  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air  and  sunlight  for  several  months. 
These  apparently  simple  processes  obtained 
for  the  Dutch  a  high  reputation  for  bleach- 
ing, and  gave  them  almost  a  monopoly  of 
the  business  for  very  many  years.    For  a  long 

fieriod  the  brown  linens  manufactured  in  Scot- 
and  were  regularly  sent  to  Holland  to  be 
bleached.  A  whole  aummer  was  required  for 
the  operation ;  and  if  the  cloths  were  sent  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  they  were  not  returned 
for  12  months.  It  was  this  practice  which 
caused  the  name  of  hollands  to  he  given  to 
these  linens.  The  Scotch  introduced  the 
business  of  bleaching  for  themselves  about  the 
year  1749 ;  but  it  waa  long  believed  that  the 
pecnliar  properties  of  the  water  about  the 
bleaching  graunds  of  Haarlem  gave  to  this 
neighbornood  advantsges  which  no  other  re- 
^on  could  possess. — The  preeise  chemical  ac- 
tion tliat  tAes  place  in  the  process  of  bleach- 
ing is  not  known  with  oertunty,  hut  it  is 
probably  due  to  the  action  of  oxygen  when  it 
IS  in  a  nascent  state,  or  in  that  peculiar  and 
active  one  called  ozone.  The  investigations  of 
SohOnbein  have  proved  that  atmospheric  oxy- 
gen, under  the  influence  of  sunlight  and  moist- 
ure, posses  into  an  active  state,  thus  explaining 
the  rationale  of  the  old  bleachini;  process. 
Bleaching  by  chlorine  involves  the  abstraction 
of  hydrogen  from  the  coloring  matter,  and  the 
momentary  freeing  of  a  portion  of  oxygen, 
which  enters  into  a  new  combination  by  which 
it  is  thought  the  bleaching  is  effected.  The 
action  of  snlphnrous  acid,  which  is  nsually  a 
deoxidizing  agent,  does,  however,  according 
to  SchOnbein's  investigations,  on  exposure  to 
the  air  and  light,  bring  a  portion  of  atmos- 
pheric oxygen  into  an  active  condition.  Chem- 
ists, therefore,  attribute  the  action  of  all 
bleaching  agents  to  the  power  they  possess  of 
causing  oxygen  to  pass  into  its  active  state. 
The  art  of  bleaching  was  conducted  by  alter- 
nate steeping  in  alkaline  liquors  called  buck- 
ings, followed  by  thorough  washing  and  boil- 
ing and  long  continued  exposure  upon  grass, 
with  frequent  sprinklings  of  water,  which  pro- 
cess was  called  crofting;  and  this  was  followed 
by  the  souring  process,  or  keeping  the  urticlea 
soaked  for  weeks  in  sour  milk,  to  be  afterward 
washed  and  crofted  several  times.  By  sub- 
stituting dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  sour  milk  to 
dissolve  out  the  alkaline  matters,  as  suggested 
by  Dr.  Hope,  the  time  required  for  this  part  of 
the  proceas  was  reduced  to  a  few  hours  in  place 
of  a  few  months.  But  the  other  operations 
still  involved  long  time,  particularly  tne  croft- 
ing ;  and  frequent  losses  moreover  were  in- 
curred by  the  exposure  of  the  goods  In  large 
establishments  npon  the  great  extent  of  grass 
lands  they  required.  Of  cotton  goods  one 
twentieth  to  one  tenth  of  the  weight  is  lost 
by  bleaching ;  bat  linens  often  lose  as  mnch  as 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


704  BlXi 

ono  third,  bj  which  th^  Btrength  also  ia  con- 
nderabl;  impaired :  the  flaer  linens  lose  only 
from  12  to  2u  per  cent.  In  Silesia  and  Bohe- 
mia, where  the  chlorine  process  is  not  adopted, 
the  linens  are  exposed  to  a  fermenting  prooesB, 
then  washed,  and  Bteeped  in  alkaline  Uqaora, 
with  alternate  exposures  upon  grasM,  which 
prDceasea  are  repeated  a  great  number  of  times 
for  00  to  70  dajs ;  but  to  render  them  properly 
white,  they  are  afterward  passed  through  a 
bath  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  then 
treated  again  with  the  potash  lye  Beveral  times 
and  alternately  exposed  on  the  gross,  and 
finally  thoroughly  cleansed  hy  washing  in  a 
revolving  cylinder  called  a  dash-wheel.  This 
machine  is  also  employed  in  the  English  and 
Bcotch  proceaees  for  washing  the  goods  with- 
ont  sahjecting  them  to  unnecessary  wear.  The 
frequent  repetition  of  the  different  processes  is 
rendered  necessary  by  the  complete  dilfnsion 
of  tlie  coloring  matters  through  the  ilai  fibres, 
and  their  close  union  with  them ;  each  opera- 
tion deoompoung  and  removing  in  succeauon 
small  portions  only- — The  discovery  of  chlorine 
gas  by  Scheele  in  1TT4  led  to  the  great  im- 
provement in  bleaching  of  applying  this  gas  to 
the  removal  of  the  color!.  The  use  of  it  was 
originally  suggested  by  the  French  chemist 
Bertliollet  in  1T8G,  and  explained  the  next 
^ear  by  him  to  Watt  of  Glasgow,  who  was  then 
in  Paris.  By  Watt  the  proceas  was  soon  intro- 
daced  into  Britain,  the  gas  being  used  in  solu- 
tion in  water.  Its  preparation  was  found  to  be 
highly  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen, 
and  the  fibre  of  the  cloth  was  weakened  by  the 
action  of  the  chlorine.  Be rthollet  improved  the 
process  by  diluting  the  aqueons  solution  with 
water,  and  also  by  saturating  with  potash  apor- 
tion  of  the  acid.  This  was  the  first  st«p  toward 
the  preparation  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  which 
was  originally  prepared  ailer  long  continncd  ex- 
perimenting by  Teunant  of  Glasgow  in  1798. 
Its  first  employment  was  in  the  form  of  a  satu- 
rated liquid  solution ;  but  in  1799  he  patented 
the  use  of  the  dry  chloride  of  lime.  (See 
BLBACiuNa  FowDEB.)  Bleaching  by  chlorine, 
as  now  practiseil,  varies  somewhat  as  applied 
to  the  different  fabrics;  but  a  succession  of 
different  processes  is  still  adopted,  as  in  the  old 
methods.  Thus,  in  bleaching  cotton,  there  are 
the  preparatory  operations  of  singeing  off  the 
loose  fibres  by  passing  the  cloth  over  heated 
cylinders ;  then  soaking  some  honra  in  water, 
followed  by  the  dasb-wbeel ;  then  boiling  in 
lime  water,  which  acts  upon  the  grease,  and 
prepares  it  for  easy  removal  by  the  next  opera- 
tion of  boding  in  water.  This  is  followed  by 
the  souring  process,  which  dissolves  out  the 
adhering  lime,  and  a  succeeding  washing  pre- 
pares the  cloth  for  bleaching.  This  consists  in 
Bt«eplng  the  cloth  in  a  dilute  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  lime,  which  is  called  the  chemicking 
process.  The  liquor  consists,  for  every  pound 
of  cloth,  of  about  half  a  pound  of  cfalonde  of 
lime  and  three  gallons  of  water.  Souring  and 
jvaahing  succeed  ttiis,  and  these  processes  are 


repeated,  it  may  be,  several  times;  idtogether 
they  amount,  inclnding  calendering,  to  abont 
25  in  number.  Though  still  very  complicated, 
the  time  of  the  oj>eration  is  greatly  reduced 
from  that  of  the  old  method.  In  two  days  is 
now  accomplished  what  formerly  reqnirvd  a 
whole  summer,  and  the  cost  of  the  process 
amounts  to  only  abont  20  cents  per  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  of  24  yards.  Bleaching  linens  with 
chlorine,  though  somewhat  more  espeditions 
than  the  process  already  referred  to  In  Bohemia 
and  Silesia,  is  still  a  tedious  operation,  and  prob- 
ably is  snsceptible  of  great  improvements.  It 
involves  fWim  8  to  20  different  processes  of  steep- 
ing, boiling,  washing,  souring,  &o.,  with  ex- 
posure Qpon  the  grass  lor  from  30  to  60  days. 
Without  this  exposure  a  longer  time  is  required 
for  the  bleaching  action  of  uie  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  Rags  are  bleached  for  the  paper- 
makers,  alter  being  thorouglily  washed  in  the 
engine  and  reduced  to  what  ia  called  half-stuff, 
by  soaking  them  from  Q  to  12  hours  in  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  Ume;  from  ti  to  4  lbs.  (tf' the 
dry  chloride  being  used  for  every  cwt  of 
rags.  When  the  rags  are  strongly  dyed,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  add  some  sulphnric  acid  (half 
the  weight  of  the  bleaching  powder),  and  cause 
the  mixture,  with  the  raga  placed  in  it,  to  re- 
volve for  aometimein  atiglitcylindrical  veeael, 
till  the  chlorine  evolved  bos  removed  the  colors. 
This  procesa  b  followed  by  thorough  washing. 
— Wool  requires  a  thorough  preparation  called 
soonring,  to  free  it  from  the  aoapy  and  waxy 
matters  exhaled  fVom  the  skin  of  the  sheep. 
Weak  ammoniacal  I^e  is  found  efficient  for 
this  purpose,  and  this  is  obtained  by  bailing 
putrefied  urine  with  four  to  eight  times  its 
quantity  of  soft  water.  The  wool  is  steeped 
and  well  washed  in  a  warm  bath  of  this  liquor, 
until  all  the  impurities  are  converted  into  aoapy 
matters  and  removed  by  rinsing  in  clean  water. 
Caustic  soda  ia  aometimea  used  instead  of  am- 
moniacal liquors.  Chlorine  cannot  be  employed 
to  bleach  animal  fibre,  because  the  nitrogen 
they  contain  causes  them  to  become  yellow, 
and  aulphuroua  acid  is  the  agent  which  is  gen- 
erally used  instead.  BIcachirig  by  aulphuroua 
acid  depends  upon  the  production  of  colorless 
sulphites,  the  decomposition  of  which,  bow- 
ever,  by  alkalies  or  by  prolonged  exposure,  will 
allow  the  color  to  reuppeor  unless  tjiey  are  re- 
moved. This  is  accomplished  by  thoroughly 
washing  the  goods  alter  the  application  of  the 
acid.  Woollen  materials  are  generally  bleached 
by  hanging  them  in  a  moistened  state  in  cloee 
chambers  and  passing  the  vapor  of  burning  sul- 
phur over  them;  sometimes,  however,  a  solu- 
tion of  the  acid  in  water  is  used.  After  sul- 
phuring they  are  washed  and  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  process  may  be  brieSy  described  as 
follows:  1.  They  are  immersed  three  times  in 
a  bath  composed  of  24  lbs.  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  6  lbs.  of  soap,  and  130  gallons  of  water, 
at  a  temperature  of  105°  F.  The  bath  is  re- 
newed after  each  immersion  by  the  addition  of 
three  fourths  of  a  pound  of  soap.     The  goods 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


are  immersed  br  passing  tbem  over  a  roller, 
•ud  thiB  batb  answers  far  about  2,000  jrards 
of  material.  9.  Thej  are  then  washed  twice 
in  clean  water  at  105°  F.  S.  Passed  three 
times  throngh  a  soda  solution  of  the  strength 
of  the  &rst  solution,  adding  half  a  pound  of 
carbonate  of  soda  after  each  passage.  4.  Ex- 
posed for  12  hours  to  the  vapor  of  baming  sul- 
phur, using  of  this  about  24  lbs.  to  2,000  ^ards. 
5.  Passed  three  times  through  a  bath  contain- 
ing 80  lbs.  of  carl)9nate  of  soda  to  180  galloDS  of 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  124°,  adding  three 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  soda  after  each  immer- 
irion.  6.  The  cloth  is  again  subjected  to  the 
so]  phnr  vapor,  as  in  the  previous  operation.  7. 
A  repetition  of  the  fifth  process.  S.  Washed 
twice  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  105°  F. 

9.  Subjected  to  sulphur  vapors  for  12  hours. 

10.  Washed  in  tepid,  and  tnen  in  cold  wat«r. 

11.  Tinged  blue  by  passing  throngh  a  bath  con- 
taining indigo  and  carmine. — For  the  bleaching 
of  silic  sulphurous  acid  is  also  nsad,  but  pre- 
vious to  its  application  tbe  raw  silk  must,  as  in 
the  case  of  wool,  befreedofmatterwhicb  would 
interfere  with  the  process.  Silk  contains,  ac- 
cording to  its  quality,  from  26  to  SS  per  cent. 
of  extraneous  matter,  which  was  formerly  con- 
Ndered  to  be  a  kind  of  gum,  and  is  still  called 
by  that  name.  The  investigations  by  M. 
Board,  however,  have  aliown  this  substance  to 
connst  of  albumen,  wax,  fat,  resin,  and  coloring 
matter,  and  to  have  the  properties  of  a  varnish. 
After  numerous  experiments  it  has  been  found 
that  nothing  removes  this  varnish  so  well  ss  a 
hot  soap  bath  kept  somewhat  helotr  the  boUing 
point.  From  30  to  40  lbs.  of  very  fine  soap  are 
naed  for  everj  100  lbs.  of  silk;  but  the  pro- 

Krtious  vary  according  to  the  uses  that  are  to 
made  of  the  articles.  Att«r  steeping,  the 
silks  are  well  wasbed,  put  into  linen  bags, 
and  boiled  for  an  hour  and  a  half  in  a  weaker 
BolntioD  of  soap.  Dilferent  shades  of  white  are 
^vea  to  the  silk,  without  further  bleaching,  by 
the  Dse  of  very  weak  dyes  of  litmus  or  indigo. 
A  pore  white  ia  obtained  by  the  sulphuring 

Erooeas.  The  Chinese  are  said  not  to  ose  soap 
1  cleaniog  their  silks.  One  Michel  de  Orub- 
bena,  who  lived  in  Canton  a  long  time  and 
practised  the  Chinese  method,  published  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  academy  of  Stockholm  an  ac- 
count of  it,  according  to  which  they  use  a 
small  white  bean,  and  also  wheat  flour  and 
common  salt  It  is  probable  that  the  fineness 
of  Chinese  ulk  is  owing  much  to  the  superi- 
ority of  the  raw  material.  The  process  of 
bleaching  silk  proposed  by  Baum6  would  be 
an  important  improvement  if  it  were  not  too 
expensive.  It  consists  iu  macerating  the  raw 
mlk  in  32  parts  of  alcohol  and  1  paK  of  muri- 
atic acid  for  about  48  hours,  when  tbe  silk  is 
qnite  white. — Wheat  straw  is  grown  in  Tuscany 
without  reference  to  the  grain.  The  seeds 
are  sown  broadcast,  and  the  straw  ia  cut 
when  tbe  grain  is  in  the  milk.  It  is  thin 
and  short,  but  of  fine  texture.  On  being 
cnt,  it  ia  dried  for  a  few  days  in  the  sun,  then 


HING  705 

■tacked  in  bundles,  and  dried  in  the  mow  for  a 
month.  After  this,  it  is  partially  bleached  by 
exposure  upon  the  meadows  to  the  dews  and 
suu;  and  the  process  is  compIet«d  by  steaming 
and  sulphuring.  In  England,  a  boiling  solutiou 
of  caustic  soda  is  employed  to  dissolve  the  bard 
natural  varnish  upon  the  outside  of  the  straw ; 
after  which  tbe  usual  bleaching  process,  with 
sulphurous  acid  or  chlorine,  is  applied.  This 
hard  coating,  it  is  said,  may  also  be  removed 
with  economy  by  several  steepings  in  dilute  al- 
kaline solutions,  alternating  with  others  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  and  the  vapor  of  snlphorons  acid. 
— Chlorine  is  the  most  common  agent  employ- 
ed for  bleacbins  a  variety  of  other  sabstaoces 
besides  those  uready  named  i  as,  for  example, 
wax,  and  articles  of  paper,  as  maps,  prints, 
books,  &c.  But  frequently,  colors  imparted 
to  cloth  by  atrong  dyea  require  for  their  re- 
moval difierent  chemical  reagents,  as  chromic 
acid,  or  the  combination  of  this  with  potassa. 
Protochloride  of  tin  is  also  employed  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  are  called  discharges, 
and  are  principally  made  use  of  in  calico  print 
works. — Tbe  whitening  of  candles,  paraffine, 
sugar,  &o.,  will  be  described  in  treating  of 
those  articles.  Wax  was  formerly  bleached 
merely  by  exposing  it  to  sunlight  and  moist- 
ure: but  since  the  discovery  of  chlorine  that 
gas  bas  been  the  agent  generally  used.  The  wax 
is  scraped  into  very  fine  shreds  and  put  into  a 
tub  of  water  having  a  tight  cover;  chlorine 
gaa  is  then  introduced  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub, 
while  an  agitator  stirs  the  water.  The  bleaoh- 
ing  is  effected  in  about  two  houra,  when  the 
wax  is  melted  into  cakes.  A  process  baa  been 
introduced  in  France  of  bleaching  wax,  which 
is  also  applicable  to  oils,  by  meltmg  it  in  hot 
steam,  and  subjecting  it  to  its  action  in  pasring 
through  a  kind  of  worm.  It  is  also  washed 
with  hot  water  alternately  with  the  steaming. 
— Hydrate  of  alumina,  prepared  by  decompos- 
ing alum  by  carbonate  of  soda,  has  recently 
been  substituted  for  animsl  charcoal,  for  decol- 
oring liquids,  EiperimenU  made  by  M.  Ch. 
M^rio,  chemist  of  the  metallnrgioal  works  at 
Crenzot,  show  that  15  grammes  of  alumina 
may  replace  2S0  grammes  of  animal  charcoal, 
in  decoloring  a  quart  of  water  colored  by  10 
grammes  of  litmus ;  or  for  sirup  colored  by 
molasses,  {  grammes  of  alumina  were  equiva- 
lent to  125  of  animal  charcoal.  The  alumina 
is,  moreover,  restored  with  less  expense  than 
the  charcoal. — We  pass  to  the  conwderation 
of  the  process  for  bleaching  cotton,  which  has 
long  been  extensively  known  as  the  "Amerioan 
bleaching."  Before  the  year  188Q  Dr.  Samuel 
L.  Dana,  acting  as  consulting  chemist  to  the 
Merrimack  manu&ctnring  company  of  Lowell, 
Mass.,  bad  completed  an  investigation  on  the 
adhering  and  coloring  matters  of  the  cotton 
fibres,  which  led  him  to  devise  and  carry  into 
practice  the  spplication  of  chemical  agents  in 
such  order  as  to  insure  uniform  results  in 
bleaching.  The  reaino-waxy  envelopes  of  the 
fibres,  as  well  as  the  accidental  starchy,  albu- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


706 


BLEACHING 


minons,  and  oil;  bodiei  present  in  the  manu- 
factured goods,  are  by  this  method  resolved  in- 
to soluble  compounds  and  removed  ;  and  when 
in  1637  the  process  as  prttclJwd  became  known 
to  the  Boientifio  bleachers  and  print«r8  of  MDhl- 
hansen,  it  drew  forth  their  expressions  of  ad- 
miration for  its  completeness.  This  method  is 
founded  on  the  two  foliowing  principles :  1. 
The  conversion  of  tbe  fatty  and  waxy  matters 
into  soaps;  and  for  secnri^  and  economy,  it  is 
preferable  that  these  soaps  should  have  alkali- 
no-earthy  bases ;  caastio  lime  becomes,  there- 
fore, a  most  effectnal  agent.  2.  The  decompo- 
ution  of  the  basic  soaps  formed,  so  as  to  con- 
vert them  into  soluble  soapa,  which  is  effected 
by  the  action  of  an  alkaline  carlwnate.  These 
are  the  cardinal  principles  on  which  this  almost 
perfect  process  is  &>nnded,  but  there  are  prac- 
tical points  of  int«reet.  After  the  principles 
were  published,  ii.  Augnsto  Scheurer  of  Mahl- 
hansen  Baggest«d  the  passing  of  the  goods  from 
the  lime  into  diluted  acid.  This  step,  by  no 
means  essential,  increases  the  oertidnty  of  an 
easy  decomposition  of  the  lime  soap,  as  tbe 
aoid  seizing  the  base  enters  into  combination 
with  it,  leaving  the  fatty  acid  f^ee  to  combine 
with  the  base  of  the  alkaline  carbonate,  and 
form  soluble  soap.  In  describing  the  process 
'  as  almost  perfect,  a  point  was  in  view  which 
called  for  this  qnali^ng  phrase.  Dr.  Dana 
found  that  after  the  new  process  had  been  ap- 
plied, and  moditied  applications  hod  been  made, 
there  still  remained  adhering  to  the  fibre  a  sub- 
stance which  has  many  of  the  characters  of 
wax.  This  substance  he  studied  at  great 
length,  separating  it  from  bleached  cott«n  by 
means  of  boiling  alcohol,  which  deposits  it  on 
cooling.  Its  few  affinities  do  not  allow  of  the 
application  of  any  special  agent  for  removing 
it  wboliy  \  while  the  solution  of  rosin  in  alkali, 
combining  with  it,  dissolves  a  portion.  This 
body,  unlike  was  in  its  relation  to  coloring 
matter,  becomes  tint«d  in  ordinary  madder 
printing  at  the  points  where  it  is  desirable  that 
white  ground  only  should  appear,  and  no  modi- 
fication of  bleaching  methods  has  yet  met  or 
overcome  this  difficulty.  The  steps  of  the  pro- 
cess are  as  follows :  1.  Steep  the  cloth  in  wa- 
ter at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  for  24 
hours.  2.  Pass  throngh  a  bath  of  milky  caus- 
tic lime,  containing  60  lbs.  for  2,G40  lbs.  of 
cloth.  3,  Boil  the  cloth  as  it  passes  from  the 
aecond  operation  six  hours,  counting  from  the 
moment  ebullition  actually  occurs,  under  a 
pressure  of  40  to  GO  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  4. 
Wash  through  the  washing  machine.  5.  Pass 
through  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  till  it 
marks  2°  B.  6.  Wash  in  machine.  T.  Boil  six 
hours,  under  a  pressure  of  40  to  60  lbs,  to  the 
square  inch,  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
containing  100  lbs.  for  ^600  lbs.  of  cloth,  and 
in  which  40  lbs.  of  common  rosin  have  been 
previously  dissolved.     8.  Wash  in  machine. 

9.  Pass  in  washing  machine  through  a  dear 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  markinit  1°  B. 

10.  Expose  the  cloth,  as  it  is  folded  from  the 


BLEACHING  POWDER 

machine  into  pits  with  open  sides,  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air  and  carbonic  acid,  still  satu- 
rated with  the  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 
11.  Pass  in  washing  machine  through  aolphu- 
rio  acid  and  diluted  to  2°  B.  IB  and  IS.  Wash 
twice  in  machine.  The  boiling  is  done  in  Bar- 
low's biers,  which  are  especially  adapted  to 
this  proocM,  which  has  come  tc  be  r^arded 
both  in  this  country  and  Europe  as  the  rim- 
plest  and  best  in  use. 

BLEICHUe  POWDB.  By  the  action  ol 
chlorine  gas  upon  hydrate  of  lime,  a  compound 
is  produced  which  is  known  by  the  common 
name  of  chloride  of  lime.  By  the  calico 
printers,  and  others  who  make  use  of  it  for  ila 
bleaching  properties,  it  is  called  bleaching 
powder.  It  is  also  known  as  bypocliloHt«  of 
lime,  chlorinated  lime,  &o.  ^e  compound 
was  first  prepared  by  Mr.  Tennant  of  Glasgow, 
in  experimenting  upon  tbe  best  applications  of 
chlorine  to  blearing  purposes.  He  first  made 
it  in  the  form  of  the  saturated  liquid  solution ; 
and  in  1TS6  hetookont  a  patent  for  impregnat- 
ing dry  quickline  with  chlorine.  By  the  sng- 
geedon  of  one  of  his  partners,  slacked  lime,  or 
the  hydrate,  was  substituted  for  the  quickliine, 
having  the  property  of  absorbing  large  quan- 
tities of  the  gas,  which  the  quicklime  has  not 
In  preparing  it,  a  pure  quality  of  lime  is  re- 
quired, free  from  iron,  clay,  and  msgnesia,  the 
Eresence  of  which  would  seriously  affect  the 
leaching  process.  It  should  also  be  well  and 
ireshly  burned,  and  freed  from  all  carbonic 
scid.  Enough  water  is  then  to  be  added  to  it  to 
cause  it  to  fall  into  a  fine  whit«  powder,  which 
is  the  hydrate  of  lime.  Chlorine  is  prepared 
by  several  different  processes.  One  of  theses 
still  common,  though  becoming  superseded  by 
other  methods  and  by  modifications,  consists 
in  decomposing  hydrochloric  acid  by  heating 
it  in  contact  with  coarsely  pulverized  black 
oxide  of  manganese.  This  substance  furnishes 
a  large  amount  of  oxygen  gas,  which  in  mntnal 
decomposition  unites  with  tbe  bydrogen  of  the 
hydrochloric  acid  to  form  water,  setting  free 
the  chlorine,  an  atom  of  which  takes  the  place 
of  the  oxygen,  forming  chloride  of  manganese, 
and  another  atom  escapes.  These  changee  are 
represented  by  the  following  formula,  the  first 
part  of  the  equation  being  the  materials  em- 
ployed, and  the  second  the  products  obtained: 
4HCl  +  Mn,0,=2H,0-f211nCl-(-2Ci.  Another 
process  consists  in  mixing  the  manganese  ox- 
ide with  common  salt  and  adding  sulphnric 
acid.  The  changee  which  are  then  effected 
are  represented  as  follows:  2NaCl -t-8HiS- 
0,  +  Mn,0,=  Na,SO,  +  Un,SO,-i-  2H.0  -f-2CI. 
It  is  important  that  the  manganese  ore  should 
be  of  the  purest  quality,  in  order  to  obtaui 
from  it  the  largest  quantity  of  oxygen  gas. 
Black  oxide  of  manganese  when  pure  gives  up 
at  a  whit«heat  88-1  per  cent  of  its  weight  of 
oxygen,  and  posses  into  the  red  oxide.  Chlo- 
rine gas  is  thus  prepared  in  targe  alembics  or 
stills,  which  are  made  of  cast  iron,  where  ex- 
posed to  strong  heat,  and  in  part  of  strtuig 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLEACHING  POWDER 

sheet  lend ;  or  Bometimes  of  Etones  closet?  fitted 
and  cemented  to  each  other.  The  lower  por- 
tjon  is  sometimes  made  double  for  the  parpose 
of  introdaciag  steam  to  heat  the  mixture  is  the 
inner  vessel.  The  materials  introduced  are  in 
the  following  proportions,  Tat«d  as  if  pure,  but 
varying  with  their  impurities:  hinoxide  of 
manganese,  100  parts;  commousalt,  150  parts; 
and  snlphnric  aoid,  of  specific  gravity  I'S,  abont 
165  parts.  The  temperature  la  kept  at  aboat 
180°  F.,  and  the  materials  are  kept  in  agitation 
by  a  stirrer,  which  is  made  to  revolve  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  vessel.  As  the  gas  is  evolved, 
it  passes  by  a  lend  pipe  to  the  purifier,  and  into 
the  top  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  hydrate 
of  lime  is  deposited  in  trays,  which  are  placed 
npon  shelves.  Heat  is  generated  by  the  chem- 
i^  combination;  bnt  it  sbonld  not  be  allowed 
to  ezoeed  63°  F.,  the  sopply  of  chlorine  being 
oheoked'to  keep  the  temperature  down.  For 
two  days  the  process  goes  on,  when  it  is  stopped, 
that  the  woricmen  may  enter  with  half  a  set  of 
trays  of  fresh  hydrate  of  lime  to  replace  an 
eqaal  quantity  which  has  been  exposed  fonr 
days  to  the  action  of  the  ga^  and  to  stir  over 
that  which  has  been  in  two  days.  Half  a 
charge  is  thus  taken  oat  every  two  days. 
When  well  mode,  it  shonld  be  a  uniform  white 
powder,  without  lumps,  smelling  of  chlorine, 
dissolving  with  little  residne  in  30  parts  of 
water  with  alkaline  reaction,  end  attracting 
moisture  very  slowly  from  the  air.     When  pro- 

Cod  in  a  liquid  state,  the  gas  is  passed  mto 
e  water,  till  this  is  saturated  with  it.  The 
lolutdon,  for  the  quantity  of  lime  it  contains,  is 
rtronger  than  the  dry  powder,  hut  it  is  not  so 
permanent  in  character,  the  oldoHne  sooner 
escaping  from  it. — Mr.  Tennant  of  Glasgow 
employs  a  method  devised  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Dunlop 
for  liberating  chlorine  from  common  salt  with 
mtrate  of  soda  and  sulphuric  aoid.  If  one 
equivalent  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  three  of  chlo- 


e  generated.  The  acids  are  separated 
by  passing  all  three  of  the  gases  successively 
through  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  chlo- 
rine, not  being  absorbed  by  eitlier  the  acid  or 
the  water,  may  be  passed  on  into  the  lime 
ohamber.  The  process  of  Mr.  Weldon  consists 
in  neutralizing  the  residual  liquor  containing 
manganese  chloride,  which  is  produced  in  the 
ordinary  process,  with  hydrocljloric  acid  and 
manganese  oxide,  with  finely  divided  carbonate 
of  lime.  This  produces  a  neutral  mixed  soln- 
tion  of  chloride  of  manganese  and  chloride 
of  calcium,  holding  in  suspension  considerable 
sulphate  of  lime  and  small  quantities  of  oxide 
of  iron  and  ainmina.  The  mixture  is  then 
pnmped  into  settling  tanks,  where  these  snb- 
stances  subside,  leaving  the  liquor  clear,  which 
is  then  run  off  into  a  vessel  called  tlie  oxidizer. 
Air  is  forced  through  it  and  milk  of  lime  added 
until  the  manganese  in  the  liquor  is  principally 
converted  into  peroxide.  This  process  is  now 
extensively  employed.    Deacon's  process,  de- 


BLEDOW 


Tor 


signed  to  obviate  the  use  of  manganese  oxide, 
is  founded  on  the  fact  that  if  a  mixture  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  and  oxygen  is  heated  in  the 
presence  of  certain  sabstances,  a  catalytic  force 
canses  the  decomposition  of  the  liydrochlorio 
acid,  the  hydrogen  combining  with  the  oxygen, 
whUe  the  chlorine  is  set  free.  The  gases  are 
passed  through  a  reverberatory  furnace  heated 
to  700°  or  750°  F.  over  pieces  of  brick  which 
have  been  saturated  with  a  solution  of  salphate 
of  copper,  and  dried. — The  precise  chemical 
constitution  of  chloride  of  lime  has  always  been 
a  subject  of  controversy,  which  can  hardly  be 
held  as  settled  at  the  present  time.  Dr.  Ure 
considered  the  commercial  article  as  a  mixture, 
to  no  definite  proportions,  of  chlorine  and  hy- 
drate of  lime,  and  believed  that  the  more  defi- 
nite compound  prepared  with  dry  calcium  hy- 
drate contained  chlorine  in  direct  combination 
with  the  hydrate,  Fresenius  regards  it  as  a 
mixture  of  calcium  chloride,  CaCl,  and  oalcinm 
hypochlorite,  GaOCl  or  OaClO, ;  and  this  is 
the  view  taken  by  Wagner  and  others.  These 
opinions,  it  mnst  be  home  in  mind,  relate  to 
the  pure,  dry  article,  and  not  to  the  commercial 
one.  The  subject  has  lately  been  carefully  in- 
vestigated by  Kolb  [Juhnatrwht,  1887),  who 
finds  that  the  most  concentrated  preparation 
which  can  be  produoed  by  saturating  dry  cal- 
cium hydrate  with  chlorine  conteins  SB'S  per 
cent,  of  chlorine,  40'S  of  lime,  and  34'7  of 
water,  in  which  the  water  and  the  whole  of 
the  lime  are  essential  constituents.  Commer- 
cial bleaching  powder  conteins  more  water  as 
well  as  free  Time.  Dry  chloride  of  lime  is  de- 
composed by  water  with  separation  of  caldum 
hydrate  and  the  formation  of  a  solution  con- 
tuning  chloride  and  hypochlorite  of  calcium. 
Kolb,  reasoning  from  the  fact  that  dry  bleach- 
ing powder  and  the  solution  comport  them- 
selves differently  under  tlie  influence  of  A'ee 
chlorine  and  heat,  thinks  that  the  first  does 
not  contun  a  ready-formed  hypochlorite,  but 
is  a  compound  which  may  be  represented  by 
the  formula  CaiHiOiCli.  Dry  chloride  of  lime, 
moreover,  is  completely  decomposed  by  carbo- 
nic acid  with  evolution  of  chlorine,  while  only 
half  tiie  lime  is  precipitated  from  the  solution 
by  this  agent,  with  separation  of  hypochloroas 
acid,  which  does  not  act  upon  the  remaining 
chloride,  tiolid  chloride  oi  lime  in  moist  air 
behaves  in  the  same  way,  from  which  it  appears 
that  bleaching  powder,  on  exposure  without 
the  addition  of  an  acid,  yields  hypochloroua 
acid  and  nut  free  chlorine.  For  the  determina- 
tion of  the  available  amount  of  chlorine  in  a 
given  quantity  of  bleaching  powder,  see  Culo- 


BLEDOW,  Lidirig,  a  German  chess  player, 
bom  July  27, 1795,  died  Aug.  6,  1848.  He  was 
a  teacher  of  mathematics,  and  founded  the  so- 
called  Berlin  cheas  school  and  the  Srst  German 
journal  on  chess,  Berlinsr  Schaehseilung.  He 
pnblished  two  small  collections  of  outlines  of 
games,  and  edited  the  work  of  the  Syrian  chese 
player  Stamma.    Ills  extensive  collection  of 


.Google 


708  BL£D80E 

workfl  relating  to  ohess  was  parchosed  hj  the 
rojol  library  of  Berlin. 

BLHI80E,  a  6.  E.  count;  of  Tennessee,  druned 
by  the  Sequat«hie  river;  area,  480  aq.  ni. ;  pop. 
In  1670,  4,870,  of  whom  708  were  colored.  It 
haa  an  uneven  and  partly  monntunooa  aar&ce. 
Coal  is  found  in  seveiul  places.  Tbe  chief 
prodactiona  in  1870  were  22,084  buahela  of 
wheat,  301,667  of  lodi&a  corn,  and  31,550  of 
o&ts.  There  were  1,187  horaes,  1,854  milch 
cows,  8,969  other  cattie,  5,665  sleep,  and  11,- 
048  awine.     Capital,  Pikeville. 

BLi3>S0E,  llbMt  T>]1«r,  an  American  author 
and  instmotor,  boru  in  Eentaoky  abont  180B, 
died  in  Alexandria,  Vs.,  Deo,  8,  1877.     He 

fradaated  at  the  military  academy  at  West 
oint  in  1830,  and  served  on  the  frontiers  till 
1882.  Id  1838-'4  he  wa9  prufeasor  of  mathe- 
niatiM  in  Eenyon  college,  Ohio;  in  18S6-'6, 
in  Hiami  nnivereity.  In  1940-'48  he  practised 
law  at  Springflel*^  111.  la  184S-'GS  he  was 
professor  of  matberaatics  and  astronomy  in 
the  university  of  MiBaissippi,  and  in  18G8-'61 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  aniverutj  of 
Virginia.  He  took  part  with  the  confederates 
in  the  civil  war.  He  wrote  "  Ad  Examination 
of  Edwards  on  the  WiU  "  (1846);  "Theodicy, 
or  YiDdication  of  tbe  Divine  Olory"  (1868); 
and  "Easay  od  Liberty  and  Slavery  "  (1866). 
After  tbe  war  he  went  to  England,  where  he 
remained  for  some  time.  Kotarning  to  Amer- 
ica, he  took  np  his  residenoe  in  Baltimore, 
and  became  editor  of  the  "  Sonthern  Review," 
published  at  St.  Loqlb,  under  the  auspices  ot 
the  Uetbodist  Episcopal  Church  Sonth. 

BLiXK.  I.  FrieMtH,  A  German  tbeologian, 
bom  at  Ahrenshak,  Holstein,  July  4, 1798,  died 
In  Bonn,  Feb.  27,  1869.  He  studied  under 
De  Wette,  Sohleiermacher,  and  Neander,  and 
after  being  connected  with  the  university  of 
Berlin,  was  for  80  years  (1829- '5fl)  professor 
of  theology  in  Bonn.  His  principal  work,  J)er 
Jiriff  an  die  BebTAer,  is  a  translation  of  and 
commentary  on  the  epistle  to  the  Hehrewa  (8 
vols.,  Berlin,  ]e28-'4(l).  In  his  BeitrOgt  tur 
EmngdUaeritik  (1846)  he  vindicated  the  au- 
thenticity of  tlie  Gospel  of  St.  John  against  the 
attack  of  the  new  Tubingen  schooL  After  his 
death  appeared  other  works,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  Einleitung  ia  dot  AlU  Tet- 
tam«nt  (edited  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Johann 
Friedricb  Bleek,  and  by  Campbausen,  Berlin, 
1860),  and  Einleitung  in  dot  Neve  Testament 
(edited  solely  by  the  former,  1863).  II.  Wll- 
beta  HriuM  iMMaaid,  a  German  philolo^st, 
son  of  tlio  preceding,  bom  in  Berlin,  Mitrcb  8. 
1827,  died  in  Cape  Town,  Aug.  17. 1876.  He 
accompanied  Balkie's  expedition  to  tbe  Niger 
to  1854 ;  but  ill  health  compelling  his  return 
after  his  arrival  at  Fernando  Fo,  he  went  with 
Bisbop  Colenso  to  Natal  in  1866,  and  the  next 
year  removed  to  Gape  Town,  where  Sir  George 
Greysabseguentlyappointed  him  director  of  the 
library  which  he  bad  presented  to  tbe  colony. 
He  pnblished  a  "  Vooahnjary  of  the  Mocamhique 
Languages  "  (London,  1856) ;  ■  "  Oatalc^e  of 


BLEND£ 

Sir  George  Grey's  library"  (18S8-'9);  "  Com- 
parative Grammar  of  South  African  Lan- 
guages" (2  vols..  Cape  Town  and  London, 
I862-'9),  Ac.;  and  he  was  the  principal  author 
of  a  "Handbook  of  African,  Aastralian,  and 
Polynesian  Philology "  (8  vols.,  London  and 
Cape  Town,  1868-'63). 

BLEUnED,  Gewg,  a  German  painter,  bom 
at  Xanten,  Rbenish  Prussia,  March  37,  1838. 
He  studied  at  Ddaaeldorf^  and  has  resided  in 
Berlin  since  1858.  His  "  Battle  of  Waterioo  " 
and  severa]  other  works  are  in  the  gallery  of 
tbe  prince  of  Hoheniollem-Sigmaringen.  The 
national  galleir  of  Berlin  commiaaioned  him 
to  paint  "  Tbe  Battle  of  KOni^(rfitz." 

BLkiikS,  or  Bhwiyt*,  on  ancient  nomadio 
race  of  AtVica,  who  appear  to  have  occupied 
different  rerions  at  different  epochs.  In  Ptole- 
my's time  tney  held  tbe  territory  between  tho 
Astaboras  (Bahr-el-Azrek)  and  Astapns  (At- 
bara).  Older  authorities  speak  of  them  as  ei- 
tending  beyond  the  deaert  of  Libya.  In  tbe 
2d  century  A.  D.  they  bad  become  very 
powerful  about  the  borders  of  Eeypt,  then 
under  Roman  rule,  and  even  made  warlike 
and  predatory  expeditions  into  the  provincCL 
Diocletian  mode  extensive  concessions  to  their 
powerful  chiefa,  and  Mve  up  to  them  the  parts 
of  Nubia  held  by  the  Romans.  They  continued 
their  hostile  expeditions,  however,  and  as  lat« 
as  the  7th  century  molested  tbe  inhabitants 
of  tbe  territory  about  them.  Several  ancient 
writers  represented  the  Blemyes  as  a  fahn- 
lo»a  race,  and  many  stories  were  current  of 
their  savage  and  ferocious  appearance  and 
habits.  Tbe  Bialiareen,  Ababaeh,  and  other 
tribes  of  tbe  present  day  ore  suppoaed  to  he 
their  descend  nnta. 

BLEIfDE  (Ger.  blendeti,  to  dec«ve),  a  com- 
mon ore  of  zinc,  so  named  because,  while  often 
resembling  galena,  it  yielded  no  lead,  and  thas 
deceived  the  miners.  Another  name  for  it  ii 
sphalerite,  from  a^}jpi(,  treacherous.  When 
pure  it  is  composed  of  sulphur  88,  zinc  67= 
100 ;  but  part  of  the  zino  is  often  replaced  bj 
iron,  and  occadonally  by  cadminm.  It  stKne- 
times  occurs  in  brilliant  tetrahcdral  cryatala, 
also  fibrous,  radiated,  and  massive.  Its  lustre 
is  resinous  to  adamantine;  color  brown,  yel- 
low, block,  red,  green — white  or  yellow  when 
pure.  Tbe  English  miners  call  it  blackjack. 
Blende  is  found  in  both  crystalline  and  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  usually  associated  with  galena, 
also  with  barite,  fluorite,  siderite,  and  or«s  of 
silrer.  It  abounds  with  the  lead  ore  of  Mis- 
souri, Wisconran,  Iowa,  end  Illinois,  and  has 
been  found  in  many  other  localities  in  tbe 


sj-lvania,  Hungary,  the  Hartz,  Sahla  in  Swe- 
den, and  many  Boxon  localities. — Owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  working  this  cinsa  of  ore,  it 
was  formerly  allowed  to  accumulate  about  the 
mouths  of  mines,  and  was  not  economized  for 
zinc  In  modem  times,  with  improved  metal- 
lurgical proceases,  zinc  is  lately  made  from 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLENHEIM 

bUnde,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Calamine  ia  preferred,  bat  where  this  cannot 
be  had,  the  blende  is  nu  longer  thrown  awuy. 
Bj  oxidation  blende  sometimes  chnnges  to 
dno  vitriol,  and  in  the  Hartz  mnoh  zinc  is  re- 
claimed in  this  wuy.  In  1803  Professors  Reich 
and  Kicht«r  of  Freiberg  discovered  a  new 
metal  astiociated  with  zinc  in  blende,  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  indium,  from  the  bine 
lines  it  produced  on  the  spectrum. — The  word 
blende  is  used  to  designate  sulphur  ores  in 
general ;  for  example,  copper  blende,  manga- 
nese blende,  and  silver  blende  are  the  snlphur 
compounds  of  those  metala. 

■LENHEn,  or  BtbuUutM,  a  Tillage  of  BavaHa, 
on  the  Dannbe,  28  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Augsburg, 
It  WHS  the  scene  of  a  batUe  on  Aug.  18,  1704, 
between  the  English  and  Austrians,  nnder  the 
dnke  of  Marlborongh  and  Prince  Eugene,  and 
the  French  and  Bavarians,  commanded  bj  Tal- 
lard,  Marsin,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  The 
Anglo- Austrian  armj  numbered  about  S2,000 
men,  while  that  of  the  French  and  Bavarians 
was  60,000  strong.  After  a  fierce  contest  the 
duhe  of  Marlborough  forced  Uarshal  Tallard 
to  snrrender  with  about  18,000  men,  while  £a- 


BLENNEEHASSETT 


709 


Blenbelni  Booas. 

gene  ntterl^  rooted  tibe  Bavarians.   There  vere 

upward  of  10,000  men  killed  and  wonnded  on 
the  Frenah  and  Bavarian  side,  while  hundreds 
were  drowned  in  the  Danube.  The  English 
lost  5,000  killed  and  8,000  wonnded.  On  the 
European  continent  tliis  is  generally  called  the 
battle  of  HOchstfldt,  from  a  small  town  near  the 
scene.  The  buttle  decided  the  campaign  ;  Ba- 
varia fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Aastriana,  and 
the  prestige  of  Louis  XIV,  was  gone.  In  re- 
ward for  this  victory  Queen  Anne  bestowed 
npon  Uarlborongh  a  tract  of  land  since  called 
Blenheim  park,  containing  2,940  acres,  near 
Woodstock,  Oxfordshire;  and  npon  this  was 
erected,  witih  a  parliamentary  grant  off  600,000, 
a  magnificent  residence  called  Blenheim  honse, 


after  a  design  by  Bir  John  Vanbrngb.  It  waa 
completed  in  ITIG. — Another  notable  battle 
occurred  near  Blenheim  in  1800,  when  the 
French  defeated  the  Austrians. 

BLENNEKHISSETT,  Hanua,  a  victim  of  Aaron 
Burr's  conspiracy,  born  in  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  8,  1TS4  or  '66,  died  in  the  island  of 
Uuemsey,  Feb,  1,  1831.     He  was  of  Irish  de- 
scent, and  was  educated  in  the  university  of 
Dublin  and  called  to  the  bar;  but  becoming 
discontented  with  the  condition  of  Ireland,  be 
sold  hie  Irish  estates  for  more  than  |100,000 
and  sailed  for  New  York  in  179T.    Alter  spend- 
ing some  time  in  studying  the  country,  he 
purchased  an  island  of  170  acres  in  the  Ohio 
river,  two  miles  below  Farkersburg,  on  which 
he  built  a  fine  mansion  and  made  all  the  em- 
bellishments which   wealth  and  taste  could 
supply.    His  home  became  widely  known  for 
its   elegance  and    the  culture   which    distin- 
guished its  inmat«a.     Among  the  visitors   to 
this  beantiftl    retreat  was  Aaron  Bnrr,  who 
went  there  in  180S  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  Blennerhaasett.    By  his  skilfiil  address  he 
soon  enlisted  him  in  bis  Mexican  schemes, 
in  the  belief  that  tlie  conntry  was  likely  to 
be  involved  in  war  with 
Spain,  and    a  fortnne 
might  easily  be  made 
by    enterprise.      Burr 
was  to  be  emperor,  and 
Blennerhaasett  a  dnke 
and     ambassador     to 
England.    Blennerhas- 
Bett  invested  largely  in 
boats,  provisions,  arms, 
and  ammunition.     He 
left  his  home  and  f^i- 
ly  and  went  to  Ken- 
tucky,    where     being 
warned  of  Burr's  real 
desi^s,  he  returned  to 
the  island  greatly  dis- 
heartened.    However, 
through  Burr's  repeat- 
ed    solicitations,     and 
the  persuasions  of  his 
wife,    who    had    now 
enlisted  in  the  under- 
taking with  ber  whole 
soul,  he  persisted.     A  proclamation  against 
the  scheme  having  been  publiahed  by  Pre^- 
deiit   Jelferson,  Blennerhaasett,   who  was   in 
hourly    expectation    of    being    arrested,    es- 
caped  from  the  island  Dec.   10,  and,  man- 
aging to  elnde  pursuit,  joined  Bnrr's  flotilla 
at  the  month  of  the  Cumberland  river.    He 
was  afterward  arrested   and  sent  to  Bich- 
mond  for  trial  (1807);  but  the  ease  against 
Bnrr  resulting  in  acquittal,  the  other  conapira- 
tors  were  discharged.    Bankrapt  in  fortnne 
and  broken  down  in  mind,  Blennerhassett  re- 
tired to  Natchez.     His  island  had  been  seized 
by  creditors,  everything  upon  it  which  could 
be  converted  into  money  hod  been  sold  at  a 
minoas  sacrifice,  and  the  beautiful  grounds 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


710 


BLENNY 


,  were  need  for  the  coltare  of  hemp,  the  man- 
BioD  being  converted  into  a  storehouse  for  the 
crops.  Id  ISll  he  endeavored  to  recover 
from  Gov.  Alston,  Bnrr's  aon-in-kw,  $23,500, 
a  balance  of  some  $00,000,  for  vrbich  he  al- 
leged Alston  n'ns  responsihle.  Utileag  thia 
WHS  paid  he  threatened  to  publish  a  book 
vhich  he  had  prepared  exposing  the  whole 
conspiracy.  He  afterward  bonght  1,000  acres 
of  land  near  Port  Gibson,  Mississippi,  for  e, 
cotton  plantation;  but  the  war  of  1812  pros- 
trated all  commercial  enterprises.  Becoming 
coDtinaaDj  poorer,  in  1819  he  removed  with 
his  family  to  Montreal,  where  he  practised  law 
for  a  time.  He  sailed  for  Ireland  in  1622,  to 
prosecute  a  reversionary  claim  still  exbting 
there.  In  thia  he  fdled;  nor  did  he  meet 
with  any  success  in  his  application  for  aid  to 
the  marquis  of  Anglesey,  whom  he  had  for- 
merly known.  He  endeavored  to  prooare  em- 
ployment from  tliB  government  of  Portngal, 
and  from  the  South  American  repnblio  of  Co- 
lombia; projected  some  improvements  in  fire- 
arms; and  tried  to  obtain  a  situation  as  com- 
panion to  an  infirm  kinsman.  During  the  later 
years  of  his  life  he  was  supported  by  a  maiden 
sister,  who  had  a  small  estate,  which  she  left 
to  his  wife  and  children. — His  wife,  the  dangh- 
ter  of  Governor  Agnew  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  waa 
a  woman  of  mnoh  talent.     About  1623  she 


and  other  Poems,"  which  contain  many  fine 
passages.  In  1842  she  returned  to  America, 
and  petitioned  congress  for  a  grant  of  money 
for  the  spoliation  of  her  former  home.  The 
petition  was  presented  by  Henry  Clay,  and  a 
committee  of  the  senate  reported  favorably 
apon  it;  but  she  died  before  the  bill  was  acted 
upon,  and  was  buried  in  New  York  by  sisters 
of  charity. — Blennerhassett  had  three  sods,  the 
yoaugest  of  whom,  Josrph  Lewis,  became  a 
lawyer  in  Missonri,  and  ^mished  Uie  original 
doonraenta  for  the  "  Blennerhassett  Papers, 
with  a  Memoir,"  by  William  H,  Safford  (8vo, 
New  York,  1884). 

BLENNT,  aname  given  to  several  spiny-rayed 
fishes  of  the  goby  family,  but  especially  to  the 
genua  liUnniu$  (Cuv.).  They  have  the  body 
covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  mucus, 
in  which  are  imbedded  small  soft  scales;  the 
ventral  fins  are  io  advance  of  the  pectorals, 
and  generally  have  only  two  rays;  head  blunt 
and  rounded;  dorsal  fln  long,  generally  with 
the  edge  interrupted ;  teeth  slender,  in  a  single 
row.  The  species  are  small  in  the  true  blen- 
nies,  2|^  to  5  inches  long,  living  in  small  shoals ; 
active  and  tenacious  of  life,  thoy  crawl  out  of 
water  in  crevices  of  rocks,  biding  among  the 
weeds  till  the  next  tide.  Several  species  are 
described  in  northern  Europe,  distinguished 
from  each  other  and  from  allied  genera  by  the 
number  of  the  fimbriated  appendages  about 
the  bead.  One  called  the  butterfly  fish  or 
the  eyed  blenny  {B.  ocellarig)  hss  a  dark 
brown  spot  on  the  dorsal    fin.     The  genns 


pliolit,  called  in  England  the  shanny,  has  no 
appendages  on  the  head.  The  B.  terpentinoM 
of  our  coast  atttuns  a  length  of  18  inches;  the 


Eyed  Bknti;  (BlenBlas  oodlnla). 

American  shanny  resembles  the  EDTopean. 
The  gunnels  {gvuntllug,  Flem.)  are  also  blen- 
niea,  with  an  elongated  body,  velvet-like  teeth, 
very  long  and  low  dorsal  fin,  and  ventrals  ex- 
ceedingly small;  one  species,  called  the  hotter 
fish,  attains  the  length  of  a  foot.  In  the  ge- 
nus toarce*  (Cuv.)  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  cand^ 
fins  are  united,  which,  with  the  elongated 
body,  have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  eel- 
pout.  The  ventrals  are  under  the  throat  and 
small.  This  genus  includes  the  viviparous 
blenny,  Z.  tiviparva  of  Europe  and  Z.  anguil- 
larit  of  this  country.  The  young  are  bronght 
forth  alive,  and  able  to  provide  for  themselves 


From  the  green  hue  of  the  bones  when  boiled, 
a  common  English  name  for  it  is  "  green-bone." 
In  this  blenny  the  ovarian  bag  of  the  mature 
ens  is  a  double  sac,  having  a  disk  of  consider- 
able size  at  the  upper  part,  where  the  sperma- 
tozoa may  come  mto  contact  with  the  yolk 
membrane.  The  American  species  attains  a 
length  of  84-  feet,  and  is  occasionally  caught 
by  cod-fishers,  who  call  it  ling  and  conger  eel ; 
it  is  of  a  light  salmon  color,  with  irregular 
olive  blotches.  The  blennies  feed  upon  mol- 
lusks  and  cniHtaoeans,  aDd  the  flean  of  the 
young  of  the  larger  species  is  very  good.  They 
use  their  ventral  fins  almost  as  legs  to  climb 
on  the  rocks ;  the  small  size  of  the  branchial 
openings,  preventing  the  rapid  escape  of  water 
from  and  the  entrance  of  air  into  the  gill 
chamber,  enables  them  to  live  several  hours 
out  of  water.  They  are  said  to  have  no  air 
bladder  or  rndimentary  lung. 

BLfisfe,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cher, 
13  m.  E.  S.E.  of  Tours;  pop.  in  1866,  3,661. 
In  the  vicinity  stands  the  castle  of  Ohenon- 
oeani,  Originally  a  simple  manor  house,  it 
was  enlarged  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  to 
its  present  dimensions.  Henry  II.  purchased 
it  is  1635,  and  gave  it  to  Diana  of  Poitiera, 
who,  before  Completing  the  magnificent  em- 
bellishments which  ahe  had  commenced,  was 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLESSINGTCS 

forced  to  jield  it  to  Cfttharine  de'  Medici.  The 
latter  adorned  the  castle  atiti  more  richly,  and 
sarroimded  it  with  a  beaDtifn]  park.    It  after- 


Tlic 


nard  came  into  the  possession  of  the  honae  of 

CoDd£,  and  after  manj'  vicisaitodes  was  par- 
chaaed  in  1733  b^  Gen.  Dupio,  whose  accom- 
plished wife  made  it  the  resort  of  some  of 
ihe  roost  celebrated  men  of  the  18th  centarj. 
MontesqiiicD,  Voltaire,  Funtenelle,  liolingbroke, 
BaffoD,  and  others,  were  among  its  tVequcnt 
Tiaitors.  The  castle  is  still  in  excellent  pres- 
ervation. The  remains  of  a  Roman  aqneduct 
are  to  be  seen  near  the  citj.  B\6t6  is  the  entre- 
pot of  the  trade  along  the  Cher,  and  is  espe- 
wally  noted  for  its  red  wines. 

BLBSSINGTftN,  Muf  uct,  countess  of,  an  Irish 
woman  of  letters,  bom  near  Clonmel,  Sept.  1, 
1789,  died  in  Paris,  June  4,  1849.  She  was 
the  tJiird  daughter  of  Mr.  Edmund  Power,  and 
when  only  15  ^ears  old  married  Oapt.  Farmer. 
The  marriage  was  an  nnhappy  one,  and  within 
fonr  months  after  her  husband's  death  in  1817 
she  married  Charles  John  Gardiner,  earl  of 
Blesrangton.  With  him  she  saw  raach  of  fash- 
ionable life,  and  travelled  extensively  on  the 
continent.  She  formed  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  Lord  Bjron  at  Genoa;  and  at  Paris, 
where  she  lived  for  some  tune  with  her  has- 
band,  Connt  d'Orsay  was  an  inmate  of  their 
honw.  D'Orsay  had  married  and  afterward 
been  separated  from  a  daughter  of  the  earl  by 
a  former  wife.  Soon  after  the  earl's  death, 
which  took  place  at  Paris  in  1829,  Lady  Bles- 
eington  went  to  reude  at  Gore  House,  Kensing- 
ton. Her  social  position  was  somewhat  oom- 
promised  by  her  intimacy  with  Connt  d'Oraay, 
ont  she  gathered  at  her  house  a  brilliant  circle 
of  the  notable  people  of  the  day.  Her  eipen- 
give  manner  of  living  fcreatly  impaired  her 
fortune,  and  she  resorted  to  the  pen  mainly 
for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  her  means.  She 
first  appeared  oe  an  author  in  1325,  with  some 


BLIQH  711 

London  sketches  entitled  "The  Uagio  Lan- 
tern," which  were  followed  by  "Travelling 
Sketches  in  Belpnm."     Her  "  Conversations 
with     Lord     Byron," 
pablished  first  in  18S2 
in  the  "New  Monthly 
Magazine,"   afterward 
appeared  in  book  form, 
and  excited  a  consider - 
oble   degree   of   inter- 
est.   Subsequently  she 
lublished    "  Desultory 
houf^hts  and  Reflec- 
tions,"    and     several 
novels ;    among   tliem 
"Grace  Cassidy,  or  the 
Repealers,"  "The  Two 
Friends,"  "Meredith," 
"Strathern,""Marma- 
dnke  Hobert,"    "The 
Governess,"  "The  Vic- 
tims of  Society,"  &o. 
The  last  named  is  con- 
ndered  one  of  her  best 
works.      Bewdes    her 
novels,  she  wrote  illus- 
trated books  of  poetry, 
and  books  of  travel,  as  "  The  Idler  in  France  " 
and  "  The  Idler  in  Italy,"  and  at  the  same  time 
she  was  an  active  conlribntor  to  many  English 
magazines,  and  tiie  editor  of  fashionable  an- 
nuals.   In  1B49  Count  D'Orsay  went  to  Paris 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  some  preferment  from 
Lonis  Napoleon,  then  president  of  the  French 
republic;  and  she  followed  bim   thither,  bnt 
died  soon  after  reaching  that  capital. — See  Mad' 
den's  "  Literary  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the 
Ooontessof  Blessington"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1866). 

BUCHU,  SteM  SUtMsei,  a  Danish  anthor, 
bornat  Vinm,  province  of  Viborg,  Oct.  11, 1782, 
died  at  Spentmp,  Jutland,  March  26,  1848 
He  was  a  graduate  of  the  nnivernity  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  a  clergyman  at  Thorning  and  at 
Spentrnp.  He  translated  Oseinn  (2  vols.,  1807 
-'BJ,  pnbliahed  poems  (1814-'17),  and  wrote  for 
the  album  Smeklokttn  (1826)  and  the  monthly 
magazine  Nordlytet  (1827-'9).  In  some  of  his 
best  ballads  he  employed  the  dialect  of  Jutland, 
and  he  described  the  popular  life  of  that 
country  in  some  of  his  novels.  His  select 
poetry  was  publLihed  at  Copenhagen  in  3  vols., 
I835-'e,  and  a  third  complete  edition  of  his 
works  in  188I-'a,  in  8  vols. 

BLIDIH,  or  BIMa,  a  town  of  Algeria,  on  the 
borders  of  the  fertile  plain  of  Metidjah,  25  nu 
8.  S.  W.  of  Algiers;  pop.  in  1866,  fl,B7B.  It  is 
a  station  on  the  first  railway  ever  built  in  Al- 
geria. It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1830, 
but  first  occupied  by  them  in  1838. 

BUKH,  WUtlaH,  an  English  navigator,  bom 
in  1T58,  died  in  London,  Deo.  7,  1817.  He  was 
a  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  accomponied  Cook  on 
his  voyages  in  the  Pacific,  and  when  he  re- 
turned was  appointed  commander  of  the  Boun- 
ty, commissioned  by  George  III.  to  import  the 
breadfruit  tree  and  other  vegetable  productions 


,v  Google 


712  BL 

of  the  Sontii  Sea  islancls  into  the  West  Indies. 
He  soiled  from  Bpithead  for  Tahiti  Dec.  23, 
1787,  and  reachedhis destination  Oct.  28, 1788, 
He  remained  until  the  4th  of  April  following, 
when  he  set  ont  for  Jamaica  with  1,015  bread- 
fruit trees,  besides  a  variety  of  other  plants. 
On  the  morning  of  the  28th  of  April  a  large 
portion  of  the  crew  mutinied,  and  he  with  18 
others  was  set  afloat  in  tha  ship's  launch,  with 
a  28-gallon  oosk  of  water,  IGO  pounds  of  bread, 
82  pounds  of  port,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
nun  and  wine,  and  only  a  quadrant  and  com- 
pass to  direct  their  course.  In  4S  days  they 
reached  the  Dutch  island  of  Timor,  having  run 
a  distance  of  3,818  nautical  miles,  and  scarcely 
having  an  opportonity  to  rest  on  shore  or  add 
to  their  supplies,  without  tbe  loss  of  a  single 
man.  Bligh  proceeded  to  England  at  the  first 
opportunity,  arriving  Uarcb  14,  17S0,  and 
pnolished  a  narrative  of  tbe  mutiny,  which  ex- 
cited a  good  deal  of  sympathy,  though  it  was 
afterward  believed  that  the  outbreak  was 
caused  by  his  harsh  treatment  of  his  men. 
Fourteen  of  the  mutineers  who  had  remained 
in  Tahiti  were  arrested  in  1T91  by  the  olficers 
of  the  Pandora;  fonr  were  lost  by  shipwreck 
on  tha  passage  to  England,  and  the  remuning 
ten  tried  and  three  executed,  the  rest  bdng  ac- 
quitted or  pardoned.  Another  portion  of  the 
crew  took  poasesdon  of  the  Bounty  and  settled 
on  Pitc^m  island,  (See  Adaus,  John,  and 
FiTOAiRN  Island,)  Lieut.  Bligh  was  sent  out 
again  on  a  mmilar  mission  in  1791,  brought  a 
large  number  of  breadt^it  trees  from  Taliiti  to 
the  West  Indies,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  Euro- 
pean vegetables  in  Tasmania.  In  1800  he  was 
made  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  hot  bis 
tyrannical  conduct  provoked  the  subordinate 
civil  and  military  offloera  to  arrest  him  and 
send  him  to  England. 

■UND,  The,  persons  who  have  not  tbe  sense 
of  eight.  In  common  use  the  term  also  in- 
cludes persons  who  pOBsess  some  power  of 
vision,  but  not  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  dis- 
tingnish  tbe  forms  of  objects.  The  canses  of 
blindness  are  both  ante-natal  and  post-natal. 
It  is  contended  by  some  that  psychological  in- 
flnenees  may  induce  blindness  in  the  offspring, 
as  when  the  mother  has  received  a  powerful 
nervous  impression  from  witnessing  some  hor- 
rible spectacle,  or  an  extremely  disgneting  case 
of  sore  eyes  or  malformation,  and  oases  have 
been  adduced  which  are  supposed  to  establish 
the  theory;  but  the  probability  is  that  there  is 
not  sufficient  proof  to  warrant  its  reception. 
The  ante-natai  canses  which  are  acknowledged 
to  prodnce  blindness  are  the  intermarriage  of 
near  relatives,  scrofula,  and  syphilis;  but  con- 
genital cases  of  blindness  ore  not  found  to  be 
BO  frequent  as  those  of  deaftiess.  In  inter- 
marriage, and  where  the  parents  ore  imperfect- 
ly developed,  tliere  is  liability  to  want  of  de- 
velopment of  the  nerves  of  special  sense;  but 
In  most  cases  ante-natal  as  well  aa  post-natal 
blindneas  is  caused  by  imperfection  or  disease 
of  the  optical  apparatus  whidi  is  accessory  to 


the  nerves  of  special  sense ;  or  in  other  words, 
the  defect  generally  exdsta  in  some  part  of  tha 
dobe  of  the  eye.  Hereditary  blindness  is  not 
frequent.  Of  700  blind  persons  in  the  insti- 
tntlons  at  Philadelphia  whose  parentage  is 
known,  according  to  Mr.  Cbapin,  the  prin- 
cipal of  tbe  Pennsylvania  institution  for  the 
blmd,  only  12  had  either  parent  blind.  An  in- 
vestigation  which  he  made  at  the  hotpiee  da 
QuinM  Vitigti,  Paris,  revealed  the  remarkable 
fact  that  of  the  several  bnndred  children  bom 
there  of  parents  one  or  both  of  whom  were 
hlind,  there  was  not  one  blind  at  birth.  After 
birth  the  principal  cansee  of  blindnees  are :  1, 
special  diseases,  such  as  purulent  ophthalmia, 
inflammation  of  the  cornea  and  of  the  iria^ 
cataract  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  and 
amaurosis  or  paralyss  of  the  optic  nerve;  S, 
general  diseases,  whoae  seqneUe  attack  different 
parts  of  the  eye,  as  smallpox,  scarlatine,  mea- 
sles, typhus  fever  and  other  inflammatory  fe- 
vers, and  scrofola;  8,  injuries  from  blows  or 
wounds,  and  from  malpractice,  the  latter  being 
one  of  tbe  most  fruitful  causes.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  causes  of  the  malady  in  nearly 
all  the  cases  received  in  the  Liverpool  asylum 
for  the  blind  from  its  foundation  in  1791  to 
January,  1869 ; 


ExtemiJ  injiuy...... 

Delnct  of  optlo  narr*. 

Impiriect  ori 
Aft«r  tetet.. 

CoDTaMw! 
LouilchlU 

Ondoiii  (lM> 


Tabllj.    FMMlT. 


An  examination  of  COO  eases  fW)ra  tbe  Perkins 
institution  for  the  blind  at  Boston  gives  the 
following  percentage  of  causee;  congenital, 
87-76;  disease  after  birth,  47-OB;  accidents, 
1G'16,  Tha  extraordinary  exemption  frMn 
blindness  in  the  United  States  as  compared 
with  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  may  be  in  • 
great  measure  attributed  to  the  far  leas  preva- 
lence of  smallpox  in  this  country.  Dr.  Cromp- 
ton  of  Manchester  estimated  that  in  Great 
Britain  end  Ireland  more  than  4,000  were  blind 
from  smallpox,  ont  of  a  blind  popnlatiiHi  of 
28,460  in  1841.  In  the  Glasgow  asylum  nearly 
one  flith  were  blind  fVom  smallpox.  In  the 
Pennsylvania  institution,  of  476  received  up  to 
1863,  only  21,  or  -ff  of  the  whole,  lost  their 
sight  by  that  disease.  In  the  Ohio  institntion, 
of  lis  np  to  a  certm  date,  only  one  wea  tdind 
from  this  cause.  Proceeding  f>om  temperate 
latitudes  toward  the  equator,  the  proportion 
of  blind  to  the  entire  population  increases,  bat 
this  is  more  noticeable  in  the  eastern  than  in 
the  western  hemisphere.  The  glitteiing  sand 
which  reflects  the  light  and  heat  of  the  son, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


and  also  the  floe  particle*  of  diut  that  aie  blown 
into  the  eyes,  are  cauMB  whioh  ore  very  fmit- 
fiil  in  prodacing  opfatbalmia  in  northern  Africa. 
Again,  as  we  approach  the  polar  regions,  where 
snow  and  icehergs  reflect  the  mn's  r&ja,  the 
proportion  of  the  blind  inoreaaee.  The  follow- 
ing table,  token  from  the  work  of  a  blind 
author,  W.  Ilanke  Levj  ("  Blindnew  and  the 
Blind,"  London,  1672),  of  blind  peraoDS  in  Eng- 
land and  Walea,  ahowa  the  proportion  as  to 
sex,  and  the  teadenof  of  increase  of  yetm  to 
produce  loaa  of  sight;    . 


Aon. 

Mila. 

fmmlm. 

J 

iS 
IK 

OS 

HMT 

This  table  exhibits  a  great  preponderance  in 
tbe  proportion  of  the  female  over  the  male 
blind  who  are  more  than  00  ;ears  of  age,  and 
a  preponderance  of  the  malea  below  that  age. 
A  otHnparison  of  the  proportion  of  male  to 
female  blind  in  tbe  United  Sta(«s  does  not 
show  preciselj  the  same  reaolta,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table  prepared  from  the 
censnsoflSTO: 


AOES. 

M^ 

F-.^ 

i 

1^18 

IS 

1 

«.«10 

7,828 

It  is  thna  seen  that  abont  half  of  the  blind  in 
the  United  States  are  over  4S  years  of  age.  In 
all  countriea  the  number  of  males  among  the 
blind  exceeds  that  of  females,  the  exoess  being 
mostly  caused  by  accidents,  to  which  tbe  for- 
mer are  more  exposed.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  caution  h  required  in  forming  conclosions 
from  these  tables.  They  have  their  value,  but 
other  facte  must  be  weighed  with  them.  One 
practjoal  concluaion  is  gathered  from  the  last 
table  hj  Mr.  Chapin  of  Philadelphia,  which  is 
that  "  if  tbe  adult  blind  were  provided  with 
instruction  and  employment  in  handicrafts  in 
separate  institutions,  it  would  be  practicable  to 
receive  and  edncato  all  the  younKOr  blind  in  the 


H»  718 

leas  vitalil7  than  thoM  who  have  their  eight, 
aud  etatistica  confirm  this  opinion.  This  want 
of  vitality  is  doabtless  one  cause  of  blindness ; 
bat  again,  much  of  their  want  of  vitality  is  in 
consequence  of  their  being  blind,  which  causes 
them  to  lead  more  sedentary  lives  than  they 
otherwise  would.  As  Dr.  Howe  remarka, 
"  There  are  many  who  are  not  bom  blind,  who 
are  bom  to  become  blind."  From  etatistloe 
unbraced  in  a  report  of  the  Boston  institution, 
gathered  from  seven  American  state  institn- 
tiona,  the  director  makes  the  following  note: 
"Of  the  number  of  persons  admitted  to  the 
above-mentioned  institutiona  between  the  ages 
of  10  and  14,  the  nnmber  that  was  surviving  in 
1869  was  8'6  per  cent,  lees,  according  to  the 
Massoohasetts  life  table,  than  tbe  number  that 
shonid  then  be  surviving.  Of  the  number  ad- 
mitted during  the  three  years  of  1SG8~'40,  from 
which  tbe  average  tune  et(4>sing  to  the  middle 
of  1S60  was  20  yearo,  the  numbor  that  survived 
in  1859  was  13-8  per  cent,  less  than  the  num- 
ber that  should  have  survived." — The  number 
of  blind  in  the  world  cannot  be  stated  with  any 
great  degree  of  exactness.  In  tbe  United  States 
and  in  moat  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  how- 
ever, the  number  is  known  from  census  returns. 
In  other  coontries  the  nnmber  haa  been  esti- 
mated by  rarious  travellers  and  writers,  and 
fma  a  comparison  of  data  it  is  believed  taat « 
pretty  near  approximation  has  been  reached. 
The  table  on  the  next  page,  compiled  from  the 
United  States  census  of  1870,  oontuns  a  con- 
siderably lai^er  number  than  was  shown  by 
that  of  1860,  giving  reason  to  believe  that  the 
latter  ceneos  was  imperfect.  The  following  ia 
a  table  of  the  blind  m  Europe,  the  number  in 
RuKSis,  Anstria,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Turkey  in  Europe  being  estimated;  hot 
tbe  attention  given  to  tbe  subjeot  in  meet  of 
these  ooantries  makes  it  probable  that  the  e»- 
timates  are  pretty  nearly  correct : 


COtlNTMCS. 

No.orbiJBd. 

iSSSS"*"^  ■ 

Morarao 
s^oeaoM 

EtBOU.000 
M.000.000 

8.staooo 

ifiS 

4g.iim.iM 
a8ii«,oo» 

8,nouo,™m 

]S,WO,UO0 

W.Ml 

70.000 

a 

MMIO 

]| 

leliso 

itoi.oei 

RoikIbId  Bumpa 

"    8O0 

o™«,-.v.-.-.:::::::: 

;i 

QtsemuiilioDiaiililes 
Turkey  In  Europ* 

-  so« 
■■    son 

-  em 

Total 

iNWl 

The  above  computation  gives  as  tbe  average 
proportion  of  the  blind  to  the  whole  of  the 
population  of  Europe,  1  in  1,004.  It  has  been 
estimated  tliat  in  China  alone,  with  a  population 
of  about  400,000,000,  there  are  at  least  1,000,- 
000  blind  persons,  and  that  there  are  in  India 
more  than  860,000.    These  estimates  are  madft 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


TABU 

or  THB  BLIMD  OF  ALL 

Ol*88M 

ra 

SD  TESSFTOBIU. 

i" 

MIH  1H  TH.  V 

■rminii*. 

FOUWHMUC. 

^ 

BTATBS. 

Wltt^ 

Bl-i.           1    MiJ-lo. 

■.jta. 

TOI.L 

11 

1 

1 

■» 

1 

1 

1 

Ill     111 

II 

1 

1 

1 

•11 

s 

1 
1 

i 

1,811 

1^ 

«: 

18 

s 

i 
1 

1 

as 

ID! 

a 

J 

...»     ".." 

1 
1 

8W 

sss 

6( 

«a 
I 

118 

2 

41 

IH 

4» 

T. 

CM 

S2< 

t( 

481 
Km 

J 

1 

< 

1 

IB 

! 

I 

i 

S 

49 
1 

H 

8! 

11 

■•i 

Ti,' 

il,;::''::: 

nfl-S 

ijS:^ 

,il 

t) 

Ml 

.,; 

a 
ii 

M 
IS 

Ml 

Kentock; 

<r.|    SI!  !! 

•«! 

jl 

T8D.>«I 

*? 

i 

"t 

:^. 

?    1 

5isȣ-:v;" 

Ill 

> 

^ 

i 

I 

I4e 

111 

.... 

1- 

1 

.»« 

North  Cuollnn.... 

'v- 

s>»^ 

n 

Bbodelsiud 

BonlhCuBlla..... 

a 

1 

■i 

"S 

«      ^. 

sSr--- 

-m!-i« 

«...l... 

i,a«Li« 

i/»i.«:o 

IS 

IS 

-1- 

Toweuwi.... 

»,wi 

7,*VS 

vm 

1,«W 

ijm 

>,1U 

T,8M 

'"" 

ROW 

],*» 

S,H1 

ta,ii5,ui 

* 

1 

fm 

1          1 

] 

i 

1 

M^fCilumhi'. 

!S 

« 

B 

« 

^i-SS 

5£5K^;::;:; 

IM 

i 

"j^sio 

* 

1 

1 

IH 

T,7*» 

'! 

» 

;r«"^:;:::: 

T«» 

i;m 

— i. 

Total  TotriloriM 

TO 

S8i     n 

8j      . 

a     in 

Mi.in 

ABgr«e«t» 

«,!« 

l.»SS 

1^8 

m 

181 

u 

IS 

1,288 

7,:m 

8^86.B!aWl 

__L_ 


from  the  HtatemcQts  of  traTellers  in  regard  to 
tbe  proportion  of  the  blind  seen  b;  them.  Mr. 
J-evj,  Kfter  macb  thought  and  inqairj,  thicks 
the  following  namhera  for  Asia  not  too  great, 
and  he  is  probably  correct ; 


cou^Tmra. 

y..,^bj^d. 

p™p™«». 

Turkvl"A»l« 

iT.manno 
iuiw'ow 

M,0«1 

ftlHU) 

6.BCK) 

1.IK».00« 
1^000 
KIOTO 

1X.MW 

IteHTO 

BuHlalnAil* 

1  -  m 

DnCchEutindki.... 

BtamudAnun 

FhlUppUialiludi..... 

\'Z 

TeMM.OW 

1,BS8.*I)0 

This  computation  makes  the  proportion  of  the 
blind  to  the  whole  popalatton  in  Asia  1  in 
GDO.  It  is  compated  that  Africa,  with  a  pc^' 
lation  of  75,000,000,  has  abont  1  blind  to  evei^ 
SOO  of  the  whole  namher,  or  a  total  number 
of  250,000  blind.  The  number  of  blind  in  other 
oonntries  is  estimated  as  follows : 


COUNTRIES. 

a.,  uluu 

r,>t-nlm. 

ss^n.:"™ 

emnoo 
7,11  m.no* 
B8U<K)0 
M.OIKI.OIIO 

a,ouo.om 

IS 

tSi'M) 
8,tM 

ItoLtM 

Ontnl  Had  B.  Amr ria 

1  "     ft 
1"    iw> 

se,Ti8,i»(i 

41,aTS 

DiailizedbyGoOgle 


Japan  the  blind  receive  more  respect  than  in 
other  Awatio  countries.  Sir  Ratheironl  Alcock, 
in  hia  "  Capital  of  the  Tycoon,"  saja :  "  There  are 
two  sects  of  blind,  founded  by  two  great  aeleb- 
ritiM  in  Japanese  hiatorj — one  by  the  third 
son  of  a  mikado  who  wept  himtielf  biind  for  the 
death  of  a  mistress,  and  the  other  by  a  defeated 
general  in  the  civil  wars,  who  tore  his  ejea  out 
that  he  might  not  be  provoked  to  take  the  life 
of  a  generous  victor,  Yontomo,  the  founder  of 
a  dynasty.  Into  these  two  sects,  half  seonlar, 
half  religions,  persons  of  all  ranka  enter.  They 
are  generally  but  not  exclusively  mnucians,  and 
earn  their  sabusteDce  by  playing  on  mnsioal 
instmments." — Care  and  £dveati<m  of  ths 
Blind,  Although  in  all  ages  individnals  among 
the  blind  have  obtained  Eome  edacation,  tlie 
ancients  made  no  provision  for  the  support  or 
instmction  of  these  nnfortanates,  who  depend- 
ed for  subsistence  upon  their  friends,  or  lived 
by  begging ;  and  long  after  the  commencement 
of  the  Ohristian  era  they  received  but  little  of 
the  sympathy  which  the  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity incnlcate.  The  first  known  publio  asylum 
for  the  blind  was  founded  at  Paris  in  ISflO  by 
Lonis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  and  was  colled  the 
kotpice  da  Qainte  ViTigti.  It  was  established 
for  the  benefit  of  soldiers  who  were  suffering 
from  ophthalmia  contracted  in  the  campaigns 
in  Egypt,  and  was  intended,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, for  16  score  or  800  blind  persons,  although 
for  many  years  the  number  has  been  much 
larger.  Its  annual  income  is  about  $80,000. 
The  allowance  to  each  blind  man  is  (89  per 
annum;  if  he  is  married,  it  is  increased  to 
$110;  and  if  he  has  children,  he  receives  an 
additional  $10  for  each  child.  It  has  also  At>ont 
600  pensioners  who  do  not  reude  at  the  hos- 
pital, hut  receive,  according  to  their  age  and 
circumstances,  a  yearly  sum  of  $20,  $80,  or 
$40,  to  aid  in  their  support.  Some  of  those 
entitled  to  a  residence  Id  the  hospital  prefer  to 
remain  with  their  families  in  other  parts  of  the 
city,  and  to  them  a  pension  of  $50  per  annum 
is  paid.  No  instruction  is  given  to  the  iamatea 
of  the  Quinze  Vingts,  but  some  of  them  exe- 
cute pieces  of  work  which  are  remarkable  for 
taste  and  ingenuity.  A  similar  hut  lees  exten- 
sive institution  was  establiahed  at  Chartres  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  ISth  century,  and  en- 
dowed by  King  John  in  1360  to  enable  it  to 
accoDimodate  120  blind  persons.  From  a  va- 
riety of  causes  the  numtier  of  inmates  dwindled 
till  in  1887,  according  to  Dnfau,  there  were  but 
10.  It  1b  now  closed.— Daring  the  IStb  cen- 
tury benevolent  men  who  had  witnessed  with 
sympathy  the  sad  fate  of  the  blind  devised  pro- 
cesses for  their  iostraction,  but  with  no  great 
success.  In  ISTO  Padre  Lana  Terzi,  a  Jesuit 
of  Brescia,  who  had  already  published  an  essay 
on  the  iustruction  of  deaf  mutes,  produced  a 
treatise  on  the  instruction  of  the  blind.  Kearly 
a  oentnry  later  the  ahb6  Deschamps  and  Dide- 
rot proposed  plans  for  th^  iostraction  in  read- 


SD  715 

ing  and  writing ;  but  it  was  not  till  1 784,  when 
Valentin  Ha&y  commenced  his  labors,  that  any 
institution  specially  intended  for  the  education 
of  the  blind  was  successfully  attempted.  At- 
tracted at  Srst.  to  humanitarian  labors  by  the 
brilliant  example  of  the  abbd  de  l'£p^e  in  be- 
half of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  he  entliusiaatically 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  instructing  the 
blind.  About  this  time  he  became  acquamted 
with  the  celebrated  Theresa  von  Paradis,  the 
blind  pianist,  and  received  great  encouragement 
from  the  interest  she  tooK  in  his  enterprise. 
His  first  pnpil  was  a  young  blind  beggar  named 
Leseur,  who  afterward  became  instrumental  in 
promoting  the  education  of  the  blind,  as  Maa- 
sien  had  been  in  that  of  deaf  mutes.  He 
taught  him  to  distinguish  raised  letters,  arith- 
metical Sgnres,  and  outline  maps,  and  in  a 
few  weeks  exhibited  him  before  the  mem- 
hers  of  the  tocUti  philanthropique,  who  wer€ 
enthusiastic  in  Uieir  admiration.  A  small 
house.  No.  19  Notre  Dame  des  Victoiree, 
was  secured,  with  funds  to  support  12  pupils. 
During  the  year  the  nnmber  increased  to  24, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  unceasing  labors, 
improved  so  rapidly  that  he  exhibited  them 
before  Louis  XVI.  and  the  court.  IlaQy  be- 
came a  lion,  and  the  school  increased  in  num- 
bersand  popularity.  Many  of  its  pupUs  became 
proBcients  m  music  and  mathematics.  In  1791 
the  school  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of 
the  state,  but  the  sums  decreed  for  its  support 
were  paid  only  in  astdgnats,  which  soon  became 
worthless.  Hafly  and  his  blind  pupils  worked 
at  the  printing  press  procured  in  their  more 
fortunate  days,  and  eked  out  an  existence  by 
the  severest  toil.  Alter  the  establishment  of 
the  empire  the  school  was  transferred  t«  the 
Qniuze  vingts,  where  its  members  became  de- 
morahzed  from  associating  with  the  inmates 
of  that  institution,  HaQy  resigned,  but  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  2,000  francs.  In  ISOfl  ho 
visited  St.  Petersburg  at  the  invitation  of  the 
emperor  Alexander  f.,  and  founded  the  insti- 
tution for  the  blind  in  that  city,  He  was  also 
instrumental  in  founding  the  institution  for 
the  blind  at  Berlin  about  the  same  time.  In 
1814  the  French  government  assigned  the 
school  of  HaQy  separate  quarters  in  the  rue  St. 
Victor,  and  gave  it  ampler  t\mds  and  the  title 
of  "Royal  Institution  for  the  Blind,"  Dr. 
Guille  was  appointed  director,  a  man  of  energy 
and  tact,  bat  exoes»vely  vain  and  jealons  of 
the  fame  of  Hatly.  Afler  some  difficulty  he 
reigned  and  was  succeeded  by  M..  Dufan,  who 
had  been  for  26  years  a  teacher  in  the  institu- 
tion. The  next  institution  of  the  kind  in  point 
of  time  was  founded  at  Liverpool  in  1791,  and 
in  1798  asylums  for  the  blind  were  established 
at  Edinburgh  and  Bristol.  A  list  of  the  va- 
rious  institntions  for  the  blind  in  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland  is  given  in  the  following 
table,  compiled  from  the  "Guide  to  the  In- 
stitutions and  Charities  for  the  Blind  in  the 
United  Kingdom,"  by  Mansfield  Turner  and 
WUliam  Harris  (London,  18T1); 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Ti^LB  or  iHSTiTUTiom  f 


.^  o,  ™,m,„.,. 

fcooM. 

po^ 

laffl 
18ST 

18SS 

i 

ISM 

CUboUc  BUod  AByhim,  Unrpool 

8<±»1  Ibr  the  Bdod.  St  Ge««e-.  J^eld^ 

** 

fatsT',"".""'."''"- 

sasKASsT* 

» 

Udlud  In.tltat^(br  the  BBnd,  NoWni- 

fiO 

Tork«hlM  School  for  the  Blind,  Tgrli 

a^ool  br  Hlhid  Chlld.^  EdUboish..... 

u 

BMhmobd  NiUdio)  IniUtuSon,  Dabltai.. . . 
WHjaiua  Aiylom  Ibr  tbe  Blliul.  Dablln . . 
tJWBrSodBtrlOr  D™i;  ih.mb,uii  BUnl 

to 
w 

ToUl 

1,1M 

In  London  38  ingUtntions  for  the  beiie6t  of  the 
blind  have  been  established  bj  donations  and 

bequests.  Of  tfaeae  the  followiaz  are  the  prin* 
cipal :  West's  charity  for  the  blind,  to  grant 
pensions  of  £5  to  blind  persons  over  60  jears 
of  a^  was  founded  in  1718.  It  asdats  8S1 
person^  the  annuities  amounting  to  ill,65S. 
Hethariogton's  cimrity  for  the  aged  blind  em- 
powers the  governors  of  Christ's  hospital  to  pay 
annuities  of  £10  to  blind  persona  "vbo  have 
seen  better  days,"  and  who  are  orer  60  years 
of  age.  The  income  from  the  endowment  n 
£7,622,  and  fVoin  legacies  and  donations  in 
1870  there  was  £2,100,  making  a  snm  of  £9,622, 
which,  al^r  dedacting  certain  payments  to 
Ohrist's  hospital,  is  distributed  among  6S6  blind 
people.  The  paintora'  and  stainers'  company's 
charities  for  the  blind  give  pensions  of  £10 
each  to  blind  persons  over  60  years  of  age, 
granted  ander  the  wills  of  five  persons  (four  of 
them  women)  dated  from  1780  to  1808.  The 
Bom  invested  is  £66,37B.  Game's  charity  dis- 
tributed pensions  of  £6  each  to  110  blind  per- 
sons in  1870.  The  Christian  blind  relief  socie- 
ty distribntea  about  £1,000  annually  among 
200  blind  from  donations  and  legacies.  The 
blind  men's  friend,  or  Day's  charity,  founded 
by  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Day,  grants  pensions 
of  £12,  £16,  and  £20  to  deserving  blmd  per- 
sons; the  number  so  benefited  in  1670  was2S7. 
The  indigent  blind  visiting  society,  founded  in 
1634,  distributes  £1,630  in  instructing  and 
otherwise  aiding  the  blind.  The  Jews'  society 
distributes  £1,000  annually,  paying  8t.  per  week 
each  to  indigent  blind  Jews. — Reading  w  taught 
in  various  kinds  of  type,  those  of  Alston  (Ro- 
man), Lucas  (stenographic),  and  Hoon  predom- 
inating in  Great  Britain.    The  inatitntions  in 


England  are  all  connected  with  the  ^iglish 
church,  with  the  exception  of  the  RcKnan  Cath- 
olic school  at  Liverpool,  but  there  is  do  exclnntoi 
on  aocount  of  creed.  Generally  persona  are 
only  admitted  from  certun  localities,  specified 
in  the  title  of  the  institution.  The  schools  are 
mostly  Bupt>orted  by  donations,  annual  snbacrip- 
tJons,  and  legacies ;  and  in  general  the  friends  or 
parishes  of  the  pupils  pay  about  £10  per  annum 
toward  their  muntenance.  The  school  for  the 
indigent  blind,  Bt  George's  Fields,  however, 
boanls,  clothes,  and  edncates  160  blind  persons 
without  cost  to  their  friends  for  a  period  of  six 
years.  The  education  given  in  most  of  the 
schools  in  the  United  Kingdom  consists  in  reli- 
gious trtunmg  and  instmction  in  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  history,  geography,  and  music, 
and  to  a  great  extent  the  arts  of  making  bas- 
kets, brushes,  matting,  and  mattressee,  knitting, 
netting,  &o. — The  information  contained  in  tlie 
following  notice  of  European  blind  institutions 
is  chiefly  derived  from  Hit  Furtorgt  far  die 
Blinden,  by  Herr  Pablasekj  director  of  the  im- 
perial institution  for  the  blind  at  Vienna,  and  . 
from  the  work  of  Mr.  W.  Hanks  Levy,  before 
cited.  France  has  13  schools  for  the  blind  and 
one  asylum,  the  AoipM*  (to  ^ut'nw  Vingtt.  Of 
the  Bchools  there  is  one  at  Paris,  the  old  school 
of  HaQy,  and  one  at  each  of  the  following 
places :  Lyons,  Chameli^re,  Arraa,  Lille,  Fives, 
Nancy,  MontpeUier,  Rbodei,  St  MSdard-les- 
Soissona,  Bt  Uippolite-du-Fort,  Vienne,  and 
Marseilles.  All  these  schools,  however,  afford 
aid  to  only  a  small  number  compared  to  those 
in  the  United  States.  Braille's  system  of  read- 
ing and  writing,  and  of  mnsical  notation,  U 
generally  adopt^.  Instmction  in  tuning  the 
pianoforte  receives  a  good  deal  of  attcntioD, 
and  it  is  said  that  there  are  in  France  about 
200  blind  organists  holding  utoations.  The 
general  edooatiMi  is  not  very  thorough,  but  the 
branches  pursued  are  nearly  the  same  as  in 
Great  Britain.  The  industrial  employmeDts  of 
basket  making,  chair  bottoming,  knitting,  and 
the  making  of  list  shoes  are  generally  adopted ; 
and  at  Nanoy  the  art  of  turning  is  carried  on 
to  a  considerable  extent,  some  of  the  workmen 
earning  G  francs  a  day.  The  first  institution 
for  the  blind  in  Germany  was  the  one  com~ 
menced  at  Berlin  by  Valentin  IlaHy  in  180A, 
Uerr  Zenne,  the  inventor  of  relief  maps,  being 
appointed  the  director.  The  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  Dresden  in  ISOfl,  by  Kftnigsberg  in 
1618,  and  by  Breslau  in  1819.  There  ore  alsc 
institntions  for  the  blind  at  each  of  the  following 
towns :  GmOnd,  Munich,  Nuremberg,  W&rx- 
bnrg,  Freiburg,  Stuttgart,  Broehsal,  Brunswick, 
Halle,  Mannheim,  Mi^eburg,  Posen,  Woll- 
stein,  Daren,  Soest,  Kiel,  Hanover,  Weimar, 
Hamburg,  Leipsio,  Friedberg,  Metz,  Wittstock, 
Faderborn,  Barby,  Wiesbaden,  lllzach,  Ellwon- 
gen,  and  Frwikfort-on-the  Main.  There  is  also 
aprimary  school  for  children  at  Berlin,  and  one 
at  Jlubertsburg.  In  these  38  institutiiHis  the 
reading  is  principally  in  the  raised  type  of  the 
Boman  alphabet.     The  Bible  sodety  ef  Statt- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


Rail  btu  contributed  lawlj  to  the  printing  of 
the  embofsed  German  Bible,  the  greater  part 
of  wbiob  WU8  printed  at  lllzoch.  The  oaltiva- 
tion  of  masio  is  cbaracterUtic  of  the  German 
iDStitutiuos.  The  industrial  employmeaU  are 
basket  making,  reseating  chairs,  making  list 
ahiMB,  brush  making,  netting,  and  knitting. 
Rope  making  ia  carried  on  at  Uanover  and 
turning  «t  Munich.  In  Gennooj  it  is  usual 
for  the  seiea  to  occup;  opposite  wings  in  the 
same  institution,  while  in  france  they  occupj 
buildings  in  different  parts  of  the  citj.  The  in- 
stitution at  Breslau  was  founded  and  managed 
for  nearly  half  a  centurj  by  Uerr  Knie,  who 
was  bom  blind;  andthepreeent  director  of  the 
institution  at  Kiel,  Ilerr  Simonon,  ia  also  blind. 
Austria  baa  aii  educational  institutions  and  two 
as;lams  and  industrial  establishments.  Of  the 
ibrmer  tbere  is  one  in  each  of  the  following 
dties:  Vienna,  Prague,  Linz,  Festh,  BrQnn, 
and  Lemberg;  and  of  the  latter  one  is  at 
Vienna  and  one  at  Prague.  The  first  institu- 
tion for  the  blind  in  Austria  was  founded  in 
1604  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Klun,  who  was  its 
director  for  about  half  a  century.  The  em- 
bossed Roman  type  in  capitals  and  small  let- 
ters is  employed  in  the  Austrian  institations, 
and  pricking  letters  in  paper  ia  practised  in 
writing.  Music  ia  cultivated  with  reference  to 
earning  olivelibood,  and  the  industrial  employ- 
ments are  similar  to  those  in  Germany.  Rus- 
na  has  four  institutions  for  the  blind:  one  at 
St.  Petersburg,  eBtabliahed  by  HaQy  in  1808; 
one  at  Warsiw,  established  in  1635 ;  one  at 
Helaingfora,  the  capital  of  Finland  ;  and  one  at 
Gatohiaa,  a  small  town  about  30  m.  ^■oai  St. 
Petersburg.  The  education  and  industrial  em- 
ploymenta  are  similar  to  those  in  Germany, 
munc  recoiving  much  attention.  Sweden  has 
a  blind  inatitution  at  Stockholm,  founded  in 
1806,  and  one  at  Gotbenbnrg.  The  Roman 
and  Moon's  types  are  naed  in  reading,  and  the 
employments  are  principally  basket  making  and 
knitting.  Norway  has  lately  eetablished  an 
institntion  for  the  blind  at  Chriatiania.  In 
1811  a  school  for  the  blind  was  established  at 
Oopenhagen  by  the  "  Society  of  the  Chain,"  an 
oqmnization  similar  to  that  of  the  freemasons, 
and  continued  under  their  management  till 
1S5T,  when  it  was  taken  under  the  care  of  the 
state  and  oolled  the  "Royal  Institution  for  the 
Blind."  Ilerr  Moldenhawer  was  appointed 
director,  and  a  sum  of  {2,000  per  annum  al- 
lowed from  the  royal  treasury,  the  society  of 
the  chain  endowing  it  with  $8,000.  Denmark 
has  also  an  industrial  institution  for  adults  at 
Oopenhagen,  established  in  1883,  on  the  plan  of 
the  London  association.  The  common  alphabet 
ia  employed  in  reading,  and  they  have  a  con- 
trivance for  pencil  writing  and  for  embossing 
letters  by  hand.  In  Iceland,  which  belongs  to 
Denmark,  it  is  said  the  proportion  of  blind  to 
tJie  whole  population  ia  about  1  in  800.  Hol- 
land has  institutions  for  the  blind  at  Amster- 
dam (founded  in  1806),  Groningeu,  Rotterdam, 
Utrecht,  the  Hague,  and  <me  in  North  Brabant 


SD  717 

The  common  Roman  ^pe  and  also  Braille's  and 
Moon's  characters  are  used  in  reading.  Husio 
and  the  trades  receive  about  the  same  attention 
as  in  Germany  and  England.  The  blind  in 
Holland  are  entirely  aup|iorted  by  voluntary 
subscription.  In  Belgium  an  asylum  for  the 
blind  Is  said  to  have  been  established  ut  Brugea 
in  1300  by  Robert  de  B^tbune,  in  gratitude  for 
the  courage  displayed  by  the  inhabitants  of  that 
town  in  repelling  an  invasion  of  Philip  the  Fair 
in  1300.  A  similar  aaylum  waa  eatabllahed  at 
Ghent  by  Peter  Vander  Leyen  about  13T0. 
Both  of  these  have  passed  away,  althonsh  the 
bouse  of  worship  which  was  connected  with 
the  one  at  Bmges  is  said  to  still  ovist.  The 
first  school  for  the  blind  in  Belpumwaa  estab- 
lished at  Brusaels  in  1888.  Tliere  is  also  an- 
other institution  for  the  blind  in  that  citv^  two 
at  Ghent,  and  one  each  nt  Bruges,  Yprea^ 
Hons,  Antwerp,  and  Li^ge.  Braille's  system 
of  reading  and  writing  is  used  in  all  these 
schools  except  the  one  at  Bruges,  where  a  mod- 
ified system  by  the  director,  the  abb^  Carton, 
who  died  in  1863,  is  employed.  The  industriu 
arts  are  basket  making,  bottoming  chairs,  and 
knitting,  and  at  Bniges  the  making  of  bead 
rosaries.  Tlie  deaf  and  dumb  share  in  common 
with  the  blind  the  institutions  in  Belgium,  which 
are  supported  by  the  state.  The  first  institution 
for  tbe  blind  in  Switzerland  was  eatabliatied  at 
ZQrich  in  1809.  There  are  alao  an  educational 
and  industrial  institute  at  Bern,  a  combined 
school  and  hospital  at  Lausanne,  an  aaylum 
and  industrial  institution  at  SchatFhansen,  and 
one  at  Fribours.  At  these  institutions,  with 
the  exception  or  the  one  at  Lausanne,  the  Ro- 
man type  is  employed,  but  at  the  latter  place 
Braille's  system  is  in  use.  The  prini'ipal  in- 
dustrial occupation  of  the  blind  in  Switzerland 
is  wood  turning.  At  Lausanne  tbere  is  a 
young  man  named  Edward  Meister,  a  turner, 
who  is  deoC  dumb,  and  blind.  Much  cannot 
be  said  of  the  inatitntiona  for  the  blind  in  Italy. 
Pablasek  mentions  four  as  existing  at  Paler- 
mo, Naples,  Milan,  and  Padua;  but  they  do  not 
Kpeur  to  be  in  a  well  organized  condition. 
•  the  credit  of  Italy,  however,  it  nioy  be 
stated  that  the  first  book  ever  published  on  tiie 
condition  of  tbe  blind  was  written  by  an  Ital- 
ian and  printed  in  Italian  and  French  in  1646, 
called  /( eieco  afflitto  t  eoiwolato,  or  UAvtugU 
affiiga  «t  eoiuoU,  being  a  letter  horn  S.  D.  0, 
to  Vincent  Arraanni.  In  Spain  tliere  are  two 
institutions  for  the  blind,  one  at  Madrid  and 
one  at  Barcelona.  They  are  not  in  a  prosper' 
ons  condition,  although  tbe  number  of  blind  in 
Spain  would  seem  to  be  great  enough  to  stimu- 
late the  government  to  take  some  active  meas- 
ures for  their  relief.  An  institation  for  the 
blind  was  commenced  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1864,  by  the  efforts  of  a  blind  gentleman,  Job6 
Alvarea  de  Alevedo,  who  was  educated  at  the 
Paris  institution,  tie  did  not  live  to  see  his 
plana  carried  out,  having  died  the  aaine  year; 
out  the  school  now  exists,  with  about  30  pupila. 
In  Auatic  Turkey,  Mr.  Mott  of  Beyrout  baa 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


718  BL 

had  parts  of  the  Bible  emboesed  in  Araliio  in 
Moon's  type.  Some  of  the  American  and  Eng- 
lish reudents  in  China  are  also  doing  aomo- 
thiug  toward  aiding  and  instructing  the  blind 
in  aome  of  the  aeaportB. — The  following  table 

E resents  a  list  of  the  institutions  for  the 
lind  in  tho  United  Statea  in  18T0,  prepared 
by  Dr.  Howe,  director  of  the  Perkins  ineti- 
tuto  for  the  blind  at  Boston,  for  the  burean  of 
education  at  Washington.     The  facts  exhibits 


ed  b;  it  show  that  more  attention  is  bestoved 
npon  the  care  and  adncation  of  the  Uind  in  . 
this  country  than  in  any  other.  While  on);  five 
of  these  instilntions  were  tMmmenced  before 
1840,  it  will  be  observed  that  more  than  6,000 
blind  persons  have  been  under  tbeir  car«  and 
instmction,  a  proportion  considerably  greater 
than  obtaiiis  in  Great  Britun,  and  Tastly 
greater  than  in  most  of  the  countries  on  thv 
continent  of  Europe. 


'oUd*  Inat  ud  Mul  AivId 
Hew  York  iDitltutliHi  ror  (ha 

MfltitloDtiirtheBllDd. 


•8,«U     Bhdu)  O.  Bom, 
-  —     Wm.  B.  WilU. 


1JM  B.  B.  HiUtaoa. 

I.no  IJ.  M.  BCactennt. 

I.l«l  8.  F.  TonlitiMII. 

8,«1<I  ,  W.  f[.  Cbnrdunu 

"uB";Th<«.H,  Litlk. 


leSock-Ai 


lloiKiou  lut.  Ibr  SmCDimitLuid  Blind. .iFuibult,  Minn. 

isUnUoB  tar  Dtmt  Uomb,  urf  BBiid.  ■  ~  " 

i»"is  luUtuttoD  Bit  tbe  BBod ., ,_ 

YocfcSlUe  InUltDUoaltvtteBllBd....  BiUTla^K.  T, 


WnBdoRa.  ElB. 


1^    |B*n>>  B.  HmUL 


Kiututm. 
.  Udllrter. 


The  following  early  history  of  the  Institution 
for  the  blind  at  Boston  is  condensed  from  a 
report  of  its  trustees,  Throngh  the  exertions 
of  Dr.  John  D.  Fisher  an  association  of  gen- 
tlemen was  formed  in  that  city  in  the  year 
18S9  fur  the  purpose  of  founding  an  institn- 
tion  for  the  blind,  and  an  act  of  incorporation 
was  procured  ouder  the  name  of  the  "  New 
England  Asylum  for  the  Blind."  Owing  to 
the  time  occupied  in  collecting  information, 
it  was  not  opened  till  188S,  and  then  with  six 
pupils  in  a  private  house  in  Pleasant  street, 
Boston.  Dr.  Samuel  Gridley  Howe  took  charge 
of  tbe  institotjon  as  director,  and  under  his 
able  management  it  has  flourished  to  this  day. 
Col.  Thomas  Handasyd  Perkins  gave  it  his  man- 
sion in  Pearl  street,  which  was  exchanged  in 
1839  for  the  Monnt  Washington  hotel  in  South 
Boston,  where  it  has  remained  ever  since.  Mr. 
William  Oliver  made  a  still  more  moniflcent 
donation,  and  other  gentlemen  contribnted  lib- 
erally. The  Massachusetts  institution  has  from 
the  first  aimed  to  give  the  blind  an  education 
which  should  flt  them  for  any  position  in  life 
compatible  with  their  infirmity.    The  education 


of  the  celebrated  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb  girl 
Lanra  Bndgmsn  in  this  institution,  who  was 
bom  the  year  it  was  founded,  forms  an  interest- 
ing portion  of  its  bistoiy.  Bome  of  the  instito- 
tions  in  the  United  States  are  legally  private  in- 
corporations; whether  receiving  aid  from  the 
state  or  not,  the  latter  has  no  control  in  the  man- 
agement, which  is  held  by  a  board  of  tmsteea. 
Such  is  the  case  with  tho  New  York  inatitutioD 
for  the  blind,  in  New  York  city.  Others  are 
purely  state  institutions,  and  others  still  are 
mixed,  the  property  being  held  by  a  corpora- 
tion, and  the  state  appointing  a  certain  num- 
ber of  trustees.  The  Boston  institution  is  of 
the  latter  character.  Dr.  Howe,  in  his  com- 
munication to  the  commissioners  of  education, 
says :  "  In  1881  Dr.  Akerly  of  New  York  city, 
who  had  been  active  in  introducing  instmction 
for  deaf  mutes,  interested  himself  and  others 
in  procuring  like  benefits  for  ttie  blind.  Some 
children  were  taken  from  the  almshonse  and 
instructed  by  way  of  experiment  in  a  small 
room  in  Canal  street  by  Dr.  John  D.  Rnss,  who 
raised  the  infant  institution  to  maturity;  and 
though  he  loog  wnoe  ceased  to  superintend  it 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


offitnftllr,  be  has  not  jot  ceased  to  be  its  effi- 
cient menil.  The  first  thought  of  buUding  up 
special  iDBtitdtitHiB  for  the  uutmction  of  the 
blind  seems  to  have  oocnrred  to  benevolent 
persons  in  Nevr  Engluid,  New  York,  and  Penn- 
Bflvania  almost  simnltaDeonslj,  bat  withoat 
concert  In  Philadelphia,  the  beneTOlent  Rob- 
erts Vaax  had  been  ur^g  the  matter  for  eev- 
eral  years  upon  his  friends  in  Qiat  citj  before 
thef  finally  organized  the  excellent  institution 
which  has  grown  to  be  among  the  tbremost  in 
the  world.  The  sacceea  of  these  institutions 
awakened  an  interest  all  over  the  United 
States.  A  detachment  of  papils  from  the 
Perkins  iostJtnte  visited  17  states  and  were 
eiMbited  before  the  legislatures  and  people." 
The  course  of  instraction  in  all  the  institntions 
for  the  blind  in  this  country  embraces  nearly 
the  same  studies,  and  is  of  necesoity  ohieSy 
oral.  The  primary  inatmction  for  the  yonng 
is  in  qielling,  reading,  moral  lesson^  and  arith- 
metic; afterward  come  geography,  arithmetic, 
history,  grammar,  writing,  physiology,  algebra, 
gecmetrj,  nataral  philosophy,  mental  philoso- 
phy, science  of  govenunent,  logic,  chemistry, 
and  moral  philosophy.  Conversation,  reading, 
writing,  and  music  are  of  course  continually 
pracljsed,  and  many  of  the  pupils  become 
adepts  in  the  last  named  art,  as  they  do  in  ^ 
parts  of  the  world. — Printing  ftyr  Q<»  Blind. 
Attempts  were  made  in  the  16th  century  to 
print  for  the  blind  in  intaglio,  and  afterward 
experiments  were  made  with  raised  letters 
made  to  slide  in  grooves.  In  1640  Pierre  Uo- 
reau,  a  Paris  notary,  ondertooh  to  oast  movable 
leaden  letters,  but  the  plan  was  not  sncceaaAil. 
In  1T80  WeisBenbnrg,  a  blind  man  of  Mann- 
heim, made  geographical  maps  in  relief:  and 
several  blind  Germans  adopted  fhe  device  of 
forming  letters  with  pins  In  cushions.  It  is 
edd  that  when  Theresa  von  Paradis  of  Tienna 
retamed  to  Paris  from  England  in  1T84,  she 
represented  mnsical  notes  with  pins  upon  a 
cushion,  and  that  from  this  her  friend  HaQy 
conceived  the  idea  of  embossing  letters  on  stiff 
paper.  Aa  Mile,  von  Paradis  also  possessed  the 
cuntriTauces  of  Weissenborg  and  of  Ton  Kem- 
pelen,  it  is  probable  that  HaQy  derived  quite  as 
many  snggestdons  &om  them.  It  is  generally 
stated  that  the  first  book  in  relief  printing  was 
HaQy's  Euai  *ur  Vidiieatiim  de*  aeeufflta  (Paris, 
1786),  which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  Thomaa  Blacklook,  the  blind  poet.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  from  the  "Annual  Raster" 
for  1762,  that  Mile.  Salignao,  a  blind  lady,  re- 
ceived comrauaicationa  from  her  friends  writ- 
ten by  pricking  the  letters  in  paper  with  a  pin, 
and  Diderot  says  that  Priault  printed  some 
hooka  for  her.  Printing  for  t^e  blind  had  been 
introduced  in  France  for  48  years,  and  in  Prus- 
sia 23  years,  before  it  was  used  in  England, 
altboQf^h  the  mechanioal  arts  were  tanght  to 
the  blind  in  Liverpool  only  seven  years  after 
the  practice  was  commenced  at  Paris.  James 
Gall  of  Edinbnrf[h  printed  in  1827  the  first 
book  in  En^isb  in  relief  for  the  blind.  Mr. 
88  VOL.  II.— 48 


ND  71» 

Gall  virited  London  in  1889,  and  introdnoed 
his  printing  in  that  city.  About  1882  he  com- 
pleted at  Edinburgh  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
which  is  probably  the  first  book  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ever  printed  for  the  use  of  the  blind. 
His  alphabet  is  the  common  English  lower 
case,  or  small  letter,  reduced  to  angles  and 
straJ^ght  lines,  as  follows : 

<|S<^<-rVKiJKlfflA0>4 

r^tvvwxYZ. 

Nnmerals.  I^>Z$^7S  ?D- 

In  1883  the  society  of  arte  in  Scotland  offered 
a  gold  medal,  of  the  value  of  20  sovereigns,  for 
the  best  alphabet  and  method  of  printing  for  the 
blind.  Twenty-one  alphabets  were  submitted 
to  the  committee,  14  of  which  were  for  com- 

fetition.  Of  these  only  four  have  survived, 
he  one  which  obtwned  the  medal  was  that  of 
Dr.  Fry,  which,  with  slight  modificationB  made 
by  Mr.  Alston,  the  treasurer  of  the  asylum  for 
the  blind  in  Glasgow,  are  simply  the  Roman 
capitals  very  dightly  altered,  and  nearly  the 
same  as  those  which  have  been  until  recently 
nsed  at  Philadelphia.  One  of  the  alpbabeta 
submitted  to  the  committee  was  composed  of 
stenographic  characters,  invented  by  Mr.  T.  M. 
Lncas  of  Bristol,  as  follows: 

abcdefghij     k     1    m     n 

O)--/— I  JNr^^  — 

op     qr     Btuvwiy     c 
1      2     84667     890 

a      H      ff     th    ih    ph   lb      ng  wh  gh  * 

This  alphabet  is  principally  used  only  In  three 
of  the  schools  in  England,  and  partially  in  three 
others.  It  is  said  to  be  difficalt.  A  few  yeara 
later  a  phonetic  alphabet  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Frere,  which  is  now  taught  only  at  Norwich. 
Mr.  Levy  remarks  that  "  it  is  useful  in  enabling 
persona  entirely  uneducated  to  learn  to  read  in 
a  short  space  of  time,  but  that  it  tends  very 
mnch  to  vitiate  pronunciation."  Mr.  Moon, 
who  had  been  engaged  in  teaching  Frere's 
system  at  Brighton,  printed  in  1847  a  book 
in  the  following  characters,  which  are  exclu- 
sively naed  in  one  sobool  in  London,  one  in 
Brighton,  one  in  Edinburgh,  one  in  Aberdeen, 
one  in  I>ublin,  and  one  in  Cork : 

ALC3rnolJ<L-i  rJO^ 

abodefghijklmno     p 

qrat     nvwz     yx 

oh  8h&    1384667      SSO 

DiailizedbyGoOgle 


The  followkg  is  the  ftlphsbet  in  the  VF^taa  ot 
tangible  point  printing  which  was  tutrodnoed 

aboat  the  year  1S89  at  the  imperial  institiition 
for  the  blind  in  Paris  bj  the  late  U.  Braille : 

abc    de   fg   b    ijklmnop 

qrBtiiTWZ7BA 

This  system  is  osed  in  the  schools  in  France, 
at  Laosanne  in  Switzerland,  at  some  of  Ute 
echools  in  Belglam  and  Holland,  and  at  Rio  Ja- 
neiro. The  modification  of  this  alphabet  bj 
the  abbi  Oart«n  consists  principally  in  chang- 
ing the  points  so  as  to  make  the  characters 
have  some  reeemblance  to  the  Soman  letter, 
hnt  it  has  never  been  adopted  except  at  Uie 
school  in  Brnges,  where  it  waa  Introdaced  by  its 
author.  Printing  in  relief  for  the  blind  in  Ibe 
Umted  States  was  begun  at  Boston  by  Dr. 
Howe  in  18S4,  and  at  Philadelphia  by  Ur. 
Friedlander  in  1S3G.  Dr.  Howe's  alphabet 
oonMsts  of  the  following  alterati<ai  of  the  lower 
case  Rom^n  type : 

oilocclef&hilfclwnoPR 
Cstuvwxyz. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostlee  was  printed  in  this 
type  in  1S84,  and  in  1886  the  New  Testament 
was  printed  in  four  volumes  and  sold  for  one 
dollar  a  volnme.  This  was  the  first  New  Tes- 
tament printed  for  the  blind  in  any  langnago. 
The  Old  Testament  wag  completed  in  1 848.  In 
all,  there  have  been  about  GO  different  works 
printed  fn  this  type  at  the  Perkins  institute, 
among  which  are  Lardner's  "Universal  His- 
tory," Howe's  "Geography,"  Howe's  "Atlas 
of  the  Islands,"  Peiroe's  "Geometry"  with 
disigTams,  "Astronomical  Dictdonary,"  Qnyot's 
"Geography,"  "Pilgrim's  Progreas,"  "Mil- 
ton's Poetical  Works,"  "  The  Old  Curiosity 
Shop,"  fto.  The  alphabet  introduced  into  the 
Pennsylvania  institution  by  Mr.  Friedlander  Is 
rimilar  to  those  of  Fry  and  Alston,  and  to  the 
Roman  used  In  many  of  the  schools  aa  the 
continent  of  Europe,  nearly  like  the  black  type 
calledGothio— A,  B,  C,0,l,  !,3,4,*c.  In  this 
type  the  Pennsylvania  institntion  has  pohlished 
portions  of  the  Bible ;  "  Dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language,"  S  vols.;  "Select  Library,"  S 
vols.;  "  Student's  Magazine,"  4  vols. ;  "Church 
Music,  with  Hymns,"  the  muucal  ebarscters  in 
relief;  8  vols. ;  DU  Oiterner  (German) ;  and 
several  other  books.  It  has  lately  been  deci- 
ded, however,  to  adopt  the  type  of  Dr.  Howe, 
which  Is  the  principal  reading  type  now  in  use 
in  all  the  institutions  in  the  United  States.  A 
system  of  tan^ble  point  writing  and  printing 
has  lately  been  devised  by  Mr,  William  B.  Wait, 
the  snperintendent  of  tiie  New  Tork  institu- 
tion for  the  blind,  in  which  the  letters  that 
occnr  oflenest  are  represented  by  the  fewest 
points.    The  following  is  the  alphabet : 


An  alphabet  of  capital  letters  is  formed  &om 
these,  but  it  is  not  proposed  to  ose  it  much,  ci- 
oept  in  coses  whore  it  woald  he  obvioaaly  pre- 
ferable. There  are  signs  for  words  and  com- 
binations which  occur  often,  as  the,  and,  q/l  &c 
An  instrument  called  a  guide,  similar  to  th* 
one  used  by  U.  Braille,  bat  differing  in  some 
important  respects,  is  nsed  in  the  formation  of 
the  letters,  wbioh  are  made  by  pree^ng  the 
point  of  a  blunt  style  npon  paper  which  is  held 
upon  t.  tmae  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
guide.  The  opper  part  of  the  gnide  is  repre- 
sented in  the  ent^oined  cat,  In  wliich  the  word 


"Jnstice  "  is  spelled,  as  will  be  obaerred,  from 
right  to  left,  in  which  manner  all  relief  print- 
ing ranst  be  done.  When  tlie  paper  is  tamed 
over  and  the  ends  reversed,  the  raised  p<nnU 
which  are  made  by  the  style  will  qipear  as  fol- 


J 


i 


The  lower  part  of  the  guide,  which  ia  placed 
beneath  the  paper,  has  six  parallel  grooves, 
two  for  each  row  of  cells,  for  the  purpcee  ot 
forming  the  upper  and  lower  lines  of  points. 
The  o^  and  bars  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
gnide  are  made  of  such  dimensions  that  when 
a  style  of  the  proper  die  is  used,  the  points 
formed  in  each  of  the  angles  of  the  celb  will 
be  equidistant ;  therefore  spaces  of  any  deured 
lengui  may  bo  left  between  the  letters,  any 
letter  being  formed  entirely  in  one  oelL  or 
partly  in  one  and  partly  in  the  neit;  the  bars 
not  being  intendeo  for  separating  the  letters, 
but  for  locating  the  points.  In  regard  to  the 
respective  merits  of  the  systems  of  printing  for 
the  blind,  there  has  been  consideralile  coDtro- 
versy.  Mr.  Levy,  the  blind  author,  says:  "In 
considering  the  beet  means  for  enabling  the 
blind  to  mid,  it  is  necessary  to  taHj  compre- 
hend the  powers  of  touch  as  eiyoyed  by  the  per- 
son for  whom  the  means  of  reading  are  espe- 
cially intended. .. .  The  great  error  that  has  pre- 
vailed ever  unce  the  invention  of  raised  letters 
is  the  sappoeition  that  the  sense  of  touch  exists 
with  equal  intensity  In  all  blind  persons,  and  that 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


to  reader  this  sppareot  the  dne  ottlti^fttlon  of  the 

BeDM  ot  feeling  iB  all  that  ia  required.  Touch 
differs  from  nght  in  nuukj  respects,  bat  oliiefij 
in  this,  that  while  sight  oon  take  in  at  one  glance 
toanj  objects  indoded  iritbin  a  rast  area,  touch 
can  oiUy  convey  to  the  brain  bj  one  act  of  con- 
tact the  impression  of  the  first  small  point  that 
arrests  its  progroM.  Let  a  small  hoiizontal 
line  be  made  on  a  piece  of  paper,  the  perBon 
who  wishes  to  feel  it  proceeds  fi^om  the  left  side 
of  the  p^ier  qnite  nnootiHcioDB  of  what  may 
meet  bis  finger ;  be  presently  comes  in  contact 
with  a  point,  which  fact  wiUi  more  than  light- 
ning speed  is  oonveyed  to  the  braia.  Now  it  is 
obnoDS  that  if  it  were  possible  to  convey  to 
the  brain  a  distinct  idea  ^  one  special  letter  or 
word  every  time  the  finger  comes  in  contact 
with  a  point,  '  tangible '  reading  would  reach 
perfection.  The  first  thing  is  to  select  the 
most  tangible  oliaracters,  viz.,  those  whose 
properties  oan  be  perceived  immediately  that 
the  finger  oomes  in  contact  with  tnem." 
Oq  the  other  hand,  the  Rev.  Ur.  Johns,  chap- 
lain to  the  asylum  for  the  blind,  St.  George's 


Fields,  London,  says ;  "  Sooner  or  later  some 
one  system  of  emboaaed  printing  will  be  gen- 
erally adopted,  and  it  mnat  embrace  the  fol- 
lowing features :  It  most  resemble  as  nearly  as 
posmbie  the  type  in  use  among  seeing  men ; 
that  the  blind  scholar  fn  learning  to  read  may 
have  every  poswble  help  from  his  remembrance 
of  letters  he  may  once  have  seen,  hat  which 
now  his  fingers  mnst  feel  for  him,  or  from  any 
one  who  oan  read  an  ordinary  book ;  or,  if 
need  be,  that  a  friend  may  read  to  him." 
Systems  of  notation  in  rdsed  characters  have 
been  invented  by  Rousseau,  Braille,  Gnadet, 
and  Mahoney.  and  posseas  merit,  inasmuch  as 
they  permit  tne  pupil  to  record  any  piece  of 
muMC  for  fatare  reference ;  but  the  piineipol 
method  of  cnltivating  mnHC  by  the  blmd  most 
always  be  by  the  ear,  and  in  this  they  eiceL 
— Aa  to  the  eiteut  of  the  miafortnne  of  loss 
of  sight  as  compared  to  that  of  loss  of  hearing 
and  speech,  Mr.  Johns  substantially  says;  "At 
first  one  would  be  naturally  led  to  suppose 
that  the  condition  of  the  blind  man  is  by  for 
the  most  deplorable ;  that  his  isolation  bmore 


EUIBEBT  BLUm  FEBBOBS. 


Cn.  Anlldla*,  PiBtor.. 
Btodotu 

JHdrmus  or  AluudHi 
EsrtuD  Dudokk  Dvgt. 
HAUy  thA  UlBitnl. . . . 

Blr  Jidm  Qawai 

J(Ad  Ztod. 

Pater  PddIi 

IfHStntot 

i.  Bebegtlu.  of  ThoradcrC 
John  F«niud 

OlonimlPuk 

CddiiE  ds  Figa_. . 
Proaper  luunl. 
ChodeC— — 

Nkholu 

Bmi7  UoFM 

^ImaiaA  BiuklDolE.  D,  D . 
Gottlieb  KoBi 

FnnccKs  Hal 
ekWMlQM 

AnmwSSn- 

JohB    HlttDB 

Sav.  Jokn  TtoDftUMI. 

Joho  Stular.. !.."... 

Edwud  Bnbton 

John  unair 

JohD  Gonch 

M,  Arliw. 

M.  Bone 

John  Kay 

SliJahnneldJiig. 

DirMMMteth 

Jooepb  Elfltaibuuu.. . . 

Burr  Knlfl 

Atsnudcr  Bodsnlwdi. 

■f.ManomlUu!'.!!!'.! 

AiniclD  TUorT 

LolllBnUls 

FtuK«  Brown 

TUnolhr  Woodbrldn.. 
Bumel  WOkid 


Bootkui: 

BohsDli' 
BulglDpi. 

Wlrt-'- 

BeCii     _. 

BwlttsiliuKl 

]fUui,ICil/ 

limiiSiii.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Diuptiiiij.  Ynimc. 

TvkdiJn,  Epcrd! 

"■■-^csWr,  Sm&d.. 

u,  eintlwid.. . 


U II  TMK. 

[a  ihLldhaoil 


G«[ 

CUDbUtf,    Itllij. .  . 

lAiaioa'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
CoTdnOr,  England. 
BiiMl,  Bwttierluid. 

li^trvi^'.'.y.'.'.'.'.'. 

Kendll,  Eng^ad.'! 

0]aim^.','.'.'.V.'.'.'. 

WMtmliiatar 

Dilkillh,  Sootlind. 
Tjrrol 

Beigiiin.'::::::.:: 
parflr^.T?.....':; 

PhIs 

BI«iktiTMf*.llui. 


taOyon 

irijtta.. 


1780      Fwm  yoBl 


PUiMopliy.  gnmatiT ;  Hlatny  of  Onw*. 
FUloHpta^;  pneaptor  of  Okwa. 
^^''yvxtiy  *ai  dlTlnlt]'. 

lorinuid  Ihaologj. 

wvex^oUa. 

17;  UftofWiIlH. 


ThEuloKy  and  m 
FhHoooiihy  ud  in«tldil«. 
Poetry,  p?-" ' j  — "■ 


AttlODODIT,  tl 

Hlalocyi^Dai 


PoeU7,  dlTlnitr, 

Poatry;  Fabfaa. < Tok. Stv. 
Oaii(Hphy,  mapa  In  laHaC 
HatanlbliloiT'. 

Poetry! 

Tbwlogy. 

Mithamktlc*  and  aatrontuny. 

-    ■     -Jenhr 


Botuy  ud  mlonl  phDoaopbT. 
:Poet  and  taacks  oftba  bUnd: 

[echanlca. 

nusiltnits. 


Hlalory  ottlia  Nonnu  eanantaL 

' -or  of  potat-wridiig  Ibr  bHnd. 

^  aod  aDtkn. 

Clergyman  aod  mttior ;  dlaaxmw 
CkTfrjinan  and  author;  bynma. 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


722  BUND 

complete.  Bnt  do  one  who  haa  erer  really 
known  an  educated  blind  man  in  society  will 
a^n  incline  to  snch  an  opinion.  It  is  tme 
tliat  the  deaf  nrat^  can  see  all  that  ie  going  on 
aronnd  him,  but  he  can  mostly  only  take  an  im- 
perfect part  in  it.  From  the  world  of  sweet 
sonnd  he  is  utterly  barred  out,  while  the  ditina 
gift  of  speech  is  entirely  denied  him ;  bat  the 
blind  man  enters  into  Uie  society  of  his  fellow 
men  as  freely  aa  if  gift«d  with  the  keenest  vis- 
ion. The  whole  world  of  soond  is  open  to  him 
with  all  its  special  speaking,  joy,  and  beanty ; 
the  silver  paradise  of  mnsic  opens  to  him  her 
fairy  gates,  a  new  guide  takes  bim  by  the  hand, 
and  under  her  glowing,  joyous  away  he  travels 
swiftly  to  the  land  where  faith  Is  even  greater 
than  sight."  In  the  cases  of  anch  men  sa  Sann- 
derson,  Hnber,  Zisca,  Dr.  filscklook,  and  others, 
it  may  be  believed  that  scarcely  any  calamity 
not  involving  the  loss  of  mental  health  wonld 
have  hindered  the  development  of  their  innate 
greatness.  That  a  blind  boy  should  ever  come 
to  occupy  the  chair  in  a  university  once  held  by 
Newton,  that  a  blind  yonth  ahoidd  saccessfolly 
prosecute  investigations  in  afield  of  natural  his- 
tory which  required  the  most  careful  observa- 
tion, or  that  it  Hbould  be  said  of  a  man,  as  it  was 
of  Zisoa,  that  "ba  was  more  dreaded  by  the  ene- 
mies of  his  conntry  after  he  became  blind  than 
before,"  must  ever  be  matter  of  wonder  and 
admiration.  A  list  of  the  most  famous  blind 
persons  mentioned  in  history  and  others  of 
eminence  will  be  found  in  the  preceding  table. 
Of  the  living  blind  men  in  the  United  States 
who  have  become  distinguished  as  authors  imd 
teachers  may  be  mentioned  the  Rev.  WiUiam 
H.  Milbnrn,  &  pulpit  orator  of  much  power, 
and  author  of  a  book  called  "  Rifle,  Axe,  and 
Saddlebags,"  and  several  other  propular  works; 
William  H.  Churchman,  the  present  able  super- 
intendent of  the  institution  for  the  blind  at 
Indianapolis ;  J.  M.  Sturtevant,  superintendent 
of  the  mstitQtion  for  the  blind  at  Nashville ; 
Otis  Patten,  superintendent  of  the  institnUon 
for  the  blind  at  Little  Rock;  the  Rev.  Patrick 
Lane,  superintendent  of  the  institntion  for  the 
blind  at  Baton  Rouge ;  and  the  Rev.  Adam 
McClellaa  of  Brooklyn. 

BUXD,  Karl,  a  German  political  agitator, 
bom  in  Mannheim,  Sept.  4, 1620.  While  atndy- 
iuB  law  in  Heidelberghe  was  twice  arrested  for 
political  offences,  and  spent  several  months  in 

trison.  He  was  baniahed  from  Germany  for 
is  participation  in  the  republican  rising  under 
HecKerin  the  spring  of  1848,  and  while  plotting 
with  Struve  and  other  eiilea,  he  was  expelled 
tVom  Alsace  by  order  of  Gen.  Cav^gnoc  on  a 
charge  of  abetting  the  Paris  insurrection  of 
June.  Joining  Struve  in  the  September  move- 
ment, be  was  with  him  captured  afl«r  the  fight 
at  Staafen,  in  S,  Baden,  and  sentenced  to  eight 
years'  imprisonment  at  Sruchsnt.  Liberated 
after  eight  months  by  a  revolutionary  mob,  he 
went  to  Garlsruhe,  whence  the  grand  dake 
had  fled;  but  Brentano,  whom  he  accnsed  of 
secretly  working  for  the  restoration  of  the  de- 


BLIND  FISH 

Eosed  dynasty,  soon  got  rid  of  him  by  sending 
im  aa  a  plenipotentiary  of  the  provisional 
government  of  Baden  and  the  Palatinate  to 
Paris.  There  he  was  accused  of  encouraging 
the  rising  of  June  IS,  1349.  Expelled  from 
France  in  August,  he  went  to  Brassels,  bnt  was 
obUged  to  leave  that  city  also  in  186S,  and 
established  himself  in  London,  where  be  for 
a  long  time  continued  his  political  agitations 
through  the  press  of  varions  countries.  After 
the  events  of  1886,  however,  his  revolntionory 
ardor  abated.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  Badm 
government  in  1867.    In  18T2  he  pnblished  a 

Pamphlet  entitled  "Away  with  the  House  of 
eers,"  which  was  exclusively  circulated  in 

BLIND  FISH,  the  common  name  of  several 
species  offish,  of  different  genera,  living  in  the 
subterranean  watera  of  the  United  States  and 
Cnba ;  but  especially  of  the  amblyepti*  ipelatu 
(De  Kay)  of  the  Mammoth  cave  of  Kentncky. 
In  some  of  the  lamprey-like  flshea  the  eyes  are 


ception  of  light,  withont  the  formation  o 
image;  many  catfishes (silurufie)  have  similar 
rudimentary  eyes,  entirely  unfit  for  puipoeea 
of  vision.  In  the  Mammoth  cave  theee  fishes 
are  nearly  colorless,  while  the  blind  catfishes 
retain  the  general  dark  color  of  other  members 
of  the  family.  The  common  blind  fish  comes 
nearest  to  the  oyprinodonta  and  the  shore  min- 
nows. They  are  rather  solitary,  difficult  to 
capture  by  the  net  from  the  acuteness  of  their 
senses  of  hearing  and  touch,  and  look  like 
ghosts  in  the  water;  they  are  very  active,  tak- 
ing their  food  both  at  the  surface  and  near  the 
bottom,  and  are  able  to  cajjtnre  a  rapid-raov. 
ing  mudfish  (melamira),  having  eyes,  living  in 
the  same  waters;  the  blind  fiwi,  with  its  sen- 
sitive tactile  organs,  is  able  to  pursne  and  over- 
take the  fish  with  eyes,  but  withont  a  highly 
developed  sense  of  touch,  and  which  con- 
stantly encounters  obstacles  in  the  darkneM. 
They  are  viviparous,  bringing  forth  their  roang 
in  September  and  October;  they  vary  in  length 
from  2  U>^  inches.    The  head  of  a~*'-"-'- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BUNDWORM 


ie  (rithont  scales  as  far  as  the  pectoral  fins,  the 
rest  of  tha  bodj  having  small  ones;  the  sides 
of  the  head  are  provided  with  numeroos  traDS- 
verse  aod  longitudinal  ridges,  each  having  80 
to  30  papillie,  cup-shaped  at  the  top  and  with 
a  delicate  tactile  filament  freelj  supplied  with 
nerves  from  the  5ili  pair;  there  are  also  on 
the  sides,  from  the  pectoral  to  the  tail,  about 
10  vertical  ridges,  with  the  papilla  less  well 
defined ;  the  nsJied  skin  is  of  eitreme  delicacj. 
The  optic  lobes  of  the  brain  are  as  well  de- 
veloped as  in  ordinar/  fishes,  aod  rudimeutar; 
ejes  have  been  found  under  tha  ekb  by  Prof. 
J.  Wj^mau  and  others.  The  ejes  have  the 
membranes,  pigment,  and  lene,  and,  though 
imperfect,  are  constructed  after  the  vertebrate 
type.  The;  cannot  form  an  image,  as  tha  in- 
tegument and  areolar  tissue  over  them  would 
prevent  the  transmission  of  an;  hut  verj  dif- 
msed  light ;  no  pupil  or  undoubted  iris  has 
been  found.  The  organ  of  hearing  is  largely 
developed.  The  vent  is  in  advasce  of  the 
peotorals.  Thej  are  probably  distributed  in 
all  tho  subterranean  rivers  flowing  through 
the  limestone  region  under  the  carbomferoas 
rooks  of  the  central  United  States;  they  bav^ 
often  been  token  from  wells. — Another  oolor- 
IsHS  blind  flsh  (typhliehthyt  tubUrraneut,  Gi- 
rard),  1^  to  3  inches  long  and  having  uo  ven- 
tral fins,  has  been  found  in  the  Mammoth 
cave,  and  in  the  central  and  southern  portion 
of  tho  Bubterraneaii  region.  In  the  genus  eho' 
logruter  (Ag.)  are  found  all  the  family  charac- 
ters of  the  above  two  blind  species,  bnt  it  has 
eyes,  a  brownish  color,  and  no  papillary  ridges 
on  the  head  and  body ;  yet  it  is  a  sabtarranean 
fish  in  some  instances.  In  the  Cuban  blind 
fishes  (genera  lueifuga  and  ttygieola),  de- 
scribed by  Prof.  Poey,  there  ore  oiltary  appen- 
dages on  the  head  and  body,  well  developed  as 
organs  of  tonch,  bnt  without  the  tactile  bsrbela 
on  the  jaws  usually  found  in  the  cod  group,  to 
which  these  fishes  are  nearly  allied;  tha  optic 
lobee  are  large,  and  the  eyes  exist,  bat  so  im- 
bedded in  the  flesh  of  the  head  as  to  be  use- 
less; the  body,  cheeks,  and  opercular  bones 
are  covered  with  scales.  Though  they  resemble 
aiablyoptU,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  belong  to 
a  marine  family,  though  now  found  in  freeb 
water  in  caves,  and  are  far  removed  from  the 
latter. — From  the  facts  here  enumerated,  and 
many  others  that  may  be  found  in  the  "Amer- 
ican Naturalist,"  vol.  vi.,  pp.  6-80,  for  Jan- 
nary,  1872,  Hr.  F.  W.  Putnam  expresses  the 
opinion  that  these  fishes  have  always  been 
blind,  and  have  not  become  so  from  living  in 
darkness.  As  far  as  known,  the  young  of 
blind  fishes  have  no  external  ayes  when  bom. 
BUNDWWH  {anguit  fragilu.  Linn.},  a  rep- 
tile of  the  order  of  saurians  and  family  of  scin- 
coids,  or  lepido-tauri.  It  is  neither  a  worm, 
nor  is  it  blind.  The  bmily  is  extremely  inter- 
esting, as  it  serves  to  establish  a  gradaUon  be- 
tween the  true  saurians  and  the  serpents  by 
means  of  the  genus  anguit  and  others  nearly 
allied  to  it,  in  which  the  body  becomes  elon- 


gated and  serpentiform,  the  ribs  Increase  ii 

number,  and  the  hmbs  cease  to  appear  eiter 
nally,  being  quite  rudimentary.   We  see  a  aim 


ilar  approach  to  the  ophidians  in  some  of  the 
oyolosanrions,  as  in  the  amphisbnna,  which  is 
properly  a  sanrian.  These  mtarmodiate  forms 
were  plowed  by  Gray  in  his  order  of  sanrophi- 

dians ;  while  Merram,  being  onable  to  draw  tha 
line  between  ophidians  and  saurians,  united 
them  into  the  eii^le  order  »q'aamata.  The 
tiody  and  tail  of  the  blindworm  are  cylindrical 
and  snake-like,  the  latter  being  as  long  as  the 
former,  and  even  longer;  the  head,  triangular 
and  rounded  in  front,  is  covered  by  11  Targe 
and  several  smaller  plates ;  the  nostrils  ore  lat- 
eral, each  opening  in  the  oentre  of  tha  nasal 
plates;  the  ton^a  is  free,  flat,  not  retractile 
into  a  diesth,  divided  slightly  at  tha  end,  but 
not  forked  like  that  of  the  serpent,  its  soifoce 
partly  granular  and  partly  velvety;  the  palate 
IS  not  toothed ;  the  Jaw  teeth  are  small,  sharp, 
and  inclined  backward.  Tha  bones  of  the  head 
are  not  movable  as  in  serpents,  and  the  jaws 
are  short  and  united  firmly  at  the  symphysis,  so 
that  tha  opening  of  the  mouth  is  always  the 
some,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  great  mo- 
bility and  extensibility  of  those  parts  in  ophidi- 
ans. The  genus  angui*,  and  its  allied  genera, 
also  approach  the  saurians,  and  differ  from  the 
serpent^  in  having  two  eyelids,  moving  ver- 
tically, and  capable  of  entirely  covering  the 
eye,  the  lower  one  provided  with  scales.  Tha 
external  auditory  foramen  is  distinct,  thoush 
small  and  linear;  there  are  no  legs,  bnt  the 
rudiments  of  the  shoulder,  sternum,  and  pelvis 
are  found  in  the  substanoe  of  the  muscles, 
while  in  tha  snakes  they  are  reduced  to  a 
mere  vestige  of  a  posterior  extremity.  The 
scales  are  six-sided,  except  on  the  sides  where 
they  are  rhomboid,  smooth,  imbricated,  or  fish- 
like, and  nearly  of  the  same  size  above  and  be- 
neath. One  lung  is  much  more  developed  than 
the  other,  as  in  serpents ;  the  opening  of  the 
cloaca  is  transverse.  Tha  blindworm  is  found 
in  Europe,  fTom  Kos^a  and  Sweden  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  also  in  northern  Africa;  it 
forms  now  the  only  species  of  the  genus  an^uw, 


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T24 

vrhich  formerly  indnded  bU  the  scaled  repttlea 
with  very  short  or  no  feet,  and  with  the  scales 
nearly  aUke  above  and  below.  It  is  sentle  and 
iuoffeuMve  In  ita  habits,  and  quite  narmlees ; 
even  if  provoked  to  bite,  its  teeth  are  so  small 
and  weak  at  hardly  to  make  an  impression 
upon  the  lioman  skin.  It  is  very  timid,  and 
when  taken  hold  of  is  in  the  habit  of  forcibly 
and  stiffly  contracting  the  bodj,  in  which  state 
it  becomes  so  fra^e  as  to  be  broken  by  a 
slight  blow,  or  an  attempt  t«  bend  it;  henoe 
its  specific  name  ,/>-a^t7u.  The  glass  snake,  an 
American  apecies  of  aaurian  {cphuaurtu),  pos- 
sesees  tha  same  property,  as  do  many  other 
adnooids.  There  is  no  niptare  of  mosonlsr 
fibre,  hut  a  separation  of  one  layer  from  the  ad- 
Joining  one;  in  snch  oases,  the  detached  por- 
tion is  said  to  be  reprodaced  the  next  year. 
Prom  its  smoothness  it  is  able  to  penetrate  into 
very  small  openings,  and  it  delighta  to  bnirow 
in  soft  dry  soil,  and  nnder  decaying  wood  and 
leaves;  it  moves  by  lateral  contraotionB,  and 
■beds  ita  skin,  according  to  Bell,  like  the  trae 
makes.  It  is  ovo-viviparons,  the  yoong  being 
bron^t  forth  alive  tn  Jane  or  Jnly,  Ut  the  num- 
ber of  from  7  to  14.  The  general  color  is  a 
brownish  gray,  with  a  silvery  gjsnce,  with  seve- 
ral parallel  longitudinal  rows  of  dark  spota  on 
the  sides,  and  one  along  the  middle  of  the  back ; 
the  length  te  from  10  to  14  inches,  of  which  the 
head  is  about  half  an  inch.  Its  food  oonmsts 
of  worms,  insects,  and  small  terrestrial  mol- 
loaks :  it  is  not  fond  of  the  water.  In  France  it 
is  called  PorveL  The  blindworm  approaches 
the  ophidians  in  its  form,  manner  of  progrea- 
mon,  absence  of  feet,  number  of  ribs,  and  in- 
equality of  long  development ;  but  it  belongs 
to  the  Bcino<dd  sanriant  c>y  tha  structare  of  the 
tongue,  head,  and  Jaws,  by  the  occurrence  of 
movabla  eyelida,  and  by  the  peonliarides  t^  the 
vertebral  colmnp. 

BURB,  a  topical  application,  which,  ap- 
plied to  the  skin,  produces  an  irritation,  and 
runes  the  cuticle  ia  the  form  of  a  vesicle  filled 
with  serons  fluid.  The  powder  of  the  dried 
oantharis,  or  Spanish  fly,  operates  rapidly,  with 
certainty,  and  is  now  invariably  used  for  this 

Eurpoee,  (See  GANTHABinss.)  Uorbid  action 
1  one  part  of  the  organism  may  often  be  re- 
lieved or  removed  by  oonnter-irritaUon  in  an- 
other and  a  neighboring  part^nd  on  this  prin- 
ciple the  blister  is  applied.  When  the  imme- 
diate effect  of  a  blister  is  required,  the  vinegar 
of  oantharidea  is  a  very  prompt  and  efiectoal 
application.  A  piece  of  blotting  paper  moist- 
ened with  this  fluid  raises  a  blister  almost  im- 
mediately. It  is  sometimes  thus  applied  behind 
the  ears  in  toothache,  or  over  the  stomach  in 
oases  of  sudden  cramp.  The  raw  surface  pro- 
dnoed  in  this  manner  affords  a  ready  means  of 
introdncing  oert^n  medicinal  substances  into 
the  system  by  absorption;  morphine,  for  in- 
stance, sprinkled  on  this  raw  anrfaoe,  is  quickly 
absorbeo,  and  patients  may  be  tims  relieved 
where  remedies  could  not  be  otherwise  em- 
ployed, as  in  colio  and  cholera. 


r,  a  German  natnralist,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  bom  at  Anspaoh  in  1738, 
died  in  Berlin,  Aug.  0,  179B.  On  arriving  at 
manhood  he  was  almost  illiterate^  but  tnen 
thoroughly  learned  German  and  Latm  and  de- 
voted himself  to  medical  and  scientific  studiea, 
taking  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Frankfortr^n-the- 
Odor,  He  praciJsed  his  profeswon  for  many 
years  in  Berlin,  and  wrote  several  mediciJ 
treatises;  but  hia  great  work  was  one  oa 
ichthyolc^y  (AUgemeine  JfaturpeteAiekU  dtr 
Fiiehe,  12  vols.,  Berlin,  1783-'96),  excellently 
illustxated,  which  was  in  its  time  of  great 
value,  He  made  a  fine  collection  of  specimens, 
which  is  now  in  the  Berlin  EOJilogical  n 


to  France  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  ta  a 
naturalized  French  citizen.  In  18^  be  was 
appointed  to  a  pontion  in  the  statistioal  bnrean 
OT  the  ministry  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
pnblic  works,  which  he  resigned  in  1861  to  de- 
vote himself  excluMvely  to  authorship.  Hi* 
chief  works  are:  Jk*  ehargei  de  ra^AeHltwrt 
datu  let  diMr$  pay*  de  V Europe  (Paria,  1 860) ; 
tL'Etpaynt  en  18C0;  Statutique  de  ia  f^net 
(1600);  Puittanee eomparie  da  divert  &taU  d» 
rEtttvpe  (ISOS);  Let  Jiiianee*  de  Frtmee  de- 
mit 181B  (186S};  Let  tJtiorieient  du  toeia- 
lieme  en  Allemague  (1872);  and  Annvaire  de 
radminittratietifrantaiie,  which  he  began  in 
1858,  and  continued  several  years.  He  has 
written  largely  for  periodicals  on  statistics  and 
political  economy,  and  has  edited  jonmala  de- 
voted to  those  snt^eots.  In  1861  the  ooadwny 
of  sciences  gave  him  the  Monthyon  prize  for 
BtatisticB. 

BLOCKADE,  in  international  law,  the  olonnc 
of  an  enemy's  port  by  a  besieging  force,  ft 
has  been  described  by  Sir  William  Soott  as  "  a 
sort  of  cironmvollation  round  a  place,  by  which 
all  foreign  connection  and  correspondence  Is,  aa 
&r  as  human  power  can  effect  it,  to  be  en- 
tirely cut  ofi'."  The  drcumstanoes  essential  to 
a  valid  blockade  are  tolerably  well  settled  by 
the  deoidons  of  eminent  jurists  in  prize  oases. 
The  first  of  these  is  that  a  state  of  war  must 
exist,  though  this  may  be  without  an  actual 
declaration  of  war,  for  llie  blockade  may  be 
the  first  hostile  act  The  second  is  that  it  b« 
sustdned  by  a  blockading  force  sufBcient  to 
make  it  hazardous  to  attempt  to  enter  or  de- 
part from  the  port,  although  if  the  ships  com- 
posing it  be  iW  any  short  time  driven  fhwa 
their  positions  by  sadden  tempest  or  other 
similar  cause,  the  blockade  is  not  thereby 
raised.     The  purptwe  of  this  measure  is  to  in- 


and  neither  would  neutral  nations  submit  to  it 
if  he  did  not,  nor  would  the  prize  ooorta  aono- 
tion  the  captures  which  might  be  made  firr 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLOCKADE 

eraifing  it  The  third  oiroimutance  enential 
is  that  &  neatral  asaiiut  whom  it  is  sought  to 
be  enforoed  Bhoold  haTO  been  notified  of  it 
The  notice  ma;  be  b;  formal  Dotificatdon  of  the 
eieoQtive  published  to  the  world,  or  actual  no- 
tice at  the  time  trade  with  the  port  i»  at- 
tempted ;  bat  notice  may  be  presnined  in  any 
ease  where  the  blockade  has  become  matter 
of  public  and  ^nerel  notoriety.  The  priTil^ 
of  the  blookadmg  force  is  to  seize  and  send  in 
for  condemnation  any  vesael  with  its  cai^o  en- 
deavoring to  trade  with  the  port;  and  if  the 
vessel  Bucceeds  in  violating  it  she  may  be  fol- 
lowed and  seized  on  the  high  saaa,  and  does 
not  puree  herself  of  tbe  offence  until  she  has 
returned  to  the  port  from  which  she  originally 
set  out  In  oases  of  neatral  Tesaels  in  port 
when  the  blockade  is  declared,  the  notoriety 
of  the  act  is  sufficueut  notice ;  they  are  at  lib- 
erty to  leave  with  such  oai^  as  they  may 
then  have  on  board,  bnt  must  not  take  on 
more.  A  nentral  vewet  incnrs  no  liability  in 
trading  at  a  port  not  blockaded  in  goods  des- 
tined to  the  blockaded  port  by  land  carriage. — 
Borne  notable  attempts  have  been  made  to  en- 
force mere  paper  blookadea.  The  Berlin  de- 
cree (rf  Nov.  21,  1806,  of  tlie  emperor  Napo- 
leon, declared  all  the  British  islands  in  a  state 
of  blockade,  and  threatened  captnre  and  oon- 
demnation  to  vessels  trading  with  them.  The 
T^ngliah  government  retaliated,  and  between 
the  Berlin  and  Uilan  decrees  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  orders  in  council  on  the  other,  though 
no  actual  blockade  was  established,  all  neu- 
tral trade  with  Qreat  Britain  and  France  and 


States  was  the  principal  sufferer  firom  these 
measures,  and  justly  eonsidered  herself  enti- 
tled to  redress.  The  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war  in  the  United  States  in  IBSl  preeented 
ecHoe  embarrassing  questions  as  to  the  proper 
coarse  to  take  in  regard  to  the  southern  porta. 
Two  courses  were  open  to  the  government:  to 
declare  the  ports  closed  as  porte  of  entry,  or  to 
establish  a  olookade.  As  the  ports  belonged 
to  the  coontry,  and  it  was  the  right  of  the 
government  to  declare  what  should  and  what 
should  not  be  ports  of  entry,  it  was  argued  by 
some  that  the  simplest  course  to  take  was  to 
exercise  the  ondoubted  right  to  close  them, 
and  thereby  render  all  trade  with  them  nnlaw- 
fiiL  Bach  a  course,  however,  it  must  be  evi- 
dent, would  be  taken  not  in  the  interests  of 
oommerce  and  not  for  any  motive  operating  in 
time  of  peace,  and  therefore,  whatever  name 
might  be  given  it  would  be  really  a  belligerent 
act  resorted  to  in  order  to  inflict  ii^ury  upon 
a  public  enemy;  and  it  was  highly  probable 
that  neutral  nations  would  insist  that  thongh 
called  a  mere  municipal  regulation,  it  was  in 
its  nature  bn  attempt  at  blockade,  and  to  be 
respected  muHt  appear  to  be  made  by  tite 
proper  force.  The  government  took  the  other 
coarse,  and  In  April,  1861,  the  president  ie- 
med  proclamations    deolanng    the   southern 


BLODGET 


T26 


ports  blookadod.  The  blockade  at  first  v« 
not  so  ooDiplete  as  afterward,  and  some  vigor- 
oDB  remonstraocea  were  made  against  it  in 
Enj^and  as  being  in  law  wholly  ineffectual; 
bnt  the  British  government  ftfter  carefU  in- 
vestigation, did  not  venture  to  prononnce  it 
insumcient  and  correctly  laid  down  the  rule 
of  law  as  follows :  "  Her  m^esty's  government 
are  of  o^nion  that  assuming  the  blockade  is 
duly  notified,  and  also  that  a  number  of  ships 
is  stationed  and  remains  at  the  entrance  of  a 
port  sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  it,  or 
to  create  an  evident  aanger  in  entering  or 
leaving  it,  and  that  these  snips  do  not  volon- 
tarily  permit  ingreee  or  egress,  the  fact  that 
varions  ships  may  have  snooessfUly  escaped 
throQgh  it  will  not  of  itoelf  prevent  the  block- 
ade from  being  an  effective  one  by  intemaldonal 
law."  Notwithstanding  a  considerable  trade 
was  carried  on  tbroogh  the  blockaded  porte  by 
means  of  swift  vessels  constmcted  for  the  par- 
pose,  this  conclusion  of  the  British  government 
was  adhered  to ;  the  prixe  coorts  declared  the 
same  doctrine,  and  Secretary  Welles  in  hia 
annual  report  for  the  second  year  of  the  war 
was  able  to  boast  of  the  blockade  as  "the 
greatest  of  all  naval  triumphs."  Bat  some  of 
the  porta  it  was  found  imposmble  wholly  to 
close,  and  in  a  few  instances,  notably  in  the 
case  of  Charleston,  an  attempt  was  made  to 

Ereclude  passage  through  some  of  the  channels 
T  sinking  therein  old  vessels,  stonee,  and  other 
obBtmctiMiB.  This,  being  taken  as  an  attempt 
to  destroy  the  ports,  was  remonstrated  Bg«nst 
by  the  British  minister,  as  not  sanotioned  by 
the  laws  of  war;  but  it  wss  replied  byUr. 
Seward  that  the  obstructions  were  only  tem* 
porary,  and  in  fact  they  proved  of  little  im- 

Krtance.— A  blockade  terminated  is  sud  to 
raised,  and  this  may  be  done  by  pnblio 
proclamation  or  by  wi&drawing  the  block- 
ading force. 

BLOCK  DOUHD,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  midway  between  Uontank  Point  ^^  '^^ 
£.  extremity  of  Long  Island,  and  Point  Judith, 
Rhode  Island,  8  m.  long  and  from  a  to  5  m. 
wide.  It  belongs  to  the  state  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  constitatas  the  tAwn  of  New  Shorebam, 
Newportoounty;  pop.  in  1871, 1,118.  On  the 
N.  W.  ride  is  a  lighthonse  with  two  fixed 
lights,  58  ft  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  lat 
41'  18'  N.,  Ion.  71°  86'  W. 

BLeMET,  LsriB,  an  American  physicist  ^"^ 
at  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  May  25, 1828.  He  b^an 
early  to  make  observations  in  physical  science, 
and  in  1801  became  asustant  at  the  Smithso- 
nian inetitation,  Washington,  having  in  charf^ 
the  researches  in  climatological  and  atmo^theno 
physics.  In  186a-'8  be  directed  the  oi^^anlza- 
tion  of  the  Pacific  railroad  surveys  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  determination  of  altitudes  and  gra- 
dients by  means  of  the  barometer.  In  18fi4  he 
prepared  a  quarto  volume  of  the  statistics  of 
scientific  observation  at  the  United  States  mili- 
tary posts.  In  1807  he  published  a  valuable 
work  on    "The  Climatology  of  the  United 


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726  BLODGET 

Stetea,  and  of  the  Temperate  Latitudes  of  the 
North  American  Continent,"  which  was  widelj 
circulated  in  Europe,  and  for  wbioh  he  was 
highly  compliraented  by  Hamholdt.  It  con- 
tinnea  to  be  the  ataodard  work  on  the  sub- 
ject In  1S63  be  was  nlaced  in  charge  of 
the  financial  and  statiatictd  reports  of  the  treas- 
ury departmeot,  of  which  he  prepared  five  vol- 
nmes,  1B8S-'S  to  18S4-'G.  Since  ISSS  he  has 
been  United  Stat«s  appraiser  at  large  of  cus- 
toms. For  the  treasury  department  he  prepar- 
ed, from  1885  to  1887,  reports  on  finance  and 
revenue ;  reports  on  industrial  progress  and 
census  of  industry,  18S1  and  18T1 ;  and  on  the 
reeources  of  North  Carolina,  1870.  His  pam- 
phlet on  Uie  "Commercial  and  Financial  Be- 
aources  of  the  United  States,"  in  1864,  was  re- 
printed in  Germany,  and  did  much  to  sustain 
the  credit  of  the  government  in  the  money 
markets  of  the  old  world. 

BLODGET,  SiHMi,  an  American  inventor, 
bomatWobum,  Hasa.,  in  1720,  died  at  Uaver- 
hiU,  N.  H.,  Sept.  1,  1807.  Before  the  revolu- 
tion he  was  jndge  of  common  pleas  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  was  at  the  siege  of  Louisburg 
in  1745,  In  1788,  having  raised  by  a  machine 
of  his  own  invention  a  valuable  cargo  from  a 
vessel  sank  near  Plymootb,  be  became  pos- 
sessed with  the  idea  of  recovering  the  buried 
treasares  of  the  ocean,  and  went  to  Spain  and  to 
England  with  tliis  vitw.  He  desires  to  obtain 
a  contract  for  raiwng  the  Royal  George,  bat 
meeting  with  no  encouragement  retnrued  to 
New  Hampshire,  and  in  1791  commenced  the 
manufacture  of  duck.  In  1T93  he  removed  to 
Haverhill,  and  began  the  oonstmction  of  the 
canal  which  boars  his  name,  around  the  Amos- 
keag  falls.    Before  it  was  completed,  after 


CivUe  ofBlatL 


spending  lar^  sums  upon  it,  he  became  em- 
barrassed, and  was  thrown  into  prison  for  debt. 
He  was  rigidly  temperate  in  his  habil^  and  had 
pecnliar  theories  about  eiposore  to  the  weather. 


BLOIS 

He  expected  by  his  mode  of  life  to  prolong  it 
to  the  age  of  1 00  years,  bnt  at  the  age  of  67  he 
died  from  the  effects  of  exposure  on  a  jonmey 
from  Boston  to  HaverhilL 

BLOEHliXT,  Iknhsa,  a  Dutch  painter,  bom 
at  Gorknm  about  1564,  died  in  Utrecht  in  1647. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  architect,  studied  under 
Dntch  and  French  masters,  and  punt«d  for  the 
churches  of  Brussels  and  Mechlin.  He  excelled 
in  landscape  and  as  a  colorist.  The  best  of  his 
historical  pictures  is  that  representing  the  death 
of  Niobe  and  her  children.  He  produced  a 
nnmber  of  eioellent  copper  etchings  in  chiar- 
oscuro. His  four  sons  also  were  favorably 
knownartisls,e8peciall7CoKHUjaBnd  Adbiak, 
engravers. 

BLOEMEN.  I.  Jaa  FriMni,  a  Flemish  punt- 
er, bom  in  Antwerp  in  1656,  died  in  Rimie  in 
1740.  He  was  animitator  of  Fousdn,  and  was 
called  Orizottte  on  account  of  the  fine  horizons 
inhisBoman  landscapes.  His  beat  picturesare 
in  the  Colonna,  Dona,  Bospigliosi,  and  Monte 
Cavallo  palace  in  Rome.  II>  Mer  tbi,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  bom  about  184G,  died  in  1719. 
He  was  in  Rome  till  1899,  when  be  became 
director  of  the  academy  of  Antwerp.  He  ex- 
celled chiefly  as  a  painter  of  battles.  The  gal- 
leries at  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Munich  possess 
some  of  his  pictures. 

BLOEHFOimSV,  a  town  of  a  AMca,  capital 
of  the  Orange  Biver  Free  State,  on  the  Modder 
river,  a  tributary  of  the  Vaal,  in  lat.  28°  8'  8., 
Ion.  43'  47'  E.,  shout  600  m.  N.  E.  of  Cape 
Town,  and  260  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Port  Natd ; 
pop.   1,200.     Under  British  rule  (1^4^'64)  it 
was  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name. 
Though  a  small  town,  it  carries  on  a  larae  com- 
merce in  wool  and  other  articles,  chiefly  with 
Cape  Colony  and  with 
the  sister  republic  of 
Transvaal.  Ithosathe- 
etre,  a  public  school,  a 
dub,  and  a  large  Dutch 
Reformed  church,  be- 
sides An^ican,  Metho- 
dist, and  Roman  Catho- 
lic  chapels.     The  in- 
habitants   are    chiefly 
Boere. 

BLOIS,    a   city  of 
France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Loir-et- 
Oher,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Loire,  and  on 
the  railway  from  Paris 
to  Nantes,  100  m.  S. 
W.  of  Paris;    pop.   in 
1B66,  20,086.  Itisbuilt 
on  the  declivity  of  ahill 
overlooking  the  river. 
The  streets  in  the  upper 
part  are   narrow  and 
crooked,  and  some  of  them  are  too  steep  for 
the  use  of  carriages,  stairs  being  cut  in  sev- 
eral places  for  the  acoommodation  of  pedes- 
trians.    Blois  contains   many  ot^ecte  of   in- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BLOMFIELD 

terest,  iuoladiog  a  Gothic  oathedrot,  the  epis- 
copal pal&oe,  the  town  hoDse,  and  the  ancient 
oastle  of  the  connta  of  Blois.  It  was  earlj  a 
place  of  importnnoe,  and  daring  the  middle 
o^^es  was  governed  hj  counts  descended  from 
Hugh  Capet,  who  also  poesessed  the  city  of 
Chartres.  The  last  of  them,  Gaj  II.,  sold  his 
feudal  estate  to  Loois  of  Orleans,  brother  of 
Oharlee  VI.,  whose  grandson,  Louis  XII.,  anited 
it  to  the  crown.  The  castle  became  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Volois,  and 
woa  enlarged  and  improved  at  variona  times 
until  it  was  one  of  the  handsomest  palaces  of 
the  conntrj.  Francis  I,,  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX., 
and  Henry  III.  held  their  courts  in  it,  and  the 
states  general  of  France  were  twice  convened 
there  dnring  the  reign  of  Henry  III. :  in  1576, 
when  the/  repealed  the  edict  of  pacifloatioii, 
and  the  king,  unable  to  oppose  the  league, 
declared  himself  Its  chief;  and  in  1588,  when 
the  same  prince,  fearing  he  might  he  deprived 
of  hie  crown  and  perhaps  his  life  through  the 
intrignea  of  the  Lorraine  princes,  had  the  duke 
of  Gnise  murdered  by  his  body  guards  in  the 
antechamber  of  his  own  apartments,  and  the 
cardinal  of  I^rraine  secretly  despatched,  a  few 
few  hours  later,  in  a  more  secluded  room. 
When  Haria  de'  Medici  was  in  1617  exiled  frvm 
the  conrt,  she  resided,  virtually  oa  a  prisoner, 
in  this  castle,  whence  IB  months  later  she  es- 
caped throneh  a  high  window.  In  1814,  on 
the  approacn  of  the  allied  armies  to  Paris, 
the  empress  Maria  Louisa  and  the  council  of 
regency  repaired  for  a  while  to  tliis  place. 
Anerward  the  castle  was  entirely  neglected, 
and  used  as  barracks  for  cavalry.  Dnring  the 
later  years  of  Louis  Philippe's  reign  it  was  care- 
fully restored.  Blois  has  several  literary  and 
scientific  societies,  a  botanical  garden  founded 
by  Henry  IV.,  a  public  library,  a  departmental 
college,  and  a  diocesan  seminary,  besides  hos- 
pitals and  other  public  institutions.  It  trades 
m  wines,  spirits,  vinegar,  staves,  and  licorice, 
and  produces  serges,  hosiery,  gloves,  cntlery, 
and  nardware.  A  handsome  bridge  of  11 
arches,  built  in  1717,  connects  the  town  with 
the  suburb  of  8t.  Gervais.  The  city  la  ftir- 
nished  with  spring  water  through  an  old  aque- 
duct believed  to  be  of  Roman  origin. 

BLOMFIELD,  ChariM  Jawa,  an  English  clergy- 
man and  scholar,  bom  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds, 
May  2»,  1788,  died  in  London,  Aug.  5,  1857. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  in  181l>-'12  edited  the  "Prometheus"  and 
other  plays  of  jSsohylus.  His  edition  of  Cal- 
limaohns  appeared  in  1824.  He  contributed 
lai^ly  to  the  Muteum  Oriticum,  oud  to  the 
quart«rly  reviews,  generally  Aimishing  critical 
papers  on  clasdcal  sul^ects.  He  edited  the 
J/uns  Cantabri^entet  in  conjunction  with  Een- 
Qel,  and  the  "Fosthumoos  Tracts"  of  Porson 
in  coi^nnction  with  Monk,  afterward  bishop 
of  Gloucester.  He  also  edited  the  Advenaria 
Portent,  and  in  18S8  compiled  a  Greek  gram- 
mar for  schools.  In  1810  he  was  appointed  to 
the  rectories  of  Warrington  and  Dtrnton;  in 


bishop  of  London.    He  occupied 

that  see  for  38  years,  and  retired  in  September, 
18C6,  on  account  of  ill  health,  with  a  pension 
of  £5,000  a  year,  and  the  use  of  the  palace  at 
Fulham  for  life.  In  parliament  he  muntained 
high  church  principles.  He  took  great  inter- 
est in  measures  tor  the  relief  of  the  poor  and 
the  improvement  of  the  laboring  classes,  and 
advoct^ed  the  general  diS^sion  of  education. 
Besides  his  clasacal  publications,  he  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Mannal  of  Family  Prayers  "  and 
"  Lectures  on  the  Acta  ofthe  Apiostles." 

BLOMMAnT,  raUp,  a  Flemish  writer,  bom 
in  GhentaboutlSOe,  died  there,  Aug.  14, 1871. 
Possessed  of  a  condderahle  fortune,  ne  devoted 
himself  to  an  attempt  to  revive  Flemish  liter- 
ature and  the  use  of  his  native  language.  In 
pursuance  of  that  object  he  pnhlished  an  edi- 
tion ofthe  old  Flemish  poets  of  the  11th,  ISth, 
lath,  and  14th  centuries,  with  glossaries,  notes, 
and  emendations,  and  afterward  published  a 
translation  of  the  fitbelunff»nli^  in  iambics. 
His  best  work,  however,  is  a  history  of  the 


BLOITD,  JacfMi  CtiMapke  le,  a  printer  of  en- 

Savings  In  colors,  bom  in  Fronkfort-on-tlie- 
ain  in  1670,  died  in  a  bcspital  in  Paris  in 
1741.  He  was  bred  a  punter,  and  in  1711 
went  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  mot  with  great 
snocess  in  painting  miniature  portraits.  He 
ooQoeived  the  idea  of  an  establishment  to  print 
engravings  in  colors,  and  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  and  all  the  means  he  could  obtain 
upon  experiments  which  were  comparatively 
nnsuccassfU.  He  worked  mainly  in  I^ndon 
and  Paris,  and,  finding  at  last  that  he  was  not 
to  obtain  the  brilliant  results  anticipated,  turn- 
ed his  attention  to  producing  Raphael's  cartoons 
in  tapestry,  in  which  he  also  fuled  for  lock  of 
means  to  finish  his  work.  Be  is  regarded  as 
the  inventor  of  printing  in  colors. 

BLONBEL,  a  French  trouvSre  of  the  12th 
century,  bom  at  Nesle,  near  P^ronne,  Picardy. 
He  is  generally  regarded  as  the  minstrel  who 
was  the  friend,  teacher,  and  companion  of 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in  his  expeditions.  Ac- 
cording to  a  tradition,  when  Richard  on  his  re- 
turn from  the  Holy  Land  was  imprisoned  hj 
Leopold  of  Austria  in  the  fortress  of  Dorren- 
stein,  Blondel  discovered  the  place  of  his  cap- 
tivity by  singing  under  the  castle  window  a 
part  of  one  of  his  familiar  songs,  the  other 

Sart  boinff  taken  up  from  within  by  the  king, 
ilondel  then  went  to  England  and  cansed  the 
monarch  to  be  ransomed.  This  story  is  con- 
firmed by  the  chronicles  of  Rheims  of  the  ISth 
century,  edited  by  Alexis  Panlin  Paris  (1886) ; 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  corrotxM-sted 
other  authorities.  The  national  and  arse 
libraries  of  Paris  contain  29  MS.  songs,  part  of 
which  are  ascribed  to  the  trouvire,  and  others 


a 


by  Prosper  Tarb*  (Rheims,  lBfl2),  contain  i 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


taH  aoooont  of  tiiB  historical  and  legecdaiy 
d&ta  respeotdng  Blondel  and  an  edition  of  his 
and  RicLard'a  songs. 

BLOOD,  in  man  and  the  higher  aniniala,  the 
red  liqoid  which  ciroalat«s  in  the  cavities  of 
the  heart,  the  Biteriea,  the  veins,  and  the  capil- 
lary vessels.  I.  Pktsioal  QcAuriBa  of  thk 
Blood.  Iq  the  living  body  the  blood  is  a  some- 
what tenacious  liqaid,  oont^ing  innnmersble 
solid  particles  (the  blood  globules),  which  are 
seen  only  with  the  microscope.  In  the  arteries 
the  blood  is  more  or  leaa  of  a  light  vermilion 
tint  in  children,  and  of  a  parpliah  or  bright 
oherr;  red  in  adolta,  and  somewhat  darker  in 
old  people  and  in  pregnant  women.  In  the 
veim  it  is  dark  red,  and  even  blackish.  In 
disease,  and  also  in  varions  phipsiolo^cat  Htates, 
the  blood  may  be  vcrj  dark  in  the  arteries, 
and  in  other  cases  very  br^ht  in  the  veins. 
The  pecoliar  odor  of  the  blood  usually  reseoi- 
blea  that  of  the  perspiratioa  of  the  individua] 
from  whom  the  blood  has  been  taken.  The 
blood  is  transparent  when  seen  in  thin  layers ; 
opaque  otherwise.  The  specific  gravity  of  nor- 
mal human  blood  averages  I'OSG,  its  ph;r^o- 
logioal  limits  bemg  1'04C  and  I'OTS.  The  min- 
imnm  of  density  is  in  pregnant  women  and  in 
children,  and  the  moxiniiiin  in  adult  men.  The 
capacity  of  the  blood  for  heat  is,  according  to 
Naase,  in  an  exact  ratio  to  its  density.  II. 
QvAirnTY  or  Blood  nn  the  Huiiak  Bodt. 
Of  the  varioDs  means  employed  to  find  out  the 
relative  amount  of  blood  m  the  body,  that 
which  oonsists  in  first  weighing  an  aoinial,  then 
taking  ont  as  moch  of  ita  blood  as  possible,  and 
weighing  the  latter,  is  not  to  be  relied  on,  as 
.  the  blood  never  flows  oat  entirely  from  the 
blood  veaaels.  However,  as  it  is  interesting  to 
know  how  much  blood  may  escape  ftom  divided 
blood  vessels,  we  will  give  a  list  of  the  resnlta 
obtained  by  various  eiperimenta.  In  the  ewe 
the  weight  of  the  blood  is  to  the  weight  of  the 
body  as  1  to  22  or  2S ;  in  the  ox  as  1  to  12 
(Herbst),  or  1  to  28  or  24  (Wanner) ;  in  the 
cow,  as  1  to  21'77;  in  the  sheep,  as  1  to  20  or 
37-72 ;  in  the  dt%  as  I  to  10  or  12,  or  21 ;  in 
the  horse,  as  1  to  18;  in  the  lamb,  as  1  to  20 
or  23 ;  in  the  cat,  as  1  to  22 ;  in  the  rabbit,  oa 
I  to  24  or  29 ;  in  the  saa,  as  1  to  SS ;  in  the 
fox,  aa  1  to  21 ;  in  the  mouse,  as  1  to  22'C. 
From  these  results,  it  has  been  oondnded  that 
in  man  the  proportion  of  blood  is  troja  ^  to 
^,  and  therefore,  for  a  man  weighing  160  lbs., 
Qie  quantity  of  blood  is  from  8  to  IS  lbs.  But 
Bailer  relates  many  cases  of  hemorrhage  in 
which  men  and  women  have  lost  0,  10,  11,  IC, 
18,  or  22  lbs.,  or  even  SO  lbs.  of  blood  horn 
the  nose,  and  12  lbs.  in  one  night,  or  8  pints, 
by  vomiting  (gatt^orhagia).  Burdoch  says  that 
Wrisberg  has  seen  a  woman  who  died  from  a 
loss  of  2G  Ibe.  of  blood  from  the  uterus,  and 
that  another  woman  after  decapitation  yielded 
24  lbs.  of  blood.  From  facts  of  this  kind  Hal- 
ler,  Qoeanay,  and  Hoffinann  inferred  that  there 
is  abont  28  lbs.  of  blood  in  the  body  of  a  man 
of  average  size.    The  best  mode  of  estimating 


the  amount  of  blood  in  a  man  has  been  em- 
ployed by  Lehmann  and  E.  Weber.  TbOT 
determined  the  weight  of  two  criminals  botck 
before  and  after  decapitation.  The  quantity 
of  the  blood  which  escaped  from  the  body  was 
sacertained  in  the  following  manner :  water 
was  iqjected  into  the  vessels  of  the  trunk  and 
head,  until  the  fiuid  escaping  from  the  veins 
had  only  a  pale  red  or  yellow  color;  the  quan- 
tity of  the  blood  remaining  in  the  body  was 
then  calculated,  by  instituting  a  comparison 
between  the  solid  residue  of  this  pole  red  aqae- 
ous  fluid,  and  that  of  the  blood  which  fint 
escaped.  By  way  of  illustration,  we  snlyoin 
the  results  yielded  by  one  of  the  experiments. 
The  living  tody  of  one  of  the  oriminals  weighed 
60,140  grammes,  and  the  same  body,  after  de- 
capitation, 54, QOO grammes;  consequently,  6,540 
grammesof  blood  bad  escaped;  28-GS  gramtnea 
of  this  blood  yielded  6'86  ^ammee  of  solid 
residue;  60'S  grammes  sangoineoua  water,  col- 
lected after  the  imection,  contained  8'724 
grammes  of  solid  sobstances;  6-OGO  grammes 
of  the  sanguineous  water  that  returned  from  the 
veins  were  collected,  and  these  contained  87-24 
grammes  of  solid  residue,  which  eorreeponda 
to  1,980  grammes  of  blood;  conseqaently,  tbe 
body  contained  7,620  grammes  of  blood  (S,S40 
escaping  in  the  act  of  decapitation,  and  1,980 
remaining  in  the  body);  bonce,  the  weight  of 
the  whole  of  the  blood  was  to  that  of  the  body 
nearly  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  8.  The  other  ex- 
periment yielded  a  precisely  similar  result.  By 
this  mode  of  calculation,  which  gives  a  nearer 
approximation  than  any  other  to  the  propor- 
tion of  blood,  we  have  not,  however^  the  exact 
proportion,  because  blood  remains  in  some  of 
the  capillaries.  The  only  positive  concludcm 
we  can  draw  from  these  experiments  is  that 
there  is  at  least  20  lbs.  of  blood  in  the  bodj 
of  B  healthy  man  weighing  160  lbs,  Valentin 
has  employed  another  mode  of  calonlatMm, 
which,  unlike  the  preceding,  has  given  a  {ap- 
portion of  blood  in  the  body  greater  than  tliat 
which  really  exists.  He  bleeds  on  animal,  and 
determines  the  proportion  of  solid  parte  in 
the  blood;  then  a  oertun  quantity  of  water  b 
ii^eotad  into  the  veins,  and  immedistelj  after- 
ward blood  is  drawn  again,  and  ita  proportion 
of  solid  parts  determined ;  and  after  a  compar- 
ison of  the  two  resnItSj  a  calculation  is  mode 
which  gives  the  quantity  of  blood.  In  doga 
it  was  found  that  the  amount  of  blood,  com- 
pared to  the  weight  of  the  body,  is  as  1  to  4}, 
and  in  sheep  as  1  to  C.  If  this  result  be  ap- 
plied to  man,  we  find,  for  a  man  weighing  160 
lbs.,  fVom  82  to  86  lbs.  of  blood,  which  is  most 
probably  an  over-estimate.  Dr.  Blake,  by  an- 
other method,  has  oblwied  more  important 
resnlts.  He  iqjecte  into  the  veins  of  on  aiumal 
a  certain  (jnantity  of  the  sulphate  of  alnmiDO, 
a  salt  which  is  not  quickly  destroyed  in  the 
blood,  or  expelled  fhwn  it ;  then  he  analyzes 
the  blood,  and  by  the  pro{>ortion  of  tiiis  salt 
found  in  it  he  ascertains  very  nearly  the  qnan- 
ti^  of  blood  in  the  body  of  the  uiimal.    The 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


eoBolaslon  is  that  there  is  1  lb.  of  blood  t<a  8 

or  9  of  the  ukimol,  and  therefore  from  18  to 
30  lbs.  of  blood  in  a  roan  weighing  leo  lbs. 
FrcHD  all  these  facts  it  results  that  the  qoantit? 
of  blood  in  an  adnlt  man  is  vor;  likely  a  little 
above  20  lbs.  There  is  more  blood  in  men  than 
in  women.  It  is  not  positively  determined 
whether  a  &t  or  &  lean  person  has  most  blood ; 
bnt  Sohultz  says  that  there  is  more  blood  in 
lean  oxen  than  in  jat  ones.  B^rard  Justly  re- 
marks that  it  is  a  mistake  to  believe  tbat  there 
is  proportionally  more  blood  in  newlj  bom  chil- 
dron  than  in  adults.  III.  Compobitiob  ov  rax 
BwOD.  There  is  no  flnid  in  the  body  having 
so  complex  a  compodtion  as  the  blood.  ThU 
faot  may  be  easily  understood,  as  we  know 
that  through  the  blood  passes  everything  tbat 
IB  Koing  to  or  coming  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  either  solid  or  liquid.  The  ohemicsl 
anafyna  of  the  blood  is  exaemely  difficult,  and 
mnoh  is  still  to  be  learned  as  regards  its  com- 
positdon.  On  comparing  the  results  obtained 
oy  various  experimenters  who  have  analysed 
the  blood,  we  find  a  great  difierence  between 
them.  Oorap-Beaanez  has  proved  that  these 
differences  depend  mostly  on  the  method  of 
aaeljtDB;  for  ha  found  that  when  four  samples 
of  the  same  blood  were  analyzed  by  hinwelf 
ftociording  to  the  four  principal  meUtods,  the 
results  were  strikiDgly  different,  as  the  follow- 
ing table  will  show : 


iOTBO 

«»«. 

VUIOU.» 

riHOM. 

S^. 

Hdltodln. 

lk<S» 

"S:!^ 

Mg*t 
I-98 

SIl* 

IWS 

1-S9 

■si 

Hence  it  is  of  no  value  to  compare  researches 
on  the  oomposiUon  of  blood  in  disease  in  men 
at  different  agea,  or  In  different  animals,  made 
by  eiperimenters  who  have  employed  different 
methods.  The  following  table  represents  the 
composition  of  normal  human  blood,  according 
to  the  researches  of  Lehmann.  It  will  be  seen 
tbat  the  proportion  of  corpuscles  is  notably 
larger  than  in  the  former  table. 


pascies  of  the  blood  have  not  been  deprived  of 
their  BaltB,«and  therefore  their  weight  is  more 
considerable  than  in  oases  where  they  lose  a 
part  of  their  constituents  before  being  waghed. 
Many  oilier  snbstanoes  are  found  in  the  blood 
besides  those  above  enumerated.  Among  the 
&tty  matters  we  find  the  saponifiable  ftits 
(which  chiefly  consist  of  oleate  and  margarate 
of  soda),  a  phosphorised  fatty  matter,  cholas- 
terine,  and  seroline.  Besides  these  substances, 
there  is  probably  also  one  or  many  volatile 
fatty  acids,  to  which  the  blood  owes  its  odor. 
The  so-csJled  extractive  subatances  of  the 
blood  are  very  different  ftem  each  other,  some 
of  them  bdng  nitrogenized  matters,  while 
others  ara  not.  Among  these  subatances  are 
fonud  what  Uulder  oalla  binoxide  and  tii- 
tozide  of  proteine  and  sugar,  nrea,  nrio  and 
bipparic  acids,  creatine,  creatinine,  &».  In 
the  blood  vessels,  and  during  life,  blood  con- 
sists eeeentially  of  two  parts,  which  differ  ex- 
tremely: one  is  solid,  the  corpuscles  or  glo- 
bules, the  other  is  liquid,  the  liqnor  sanguinis. 
According  to  Lehmann,  the  oorpnscles  form 
fully  one  half  of  the  volume  of  the  blood. 
Their  analysis  oomparad  to  that  of  the  liquor 
rs  that  they  differ  much  from  it : 


llobnhoe'iDdMiimBni- 
bniM 1 


B.  Phosphoric  Bcld . . . 


Of  the  many  metals  found  in  the  blood,  the 
most  important  seems  to  be  iron,  which  is 
found  not  only  in  the  blood,  but,  according  to 
it.  Yerdeil,  in  fill  the  coloring  matters  of  the 
body.  Iron  in  the  blood  is  found  only  in  the 
corpuscles,  combined  with  the  coloring  matter, 
the  hnmatine.  According  to  Lecano,  there  is 
7  per  cent,  of  iron  in  hnmatioe.  In  16  kilo- 
grammes (SS  lbs.)  of  blood,  the  proportion  of  hn- 
matine is  about  94  grammes  (1  oz.),  and  there- 
fore the  quantity  of  iron  ia  nearly  2  -43  grammes 
(nearly  GO  gruns).  Copper  was  foand  in  the 
blood  by  aarsean,  and  manganese  by  Qenis. 
ifillon  ascertuned  the  constant  existence  of 
these  two  metals^  and  also  of  lead,  in  the  blood. 
These  metals  exist  in  greater  quantity  in  the 
globules  than  in  the  liqnor  sangoinis.  It  is 
very  important  to  know  that  tiiese  metals, 
and  particularly  copper,  exist  normally  in  the 
blood,  to  avcdd  mistakes  that  might  be  made 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Kickl«B  has  pointed  out  the  existenae 
tereeting  element  in  blood,  Snorine.  The  blood 
of  man  differs  from  that  of  woman,  as  will  be 
seen  bj  the  foliowing  comparative  analyses 
made  hj  Becqnerel  and  Bodier; 


D«iiiltyofd«abrtlulf<dbliMd IBtm  ll^a 

W«ler IT»  m 

Corousclw. 1«-1  1SI-! 

Albuimn KA  TO-tt 

Ftbrino M  a-a 

Urtnetlra  mitUn  udfrH  Mlli 6-3  I'i 

rslty  mBltara I'MO  ]  MO 

Saollne (H»0  (H») 

PhupbDriud  ftcnr  DutUr <MSi  D-«M 

tholesttrins (HW8  frOM 

AolDul  lup. 1-004  10** 

The  same  chemista  have  also  foond  that  there 
is  less  iron  in  the  blood  of  woman  than  in  tbat 
of  man.  The  blood  of  ohildrea  ia  rioher  in  solid 
ooustitnenta,  and  cepedallj  blood  corpuscles, 
than  that  of  adults.  It  isjuat  the  reverse  with 
the  blood  of  old  people  compared  to  tbat  of 
adolta.  Dnring  pregnane^  the  blood  contains 
more  water  than  in  other  cirounutanoea ;   the 

auantity  of  albnmen  and  of  blood  coipnscles  ia 
iminished.  Oazeaux  has  jnstlf  pomt«d  ont 
tbat  the  so-oalled  plethora  of  pregnant  women 
is  not  a  plethora  of  blood,  but  of  water,  and 
that  it  ia  asDally  very  wrong  to  bleed  women 
daring  pregnanor  only  becaose  thej  seem  to 
have  too  much  blood.  Among  animals,  the 
blood  of  omnivora  and  carniTora  is  richer  in 
organic  solid  constitnenta  than  that  of  the  her- 
btTora.  So  also  is  that  of  the  warm-blooded 
vertebrata,  compared  to  the  cold-blooded.  The 
blood  of  tie  aiifiriea  differe  from  that  of  the 
veins  in  vaanj  points.  Its  corpuscles  bavo  a 
smaller  quantitj  of  solid  constitnests,  eapeciallj 
fats,  but  the;  contun  relatively  more  heeina- 
tine  and  salts.  It  boa  more  flbrine  and  more 
water,  and  therefore  reiaUvety  lesa  albumen. 
It  has  al»o  a  mnch  smaller  qnantitj  of  fats,  and 
a  mnch  greater  amonnt  of  extractive  matters, 
while  iU  salts  are  diminished.  For  the  com- 
poaitdon  of  the  blood  of  the  portal  and  hepatic 
veins,  see  Liybk. — Changes  in  the  compositjon 
of  the  blood  are  effected  very  quickly ;  during 
digestion,  for  instance,  the  solid  constituents 
of  the  blood  manifestly  increase,  while  the  re- 
verse takes  place  daring  fasting.  In  all  the 
oircamstanoes  which  modify  the  blood,  it  ia 
chiefly  the  namber  and  the  compositSon  of  the 
blood  corpnscles  which  change.  The  differ- 
ences between  different  animak  as  to  the  qnao- 
tity  of  blood  corpuscleo  are  very  Kreat ;  for  in- 
stance, the  pig  has  146'5  of  drj  blood  corpns- 
cles, while  the  goat  bas  only  8S'0,  ont  of  1,000 
parts  of  blood.  Of  conrae  thia  relates  only  to 
dried  corpuecles,  as  Lehmann  hsa  found  that 
the  normal  oorpnacles  in  man  form  more  than 
one  half  the  quantity  of  the  blood.  When 
it  ia  said  Uiat  the  proportion  of  ooi^usoIm  is 
•'"ly  iWir  "f  ^^  blood,  this  relates  to  dry  cor- 
piuoles.    The  proportion  of  this  most  important 


element  in  the  blood  (tf  man  ia  pat  down  at 

a  higher  or  lower  amount,  according  to  the 
means  employed  to  separate  or  to  dry  them. 
In  this  way  we  m&j  esptun  bow  Lehmann 
gives  the  proportion  of  14B'486  for  the  dry 
corpuaoles  in  1,000  parts  of  blood,  while  Bec- 

Suerel  and  Rodier  give  the  proportion  of  Hl'1, 
Richardson  1846,  Lecana  182-0,  Pr^voat  and 
Dnmas  129-0,  Andral  and  Oaverret  1970,  Popp 
lSO-0,  Nasse  llfl'S,  and  Boherer  only  112-0,  for 
the  blood  of  man.  The  quantity  of  fibrine  in 
the  blood,  even  in  very  weak  antemio  or  hy- 
dmmio  persona,  increases  in  all  cases  of  inflam- 
mation accompanied  with  fever.  tV.  Hicbo- 
BoopioAL  Studt  or  the  Blood,  When  the 
blood  ia  examined  with  a  micromope,  man; 
things  may  be  fonnd :  1,  red  corpasclee  or 
diska  ;  2,  white,  or  rather  colorless,  corpnscles; 
8,  molecnlar  elements;  Vpigment;  G,  crystals; 
Q,  coagnlabed  fibrine.  We  will  rtady  soocee- 
aively  these  different  elements,  1.  Bed  corpvt- 
elet  or  dUkt.  Thdr  discovery  b  dne  to  Hal- 
pighi  (in  1606),  although  it  seema  that  Swam- 
merdam  had  seen  them  a  few  years  befwe. 
They  are  fonnd  in  the  blood  of  all  the  verte- 
brata.  Their  form  varies  mnch  in  animals  of 
different  classea.  In  man  the;  are  thick,  cir- 
cnlar,  slightly  bictmcave  disks,  oonsisldng  of  a 
colorlesa  investing  membrane,  and  of  i^ed  or, 
in  refracted  light,  yellow,  viacid,  flaid  contenta. 
The;  have  Do  nncJens,  at  least  in  adolt  men. 
In  die  other  mammalia  the  red  corpoadee  are 
more  or  less  nmitar  to  those  of  man — ezo^ 
however,  a  few  tribea  (camel,  dromedar;.  Da- 
ma),  in  which  the  red  corpuscles  are  not  oircn- 
lar  and  concave,  but  elliptic  and  biconvex.  In 
birda  they  are  alao  elliptic  or  oval,  and  elevated 
in  the  centre.  In  amphibia  they  are  oval  also, 
and  Btrongl;  convex.  We  owe  to  the  laboriona 
researches  of  Oalliver  the  indication  of  the  dze 
of  the  red  corposclee  in  an  immense  number  of 
animals.  We  will  take  from  the  table  he  has 
published  only  what  relates  to  man  end  to  the 
most  oommon  anunala,  or  to  thoae  whioh  have 

p  THK  BED  C0EIT8CIJ8  OP 


MtHHAiu  (eootlBiied). 


BB.  Beiwr 

MGulnaplff 

MoDkiqn.  from 

B4U.  ftom  UK 

r;^ 

ST!::::::::: 

i^ 

■■s 

llLB>rm>. 

.TortotaefkBd) 

Saa-:::::::::::: 

Lton 

set:::::;::: 

:::S 

...  SOW 

...  4IS0 

:::J!S 

^■■- 

...  4HI 

^Ei 

...  UM 

T  FOBK 

ItabMt 

i^:EEE 

DiailizedbyGoOgle 


corpuscles  of  the  most  remarkable  tize.  The 
measnrements  ara  all  made  in  Tnlgar  fractioiu 
of  an  Enslish  inch ;  but  for  the  sake  of  oonve- 
ni«aoc^  the  Dnmerator,  being  invariabl?  1,  is 
omittea,  and  the  denominators  otilj  are  printed. 
These  meaaares  show  that  the  size  of  the  blood 
corpnsclea  ia  not  at  all  in  proportion  with  the 
size  of  the  animal.  For  inst^ce,  the  oorpas- 
clea  of  man  are  larger  than  those  of  the  ass,  the 
horse,  the  bear,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  A«.,  which 
are  larger  animals  than  man.  It  ia  nevertheleas 
remarkable  that  the  elephant  and  the  whale 
are  among  the  animala  wtiose  blood  oorposcles 
are  the  largmt.  In  the  same  indindnal  the 
blood  disks  are  not  all  of  the  same  size ;  in 
man  their  diameter  varies  between  ^-^  to 
r^rv  of  >n  inch,  the  average  being  r^.  The 
red  corposcles  of  man,  althongh  larger  than 
those  of  most  of  the  mammalia,  are  so  email 
(tiie  i/sf  part  of  an  inch)  that,  aooording  to 
Home,  19,^0  of  these  oorpaaclee,  placed  dde 
by  side,  wonld  cover  only  a  surface  of  a  square 
inch.  Yoong  says  that  to  cover  snob  a  sorfaoe 
256,000  oorpnsclea  wonld  be  necessary.  The 
number  of  red  corpuscles  in  the  body  of  a  man 
Ib  immense.  To  convey  an  idea  of  this  nam- 
ber,  we  will  merely  state  that,  according  to 
StAltzing,  there  are  from  three  to  four  or  five 
millions  of  corpuscles  in  one  oubic  millimetre 
(the  linear  millimetre  being  about  jif  °f  "> 
inch).  Vierordt  and  Voelcker  had  already  ob- 
tained aoalc^ns  results.  The  red  corpuscles 
are  very  elaatio  and  pliuit,  so  much  so  that 
they  may  pass  through  blood  vessels  the  diame- 
ter of  which  is  somewhat  smaller  than  theirs. 
Tbey  exist  in  all  the  vert«brata  except  one,  the 
lancelet  (amphioxuM  laneeolatiu),  a  very  singu- 
lar and  little  developed  fish.  2.  WhiU  or  eoUtr- 
hn  eorputcUi.  These  globules  seem  to  have 
been  seen  for  the  first  time  by  the  celebrated 
Hewaon,  in  the  last  century.  However,  it  is 
only  in  our  days  that  they  have  been  well  stu- 
died. They  are  found  in  all  the  vertebrata,  in- 
olnding  the  amphibia,  whose  blood  has  no  other 
corpnscle.  They  are  much  more  globular  than 
the  red  oorpnsoles,  but  not  perfectly  spherical ; 
they  have  a  grannlar  capsule  and  a  nucleus 
of  several  sm^l  ones.  They  are  quite  pale  or 
colorless;  they  do  not  contain  iron,  and  have 
mnch  more  fat  than  the  red  oorpascles.  Their 
■ize  hardly  varies  in  the  difibrent  classes  of  ani- 
mals, so  that  they  are  in  some  smaller  and  in 
others  larger  than  the  red  corpuscles,  which 
vary  much  in  size.  In  warm-blooded  animals 
(maa  included)  they  average  ratlier  more  than 
Tiftt  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  An  interesting 
fact  concerning  the  pale  corpnsclcs  of  the 
blood  is,  that  they  seem  to  be  endowed  with 


to  the  more  recent  researches  of  U.  Davaine, 
tbey  often  show  a  slow  protrusion  from  their 
membranous  wall ;  after  which  another  one 
fonne  itself  in  another  part,  while  the  first 
slowly  disappears;  sometimes  a  depresMon  is 
formed  instead  of  a  protmsiOD.    These  changes 


•OD  731 

have  been  seen  even  in  oircolating  blood  in 
living  animals.  These  spontaneons  alterations 
of  form  have  been  considered  by  some  phys- 
iologists as  a  proof  that  these  cells  or  oor- 
posoles  are  microscopical  animals.  But  ap- 
parently spontaneous  movements  are  not  suf- 
hcient  agaa  of  independent  life,  for,  admitting 
that  these  corpuscles  are  animalcules,  Brown- 
S6qoard  has  shown  that  all  the  muscles  of 
man  or  of  animals,  separated  from  the  body, 
may  have  apparently  spontaneous  movements ; 
so  that  we  should  have  to  admit  that  each 
elementary  mnsonlar  fibre  is  a  distinct  animal 
being,  if  apparently  spontaneous  motions  were 
a  proof  of  uie  eiist«nce  of  an  independent  liv- 
ing organism.  The  number  of  colorless  cells  is 
very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  red  disks. 
There  is  one  colorless  corpuscle  to  800  or  400 
red,  according  to  Donders  and  Moleschott. 
The  number  of  colorless  cells  increases  more 
than  that  of  the  red  disks  after  eating,  and  par- 
ticularly after  taking  albuminous  food.  S.  Mo- 
heular  eUm«at».  There  is  in  the  blood  a 
number  of  exceedingly  small  solid  particles 
which  the  French  (Donn6,  Robin)  call  globulin* 
(small  globules).  Their  nature  is  nnknows,  and 
their  form  has  no  definite  character ;  it  may 
be  that  they  are  particles  of  coagulated  fibrine. 
4.  Pigment.  There  is  frequently,  and  perhaps 
always,  in  the  blood  of  man  and  of  the  hi^er 
animals,  a  small  quantity  of  black  pigment  un- 
der various  forms.  Sometimes  there  are  only 
exceedingly  fine  grannies,  like  those  of  the 
skin  (which  are  the  cause  of  its  color) ;  in 
other  esses  there  are  plates  of  pigment,  which 
seem  chiefly  to  result  from  an  aggregation  of 
granolee.  The  presence  of  cells  contaiuing 
black  pigment  is  very  rare  in  the  blood.  From 
the  researobes  of  Brown-86qnard,  it  seems  that 
the  qoantity  of  pigment  increases  in  the  blood 
of  animals  when  the  supra-renal  capsules  have 
been  extirpated.  The  accumulation  of  pig- 
ment in  the  blood  of  man,  according  to  Planer, 
and  in  that  of  animals,  according  to  Brown- 
S^uard,  is  a  cause  of  ranid  death.  6.  Cryt- 
tal*.  It  happens,  thougn  very  rarely,  that 
without  any  preparation  the  blood  corpuscles 
become  decomposed,  and  their  coloring  mattu', 
slightly  changed  in  its  chemical  composition, 
forms  rhomboidal  or  simple  needle-shaped  crys- 
tals. By  the  addition  of  water,  of  ammonia,  or 
some  other  reagents,  it  is  easy  to  produce  many 
crystals  in  a  drop  of  almost  any  blood,  as  has 
been  ascertmned  by  Virohow,  Kunde,  O.  Fnnke, 
Reiohraann,  and  others.  M.  Oharlea  Bobin  has 
once  found  in  the  liver  a  mass  of  altered  blood 
as  laige  as  a  hazel  nut,  entirely  transformed  into 
crystals,  or  rather  containingnothing  but  biema- 
tlne  crystallized,  the  other  elements  of  the  blood 
having  been  absorbed.  Brown-86qnard  has 
pointed  out  the  fact  that,  in  dogs  especially, 
after  the  extirpation  of  the  SQpra-renal  capsules, 
the  formation  of  crystals  in  the  blood  is  very 
considerable  and  rapid.  6.  CoaqulaUdJUrine. 
Some  miorographera,  especially  Nasse  and  Vir- 
cbow,  call  certain  solid  particles  floating  in  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


732  BL4 

blood  flbrinODS  Sakee.  HeiJe  at  fint  conader- 
ed  these  partiolea  aa  Bhreds  of  epithelium,  from 
thellninKiDeiDbraDeof  the  blood  vessels;  after- 
ward as  aggregatione  of  cell  membranes  of  de- 
stroyed blood  diska.  Iiohmann  odmita  that  ex- 
periments of  DOderlein  have  proved  that  these 
flokeB  are  not  ccmpoBed  of  coagulated  flbrine. 
Bmch  has  tried  to  show  that  the  pretended 
flbrinoDs  flakes  are  nothing  more  than  epithe- 
lial colls  from  the  skin  of  the  observer  himeielf^ 
which  have  fallen  from  his  &ce  or  hie  hands 
on  the  preparation.  It  is  verj  probable  that 
these  flakes  are  in  a  great  measure,  bnt  not 
«ntirel7,  composed  of  epithelial  cells,  and 
that  tnil^  coagnlated  fibrin^  in  more  or  less 
small  particles,  exists  in  blood  ont  of  the 
blood  vessels,  at  least.  Besides  the  morpho- 
logical elements  above  deaoribed,  we  find  in  the 
blood  of  certain  inferior  animals  tH/rionet, 


distinct  element,  t.  «.,  the  Ipnph  or  ohjle  oor^ 
poscte,  has  received  a  different  interpretation 
from  that  previouslj  admitted :  the  oolorless  or 
pale  oorpDscles  of  the  blood  have  been  proved 
to  be  similar  to  the  chyle  or  lymph  corpuscles, 
v.  CoAQCunos  OF  THB  Blood.  When  drawn 
from  a  vein  or  an  arter;  of  man,  blood  usnally 
begins  to  ooagnlate  in  a  few  minntea.  From 
tiie  liquid  state  it  passes  at  first  to  the  condition 
of  a  soft  jelly,  which  gradnally  becomes  more 
and  more  consistent.  The  whole  mass  of  the 
btood  seems  in  the  beginning  to  become  solid, 
bat  by  the  contraction  of  the  coagnlated  sub- 
stance the  iiqnid  is  expelled  from  the  kind 
of  network  formed  by  this  substance,  and  the 
coagalum  or  clot  gradnally  becomes  smaller. 
The  part  of  the  blood  which  remains  liquid  is 
called  semm.  It  had  been  imagined  that  the 
ooagnlation  of  the  blood  depended  np<m  the  ad- 
henon  of  the  blood  corpuscles  one  to  the  other ; 
bnt  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  coagnlation 
is  only  the  result  of  the  solidiflcstion  of  the 
fibrine,  which,  taking  place  in  the  whole  mass  of 
the  blood,  contains  the  blood  corpuscles  impris- 
oned in  the  network  it  fbrms.  The  following 
table  shows  what  changes  take  place  in  the 
blood  daring  coagnlation ; 


u,.bi 


liquor  »W.tal,J,™|- 

I  r 

t,  Blood  eorpllKlM ) 


[■Coag.lilaod. 


The  serum  is  the  liqnor  sanguinis  deprived  of 
-  itsfibrino,  and  no  longer  holding  the  corpusoles; 
the  clot  is  the  fibrine  solidified,  and  holding  the 
blood  corpuscles.  It  is  well  proved  that  the  co- 
agnlation of  the  blood,  removed  from  the  body, 
depends  upon  the  ooagnlation  of  its  flbrine.  If 
blood  drawn  from  the  vessels  of  a  living  man 
or  animal  bo  whipped  with  glass  rods,  its  fibrine 
becomes  solidified  on  these  rods,  and  the  whole 
of  it  may  in  this  manner  be  taken  away,  and 
then  the  delibrinated  blood  remains  litjuid. 
Nevertheless,  many  blood  coipuscles  sometimes 
adhere  one  with  another,  and  in  so  doing  offer 
a  half  solid  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  rase,  bnt 


the  least  motion  shows  that  there  is  no  coa^ru- 
lation.  When  they  are  included  in  a  fibrinous 
clot,  the  blood  corpuscles  contribnte  to  i  to  so- 
lidification by  some  slight  adhesion  with  the 
fibrine,  and  by  their  bong  included  in  its  net- 
work. The  circnmstances  which  influence  the 
coagulation  of  the  blood  have  been  the  snt^ect 
of  a  great  many  investigationa,  among  which 
the  most  important  are  those  of  Hewsou,  John 
Davy,  T.  llaokrab,  0.  Scndamore,  Gulliver, 
and  more  recently  Zimmermsntt,  !E.  BrOcke, 
and  B.  W.  Richanlson.  We  will  examine  here 
only  what  relates  to  the  principal  cironmBtances 
and  assumed  causee  of  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood.  1.  Infltienea  of  trnftrature.  The  co- 
agulation of  Uie  blood  drawn  from  the  blood 
veesels  does  not  depend  np<m  the  loss  of  Its  tem- 
perature. It  is  true  that  the  blood  flowing 
from  the  vein  of  a  man  in  a  room,  even  at  a 
summer  temperature,  soon  loses  several  degrees 
of  heat,  and  falls  from  102°  to  66°,  or  to  a  lower 
degree.*  But  this  loss  of  a  few  d^irees  of 
heat  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  coagulation  of 
the  blood,  because  every  day,  during  the  win- 
ter, our  blood,  in  the  nose,  in  the  ears,  and  the 
extremities  of  the  limbs,  loses  many  more  de- 
grees without  coegnlating.  Be^des,  the  blood 
of  cold-blooded  animals  coagulates  aa  well  as 
that  of  the  warm-blooded.  Hewson  has  dem- 
<mstrated  that  it  is  poemble  to  freeze  the  blood 
while  yet  fluid,  and  that  after  beius  rendered 
fluid  again  by  diawing,  it  will  coagulsta  in  the 
ordinary  way.  Hnnter  succeeded  in  freesing 
the  blood  in  the  ear  of  a  living  rabit,  and  after 
some  time,  being  thawed.  It  did  not  coagulate. 
A  low  temperature  retards  coagulation,  but  the 
phyaologists  who  maintain  that  coagulation  is 
prevented  by  a  temperature  near  the  freering 
point  are  mistaken.  Brflcke  says  that  he  has 
seen  blood  coagulated  at  every  temperature 
above  E2°F.,  and  even  below  that  pointy  provi- 
ded theblooditselfwasDot  frozen.  But  he  has 
seen  the  blood  of  frogs  sometimes  rem^n  flmd 
for  eight  days,  while  kept  in  the  snow.  Brown- 
S^quard  has  seen  the  blood  of  frogs  coagnlated 
BO  quickly  at  a  temperature  of  88°  or  8i°  F.,  or  a 
little  above,  that  hemorrhage  from  the  ae«tion 
of  one  third  of  the  ventricular  mass  of  the  heart 
was  stopped  by  a  otot,  and  life  was  maintained. 
As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  hi^er  the  tem- 
perature, within  certain  limits,  the  sooner  co- 
agulation takes  place;  but  it  seems,  according 
to  Gulliver,  that  the  coagulating  power  is  loit 
by  a  temperature  of  ISO  F,,  as  blood  heated 
to  that  point  remains  permanently  fluid.  The 
experiments  of  Polli,  Trousseaa,  Leblanc,  and 
others,  seem  to  show  that  the  temperature 
most  favorable  to  coagulation  is  very  nearly 
that  of  the  blood  itael£  9.  Influence  of  air. 
Many  phy«ol(^sto  have  thought  that  the  cause 
of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  when  drawn 

•  Th*  tsmpenCnn  of  lbs  blood  li  rrToonuiIy  mufcrd  n 


*bdom'«1i  &hd  In  the  ehu^  th«  bkiod  In  mu  Ia  at  ft  bbrbfr  do- 
CTK.  AocotdlDr  to  tb>  lut-iMawd  cxpaimenUr,  Tl  It  bt- 
tirtHD  Vli-  ind  ICS". 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


from  the  blood  vessels  of  a  Ut]iig  man  or  ani- 
mal, was  a  peooliar  action  of  air.  HewMm  be- 
lieved that  iXt  had  a  conriderable  coagulating 
influence.  In  proof  of  tbU  be  relates  tlie  fol- 
lowing ezperimeDta :  Uaring  laid  bare  the  Ju- 
gnlarTetn  in  allying  rabbit,  be  tied  it  np  in  three 
places,  and  then  opened  it  between  two  of  the 
tigatnresandemptiedthat  part  of  its  blood.  He 
next  blew  warm  ur  into  the  emptj  vein  and 
pot  another  ligatare  npon  it,  and,  letting  it  rest 
till  he  thoaght  the  air  had  aoqnired  the  same 
degree  of  heat  as  the  blood,  he  then  removed 
the  intermediate  ligature^  and  mixed  the  air 
with  the  blood.  The  air  immediately  made  the 
blood  florid  where  it  was  in  contact  with  it,  as 
conld  be  seen  throngh  the  coats  of  the  vein.  In 
A  quarter  of  an  hour  ha  opened  the  vein  and 
foond  the  blood  entirelj  coagulated;  and  "as 
the  blood,"  says  Hewson,  "conld  not  in  this 
time  have  been  oompletelj  congealed  by  rest 
alone,  the  ur  whb  probably  the  caoae  of  its  co- 
agulation." BrQote  says  that  air  blown  in  the 
manner  mentioned  by  Hewson  usually  hosteng 
ooagulation,  bnt  that  it  is  not  always  so. 
Brown-Siqnard  has  ascertained  that  blood 
mixed  with  air  blown  into  the  Jngnlar  veins  of 
dogsdoeenot  always  coagulate.  In  some  oases, 
four  months  alter  the  operation,  the  blood  was 
fonnd  liqaid  in  the  vein  between  .two  ligatures. 
It  has  been  remarked  that  when  blood  is  placed 
in  a  cnp,  cosgaUtion  begins  sooner  In  the  part 
in  contact  with  air  than  in  the  interior  of  the 
liquid,  but  BrQcke  states  that  he  has  seen  co- 
agulation begin  as  quiokly  in  the  surface  in 
contact  with  the  walla  of  the  onp.  If  coagnla- 
tion  depended  upon  a  peonliar  influence  of  at- 
mospheric air,  it  should  not  take  place  when 
blood  is  not  exposed  to  dr.  John  Davy  and 
H.  Nasse  have  seen  coagulation  occur  as  quick- 
ly in  unexposed  as  in  exposed  hlood.  Scnda- 
more  says  even  that  ooagulation  is  more  rapid 
in  a  pneumatic  receiver,  where  blood  is  not 
sabinitted  to  the  action  of  ur.  From  many 
experiments  BrOoka  has  drawn  the  following 
coocloeions:  J.  Air  Dsually  hastens  the  coagu- 
lation of  the  blood.  2.  Air,  when  Introduced 
into  the  heart  and  vessels  of  living  turtles,  does 
not  induce  coagulation.  8.  The  blood  of  trogs, 
when  deteriorated  by  the  action  of  the  heart  or 
of  the  other  tissues  of  the  animal,  and  so  de- 
prived of  its  free  oxygen,  sometimes  requires 
atmospheric  air  for  its  coagulation.  4.  Normal 
blood  needs  not  the  presence  of  air  for  its  oo- 
agnlation.  Therefore,  and  chieflyfrom  thelast 
conclusion,  it  follows  that  air  is  not  the  general 
cause  of  coagulation  of  the  blood.  8.  lafiu- 
ent»  of  earbonie  aeid.  Boudaraore  admits  that 
blood  coagulates  out  of  the  body  chiefly  be- 
cause it  loses  its  carbonic  acid,  which  in  this 
theory  Is  the  substance  that  in  the  blood  main- 
tains fibrins  in  a  liqnid  state.  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  and  his  brother  John  made  decisive  ei- 

Eerimenta  agunst  this  view.  They  found  that 
lood  eiposed  only  to  carbonic  acid  coagu- 
lates, thongh  more  slowly  than  when  exposed 
to  oxygen.    Experiments  of  Bmoke  show  also 


30D  733 

I  that  the  loss  or  earboido  acid  by  the  biood  is 
not  necessary  for  its  ooagnlation.  4.  Infiueiict 
I  o/motitmandrmt.  Ithasbeenssid  that  blood 
I  coa^ates  out  of  the  body  because  it  i*  not  in 
I  motion.  If  blood  received  in  a  bottle  is  agi- 
tated as  soon  as  it  flows  from  the  vein,  it 
usually  seems  to  remain  Uquid;  but  if  carefully 
examined,  a  great  manyparticles  of  coagulated 
flbrine  are  found  in  it.  when  flbrine  ooagnlates 
in  this  esse,  it  cannot  form  long  flbr^  disposed 
In  a  kind  of  oompUoated  network  in  the  whole 
mass  of  the  blood ;  in  oonseqnenoe  of  the  agi- 
tation, it  forms  only  small  solid  particles.  Tbe 
blood  effiised  in  the  body,  or  kept  in  a  blood 
vessel,  between  two  ligatures,  in  a  living  ani- 
mal, frequently  does  not  coagulate,  although  it 
is  not  in  motion.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  rest 
is  not  tbe  cause  of  ooagulation  of  blood,  either 
in  the  body  after  dea^  or  out  of  the  living 
body.  S.  John  Hunter  proposed  an  absurd 
theory  of  the  coagulation  of  die  blood ;  bnt  as 
he  grounds  his  view  on  interesting  faots,  al- 
thouf^  most  of  them  are  only  partially  true, 
we  shall  examine  his  theory.  He  observes: 
"Hy  opinion  is  that  it  (the  blood)  ooagnlates 
from  an  impression ;  that  is,  its  fluidity  under 
such  drcnmstanoes  being  improper,  or  no 
longer  necessary,  it  coagulates  to  answer  now 
the  neoeasary  purpose  of  solidity."  Trying  to 
prove  this  untensble  theory,  he  says  that  when 
the  vital  principle  of  the  blood  is  lost,  it  does 
not  coagulate,  which  fact,  be  thinks,  shows 
that  coagulation  is  a  vital  action.  Animals 
killed  by  lightning  or  by  electricity,  or  those 
which  are  mn  very  hard  and  killed  In  a  state 
of  exhaustion,  or  are  rnn  to  death,  liave  not 
their  blood  coagulated,  according  to  Hunter. 
He  also  asserts  that  blows  on  the  stomach  kill- 
ing immediately,  and  deaths  from  sudden  gusts 
of  pauion,  act  in  the  same  way,  and  by  the 
same  cause,  i.  e.,  the  loss  of  the  vital  principle. 
As  regards  death  by  electricity,  Sondamore 
and  Brown-86qnard  have  ascertained  that 
blood  coagulates  after  it,  but  the  clot  is  not  so 
hard  aa  in  other  oaaes.  Gulliver  collected 
many  facts  to  prove  that  blood  may  coagulate 
in  all  the  circumstances  mentioned  by  Hunter; 
bnt  in  most  of  these  cases  ooagnlation  was 
very  imperfect  It  is  extremely  probable  that 
blood  is  then  altered  in  its  compodtton,  and 
chiefly  in  oonseqnence  of  alterations  in  the 
nervons  centres  and  in  the  muscles.  8.  A 
view  proposed  by  Zimmermann  is  quite  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Hunter.  According  to  the 
German  chemist,  blood  coagolates  because  it 
putrefies  when  it  is  not  submitted  to  the  chem- 
ical influence  of  living  tissues.  This  view  is 
grounded  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  blood  kept 
liqaid  by  certain  salts  or  other  inbstances  be- 
comes at  once  or  very  quickly  coagulated  when 
a  small  (inontity  of  putrefied  matter  is  placed 
in  it  Tnia  is  certainly  an  interestiiig  experi- 
ment, bnt  it  does  not  prove  that  coagulation 


dependsnponpntref^tion,  and  it  seems  strange 
liiat  sucii  a  theory  shonld  be  proposed  by  a 
man  who  knows  that  sometimes  blood  coagn- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


784  BL( 

Utes  b  two  or  three  minutes  after  having  been 
drawn  from  a  blood  veaseL  7.  Dr.  B.  W. 
Bicbardsoa  of  London  some  yean  ago  obtained 
the  great  Aatlej  Cooper  piize  for  a  paper  on 
the  oanse  of  the  ooagoUtion  of  the  blood,  which 
he  attributes  to  the  separation  from  the  blood 
of  a  principle  which  he  thinks  always  exists  in 
circnlating  blood.  This  principle  is  the  car- 
bonate of  ammonia.  The  proofs  of  this  theorj 
are  that  the  anthor  has  alwa/s  found  this  sab- 
stance  given  ODt  by  the  blood  at  the  time  it 
coagnlates,  and  that  when  this  antistance  is 
kept  bj  the  blood  it  remuns  liquid.  Zinuner- 
mann  has  published  a  paper  to  show :  1,  that 
the  discovery  of  the  constant  presence  of  am- 
monia in  the  blood  belongs  to  himself;  a,  that 
there  are  many  facts  which  are  in  oppontdon 
to  the  view  of  Dr.  Bichardson.  These  views 
seem  not  only  improbable,  but  in  opposition  to 
many  facta.  8.  We  come  now  to  the  most 
probable  cause  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
and  the  only  one  which  in  the  present  state  of 
science  has  no  fact  against  it,  and  seems,  on 
the  contrary,  to  agree  with  all  the  facts.  This 
coase  is  a  negative  one;  it  is  the  absence  of  a 
peonliar  inflaenoe  on  the  blood  that,  according 
to  the  theory,  produces,  or  rather  allows  co- 
agolstion.  It  is  supposed  that  fibrine  natn- 
raily  tends  to  coagulate,  and  that  some  pecu- 
liar iaflnence  of  the  living  tissues  prevents  its 
doing  BO.  Sir  Astlej  Cooper,  Thackrah,  and 
others,  have  been  led  to  consider  this  view  as 

Erobable.  They  found  that  blood  kept  an  hoar 
t  a  vein,  between  two  ligatures,  was  still 
fluid,  while  it  coagulated  in  from  two  to  fonr 
minutes  when  extracted  from  the  vessel.  Gul- 
liver has  seen  also  that  blood  is  very  slow  to 
coagnlate  when  confined  in  a  vein  of  a  living; 
dog.  Brown-S6qnard  has  found  blood  still 
liquid,  after  many  months,  in  the  veins  of 
dogs,  where  it  had  been  confined  after  the  ap- 
pUcation  of  two  ligatures,  and  he  has  ascer- 
tained thst  this  blood  ooagiilated 


everywhere  in  the  body  frequently  remains 
liquid,  and  also  that  in  leeches  it  sometimes 
does  not  coagulate,  while  in  all  these  cases  as 
soon  as  the  Uquid  blood  is  separated  from  the 
living  tissues  it  beoomee  solid.  Coagulation  is 
slow  even  in  the  blood  vessels  and  heart  of  a 
dead  animal  or  man.  But  all  these  facts  lead 
only  to  the  conclusion  that  a  peculiar  infloenoe 
of  tissues  and  organs  during  life,  or  a  littie 
after  death,  has  the  power  of  preventing  co- 
agulation ;  they  do  not  show  what  is  this  pe- 
culiar inHaence.  Thackrah  thought  it  was  the 
vital  or  nervous  power  of  the  tissoes.  BrDoke 
has  shown  that  even  when  the  heart  has  lost 
its  vital  properties,  it  keeps  the  blood  fluid, 
and  he  has  arrived  at  a  theory  which  we  do 
not  think  yet  fully  proved.  He  maintains  thot 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  liquid  fibrine  in  liquid 
normal  blood,  and  that  coagulated  Shrine  is 
the  result  of  an  atomic  change  in  some  part  of 
the  albumen  of  the  liquor  songninis.      we  will 


conclude  onr  examination  of  the  facts  and 
theories  concerning  the  cause  of  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  blood,  by  saying  that  there  is  in  the 
blood  vessels,  and  in  the  heart  and  also  in 
other  tissues,  some  physical  or  chemical  influ- 
ence which  mdntains  the  blood  fluid,  and  that 
when  this  influence  is  removed  the  blood  co- 
sgolatfis.  Schroeder  van  der  Kolk  had  ima- 
gined that  coagniataou  of  the  blood  was  pre- 
vented by  an  inflnence  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
nervous  oentrea  on  the  blood  through  the  blood 
vessels,  and  he  thought  he  had  proved  the 
correctness  of  this  view  in  finding  that  when 
he  destroyed  the  bitin  and  the  s^mal  marrow, 
coagulation  quickly  took  place  m  the  blood. 
But  Brown-8£qnard  has  found  that  the  de- 
struction of  the  spinal  marrow  in  the  whole 
length  of  its  lumbar  enlargement,  in  birds 
and  cats,  not  only  did  not  produce  coagnlatioD 
of  the  blood,  but  did  not  immediately  kill 
the  animals,  many  of  which  have  lived  many 
months  after  the  operation.  When  the  ar- 
teries or  veins  are  changed  in  their  structure 
by  on  inflammation  or  other  disease,  they 
lose  their  power  of  preventing  cuBguIation. 
9,  Coagulation  is  hastened  or  immediately  de- 
termined by  certain  substances.  J.  Bimcai 
has  seen  it  take  place  on  threads  kept  in 
the  current  of  blood  in  reins  and  arteries  in 
living  animals.  Dupuy  and  De  Blainville  have 
seen  coa^lation  quickly  produced  in  blood 
after  the  injection  of  cerebral  matter.  H.  Lee 
has  seen  the  same  thing  after  ii^ection  of  pna, 
and  Virohow  and  others  after  iqjection  of  mer- 
cury and  other  substances.  Iodine  and  iodides 
and  galvanic  currents  hasten  coagulation,  and 
have  been  employed,  on  account  of  their  infla- 
ence  on  blood,  for  the  cure  of  aneurisms.  10. 
Coagulation  Is  retarded  or  entirely  prevented 
by  certun  substances.  Nentral  salts  act  io 
this  way,  OS  well  as  many  medicines  and  poi- 
sons, such  as  opium,  belladonna,  aconite,  hy- 
oscyamua,  digitalis,  strong  inftsious  of  tea  and 
coflee,  &C.  Gulliver  has  kept  horses'  blood 
liquid  for  57  weeks  by  the  influence  of  nitre, 
:  and  this  blood  rapidly  coagulated  when  it  waa 
;  diluted  with  water.  This  fact  explains  hoir 
in  some  cases  blood  does  not  coagulate  in  the 
body  after  death.  So  it  is  particularly  after 
drowning,  or  death  by  irrespirable  gases,  or 
poisoning  by  cyanhydric  acid,  &o.  But  if  the 
following  fact,  mentioned  by  Folli,  be  true,  it 
is  possible  that,  in  some  of  those  cases  where 
blood  hai  been  found  fluid  in  the  veina  long 
after  death,  the  coagulation  would  have  been 
observed  taking  place  at  a  later  period  if  the 
blood  had  been  kept  lou^  enough.  Polli  says 
he  has  seen  blood  remain  liquid  a  fortnight 
and  then  coagulate  spontaneously,  and  be 
thinks  that  blood  will  always  be  found  to  co- 
agulate if  kept  long  enough.  11.  The  sDr&ce 
of  a  clot  of  blood  very  often  presents  a  more 
or  leas  considerable  layer  of  coagulated  Shrine 
nearly  free  from  red  corpuscles,  and  oonae- 
quenUy  without  color;  this  layer  is  what  is 
!  called  the  bufiy  coat     We  owe  to  Gulliver  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


ec^lunatlon  of  the  prodoction  of  this  coat.  The 
red  corpiuclea  have  t.  density  BUperior  to  that 
of  the  liqaor  uugninis,  and  when  the  blood  is 
at  rest  they  natcrallj  sink  until  an  obstacle 
preveDts  their  doing  so.  As  long  as  coagula- 
tion has  not  begun,  the  globules  move  toward 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;  and  when  fibrine 
forms  the  solid  shreds  which  constitute  the  co- 
Bgnlum,  the  upper  layer  of  the  mass  of  the 
blood  no  more  oontains  red  corposcles,  and 
therefore  is  colorless.  Now,  in  inflammation 
the  sinking  power  of  the  red  globules  is  in- 
creased, BO  that  the  colorless  lajer  of  coagu- 
lated flbrine  is  thicker  than  in  other  cases,  and 
thns  it  is  that  the  baffy  coat  and  its  thickness 
are  sometunes  a  good  indication  of  the  eiist- 
eooe  and  even  of  tiie  degree  of  an  inflammation. 
But  there  are  many  circnmstoncas  besides  in- 
fiammatdoD  and  withoot  it  which  lead  to  the 
prodnction  of  the  ba^  coat.  Andral  has 
shown  that  when  the  proportion  of  red  corpus- 
cles is  diminished  in  the  blood,  the  bitff  exists 
ft'eqnently  on  the  top  of  a  sm^  cloL  This  is 
the  case  in  chloroaiB,  in  annmia,  &o.  Another 
circnmstance  which  favors  the  formaUon  of  a 
colorless  lajer  of  coagulated  fibrine  is  the 
aggregation  of  the  red  corpuscles  in  columns 
or  piles  (like  piles  of  coin),  which  renders 
them  heavier  and  increases  their  speed  in  sink- 
ing. In  inflammation,  as  shown  br  H.  Nasse, 
Wharton  Jones,  and  others,  the  red  corpuscles 
have  an  increased  tendency  to  aggregate,  and 
this  explains  wh;  the  bufly  coat  is  so  frequent- 
ly thick  in  inflammation.  Lehmann  has 
shown,  however,  that  ail  the  ciro  urn  stances 
which  have  been  considered  as  favoruble  to 
the  sinking  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and  to  the 
formation  of  the  hu^  coat,  are  insatfioient  to 
explain  the  facts  in  all  cases,  and  that  there 
are  some  unknown  causes  of  production  of  the 
bnfi".  12.  The  coagulation  of  blood  does  not 
generate  beat,  as  has  been  imagined.    The  es- 

Kiriments  of  John  Davy,  and  especially  those  of 
enis,  afford  convincing  proofs  in  this  reapect. 
VI.  FoaiiATKiH'  or  THE  Blood,  We  shall  not 
examine  here  the  first  formation  of  this  liquid, 
that  is,  its  production  in  embryos ;  this  subject 
belongs  to  the  article  Ehbbyoloot.  We  t^aQ 
only  inquire  into  the  sources  of  the  blood,  and 
the  mode  of  production  of  its  principal  materi- 
als, in  completely  developed  animals.  Three 
snurces  eiist  for  the  formation  of  the  various 
materials  composing  the  blood:  1,  the  body; 
3,  the  food ;  8,  the  respiration.  That  the  body 
iwelf  is  a  source  of  blood  we  cannot  doubt  If, 
aa  Fiorry  has  shown,  we  take  blood  trom  a 
dog  in  such  quantity  that  we  cannot  abstract 
one  or  two  ounces  more  without  killing  the 
animal,  we  find  the  next  day,  although  the 
dog  has  not  been  fed,  that  we  may  t^e  out 
again  10  or  IS  onnoes  of  blood  without  causing 
death.  It  follows  from  this  fact  that  a  forma- 
tion of  blood  has  occurred,  and,  as  there  has 
been  no  food  taken,  the  blood  formed  must 
come  from  the  body.  As  regards  the  share  of 
re^iratioD  tu  the  formation  of  blood,  we  shall 
«9  VOL.  n. — n 


r lolly  oxjgen.  For  more  details  on  the 
nee  of  oxygen  and  other  gases  on  the 
blood,  see  Eespi&atios.  The  formation  of 
blood  is  very  rapid  when  abundant  and  very 
nutritive  food  is  taken,  as  is  proved  by  the  tbl- 
lowing  facts,  most  of  which  are  related  by  Hal- 
ler.  For  several  years  a  young  girl  was  bled 
sometimes  every  day,  at  other  times  every 
other  day ;  a  hysterical  woman  was  bled  1,020 
timet  in  IB  years;  another  individual  hod  a 
lOASof  1,000  lbs.  of  blood  in  ayeor;  in  another, 
5  IIm.  of  blood  were  lost  every  day  for  63 
days-  a  young  man  had  a  loss  of  70  lbs.  of 
blood  in  10  days;  an  Italian  physician,  Dr. 
Oavalli,  relates  that  a  woman  was  bled  8,S0O 
times  in  28  yearsl  It  seems  from  these  facta, 
and  from  many  others,  that  the  power  of 
formation  of  blood  increases  with  the  traqnenoy 
of  the  losses  of  this  liqnid,  and  with  the  habit 
of  repairing  these  losses.  The  food,  before 
being  able  to  repair  the  losses  of  blood  or  to 
give  to  this  liquid  the  materials  which  it  fur- 
nishes to  the  tissues,  must  be  modified  by  diges- 
tion, and  broQght  to  the  blood  by  absorption, 
either  directly  or  by  the  lymphatic  vessels. 
The  part  of  the  food  absorbed  by  these  vessels 
is  called  chyle.  The  transformation  of  lymph 
and  chyle  into  blood  is  an  act  of  much  great- 
er magnitude  than  was  formerly  supposed. 
According  to  the  researohes  of  Bidder  and 
Schmidt,  there  is  about  28-6  lbs.  of  lymph  and 
chyle  poured  into  the  blood  of  a  man  daily,  i.  e., 
from  one  sixth  to  one  seventh  of  the  weight  of 
the  body.  Of  this  amount  S'6  lbs.  are  true 
chyle,  and  22  lbs.  are  true  lymph.  In  these 
two  liquids  elements  similar  to  those  of  the 
blood  are  found  :  i.  e.,  water,  salts,  fats,  albu- 
men, fibrine,  and  corpuscles.  This  shows  that 
the  work  of  formation  of  blood  from  chyle,  a> 
well  as  lymph,  is  not  very  considerable; 
in  other  words,  the  transformation  of  food  into 
blood  is  already  much  advanced  in  the  bowels 
and  in  the  lymphatic  vessels.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  questions  relative  to  the  formation 
of  the  blood  is  that  of  the  origin  of  the  blood 
corpuscles.  In  the  first  place,  as  regards  the 
colorless  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  there  is  now 
no  doubt  that  tbey  are  entirely  similar  to  tlie 
lymph  corpuscles,  and  that  they  have  been 
brought  into  the  blood  with  the  lymph  and 
chyle.  As  regards  their  formation,  see  Ltmph. 
The  source  of  the  albumen  of  the  blood  is 
chiefly  the  food,  and  it  is  brought  into  the  cir- 
culation by  direct  absorption  by  the  veins  in 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  only  partly  by 
the  chyle.  The  origin  of  the  fibrioe  of  the 
blood  is  not  exclusively  the  food,  as  some  phys- 
iologists muntain.  It  must  come  from  the  tis- 
sues or  from  the  aibuminous  matters  'of  the 
blood,  for  Brown-S^quard  has  proved  that 
when  blood  deprived  of  fibrine  is  injected  into 
the  arteries  of  a  limb,  the  veins  give  out  blood 
containiug  fibrine,  and  in  greater  quantity  if 
the  limb  la  galvanized.  Besides,  it  is  known 
that  in  anim^  deprived  of  fi>od,  or  bled  manj 


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736 


BLOOD 


times,  the  quantity  of  fibrine  increaaes  in  the 
blood.  There  must  be  a  ver;  considerable 
formation  of  fibrins  in  tbe  blood,  as,  according 
to  tlie  remarks  of  Brown-S^qnard,  there  are 
itwiay  pounds  of  tbis  sabstance  transformed 
into  otner  anbstanceB,  in  tbe  course  of  B  daj, 
in  the  liver  and  tbe  kidneys.  The  origin  of  tbe 
ta.ts  of  the  blood,  as  Persoz,  Liebig,  Bidder  and 
Schmidt,  and  others,  have  well  proved,  is  not 
eiclusivelj  from  the  fats  of  tbe  food.  Bot  it 
renuuns  to  be  shown  from  what  principles  of 
t!ie  food  or  of  the  blood,  and  in  which  organ, 
the  formation  of  fat  takes  plaoe.  Many  of  the 
extractive  substances  of  the  blood  are  either 
formed  in  it  or  in  the  tissnes.  As  to  the  aalla 
and  the  metals  of  the  blood,  tbey  come  from 
tiie  food.  The  aagar  of  the  blood  comes  in  a 
great  measure  from  the  food,  and  from  a  trans- 
formation of  certain  sabatances  by  the  liver. 
VII.  Uses  of  thb  Blood.  Nutrition — that  is, 
the  act  by  which  the  various  tisanes  grow  or 
are  maintained  alive,  and  by  which  they  ex- 
crete mat«ri«b  which  are  no  longer  useful  to 
their  organization  and  vital  properties — is  the 
result  of  the  interchange  between  the  blood 
and  tbe  tissues.  We  will  now  examine  how 
tu  some  elements  of  the  blood  may  influence 
the  rit«l  properties  of  tbe  tissues,  to  show  that 
these  properties  depend  upon  some  materials 
fiimisbed  by  the  blood.  Brown-S6qnard  has 
discovered  that  all  the  nervons  and  contractile 
tissnea  in  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  the  motor 
snd  sensitive  nerves,  the  mascles  of  animal  cv 
organic  life,  the  iris,  the  skin,  &o.,  may,  after 
having  lost  their  vital  properties,  their  life,  re- 
cover these  properties  again,  and  in  some  re- 
spects be  reanscitated,  when  blood  containing 
a  great  quantity  of  osygen  is  injected  into  the 
arteries  of  all  these  parts.  Still  more,  he  has 
found  that,  when  cadaverio  or  pott-morttm 
rigidity  exists  in  limbs  of  animals  or  men,  oxy- 
genated blood  has  the  power  of  restoring  local 
life  in  these  parts.  These  experiments  he  has 
made  on  many  animals,  and  on  the  arms  of  two 
decapitated  men,  in  one  18.  in  the  other  14 
hours  after  decapitation.  He  has  asoertslned 
that  black  blood  (which  contains  but  a  small 
amonnt  of  oxygen)  has  no  power  of  regenerat- 
ing the  vital  properties  of  tbe  various  tissues, 
and  that  tbe  more  blood  corpuscles  and  oxygen 
there  were  in  the  blood  employed,  the  quiclter 
and  the  more  powerinl  was  its  regenerating  in- 
fluence. Blood  deprived  of  fibrine  acted  oa 
well  aa  blood  containing  fibrine,  showing  that 
flbrine  is  not  a  necessary  material  for  the  pro- 
dnction  of  the  vital  properties  of  tbe  various 
tissues.  In  one  case  he  muntained  local  life 
for  41  honra  in  a  limb  separated  from  the  body 
of  an  animal.  For  other  facta  relating  to  the 
nsea  of  the  blood,  see  Ndthition,  Secretios, 
and  Tbanbfcsioh  ;  for  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  aee  Circulation. 

BUWD,  IliHM,  an  Irish  adventurer,  general- 
ly known  aa  Colonel  Blood,  twm  atraut  1629, 
died  in  Westminater,  Aug.  24,  1680.  He  was 
a  dbbanded  ofQcer  of  Oromwell's  army.     In 


BLOODHOUND 

1668  he  formed  a  oon^iracy  to  mrpriae  tbe 
castle  of  Dublin,  which  was  defeated  by  the 
vigilance  of  tbe  dnke  of  Ormond,  the  lord  lieu- 
tenant, and  some  of  the  conspirators  were  exe- 
cuted. Blood  escaped  to  England,  determined 
to  be  revenged  upon  the  duke.  One  nigbt  in 
1670  he  seized  the  duke  while  riding  in  his 
coach  through  St.  James  street,  London,  bound 
bin)  on  horseback  behind  an  accomphce,  and 
declared  that  he  would  hang  him  at  Tyburn. 
The  duke  was  finally  rescued  by  bis  servants. 
In  1071  Blood  nearly  sncceeded  in  carrying 
off  the  crown  and  r^alia  from  the  tower  of 
London.  It  was  now  for  the  first  time  dis- 
covered that  he  was  the  perpetrator  of  tbe  bb- 
sanlt  upon  Ormond.  Charles  II.,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Buckingham,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  employed  Blood,  granted  the  felon  an 
interview,  and  not  only  pardoned  him,  bat 
gave  him  an  estate  in  Ireland  of  £G00  a  year, 
and  made  him  a  special  favorite.  Blood  eigoyed 
the  pension  for  10  years,  but,  being  charged 
with  circulating  a  scandal  against  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  held  to  bail,  and  died  in  his 
own  house  l>efore  the  trial  came  on. 

BLOODBOlfND  (eanis  /amUiarit),  a  hound 
trained  for  the  pursuit  of  men,  wonnded  ani- 
mals, or  beasts  of  prey.  The  bloodhound  it 
not  peculiarly  ferocious,  as  its  name  would  im- 


Btoodbonnd  (Cull  bmlllula). 

ply,  and  will  hunt  any  other  game  to  which  ha 
IS  trained  as  readily  as  be  wiU  man;  and  many 
other  doga  may  be  trained  more  or  less  per- 
fectly to  follow  the  scent  of  man,  as  mnat  be 
evident  to  eyery  one  who  has  seen  a  lost  dog, 
which  when  he  comes  upon  the  scent  of  his 
master's  foot  will  follow  it  until  he  has  found 
him.  Any  honnd  natnrally  pursues  whatever 
he  perceives  to  be  prey;  and  the  distinc- 
tion of  foxhound,  staghound,  harrier,  boar- 
honnd,  or  the  like,  la  only  a  matter  of  educa- 
tion and  training,  and  not  of  natural  inatinct 
The  bloodhound  originally,  of  the  old  Talbot 
or  aonthem  breed,  was  larger  than  the  fox- 
hound,  tall,  square-headed,  alow,  with  long 
pendulous  ears,  heavy  drooping  Ups  and  jowl, 
and  a  stem  and  noble  eipre«don.  He  ^aa 
broad- oh  ested,  deep-tongtiea,  and  in  pursuit  so 


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BLOODLETTING 


737 


slonr  that  a  horse  could  olwaja  keep  him  in 
mght,  Bud  in  a  long  chase  an  active  pedestrian 
could  keep  him  in  hearing.  His  powers  of 
scenting,  however,  were  so  extraordinary,  that 
not  only  would  he  follow  the  deer  or  other 
animal  of  which  he  was  in  pnrsait  tiirough 
herd  after  herd  of  the  Btune  animals,  bat  be 
wonld  recognize  its  trail  on  the  ground  as  long 
B9  12  or  14  hours  after  the  creature  liod  passed 
by;  and  if  it  were  lost  on  one  day,  and  he  ware 
put  on  its  fresh  track  again  on  the  following 
morning,  he  woold  follow  it  so  long  as  it  ran 
on  solid  soil.  This  animal  was  called  the 
bloodhonnd  for  two  reasons:  First,  if  the  ani' 
mal  he  pursues  be  wounded  and  its  blood 
dpill«d  on  the  earth,  he  will  follow  the  track 
of  the  blood,  as  be  will  that  of  the  foot  Sec- 
ondly, if  fresh  blood  of  some  otb«r  animal  be 
spillea  across  the  track  of  the  aniiaal  pursued, 
the  hound  will  stop  confused  on  the  fresh 
blood,  and  will  follow  the  old  scent  no  longer. 
On  the  ^ontiers  of  England  and  Scotland, 
probably  first,  and  certainly  longest  and  most 
syBtematically,  were  kept  and  truned  blood- 
honnds,  called  in  the  northern  patois  of  the 
borders  alenth  hounds;  they  were  nothing 
more  than  the  large  Talbot,  trained  exclusively 
to  follow  cattle-stealing  oatlaws  and  maraud- 
ers. The  breed  is  still  maintained  in  a  few 
large  deer  parks  in  the  north  of  England,  for 
following  up  outlying  bucks,  which  Ibey  will 
single  out  of  the  herd,  and  never  leave  nntil 
they  are  taken.  In  color  they  are  usually 
tawny,  not  brindled,  with  black  muzzles'  or 
black  and  tan,  the  latter  being  called  St.  IIu- 
bert's  breed,  and  esteemed  the  hardiest. — The 
animal  known  ss  the  Onbau  bloodhonnd  is  not 
a  bloodhound,  bntisadescendant  of  theniastifi', 
crossed  probably  with  the  bulldog.  It  was 
trained  by  the  Spaniu'ds  at  first  to  pursue  In- 
dians, and  was  afterward  employed  in  the  oap- 
tnre  of  fugitive  negroes.    It  has  some  scenting 

Sowers,  bnt  it  is  as  inferior  in  these  to  the  true 
loodhound  as  it  is  superior  to  him  in  btood- 
thirstdness  and  cruel,  indiscriminate  pugnacity. 
It  has  no  ntility  except  aa  a  man-hnnter.  This 
is  the  variety  once  occasionally  nsed  in  the 
Bonthern  states  in  the  pnrsnit  of  fugitive  slaves. 
The  large  Russian  greyhound,  which  has  a 
i^rosa  of  the  bulldog,  possesses  considerable 
powers  of  scent,  ana  has  often  been  employed 
for  the  same  purposes  as  the  bloodhonnd. 

BLOODLnriNG,  or  KIcMmit  (Gr.  fM^,  a 
vein,  and  rf/ivfiv,  to  cut),  the  act  of  opening  a 
vein  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  blood,  as 
s  means  of  relief  in  certain  cases  of  diseased 
action  in  the  organism.  Bloodletting  is  usually 
performed  at  the  bend  of  the  arm,  because  the 
superficial  veins  are  large  in  that  locality,  and 
more  distinctly  seen  than  anywhere  else.  Be- 
fore using  the  lancet  the  surgeon  ascertains 
the  position  of  the  artery  at  the  bend  of  the 
arm ;  it  ii  commonly  felt  pnlsating  nearly  nnder 
the  largest  vein.  This  vem  must  be  avoided,  be- 
cBoee  of  the  danger  of  wonnding  the  artery  by 
passing  the  lancet  too  deeply.    The  vein  next 


in  rate,  but  not  so  near  the  artery,  is  therefore 
selected.  A  bandage  about  two  fingers  in 
breadth  and  a  yard  in  length  istled  firmly  round 

the  arm,  about  an  inch  above  the  place  where 
I  theopeningis  to  be  made.  This  will  canse  the 
veins  to  rise ;  bnt  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
tie  the  bandage  so  dghtly  that  the  pulse  can- 
not be  felt  at  the  wrist.  The  surgeon  then 
grasps  the  elbow  with  his  left  hand,  placing 
bis  thumb  firmly  upon  the  vein,  a  little  below 
the  place  where  he  intends  making  the  punc- 
ture, to  keep  it  in  its  place,  and  prevent  it 
from  rolling  under  the  skin  daring  the  opera- 
tion. The  lancet  is  then  passed  obliqnely  into 
the  vein.  The  flow  of  blood  is  facilitated  by 
keeping  the  hand  and  wrist  in  motion.  When 
a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  discharged,  the 
bandage  is  removtid  from  the  arm  above  the 
puncture ;  the  surgeon  puts  his  thumb  npon 
the  woond  to  stop  the  bleeding,  and  with  the 
other  hand  washes  the  blood  from  the  arm. 
The  lips  of  the  wound  are  then  placed  in  con- 
tact; a  small  compress  of  old  Frnen  is  placed 
over  it,  and  secured  by  a  bandage  passed  ronnd 
the  elbow  in  the  form  of  the  figure  8,  The 
crossing  of  the  bandage  should  be  immediately 
over  the  compress.  If  blood  should  make  its 
way  through  the  linen  some  time  after  the  arm 
has  been  bound  up,  the  bandage  must  be  made 
more  tight,  and  slackened  somewhat  after  the 
bleeding  has  ceased.  The  bandage  is  retained 
two  or  tiiree  days,  and  the  arm  is  kept  in  a  sling, 
for  rest,  at  least  24  hours.  In  fat  people  it  ts 
sometimes  very  difficult,  or  perhaps  impossible, 
to  render  the  superficial  veins  of  the  arm  visible; 
in  such  cases  blood  may  be  drawn  from  the 
ankle.  A  bandage  is  applied  round  the  leg 
about  two  inches  above  the  ankle ;  the  foot  is 
immersed  some  time  in  warm  water,  to  moke 
the  veins  rise;  the  largest  vein  either  on  the 
inside  or  the  outside  of  the  ankle  is  then  opened, 
and  the  foot  is  again  plunged  into  wann  water, 
or  the  blood  would  not  ran  f^ely.  Bleeding 
at  the  wrist  Is  also  resorted  to,  when  the  veins 
at  the  bend  of  the  arm  are  too  small  or  other- 
wise difficnlt  to  operate  upon;  the  cephalic  vein 
of  the  thamb  or  the  back  and  outer  side  of 
the  wrist  is  selected  in  tbst  case.  Bleeding  at 
the  neck  is  also  practised  at  times.  In  this  case 
the  operation  is  performed  on  the  extemaljugn- 
larvein,  at  either  sldeof  the  neck.  The  vein  runs 
in  an  oblique  direction,  and  the  incision  is  made 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  because  the  v«n 
is  there  more  prominent,  and  higher  up  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  network  of  nerves  which  it 
wonld  be  dangerous  to  wound.  In  addition  to 
the  nsual  materials,  a  card  is  required  in  this 
operation  to  form  a  channel  for  the  blood. 
Two  or  three  pledgets  are  placed,  one  upon  the 
other,  on  the  jngular  vein,  at  its  lowest  part, 
Jnst  above  the  collar  bone.  These  are  maintain- 
ed in  place  by  a  ligature,  tiie  centre  of  which 
is  placed  directly  npon  them,  while  the  two 
ends  are  carried  down,  the  one  forward,  the 
other  backward,  to  the  oppo«te  armpit,  where 
they  are  tied  in  a  tangle  l>ow.    The  vein  then 


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738  BLOOD  MONEY 

BWella,  and  shoald  ba  fixed  by  tiro  fingers  of 
the  left  hand.  Beneath  the  skin  of  the  neck, 
and  Iving  npon  the  jugular  vein,  there  is  a 
muscle  as  thin  as  naper,  the  platynnut  myoidei, 
the  fibres  of  whicn  run  in  an  oblique  direction 
from  the  collar  bone  to  the  border  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  is  the  direction  of  the  vein  itself; 
the  incision  is  made  at  a  right  angle  with  re- 
spect to  the  direction  of  these  flbrea,  that  they 
maj  contract  and  form  no  obBtaele  to  the  issue 
of  Uie  blood.  It  is  also  made  rather  wide,  to 
insure  a  free  issue  from  the  vein.  The  blood 
trickles  down,  and  the  card  is  used  to  direct  it 
into  the  vessel  of  reception.  To  encourage  the 
flow  of  blood  the  patient  moves  the  lower  jaw, 
as  in  masticstion,  now  and  then  taking  a  deep 
breath.  When  the  bleeding  b  ended,  a  bit  of 
adhesive  plaster  is  applied  over  the  orifice,  and 
a  pledget  placed  upon  it,  which  is  maintained 
in  place  b;  a  ligature  wound  closely,  not  tight- 
ly, round  the  neck,  and  fixed  with  a  pin. 
Bloodletting  at  the  neck  is  neither  difficult  nor 
dsngerons,  and  is  performed  at  times  in  cases 
of  congestion  of  blood  in  the  head,  as  in  apo- 
plexy, asphyxia  from  hanging,  &c. — Bloodlet- 
tuig  is  much  less  frequently  practised  now  than 
formerly,  and  some  medical  practitjoners  repn- 
diate  the  practice  altogether ;  but  the  most 
eminent  physicians,  who  combine  a  scientific 
education  with  many  years  of  practical  expe- 
rience in  the  best  hospitals  of  Europe  and 
America,  still  recognize  the  neceswty  of  blood- 
letting in  some  cases,  as  a  means  of  prodnoing 
immediate  results  of  a  salutary  nature,  where 
the  life  of  the  patient  would  be  endangered  by 
delay.  Physiology  forbids  the  loss  of  blood  on 
all  occasions  of  tritling  indisposition,  especially 
in  feeble  constitntions  and  in  city  populations, 
as  was  formerly  of  frequent  occurrencein  medi- 
cal practice.  Both  leeching  and  general  bleed- 
ing are  practised  now  more  cantiously  tian 
formerly;  and  cupping,  as  a  substitute  for 
leeching,  is  practised  with  the  same  discretion 
by  well  educated  physicians, 

BLOOD  HONET,  money  paid  to  the  next  of 
kin  of  a  man  who  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  another,  accidentally  or  with  premedi- 
tation. It  secured  the  murderer  and  his  rela- 
tions against  retaliation  by  the  relatives  of  the 
deceased.  The  Greeks  called  it  troii^,  the  Lat- 
ins ptcna,  the  Franks,  Alemanni,  and  Scandina- 
vians manbote,  wekrgeld,  or  myrgilt,  the  British 
Celts  taarhard,  and  the  Irish  Celts  erie.  The 
Arabs  call  it  diyeh.  The  institution  still  flour- 
ishes in  many  communities  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
Among  the  Arabs  the  blood  money  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  from  1,000  dir- 
hems  of  silver  {about  $150)  to  10,000  ($1,500). 
The  price  for  a  woman  is  about  one  third 
of  that  for  a  man,  or  somewhat  more.  If 
pregnant  with  s,  male  child  at  tlie  time  of 
the  murder,  the  murderer  or  his  relations  pay 
the  full  price  of  a  man  and  woman;  if  with  a 
female  child,  then  tlie  full  price  of  two  women. 
— In  English  criminal  law  the  term  blood 
money  wns  also  applied  to  rewards  offered  by 


mated  the  total   i 


BLOODROOT 

statute  to  informers  s^^aisst  highway  rob- 
bers, thieves,  burglars,  and  ntl«rers  of  false 
coin  or  forged  honk  notes,  Sncb  statutes, 
however,  were  found  to  tempt  eril-diaposed 
persona  to  make  a  living  ont  of  these  laws  by 
entrapping  unwary  and  foolish  people  into  the 
commission  of  crime,  and  they  have  consequent- 
ly been  repealed. 

BLOOD  RlUr,  a  shower  of  grayish  and  red- 
dish dust  mingled  with  rain,  which  sometimes 
falls  on  vessels  off  the  Atlantic  coat^t  of  Africa 
and  southern  Ejirope.  The  dust  of  these  show- 
ers has  been  ascertained  by  Ehrenberg  to  be 
largely  made  up  of  microscopic  organisms,  es- 
pecially the  silicions  shells  of  diatoms;  in  a 
shower  which  fell  at  Lyons  ia  1846,  he  esti- 
jight  at  720,000  lbs,,  of 
which  one  eighth,  or 
B  SO.OOO  lbs.,  were  these 
[0  minute  organisms.  Fig- 
ores  of  many  of  tlieae 
may  be  seen  in  Da- 
na's "Geology,"  nnder 
"  Dynamical  Geology." 
i  0  Darwin  describes  a 
Ii  I '  *l  /I   shower      near     Cape 

f  hn    Verd,   which    was    M 

•"i  go*    least  1,600  miles  wide, 

K  t    (11   covering   sn    area   of 

more  than  1,000,000 
xtending  more  than  1,000 
it  of  Africa.  Lesser  show- 
Italy,  reddish  snow  at  the 
same  time  appearing  on  the  Alps.  Tlie  red 
color  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  red  oxide 
of  iron.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  show- 
ers is  referred  to  in  Homer's  Iliad.  The 
origin  of  the  dust  is  not  known ;  possibly  it  is 
extra-terrestrial.  The  species,  of  which  over 
SOO  have  been  msde  out,  are  not  African ;  s 
few  resemble  South  American.  According  to 
Dana,  the  zone  in  which  these  showers  occur 
covers  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa, 
with  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  AtlonlJc, 
and  corresponding  latitudes  in  western  and 
middle  Asia. 

BLOOBBOOT,  the  root  of  the  tattguinaria 
CanadeatU,  called  also  red-root  This  is  an 
herbaceous  perennial  plant  belonging  to  the 
poppy  family,  growing  abundantly  thronghont 
the  United  States  in  rich  soils  and  shady  sitna- 
tions,  and  flowering  in  March  and  April.  The 
rootstcck  or  rbizome  extends  horizontally  be- 
neath the  surface  a  few  inches  in  length,  and 
of  the  size  of  the  finger.  It  sends  forth  rade 
shoots,  from  the  ends  of  which,  as  well  as 
from  that  of  the  main  root,  rise  the  scape  and 
leaf  stalks,  surrounded  by  the  sheath  of  the 
bud,  all  of  which  spring  op  together.  The 
leaf  is  heart-shaped,  but  deeply  lobed,  yellow- 
ish green  on  the  upper  surfHce,  paler  on  the 
under,  and  strongly  marked  by  orange-colored 
veins.  Tlie  scape  is  round  and  straight,  from 
a  few  inches  to  a  foot  in  height,  and  ter- 
minated by  a  single  flower  of  about  eight 
petals,  which  are  white,  but  si        '         -■       • 


square  miles,  and 
miles  from  the  co 
ers  have  fallen  ii 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLOOD  STAINS 


739 


AH  parts  of  the  plant 


e  m^icinol  qaolitiea,  bnt  uxe 


Blocdroot  (SanguInuU  duwden^). 

made  ose  of.  This  is  dried  and  pulverized, 
and  ta  administered  while  fresh,  either  in  the 
powder,  or  in  pills  prepared  from  it  for  the 
purpose  of  avoiding  the  irritating  effect  of  the 
powder  upon  the  throat,  and  al»o  in  infusion 
or  decoction  and  tincture.  Ita  properties  are 
those  of  an  acrid  narcotic  and  emetic,  in  over- 
dose prodncin^  violent  thirst,  faintness,  and 
dimness  of  vision.  In  some  cases  its  effects 
have  been  fatal.  Upon  fungous  surfaces  it  acta 
as  an  escbarotic.  It  has  been  fonnd  useful  in 
nnmerous  diseases,  among  which  fire  tjphoid 
pneumonia,   catarrh,    scarlatina,    rlieumatism, 

i'Bondice,  djepepsia,  &o.  Many  physicians 
ave  loDK  relied  npon  it  wholly  for  the  cure  of 
croap.  Its  active  properties  appear,  to  redde 
in  a  peculiar  alkaline  principle  called  san- 
guinanne,  which  is  separated  in  the  form  of  a 
white  pearly  snbstanco.  This  baa  an  acrid 
taste,  and  forms  with  the  acids  salts,  alt  of 
which,  when  dissolved  in  water,  produce  beau- 
tiful red  colors. 

BLOOD  STiUS.  Various  medico-legal  qnee- 
tions  are  often  to  be  solved  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  stains  resembling  those  made  by  blood. 
The  principal  of  these  are :  1.  Is  it  possible,  and 
by  wnat  means,  to  decide  that  a  stain  ia  pro- 
duced by  blood  or  not!  3.  Is  it  possible,  and 
by  what  means,  to  ascertain  that  tne  blood  of  a 
stain  comes  from  a  man  or  from  an  animal?  S. 
Is  it  possible  to  find  out  whether  the  blood  of 
a  stain  comes  trom  one  man  or  another?  I.  It  is 
usually  easy  to  ascertain  whether  a  stain  is  due 
to  blood  or  not,  either  by  the  chemical  test  of 
reagents  or  the  physical  tent  of  the  microscope. 
The  latter  ie  the  more  decisive,  but  a  complete 
medico-legal  examination  must  comprise  oath 
of  them.    If  there  is  a  stain  of  suspected  blood 


on  a  piece  of  cloth,  or  any  other  stuff,  the 
stained  part  must  be  cut  off  and  diiijied  into 
a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water.  Id  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  coloring  matter,  if 
it  is  that  of  blood,  will  detach  iUelf  and  reach 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  supernatunt  fluid 
remaining  tolerably  clear  or  slightly  rose- 
colored.  The  fibrine  will  remain  iittached  to 
the  stuff  as  a  grayish  or  rosy-white  substance. 
If  the  liquid  be  boiled,  the  color  will  he  destroy- 
ed and  tne  albumen  coagulated ;  in  its  inferior 
parte,  where  the  coloring  matter  has  accnma- 
lated,  the  liquid  will  become  grayisii  or  green- 
isli,  while  the  upper  portion  will  acquire  a 
slightly  yellow  tint  ITie  red  soluble  dyes,  or 
stains  tVom  the  juices  of  fruits,  are  very  rarely 
coagulated,  and  they  do  not  lose  their  color 
when,  after  having  been  dissolved  in  water,  tlie 
solution  is  boiled.  Besides,  they  are  rendered 
crimson  or  green,  passing  sometimes  to  violet, 
when  treated  witli  ammonia,  while  this  reagent, 
unless  it  be  nsed  in  great  quantities  and  con- 
centrated, does  not  change  the  color  of  blood 
or  of  a  watery  solution  of  a  blood  stain,  ^hen 
ammonia  is  powerful  enough  to  alter  the  color 
of  blood,  it  gives  it  a  brownish  tint,  instead  of 
the  crimson,  green,  or  violet  colors  that  it  gives 
to  dyes.  If  the  solution  of  a  blood  stain  has  co- 
agulated by  boiling,  we  find  that  potash  dis- 
solvea  the  coagnlum,  rendering  it  limpid  and 
green  by  reflection,  and  pink  by  refraction.  If 
chlorhydrio  acid  is  then  added,  the  transpa- 
rency disappears,  but  it  returns  if  another 
quantity  of  potash  is  added.  These  reactions 
belong  only  to  blood.  The  nature  of  the  email- 
est  stain,  able  only  to  furnish  one  drop  of  a  so- 
lution, may  be  found  out  by  the  above-mention- 
ed chemical  means.  In  such  circumstances, 
according  to  Boutigny,  the  drop  should  be 
thrown  into  a  silver  spoon  at  a  very  high  tem- 
perature. The  liquid  in  this,  as  in  any  other 
oaae,  i.  e.,  with  any  kind  of  liquid  whatever, 
being  suddenly  exposed  to  an  extreme  beat, 
instead  of  evaporating  takes  the  shape  of  a 
sphere,  and  then  experiments  may  easily  be 
tried,  and  the  action  of  ammonia,  of  potash,  of 
chlorhydrio  acid,  &c.,  may  rapidly  bo  ascer- 
t^ned. — The  microscope  usually  shows  more 
quickly  and  po^tively  than  chemical  reagents 
whether  a  st^  is  due  to  blood.  With  the  help 
of  this  instrument  the  red  and  the  colorless 
corpuscles  may  be  seen  easily.  (See  Blood.) 
There  is  nothing  to  be  found  with  the  micri>- 
BCOpe  in  the  stains  of  the  various  dyes  which 
can  in  any  way  be  mistaken  for  the  blood  cor- 
puscles. The  presence  of  these  well  charac- 
terized particles  in  a  stiun  is  therefore  an  in- 
contestable proof  that  it  contains  blood.  But 
the  blood  corpuscles  may  have  become  so  much 
altered  that  it  is  very  difBcult  to  ascertain  their 
presence,  at  least  without  the  help  of  chemical 
reagents.  The  microscope,  unaided  by  chem- 
istry, therefore,  may  fau  to  detect  blood  in 
old  stains.  However,  it  is  usually  easy  to  And 
the  red  corpuscles,  and  they  have  been  detect- 
ed in  stains  of  many  years'  duration.    Dr.  Tay- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


740 


BLOOD  STAINS 


lor  sa;a  that  he  has  obtained  clear  evidence 
of  their  existence  io  &  nnall  qnantity  of  blood, 
which  had  been  kept  in  a  di'j'  state  for  three 
years.  Dr.  Charles  Robin  has  discovered  the 
presence  of  red  corpuscles  on  clothes  in  stains 
of  eight  or  ten  years'  duration.  Prof.  Jeffries 
'Wyman  says  that  in  blood  which  hod  been 
allowed  to  dry  in  masses  he  has  failed  to  find 
the  red  corpuscles,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the 
white  or  colorless  corpuscles  may  he  softened 
out  after  they  have  been  dried  for  months,  and 
their  characteristic  marks  readily  obtained.  He 
found  it  easy  to  detect  them  in  blood  which 
had  been  dried  for  six  months.  Dr.  Robin  has 
(pven  a  drawing  representing  what  the  micro- 
scope showed  in  a  solatioo  of  a  stain  found  on 
the  blade  of  a  knife.  No  red  corpuscle  is  fig- 
ured, whileon  the  contrary  many  colorless  ones 
are.  Bnt  the  mere  fact  of  the  presence  of  col- 
orless corpuscles,  with  nearly  the  same  appear- 
ftnce  that  they  have  in  fresh  blood,  is  not  snlE- 
cient  to  prove  that  a  stain  is  due  to  blood,  be- 
oanse  the  chyle  and  lymph  corpnscles,  those  of 
pns,  and  even  some  of  those  of  mucus,  are  similar 
to  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  When 
clothes  hare  been  waahed  after  having  been 
stained  with  hlood,  nearly  or  quite  all  the  cor- 
puscles are  removed,  or  so  mnch  altered  that 
their  presence  cannot  be  ascertained  positively. 
But  cnemistry  may  then  render  it  very  proba- 
ble that  there  has  been  blood  on  such  ctotlies, 
by  detecting  in  them  iron  and  a  coagnlable 
organic  matter.  If  hlood  stains  are  on  the 
blade  of  a  knife,  the  microscope  and  chemi- 
cal reagents  may  enable  us  to  distinguish  them 
from  rast.  Usnally,  when  the  knife  is  heated, 
a  blood  stain  may  be  peeled  ofT,  leaving  a  neat 
metallic  surface  where  it  was ;  it  is  not  so  with 
rust,  which  remains  almost  unaltered.  Besides, 
when  the  stain  is  washed,  it  leaves  a  much 
smoother  surface  if  it  is  due  to  blood  than  if  it 
comes  from  rust.  Usually  in  this  latter  case 
there  Is  a  peculiarly  dentated  surface,  the  pres- 
ence of  which  leaves  no  possibility  of  a  mistake. 
In  a  case  where  Dan^rawa  was  requested 
to  asoertun  the  existence  of  blood  stuns  on  a 
knife  which  was  suspected  to  have  been  used 
in  the  commission  of  a  murder,  this  instrument, 


free  from  rest,  and  surrounded  by  it. 
beating  the  point  of  the  blade  these  spots  scaled 
off,  while  the  rust  remained  adherent;  and  on 
immersing  the  knife  in  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  bright  spots  remaned  unaltered  while 
the  rust  readily  dissolved.  8ome  of  the  re- 
agents which  serve  to  detect  hlood  were  then 
employed,  and  it  was  found  that  the  bright 
spots  were  really  covered  with  blood,  which 
had  prevented  liie  formation  of  rast  In  an- 
other case  in  which  a  man  had  been  accused  of 
murder,  an  examination  of  aknife  covered  with 
red  spots,  and  found  concealed  behind  a  piece 
of  furniture,  proved  that  the  stains  were  due 
to  rust  produced  by  lemon  juice.  Blood  may 
be  detected  even  on  a  stone.    FrofL  Lasaaigne 


ascertained  its  presence  a  full  month  after  it  bad 
been  shed  on  apavement  of  soft  Jreestone,  which    . 
had  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  air,  of  rain, 
and  of  the  sun.    The  color  of  the  stain  had 

Eassed  to  a  dirty  green,  with  a  reddish  lint 
ardly  discernible.  In  a  place  where  stains 
of  blood  are  suspected  to  exist,  and  where  none 
are  found  by  daylight,  the  search  for  the  red 
spots  must  be  made  by  artificial  light.  In  a 
case  where  OUivier  d' Angers  had  vainly  tried 
by  daylight  to.find  stains  of  blood  on  the  floor 
and  on  uie  paper  han^gs  of  a  room,  he  de- 
tected many  by  candlelight.  II.  When  it  is 
decided  that  a  red  stain  is  due  to  blood,  it  re- 
mains to  bo  ascertained  if  the  blood  ie  tliat  of 
a  man  or  of  an  animal.  Chemistry  in  soch 
an  examination  is  of  little  avtul.  The  phyncal 
character  of  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood  is 
almost  the  only  guide.  It  has  been  said,  how- 
ever, that  some  reagents  may  develop  in  the 
blood  such  a  smell  that  it  is  easy  to  determine 
not  only  fhmi  what  animal  the  blood  comes, 
hut  also  whether  it  is  that  of  a  man  or  of  a 
woman.  When  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the 
blood  of  an  animal  or  of  a  man,  it  gives  riu 
to  a  smell  which  baa  been  said  to  be  Just  the 
same  as  that  of  the  individual  that  furnished 
the  blood.  The  chemist  (Bamiel)  who  dis- 
covered this  &ct  was  almost  always  able  to 
make  out  by  this  means  what  was  the  source  of 
blood  sent  to  him ;  so  were  Colombat  and  some 
other  physicians;  but  decisive  examinations 
have  shown  that  very  few  have  the  organ  of 
smell  sensitive  enough  for  this  puriioHe.  In 
man  and  all  the  mammalia  (except  the  camel 
tribe),  the  red  corpuscles  are  circular,  flat  dieks, 
while  in  most  fishes,  in  reptiles,  birds,  and  cam- 
els, they  are  oval.  In  a  case  mentioned  by 
Taylor,  it  was  snggested  in  the  defence  Uiat 
the  blood  stains  on  the  clothes  of  the  prisoner 
were  due  to  bis  having  killed  some  chickens. 
The  shape  of  the  globules  negatived  this  port 
of  the  defence.  In  another  case  the  blood  was 
alleged  to  be  that  of  a  fish ;  this  was  also  dis- 
proved by  the  shape  of  the  corpuscles.  Dr.  H. 
Bennett  of  Edinburgh  states  that  a  patient 
having  bronchitis  had  put  bird's  blood  in  her 
sputa,  and  that  aft«r  the  microscope  had  shown 
tnis  fact  she  was  greatly  surprised  that  it  had 
been  discovered,  and  confessed  that  she  had 
done  it  for  the  purpose  of  impodtion.  On 
looking  at  the  table  of  the  dimenaous  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  (see  Blood),  it  will  be  found 
that  the  olood  disks  of  man  are  'vg^'  t^*" 
those  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  To  cover 
the  extent  of  a  linear  inch  requires  8,200  of  the 
red  corpuscles  of  a  man.  4,404  of  those  of  a 
cat,  and  0,S66  of  those  of  a  goat.  C.  Schmidt 
thinks  he  has  shown  that  by  accurate  meas- 
urements of  the  red  corpuscles,  the  blood  of 
all  the  common  mammalia  con  be  indlridutlly 
detected  and  also  distinguished  from  that  of 
man.  He  proposes  to  avoid  the  errors  arising 
from  s  greater  or  a  slighter  evaporation,  by 
drying  me  blood  corpuscles  before  measuring 
them.    He  gives  the  following  table: 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLOODSTONE 


BLOOMARY 


741 


i.  b^it'.!! 


lO-Blwep CHWM OW40 tHKM 

Dr.  Taylor  sa;a  he  baa  tried  tlie  method  of 
Schmidt  and  has  not  found  it  proctioalty  avail- 
able, and  he  declares  that  the  question  of  the 
diatiiicdoD  between  the  blood  of  man  and  that 
of  certain  aniniats  is  unsolved.  He  adds  that 
when  blood  has  been  dried  on  clothing,  we 
cumot  with  certaint?  and  accaraoydistiDgQiBh 
that  of  an  ordinary  domealic  animal  from  that 
of  man.  Usaally,  however,  in  fresh  blood,  the 
measnrement  of  the  red  oorpascles  will  decide 
the  question ;  and  in  old  stains,  when  the  blood 
corpuscles  have  changed  their  form  and  become 
jagged  or  stellate,  it  will  often  occur  that  sev- 
eral substances  will  give  t^em  their  normal 
shape  and  render  possible  the  determination  of 
their  source.  Bnt  the  evidence  here  is  baaed 
on  eoi^ectare  only,  and  should  therefore  be  re- 
ceived with  the  greataatcantion.  Not  only  can 
the  red  corpuscles  be  altered  in  their  size  and 
shaiw,  but  they  may  be  decomposed  and  give 
origin  to  orjatala  which  are  so  similar,  whether 
coming  from  the  blood  of  certain  animals  or 
that  of  mpn^  that  no  diatinotion  is  posdble. 
Fortnnately  Uiere  are  almost  always  at  least  a 
few  nndeoomposed  red  corpuscles  among  the 
crystals.  III.  It  is  absolutely  imposuble  to 
distinguish  the  blood  of  one  man  from  that  of 
another  by  means  of  the  comparison  of  the  red 
corpnaoles.  There  may  be  more  difference  be- 
tween the  oorpusolea  of  two  samples  of  blood 
from  the  same  man  than  between  those  of  two 
men.  A  great  many  external  causes  may  pro- 
duce variations  in  the  size  of  the  red  globules; 
and  bcHdes,  the  proportion  of  water  and  of 
certain  gases  or  salts  in  the  blood  haa  a  great 
influence  on  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the 
red  corpuscles.  All  who  know  the  facta  ad- 
vanced in  fiivor  of  or  against  tlie  theory  of 
Henle,  concerning  the  causes  of  the  difference 
of  color  of  the  arterial  and  venous  blood  (see 
Rebpisitioit),  are  aware  of  the  changes  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  due  Co  oxygen,  carbonic  acid, 
&c.  The  smell  of  the  blood  of  women  might 
by  some  persons  be  disCingaiahed  tram  that  of 
the  blood  of  men,  but  we  cannot  place  any  re- 
liance on  the  senses  of  anybody  for  such  a  dis- 
tinction ;  and  we  know  that  even  Barmet,  who 
discovered  the  influence  of  snlphuric  acid  in 
increanng  the  odor  of  blood,  once  failed  to  di»- 
tingnish  the  blood  of  a  man  troia  that  of  a 
woman.  Chemistry  also  is  of  no  avtul  for  the 
discrimination  of  the  blood  of  one  man  from 
that  of  another. 

ILOOPnWfE,  a  variety  of  qaartz,  of  a  dark 
green  color,  having  little  red  apotj  of  Jasper 
sprinkled  throngh  ita  maas.     When  cut  end 


polished,  the  red  spota  appear  like  little  drops 
of  blood.    It  is  somewhat  prized  as  a  gem. 

BLOOMIRT,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  a 
kind  of  furnace  for  the  production  of  malleable 
iron  from  cast  or  pig  iron,  and  sometimes  to  a 
similar  fbmace  for  the  direct  extraction  of  mal- 
leable iron  from  its  ores.  In  both  caaea  the 
lamp  of  iron  obtained,  when  finished  under  the 
hammer,  is  called  a  bloom,  from  the  German 
Bliime,  a  flower,  because,  it  is  said,  the  product 
ia  as  it  were  the  flower  of  the  ore.  The  direct 
fabrication  of  malleable  iron  from  the  ore  ap- 
pears to  have  been  practised  from  remote  anti- 
quity. The  natives  of  India,  Burmoh,  Borneo, 
Madagascar,  and  scone  parts  of  Africa  practise 
the  direct  conversion  of  iron  ores  into  metallio 
iron  in  fomacea  which  are  rude  bloomaries. 
In  certun  districts  of  India  the  amount  of  me- 
talhc  iron  ttioa  produced  is  very  considerable, 
and  mnch  of  it  is  manufactured  tuto  steel ;  but 
the  furnaces  used  are  small  in  aize  and  do  not 
yield  more  than  80  or  40  lbs.  of  iron  duly,  with 
the  labor  of  three  or  foar  men,  and  a  great 
waste  of  ore  and  charcoal.  The  msauve  rich 
ore  coarsely  pulverised,  or  the  grains  of  iron 
ore  obtained  by  washing  the  sands  in  some 
places,  are  heated  with  charcoal  in  shallow 
open  fumaoes  until  reduced  to  the  metallio 
state ;  but  as  the  metal  thus  produced  is  infusi- 
ble at  the  heat  of  these  furnaces,  it  agglntinat«s 
into  an  irreiinilar  masa,  known  as  a  loap,  which 
is  afterward  hammered  and  converted  into  a 
bloom.  Somewhat  similar  methods  of  making 
malleable  iron  have  long  been  known  in  various 
countries  of  Europe,  where  under  improved 
forms  they  are  still  followed,  and  have  thence 
been  brought  to  North  America.  Of  these 
furnaces  for  the  direct  production  of  blooms 
from  the  ore  five  forms  are  known  in  Europe, 
viz. ;  the  Corsican  and  Catalan  forges,  the 
German  bloomary  foige,  the  Oamnnd  ftamaoe, 
and  the  German  StOeko/en  or  high  bloomary 
furnace,  which  had  high  walls  and  approached 
in  form  the  modem  blast  furnace,  of  which  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  immediate  precursor. 
AUof  Uieae  employ  a  blast  to  increase  the  heat, 
but  the  name  of  blast  ftimace  ja  technically 
given  only  to  those  Aimacee  in  which  by  in- 
creaang  the  heat  the  reduced  iron  is  sulwe* 
qnently  carbnrctted  and  fused,  being  thus  sep- 
arated in  the  form  of  cast  or  pig  metal  from 
the  melted  impurities  or  slag,  both  of  which 
are  drawn  off  by  tapping  the  fiimace  from  time 
to  time.  The  production  of  iron  in  this  way 
ia  a  continuous  process,  while  in  the  various 
bloomary  furnaces  the  operation  is  interrupted 
from  lame  to  time  in  order  to  remove  from  the 
hearth  the  accumulated  mass  of  reduced  but 
iinmelt«d  malleable  iron,  which  is  then  freed 
from  the  slag  or  cinder  by  hammering.  Of 
these  furnaces  the  Corsican  is  the  most  primi- 
tive form,  and  is  now  nearly  if  not  quit«  dis- 
used. It  was  said  to  consume  more  than  600 
Ibe.  of  charcoal  in  making  100  lbs.  of  iron. — 
The  Catalan  foi^e  or  bloomary  is  so  called  fh>m 
tlie  prorinoe  of  Catalonia  in  Spun,  where  it  was 


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742  BLOO 

formerly  much  used,  as  well  as  in  the  neighbor- 
ing parte  of  France,  espeoially  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ari^.  The  Catalan  forge  as  used  in 
France  consists  of  a  rectangnlar  hearth  con- 
Btrncted  chiefly  of  heavy  iron  plates,  and  in  the 
largest  size  measures  40  by  83  inches,  and  is 
from  20  to  24  inches  deep,  or  fWim  12  to  15  in- 
ches below  the  tuyere  or  pipe  through  wlticli 
the  blast  enters.  In  some  cases,  however,  fnr- 
noces  of  not  more  than  one  half  these  dimen- 
sions ore  bnitt.  The  pressure  of  the  blast  does 
not  exceed  1^  or  If  inch  of  mercury,  and  the 
tnyere  is  directed  downward  at  an  angle  of  80° 
or  40°.  The  wall  facing  the  tuyere  slopes  out- 
ward toward  the  top,  and  in  working  the 
greater  part  of  the  charge  of  ore  is  heaped 
against  it,  and  occupies  from  one  third  to  one 
half  of  the  cavity  of  the  fnmace,  the  remaining 
apace  being  filled  with  ignited  charcoal.  The 
ore  b  previonsly  broken  so  that  the  largest 
lumps  are  not  more  than  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, while  fromone  third  to  one  half  of  the 
material  will  pase  throngh  a  screen  the  bars  of 
which  are  four  tenths  of  an  inch  apart.  This 
finer  ore  is  tlirown  on  the  'surface  of  the  fire 
from  time  to  time  during  the  operation,  which 
is  conducted  with  many  precautions  as  to  regu- 
lating the  blast,  stirring,  and  supplying  the  fine 
ore  and  coal.  At  the  end  of  six  hours,  in  the 
ordinary  routine,  there  is  withdrawn  from  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  an  agglomerated  mass  of 
reduced  but  onmelted  iron,  wliich  is  then  forg- 
ed into  blooms  or  bars.  The  operation  con- 
Bomes,  in  one  of  the  larger-sized  forges,  about 
9i  cwt  of  iron  ore  (a  limonite  holding  40  or  60 
per  cent,  of  iron  is  treated  in  the  Ari^)  and 
10}  cwt.  of  charcoal,  and  yields  8  cwt.  of  bar 
iron.  Ac(u>rding  to  another  calculation,  there 
are  reooired  in  this  process,  for  the  prodnction 
of  100  lbs.  of  iron,  840  ibs.  of  charcoal  and  812 
lbs.  of  an  orecontainiQgfrom4G  to  48  per  cent. 
of  iron.  Of  this  about  seven  tenths  are  ob- 
tfuned  in  the  metallic  state,  the  remainder 
passing  into  the  slag;  100  lbs.  of  the  ore  yield 
81  lbs.  of  bar  iron  and  41  lbs.  of  elag,  which  is 
a  dark-oolored  basic  silicate,  very  rich  in  oxide 
of  iron.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  this 
direct  method  of  treatment  a  portion  of  the 
oxide  of  iron  is  always  consumed  in  fiuxing  the 
impurities  of  the  ore,  so  that  the  purest  ores 
are  generally  sought  for  the  purpose.  In  the 
blast  fnmace,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  judicions 
nse  of  lime  or  other  basic  fluxes,  the  slaga  are 
obtuned  almost  free  from  iron,  and  tlie  loss  of 
the  metal  is  thus  avoided. — Tlie  Gorman  bloom- 
ary  fnmace  was  formerly  nsed  in  Silesia  and 
the  Palatinate,  and  is  described  at  some  length 
by  Karsten  (1816),  but  is  dismissed  with  a  few 
words  in  Bruno  Kerl's  treatise  {Huttenlcunde, 
1864,  iii.  427),  from  which  its  use  would  aeem 
to  be  nearly  or  quite  abandoned  in  Germany. 
According  to  Karsten,  the  German  bloomary 
consists  of  an  iron  put,  or  a  box  of  iron  plates, 
(n  either  case  lined  with  refractory  bricks,  and 
having  an  internal  diameter  of  from  14  to  21 
inches,  and  the  same  depth,  the  dimensions 


varying  with  the  fuubility  of  the  ore,  the  force 
of  the  blast,  and  the  quality  of  the  coal.  The 
tuyere  is  horizontal.  The  ftima«e  having  been 
filled  and  heaped  up  with  baming  ch^oal, 
the  ore  is  thrown  npon  the  fire  by  shovelfuls 
at  a  time,  until  a  loup  of  sofficient  aize  has  been 
formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  as  already 
described  in  the  Catalan  method.  When  the 
blast  is  too  intense,  or  the  coal  very  dense,  it 
may  happen  that  the  rednced  iron  becomes 
carbnretted  by  the  excesfflve  heat  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  produce  a  steel-like  iron,  or  even 
molten  cast  iron,  instead  of  a  loup  of  soft  mal- 
leable iron.  A  similar  state  of  things  some- 
times occurs  in  the  Catalan  forge,  and  is  occa- 
sionally taken  advantage  of  to  produce  an 
imperfect  kind  of  steel.  From  the  above  de- 
scription it  will  be  seen  that  the  method  by  the 
German  bloomary  difiers  from  that  by  the 
Catalan  in  the  fact  that  in  the  latter  the  greater 
part  of  the  charge  of  ore  is  placed  at  the  c«m- 
mencement  of  the  operation,  in  a  coarsely 
broken  state,  on  the  doping  wail  of  the  fur- 
nace, opposite  the  tuyere,  while  the  remwning 
portion  is  subsequently  prqjected  in  a  more 
finely  divided  condition  upon  the  surface  of  the 
fire.  In  the  German  method,  on  tlie  contrary, 
the  whole  of  the  ore  is  reduced  to  this  finer 
condition,  and  is  added  by  small  portions;  a 
plan  which  dispenses  with  the  charging  of  the 
furnace  with  ore  after  each  operation,  as  in  the 
Catalan  method,  and  permits  of  a  continaoua 
working,  interrupted  only  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  loups  from  Ume  to  time. — The  German 
bloomary  in  an  improved  form  is  extensively 
used  for  the  radnctjon  of  iron  ores  in  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
bloomary  fire,  the  Jersey  forge,  or  the  Cbam- 

Glain  forge;  it  is  also  frequently  called  theCata- 
in  forge,  from  which,  as  already  shown,  it  is  dis- 
tinct in  form  and  still  more  distinct  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  worked.  This  latter  seems 
however  to  be  unknown,  at  least  in  the  north- 
em  and  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States. 
The  German  bloomary  was  probably  introduced 
into  North  America  early  in  the  last  century. 
Among  the  forges  in  operation  in  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania  in  1856,  Lesley,  in  his  "Iron 
Manufacturers'  Guide,"  mentions  one  as  having 
been  established  in  1T88  and  another  in  1725. 
The  magnetic  iron  sands  of  the  seacoast  early 
attracted  the  attention  both  of  the  American 
colonists  and  of  metallurgists  in  England,  as 
appears  from  the  experiments  of  Br.  Moblcn 
as  early  as  1742  upon  what  was  called  the  Vir- 
^nian  black  sand  (the  name  of  Virginia  being 
at  a  still  earlier  period  given  to  the  whole 
coast  from  Canada  to  Florida).  These  black 
sands  from  Kitlingworth,  Connecticut,  were 
there  succeasfnily  treated  in  a  bloomary  fur- 
nace in  1762  by  the  Rev.  Jared  Elliot,  wliti 
obtained  blooms  of  60  lbs.  weight  of  iron. 
which  was  afterward  made  into  steel  of  supe- 
rior quality,  and  for  his  discovery  received  the 
following  year  a  medal  from  the  society  of  arts 
of  London.    Bteel  works  bad  at  that  time  been 


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erected  id  Oonnecticntfor  the  treatment  of  tbe 
metal  tims  produced,  but  were  abandoned  on 
Account  of  an  act  of  parliament  forbidding  the 
mannfactare  of  at«eL  in  the  British  coloniee. 
In  the  districts  where  it  was  first  worked,  in- 
cluding northern  New  Jersey  and  the  ai^a- 
cent  parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsjlvaiua,  tiie 
bloomary  process  baa  fallen  into  disuse  unce 
wood  baa  t>e(iome  ftcorce,  and  extendve  work- 
ings of  coal  in  the  vicinitj,  with  ?reat  facilities 
for  transportation,  bare  rendered  it  more  pro- 
fitable to  treat  the  ores  in  the  blast  furnace 
tban  in  the  blooraary  fire.  In  northern  New 
York,  on  the  contrary,  the  use  of  the  bloom- 
ary  process  has  continued  lo  extend  within 
the  pitst  few  years,  and  in  1B68  the  production 
of  iron  by  this  method  in  that  region  was  esti- 
tnated  at  nearly  ,40,000  tons,  a  large  portion 
of  which  is  consumed  at  Pittsburgh  for  tbe 
manufacture  of  steel  by  cementation,  for  which 
it  is  mnota  prized.  Two  establishmente  in  the 
vicinity  of  Keeaeville  had  in  that  year  respec- 
tively 18  and  31  bloomary  tjrea,  and  the  whole 
nomber  in  activity  in  Eases  and  Ciinton  counties 
inlB6TwassaidtAbel86.  It  is  only  in  moon- 
tunoua  regions,  abounding  in  rich  iron  ore*  and 
wood  suitable  for  charcoal,  and  stitl  inacces- 
sible to  railways,  that  this  process  can  hold  ita 
ground.  Ita  advantagea  are,  that  the  outlay 
and  floating  capital  required  are  inconsiderable, 
and  the  consnmption  of  charcoal  comparatively 
Knall.  The  direct  mode  of  reduction  can  only 
be  applied  to  rich  ores,  which  to  yield  good 
results  in  the  German  or  Catalan  bloomary 
should  contfun  not  much  less  than  CO  per  cent 
of  iron,  while  much  richer  ores  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Two  tons,  and  of  the  richest  and 
purest  ores  1 }  ton,  will  under  careful  manage- 
ment yield  one  ton  of  blooms.  The  bloomary 
hearths  used  in  northern  New  York  vary  in 
area  &om  27x30  to  28x82  inches,  and  in 
depth  from  20  to  25  inches  above  the  tuyere, 
and  from  S  to  14  inches  below.  The  sides  are 
of  heavy  cast-iron  plates,  and  the  bottom, 
tiiough  often  of  beaten  earth  or  cinders,  is  in 
the  best  constructed  hearths  also  of  iron,  made 
hollow  and  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  water  ciron- 
lating  through  it.  The  side  plates  slopegently 
inw^  in  dcsceniiing,  and  rest  on  ledges  in  the 
bottom  plate.  A  water  box  is  let  into  the 
tnyere  plate.  The  tuyere,  which  is  inclined 
downward,  has  ita  opening  in  the  form  of  a 
segment  of  a  circle.  In  some  localitiea  these 
dimensions  differ  from  those  given ;  and  the 
bloomaries  lately  erected  at  Moisie  in  the  lower 
St-  Lawrence,  for  the  treatment  of  the  mag- 
netic iron  sands,  measure  32  x  80  inches,  and 
have  the  tuyere  nearly  horizontal.  The  blast 
employed  in  the  Amerioan  bloomaries  hOs  a 
preasnre  of  1  j  to  IJ  lb.,  and  is  heated  to  660' 


the  furnace.  By  the  use  of  the  hot  blast  the 
production  of  the  furnaces  is  much  increased, 
and  a  considerable  saving  of  charcoal  is  effect- 
ed without  any  deterioration  in  the  quality  of 


MAKT  743 

I  the  metal.  The  working  of  these  furnaces  is 
conducted  as  follows :  The  fire  being  kept  ac- 
tive and  the  ftamace  heaped  with  coal,  the 
coarsely  pulverized  ore  is  scattered  at  short  in- 
\  tervals  upon  tbe  top  of  the  burning  fuel,  and  in 
.  its  passage  downward  is  reduced  to  the  metnJ- 
'  lie  state,  but  reaches  the  bottom  without  being 
melted  and  there  aceamulates,  the  grains  ag- 
glomerating into  an  irregular  mass  or  loup, 
while  the  earthy  matters  form  a  liiinid  slag  or 
dnder  which  lies  around  and  above  it,  and  is 
drawn  off  from  time  to  time  throngh  an  open- 
ing in  the  front  plate.  At  the  end  of  two 
or  three  hours,  or  when  a  sufBcienCly  large 
loup  is  formed,  this  is  lifted  hy  means  of  a  bar 
frotn  the  bottom,  brought  before  the  tuyere  for 
a  few  minutes  to  give  it  a  greater  beat,  and 
then  carried  to  the  hammer,  where  it  is 
wrought  into  a  bloom ;  tlie  bloomary  tire  itself 
being  generally  used  for  reheating.  This  opera- 
tion being  concluded,  the  addition  of  ore  to  tbe 
fire  is  resumed,  and  the  production  of  iron  is 
kept  up  with  bntlittie  interruption.  A  skilled 
workman  will  with  a  large-sized  bloomary  fur- 
nace bring  out  a  loup  of  800  lbs.  every  three 
hours,  thus  making  the  produce  of  a  day  of  24 
boors  2,400  lbs.  of  rough  blooms.  The  oon- 
'  sumption  of  charcoal  is  from  260  to  800  bushels, 
(weighing  16  or  18  lbs.  to  the  bushel)  for  each 
ton  of  2.000  lbs.  of  blooms  produced.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  cost  of  the  ore  and  coal,  which  variea 
somewhat  with  the  locality,  the  estimate  of  a 
oompctent  iron  master  in  northern  New  York 
in  1868  gave  for  wages  (6,  and  for  general  ex- 
penses $3  CO,  for  each  ton  of  blooms  produced. 
— Several  plans  have  been  introduced  having  for 
their  object  the  rednction  of  rich  iron  ores  at 
low  temperatures  in  close  chambers  by  carbonic 
oxide,  and  tiie  spongy  metallic  iron  thus  ob- 
tained was  in  many  cases  transferred  at  once  to 
a  liearth  and  converted  into  blooms.  Snob 
was  the  case  in  the  methods  of  Clay,  of  Chenot, 
and  of  Renton.  In  the  mannfacture  of  blooms 
from  cast  iron  by  the  Walloon  method,  now  to 
a  great  extent  superseded  by  puddling,  tbe 
iron,  generally  punfied  by  a  flrat  fusion  in  what 
is  called  a  runnmg-ont  fire,  is  brought  in  smaQ 
piortions  at  a  time  before  the  tuyere  on  a  char- 
coal fire  similar  to  the  German  bloomary  fire 
just  described,  and  known  as  n  sinking  tire.  It 
there  melts  down  and  is  at  the  same  time  de- 
carbonized, the  product  accumulating  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  in  a  lonp,  which  is  treat- 
ed in  the  manner  already  described  and  yields 
a  bloom  of  malleable  iron.  The  iron  thus  ob- 
tained is  superior  in  quality  to  that  produced  by 
puddling,  and  for  the  liner  kinds  of  metal  the 
process  is  still  practised  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  a  eonraderable  extent  in 
Sweden,  where  a  modification  of  the  bloomary 
known  as  tbe  Lancashire  hearth  is  employed. 
The  loss  in  this  process  of  converwon  is  con- 
siderable, and  the  consumption  of  charcoal  in 
the  prodnotion  of  the  pig  iron  and  its  subse- 
quent conversion  in  the  bloomary  fire  is  aboat 
equal  to  that  required  in  the  direct  process. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


744 


BLOOMFIELD 


BLOOMnOLP,  Ktbert,    so  English    pastoral 

Soet,  bom  at  Honin^n,  Suffolk,  Dec.  S,  1T6S, 
ied  at  Shefford,  Bedfordshire,  Ang.  IP,  1828. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  father,  a  tailor,  and 
was  taught  to  read  bj  his  mother,  who  kept  s, 
damo  Bcbool.  Not  heing  Bufficientl;  robust 
for  a  farmer's  boy,  he  was  aent  to  London  to 
learn  the  busincea  of  a  shoemaker,  and  in  his 
brief  leisure  read  a  few  hooka  of  poetry,  in- 
clading  Thomson's"  Seasons,"  whichhegreatly 
admired.  He  composed  in  a  garret  where  be 
lodged  "  The  Farmer's  Boy,"  in  which  he  de- 
scribed the  conntry  scenes  he  had  been  familiar 
with  in  childhood.  Several  London  publishers 
declined  this  poem,  bat  it  was  seen  by  Mr. 
Capel  LoSt,  and  under  his  patronage  it  was 
published  in  1800.  Within  three  years  over 
26,000  copies  were  sold,  and  it  was  translated 
into  German,  French,  Italian,  and  Latin.  The 
duke  of  Grafton  appointed  Bloomfleld  to  a 
government  sitoation,  but  ill  health  caused  him 
to  return  to  his  trade  of  ladies'  shoemaker,  the 
duke  settling  a  sbitling  a  day  on  him  for  the 
rest  of  his  lif^.  Finally,  he  retired  to  Shefford, 
where  he  died  in  debt,  leaving  a  widow  and 
four  children.  Uis  "  Farmer's  Boy,"  which 
has  often  been  reprinl«d,  is  hy  fer  his  best  pro- 
duction. Hisotherprincipalpoemsare:  "Rural 
Tales  and  Ballada''  "GJooJ  Tidinm,"  "Wild 
Flowers,"  "The  Banks  of  the  Wye,"  and 
"  May  Day  with  Qie  Muses." 

BLOOmiUr,  SuiMl  ThMUS,  D.  D.,  an  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  oritio,  bom  in  1790,  died  at 
Wandsworth  Common,  Sept  28,  1869.  He 
waa  educated  at  Sidney  college,  Oambridee, 
took  orders,  and  held  till  the  end  of  his  life  the 
vicarage  of  Bisbrooke,  Kutlaud.  He  published, 
under  the  title  Reoentio  Synoptiea,  ezegetical, 
critical,  and  doctrinal  annotations  on  the  New 
Testament  (8  vols.,  1826) ;  a  Greek  and  English 
lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  revised  and 
enlarged  from  Dr.  Robinson's  (182H);  a  trans- 
lation of  Thucydidos  (3  vols.,  1829) ;  Thncyd- 
ides's  "History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War," 
with  a  new  recension  of  the  Greek  text  and 
elaborate  notes  (2  vols.,  1848)  \  and  "The  Greek 
Testament,  with  English  Notes,  critical,  philo- 
logical," die.  (2  vdg.,  1832 ;  Bth  ed.,  18G6).  Dr. 
Bloomiield's  Greek  Testament  has  been  more 
largely  used,  both  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  tlian  that  of  any  other  English  critic, 
and  is  still  highly  approved  as  a  learned,  judi- 
cious, and  trustwortiiy  work. 

BUWflUfCTON,  a  village  and  the  capital  of 
Monroe  CO.,  Indiana,  situated  ona  ridge  between 
the  E.  and  W.  forks  of  White  river ;  pop.  in 
1870, 1,032.  A  railroad  E^om  New  Albany  to 
Michigan  Oity  passes  through  the  village.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  state  university,  which  in 
1871  bad  13  instructors,  2TT  male  and  SI  fe- 
male Bbidents,  and  a  library  of  6,000  volumes. 
The  law  school  connected  with  it'  had  2  pro- 
t^ssora,  S3  atudenta,  229  alumni,  and  a  library 
of  1,100  volumes. 

BLOONUGTON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Mo- 
Lean  00.,  IllinoiB,  116  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Chicago, 


BLOUNT 

I  and  IG4  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  St.  Louis ;  pm.  in 
1-1860,  7,075;  in  1870,  14,C90.  The  city  is 
'  haodaomely  built,  has  street  railways  and 
'  steam  fire  engines,  and  contains  36  schoola 
attended  by  3,091  pupils,  a  female  seminary, 
and  the  Mf^or  female  college.  The  IlliniMa 
Weeleyan  university,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
institution,  was  organized  in  1868,  and  in  16T0 
had  200  pupils  in  all  the  departments,  6  tn- 
stmctora,  and  a  library  of  1S,000  volumes. 
Three  d^ly  and  two  weekly  papers  are  pob- 
lisfaed.  Bloomington  is  a  great  railroad  centre, 
and  is  increasing  rapidly  in  population  and 
wealth.  The  Chicago,  Alton,  and  St.  Louis 
railroad  and  the  northern  division  of  the  Il- 
linois Central  intersect  at  this  point,  which  is 
also  on  the  line  of  the  Indianapolis,  Blooming- 
ton,  and  Western  railway.  The  construction 
and  repair  shops  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton 
company  are  built  of  stone,  and  with  the  yarda 
attached  cover  IS  acres  of  ground.  The  dty 
also  contains  numerous  miUs  and  factories  of 
all  descriptions,  A  large  wholesale  trade  ia 
carried  on,  the  city  competing  with  Obicago 
and  St.  Louis  for  the  patronage  of  the  neign- 
boring  towns. 

BLOVFT.  LAN.  county  of  Alabama,  dnuned 
by  the  upper  courses  of  the  Locust  and  Mnl- 
berry  forku  of  Black  WarriM  river ;  area,  about 
900  aq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18T0,  9,94G,  of  whom  682 
were  colored.  Portions  of  the  surface  are 
mountainous,  and  covered  with  forests  of  ex- 
cellent timber.  Blount's  Springs,  on  Mulberry 
fork,  is  a  popular  watering  place.  The  chief 
productions  m  18T0  were  47,375  bushels  of 
wheat,  266,558  of  Indian  com,  12,770  of  oata, 
81,678  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  960  bales  of 
cotton-  There  were  1,6GI  horses,  6S3  mules 
and  asses,  8,236  miloh  cows,  0,323  other  cat- 
tie,  B,507  sheep,  and  1S,B83  swine.  Capital, 
Blountsville.  IL  A  S.  E.  county  of  Tennesaee, 
bordering  on  North  Carolina;  area,  460  aq.m.; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,237,  of  whom  1,406  were  col- 
ored. Holston  river,  on  the  N.  W.  boundary, 
is  navi^ble  by  steamboats ;  the  Tennesaee 
bounds  it  on  toe  west,  and  Little  river  and 
numerous  small  creeks  intersect  it.  The  Knox- 
ville  and  Charleston  railroad  extends  from 
Knoxville  to  Maryaville.  The  snrface  is  trav- 
ersed by  several  mountwn  ridges,  the  prindpal 
of  which  are  Iron  or  Smoky  mountain,  and 
Chilhowee  mountain.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
carefully  tilled.  Marble,  limestone,  and  iron 
ore  abound.  The  chief  prodnclions  in  1870 
were  107,810  bushels  of  wheat,  884^688  of 
Indian  corn,  104,001  of  oats,  18,178  lbs.  of 
wool,  129,535  of  butter,  and  20,31S  gallons  of 
sorghum  molassea.  There  were  2,^7  horsea, 
2.488  milch  cows,  6,018  other  cattle,  10,888 
sheep,  and  16,726  swine.  Capital,  Maryville. 
nXHiNT,  Charles,  an  English  deisticol  vrriter, 
bom  in  Middlesex,  April  27,  1654,  died  in 
August,  1SS9.  His  first  work,  a  pamphlet  in 
defence  of  Dryden'a  "  Conquest  of  Granada," 
woa  followed  in  167S  by  Anima  Mundi,  ft 
work  giving  a  hiatorical  account  of  the  c^iin- 


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BLOUNT 

\ooa  (rf  the  uidents  on  &  fhtnra  life,  and  in 
1680  by  "Great  is  Diana  of  tlie  Ephemana," 
and  a  translation  of  the  Latin  veruon  of  part 
of  Philostratos's  Life  of  Apollonins  TTanteua, 
with  irreligious  annotations,  which  wer«  se- 
veretjoensared  by  Bayle.  Ilia  tracts,  "A  Just 
Yindioation  of  Learning  and  of  the  Libertf 
of  the  Press"  and  "Reasons  for  the  Liberty 
of  Unlicensed  Printing,"  consisting  chiefly 
of  garbled  extracts  from  Milton's  "Areopa- 
gitica,"  and  his  reputed  anonymous  treatise 
"WiiiiamandHaryGoDqaerorB"  (1S63),  which 
was  deugnedly  writt«n  in  the  spirit  of  ultra 
lories  and  churchmen,  with  a  view  of  entrap- 
ping the  censor  Bohun,  contributed  mnch  4o 
inflame  the  public  mind  against  the  censorship 
of  the  prcas.  After  the  premature  death  of 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Timothy  Tyrell,  be 
wanted  to  marry  her  sister,  and  wrote  a. tract 
in  defence  of  such  inarriagea;  but,  nnable  to 
overcome  either  the  scruples  of  the  lady  or  the 
prohibitions  of  the  law,  he  inflicted  on  himself 
a  &tal  woand.  According  to  Pope,  he  did  not 
intend  to  kill  himself,  bnt  only  meant  to  frightan 
his  sister-in-law  into  acoepting  him.  Uacaulay 
thinks  be  has  been  mucn  overrated,  bot  gives 
>iirn  credit  for  having  greatly  aided  in  the 
emancipation  of  the  English  press.  Charles 
Gild<m  wrote  en  apology  for  his  snicide,  and 
pablisbed  a  collection  of  his  letters  under  the 
title  of  "The  Oracle  of  Reason"  flflSO),  and 
"The  Miscellaneons  Worlis  of  Charles  Blount, 
Esq."  (1695).— His  father.  Sir  Hksby  (1602- 
-'82),  was  the  anther  of  "A  Voyage  to  the 
Levant"  (1S86);  and  bis  elder  brother.  Sir 
Tbomas  Pope  (164Q-'9T),  who  served  in  five 
parliaments,  wrote  Centura  Celebrionan  An- 
thorum  (foL,  1690),  De  Re  Paetica,  and  a  com- 
pilation on  natural  history. 

UOCNT,  ThiaH,  an  En^ish  writer,  bom  at 
Bardesley,  Worcestershire,  in  1618,  died  at 
Orletoo,  Dec.  36,  1676.  He  pablisbed  "The 
English  Academy  of  Eloquence"  (1604);  a 
"Dictionary  of  Hard  Words"  (1856);  "Lampe 
of  the  Law,  and  Lights  of  the  Gospel "  (ISSS) ; 
"Boacobel,"  a  history  of  Charles  IL's  escape 
after  the  battle  of  Worcester  (1660;  part  3, 
1691);  a  "Law  Dictionary"  (1671);  "A  World 
of  EiTors  Discovered  in  the  New  World  of 
Words"  (1673);  and  some  works  of  less  im- 
portance. He  was  a  zealous  Roman  Oatbolic, 
and  wrote  a  Catholic  almanac  and  a  cata- 
]<^ne  of  the  Catholics  who  lost  their  lives 
in  the  king's  cause.  The  popish  plot  and  the 
anxielj  occaraoned  by  the  excitement  of  the 
time  are  believed  to  have  broken  his  health 
and  caused  his  death. 

BLODITF,  WUUaa,  an  American  politiraao, 
bom  in  North  Carolina  in  1744,  died  in  Knoi- 
ville,  Tenn.,  March  26,  ISOO.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate from  North  Carolina  to  the  continental 
oongress,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  federal 
constitution  in  1787.  In  17S0  he  was  appoint- 
ed governor  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio. 
After  the  formation  from  this  territory  of  the 
state  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  he  was  elected  one 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


7-45 


of  its  first  senators  in  the  national  congress. 
In  1797  he  was  impeached  by  the  house  of 
representatives  for  having  intrigued,  when 
governor  of  the  territory,  to  transfer  New 
Orleans  and  the  neighboring  districts,  then  be- 
longing to  Spain,  to  Great  Britain,  by  means 
of  a  joint  expedition  of  English  and  Indians. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  senate,  and  the  pro- 
cess was  then  dropped  in  the  honae.  The  pro- 
ceedings against  him  increased  his  populurityj 
among  bis  constitnents,  by  vhom  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  senate,  of  wliicb  he  be- 
came president 

H.OW,  Jaba,  an  Englisli  composer,  bom  at 
North  CoUingham,  Nottinghamslilre,  in  1648, 
died  in  London  in  1708.  On  the  aoceeslon  of 
Charles  II.  he  became  a  chorister  in  tbe  chapel 
royal,  and,  though  only  a  child,  composed  sev- 
eral anthems,  lie  afterward  l>erame  suoces- 
mvely  one  of  James  II. 'a  private  mosiciana 
master  of  the  choir  of  SL  Pant's,  organist  of 
Westminster  abbey,  and  composer  to  the  royal 
chapel.  He  published  the  Amphton  Anglieut, 
a  collection  of  songs  and  hymns.  Me  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  and  on  his  mon- 
ument is  engraved  the  Oliria  Palri,  one  of 
his  first  canons. 

BLOWING  HiCHIllES.  Besides  the  common 
bellows  (see  Bellows),  a  variety  of  other  ma- 
ohinea  have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of 
propelling  air  in  large  volume,  or  with  great 
pressure  and  volume  together.  The  most 
efficient  of  these  machines  are  the  blowing 
cylinders,  which  are  used  to  supply  air  to  blast 
fomaoes,  and  by  their  great  dze  and  strength 
are  made  to  furnish  immense  bodies  of  air 
under  great  pressures.  Fan  blowers  are  nsed 
for  supplying  large  volnmes  of  Mr,  but  for  pur- 
poses in  which  a  high  pressure  is  uiiniportant. 
The  water  blowing  machine,  for  which  we 
have  neither  name  nor  nse  in  tliis  country,  but 
which  is  well  known  in  tbe  mining  regions  of 
central  and  sonthem  Europe  by  the  name  of 
trtfmpA,  is  so  ingenious,  and  may  in  soma  situ- 
ations prove  so  valuable  a  contrivance,  tltat  it 
cannot  be  passed  over  without  notice.  There 
is  also,  in  the  same  countries,  a  very  Mmple 
blowing  wparatus,  used  for  ventilating  mlnea. 
also  too  little  known  in  this  country,  called 
the  rentilatorof  the  Hartz,  which  is  well  wor- 
thy of  notice. — Blowing  cylinders  of  the  best 
construction  are  made  of  cast  iron,  the  inner 
surface  turned  perfectly  true,  fitted  with  air- 
tight iron  heads,  each  of  which  is  famished 
with  a  large  valve,  corresponding  to  the  clapper 
of  the  bellows,  opening  inward.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  neads  the  smootli  iron  piston  rod 
moves  in  close  packing,  carrying  a  piston  which 
is  fitted  accurately  to  the  cylinder.  As  the 
piaton  moves  in  one  direction,  the  air  enters 
through  the  valve  in  the  head  behind  it,  while 
that  in  front  is  forced  through  an  aperture  on 
one  aide,  which  is  Aimished  with  a  valve  open- 
ing outward,  and  connects  with  a  pipe  leading 
to  any  desired  point  By  reversing  the  motion 
the  end  ezhauated  of  ur  is  refilled,  while  tlie 


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BLOWING  MACHINES 


contents  through  the  side  opening  to  tbe  same 
main  pipe,  which  connects  with  the  other  end. 
The  principle  of  the  machine  is  thna  the  eame 

05  that  of  tne  double-acting  force  pump  for  pro- 
pelling water.  '  By  tlie  alternate  motion  of  the 
piston,  a  cnirent  of  air  is  muntuned  of  con- 
siderable steadiness,  and  of  qnantity  and  pres- 
sure according  to  the  size  of  the  cjlinder  and 
its  ralves,  the  rapiditj  of  the  movement,  and 
the  power  applied.  The  piessare  is  eqatuized 
bj  the  Qse  of  an  air  receiver  of  great  capacity, 
into  which  the  air  is  forced  throngh  a  larger 
aperture  tbau  that  for  its  exit ;  its  elasticity  is 
thus  made  to  act  as  a  perfect  spring.  For  pro- 
pelling the  air  into  blast  furnaces,  the  blowing 
cjlindera  are  made  of  great  size  and  strength. 
They  are  often  set  in  pairs,  upon  horizontal 
funics  of  cast  iron,  the  piston  rods  being  con- 
nected with  cranks  geared  to  the  main  shaft 
of  the  steam  engine.     Two  such  cylinders,  of 

6  ft.  diameter  and  6  ft.  stroke,  afford  at  a  com- 
mon rate  of  running  (as  eight  full  strokes  per 
minate),  sufficient  air  for  a  first  class  fnrnace. 
No  allowance  being  made  for  escape  of  air,  and 
room  occupied  by  the  piston  and  rod,  each 
movement  of  the  piston  should  discharge  the 
contents  of  the  cyhndcr,  which  are  117'81  ft. 
A  fbll  revolution  of  the  crank  discharges  it 
twice,  and  this  being  repeated  eight  times  in 
a  minnte,  the  effect  of  the  two  cylinders  is  to 
drive  forward  8,370  cubic  feet  every  minnte. 
Instead  of  being  placed  horizontally,  a  single 
blowing  cylinder  is  sometimes  used  of  great 
dimensions,  placed  upright,  and  the  piston  rod 
attached  to  one  end  of  the  lever  beam  of  the 
steam  engine,  the  steam  cylinder  connecting 
with  the  other  end.  Some  arc  also  connected 
by  the  same  piston  rod  pasdn^  through  the 
steam  cylinder  and  blowing  cylmder,  without 
the  intervention  of  either  beam  or  gearing. 
— A  fiui  blower  is  a  short  cylinder  of  coat  iron, 
through  the  axis  of  which  passes  a  shaft,  made 
to  revolve  by  a  pulley  attached  to  it  ontside  of 
the  cylinder.  Upon  the  shaft  within  the  box 
are  placed  fonr  or  five  wings,  which  when  ro- 
tating pass  near  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  cyl- 
inder. The  apparatus,  drawn  in  section,  is  like 
an  undershot  water  wheel  enclosed  in  a  box. 
Around  the  axle,  openings  are  left  in  the  sides 
of  the  box  for  the  admission  of  the  air.  This 
may  &r  purposes  of  ventilation  be  drawn  from 
a  distance  through  m  pipes  discharging  into 
the  box.  The  motion  of  the  wings  carries  the 
Eur  around,  and  a  new  snpply  enters  to  he 
taken  on  by  the  next  wing.  The  dischai^e  is 
through  a  box  or  pipe  placed  at  a  tangent  to 
the  cylinder  and  opening  into  it.  The  bottom 
of  this  box  forms  tlie  base  upon  which  the  ap- 
paratns  rests;  and  in  some  machines,  as  this 
lower  plate  curvesaround  to  form  the  case  of  the 
blower,  it  is  made  to  take  a  spiral  form  instead 
of  that  of  a  true  cylinder,  the  radius  of  the  cir- 
cle lessening  as  the  arc  is  produced.  This  is 
called  the  eccentric  fan;  the  other,  in  which  the 


revolving  axis  is  in  the  centre  of  the  cylinder,  b 
the  concentric  fan.  The  latter  is  supposed  to 
work  to  disadvantage  by  carrying  around  a  por- 
tion of  the  comprewed  air  a  second  time,  wliile 
the  wings  of  the  other,  revolving  above  the 
bottom  of  the  discharge  box,  afford  more  room 
for  the  escape  of  the  air,  and  at  the  same  time 
cut  off,  as  they  pass  into  the  upper  portion  of 
the  box,  and  close  to  its  inner  surface,  the  en- 
trance for  any  air  from  without.  By  the  high 
speed  at  which  the  fans  are  made  to  revolve 
a  large  body  of  air  is  discharged  through  the 
aperture,  hut  with  little  pressure.  It  is  not 
onnsnal  to  run  them  at  the  rate  of  1,800  revi>- 
lutions  per  minate,  and  for  the  air  at  ite  dis- 
charge to  have  a  velocity  of  3,380  ft.  in  the 
same  time.  According  tu  the  statements  of 
Dr.  Ure,  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," the  velocity  of  the  dischaz^e  is  actu- 
ally abont  three  fourths  of  ttiat  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  fan  blades.  If  the  effective  velocity 
of  these  be  70  ft.  per  second,  and  the  area  of 
the  discharge  pipe  be  3  ft.,  the  quantity  of  air 
discharged  is  210  ft.,  or  12,600  ft.  per  minnte. 
The  weight  of  this  amount  of  air  is  about  909 
lbs.  For  a  heavy  body  falling  to  acquire  a 
velocity  of  70  ft.  per  second,  the  height  of  the 
fall  must  be  70'6  ft.  This,  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  pounds  moved,  and  divided  by 
88,000,  will  give  the  horse  power,  which  in 
this  case  is  2'S4,  required  to  produce  this  result. 
The  pressure  of  the  blast  is  rarely  more  than 
from  one  quarter  to  half  a  pound  npon  the 
square  inch ;  hence  the  fan  can  only  be  nsed 
wnere  no  great  resistance  is  offered  to  the  blast 
It  is  admirably  adapted  for  blowing  a  large 
number  of  open  fires,  or  for  cupola  furnaces. 
— The  trompe  is  a  machine  dependent  npon 
a  current  of  water  falling  from  a  considerable 
height.  It  consists  of  a  large  pipe,  abont  2  ft 
square,  leading  fVom  an  upper  reservoir  of 
water  to  a  cist«m  or  box,  25  to  80  {t.  or  more 
below  it.  A  few  feet  under  the  ci9t«m,  tie 
pipe  is  contracted  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  in 
order  t«  divide  the  water  into  many  stream- 
lets in  its  fall.  Below  this  narrow  place  are  a 
number  of  holes  through  the  pipe  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air.  This  is  taken  down  by  the 
water  as  it  descends,  and  passes  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  cistern  at  the  bottom,  where  a  block 
is  placed,  upon  which  the  water  dashes,  caus- 
ing the  air  to  separate  from  it.  The  water 
passes  through  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cis- 
tern into  a  side  box,  in  which  is  placed  a  valve 
for  checking  the  exit  of  the  water,  that  the  air 
which  collects  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cistern 
may  be  kept  at  any  desired  pressure.  From 
the  top  of  the  cistern  a  small  air  pipe  conveys 
the  blast  to  any  required  point.  This  appara- 
tus is  used  for  furnishing  mr  to  cupelling  and 
melting  furnaces. — The  ventilator  of  the  Eartx 
is  an  apparatus  of  great  simplicity,  designed  to 
be  connected  wili  any  pnrt  of  the  machinery 
about  mines  that  will  give  a  slow  alternating 
motion,  and  which  is  usually  kept  in  actiwo, 
the  object  being  to  famish  a  continual  supply 


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of  tir  to  mines.  Two  cjltiidrical-shaped  Te»- 
aela,  sach  as  long  casks,  are  selected,  of  soch 
sizes  that  one,  when  inverted,  maj  es^lj  move 
up  and  don-u  within  the  other.  The  oater 
one  is  nearly  Slled  with  water,  and  is  furnished 
with  ao  ^r  pipe,  which  leads  from  its  upper 
part  through  the  water,  and  throogh  its  bottom 
down  into  the  mine.  Upon  the  upper  end  of 
this  pipe  is  a  valve  oponing  downward.  The 
inner  inverted  cask  surrounds  this  pipe.  It 
has  upon  its  upper  end  a  large  valve  opening 
within.  Being  suspended  bj  a  chdn  to  the 
end  of  a  lever  beam,  or  to  the  arm  of  a  boh, 
air  passes  within  as  it  is  lifted  up,  and  is  pro- 
pelled as  it  descends  through  the  pipe.  Bj 
tliis  alternating  motion  a  continual  current  of 
air  is  supplied  with  little  cost  of  power  or  at- 
tention. A  more  perfect  arrangement  of  this 
machine  is  in  makinj;  it  double,  b;  attaching 
one  to  each  end  of  the  lever  beam.  For  blow- 
ing furnaces  these  machines  have  the  common 
disadvantage  of  all  water  blosta,  that  they 
canse  the  air  to  teke  up  more  or  less  moisture, 
which  is  discharged  into  the  furnace,  and  most 
to  some  extent  diminish  the  effect  of  the  blast. 
BLOWPIPE,  in  the  simplest  form,  a  small 
metallic  tube  of  tapering  shajie,  its  smaller  end 
carved  around  to  form  a  right  angle,  and  the 
larger  end  of  convenient  size  for  applying  to 
the  month,  designed  to  concentrate  the  heat 
of  a  flame  npon  a  particular  point.  It  is  8  or 
10  inches  in  length,  with  a  bore  varying  from 
■ffto-f^ot&a inch,  but  drawn  ont  at  the  small 
extremitj  to  a  very  minute  aperture.  Through 
tills  air  is  blown  upon  the  flame  of  a  lamp, 
causing  a  portion  of  the  &ame  to  be  diverted 
in  a  jet  of  intense  heat.  It  is  an  instrnment 
of  great  use  with  jewellers  for  soldering  small 
pieces  of  work,  and  with  glassblowers  and 
enamellors,  for  softening  and  working  small 
articles.  By  these  it  is  often  used  upon  a 
larger  scale  with  a  bellows  for  sopplymg  it 
with  air,  instead  of  furnishing  this  by  the 
month.  But  the  most  important  .use  of  the 
blowpipe  is  te  the  mineralogist  and  analytical 
chemist,  in  whose  bonds  it  is  made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  small  furnace,  with  the  ad- 
vantage that  the  operations  taking  place  are 
directly  under  the  eye.  When  used,  the  point 
is  placed  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and  the  cur- 
rent of  air  is  directed  across  this,  by  a  steady 
blast  from  the  mouth.  A  lateral  cone  of  flame 
is  thna  produced,  which  is  pale  blue  without 
and  bine  within.  At  the  point  of  the  inner 
bine  cone  is  the  greatest  intensity  of  heat  A 
small  particle  of  metallic  ore  placed  upon  char- 
coal, and  kept  at  tijis  point,  may  be  reduced 
to  a  metallic  state,  the  charcoal  aiding  the 
process  by  its  chemical  action  in  abstract- 
ing the  oxygen  of  the  ore.  If  of  difficult  re- 
daction, the  experiment  may  be  aided  by  the 
introduction  of  proper  fluxes,  as  in  crucible 
operations.  The  outer  cone  of  flame  in  con- 
tact with  the  ur  possesses  oxidating  proper- 
ties; and  in  this  the  preparatory  operation  of 
calcining  and  desulphuriuDg  is  effected  upon 


PIPE  747 

the  particle  of  ore,  before  It  is  sahmitted  to 
the  reducing  flame.  Control  is  thus  had  over 
oay  desired  amount  of  heat,  and  with  a  facility 
of  empiojing  it  for  different  purposes  in  a  small 
way,  which  renders  the  blowpipe  far  prefer- 
able for  experimental  purposes  to  the  cimiher- 
some  furnaces  and  otlier  expensive  apparatus 
which  were  required  before  its  application  for 
determining  the  properties  of  mineral  sub- 
stances. The  process  of  cupellation  is  very 
readily  effected  upon  small  pieces  of  metoliio 
lead  containing  silver  or  gold.  The  button  of 
metal  is  placed  in  a  small  cupel  of  bone  ash, 
and  this  is  lud  upon  a  piece  of  charcoal  fur 
a  sapport  It  is  thorongbly  heated  and  the 
bnttoD  melted  in  the  reducing  flame,  and  then 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  oxidizing  flame. 
In  this  the  lead  is  kept  in  fusion,  and  a  pellicle 
of  oxide  of  lead  is  continually  formed  upon  the 
sarface,  and  as  constantly  absorbed  in  the 
cupel,  till  the  lead  is  all  thus  removed,  and  the 
little  globule  of  the  more  precious  metal,  so 
small  perhaps  as  to  be  scarcely  visible,  is  kept 
as  a  bright  point  in  the  centre  of  the  cupel. 
By  worlnng  upon  a  weighed  quantity  in  re- 
peated operations,  and  adding  tlie  products  to 
each  otoer,  the  analysis  may  he  made  quanti- 
tative by  the  nse  of  the  ingeniously  contrived 
apparatus  applied  by  Plattaer  to  the  estimation 
of  the  weight  of  minute  bodies.  Another  im- 
portant use  of  the  instrument  is  melting  small 
particles  of  undetermined  substances  with  differ- 
ent fluxes,  as  borax  or  salt  of  phosphorus,  upon 
a  flne  piece  of  platinum  wire,  hooked  at  the 
end  to  sustain  the  little  bead.  By  the  reaction 
of  the  ingredients  of  the  substance  with  the 
flux,  as  seen  in  the  mode  of  melting,  the  color 
df  the  bead  in  one  flame,  and  its  change  to  an- 
other color  in  the  other  flame,  these  ingredients 
ore  detected  and  the  compound  determined. 
For  example,  copper  gives  a  green  bead  in  the 
outer  flame,  but  a  red  one  in  the  inner  when 
borax  is  tlie  flux  used;  iron  elves  a  yellowish 
green  bead,  cobalt  a  blue  bead,  and  manganese 
a  violet  bead,  which  is  made  colorless  in  the  in- 
ner flame.  The  qaalitetive  analysis  is  rendered 
more  complete  by  subjecting  the  substance  to 
theactionof  the  blowpipe  in  glass  tubes,  for  the 
purpose  of  detecting  the  volatile  ingredients,  as 
water  by  the  steam,  ammonia  by  its  vapor  and 
odor,  sulphur  by  its  odor  and  yellow  snblimate, 
and  arsenic  by  the  metallic  ring  it  forms  around 
the  inside  of  the  tube,  where  its  vapon  con- 
denses. This  may  be  satisfactorily  effected 
where  the  particle  under  examination  is  too 
small  to  be  visible  without  the  aid  of  the 
microscope.  The  substance  may  also  bo  dis- 
solved in  acids  in  glass  tabes,  and  the  precipi- 
tates obtained,  freed  from  some  of  their  asso- 
ciated matters,  be  subjected  to  the  test  by  the 
blowpipe.  Many  minerals  may  be  determined 
by  simply  heating  them  alone  in  platinum- 
pointed  forceps  and  observing  whether  they 
fuse  and  how ;  what  color  they  impart  to  flame, 
and  what  appearance  the  fiised  mineral  pre- 
setits.    Thus  the  blowpipe,  with  a  few  simpl« 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


748  BLOl 

instmraentfl  and  some  tests,  all  of  which  may 
be  easilj  transported,  serveti  the  pnrpoae  of  & 
portable  labordtorj.  In  skilfnl  hands  all  min- 
eral HoltBtances  ma;  be  determined  and  a  com- 
plete qTialitative  onaljsis  made  by  it;  and  b; 
the  improvements  introdaced  bj  Prof.  Pkttner, 
many  quantitative  analysea  maybe  effected  for 
practical  purposes. — The  blowpipe  was  first  ap- 
plied to  the  examination  of  mmerals  by  Swab, 
counsellor  of  tlie  college  of  mines  in  Sweden 
in  1788.  Cronstedt,  of  the  same  country,  nest 
took  np  the  subject,  and  made  ^eat  nse  of  the 
blowpipe  for  distinguishing  mmerala  by  their 
chemical  properties.  This  was  for  his  work  on 
mineral)^,  in  which  he  introduced  the  clasa- 
tication  of  minerals  according  to  their  chemical 
compotdtion.  This  book  was  first  published  in 
ITQd,  and  was  translated  into  En^ish  by  Von 
Xngeatrflm  in  17S5,  who  added  to  it  a  treatise 
npon  the  blowpipe,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  used  by  Cronstedt.  The  attention  of  sci- 
entiflc  men  was  thns  directed  to  its  great  use 
BB  an  analytical  instrument,  but  the  difficulty  of 
learning  to  apply  it,  without  practical  inatmc- 
tion,  prevented  its  being  so  generally  received 
as  it  aeserves  to  be-  and  had  not  the  Bwedi^ 
chemists  continued  to  employ  and  improve  it, 
It  might  after  all  have  fallen  into  disuse.  Berg- 
man found  it  very  serviceable  In  his  chemical 
researohea,  and  Gahn,  who  assisted  him,  car- 
ried its  use  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection  than 
had  before  been  attained.  Berzelius  ei^oyed 
the  most  friendly  intercourse  with  this  remark- 
able man,  and  preserved  in  his  "Elements  of 
Chemistry  "  the  most  important  results  of  the 
experiments,  which  Gahn  never  took  upon 
himself  to  publish.  Speaking  of  Gahn  in  a 
later  work  ("Treatise  upon  the  Use  of  the 
Blowpipe"),  he  remarks  that  when  travelling 
he  always  carried  this  Instrument,  and  all  new 
substances  which  he  met  with  he  subjected  to 
its  test;  and  it  was  an  interesting  thing  to  see 
the  readiness  and  certainty  with  which  he  as- 
certained the  nature  of  substances  not  recog- 
nizable by  their  external  properties.  Long 
before  the  subject  of  vegetable  substances  con- 
taining copper  was  brought  to  public  notice, 
Berzelius  says  he  has  often  seen  Gahn  extract 
fhmi  the  ashes  of  a  quarter  of  a  sheet  of  paper 

¥  articles  of  metallic  copper  visible  to  the  eye. 
he  most  perfect  form  of  the  instrument  now 
in  nse  is  wat  adopted  by  Gahn.  The  long, 
straight  tube  which  serves  as  the  handle  passes 
into  one  end  of  a  cylinder  three  fourths  of  on 
inch  long,  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  from 
the  side  of  which  the  jet  tube  projects  about  1% 
inch  to  its  capillary  extremity.  Ihe  object  of 
the  cylinder  is  to  intercept  the  moisture  of  the 
breath,  which  without  snch  an  arrangement 
passes  through  the  tube,  and  is  projected  in 
drops  into  the  Same.  Berzelius  added  a  little 
Jet  of  platinum,  which  slips  over  the  end  of 
the  brass  jet,  and  which  may  be  taken  off  and 
cleaned  whenever  it  becomes  obatrocted,  by 
burning  ont  the  impurities  with  the  blowpipe 
itself.      The  aperture  of  the  plaldnam  Jet  b 


O'OIS  to  0-OIE  inch  in  diameter.  Several  of 
them,  with  holes  of  different  diameters,  acoom- 

§any  the  instrument,  and  are  changed  as  the 
ame  is  demred  to  be  more  pointed  and  intense, 
or  of  less  intensity  and  to  cover  a  larger  snrface. 
Oonriderable  practice  is  required  to  blow  con- 
tinuously without  exhausting  the  lungs.  This 
is  done  by  breathing  only  through  the  nostrils, 
and  using  the  cheeks  for  propelling  the  air. 
By  this  means  a  steady  current  may  be  kept  np 
for  a  long  time  without  fatigue.  The  proceas 
Is  with  some  persons  very  difilcult  of  attain- 
ment, but  is  at  last  caught,  one  knows  not  how, 
and  is  never  afterward  lost.  Quick's  gas  blow- 
pipe, and  antomatic  blowpipes  worked  by  ft 
small  rubber  ball  held  in  the  hand,  have  been 
introduced  to  save  the  fatigue  of  blowing  trcaa 
the  lungs.  The  treatise  on  the  blowpipe  by 
Berzelius,  which  long  occupied  the  first  rank 
among  the  works  upon  this  subject,  and  was 
translated  in  this  country  by  Mr.  J.  D.  Whitney, 
has  been  superseded  by  an  exhaustive  book  by 
Professors  Plattuer  and  Richter  of  the  royal 
mining  academy  of  Freiberg.  Prof  Plattner  has 
incorporated  the  results  of  his  operations  witb 
the  blowpipe  in  a  work  of  great  interest,  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  Henry  B. 
Cornwall  of  the  Columbia  college  school  of 
mines.  This  forms  a  very  valuable  manual, 
containing  the  descriptions  of  the  various  pro- 
cesses for  estimating  the  quantities  in  which 
many  of  the  metals  are  found  in  their  natural 
and  artificial  compounds,  as  also  for  detecting 
the  qualities  of  metallie  combinations  in  gen- 
eral. The  methods  adopted  by  Frof.  Plattner 
for  separating  the  minute  particles,  and  ascer- 
taining their  weights,  are  of  great  ingenuity 
and  smiplicity,  and  valnsble  for  the  prompti- 
tnde  with  which  they  may  be  used ;  bnt  to  be 
Buccessftilly  practisod,  they  require  long  and 
patient  use  of  the  instmmeuts. — The  little  do- 
bnles  of  gold  and  silver  extracted  from  their 
combinations  by  the  blowpipe  are  ofUa  too 
nnall  to  be  weighed,  but  their  qnantity  is  de- 
termined by  a  method  introduced  by  Harkort 
of  measuring  their  diameter.  This  is  done  by 
running  the  globules  along  between  two  lines 
npon  an  ivory  scale,  whicn  diverge  at  a  very 
small  angle,  and  are  crossed  by  many  other 
lines  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  which 
serve  as  the  dlvirions  of  the  scale.  Wherever 
the  globule  Is  found  to  be  contained  between 
the  two  divei^ng  lines,  its  diameter  is  at  once 
obtained,  and  the  weight  corresponding  to  this, 
whether  of  gold  or  of  wlver,  these  having  been 
previonsly  determined  with  care  for  the  scale. 
To  insnre  exactness  in  the  measurement,  a  good 
magnifying  glass  is  reqnired,  end  care  to  view 
the  scale  in  a  position  perpendicular  to  the 
line  of  sight.  The  measuring  instrument  of 
Roger,  ftimished  with  a  micrometer  screw, 
yields  exceedingly  accurate  results,  and  saves 
the  fatigue  of  the  eye.  Althongh  the  globules 
are  not  often  perfectiy  m>herical,  it  baa  been 
found  in  practice  that  within  certain  limits  this 
method  may  be  relied  on  for  the  approximate 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


analygls  of  maa;  metallio  componndk. — The 
comiKtoad  or  ozyhydronn  blowpipe  is  an  ap- 

SaratuH  invented  b;  Br.  Robert  Hare  of  Phila- 
elphia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  oen- 
tor;.  Bj  this  a  mixtnre  of  oxygen  and  hj- 
drc^D  is  made  to  prodace  the  jet,  which  being 
inflamed  just  beyond  their  point  of  miiing,  an 
amooDt  of  iatenee  heat  ia  evolved  far  exceed- 
ing what  bad  ever  been  before  obtuned.  Bnb- 
■tancee  hitherto  regarded  as  infusible  were 
melted  down  with  great  facility.  Pnre  lime 
was  observed  to  give  an  intenmty  of  light 
greater  than  had  ever  before  been  seen.  This 
caused  its  as«  to  be  recommended  by  Lieut. 
Drammond  of  the  British  navr  for  light- 
houses,  and  his  name  has  since  been  applied 
to  the  light,  which  was  first  obtained  and  no- 
ticed by  Dr.  Hare.  The  first  arrangement 
adopted  by  Dr.  Hare  was  to  collect  each  gas  in 
a  separate  reservoir,  and  oaose  tbem  to  be  dis- 
charged by  separate  jets  at  the  point  of  com- 
bustion. But  finding  that  a  more  intense  heat 
is  generated  by  first  mixing  them  under  some 
presaore,  he  brongbt  tbem  into  a  single  tube, 
and  caused  this  to  terminate  in  15  jet  pipes  of 
plntinnm.  These  were  adjusted  so  as  to  pass 
throng  a  vessel,  in  which  Ice  or  snow  Minld 
be  placed  to  keep  the  gases  from  becoming 
heated,  sad  thus  obviate  the  danger  of  explo- 
mon  by  a  retroceMon  of  the  flame  into  the  sin- 
^e  pipe.  With  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  Dr. 
Hare  succeeded  in  famng  large  gnantities  of 
platinum,  snd  at  the  meeting  of  the  American 
philosophical  society  in  January,  163R,  he  ez- 
nibited  a  specimen  of  the  metal,  weighing  be- 
tween 22  and  23  oz.  troy  weight,  which  was 
part  of  a  mass  of  25  02.  flised  in  Hay,  18S8, 
ftbout  2  oz.  of  the  metal  having  flowed 


in  consequence  of  the  cavity  not  being  suffi- 
ciently capacious  to  contain  it  all.  He  alsc 
obtained  platinmn  directly  from  the  crude  pro- 


duct of  the  mines.  Dr.  Hare  observed  that 
Qie  most  intense  heat  was  generated  when  the 
proportdon  of  the  gases  was  the  same  as  in 
water,  viz.,  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one 
of  oxygen,  and  that  by  the  nse  of  a  condensing 
syringe  for  forcing  the  mixture  with  consider- 
able pressure,  the  effect  was  still  farther  in- 
creased. With  this  modification,  Prof.  Clarke, 
of  the  nnivereity  of  Cambridge,  England,  re- 

rted  the  eiperimenta  made  years  previously 
Dr.  Hare.  He  also  enclosed  in  the  pipe 
leading  from  a  vessel  containing  the  two  gases 
a  great  number  of  layers  of  fine  wire  gauze. 
Thongh  his  experiments  were  snccessfiil,  and 
were  a  sabjeot  of  great  scientific  interest,  the 
apparatus  proved  loo  dangerous  for  use,  the 
wire  ganze  not  preventing  the  explosion  of 
the  gases.  Further  improvements  have  been 
introduced  by  filling  the  safety  chamber  with 
alternate  layers  of  wire  gauze  and  of  the  finest 
fibres  of  asbestns.  Brass  wires  are  also  used, 
packed  closely  together  in  a  bnndle  and  pressed 
U)to  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the  onamber. 
The  quality  of  the  oxygen  is  found  to  have  a 
Benffible  effect  npon  the  intensity  of  the  heat. 


PIPE  749 

that  obtained  from  chlorate  of  potash  being 
much  preferable  to  that  from  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. Few  substances  are  found  capable  of 
resisting  the  high  temperatures  obtained  by 
this  blowpifw.  Platinum  melts  instantly,  and 
gold  in  contact  with  borax  is  entirely  volatilized. 
Quartz  crystal  melts  with  a  beautiful  light, 
piecesof  china  ware  are  fused  and  form  crystals, 
and  flints  prodnoe  a  transparent  glass. — An 
apparatus  of  great  efficiency  and  mraplicity  of 
construction  was  used  in  New  York  city  by 
the  Drs.  Roberta,  dentists,  for  remelting  plati- 
'  num  scraps,  and  converting  them  into  mer- 
chantable plate.  They  employed  two  copper 
gasometers  of  cylindrical  form,  one  for  each 
gas,  that  fbr  hydrogen  of  the  capacity  of  220 
gallons,  and  that  for  oxygen  of  60  gaUons.  The 
pressure  of  the  Oroton  water,  which  is  abont 
60  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  forced  the  gsaea 
through  metallic  pipes  to  the  apparatus  con- 
nected with  the  burner.  In  tbis  apparatas 
each  pipe  connects  with  a  short  brass  tube, 
which  is  closely  pscked  with  wire,  snd  these 
unite  in  another  brass  tube,  which  is  also  closely 
packed  in  the  same  way.  From  this,  by  a  pipe 
of  only  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  diameter, 
the  mixed  ^asee  are  then  conveyed  to  the 
bnmer.  This  is  a  email  platinum  box  inserted 
in  a  lump  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  asbestus,  the 
apertures  in  the  disk  making  its  extremity  be- 
ing 31  little  holes  in  three  rows,  snch  as  might 
be  made  by  the  point  of  a  pin.  The  platinum 
disk  in  which  these  holes  are  perforated  is 
only  about  i  by  1  inch  in  size.  It  is  found  that 
copper  answers  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as 

filatinum.  The  lump  of  plaster  is  coustmcted 
ike  the  water  tuyere  of  a  forge  or  furnace, 
and  is  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  cold  water 
constantly  flowing  through  it.  The  supply  of 
the  gases  is  regulated  by  stopcooks,  one  for 
each  gas,  placed  near  the  point  of  their  coming 
together.  The  jet  points  downward.  The 
platinum  scraps  are  first  compressed  in  an  iron 
mould  into  cylindrical  cakes  of  the  weight  of 
8  or  4  oz.  each.  Two  or  three  of  these  are  set 
upon  a  thin  flat  fire  brick,  and  heated  in  a  fur- 
nace to  a  white  heat.  Being  then  transferred 
with  the  fire  brick  to  a  large  tin  pan  like  a  milk 
pan,  which  is  well  coat«d  within  with  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  brought  under  the  Jet,  this  is  instant- 
ly ignited,  and  the  platinum  at  onoe  begins  to 
melt.  Its  surface  assumes  a  brilliant  appear- 
ance of  the  purest  white,  like  that  of  silver, 
and  soon  the  whole  is  melted  into  one  mass; 
but  so  great  is  its  infudbility,  that  it  chills 
before  it  can  flow  off  the  fiat  surfsce  of  the  fire 
brick,  and  it  cannot  therefore  be  cast  in  a 
mould.  For  the  uses  to  which  platinum  is 
applied  this  is  of  no  oonsequence,  as  the  cake 
M  metal  is  easily  hammered  into  any  desired 
shape,  or  may  be  rolled  at  once  into  plates,  or 
out  and  drawn  into  wire.  With  the  apparatus 
of  tiie  Drs.  Roberts,  58  oz.  of  platinma  were 
melted  hito  one  cake  at  one  operation,  lasting 
only  IS  minutes,  in  April,  1858.  This  was 
bammered  down  witiiout  waste,  and  drown 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


760  BLU' 

out  into  a  plate  over  40  inclies  long  and  about 
S  inches  wide.  Prof.  Henry  St.  Claire  Deville 
of  Paris  has  considerabtj  modified  Dr.  Roberta's 
method  of  melting  platinum,  and  performs  the 
operation  in  lime  crucibles.  Uessrs.  Jolmson 
and  MathejB  of  London  have  fused  soma  pounds 
of  platinom  and  iridium  in  Deville's  furnace. — 
A  compound  blowpipe  is  conveniently  made  by 
[ilacing  one  tube  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter inside  another  of  one  half  inch  diameter. 
Illuminnting  gas  is  admitt«d  at  the  side  of  the 
outer  tube  and  lighted  at  one  end,  while  the 
other  end  is  made  gas-tight.  A  current  of  dr 
is  blown  by  bellows  throngh  the  inner  tnbe, 
which  at  once  changes  the  yellow  gas  flame  to 
the  intense  blue  blowpipe  flame;  the  combus- 
tion is  more  complete  and  the  flame  hotter  as 
the  mixture  of  gas  and  air  is  more  perfect. 
This  piece  of  apparatus  is  called  Bnnseo's  blast 
lamp;  it  is  used  in  all  chemical  laboratories 
which  have  gas,  and  is  also  Qsed  by  glass  blow- 
ers in  the  manufacture  of  nice  chemical  and 
philosophical  apparatus.  By  this  method  the 
etTect  of  a  furnace  is  obtained  by  chemists  for 
melting  the  contents  of  smalt  crucibles  in  ana- 
lytical operations.  If  either  or  both  gases  he 
passed  through  heated  pipes,  a  Still  higher  de- 
gree of  heat  may  be  obtained.  By  substitut- 
ing oxygen  for  the  atmospheric  aJr,  globules 
of  platinum  may  be  instantly  melted  upon 
charcoal.  This  mixture  may  be  conveniently 
and  economically  used  instead  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  for  the  production  of  the  Drummond 
llgnt.  The  so-called  Bohemian  glass  blowers 
floem  still  to  prefer  the  old-fashionad  blowpipe, 
consisting  of  two  gas  humers  about  10  inohes 
apart,  with  air  jets  blowing  directly  toward 
each  other,  by  which  means  the  two  opposite 
sides  of  the  glass  are  heated  at  the  same  time. 
bUIchee,  Oebhard  LekcrMht  tm,  prince  of 
Wahlstadti,  Prussian  field  marshal,  bom  at 
Rostock,  in  Hecklenburg-Schwerin,  Dec.  16, 
1T4S,  died  at  Krieblowitz,  in  Silena,  Sej>t  12, 
1619.  He  was  sent,  while  a  boy,  to  the  island 
of  ROgeo,  and  there,  in  IT56,  secretly  enlisted 
in  a  regiment  of  Swedish  hussars  as  ensign, 
to  serve  against  Frederick  II.  of  Pruflsio. 
Uadeprisonet'in  the  campaign  of  1760,  he  was, 
after  a  year's  captivity,  and  after  he  had  ob- 
tained his  dismissal  from  the  Swedish  service, 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  the  Prussian  army.    In 


themorgraveofSchwodt,  being  appointed 

stead  to  the  vacant  post  of  major,  BlQcher  wrote 
to  Frederick:  "Sire,  J&gersfeld,  who  possesses 
no  merit  but  that  of  being  the  son  of  the  mar- 
grave of  Schwedt,  has  been  preferred  to  me.  I 
beg  your  majesty  to  grant  my  discharge."  In 
reply  Frederick  ordered  him  to  be  shut  up  in 
lirisun  until  he  wuold  retract  his  request;  but 
03  he  remained  obstinate  for  nearly  a  year, 
the  king  complied  with  his  petition  in  a  note 
to  this  effect :  "  Capt.  Von  BlQcher  may  go  to 
the  devil."  He  now  retired  to  Silesia,  married, 
became  a  fanner,  acquired  a  small  estate  in 


Pomerania,  and,  after  the  death  of  Frederict 
II.,  reentered  his  former  regiment  as  mqor,  on 
the  express  condition  of  liis  appointment  being 
dated  back  to  1TT9.  Some  months  later  his 
wife  died.  Having  participated  in  the  blood- 
less invasion  of  Holland,  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant colonel  in  1T8S,  and  in  1T90  coloneL 
In  1TB3  he  distinguished  himself  during  the 
campEugn  in  the  Palatioate  against  republican 
France  as  a  leader  of  light  cavalry,  and  in  May, 
1794,  after  the  victorious  affair  of  Kirrweiler, 
was  promoted  t«  the  rank  of  m^or  general 
ff  hile  incessantly  alarming  the  French  by  bold 
coup*  de  main  and  successful  enterprises,  he 
never  neglected  keeping  the  headquarl«rs  sup- 
plied with  the  best  laformation  as  to  the  hos- 
tile movements.  Ills  diary,  written  during 
this  campaign,  and  published  in  1T9S  by  Count 
Ooltz,  his  adjutant,  is  considered,  despite  its 
illiterate  style,  a  claasical  work  on  raugnord 
service.  After  the  peace  of  Basel  he  married 
again.  Frederick  William  III,  appointed  him 
in  1801  lieutenant  general,  in  which  quality  he 
occupied,  and  administered  as  governor,  Erfiirt, 
Mtlhlhansen,  and  Ullnster.  In  1800  a  small 
corps  of  observation  was  collected  under  him 
at  Bayreuth.  In  1 S06  he  led  the  Prussian  van- 
guard at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt  (Oct.  14). 
His  charge  was,  however,  broken  by  the  terrible 
Are  of  Davoust's  artillery,  and  his  proposal  to 
renew  it  with  f^edi  forces  and  the  whole  of  the 
cavalry  was  rejected  by  the  king  of  Prussia. 
After  the  double  defeat  at  Auerstidt  and  Jens, 
he  retired  down  the  Elbe,  picking  up  the  rem- 
nants of  different  corps,  which  swelled  hit 
army  to  about  25,000  men.  His  retreat  to  Lll- 
beck,  before  the  united  forces  of  Soult,  Bema- 
dott«,  and  Murat,  forms  one  of  the  few  honor- 
able episodes  in  that  epoch  of  German  war- 
fare. Sinc«  Lobeok  was  a  neutral  territory,  hia 
making  the  streets  of  that  open  town  the  thea- 
tre of  a  desperate  fight  which  exposed  it  to  ft 
three  days  sack  on  Uie  part  of  the  French 
soldicTT,  afforded  the  sut^ject  of  passionate  cen- 
sure ;  but  under  existing  circumstances  the  im- 
portant thing  was  to  give  the  German  people 
one  example,  at  least,  of  stanch  resistance. 
Thrown  out  of  Laheck,  ho  had  to  capitu- 
late in  the  plain  of  Batkow,  Nov.  7,  on  tho 
express  condition  that  the  cause  of  his  surren- 
der should  be  stated  in  writing  to  be  "  want 
of  ammunition  and  provisions."  Liberated 
on  his  word  of  honor,  he  reptured  to  Ham- 
burg, there,  in  company  with  his  sons,  to  kill 
time  by  card-playing,  smoking,  and  drinking. 
Being  exchanged  for  Gen.  Victor,  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  general  of  Pomerania;  hut 
one  of  the  secret  arUcles  of  the  alliance  con- 
cluded, Feb.  34,  1812,  by  Prussia  witli  Napo- 
leon, stipulated  for  Blttcher's  discharge  from 
service,  like  that  of  Schamhorst  and  other  di?- 
tinguished  Prusdan  patrlota.  To  soothe  this 
official  disgrace,  the  king  secretly  bestowed 
upon  him  the  handsome  estate  of  Ennzendorf 
in  Silesia.  During  the  period  of  transition  be- 
tween the  peace  of  lllsit  and  the  German  war 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


of  independence,  Sobamhorst  and  Gneisenan, 
tlie  chiefs  of  the  TngendbDad,  desiring  to  ex- 
temporize a  popular  hero,  bad  chosen  BlQcher. 
In  propagating  his  Fsine  HiDongthemasaea,  they 
bad  Bucceeded  so  well,  that  when  Frederick 
WiliiBm  III.  called  the  Priiaaions  to  arms  b; 
the  proclaniatian  of  March  IT,  1813,  they  were 
strong  enon(;h  to  impose  him  upon  the  kivg  as 
thegeneral-in-chief  of  the  Pmesian  army.  In 
the  well  contested,  hut  for  the  allies  uofortu- 
Dute,  battles  of  LQtzen  and  Bautzen  he  act- 
ed nader  Wittgeo stein,  the  commander  of  the  I 
BuBsiim  army.  During  the  retreat  of  the  allied 
armies  from  liautzen  to  Schweidnitz,  he  lay  in  I 
ambush  at  Haynau,  from  which  he  fell  with  his  : 
cavalry  on  the  French  advanced  guard  under 
Maison,  who  in  this  affair  lost  1,600  men  and  11 
gnna.  Through  this  surprise  BlQcher  raised  the  | 
spirit  of  the  Pmssian  army,  and  made  Napoleon 
very  cautious  in  pursuit. — Blacher's  command 
of  an  independent  army  dates  from  the  ex- 
piration of  the  truce  of  Trachenberg,  Aug.  10, 
1813.  The  allied  sovereigns  had  then  divided 
their  forces  into  three  armies:  the  army  of  the 
north  nnder  Bemsdotte,  stationed  along  the 
lower  Elbe;  the  main  army,  advancing  throagh 
Bohemia;  and  the  Silesian  army,  with  BlD- 
cher  as  its  commander-in-chief,  supported  hy 
Gneisenan  as  the  chief  of  his  staff,  and  Mbffling 
as  his  qnarteroi aster  general.  These  two  men, 
attached  to  him  in  the  seme  quality  nntU  the 

Btace  of  1816,  supplied  all  his  strategical  plans. 
iQcher  himself,  as  MofBing  says,  '■'  understood 
nothing  of  the  strategical  conduct  of  a  war ;  so 
little  indeed,  that  when  a  plan  was  laid  before 
him  for  approval,  even  relating  to  some  unim- 
portant operation,  he  could  not  form  any  clear 
idea  of  it,  or  jndge  whether  it  was  good  or 
bad."  Like  many  of  Napoleon's  marshals,  he 
was  nnable  to  read  the  mapa.  The  Siledan 
army  waa  composed  of  three  Mrp$  d^armit  : 
40,000  Russians,  under  Coont  Langeron;  16,- 
000  men  nnder  Baron  von  Socken;  and  a 
Pmssian  corps  of  40,000  men  under  Oen.  York. 
Blflcher's  position  was  extremely  difficult  at 
tlie  head  of  this  heterogeneous  army.  Lon- 
geron, who  had  already  held  independent  com- 
manda,  and  demurred  to  serving  nnder  a  for- 
eign general,  was  moreover  aware  that  BlDcher 
had  received  secret  orders  to  limit  himself  to 
the  defenmve,  bat  was  altogether  ignorant  that 
the  latter,  in  an  interview  on  Aug.  11  with 
Barclay  de  Tolly  at  Reichenhach,  had  extorted 
the  permisfflon  to  act  according  to  circnm- 
BtancesL  Hence  Langeron  thought  himself 
jnetified  in  disobeying  orders  whenever  the 
general-in-chief  seemed  to  him  to  swerve  from 
the  preconcerted  plan,  and  in  this  mutinous 
conduct  he  waa  strongly  supported  by  Gen. 
York.  The  danger  arising  from  this  state  of 
things  became  more  and  more  threatening, 
when  the  hattie  on  the  Katzbach  secured  BlQ- 
cher that  hold  on  his  army  which  guided  it  to 
the  gatesof  Paris.  Morshu Maodonald,  charged 
bj  Napoleon  to  drive  tlie  Silesian  army  back 
into  the  interior  of  Silemo,  hegon  the  battle 
100  Tou  II.— 48 


IIER  751 

by  attacking,  Aug.  28,  BlQcher'a  outposts, 
stationed  from  Pransnitz  to  Kroitscb,  where 
the  Neisse  flows  into  the  Katzbaoh.  The  so- 
cnlled  battle  on  the  Katzbach  consisted  in  fact 
of  four  difi'erent  actions,  the  first  of  which, 
tlie  dislodging  by  a  bayonet  attack  from  a 
plateau  behind  a  ridgeon  the  right  bank  of  the 
Neisae  of  about  eight  French  battalions,  which 
constituted  hardly  one  tenth  of  the  hostile 
force,  led  to  reeults  quite  out  of  proportion  to 
its  original  importance,  in  consequence  of 
the  fugitives  from  the  plateau  not  being  col- 
lected st  Niederkrain,  and  left  behind  the 
Katzbach  at  Kraitsch,  in  which  case  their 
flight  would  have  had  no  inflaence  whatever 
on  the  rest  of  the  French  army ;  in  consequence 
of  different  defeats  inflicted  at  nightfall  upon 
the  enemy  by  Sacken's  and  Langeron's  corps 
stationed  on  the  loft  bonk  of  the  Keisse^  in 
conseqnence  of  Marshal  Maodonald,  who  com- 
manded in  person  on  the  left  bank,  and  had 
defended  himself  weakly  till  7  o'clock  in  the 
evening  against  Langeron's  attack,  marching 
his  troops  at  once  after  sunset  to  Goldberg,  in 
such  a  state  of  exhaustion  that  they  could  no 
longer  fight,  and  must  fall  into  the  enemy's 
hand ;  and,  lastly,  in  conseqnence  of  the  state 
of  the  season,  violent  rains  swelling  the  other- 
wise inelgntflcant  streams  the  fugitive  French 
had  to  traverse — tfie  Neisse,  the  Katzbach,  the 
Deichsel,  and  the  Bober — to  rapid  torrents, 
and  making  the  roads  almost  impracticable. 
Thus  it  occurred,  that  with  the  aid  of  the 
country  militia  in  the  monntnins  on  the  left 
flank  of  the  fiilesian  army,  the  battle  on  the 
Katzbach,  insignificant  in  itself,  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  18,000  prisoners,  above  100  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  more  than  8O0  ammnnition, 
hospital,  and  baggage  wagons.  After  the  bat- 
tle BlQcher  did  everything  to  instigate  his 
forces  to  exert  their  utmost  strength  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy,  justly  representing  to 
them  that  "  with  some  bodily  exertion  they 
might  spare  a  new  battle."  On  Sept.  8  he 
crossed  the  Neisse  with  his  army,  proceeding 
by  GOrlitz  to  concentrate  at  Bantzen.  By  this 
move  he  saved  the  main  army,  which,  routed 
at  Dresden,  Ang.  27,  and  forced  to  retreat  be- 
hind the  Grzgebirge,  wasnow disengaged;  Na^ 
poleon  being  compelled  to  advance  with  re- 
enforcements  towuy]  Bautzen,  there  to  take  up 
the  army  defeated  on  the  Katzbach,  and  to  offer 
battle  to  the  fiilesian  army.  During  his  stay 
in  the  E.  comer  of  Saxony,  BlOcher,  by  a  seriea 
of  retreats  and  advances,  always  shunned  hattie 
when  offered  by  Napoleon,  bnt  always  engaged 
when  encountering  single  detachments  of  the 
French  army.  On  Sept.  22,  S3,  and  24  he  exe- 
cuted a  flank  march  on  the  right  of  the  enemy, 
advancing  hy  forced  marches  to  the  lower 
Elbe,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  army  of  the  north. 
On  Oct  2  he  bridged  the  Elbe  at  Elstcr  with 
pontoons,  ond  on  the  morning  of  the  8d  his 
army  defiled.  This  movement,  not  only  bold, 
bnt  even  hazardous,  inasmuch  as  he  complete- 
ly abandoned  his  lines  of  communication,  was 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


752  BLUi 

necesaitatod  by  supreme  political  reasons,  and 
]ed  finall?  to  the  battle  uf  Leipsic,  which  bat 
for  Blllcher  the  Blow  and  over-eautiona  grand 
armj  would  never  have  risked.  The  army  of 
the  north,  of  which  Beraadotte  was  the  com- 
luaDder-ia-chie^  was  about  90,000  strong,  and 
it  was  of  the  utmost  importanoe  that  it  Mionld 
advance  on  Siuooy.  By  means  of  the  close 
connectioa  which  he  maintained  with  Billow 
and  Wiatzingerode,  the  commanders  of  the 
Prussian  and  Rusuan  corps  forming  part  of  the 
army  of  the  north,  Blitoher  believed  that  he 
had  obtained  convincing  proofs  of  J!ernadotl«'s 
coquetting  with   the  French,  and  of  the  im- 

iiossibility  of  inciting  him  to  any  activity  ho 
ong  as  he  reniuned  ^one  on  a  separate  theatre 
of  war.  BlUow  and  Wiatzingerode  declared 
themselves  ready  to  act  in  spite  of  Bemadotte, 
but  to  do  so  they  wanted  the  support  of  100,- 
000  men.  Hence  BlQcher's  resolotion  to  ven- 
ture apon  his  flank  march,  in  which  he  persist- 
ed despite  the  orders  he  had  received  from  the 
sovereigns  to  draw  near  to  them  on  the  left, 
toward  Bohemia-  Ue  was  not  ta  be  diverted 
from  his  porpose  through  the  obstacles  which 
Bemadotte  systematically  threw  in  his  way, 
even  aiter  the  crosdng  of  the  Elbe  by  the  Sile- 
eian  army.  Before  leaving  Bantien  he  had 
despatched  a  confidential  officer  to  Bemadotte, 
to  mform  him  that,  since  the  army  of  the 
north  was  too  weak  to  operate  alone  on  the 
left  bank  of  tbe  Elbe,  he  would  come  with  the 
Silesian  army,  and  cross  at  Elster  on  Oct.  8 ; 
he  therefore  invited  him  to  cross  the  Elbe  at 
the  same  time,  and  to  advance  with  him  toward 
Leipsic.  Bemadotte  not  heeding  this  message, 
and  the  enemy  occupying  Wartenburg  opposite 
Elster,  BlQcher  first  di^odged  the  latter,  and 
then,  to  protect  himself  in  case  Napoleoo  should 
fall  upon  him  with  his  whole  strength,  began 
establishing  an  intrenched  encampment  &om 
Wartenburg  to  Bleddin.  Thenoe  he  pushed 
forward  toward  the  Molde.  On  Oct.  T,  in  an 
interview  with  Bemadotte,  it  was  arranged 
that  both  armies  should  march  upon  Leipsio. 
On  the  9th,  while  the  Silesian  army  was  pre- 
paring for  this  march,  Bemadotte,  on  the  news 
of  Napoleon's  advance  on  the  rood  from  Meis- 
sen, insisted  npon  retreating  behind  the  Elbe, 
and  only  consented  to  remain  on  its  left  bank 
on  condition  that  BlQcher  would  resolve  to 
cross  the  3aale  in  concert  with  him,  in  order 
to  take  np  a  position  behind  that  river.  Al- 
though by  this  movement  the  Silesian  army' 
lost  anew  its  line  of  commnuioation,  Blttober 
consented,  since  otherwise  the  army  of  the  north 
would  have  been  effectually  lost  tor  the  allies. 
On  Oct.  10  the  whole  Silesian  aimy  stood 
united  with  the  araiy  of  the  north  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mulde,  the  bridges  over  which 
were  destroyed.  Beraadotte  now  declared  a 
reti'eat  upon  Bemburg  to  have  become  neces- 
sary, and  Blllcher,  with  the  single  view  of  pre- 
venting hiru  from  crossing  the  right  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  yielded  again  on  the  condition  that 
Bemadotte  should  cross  the  Soale  at  Wettiu 


and  take  ap  a  position  there.  On  the  11th, 
when  his  columns  were  just  crossing  the  high 
road  ftom  Magdeburg  to  Halle,  BlQcher  being 
informed  that,  in  spite  of  bis  positive  promise, 
Bemadotte  had  constructed  no  bridge  at  Wet- 
tin,  resolved  upon  following  that  high  road  in 
forced  marches.  Napoleon,  seeing  that  the 
northern  and  Silesian  armies  avoided  accepting 
battle,  which  he  had  offered  them  by  concen- 
trating at  Doben,  and  tnowingthat  they  oonld 
not  avoid  it  without  retreating  across  the  Elbe 
— being  at  the  same  time  aware  that  he  had 
bnt  four  days  left  before  he  must  meet  the  main 
army,  and  thus  be  placed  between  two  fires — 
undertook  a  march  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe  toward  Wittenberg,  in  order  by  this  nmn- 
lated  movement  to  draw  the  northern  and  Si- 
lesian armies  across  the  Elbe,  and  then  strike  s 
rapid  blow  on  the  m«n  army.  Bernadotte  in- 
deed, anxious  for  his  linea  of  commnnicatioQ 
with  Sweden,  gave  his  army  orders  to  cross 
without  delay  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Elite,  by 
a  bridge  constmcted  at  Aken,  while  on  the 
same  day,  Oct.  18,  he  informed  BlQcher  that 
the  emperor  Alexander  had,  for  certain  impor- 
tant reasons,  put  him  (BlQcher)  nnder  his  or- 
ders. He  consequently  requested  him  to  follow 
his  movements  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe 
with  the  Silewan  army,  with  tbe  least  possible 
delay.  Had  BlQcher  shown  less  resolntion  on 
this  occasion  and  followed  the  army  of  the 
north,  the  campaign  would  have  been  lost, 
since  the  Silesian  and  northern  armies,  amomit- 
iug  together  to  nearly  200,000  men,  would  not 
have  been  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic  He 
wrote  in  reply  to  Bernadotte  that,  according  to 
all  his  information.  Napoleon  had  no  intention 
whatever  of  removing  the  theatre  of  war  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  bat  only  intended 
to  lead  them  astray.  At  the  same  time  he 
cDDjnred  Bernadotte  to  give  np  bis  intended 
movement  across  the  Elbe.  Having,  moan- 
while,  again  and  again  solicited  the  mun  army 
to  push  forward  upon  Leipaio,  and  offered  to 
meet  it  there,  he  received  at  last,  Oct  16,  the 
long  expected  invitadon.  He  immediately  ad- 
vanced toward  Leipsio,  while  Bemadotte  re- 
treated toward  the  Petersberg,  On  his  march 
from  Halle  to  Leipsic,  Oct.  16,  BlQcher  routed  at 
MQckera  the  Sth  corps  of  the  French  army  nnder 
Marmont,  in  a  hotly  contested  battle,  in  which 
he  captured  64  pieces  of  artillery.  Without  de- 
lay he  sent  accounts  of  the  issue  of  this  battle  to 
Bernadotte,  who  wasnot  present  on  thefirst  day 
of  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  On  its  second  day,  Oct. 
IT,  BlQcher  dislodged  the  enemyfromthe  right 
bank  of  the  ParAe,  with  the  exception  of  some 
houses  and  intrenchments  near  the  Halle  gat«. 
On  the  leth,  at  daybreak,  he  had  a  conference 
at  Brachenfeld  with  Bemadotte,  who  declared 
he  could  not  attack  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Parthe  nnless  BlQcher  gave  him  for  that  day 
30,000  men  of  the  Silesian  army.  KeerHOgr 
the  interest  of  the  whole  exclusively  in  view, 
BlQcher  consented  without  hesitation,  but  on 
the  condition  of  remaining  himself  with  tboie 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


80,000  men,  and  tbna  securing  their  vigoroos 
cooperation  in  the  attack.  Alter  the  final  vic- 
turjof  Oct.  19,  ftnd  during  the  whole  of  Napo- 
leoD's  retreat  from  Leipric  to  the  Rhine,  BlOcher 
alone  gave  him  an  earnest  paraait.  While,  on 
Oct.  19,  the  generals  in  command  met  the  sot- 
erei^s  in  the  market  pkce  of  Leipsic,  and 

Erecions  time  was  spent  m  mntnal  compliments, 
is  Silesian  arm?  was  alreadf  marching  in  pur- 
Buit  of  the  enemj  to  Lfltzen.  On  his  march 
from  Lntzen  to  Wei^enfets,  Prince  William  of 
Prussia  overtook  him,  to  deliver  to  him  the 
commission  of  a  Prussian  field  marshal.  The 
allied  sovereigns  had  allowed  Napoleon  to 
gain  a  start  which  conld  never  he  recovered; 
but  from  Eisenach  onward  BlQcher  found  him- 
self every  afternoon  in  the  room  which  Napo- 
leon hod  left  in  the  morning.  When  about 
to  march  upon  Cologne,  there  to  cross  the 
Bbine,  he  was  recalled  and  ordered  to  block- 
ade Mentz  on  its  left  bank ;  his  rapid  pnrsait  as 
for  as  the  Khine  having  broken  up  the  confed- 
eration of  the  Khine,  and  disengaged  its  troops 
from  the  French  divisions  in  which  they  were 
still  enrolled.  While  the  headquarters  of  the 
Siiesian  army  was  established  at  HOchst,  the 
main  array  marched  up  the  upper  Rhine.  Thus 
ended  the  campaign  of  1813,  the  success  of 
which  was  entirely  due  to  BlUoher's  bold  enter- 
prise and  iron  energy. — Ttie  allie«  were  divided 
as  (o  the  plan  of  operations  now  to  be  followed ; 
the  one  party  proposmg  to  stay  on  the  Rhine, 
and  there  to  take  up  a  defendve  position  ;  the 
other  to  cross  the  Rhine  and  march  upon  Paris. 
After  much  wavering  on  the  part  of  the  sover- 
eigns, BlQcher  and  his  friends  prevailed,  and 
the  resolation  was  adopted  to  advance  upon 
Paris  in  a  concentric  movement,  the  main  army 
being  to  start  f^om  Switzerland,  BqIow  from 
Holland,  and  BlOcher,  witli  the  Sile^an  array, 
from  the  middle  Rhine.  For  the  new  campaign, 
three  additional  corps  were  made  over  to  Bld- 
ctaer,  viz.,  Kleist's,  the  elector  of  Hesse's,  and 
the  dnke  of  Saie-Cobui^'s.  Leaving  part  of 
Langeron's  corps  to  invest  Mentz,  and  the  new 
reinforcements  to  follow  aa  a  second  division, 
BlQcher  crossed  the  Rhine  Jan.  1,  1814,  at 
three  points,  at  Mannheim,  Ganh,  and  Coh- 
lentz,  drove  Marmont  beyond  the  Vosges  and 
the  Saar,  posted  York's  corps  between  the  fort- 
resses of  the  Mosellu,  and  with  a  force  of  26,000 
men,  consisting  of  Sacken's  corps  and  a  division 
of  Langeron's,  proceeded  by  Vaucouleurs  and 
Joinville  to  Brienne,  in  order  to  effect  his 
Innction  with  the  main  army  by  his  left.  At 
Brienne,  Jan,  29,  he  was  attacked  by  Napoleon, 
whose  forces  mustered  about  40,000,  while 
York's  corps  was  still  detached  from  the  Siie- 
sian army,  and  the  main  array,  110,000  strong, 
bad  only  reached  Chaumont.  BlQcher  had  con- 
sequently to  face  the  greatly  superior  forco.i  of 
Napoleon,  but  the  latter  neither  attacked  him 
with  liis  usual  vigor,  nor  hindered  big  retreat 
to  Tronnea,  save  by  some  cavalry  skirmishes. 
Having  taken  poseession  of  Brienne,  placed  part 
of  his  troops  in  its  vicmity,  and  occnpied  Dien- 


HER  753 

ville,  La  RothiSre,  and  Chanmenil,  with  three 
different  corps.  Napoleon  would  on  Jan.  80  have 
been  able  to  fall  upon  BlQcher  with  superior 
nnmbers,  aa  the  latter  was  still  awdting  his  re- 
enforcemenfa.  Napoleon,  however,  kept  up  a 
passive  attitude,  while  the  main  army  was  con- 
centrating by  Bar-sur-Aube,  and  detachments 
of  it  were  strengthening  BlQcher's  right  flanl;. 
The  emperor's  inactivity  is  explained  by  tlio 
negotiations  of  the  peace  congress  of  CliAtil- 
lon,  which  he  had  contrived  lo  start,  and  by 
which  he  expected  to  gain  time.  In  fact,  after 
the  junction  of  the  Silerfan  with  the  maia  army 
had  been  effected,  the  diplomatic  party  insist- 
ed that  during  the  deliberationa  of  this  con- 
gress the  war  should  be  carried  on  as  a  feint 
only.  Prince  Schwarzenberg  sent  an  officer 
to  BlQcher  to  procure  his  acquiescence,  but 
BlQcher  dismissed  him  with  this  answer :  "  We 
must  go  to  Paris.  Napoleon  has  pud  hie  visits 
to  all  the  capitals  of  Eorope ;  should  we  he  less 
polite  t  In  short,  he  must  descend  from  the 
throne,  and  until  he  is  hurled  from  it  we  shall 
have  no  rest."  He  ni^ed  the  great  advantages 
of  the  allies  attacking  Napoleon  near  Brienne, 
before  he  could  bring  up  tlie  remainder  of  his 
troops,  and  offered  to  make  the  attack  himself, 
if  he  were  only  strengthened  in  York's  absence. 
The  consideration  that  the  army  could  not  sub- 
sist in  the  barren  valley  of  the  Aube,  and  mnst 
retreat  if  it  did  not  attack,  caused  his  advice 
to  prevail.  The  battle  was  decided  upon,  but 
Prince  Schwarzenberg,  eommander-in-chief  of 
the  main  army,  instead  of  bearing  upon  the 
enemy  with  the  united  force  at  hand,  only 
lent  BlQcher  the  corps  of  the  crown  prince  of 
Wiirtemberg  (40,000  men),  that  of  Gyulay  (12,- 
000),  and  that  of  Wrede  (12,000).  Napoleon 
on  his  part  neither  knew  nor  suspected  any- 
thing of  the  arrival  of  tiie  main  army.  When 
about  1  o'clock,  Feb.  1,  it  was  announced  to 
him  tliat  BlQcher  was  advancing,  he  would  not 
believe  it.  Having  made  snre  of  the  fact,  he 
mounted  his  horse  witli  the  idea  of  avoiding  the 
battle,  and  gave  Bertbier  orders  to  this  effect. 
When,  however,  between  Old  Brienne  and  Ko- 
thi^re,  he  reached  the  young  guard,  who  had 
got  under  arms  on  hearing  the  approaching 
cannonade,  he  was  received  with  such  enthusi- 
asm that  he  thought  fit  to  improve  the  opportu- 
nity, and  eiclaimcd,  "  UarlilUrie  en  avant .' " 
Thus,  abont  4  o'clock,  the  aflair  of  La  Rothii^re 
commenced  in  earnest.  At  the  first  reverse, 
however,  Napoleon  no  longer  took  any  personal 
part  in  the  battle.  His  icfontry  having  thrown 
itself  into  the  village  of  La  Rothif're,  the  com- 
bat was  long  and  obstinate,  and  BlQcher  was 
even  obliged  to  bring  np  his  reserve.  The 
French  were  not  dislodged  from  the  village  till 
11  o'clock  at  night,  when  Napoleon  ordered 
the  retreat  of  his  army,  which  had  lost  4,000  or 
d,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  2, GOO  prtHDn- 
ers,  and  about  60  cannon.  If  the  allies,  then 
only  six  days'  march  Irom  Paris,  had  vifrormisly 
pushed  on,  Napoleon  must  have  sncciimbed  be- 
fore their  immensely  superior  numbers ;  but  the 


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754  BLU( 

eovereigns,  stilt  apprehenuve  of  cnttin^  Napo- 
leon off  from  making  his  peace  at  the  coogrcsa 
of  ChAtillon,  allowed  Prince  Schwarzenberg  to 
seize  opon  every  pretext  lor  Bhunninft  a  decisive 
action.  While  Napoleon  ordered  Marmont  to 
return  on  the  right  banlt  of  the  Auha  toward 
Ramernpt,  and  himself  retired  by  a  flank  march 
npon  Troyes,  the  allied  army  split  into  two 
armies,  the  main  army  advancing  slowly  vipon 
Troyes,  and  the  Silosian  army  marching  to  the 
Marne,  where  BlQcher  knew  he  would  find 
York,  besides  part  of  I^ongeron's  and  Kleist's 
corps,  so  that  his  sgtn'egate  forces  wonld  be 
swelled  to  about  60,000  men.  Tbe  plan  was 
for  him  ta  pnrsiie  Marshal  Maodonald,  who 
had  meanwhile  appeared  on  tbe  lower  Mame, 
to  Paris,  while  Schwarzenberg  waa  to  keep  in 
check  the  French  main  army  on  the  Seine. 
Napoleon,  however,  seeing  that  the  allies  did 
not  know  how  to  use  their  victory,  and  sure 
of  retnming  to  tlie  Seine  before  the  main  ar- 
my could  have  advanced  far  in  the  direction 
of  Paris,  resolved  to  fall  npon  the  weaker  Si- 
lesian  army.  Consequently,  he  left  30,000 
men  under  Victor  and  Oadinot  in  face  of  tbe 
100,000  men  of  the  main  army,  advanced 
with  40,000  men,  the  corps  of  Mortier  and 
Ney,  in  the  direction  of  tne  Marne,  took  up 
Marmont's  corps  at'  Nogent,  and  on  Feb.  9 
arrived  with  tnese  unit^  forces  at  Suzanne. 
Jleonwhile  BiQcher  had  proceeded  by  St. 
Ouen  and  Sompuis  on  the  road  leading  to 
Pons,  and  on  Feb.  6  established  his  heodtjuar- 
ters  at  the  little  town  of  Yertas.  The  dispo- 
sition of  hia  forces  was  this:  abont  10,000  men 
.it  his  headquarters;  18,000,  under  York,  post- 
ed between  Dormans  and  ChSteau-Tbierry,  in 
pursuit  of  Macdonatd,  who  was  already  on  the 
great  post  road  leading  to  Paris  from  £pernsy ; 
80,000  under  Socken,  between  Hontinirail  and 
La  Fert^-sons-Jouarre,  destined  to  prevent  the 
intended  junction  of  Sebastiani's  cavalry  with 
Uacdonald,  and  to  cut  off  the  passage  of  the 
latter  at  La  Fert^.sons-Jouarre ;  the  Russian 
(general  Olzuvioff  cantoned  with  6,000  men  at 
Chaoipaubert.  This  &ulty  distribution,  by 
which  the  Silesian  army  was  drawn  up  in  a  very 
extended  position  en  ichelon,  resultea  from  the 
contradictory  motives  which  actuated  BlQcher, 
or  rather  his  military  advisers,  Oneisenau  and 
Muffling.  On  the  one  hand,  he  desired  to  cut 
off  Mocdonald,  and  prevent  his  junction  with 
Sebastiani's  cavalry ;  on  the  other  hand,  to  take 
up  the  corps  of  Kleist  and  Eaptzevitch,  who 
were  advancing  from  ChiiloDs,  and  ei>pected  to 
unite  with  him  on  the  0th  and  10th.  Tbe  one 
motive  kept  him  back,  the  other  ])UBhed  liira 
on.  On  Feb.  D  Napoleon  fell  upon  Olzavieff  at 
Champaiibert,- and  routed  him.  BlQcher,  with 
Kleist  and  Kaptzevitch,  who  hod  meanwhile 
arrived,  but  without  the  greater  part  of  their 
cavalry,  advanced  against  Marmont,  despatched 
by  Napoleon,  and  followed  him  in  his  retreat 
upon  La  Fere  Champenoiso,  but,  on  the  news  of 
Olziivieft's  discomfitare,  returned  in  the  some 
night  with  hie  two  corps  to  Bergdres,  there  to 


cover  tbe  road  to  OhAlons.    After  a  Buccessfol 

combat  on  the  lOth,  Sacken  had  driven  Mac- 
donald  across  the  Mame  at  Trilport,  but,  hearing 
on  the  night  of  the  same  day  of  Napoleon's 
march  to  Champanbert,  hastened  back  on  the 
11th  toward  Montmirail.  Before  reaching  it,  he 
was  at  Vieils  Maisons  obliged  to  form  against 
the  emperor,  coming  tVom  Montminul  to  meet 
him.  Beaten  with  great  loss  before  York  could 
unite  with  him,  the  two  generais  effected  their 
junction  at  Viffort,  and  retreated  Feb.  13  to 
CbAteau-Thierry,  where  York  had  to  stand  a 
very  damaging  rear-guard  engagement,  and 
withdrew  thence  to  Oulchy-la-VUle.  Having 
ordered  Mortier  to  pursue  York  and  Sacken  on 
the  road  of  Fismes,  Napoleon  remained  on 
the  ISth  at  Ch&teau-Thierry.  Uncert»n  as  to 
the  whereaboat  of  York  and  Sacken  and  the 
success  of  their  engagements,  Bl&cher  had  from 
Berg&res,  during  the  11th  snd  12th,  quietly 
watched  Marmont  posted  opposite  lum  at 
fitoges.  When  informed  on  the  ISth  of  the 
defeat  of  his  generals,  and  supposing  Napoleon 
to  have  moved  off  in  search  of  the  m^  army, 
he  gave  way  to  the  temptation  of  striking  a 
parting  blow  upon  Marmont,  whom  he  consid- 
ered Napoleons  rear  goard.  Advancing  on 
Champanbert,  he  pushed  Marmont  to  Mon1>- 
mirail,  where  the  latt«r  was  joined  on  tlie  14th 
by  Napoleon,  who  now  turned  against  Bliloher, 
met  him  at  noon  at  Vanchamps,  80,000  strong, 
but  almost  without  cavalry,  attacked  him, 
turned  his  columns  with  cavalry,  and  threw 
him  back  with  great  loss  on  Ohampaub^t. 
During  its  retreat  from  the  latter  place,  the 
Silesian  army  might  have  reached  ttogea  t>e- 
fore  it  grew  dark,  without  any  considerable 
loss,  if  Bltlcher  had  not  taken  pleasore  in  the 
deliberate  slowness  of  the  retrograde  move- 
ment. Thus  he  was  attacked  during  the  whole 
of  his  march,  and  one  detachment  of  his  forces, 
the  division  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Prussia, 
was  again  beset  from  the  side  streets  of  £toges, 
on  its  passage  through  that  town.  About  raid- 
night  Blttcher  reached  his  camp  st  Bergires, 
broke  up  after  some  hours'  rest  for  Ch&lous, 
and  arrived  there  about  noon,  Feb.  15.  At 
this  place  he  was  joined  by  York's  and  Saf  ken's 
forces  on  the  16th  and  ITth.  The  different 
affairs  at  Champanbert,  Montmirail,  Chfitean- 
Thierry,  Vauchamps,  ond  Etoges  had  cost  htm 
16,000  men  and  27  guns.  Leaving  Marmont 
and  Mortier  to  front  BlQcher,  Napoleon  with 
Ney  returned  in  forced  marches  to  the  Seine, 
where  Schwarzenberg  had  driven  back  Victor 
and  Oudinot,  who  hod  retreated  across  the 
Y^res,  and  there  taken  up  12,000  men  under 
Macdonald,  aod  some  refinforceinents  from 
Spain.  On  the  ISth  they  were  surprised  by 
tiie  sudden  arrival  of  Napoleon,  followed  on 
the  ITth  by  tiis  troops.  After  his  jnoctitai 
with  the  marshals  he  hastened  agwnst  Schwarz- 
enberg, whom  he  found  posted  in  an  extended 
triangle,  having  for  its  summits  Noeent,  Monte- 
rcau,  and  Sens.  The  generals  under  his  com- 
mand, Wittgenstein,   Wrede,  and  the  orown 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


prinoa  of  WOrtembe^,  being  snocesnTelj 
attacked  and  routed  by  Napoleon,  Prince 
Schwarzenberg  retreated  toward  Troyes  and 
sent  word  to  BlUoher  to  Join  bim,  so  that  they 
might  in  concert  give  battle  oo  the  Seine. 
BlQcher,  strengthened  by  new  reenforoementg, 
immediately  followed  tiiis  call,  entered  Mirj 
Feb.  21,  and  waited  there  tbe  whole  of  the 
22d  for  the  dispositions  of  the  proinised  battle. 
He  learned  in  tbe  evening  that  an  appUca- 
tion  for  a  truce  had  been  made  to  Napoleon, 
throngh  Prmce  Liechtenstein,  who  had  met 
with  a  flat  retHisal.  Instantly  despatching  a 
confidential  officer  to  Troyes,  he  coiyured  Prince 
Schwarzenherg  to  give  battle,  and  even  offered 
to  give  it  alone  if  tbe  main  army  would  only 
form  a  reserve ;  but  Schwarzenberg,  still  more 
frightened  by  tbe  news  that  Augareau  bad 
driven  Gen.  Bnbna  back  into  Switzerland,  had 
already  ordered  the  retreat  npon  Langrea. 
BtHcher  understood  at  once  that  a  retreat  npon 
Langres  would  lead  to  a  retreat  beyond  tbe 
Bhine ;  and,  in  order  to  draw  Napoleon  off 
from  the  pursuit  of  the  dispirited  main  army, 
resolved  upon  again  inarching  str^ght  in  tlie 
direction  of  Pans,  toward  the  Hame,  where 
he  conld  now  expect  to  aasemble  an  army  of 
100,000  men,  'Wmtangerode  having  arrived 
with  about  2S,000  men  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bbeims,  Bolow  at  Laon  with  16,000  men,  the 
remainder  of  Klnst's  corps  being  expected 
from  Ertbrt,  and  the  rest  of  Langeron's  corps, 
under  St  Priest,  from  Mentz.  It  was  this 
second  separation  of  Bltloher  from  the  meiu 
army  that  turned  the  scale  against  Napoleon. 
If  the  latter  had  followed  the  retreating  main 
army  instead  of  tbe  advancing  Silesian  one, 
the  campaign  would  have  been  lost  for  the 
allies.  The  passage  of  the  Anbe  before  Napo- 
leon had  followed  him,  the  only  diflicnit  point  in 
BlQcber'a  advance,  he  effected  by  construct- 
ing a  pontoon  bridge  at  Anglnre  on  Feb.  24. 
Napoleon,  commanding  Oudinot  and  Mac- 
donald,  with  about  SS.OOO  men,  to  follow  the 
main  army,  left  Uerbisse  on  the  26th,  together 
with  Ney  and  Victor,  in  pnrsuit  of  the  Suesiau 
army.  On  the  advice  sent  by  BlCoher  that 
the  main  army  had  now  but  the  two  marshols 
before  it,  Schwarzenberg  stopped  his  retreat, 
tnmed  round  upon  Oudinot  and  Macdonald, 
and  beat  them  on  tbe  STth  and  28th.  It  was 
Blftcher's  intention  to  concentrate  his  army  at 
some  point  as  near  as  possible  to  Paris.  Mar- 
mont  with  bis  troojis  was  Still  posted  at  S6- 
xanne,  while  Mortier  was  at  Ch&tean-Thierry. 
On  BlQcher's  advance,  Harmont  retreated,  and 
nnited  on  the  26th  with  Mortier  at  La  Fert^- 
Bous-Jouarre,  thence  to  retire  with  tbe  latter 
upon  Meaux.  BlQcher's  attempt  during  two 
days  to  cross  the  Ourcq,  and  with  a  strongly 
advanced  fh)nt  to  force  the  two  marshals  to 
battle,  having  failed,  he  was  now  obliged  to 
march  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river.  He 
reached  Oulchy-le-Chateau  on  March  2,  learned 
in  the  morning  of  the  Sd  the  capitulation  of 
Hoiseons,  which  had  been  effected  by  Billow  and 


755 

Wintzingerode.  and  in  the  eonrse  of  the  same 
day  crossed  the  Aisne  and  concentrated  his 
whole  army  at  Soissona  Napoleon,  who  had 
crossed  the  Uarne  at  La  Ferti-soas-Jouarre, 
two  forced  marches  behind  BlQcher,  advanced 
in  the  direction  of  Chflteau-Thierry  and  Fismes, 
and,  having  passed  the  Yesle,  crossed  the 
Aisne  at  Berry-au-Bac,  March  6,  after  the 
recapture  of  Rheims  by  a  detachment  of  his 
army,  BlUcher  originally  intended  to  offer 
battle  behind  the  Aisne  on  Napoleon's  passage 
of  that  river,  and  had  drawn  up  his  troops  for 
that  purpose.  When  he  became  aware  that 
Napoleon  took  the  direction  of  Fismes  and 
Berry-an-Bao,  in  order  to  pass  the  Silesian 
army  by  the  left,  he  decidca  npon  attacking 
him  from  Oraonue  on  the  flank,  in  an  oblique 

gnition,  immediately  after  his  debouching  from 
erry-au-Bao,  so  that  Napoleon  would  have 
been  forced  to  give  battle  with  a  defile  in  his 
rear.  Having  already  posted  bis  forces,  with 
the  right  wing  on  the  Aisne,  with  the  leA,  on 
the  Lette,  half  way  from  Soissons  to  Craonne, 
he  resigned  this  excellent  plan  on  making  sure 
that  Napoleon  had  on  the  6th  been  allowed 
by  'Wintzingerode  to  pass  Berry-au-Bno  unmo- 
lested, and  had  even  pushed  a  detachment  on 
the  road  to  Laon.  He  now  thonght  it  necessa- 
ry to  accept  no  decisive  battle  except  at  Laon. 
To  delay  Napoleon,  who  by  Corbeny,  on  the 
canseway  from  Rbeims,  conld  reach  Laon  as 
soon  as  the  Silesian  army  from  Craonne,  BlQ- 
cher posted  tbe  corps  of  Vorontzoff  between 
the  Aisne  and  the  Lette,  on  the  strong  platean 
of  Craonne,  while  he  despatched  10,000  horse 
nnder  Wintzingerode,  to  push  on  by  FStieni 
toward  Corbeny,  with  the  order  to  fall  upon 
the  right  flank  and  rear  of  Napoleon  as  soon 
BB  the  latter  should  be  engaged  in  attacking 
Vorontzoff.  Wintzingerode  falling  to  execute 
the  man<Buvre  intrusted  to  him,  Napoleon 
drove  Vorontzoff  from  the  plateau  on  the  7tli, 
but  himself  lost  8,U00  men,  while  Vorontzoff 
escaped  with  the  loss  of  4,  TOO,  and  proved  able 
to  effect  his  retreat  in  good  order.  On  the  Sih 
BlQcher  had  concentrated  his  troops  at  Laon, 
where  the  battle  must  decide  Uie  fate  of  both 
armies.  Apart  from  his  numerical  superiori- 
ty, the  vast  plain  before  I^Aon  was  peculiarly 
adapted  for  deploying  the  20,000  horse  of  the 
Silesian  army,  while  I.iaon  itself,  situated  on 
the  plaKau  of  a  detached  hill,  which  has  on 
every  side  a  fall  of  12  to  30  degrees,  and  at  the 
'  foot  of  which  lie  four  villages,  offered  great  ad- 
vantages for  the  defence  as  well  as  the  attack. 
On  the  9th  the  left  Frcneli  wing,  led  by  Na- 
poleon himself,  was  repulsed,  wliile  the  right 
wing,  under  Marmont,  surprised  in  its  bivouacs 
at  nightfall,  was  so  completely  worsted  that 
the  marshal  could  not  brin^  his  troops  to  a  halt 
before  reaching  Fismes.  !Napo1eon,  completely 
isolated  with  his  wing,  numbering  36,000  men 
only,  and  cooped  up  in  a  bad  position,  must 
have  yielded  before  far  superior  numbers  flush- 
ed with  victory.  But  on  the  following  morn- 
ing a  fever  attack  and  an  inflammation  of  tbe 


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756 


BLOCHER 


8J6S  disabled  BiQcher,  while  Napoleon  yet  re- 
mained in  a  pruvocator;  atCitade,  in  the  same 
position,  wliick  »o  far  intimidated  the  men  who 
now  directed  the  operutions  that  thej  not  only 
stopped  the  advance  of  their  own  troops  which 
hail  already  begun,  but  allowed  Napoleon  to 
quietly  retire  at  nigihtfall  to  Soisaons.  Still  the 
battle  of  Laon  had  broken  his  forces,  physically 
and  morally.  He  tried  in  vmd  by  the  sudden 
captnre  on  March  13  of  Rheima,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  St.  Priest,  to  restore 
hiiDBelf.  80  fully  was  hia  situation  now  nnder- 
etood,  that  when  he  advanced  on  the  17th  and 
18tli  on  Arcis-sur-Anbe,  against  the  main  ar- 
my, Bchwarzenberg  himself  dared  to  stand 
and  accept  battle,  wliich  lasted  throngh  the 
20th  and  21st.  When  Napoleon  broVe  it  off, 
the  main  array  followed  him  np  to  Vitry,  and 
united  in  bis  rear  with  the  Bilesian  army. 
In  his  despur  Napoleon  took  a  last  refuge 
in  a  retreat  upon  St.  Dizier,  pretending  thna 
to  endanger  with  bis  handful  of  men  the 
enormons  army  of  the  allies,  by  cutting  off  its 
main  line  of  commnnication  and  retreat  between 
Langres  and  Cbanmont ;  a  movement  replied 
to  on  the  part  of  the  allies  by  their  onward 
march  to  Paris.  On  March  SO  took  place  the 
battle  before  Paris,  in  which  the  Silesian  army 
stormed  Montmartre.  Though  Bl&cher  had  not 
recorered  since  the  battle  of  I..aon,  he  still  ap- 

E eared  in  the  battle  for  a  short  time,  on  horse- 
aok,  with  a  shade  over  his  eyes ;  but  after  the 
capitolatdon  of  Paris  he  laid  down  his  command, 
the  pretext  beinghis  sickness,  and  the  real  canse 
the  clashing  of  his  open-mouthed  hatred  against 
the  French  with  the  diplomatic  attitude  which 
the  allied  sovereigns  uionght  fit  to  exhibit. 
Thus  he  entered  Paris,  March  81,  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  a  private  individual.  During  the 
whole  campaign  of  1314,  he  alone  among  the 
allied  army  represented  the  principle  of  the  of- 
fensive. By  the  battle  of  LaRothiSre  he  baf- 
fled the  Ch&tillon  pacificators ;  by  his  resolntion 
at  M^ry  he  saved  the  ailies  from  a  ruinous  re- 
treat ;  and  by  the  battle  of  Laon  he  decided  the 
drat  capitulation  of  Paris. — AA«r  the  first  peace 
of  Paris  he  accompanied  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der and  King  Frederick  William  of  Pmssia  on 
their  vidt  to  Enriuid,  where  be  was  f6ted  as 
the  hero  of  the  oay.  All  the  military  orders 
of  Enrope  were  showered  apon  him ;  the  king 
of  Prnssia  created  for  him  the  order  of  the 
iron  cross ;  the  prince  regent  of  England  gave 
him  his  portrait,  and  the  university  of  Oxford 
the  aoademicol  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1816  he 
again  decided  the  final  campaign  against  Na- 

foleoD.  After  the  disasCrons  battle  of  Ligny, 
une  10,  though  now  73  years  of  age,  be  pre- 
vailed upon  his  routed  army  to  form  anew  and 
march  on  the  heels  of  their  victor,  so  as  t«  be 
able  to  appear  in  the  evcoing  of  June  18  on  the 
battlefield  of  Waterloo,  an  exploit  unprece- 
dented in  the  history  of  war,  (See  Watbrloo.) 
His  pursuit  of  the  French  fogitivee  from  Water- 
loo to  Paris  possesses  oDe  parallel  only,  in  Na- 
poleon's equally  remarkable  pursait  of  the  Pms- 


BLUDOFF 

sians  from  Jena  to  Stettin.  He  now  entered 
Paris  at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  even  bad 
Maffling,  his  qnartermaster  general,  installed  as 
the  military  governor  general  of  Paris.  He  in- 
Hsted  upon  Napoleon's  being  shot,  the  bridge 
of  Jena  blown  np,  and  the  restitution  to  their 
original  owners  of  the  treasures  plundered  by 
the  French  in  the  different  capitals  of  Europe. 
The  first  wish  was  baffled  by  Wellington,  and 
the  second  by  the  alHed  sovereigns,  while  the 
last  was  realized.  He  remained  at  Paris  three 
months,  very  freqnently  attending  the  gam- 
bling tables  for  rovge-et-noir.  On  tiie  anniver- 
sary of  the  battle  on  the  Kotzbaoh  he  pud  a 
visit  to  Kostock,  his  native  place,  where  the 
inhabitants  united  to  raise  a  public  monument 
in  his  honor.  Go  the  occurrence  of  his  death, 
the  whole  Prussian  army  went  into  mourning 
for  eight  days. — Le  vitux  diable,  as  he  was 
nicknamed  by  Napoleon,  "  Marshal  Forwards," 
as  he  was  styled  by  the  Russians  of  the  Siledan 
army,  was  essentially  a  general  of  cavalry.  In 
this  specialty  he  excelled,  because  it  required 
tactical  acquirements  only,  but  no  strategical 
knowledge.  Participating  to  the  highest  de- 
gree in  the  popular  hatred  agunst  Napoleon 
and  the  French,  he  was  popular  with  the  mul- 
titude for  his  plebeian  passions,  his  gross  com- 
mon sense,  the  vulgarity  of  his  manners,  and 
the  coarseness  oS  his  speech,  to  which,  how- 
ever, he  knew  on  fit  occasions  how  to  impart 
a  touch  of  fiery  eloquence.  He  was  the  model 
of  a  soldier.  Setting  an  example  as  the  bravest 
in  battle  and  the  most  indefatigable  in  exer- 
tion; oxercinng  a  fascinating  influence  on  the 
common  soldier;  joining  to  his  rash  bravery  a 
sagacious  appreciation  of  the  ground,  a  quick 
resolution  in  difficult  situations,  stubbornness 
in  defence  equal  to  his  energy  in  the  attack, 
with  sufficient  intelligence  to  find  for  hinradf 
the  right  course  in  ampler  combinationa,  and 
to  rely  upon  Oneisenau  in  those  which  were 
more  intricate,  he  was  the  true  general  for  the 
military  operations  of  18I8-'15,  which  bore  the 
character  half  of  regular  and  half  of  insurrec- 
tionary warfare.  The  biography  of  BiQcher  has 
been  written  by  Yarnhagen  von  Ense  (Berlin, 
1643),  Bieske  (1802),  and  Scharr  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
sic,  1862). 

HJIDOFF,  Omitii  mketaycTttcfe,  count,  a  Rus- 
sian statesman,  bom  in  Moscow  in  1 783,  died  in 
St  Petersburg,  March  2,  18S4.  He  studied  at 
the  nniverwty  of  Moscow,  was  long  in  the 
diplomatic  service  in  London,  Stockholm,  and 
Vienna,  and  was  afterward  transferred  to  the 
domestic  administration.  At  the  advent  of 
Nicholas  ha  belonged,  with  Dosbkoff  and 
TTvarof^  to  the  triad  which  Karamxin,  the 
Russian  historian,  recommended,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  new  emperor,  as  the  fittest  men 
to  carry  out  his  reformatory  ideas.  Blodc^ 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1B33 
was  transferred  to  the  more  important  position 
of  secretary  of  the  interior.  In  1899  he  suc- 
ceeded Dashkoff  as  secretary  of  the  department 
of  justice,  end  subsequently  became  president 


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BLUE 

of  the  legislative  department  in  the  oonncil  of 
the  empire.  As  sach  he  pat  the  last  hand  to 
the  compilation  and  pnlilication  of  the  funeral 
code  of  civil  and  criminal  laws  (Srod  Zakonoi). 
He  was  made  a  connt  of  the  empire  in  1842. 
In  1946--^T  he  was  special  envoy  to  Home,  to 
conclada  a  concordat.  After  the 
Alexander  11.  in  1865  Bludoff  ^ 
©d  president  of  the  academy  of 
Petersburg,  and  three  years  later  was  named 
oa  the  committee  to  prepare  meosnres  for  the 
emancipation  of  the  serfs.  In  1961,  on  the  res- 
ili^atiou  of  Prince  OrlotF,  he  became  president 
of  the  conned  of  ministers  and  of  the  cunncil 
of  the  empire. 

ILtE,  one  of  the  seven  primary  colors. 
Like  the  green  of  the  forest  and  the  field,  na- 
ture appears  to  have  adopted  the  color  for  the 
sea  and  sky  icith  referenue  to  \ia  soft  and  pleas- 
ing elfcct  upon  the  eye.  In  these,  its  various 
shades  are  seen  in  their  highest  perfection,  and 
they  are  ol^  most  brilliantly  displayed  in*  the 
sapphire  and  the  turquoise.  In  the  arts,  it  is 
derived  for  dyes  from  the  products  of  the  vege- 
table, animal,  and  mineral  kingdoms.  Indigo 
is  the  most  common  vegetable  material  for 
prodncing  it.  A  great  variety  of  berries  are 
also  used,  the  juices  of  which  become  blue  by 
the  addition  of  alkali  or  salts  of  copper. 
Among  mineral  substances,  col>alt  is  the  most 
remarkable  for  the  brilliant  blue  produced  bj 
its  salts.  Cobalt  blue  is  nsed  for  coloriiw  glass 
and  purcelain.  Mountain  bine  is  derived  nrom 
carbonate  of  copper.  Bremen  blue  or  verditer 
is  a  greenish  blue  color,  obtained  from  copper 
mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime.  Prussian  blue, 
ased  for  chemical  purposes  and  as  a  pigment, 
is  obtained  lyum  horns,  hoofs,  or  dried  blood; 
other  lilncs  are  obt^ned  from  combinations  of 
molybdenum  and  oxide  of  tin.  Ultramarine  is 
a  beautifol  blue  pigment  prepared  from  the 
mineral  lapis  lazali,  which  until  recently  has 
defied  all  imitation. 

BLEE,  Pnnlu.    Bee  pBusaiAH  Blve. 

BLCEBIRD,  a  North  American  bird  of  the 
genus  tialia,  otAot  paneret,  tribe  dmttirottrei, 
and  family  luteitiidm.  The  best  known  apeciea, 
S.  WiUonii  (Sw^ns.),  is  aboat  7  inches  long 
and  ID  inches  in  extent  of  wings;  the  bill  is 
block,  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  nearly 
straight;  the  plomage  of  the  male  is  soft  and 
blended,  above  of  a  bright  azure  blue,  beloV 
yellowish  brown,  and  the  belly  white;  the  fe- 
male has  the  upper  parts  of  a  hue  approaching 
leaden,  with  the  rest  like  the  mole,  though 
dnller ;  the  yonog  have  the  head  and  back 
brownish.  It  is  found  in  al!  parts  of  the 
United  States,  excepting  perhaps  some  of  the 
Pacific  territories;  it  is  very  sprightly  and 
familiar,  and  is  always  a  welcome  visitor. 
The  nest  is  made  either  in  a  box  prepared  for 
it,  or  in  any  convenient  hole  in  a  tree ;  tlie 
eggs  are  from  four  to  six,  of  a  pale  blue  color. 
The  food  consists  of  various  kinds  of  insects 
and  spiders,  and  also  the  ripe  fruits  of  the 
south.     Its  song  is  a  soft  agreeable  warble,  be- 


coming plaintive  as  winter  approaches,  at 
which  season  most  of  them  repair  to  the  south- 
ern states.  There  are  two  other  species  mnch 
resembling  the  above,  S.  Mexieana  (Swmns.) 


and  S.  aretiea  (Swains.).    The  bluebird  is  one 

of  the  earliest  o(  our  spring  songsters,  and  does 
good  service  in  destroying  beetles,  grasshop- 
pers, grubs,  wire-wonns,  and  other  similar 
pests;  it  rarely  injures  garden  frnits,  prefer- 
ring those  o(  tiie  sumach  and  the  wild  cherry, 

BLCE  EIRTH,  a  S.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  N.  partly  by  the  Minnesota  river, 
and  intersected  by  the  Blue  Earth  or  Monkato ; 
area,  760  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,802,  The 
Winona  and  St.  Peter,  the  Minnesota  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  St.  Paul  and  Sions 
City  railroads  traverse  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  726,878  bushels  of 
wheat,  198,060  of  Indian  com,  467,6TS  of  oats, 
85,146  of  barley,  65,393  of  potatoes,  18,964 
tons  of  hay,  and  87.071  lbs.  of  butter.  There 
were  4,402  horses,  11,731  homed  cattle,  6,690 
sheep,  and  5,65S  swine.     Capital,  Mankato. 

n,0EFItlD8,  or  BlewBeMs,  a  river  and  town  of 
Nicaragua, the latterontheMosqnltocoast.  The 
river  is  several  linndred  miles  long,  is  navigable 
for  80  miles,  and  empties  into  an  inlet  of  the 
Caribbean  sea.  It  is  also  known  as  RioEscon- 
dido.  The  town  stands  on  an  eminence  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  about  200  m.  E.  8.  E.  of 
Leon,  and  150  m.  N.  of  San  JosS,  Costa  Rica, 
and  has  about  500  inhabitants  and  a  good  har- 
bor. It  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  king 
of  the  Mosquito  country. 

BLCEFISH  {temnodon  taltator,  Cuv.),  an 
acantbopterygian  fish  of  the  family  of  tcombri- 
da,  called  also  the  skipjack,  and  sometimes 
horse  mackerel ;  both  of  the  latter  terms  are 
applied  to  other  scomberoid  fishes,  and  the  lest 
especially,  on  the  New  England  coast,  to  a 
species  of  tunny.    All  the  npper  part  of  the 


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75S 


BLUEIITG  OF  METALS 


bod;  b  of  a  bluish  color,  the  lower  part  of  sides 
and  abdomen  whitish,  a  lar^  black  spot  at  the 
boae  of  pectoral  fins ;  tlie  jaws  are  armed  with 

Rrominent,  sharp,  and  lancinated  teeth,  the 
>wer  with  one  row,  the  upper  with  a  second 
posterior  row  of  small  ones;  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  vomer,  and  palatal  bones  are  also 
crowded  witb  very  small  teeth;  the  opercnium 
terminates  in  two  points,  not  spines,  the  lateral 
line  beginning  jnst  above  its  posterior  angle, 
and,  carving  ivitb  tlie  body,  terminating  at  the 
base  of  the  cauJal  fln ;  the  flns  are  covered 
with  scales.  It  arrives  on  the  coast  of  the 
middle  states  early  in  the  spring,  accompanying 
the  weakflsh  {otalithui  regnlit,  Cuv.)  in  its 
migrations,  and  feodioK  principolly  npon  it;  it 
is  not  nncommon  In  MBssachiisetts  bay  in  the 
Biimmer  months,  where  it  is  often  seen  chasing 
the  schools  of  menhaden  and  mackerel,  jump- 
ing out  of  water,  and  so  hotly  pursuing  its 
prey  as  to  drive  lor^  numbers  of  them  upon 
the  beaches.  The  size  varies  from  1  to  3  feet 
In  length,  the  weight  from  C  to  14  lbs.,  the 
former  being  the  ordinary  weight  of  those  seen 
in  the  market.  They  are  among  the  most 
swiit,  strong,  and  voracious  of  fishes ;  tliey  will 
bite  eagerly  ut  any  object  drawn  rapidly  through 


BlneJUi  {Tamnodoa  ultatort 


the  water  and  adtantoge  is  taken  of  this  to 
catch  them  by  trolling  in  sail  boats  so  sliarp 
are  tljeir  teeth  tliat  it  is  necessary  to  wire  the 
line  for  a  short  distance  above  the  hook  or 
spoon.  It  is  BO  terrible  a  foe  to  the  maokerel, 
that  the  scarcity  of  the  latter  fish  on  the  New 
England  coast  in  1867  was  attributed  by  the 
fiflhermon  mainly  to  its  presence.  .It  generally 
gwima  near  the  surface.  Toward  the  latter 
part  of  sninnior  it  is  most  eicullent  eating.  It 
runs  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  even  to  qnite  fresh 
water,  being  taken  in  the  Hudson  as  high  up 
OS  Sing  Sing,  in  the  Delaware  at  Philadelphia, 
and  ia  the  Potomaa  as  for  up  as  Acgnia  creek. 
It  ranges  fur  along  the  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Valen- 
ciennes, inhabits  as  a  single  species  both  oceans. 
It  is  erratic  in  its  habits,  and  on  some  coasts 
does  not  appear  for  many  years  an4  then  snd- 
denly  returns  in  great  numbers.  Daring  the 
last  half  of  the  18th  century  and  the  first  bolf 
of  the  19th  it  disappeared  entirely  from  the 
, coast  of  New  England, 

BLUEING  OF  METAl^  the  process  of  giving  a 
blue  color  to  metallic  substances  by  heat  Iron 
when  heated  becomes  first  of  a  light,  then  of 
a  darker  gold  color,  and  finally  blue.  Steel 
beated  to  redness  and  suddenly  cooled  is  ren- 


BLtJE  LAWS 

dered  bard  and  hritUe.  It  is  restored  to  any 
degree  of  softness  by  heating  it  up  to  certain 
temperatures  and  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly. 
These  temperatures  are  precisely  indicated  by 
the  color  of  thefilmof  oiide  which  forms  upon 
its  surface.  The  first  perceptible  tint  is  a  iigbt 
straw  color,  which  is  produced  by  the  lowest 
degree,  and  indicates  the  hardest  temper ;  the 
beat  required  is  from  430°  to  450°  F. ;  it  is 
used  fur  lancets,  razors,  and  surgical  instru- 
ments. At  470°  a  full  yellow  is  produced ;  it 
is  the  temper  fitted  for  scalpels,  penknives,  and 
fine  cutlery.  The  temperature  of  4UU°  gives  a 
brown  yellow,  which  is  the  temper  for  shears 
intended  for  cutting  iron.  At  510°  the  first 
tinge  of  purple  shows  itself;  this  ia  the  temper 
employed  ibr  penknives.  The  purple  hae 
which  appears  at  5*20°  is  the  tint  for  table  and 
carving  knives.  A  temperature  from  680°  to 
C70°  produces  various  sliades  of  bine,  aucb  as 
ore  used  for  watch  springs,  sword  blades,  saws, 
and  instruments  requiring  great  elasticity.  The 
different  degrees  of  heat  may  be  exactly  r^n- 
lated  by  plunging  the  articles  in  an  oQ  bath, 
the  temperature  of  which  is  ascertained  by 
means  of  tliermometers.  ISIacksmitliM  usually 
temper  their  cold  chisels,  drills,  and  other 
tools,  by  chilling  them  from  a  red  heat  by  im- 
mersion in  water;  a  bright  spot  is  then  filed 
upon  the  point,  which  is  then  beated  in  the 
forge  ontil  this  spot  has  assumed  the  dewred 

BLUE  LAWS,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  the 
early  enactments  of  several  of  the  New  Eng- 
land statea,  bnt  more  frequently  limited  to  the 
lawa  of  New  Haven  colony.    The  origin  of  the 
term  is  notexactly  known.    The  most  probable 
derivation  ia  that  given  by  Professor  fcingsiey, 
who  thinks  the  epithet  "  blue  "  was  applied  to 
any  one  who  in  the  times  of  Charles  II.  looked 
ion  on  the  lii 
Hudibras, 
Fh  Ui  itWon.  It  «■*  at 
To  matcli  hla  Jeamlni;  uid  tali  wit ; 
'Twu  Pr«b}^iiaii  In»  trfua. 

In  tlie  colonies  this  epithet  was  applied  not 
only  to  persons,  but  to  tne  customs,  institutions, 
and  laws  of  the  Puritans,  Hence,  probably,  a 
belief  with  some  that  a  distinct  system  of  laws, 
known  as  the  blue  laws,  must  somewhere  have 
had  a  local  habitation.  The  existence  of  sucb 
a'code  of  bine  laws  is  fully  disproved.  The 
only  authority  in  its  favor  is  Peters,  who  is  no- 
toriously untrDst worthy.  The  traditions  upon 
this  subject,  fi-om  which  Peters  fi-amed  his 
stories,  undoubtedly  arose  from  the  fact  that 
the  early  settlers  of  New  Haven  were  uncom- 
monly strict  in  their  application  of  the  "gene- 
ral rules  of  righteousness."  Judge  Smith,  in 
his  continuation  of  the  history  of  New  York, 
pabllsbed  in  "New  York  Historical  Collec- 
tions," vol.  iv.,  gives  evidence  ogainst  the  ei- 
istenee  of  the  bine  lews,  which  is  particularly 
valuable,  as  it  was  piit  on  record  some  1 5  years 
before  Peters's  histoid  was  published.  Ba 
writes:  "  Few  there  we  who  apeak  of  the  Hue 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLUE  LICK  SPRING3 

Jaws  (a  title  of  tbe  origin  of  which  the  antbor 
is  if^orant),  who  do  not  imagine  tliej  form  a 
code  of  rules  drawn  up  for  liitiire  conduct,  b; 
an  enthnaiasCic  precise  set  of  religionists;  and 
if  the  inventiona  of  wits,  hnmorlsts,  and  bnf- 
fuona  were  to  be  credited,  the;  mast  ooDsiat  of 
niBaj  large  Tolnnies.  The  author  bad  tbe 
cnriositj  to  resort  to  them  when  the  commis- 
sioners met  at  Sew  Elaveo  for  ai^asting  a  par- 
tition line  between  New  York  and  Massachn- 
aetts  in  17Q7;  and  a  parchment-corered  book 
of  demi-royal  paper  waa  handed  him  for  the 
laws  naked  for,  as  the  only  volume  in  the  office 
passinp:  under  this  odd  tills.  It  contains  the 
ntemoriala  of  tbe  first  establishment  of  the  col- 
ony, whicli  consisted  of  persons  who  hod  wan- 
dered bejond  the  limits  of  the  old  charter  of 
Masaachusetla  Bay,  and  who,  as  yet  nnauthor- 
ized  by  the  crown  to  set  up  any  civil  govem- 
ment  in  dne  form  of  law,  reaolved  to  conduct 
themselves  by  tlie  Bible,  As  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, the  Judges  they  chose  took  np  an  ; 
authority  which  every  relieious  num  exercises  . 
over  bia  own  children  and  domeatica.  Hence  . 
tbeir  attentions  to  the  morals  of  tbe  people  in  I 
instances  with  which  the  civil  magiatrabe  can  | 
never  int«nDeddle  in  a  regular  well  policed  ' 
conetitation,  because  to  preserve  liberty  tbey  ; 
are  recognizable  only  by  parental  authority."  | 
"The  good  men  and  good  wives  were  admon- 
ished and  fined  for  liberties  daily  corrected, 
bst  never  made  criminal  by  the  laws  of  lar^ 
and  well  jioised  communities;  and  so  t&t  is  the 
common  idea  of  the  blue  laws  being  a  collec- 
tion, of  rules  from  being  true,  that  tbey  are 
only  records  of  convictions  consonant  in  tbe 
judgment  of  tbe  magistrates  to  tbe  word  of 
God  and  tbe  dictates  of  reason."  See  also 
Palfrev'a  "History  of  New  Ei^land,"  vol.  ii., 
p.  82,  note. 

BLEE  UCK  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  Nicholas 
CO.,  Kentucky,  on  Licking  river,  40  m.  N.  E.  of 
Frankfort;  pop.  in  1870,  751.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  waters,  wbioh  form  an  article 
of  considerable  trafSo  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  They  contain  soda,  magnesia,' 
lime,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  acid, 
in  combination  with  muriates  and  sulphates. 

NX'S.  HONDIY,  originally  so  called  from  a 
fashion,  prevalent  in  the  16th  century,  of  dec- 
orating the  churches  on  tbe  Monday  preceding 
Lent  with  bine  colors.  It  was  celebrated  as 'a 
general  holiday,  and  the  excesses  frequently 
comiuitted  during  the  revels  led  to  stringent 
enactments  on  the  subject,  amounting  almost 
to  an  aboUtion  of  the  custom. 

BUfE  HULHTtlNS.  I.  Tbe  central  monntain 
range  of  the  island  of  Jamaica.  It  extends 
£.  and  W.  through  tbe  centre  of  the  island, 
with  ofiketa  covering  its  eastern  portion.  The 
main  ridges  are  from  6,000  to  8,000  ft.  high, 
and  are  flanked  by  lower  ranges,  gradnally  alo- 
ping  off  into  verdant  savannahs.  These  moun- 
tains are  remarkable  for  their  steep  declivities 
and  sharp,  narrow  eresta,  which  are  some- 
times only  a  few  yards  across.    They  cover 


BLUET  D'AHBERES 


739 


the  greater  part  of  the  island,  the  level 
portions  beirig  estimated  at  not  mora  than 
^  part  of  tbe  whole.  The  valleys  are  deep 
longitudinal  depresraone,  covered,  as  are  also 
the  fudes  of  the  mountains,  with  dense  vegeta- 
tion and  stately  forests.  In  the  great  earth- 
auake  of  1992  th^se  mountains  were  terribly 
blattered  and  rent.  II>  A  range  in  the  fi.  E. 
part  of  Now  South  Wales,  extending  through 
the  counties  of  Cook,  Roiburgh,  and  West- 
moreland, nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  and 
forming  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  rivers 
of  tbe  coast  and  those  of  the  interior.  These 
mountains  attain  a  con»derable  elevation,  Ut. 
Beemarang,  believed  to  be  the  loftiest  peak, 
having  a  height  of  4,100  ft.  The  road  which 
crosses  them,  built  in  ISIS,  is  in  places  8,400 
ft,  high.  Tbe  range  oonsists  of  ferrnginoos  eond- 

BLUS  RIDCE,  the  moat  eastern  of  the  princi- 
pal ridgea  of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  moun- 
tains. It  is  the  continuation  8.  of  tlie  Potomao 
of  the  same  great  ridge  which  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland  is  known  as  the  South  moun- 
tain. It  retwna  the  name  of  Blue  Bidge  till  it 
crosses  the  James  river,  from  which  to  the 
line  of  North  Carolina  its  continuation  is  call- 
ed tbe  Alleghany  mounts.  Running  through 
North  Carolina  into  Tennessee,  it  again  bears 
the  name  of  Blue  Ridge.     (See  Appalachiak 

MOCNTAINB.) 

BLEE  BIF^  a  river  of  Indiana,  rising  in 
Henry  county  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state, 
takes  a  8.  W.  course,  and  joins  Sugar  creek,  in 
Johnson  county,  after  which  it  takes  the  name 
of  Driftwood  fork,  or  East  fork  of  White  river. 
Above  Sugar  creek  it  is  from  80  to  60  yards 
wide,  and  affords  excellent  water  power.  The 
towns  of  Shelbyville  and  Newcastle  are  on  its 
banks. 

BLUE  CTVCUNGS,  a  title  which  originated  in 
England  in  the  time  of  Dr.  Johnson  for  ladies 
wlio  cnltivated  learned  conversation.  Dr.  Do- 
ran  relates  that  in  17G7  it  was  much  the  fashion 
for  ladies  to  form  evening  assemblies  where 
'  they  might  participate  in  talk  with  literary  and 
I  ingenious  men.  One  of  the  moat  eminent  talk- 
ers on  these  occasions  tvas  a  Mr.  Stillingfieet, 
who  always  wore  blue  stockings,  and  his  ab- 
sence at  any  time  was  so  regretted  that  it  used 
to  be  said,  "  We  can  do  nothing  without  the 
blue  stockings."  The  title  was  by  degree* 
transferred,  first  to  the  clubs  of  this  kind,  and 
then  to  the  ladies  who  attended  them.  It  soon 
became  a  general  appellation  for  pedantic  or 
ridiculously  literary  ladies.  One  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  clubs  was  that  which  met  at 
Mrs.  Montagu's,  which  was  sometimes  honored 
by  the  presence  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  princi- 
pal members  of  which  have  been  sketched  and 
eulogized  by  Hannah  More,  in  her  poem  enti- 
tled "The  Bas  Bleu." 

BUB  TtniOL    See  Copper,  vol.  v.,  p.  318. 

BUKT  IFilUSES,  BerMrd,  a  profesuonal 
French  fool,  bom  about  1569,  died  in  1606.  In 
boyhood  he  was  a  shepherd,  afterward  a  cart- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


760 


BLUM 


wriglit,  and  then  fool  to  &  Savoyard  nobtemau. 
At  tha  age  of  84  lie  went  to  Paris,  and  as- 
sumed the  titles  of  comt«  de  Permmion  and 
ehgralUr  da  ligvei  dfs  XIII.  eantoit*  auiite*. 
He  wrote  eulogies  for  the  great,  on  whose  boun- 
ty ho  lived,  particularly  on  that  of  Henry  IV., 
and  afterward  wrote  propliecies  for  the  people. 
His  worka  were  collected  into  178  books,  of 
which  abont  ISO  have  come  down  to  ns.  In 
1631,  a  copy  of  Bluet  was  sold  in  England  for 
£20  sterling.  It  is  said  that  when  the  plagne 
of  1S06  ravaged  Paris,  Binet  announced  that 
bis  total  abstention  from  food  for  nine  days 
would  save  the  city.      He  died  on  the  nxth 

BLOI,  Kaknt,  a  German  revolutionist,  bom 
in  Cologne,  Nov.  10,  1807,  executed  in  Vien- 
na, Nov.  e,  184S.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Jour- 
neyman cooper,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  ob- 
tidned  employment  as  ma«s  servant,  but  after- 
ward fonnd  occupation  in  a  lantern  mannfao- 
tory  and  was  promoted  to  the  connting  house. 
He  accompanied  hie  employer  on  journeys 
throngh  the  southern  states  of  Germany,  and 
in  ie29-'30  resided  with  him  at  Berlin.  Sum- 
moned in  1880  to  the  military  service,  he  was 
dismissed  aller  six  weeks  and  returned  to  Co- 
logne, where  he  was  employed  as  man  of  all 
work  at  the  theatre.  In  1881  he  was  appoint- 
ed cashier  and  secretary  of  the  Leipsio  uieatre, 
a  post  he  held  till  18*7.  From  1831  to  1837 
he  made  contributions  to  the  Leipsio  family 
papers,  such  as  the  Komet,  the  Abendteitung, 
&c.,  and  pnblished  a  "  Theatrical  Cyctopsdia," 
"Friend  of  the  Constitution,"  an  almanac  en~ 
titled  VonedrU,  &c.  In  1840  he  be<^ame  one 
of  the  founders,  and  in  1841  one  of  the  direc- 
tors of  the  Schiller  aasociation,  and  of  the  as- 
sociation of  German  authors.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  SdehaiscAe  ValerlandAldtttT,  a  po- 
litical jonmal,  made  him  the  otgect  of  govern- 
ment persecution.  German  Catholicism  found 
a  warm  partisan  in  him.  He  founded  the  Ger- 
man Catholic  church  at  Leipmo,  and  became 
its  spiritual  director  in  184S.  On  Aag.  12, 
184S,  when  an  immense  meeting  of  armed  dti- 
zens  and  students  threatened  to  storm  the 
riflemen's  harraclcs  at  Leipsic,  Blum  by  his  elo- 
quence prevented  a  riot  The  Saxon  govern- 
ment continned  its  persecution  against  him, 
and  in  1847  suppressed  the  Vaterlmidtblatter. 
On  the  oatbreak  of  the  revolution  of  February, 
1B48,  he  became  the  centre  of  the  liberal  party 
of  Saxony,  founded  the  "Fatherland's  Asso- 
ciation," which  soon  mnstered  above  40,000 
members,  was  vice  president  of  the  preliminary 
German  parliament  assembled  at  Frankfort,  af- 
ter its  dissolntion  a  member  of  the  committee 
it  left  behind,  and  ultimately  representative  of 
the  city  of  Leipsic  in  the  regular  parliament. 
.  His  political  theory  aimed  at  a  German  re- 

Siiblic  based  on  the  different  traditionary  kiog- 
oms,  dukedoms,  &c. ;  since,  in  his  opinion, 
the  latter  alone  were  able  to  preserve  intact 
what  he  considered  o  pecnliar  beauty  of  Ger- 
man society,  the  independent  development  of 


BLUMENBACH 

its  different  orders.  When  the  news  of  the 
Vienna  insurrection  of  Oct.  6  reached  Frank- 
fort, he,  in  company  with  FrObel,  carried  to 
Vienna  an  address  drawn  up  by  the  parlia- 
mentary opposition,  which  he  handed  to  the 
nmnicipai  connoil  of  Vienna,  Oct.  17.  Having 
enrolled  himself  in  the  ranks  of  the  stndents' 
corps,  and  commanded  a  barricade  during  the 
fight,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and,  after  the 
capture  of  Vienna  by  WindischgrStz,  sentenced 
to  the  gallows,  a  punishment  commuted  to  that 
of  being  sliot.  Tiiis  execution  took  place  at 
daybreak,  in  the  Brigittenan. 

BLDMEHBiCH,  Jokau  f>Mrkh,  a  German 
DBtnrdist,  bom  at  Gotha,  May  U,  17G2,  died 
in  GSttingen,  Jan.  22,  1840.  His  father  was 
a  teacher.  His  love  of  science  was  first  kin- 
dled when  he  was  only  10  years  of  age,  by  the 
sight  of  a  hnman  skeleton  in  the  house  of  a 
physician,  the  friend  of  his  father.  While  a 
schoolboy  he  made  coUectious  of  human  skulls 
and  the  bones  of  animals  as  a  basis  for  com- 
parative anatomy.  At  the  age  of  17  he  com- 
menced the  stndy  of  medicine  at  Jena,  where 
he  remained  three  years,  and  afterward  went 
to  GSttingen,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine  in  1T7S.  On  that  occauon 
he  wrote  a  the^s  on  the  different  varietiea  of 
the  human  race,  De  Gtnerit  Humani  Varietatt 
Natina,  in  which  he  developed  the  germ  of 
those  craniological  researches  and  comparisons 
for  which  he  afterward  became  celebrated- 
In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  jnnior 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gdttingen  and  keeper 
of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history,  and  i™o 
years  later  (1TT8)  regular  professor.  From 
1760  to  1794  be  edited  a  scientific  publication, 
the  Medicmiteha  Bibliotheh,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  valuable  articles  on  medicine, 
physiology,  and  comparative  anatomy.  He 
also  obtained  a  repntetion  by  the  publication 
of  his  Inttitutume*  Phytielogiea,  a  condensed 
and  well  arranged  view  of  the  animal  fimc- 
tions;  the  work  appeared  in  178T,  and  daring 
a  period  of  G4  years  passed  through  many 
editions  in  Germany,  where  it  was  the  gen- 
eral textbook  In  the  schools.    It  was  rendered 


1817.  Blumenbach  became  still  more 
extensively  known  by  his  manual  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  and  physiology  (Eandbuek  der 
uergleichenden  An^tomie  iind  Phytiologie),  of 
which  three  editions  were  published  in  Ger- 
many from  1804  to  1824.  It  was  translated 
into  English  in  1809  by  the  eminent  surgeon 
Lawrence;  and  again  with  the  latest  addi- 
tions and  improvements,  by  Conlson,  in  1827. 
Though  less  elaborate  than  the  works  of  Oo- 
vier  and  Carus,  this  work  of  Blumenbach  will 
always  be  valoed  for  the  accuracj  of  his 
own  observations,  and  the  Just  appreciaticm 
of  the  labors  of  his  predecessors.  Blomen- 
hoch  was  the  first  who  placed  comparative 
anatomy  on  a  truly  scientmo  basis,  hi  1783, 
long  bdbre  Ouvier'a  time,  he  instituted  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BLUFT 

method  of  comparinft  different  varieties  of  bo- 
man  skeletons  u  well  as  akeletons  of  tmimals. 
Camper  had  only  compared  the  facial  angles 
of  tba  alculla  of  Earopeaiia,  negroes,  and  orang- 
outangs; Blnmenbach  perceived  the  insufBcien- 
cj  of  Uiese  few  points  of  comparison,  and  intro- 
daced  a  general  aurvej  of  comparative  anatomy. 
He  insisted  on  the  neceBsity  of  comparing  the 
whole  craninm  and  face,  to  distingaish  the  va- 
rieties of  the  human  race ;  and  his  numerone 
observations  were  published  in  the  ColUctio 
CranioTwn  Divenarvm  Gentium,  published  at 
Gfittingen,  in  7  decades,  from  1790  to  1S28,  m 
4to,  with  SO  figures,  and  in  the  Nova  Penta» 
Colleetionia  lua  Cranionim,  which  was  joined 
to  the  work  in  the  latter  jear.  The  ethnologi- 
cal division  of  mankind  into  five  races,  called 
respectively  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  the 
Malay,  the  Ethiopian,  and  the  American,  was 
first  proposed  by  Blnmenbach,  and  for  many 
years  had  popidar  currency,  though, now  dis- 
oarded  as  inadequate  by  most  ethnologists. 
The  greatest  part  of  Blumenbach's  life  was 
passed  at  tiottingen.  In  1788  he  visited 
Bwitzeriand,   end  gave  a  carious  medical  to- 

Eography  of  that  country  in  his  Bibliotheh. 
n  17B8  he  was  in  England,  and  also  in  1TB2. 
The  prince  regent  in  181G  conferred  on  him 
the  office  of  physician  to  the  royal  family 
in  Hanover,  and  in  1821  made  him  knight 
companion  of  the  Guelphio  order.  The  royal 
academy  of  Paris  adopted  him  as  a  member 
in  18S1.  In  1825  Blnmenbach  celebrated  the 
Both  anniversary  of  his  inauguration  as  a  doc- 
tor of  medicine,  and  in  1838  of  his  profesaor- 
sliip.  In  18SS  he  retired  from  public  life,  and 
on]y  lectured  privately  to  select  aadiences. 

BLENT.  L  EdHiid  HaRk,  an  American  hy- 
drographer,  bom  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  June 
20,  IT70,  died  at  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  2,  1863. 
His  "American  Coaet  Pilot,"  describing  every 
port  on  tlie  coasts  of  the  United  States,  has 
proved  a  osefiil  work  to  seamen  throoghout 
the  world.  It  was  commenced  by  him  in  1T96, 
and  the  24tli  ediUon  was  published  by  his  son 
G.  W.  Biunt  of  New  York  in  1868 ;  and  it  has 
been  translated  into  most  of  the  European  lan- 
guages. His  other  nautical  works,  charts,  &c., 
are  numerous.  IL  Ednui,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Newhuryport,  Mass.,  Nov.  28, 1789, 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  ¥.,  SepL  2,  1B6S.  At  the 
age  of  17  he  surveyed  the  harbor  of  New  York ; 
and  from  that  time  up  to  1838  he  was  engaged 
in  surveys  in  the  West  Indies,  Guatemala,  and 
the  seacoast  of  the  United  States,  on  his  pri- 
vate account.  In  1838  be  was  appointed  a 
first  assistant  in  the  U.  S.  coast  survey,  in  which 
office  he  continued  till  his  death.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  E.  and  G.  W.  Blunt, 
nautical  publishers  of  New  York.  Mr.  Blunt 
advocated  and  procured  the  introdaction  of  the 
Fresncl  light  in  American  lighthouses. 
BLI'NT,  Join  Henrr-  See  supplement, 
BLOiT,  Joki  jRMts,  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Newcastle-nnder-Ljme  in  1794,  died  in 
Cambridge,  June  IT,  t8uS.     He  obtained  a 


BLUNT8CHU 


T61 


fellowship  in  the  nnivcreity  of  Cambridge  in 
1616,  and  being  appointed  in  1818  one  of  the 
travelling  bachelors,  visited  Italy,  and  wrote  a 
volume  on  the  "Vestiges  of  Ancient  Manners 
and  Customs  discoversble  in  Modern  Italy  and 
Sicily  "  (1828).  He  held  various  ecclesiastical 
appointments  till  18S9,  when,  on  the  death  of 
Bishop  Marsh,  he  was  electea  Lady  Margaret's 
professor  of  divinity.  His  principal  works 
are  :  "  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writ- 
ings both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  an 
Argument  of  their  Veracity  "  (1847 ;  6th  ed., 
1866) ;  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  first  tliree  Centuries  "  (2d  ed.,  1866) ;  and 
"  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  of  tbe  Church 
of  England." 

BUTHT,  WHIM  StawM,  and  Ahm  IhM  NmL 
See  supplement. 

BUINTSCBLI,  Jtkau  Kiqur,  a  German  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  ZQrich,  Switzerland, 
March  7,  1808.  He  studied  under  Ba^igny  at 
Berlin  and  under  Niebuhr  at  Bonn,  where  he 
graduated  in  1829.  Ue  was  employed  in  the 
judiciary  at  Zilrich  and  as  teacher  at  the  oni- 
versity  (1880),  and  snbseqnently  as  professor, 
sad  member  of  the  grand  council  (1687)  and  of 
the  local  government  (1889).  In  opposition  to 
the  radicals,  he  founded  a  liberal-conservative 

Earty,  and  energetically,  hut  in  vain,  eierted 
imself  to  prevent  the  civil  war  of  )847.  After 
tlie  downfall  of  the  Sonderhund,  and  the  de- 
cided victory  of  radicalism,  he  left  Switzer- 
land and  became  professor  of  German  and 
international  law  at  Munich  (1648),  and  since 
1861  he  has  been  professor  of  political  sd- 
ence  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  acUve  in  1862  in 
favor  of  a  German  house  of  representatives 
as  a  step  toward  natjonal  unity,  and  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Baden  upper  liouse  in  the  cause 
of  parliamentary  reform.  In  coi^juuction  with 
Baumgarten  and  other  reformers  he  founded 
in  1864  the  Proteetant  nnion,  waa  pt'esident 
of  the  Protestant  conventions  at  Eisenach 
(1866),  Neustadt  (1867),  Bremen  and  Beriin 
(1868),  and  of  tiie  Baden  general  synod  (1867). 
After  the  victory  of  Prussia  over  Austria  in 

1866  he  favored  an  intimate  union  between 
North  and  South  Germany,  and  was  elected  in 

1867  to  the  Zollparltmtnt  (customs  parlia- 
ment). His  works  include  StaaU-  ktuI  Seektt- 
getehichta  der  Stadt  und  Landtelmft  Z&riek 
(2  vols.,  1888-'9;  2d  ed.,  1866);  Geiehichtt 
det  Sehweueriieh^  Bwidetreehtt  (2  vols.,  1846 
-'62) ;  Allgemeina  StaattrecU  (2  vols.,  Mn- 
nich,  8d  ed.,  1868);  DeuUehet  Pricatreeht 
(1853 ;  8d  ed.,  1864) ;  and  SetekiehU  de»  allge- 
meinen  StaatrrechU  umj  d«r  Politih  (1864), 
the  last  named  being  the  first  of  a  series  of 
works  relating  to  the  history  of  the  various 
sciences,  the  publication  of  which  was  pro- 
posed by  Maximilian  II.,  the  late  king  of  Ba- 
varia. Among  the  other  works  which  make 
him  a  high  authority  on  international  and  po- 
litical sciences  and  law  and  the  laws  of  war 
are:  Dot  moderna  Krieg»recht  der  ewilinrtett 
Stoats  alt  Beehttbueh  dargeiUUt  (Nordlingen, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


762  B( 

18S8);  Dot  modemt  Vdlt&rreeht  alt  Rechtt- 
hveh  mil  ETidutervngen  (NOrdlingen,  1868; 
FreDch  tranBlation,  b;  lardy,  Paris,  1869} ; 
Dot  modeme  Vf/lierreckt  in  dem  fVanioritch- 
DeuUehen  Kritge  ton  1870  (Heidelberg.  1871) ; 
and  Dot  Deuttche  Slaattworterhueh,  in  con- 
junction nith.£rat«r  (11  vols.,  1857-70). 

BOl,  a  large  serpent  of  the  family  boida, 
order  ophidia.  This  family  is  known  bj  the 
following  characterB :  Tiie  under  part  of  the 
body  and  tul  ia  covered  with  transverae  bands, 
each  of  a  single  piece,  narrow,  scaly,  and 
often  dz-fflded;  there  is  neither  aparnor  rattle 
at  the  tip  of  the  tail  \  the  hinder  limbs,  formed 
of  several  bones,  are  developed  into  an  ez- 
aerted  horny  spine  or  hook  on  each  side  of 
the  vent;  the  body  compressed,  larger  toward 
the  middle ;  the  tail  short  and  prehenmle ;  the 

Cupil  oblons  and  erect;  and  scales  small,  at 
last  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head.  They  are 
the  largest  of  serpents,  and  though  without 
venom,  their  immense  mnscnlar  power  enables 
them  to  crush  within  their  folds  large  animals, 
which  they  firat  lubricate  with  saliva,  and  then 
swallow  whole  by  their  enormously  dilatable 
jaws  and  gullet. — It  appears  that  serpents  of 
this  family  once  existed  in  Italy,  Greece,  and 
the  Mediterranean  regions  of  Africa.     Vir- 

Sil's  description  of  the  death  of  LaoeoSn  and 
is  two  sone,  as  well  as  the  magnificent  marble 
group  which  either  furnished  the  snbjert  for 
bis  description,  or  was  suggested  to  the  sculptor 
by  it,  and  again  the  account  in  the  S4th  idyl 
of  Theocritus  of  the  serpents  sent  by  Juno  to 
destroy  the  infant  Hercules  in  his  cradle,  all 
show  that  the  artists  were  perfectly  acqnuoted 
with  the  action  of  constricting  serpents.  The 
narrative  by  Valerius  Maiimus  of  the  gigantic 
serpent  which  had  its  lair  by  the  waters  of  the 
river  Bagradaa  (M^erda),  not  far  from  TJtica,  or 
the  present  site  of  Tunis,  and  kept  the  whole 
army  of  Regnlus  at  bay,  killing  many  of  hi>< 
soldiers,  until  it  was  at  length  deatrored  by 
atones  cast  from  Uie  engines  used  in  the  siege 
of  cities,  is  familiar  to  most  readers.  Fliny 
adds  that  the  serpents  called  bom  In  Italy  con- 
firm this ;  for  that  they  grow  so  large  that  cue 
killed  on  the  Vatican  hill  in  the  reign  of  Claudius 
had  the  entare  body  of  an  infant  in  its  belly. 
Snetonius  mentions  the  exhibition  of  a  serpent 
of  60  cubits  (75  feet)  in  length,  in  front  of  the 
Comitiom.  These  reptiles,  which  are  now 
fbnnd  in  tropical  countries  only,  have  been 
distinguished  into  25  genera,  under  which  are 
arranged,  according  to  characteristic  differ- 
ences, tlie  serpents  in  the  British  museum. 
Among  these  genera,  mo^t  of  which  contain 
several  species,  are  the  following:  I.  Python, 
two  species,  distinguished  A'Om  the  boas  by 
placing  its  eggs  in  ^onps,  and  covering  them 
with  its  body,  a  habit  which  had  been  doubted, 
bnt  has  been  verified  from  observation  of  the 
proceedings  of  a  python  in  the  jardin  dt* 
plnnte*  at  Paris ;  the  ufcrr  taitad  of  Hindo- 
stan,  Ceylon,  and  Borneo,  and  the  rock  snake 
of  Java.     The  former  is  one  of  the  largest  and 


most  terrible  of  all  these  monsters,  said  to  grow 
to  80  ft.  in  length,  and  proportionally  stout, 
and  to  be  able  to  manage  a  full-grown  hnfifalo. 


Femtc  Fythoi 

There  have  been  living  apecimers  of  both  these 
anakes  in  the  xodlogical  gardens,  Regent's  park, 
London.  11.  Jlortvlia,  three  species,  all  of 
Sonth  Africa:  the  Natal  rock  snake,  25  It. 
long,  and  as  large  as  the  body  of  a  stont  man : 
the  Guinea  ruck  snake,  of  which  there  was  ii 


NalBl  Bock  Smke  (ItcuCuiui  KiUltiiilii). 
?ppcimen  in  the  Regent's  park ;  and  the  royal 
rock  snake,  supposed  to  weigh  over  100  lbs. 
111.  Jiea,  four  species,  peculiar  to  Mexico. 
Honduras,  Santa  Lucia,  and  Pern.  This  is  the 
genua  which  has  given  the  general  name  to  the 
whole  family  of  great  constricting  serpents. 
The  skin  of  one  of  these  serpents,  of  the  first 
species,  hoa  eonttrirtor,  the  tlieoatl  and  tema- 
emhakuiUa  of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  object 
of  their  serpent  worship,  ia  preserved  in  the 
British  museum.  The  proper  boa  is  decided 
by  Cuvier  not  to  be  a  native  of  any  portion  of 
the  old  world.  IV.  Evneeta,  one  species,  a 
native  of  tropical  America;  thisis  thcanaconda, 
a  name  said  to  be  of  Ceylonese  origin,  which, 
like  that  of  boa,  has  been  vulgarly  given  to  the 
whole  family.  (See  Anaconda.)— This  is  the 
most  terrible  class  of  destmctive  reptiles  in  ex- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BOAR 


763 


igteoce.  Their  long,  keen  teeth  are  earved 
etronglv  backward,  each  tooth  in  either  Jaw 
fitting  between  the  intersticea  of  two  in  the 


Lo*  ConaCrtctiir. 
Other,  clasping  whatever  they  seize  npon  inex- 
tricably. The  body  is  readily  wound  about  the 
victim  in  hofce  knots,  compressed  closer  and 
closer  nntil  lit'o  is  extinct.  Mr.  McI.eod,  who 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  vojnge  of  H.  M.  S. 
Aleeate,  in  whicli  was  bronffht  over  to  Engliind 
from  the  island  of  Borneo  a  serpent  of  the 
family  of  boida,  16  ft.  long  and  18  inches  in 
circumference,  describes  their  process  of  con- 
striction. A  goat  was  put  into  the  cue  of  the 
boa  every  three  weeks  and  swallowed,  not  by 
the  power  of  suction,  but  by  the  effect  of 
muscular  contraction,  assisted  by  two  rows  of 
Btron;;,  hmked  teeth.  This  snake  was  2  hours 
and  20  minutes  employed  in  gorging  the  goat, 
during  which  time,  particularly  while  the  ani- 
mal was  in  the  jaws  and  throat  of  the  con- 
strictor, the  skin  of  the  latter  \t&n  distendiid 
almost  to  bursting,  while  the  points  of  the 
horns  could  he  seen,  threatening  as  it  were  at 
every  moment  to  pierce  the  scaly  coat  of  the 
destroyer.  The  snake  coiled  himself,  and  re- 
mained torpid  for  three  weeks,  during  which 
lie  so  completely  digested  and  converted  to  his 
own  nse  the  whole  of  the  goat,  that  he  passed 
nothing  from  him  but  a  small  quantity  of  col- 
car«ouB  matter,  not  equal  to  a  tenth  part  of  the 
bones  of  the  animal,  and  a  few  hairs ;  and  at  the 
eud  of  that  time  was  in  condition  to  devour 
another  goat.  Mr.  Broderip,  the  author  of 
"I.eave3  from  the  Note  Book  of  a  Naturalist" 
and  the  "Zoological  Journal,"  describes  in  al- 
most the  same  words  the  killinjr  and  degluti- 
tion of  a  rabbit,  which  ho  observed  in  the  tower 
of  London.  The  time  required  to  kill  the  rabbit 
was  eight  minutes.  In  every  respect,  indeed, 
Mr.  Broderip  corroborates  the  observations  of 
Mr.  McT<eod,  except  on  one  point,  whether  the 
respiration  of  the  serpent  is  suspended  during 
the  act  of  swallowing,  which  Mr.  McLeod 


affirms  and  Mr.  Broderip  denies,  althongh  witlt- 
out  dissection  the  mode  of  hia  breathing  can- 
not well  be  determined. 

B01DE.V,  Jases,  an  English  dramatist  and 
bic^rapher,  bom  at  Whitehaven  in  170-2,  died 
in  183U.  He  was  a  painter,  but  abandoned  the 
art,  and  wrote  plays,  none  of  which  now  keep 
possession  of  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  lives 
of  John  Kemble,  Mrs.  Siddons,  Mrs.  Jordan, 
and  Mrs.  Inclibald,  and  an  ''  Inquiry  into 
the  Authenticity  of  the  varions  Pictures  and 
Prints  of  tiliakespeare "  (London,  1824),  di- 
rected against  what  is  called  Talma's  portrait 
of  Shakespeare,  and  accepting  the  Ohandos 
portr^t  as  autheutic. 

BOiPICEl,  or  Bsalkca,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  a 
British  tribe  inhabiting  what  are  now  the  coun- 
tiea  of  Cambridge,  Butfulk,  Norfolk,  and  Hert- 
ford, died  aboot  A.  D.  63.  Her  husband,  Fraau- 
tagus,  the  king  of  the  Iceni,  dying,  left  the  em- 
peror Nero  and  his  own  two  daughters  joint 
neirs  to  his  great  wealth,  hoping  thereby  to 
preserve  his  family  and  kingdom  from  the  ra- 
jiacity  of  the  conquerors.  But  his  kingdom  was 
immediately  taken  possession  of  by  the  Roman 
centurions.  For  some  real  or  imaginary  of- 
fence the  British  queen  was  publicly  scourged, 
and  her  daughters  were  abandoned  to  the  lust 
of  the  slaves.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  Suetonius  Paulinua,  the  Roman  governor, 
from  that  part  of  England,  Boadicea  raised  the 
whole  military  force  of  her  barbarians,  and 
bursting  at  their  head  npon  the  Roman  colony 
of  London,  burned  the  city  and  pot  to  the 
sword  in  that  and  neighboring  jilacea  at  least 
70,000  Koman  citizens,  traders,  Italians,  and 
other  subjects  of  the  empire.  Suetonius  hur- 
ried to  the  scene  of  action  from  the  Isle  of 
Man.  The  queen  of  the  Iceni  was  in  command 
of  120,000  troops,  which  gradually  increased  to 
as  many  as  230,000,  according  to  Dion  Casains, 
while  Suetonius  could  bring  into  the  field  fewer 
than  10,000  soldiers,  Tlie  battle  was  fiercely 
contested,  and  Boadioea  displayed  great  valor; 
but  her  troops  being  finally  obliged  to  yield 
Co  the  disciplined  Romans,  she  took  poison. 
The  vietora  spared  nothing;  women,  chil- 
dren, the  beasts  of  burden,  the  dogs,  were  all 
cnt  to  pieces.  It  Is  said  that  80,000  Britons 
were  butchered  that  day,  while  of  the  legion- 
aries only  400  fell,  and  about  as  many  more 
were  wounded.  It  is  believed  that  the  ac- 
tion took  place  not  for  from  Verulaminin  (St. 
Albans),  a  Roman  colony,  which  at  tlie  first 
irruption  had  shared  the  t^te  of  London. 

BOAK  (»i«  nper),  the  mala  swine.  The  do- 
mestic hog  and  the  wild  boar  of  Europe,  Afri- 
ca, and  Asia  are,  generally  speaking,  of  tile 
same  species,  and  will  breed  together  and  pro- 
duce young  capable  of  propagating  their  kind. 
It  appears  tliat  the  most  improved  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  domesticated  breeds  are, 
for  the  most  part,  largely  crossed  and  inter- 
mixed with  the  Chinese  and  perhaps  the  Turk- 
ish varieties.  In  America,  Australia,  and  the 
Polynewan  group,  the  hog  was  unknown  origi- 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


764  BOAR 

nail;  in  a  natural  condition;  but  having  been 
turned  out  everywhere  by  the  early  navigatora 
who  discovered  the  coasts  and  iiJandB  of  tlie 
Pacific,  he  lias  propagated  his  species  bo  rapid- 
ly that  Le  is  now  everywhere  abandant,  both 
in  conflnement  and  in  a  state  of  nature.  TJie 
Sooth  American  forests  in  particnlar  are  in- 
habited by  vast  droves,  which  have  relapsed 
into  primitive  wildne^;  while  in  the  more 
woody  parts  of  VJr^nia,  the  western  itates, 
and  Canada,  the  domestic  bog  has  become 
about  half  wild.  The  charact«ri8tics  of  the 
boar  are  the  formidable  recurved  tosltfl  or  ca- 
nine teeth,  two  of  which  proceed  from  the 
npper  and  two  of  yet  more  formidable  dimen- 
sions from  the  lower  jaw,  with  which  it  indicts 
wonnds  of  the  most  terrible  description,  ripping 
in  an  npward  direction,  and  uming  especially 
at  the  soft  parts,  as  the  belly,  flanks,  and  groin 
of  the  horse,  dog,  or  man,  which  comes  in  his 
way  with  hostile  intentions. — A  singular  va- 
riety of  the  boar  is  the  babyronssa  of  the  East 
Indian  archipelago.    (See  Babtrocssa.)    The 


WiW  Bow  (Sui  •per). 

peccary  of  South  America,  which  was  formerly 
classed  with  the  wild  boar,  has  been  lately 
distingoished  as  an  entirely  separate  animal. — 
The  bo&r,  whether  wild  or  domestic,  bas  far 
coarser  bristles  than  the  bow,  and  the  wild  ani- 
mal as  far  exceeds  the  tame  in  that  particular 
aa  in  his  strenftth,  size,  ferocity,  and  the  larpe- 
ness  of  bis  tusks.  Where  the  domestic  animal 
has  the  free  range  of  forest  lands,  in  which  it 
can  feed  on  acorns,  beech  mast,  and  the  fruit 
of  the  sweet  chest  nnt,  the  flesh  is  proportion  al- 
ly Valned;  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  the 
pork  of  Virginia  has  obtained  a  celebrity  in 
America  equal  to  that  of  Westphalia  in  Europe. 
No  other  reason  tends  so  materially  to  give  its 
Buperior  excellence  to  the  flesh  of  the  wild  over 
that  of  the  tame  hog,  which  bas  been  admitted 
in  all  ages.  It  is  singular,  however,  that  the 
flesh  of  the  boar  in  itx  wild  state  is  much  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  sow  ;  while  in  the  domestica- 
ted animal  that  of  the  male,  unless  castrated,  is 
so  rank  aa  to  be  uneatable, — During  the  middle 
ages  the  wild  boar  abounded  both  in  England 
and  France,  and  hunting  the  boar  was  the  most 


B0A£D1[AN 

esteemed  of  all  field  aports.  The  boar  goes  to 
mn,  as  it  is  called,  in  December,  after  which 
time  his  flesh  is  uneatable ;  the  season  for  hunt- 
mg  him  commences  in  September,  when  he  is 
in  his  most  perfect  condition.  A  wild  boar  in 
his  first  year  is  called  a  pig  of  the  sannder ;  the 
next  year,  a  hog  of  the  second ;  then,  a  ho^'- 
Bteer;  in  the  fourth  year,  when  he  leaves  the 
saunder,  a  boar;  and  af1«r  that  a  sanglier.  A 
boar  is  farrowed  with  his  full  number  of  teeih, 
which  only  increase  in  size,  especially  the  tusks 
of  tlie  lower  jaws,  which  are  those  withwhich 
he  strikes,  those  of  the  upper  jaws  being  nsed 
only  to  whet  the  others.  Boars  were  hnnted 
in  Europe  in  two  ways,  either  by  tracking 
them  into  their  holts  or  dens,  which  were 
tlien  surrounded  by  nets  or  toils,  and  the  boars 
driven  into  them,  or  what  was  called  at  force 
with  dogs,  when  the  beast  was  roused  from  his 
lair,  and  hunted  with  relays  of  hounds,  until  he 
turned  to  hay,  when  he  was  despatched  with 
the  boar  spear  or  hunting  sword.  In  England 
the  wild  boar  has  long  been  entirely  extinct; 
in  France  it  is  still  found  in  parts  of  Brittany 
and  Normandy;  and  in  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Holstein,  in  Italy  (especially  in  the  Pontine 
marshes),  and  inmany  parts  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  itisstill  abundant.  While  boar  bunting 
waa  in  its  palmy  force,  a  particular  dog  was 
cultivated  for  the  e|>ort,  which  was  of  great 
rarity  and  value.  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
half-bred  dog,  between  the  bloodhound  and  the 
mastiff.  There  was,  however,  a  dog  more  or 
less  bomogeneons,  known  as  the  boar  hound; 
the  best  came  from  Pomerania,  and  were  one 
of  the  choicest  gifts  presented  to  crowned 
heads.  Boar  hunting,  or  pig  sticking,  as  it  is 
there  called,  is  still  a  favorite  sport  in  Britisti 
India,  especially  in  the  Deccan,  where  hogs 
abound  in  the  reedy  jungles  of  the  plains.  The 
hunters  are  mounted  un  Arab  coursers,  and 
pursue  their  game  witliout  the  aid  of  dt^a,  run- 
ning him  to  bay  by  the  mere  speed  of  their 
horses.  It  is  sud  that  a  hog,  if  he  gets  a  mod- 
erately good  start,  can  maintain  a  pace  for  20 
or  25  minutes  equal  to  the  fastest  horse  witli 
fox-hounds.  The  weapon  is  a  lance  of  tough 
bamboo  about  10  ft.  long,  with  a  steel  head 
shaped  like  a  laurel  leaf,  and  as  keen  aa  a  razor. 
This  is  grasped  usually  at  about  18  inches  from 
the  butt,  overhandedly,  so  that  the  shaft  ex- 
tends nearly  borizontatly  backward,  but  with 
a  downward  inclination,  the  head,  or  blade, 
being  in  the  rear  of  the  horse's  croup.  When- 
the  boar  charges,  which  he  does  right  at  the 
horse's  fore  legs,  often  cutting  his  sljanks  to 
the  hone  with  his  terrible  tusks,  and.  if  he  do 
not  wheel  off  in  time.  ri»ping  out  his  intestines, 
the  horseman,  rising  in  his  stirrups,  strikes  him 
an  overhanded  stab,  delivered  perpend icnlarlr 
downward,  lietwecn  the  shoulders,  making  his 
horse  pivot  to  the  left,  on  his  bind  legs. 

BOIRDHM.  L  CcMfs  Duo,  an  American 
raisfflonarv,  bom  in  Livermore,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 
ISOl,  died  in  Bnrmah.  Feb.  11,  1831.  In  1819 
he  entered  the  Waten'ille  academy,  which  was 


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BOASDMAN 

organized  as  a  college  in  1820,  and  graduated 

in  1823.  He  was  immediatelj  elected  tutor, 
and  bis  frieiida  hoped  that  he  would  remain  aa 
a  professor;  but  after  about  a  year  be  deter- 
mined  to  devote  himself  to  the  work  of  Chris- 
tian misBions.  For  a  time  he  tbongbt  of  labor- 
ing amnng  the  American  Indians;  but  intelli- 
gence of  the  death  of  James  Goleman  of  the 
Aracan  mission  induced  him  to  offer  himself 
to  the  Baptist  board  of  foreign  missions  is  1833, 
and  the  same  year  ho  entered  Andovcr  theo- 
logical seminary.  He  was  ordained  at  W.  Yar- 
mouth, Me.,  Feb.  16, 1826,  was  married  to  Miss 
Sarah  Hall  July  4,  and  on  July  la  sailed  for 
Oaleotta.  Arriving  there  Deo.  2,  be  found 
several  missionaries  who  had  been  driven  from 
Bormah,  and  learned  that  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jodiioo 
were  in  a  fiurman  prison.  It  being  necessary 
to  wait  and!  Bnrmah  shonld  be  reopened,  to 
missionary  labor,  he  spent  the  interval  in  ac- 
quiring the  language,  and  in  April,  1827,  joined 
Mr.  JadsoD  at  Amherst.  Maulmain,  the  new 
seat  of  the  English  government,  was  chosen 
for  the  location  of  a  mission,  and  Mr.  Board- 
man  was  selected  to  superintend  it.  This  mis- 
sion was  planted  the  same  year,  and  became 
Qltimat«ly  the  radiating  point  of  inSuenoe  for 
the  Baptist  missions  in  Burmab.  To  his  pru- 
dence, piety,  and  organizing  force  is  largely 
due  this  success.  In  a  few  months  the  station 
at  Amherst  was  abandoned,  and  the  whole 
missionary  force  concentrated  at  Maulmain.  It 
was  then  decided  to  establish  another  station 
at  Tavoy,  about  150  miles  down  the  coast,  and 
Mr.  Boardman  was  unanimonsly  chosen  for 
tills  difficult  work.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Ko  Tha-byoo,  a  Karsn  convert  and  candidate 
for  baptism,  a  Siamese  lately  baptjzed,  and  a 
few  boys  from  his  school  at  Maulmain.  He 
reached  Tavoy  early  in  April,  1828,  and  bap- 
tized Ko  Tha-byoo-— a  man  whose  labors  and 
success  among  his  countrymen  have  become 
historic.  Through  his  influence  a  few  persons 
were  brought  under  the  instructions  of  Mr. 
Boardman.  These  carried  into  the  jungles  the 
news  that  a  white  teacher  had  bronght  Irom 
beyond  the  sea  the  knowledge  of  the  true 
God,  and  companies  b^an  to  come  from  a  dis- 
tance to  see  and  hear  for  themselves.  Mr. 
Boardman  now  matured  plans  for  the  system- 
atic instruction  of  the  Barman  population  of 
Tavoy,  by  means  of  schools  and  other  instra- 
mentalities -and  having  been  ui^entty  invited, 
he  set  out  Feb.  5,  1828,  on  a  first  misdonary 
tour  among  the  £areo  villages.  He  was  absent 
ten  days,  meeting  with  such  success  that  he 
entered  upon  a  systematic  course  of  itinerary' 
labors.  Usoally  accompanied  by  Ko  Tha- 
byoo  or  some  other  convert,  and  some  of  the 
boys  from  the  school,  be  would  visit  three  or 
fonr  tillages  in  a  week,  preaching  in  zayats, 
going  from  bouse  to  house,  and  conversing  with 
those  whom  he  met  b;  the  wayside.  Some- 
times he  made  boat  trips  on  the  river.  During 
tfiree  years  he  maintained  an  almost  incredible 
activity,  in  spite  of  intermptions  occasioned  by 


BOATBILL 


765 


frequent  sickness  and  repeated  deaths  in  his 
family,  and  while  he  wsa  sinking  nnder  eon- 
sumption.  The  only  cessation  of  his  labors 
was  on  the  occasion  of  his  wife's  visit  to  Maul- 
main after  her  recovery  from  a  dangerous  ill- 
ness. He  remained  with  her  abont  seven 
months,  but  this  seeming  respite  was  only  a 
change  in  the  form  of  liis  work,  as  he  preached 
twice  a  week  in  English  and  once  in  Burmese, 
attended  catechetical  exercises  three  evenings 
in  a  week,  and  daily  corrected  proofs  for  tho 
press.  Before  leaving  Tavoy  for  Maulmain  be 
promised  the  Karens  that  he  would  visit  them 
again  in  the  jnngle  on  his  return.  On  Jan.  31, 
18S1,  he  left  Tavoy  in  a  litter  to  fulfil  that 
promise,  and  reached  his  destination,  but  was 
too  ill  to  accomplish  more  than  port  of  the  task. 
He  set  out  to  return  to  Tavoy,  but  died  before 
reaching  there.  Though  only  SO  years  of  age 
when  he  died,  he  bad  accomplished  what  few 
men  attain  in  a  long  life.  Ue  lett  TQ  members 
of  the  mission  church  at  Tavoy,  and  within  a 
few  years  thousands  of  Karens  were  converted 
through  the  agencies  which  he  had  organized 
and  set  in  motiuo.  Bee  "Memoir  of  George 
Dana  Boardman,"  by  the  Rev.  A.  King  (new 
ed.,  Boston,  18o6).  II.  Gewge  Daaa,  D.D.,  a 
Baptist  clei^yman  and  scholar,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  at  Tavoy,  Barmah,  Aug.  18,  182S.  - 
He  graduated  at  Brown  universityin  1852,  and 
at  Newton  theolo^cal  institution  in  18S5,  and 
was  ordained  the  same  year  at  Barnwell,  S.  0. 
Tho  state  of  public  sentiment  on  the  ijavery 
question  led  him  to  remove  in  ISQfl  to  Roches- 
ter, N.  y.,  where  he  remained  pastor  of  the 
second  Baptist  church  till  18S4.  He  was  then 
called  to  the  first  Baptist  church  in  Pbiladel- 
phia,  his  present  charge  (1678).  His  publica- 
tions have  been  numerous  but  fragmentary, 
comprising  sermons,  addresses,  and  articles  in 
c^narterl;  reviews.  He  has  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Enrope  and  the  East. 

BOITBILL  {eancToma  coeklearia,  Linn,),  a 
bird  of  the  order  gralla,  family  ardeida,  so 
called  l^om  the  peculiar  form  and  breadth  of 
the  bill,  which  is  much  depressed,  very  broad 
toward  the  middle,  with  the  sides  gradually 
compressed  at  the  end ;  the  onlmen  has  a 
prominent  keel,  with  a  deep  lateral  groove 
extending  to  the  tip,  which  is  hooked.  The 
wings  are  moderate;  the  tail  short  and  ronnd- 
ed ;  the  tarsi  rather  longer  than  tho  middle 
toe,  slender,  and  covered  in  front  with  largo 
irregular  scales;  the  bind  toe  long,  and  fli« 
claws  short,  carved,  and  acute ;  the  length  of 
the  bill  is  about  four  inches,  and  of  the  bird 
two  feet.  The  general  color  is  whitish,  with 
a  grayish  hack,  the  belly  rufous;  the  forehead 
white,  behind  which  is  a  black  cap,  fomished 
in  the  mole  with  a  long  crest.  This  bird  is 
neariy  allied  to  tlie  herons,  Ind  is  fonnd  in  the 
tropica!  parta  of  South  America ;  until  recently 
it  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  only  species  of 
the  genus.  It  frequents  marshy  places  and 
the  banks  of  rivers  where  the  tides  do  not 
ascend ;  it  perches  on  the  trees  overhanging 


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f^h  water,  darting  tbenoe  on  fishes  which 
happen  to  swim  beneath  il :  from  its  generic 
naiiie,  it  is  augiposed  to  feed  atao  on  crabs, 


which  it  could  readilj  crush  in  its  powerfal 
bill;  on  the  grouod  it  baa  very  nuicb  tbe  gait, 
attitudes,  ana  air  of  the  barons.  It  is  soroe- 
times  called  "  savacoo." 

BOIYISTI,  or  BMiTlsta,  nn  island  of  Africa, 
the  enBtemmost  of  the  Cape  Verd  islands,  in  lat. 
ia°  13'  N.,  Ion.  22°  66'  W. ;  pop.  about  3,000. 
Tbe  iglond  is  pentagon^  in  form,  about  20  m.  in 
length,  and  has  two  basaltic  peaks  in  the  centre. 
The  manufacture  of  salt  is  the  chief  occupation 
of  the  inbabitanta.  There  are  three  ports  for 
targe  vessels,  Porto  Sol  Rey,  Porto  do  Norte, 
and  Porto  Gorraliubo.    Rabil  is  tlie  capital. 

BOBIDILU,  Fnidm  it,  a  Spanish  governor 
of  Hispaniola  or  Santo  Dominf;o,  died  Jane  29, 
1602.  Offing  t«  the  complaints  of  maladmin- 
istration against  Columbus  made  bj  the  colo- 
nists of  Santo  Domingo,  it  was  determined  bj 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  despatch  a  commis- 
Honer  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  tliat 
colony;  and  Bobadilla,  a  knight  of  Colatrara, 
and  an  arrogant,  incompetent  person,  was  se- 
lected for  this  office  in  1500.  He  was  intrusted 
with  unlimited  powers,  which  upon  his  arrival 
at  Santo  Domingo  he  immediately  exerted  by 
arresting  Colambns,  putting  him  in  chains,  and 
sending  him  to  Spam.  The  outrage  excited 
general  indignation  in  Spain,  and  was  regarded 
as  a  national  dishonor.  Columbus  was  rein- 
staled  in  his  honors  and  emoluments,  and  be- 
fore his  departure  upon  his  fourth  voj-ope  or- 
ders had  already  been  eent  for  the  recall  of 
Bobadilla,  nnder  whose  administration  disor- 
ders had  multiplied  to  an  alarming  extent. 
Columbus  landed  again  in  the  harbor  of  Ilis- 

fiuniola  on  tiie  da;  when  tiie  fleet  bearing 
iobodilla  and  other  enemies  of  Columbus 
started  for  Spain.  This  fleet  was  hardlj  out 
of  sight  when  it  was  wrecked  by  a  horricune 
and  Uobadilla  perished. 


BOBOUNK 

BOBOUm,  or  Blee  BoBtlag  (emberita  orytt- 

voTO,  Linn. ;  dcliehonyx  orytttorut,  Swains.), 
the  rice  bird  or  ortolan  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina, the  reed  bird  of  the  middle  states,  and 
tbe  bobolink  of  the  north  and  northweat  mi- 
gratory through  the  whole  length  of  the  North 
American  contment  and  islands,  from  Labra- 
dor to  Mexico  and  the  Antilles.  Die  plomage 
of  the  male  bird  is  entirely  different  at  various 
seasons.  The  bobolink  winters  mainly  in  tbo 
western  isles,  and  not  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
this  continent.  Early  in  spring  the  birds  be- 
gin to  appear  in  tbe  sontliem  states  in  small 
partiea,  tbe  females  often  preceding  the  males, 
tarrying  only  a  few  days,  seen  only  in  small 
companies,  and  for  Che  most  part  making  their 
jonmeyings  by  night  In  tiie  first  days  of  May 
they  appear  in  Massachusetts,  gayly  clad  in 
fnll  dreM,  and  in  fall  eong,  and  at  this  period 
are  neither  gregarious  nor  predatory,  tnongh 
on  their  northern  voyage  they  damage  iLe 
crops  of  young  grain.  The  length  of  tbe  bobo- 
link is  about  f  J  inches;  the  male,  in  his  spring 
dress,  bos  tiie  upper  part  of  the  bead,  snonl- 
ders,  wings,  tail,  and  the  whole  of  the  under 
pinmage  black ;  lower  part  of  tbe  back  blu- 
ish white ;  Bcapulors,  mmp,  and  tail  coverts 
white;  there  is  a  targe  patch  of  brownish  yel- 
low on  the  nape  and  back  of  tbe  neck;  bill 
bluisb  black,  wnich  in  the  female,  youn^  male, 
and  adult,  after  the  month  of  June,  is  pate 
fieali  color ;  the  feathers  of  tbe  tail  formed  like 
s  woodpecker's;  legs  brown.  The  female, 
whose  plamage  tbe  adult  male  assumes  after 
the  breeding  season,  has  the  back  streaked 
with  brownish  black ;  the  whole  lower  parts 
of  a  dnil  yellow.  The  young  birds  have  tlie 
dress  of  the  female.  During  the  breeding  sea- 
son they  frequent  cool,  grassy  meadows,  which 


BDlwHiifc  (Dottebonjii  otjilrwiiB). 

they  render  vocal  with  their  quick,  merry  song. 
tbe  male  singing  to  the  female  while  alie  ia  nt- 
ting.    "  He  chants  out,"  says  Wilson,  "snch  % 


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BOBBTJISE 

jingling  medlej  of  eliort  variable  notes,  ot- 
tered with  ancb  Beeming  conAision  and  rapid- 
ity, and  coDtJDued  for  a  considerable  time,  that 
it  appears  as  if  half  a  dozen  birds  of  different 
kinds  were  singing  all  together.  Many  of  the 
tones  are  in  tbemaelves  charming,  bnt  they 
succeed  each  otlier  so  rapidlj  that  the  ear 
can  hardlj  separate  them.  Veverthelesa  the 
general  effect  is  good,  and  when  10  or  13  are 
all  singing  in  the  aonie  tree,  the  concert  is 
singiilariy  pleasing."  The  female  makes  an 
Injfftificial  nest  of  withered  grass,  in  some  de- 
pressed place  in  the  meadows,  and  isj's  five  or 
six  ^gs  of  pnrplish  white,  blotched  all  over 
with  pnrplish  stains,  and  spotted  with  brown  at 
the  larger  end.  During  April,  Maj,  and  June 
the  msjes  are  constantly  singing,  and  thej  nei- 
ther congregate  nor  damage  anj  crops ;  but 
toward  the  end  of  June  tney  become  silent, 
and  gradually  assume  the  coloring  of  the  fe- 
males, so  that  hj  the  beginning  of  Angnst  the 
change  is  complete.  They  now  assemble  in 
vast  nocks,  mnte  with  the  exception  of  a  short, 
sharp  chinMip,  and  do  some  misohief  to  the 
latest  crops  of  oats  and  barley ;  chiefly,  how- 
ever, they  congr^te  in  throngs  along  the 
river  beds  and  l^e  margins,  wherever  the 
wild  rice  (titania  aqvatiea)  grows  abundantly. 
Along  the  Delaware  and  Bohuylkill,  as  also  on 
the  bwdera  of  the  New  Jersey  and  many  of 
the  Virginia  atreams,  they  are  much  pursued 
by  sportsmen.  As  the  cool  nights  draw  on,  late 
in  September  and  early  in  October,  they  quit 
their  northern  snmmering  places  for  the  sonth- 
em  rice  fields,  which  they  at  times  glean  so 
completely  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  ga- 
ther the  grain.  Here  they  become  so  fat  and 
sluggish  that  they  can  scarcely  fly,  and  when 
shot  are  frequently  known  to  burst  open  on 
striking  the  gronnd.  Before  the  rice  crop  is 
fblly  gathered,  they  have  already  made  their 
appearance  in  Oaba  and  Jamaica,  where  they 
repeat  the  same  ravages  on  the  seeds  of  the 
gninea  gross  (lorghvm),  and  grow  so  tat  that 
they  receive  the  name  of  "  butter  birds." 

MKBOISK,  a  fortifled  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  and  B7  m.  S.  £.  of  the  city  of 
Minsk,  on  the  right  bonkof  theBeresina;  pop. 
in  1867,  24,6SI,  nearly  one  half  of  whom  are 
Jews.  The  town  is  a  station  for  packets  navi- 
gating the  Beresina,  and  carries  on  a  brisk 
trade  in  com  and  wood.  It  was  first  fortified 
by  Alexander  1.,  successfully  resisted  a  siege 
by  the  French  in  1812,  and  was  raised  by 
Nicholas  to  a  fortress  of  the  first  class. 

BOCA  TIGRIS,  or  Ike  BegM,  the  entranoe  to 
the  Canton  river,  China.  It  is  a  comparative- 
ly narrow  passage,  about  40  m.  from  Canton, 
and  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Hn  Mnn,  or  "The 
Tiger's  Mouth,"  of  which  Boca  Tigris  is  the 
Portuguese  translation.  There  are  two  rocky 
islands  In  its  centre,  which  were  csrefiilly  for- 
tified by  the  Chinese,  and  were  considered  by 
them  impregnable.  But  since  18S0  British 
sqnadrona  have  silenced  them  three  times,  and 
these  once  famous  batteries  are  now  dismantled. 
101  VOL.  IL— 49 


All  that  port  of  the  estuary  of  Canton  river 
which  lies  soutbward  of  the  Bogne  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  "  Outer  Water." 

BOCCACCIO,  GtoTsnl,  on  Italiui  novelist,  bom 
in  Peris  in  1818,  died  at  Certaldo,  Deo.  21, 
IS7E.  His  father  was  originally  of  Certaldo, 
bnt  removed  to  Florence,  where  he  amassed 
wealth,  and  filled  several  pnblio  offices.  His 
mother  was  a  French  woman  with  whom  hia 
fkther  formed  an  illicit  eonnecticm  while  vidt- 
ing  Paris.  Baving  determined  <mi  a  oommer- 
ciid  career  for  his  s<^  his  father  removed  him 
from  hie  tutor,  Giovanni  da  Btrada,  before  his 
Latin  course  was  completed,  and  as  soon  as  he 
had  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  arilh- 
metio  apprentioed  bim  to  a  merchant  in  Paris, 
with  whom  be  remained  six  years.  His  mas- 
ter, finding  that  he  profited  notliing,  finally 
lent  him  back  to  his  father,  who  had  sufBcient 
penetration  to  discover  that  bis  son  would 
never  make  a  merchant,  bnt  thought  that  his 
studious  habits  might  serve  him  in  the  legal 
profession.  Bat  the  law  proved  as  distastefrd 
as  oommerofL  and  led  to  alteroatlons  between 
the  youth  and  his  father.  Alter  a  while  be  agun 
returned  to  commerce  and  fixed  bis  re^enoe 
in  Maples.  The  king,  Robert  of  Ai^n,  a 
friend  and  patron  of  Petroroh,  was  devoted  to 
literature,  and  drew  to  his  court  the  most  emi- 
nent scholars  of  Italy.  Boooooeio  was  well 
acquainted  with  Giovanni  BarilL  a  man  of 
erudition,  and  Paolo  of  Pemg^a,  tAe  king's  li- 
brarian ;  end  encouraged  by  them  he  entirely 
abandoned  trade  and  gave  himself  np  to  the  pni^ 
suit  of  learning.  His  father  having  consented 
to  this  on  the  condition  that  he  shoold  study  the 
canon  law,  he  applied  himself  to  it  for  some 
time,  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  after  that 
found  himself  more  at  liberty  to  Indulge  his 
passion  for  poetry.  In  1S41,  while  at  Naples, 
where  he  redded  eight  years,  Boocaooio  beuime 
ac<]naint«d  with  the  princess  Mary,  the  ille- 
gitunate  daughter  of  King  Robert,  She  was 
married,  but  became  the  avowed  mistress  of 
Boocacoio.  At  her  instance  he  composed  hie 
romance  of  fl  FiUxopo  and  VAmoroia  Fiam- 
rnetta,  in  the  latter  of  which  his  lady,  under 
the  name  of  Fiammetta,  bewails  the  loss  of 


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768  BOOC 

Pamfilo,  BuppoMd  to  represent  himself.  The 
Filoeopo  is  not  skilf  oily  conatrncted,  and  is  filled 
with  spectres,  visioDS,  and  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness ;  ;et  it  contains  pasaageB  of  grace  and  vi- 
vacity, and  tonches  of  human  nature  in  which 
the  whole  character  is  pictured  in  a  ^gle  sen- 
tence. In  1342,  while  thae  employed  at  Na- 
ples, he  was  amnmoned  to  Florence  by  the  ill- 
ness of  bis  father.  Daring  Lis  separation  from 
the  princess  Mary  ha  consoled  hunself  by  the 
oompusition  of  the  romance  of  Amtto.  On 
the  completion  of  this  work  his  filther's  re- 
covery and  marriage  allowed  him  to  retnm  to 
Naples.  The  king  died  during  his  two  years' 
stay  in  Florence,  and  his  granddaughter  Jo- 
anna ascended  the  throne  amid  great  political 
distarbancea.  Boccaccio  found  his  position 
more  enviable  than  it  had  been  before.  He 
was  not  only  happy  from  his  connection  with 
the  princess,  bat  possessed  the  favor  of  Accia- 
JqoIi,  who  had  great  power  in  Naples,  and 
even  the  regard  of  Joanna  herself.  Boccaccio 
is  BBiA  to  have  written  many  of  the  most  licen- 
tioas  passages  in  his  Deeameront  in  conformity 
with  the  qaeen's  expressed  desire.  Ilia  father 
died  in  1860,  leaving  a  son  by  his  wife,  Bice 
de'  Bosticohi,  who  was  also  dead,  to  the  care 
of  Boccaccio.  The  poet  futhfully  attended  to 
his  trust,  and  when  in  his  paternd  city  became 
acquainted  with  Petrarch,  whose  example  had 
a  strong  infiuence  upon  him,  and  turned  his 
thonghta  more  from  licentious  pleasures  to 
purer  fame.  Being  now  permanently  settled 
in  Florence,  Boccaccio  by  Petrarch's  advice 
began  to  take  interest  in  affairs  of  state.  He 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Padua,  to  invite 
Petrarch  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the  nni- 
ver^ty.  Several  other  mieraons  followed,  not 
very  clearly  described  as  to  dates,  and  in  April, 
18GS,  he  took  part  in  one  to  Pope  Innocent 
VI.  at  Avignon,  In  the  same  year  was  pub- 
lished his  Decameront  or  "Ten  Days'  Enter- 
tainment," a  collection  of  100  stories  sappoeed 
to  have  been  told  by  a  party  of  ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen at  a  oonntry  house  near  Florence  while 
the  plague  was  raging  in  that  city.  This  work 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  purest  specimens  of 
Italian  prose,  and  as  an  inexhanatible  repository 
of  wit,  beauty,  and  eloqaence,  altbongh  de- 
formed with  licentious  thou^ta  and  desorip- 
tdoBS.  Like  Petrarch,  Boccaccio  was  a  de- 
voted collector  of  andent  manuscripts,  and  a 
diligent  student  of  the  classics.  Both  were 
travellers,  and  both  employed  mnch  of  their 
time  and  money  in  rescuing  from  deatmction 
the  precious  memoriola  of  antiqoity.  In  1359 
Boccaccio  visited  Petrarch  at  Milan,  conversed 
with  him,  as  he  informs  us,  at  great  length  on 
the  subjects  of  morality  and  r^igion,  and  de- 
termined to  devote  himself  more  seriously  to 
holy  studies.  Ilia  resolution  was  confirmed  by 
a  warning  sent  him  from  Fra  Petroni,  who  upon 
Lis  deathbed  declared,  although  he  never  had 
met  Boccaccio,  that  he  knew  him  in  spirit,  and 
that  he  mast  repent  and  prepare  for  death.  The 
converted  man  accordingly  wrote  afterward  in  a 


strain  altogether  free  from  lus  fbrmer  licentiooa 

vein,  while  he  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  habit 


found  himself  poor  and  deserted  by 
all  his  friends  except  Petrarch.  That  great 
poet  wiahed  his  fiiend  to  take  np  hie  abode 
with  him,  but  Boccaccio  declined  the  offer,  al- 
thongh  he  vimted  Petrarch  whenever  be  found 
an  opportunity.  In  1SB3  he  was  invited  to 
Naples  by  the  grand  seneschal  Acci^noli,  bat 
was  so  hurt  by  his  cold  reception  that  he  soon 
left  and  went  to  Venice  to  meetPetrarch.  On 
retnming  to  Florence  he  took  up  hia  abode  in 
a  Uttle  cottage  in  Certaldo,  in  the  valeof  Elsa, 
dear  to  him  as  the  birthplace  of  hie  family. 
From  this  retreat  he  was  soon  summoned  bj 
the  chief  citizens  of  Florence,  to  undertake  an 
embassy  to  Urban  V.  at  Avignon,  and  repiur- 
ing  to  the  papa)  court  be  experienced  the  most 
flattering  reception.  He  was  again  sent  to 
Urban  in  1397,  after  the  pontilT  had  removed 
to  Rome ;  and  the  character  of  Boccaccio  bad 
now  BO  completely  changed  from  his  former 
looseness  that  he  was  characterized  by  the 
bishop  of  Florence  as  one  in  whose  purity  tX 
futh  ne  had  the  utmost  confidence.  In  1368 
he  again  visted  Venice  for  a  short  time,  and 
subsequently  Naples,  where  Queen  Joanna  en- 
deavored to  persuade  him  to  fix  his  abode. 
But  the  life  at  Naples  had  no  attractions  for  him 
now,  and  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he 
was  honored  by  the  magistrates  with  a  profee- 
Borship  founded  in  memory  of  Dante,  for  the 
better  eipUcation  of  the  Dhina  Commidia. 
His  lectures  commenced  in  October,  1373,  and 
continued  till  his  death,  which  was  doubtless 
hastened  by  the  demise  of  Petrarch  17  month* 
before  his  own.  He  bequeathed  the  little  pro- 
perty remaining  to  him  to  his  two  nephews, 
and  his  library  and  collections  to  Fra  Uartini, 
an  Augnstinian  monk. — Boccaccio  wrote  nu- 
merous works  in  Italian  and  Latin,  and  both 
in  prose  and  poetry,  few  of  which  are  referred 
to  at  the  present  day;  his  great  fame  rests 
upon  the  Decameron.  The  author's  fondness 
for  involving  friars  in  every  imaginable  scene 
of  mischief  and  ludicrous  mishap  created  great 
scandal  to  the  church,  and  hia  famous  romance, 
the  tenth  novel  of  the  sixth  day,  in  which 
"Friar  Onion  promises  some  coimtry  people 
to  show  th^m  a  feather  from  the  wing  of  the 
angel  Oabnel,  instead  of  which  he  finds  only 
some  coals,  which  he  tells  them  are  the  same 
that  roasted  St.  Lawrence,"  drew  down  the 
solemn  anathema  of  the  council  of  Trent  Tbe 
editions  of  the  Decameron  are  almost  inno- 
merable,  and  translations  exist  in  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  The  earliest  editions  are 
extremely  rare,  and  of  tiiat  of  Valdarfcr  in 
1471  only  one  copy  is  known.  This  was  pur- 
chased, not  many  years  since,  at  the  sale  of  tbe 
duke  of  Roxbnrghe's  collection,  by  the  marqnis 


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BOOCAGE 

of  Blandford,  for  the  enormous  sam  of  £2,260. 
Hii  woilcB  in  the  Italian  language  bare  been 
caredillj  collected  and  published  in  17  vols. 
8to  (Florence,  1827-'84-).  Boccaccio's  La  Te- 
teidt  is  vritteD  in  the  ottata  rima,  of  which  he 
is  naaallr  considered  as  the  inventor,  and'is  the 
first  Itfuian  poem  which  presents  a  epeoimeu 
of  the  epopee.  Chancer  borrowed  ih)ni  this 
poem  his  "Knight's  Tale,"  and  Shakespeare  & 
part  of  his  "  Hidsnmmer  Night's  Dream."  The 
tn'eat  English  dramatist  also  availed  himself  of 
Boccaccio's  DeeameroTi*  in  "Ojmbeline"  and 
"  All'a  WeU  that  Ends  Well." 

BOCCiflE,  or  Utft,  HumI  Kuli  BarbMi  di, 
a  Portngnese  poet  of  French  descent,  bora  at 
Setnbal,  Sept  17,  1TS6,  died  in  180B  or  1806. 
He  was  ezpeUed  from  the  marines  and  banish- 
ed to  India  for  a  sarcasm  on  the  minister  of  the 
navj,  and  also  driven  from  Hacao  for  a  umilar 
offence  against  the  governor  generaL  A  Goa 
merchant  enabled  him  to  return  to  Lisbon.  In 
17BT  and  1798  he  was  arrested  for  sympathiz- 
ing with  French  revolationarj  ideas.  He  trans- 
lated into  Portngnese  the  GolowMada  of  his 
relative  Hme.  da  Boocage,  Le  Sage's  Oil  Blot, 
Delllle's  poems,  several  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 
phoMt,  and  other  works.  His  poems,  being 
melodions  and  characteristic  of  popnlar  feeling, 
though  withoQt  depth  of  thoogbt,  were  imitated 
by  several  poets  who  were  railed,  after  his  as- 
sumed name  of  Elmano,  the  ElmanUtat,  and 
were  the  forerannera  of  the  present  national 
school  of  Portuguese  poetry,  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  poems  was  pablished  after  nia  death 
(5  vols..  Lisbon,  ISOft-'^U). 

BOCCACE,  Ilarie  lue  Le  Piga,  a  French  poet- 
ess, bom  ia  Rouen,  Oct.  23,  1710,  died  Aug,  8, 
1809.  She  married  a  literary  man  of  the  name 
of  Fiqnet  du  Boccago.  At  the  age  of  86  she 
wrote  a  poem  which  obt^ned  the  first  prize 
from  the  Konen  academy.  Siie  afterward  pub- 
lished a  French  "Paradise  Lost"  (Paris,  174S), 
an  imitation  of  Gessner's  "Death  of  Abel,"  an 
epic  poem  called  La  Colombiade  (1766),  a 
tragedy,  and  minor  pieces.  Heroollected  works 
ran  through  fonr  euitions  and  were  translated 
into  several  langn^a.  She  also  wrote  letters 
of  travel  through  Englsiid,  Holland,  and  Italy. 

BOCCIMERA.  I.  SlMie,  a  nobleman  of  Genoa, 
first  doge  of  that  republic,  bom  about  1800,  poi- 
soned in  1S68.  Weary  of  the  qnarrels  and  vio- 
lence of  the  great  noble  families,  Guelphioand 
Ghihelline,  the  people  in  1889  made  Bocoanera 
d(^e  by  acclamation.  He  carried  on  war  suc- 
cessfully against  tie  Turks,  Tartars,  and  Moors ; 
but  the  Gnelpbio  nobles,  suspending  their  mu- 
tuat  animosities,  combined  against  him  and  laid 
siege  to  Genoa.  Compelled  to  treat  with  them, 
Boccanera  abdicated  in  1S44,  and  lived  in  ezile 
ia  Pisa  for  12  years,  when  he  returned  and 
freed  Genoa  from  Hiiauese  domination.  lie  was 
anew  made  doge  Nov.  14,  1366,  and  remained 
such  for  several  years,  otttil  he  was  poisoned 
In  Genoa  at  a  banquet  given  to  die  king  of 
Cyprus.  ■!•  UHe,  a  Genoese  sailor,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  died  in  1S78.     He  distinguish- 


BOCHOLT  769 

ed  himself  as  admiral  of  the  Oastilian  fleet 
against  the  Uoors  nnder  Allbnso  SI.,  defeated 
the  kins  of  Morocco  in  two  naval  battles,  par- 
ticipated in  1344  in  the  capture  of  Algeoiras, 
and  was  made  count  of  Palraa.  Under  Hen- 
ry II.  of  Oastile  he  defeated  the  Portuguese 
fleet  in  1371 ;  and  dded  the  French  by  achiev- 
ing a  brilliant  victory  over  the  English  fleet 
sent  for  the  relief  of  La  Bochelle  in  1872,  cap- 
turing its  admiral,  the  earl  of  Pembroke. 

BOCCHERINI,  Lilgl,  an  Italian  composer,  bom 
at  Lnoca,  Jan.  14, 1740,  died  in  Madrid  in  1806. 
He  wrote  93  quintets  for  two  violins,  viola,  and 
two  violonceUos,  in  which  he  commonly  as- 
Ugned  the  principal  part  to  the  first  violon- 
oello.  His  Stdbat  MaUr  is  bis  only  church 
compo^tion. 

BMCONE,  Puh,  afterward  BfMs,  a  Sicilian 
naturalist,  bom  at  Palermo,  Apnl  24,  163S, 
died  Deo.  32, 1704.  He  was  a  Oisteroion  monk, 
and  to  study  natural  history  visited  Italy, 
France,  England,  Germany,  and  many  other 
countries.  He  left  a  great  number  of  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  his  leane*  et 
Deteriptioiut  tariantm  Flantarum  SUilia, 
MtliUt,  Qaltia,  ct  Italia  (4to,  Lyons  and  Ox- 
ford, 1874). 

BOCBUT,  Suaul,  a  French  oriental  and 
Biblical  scholar,  bom  in  Rouen,  May  30,  1699, 
died  at  Caen,  Hay  16,  1667.  He  belonged  to 
a  Huguenot  ftimily,  and  became  like  his  father 
and  his  uncle,  the  femons  Pierre  du  Houlin,  a 
Colrinistic  minister.  At  14  years  of  age  ha 
wrote  freely  in  Greek  verse,  specimens  of  which 
were  published  by  Dempster  in  the  preface  to 
his  "Boman  Antiquities"  (1616).  He  studied 
philosophy  at  Sedan,  and  followed  Cameron 
into  England  in  the  civil  troubles  of  1620.  He 
nest  went  to  Leyden,  where  he  studied  Arabia. 
Returning  to  France,  he  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Caen,  and  here  in  1628  he  neld  a  publio 
disputation  with  the  Jesuit  VSron,  whion  was 
interrupted  by  Boohorl'g  sickness,  but  was 
continued  in  epistolary  essays  for  nearly  three 
years,  upon  the  principal  topics  of  controversy 
between  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholio 
churches.  In  1646  he  published  his  celebrated  ■ 
Oeographia  Saera,  Next  followed  his  Hiero- 
Kicon,  or  treatise  on  the  animals  of  the  Bible; 
and  he  was  collecting  materials  for  similar 
treatises  on  the  minerals  and  plants  of  the  Bi- 
ble, when  he  died  while  speaking  at  Caen. 

BOCHHIA,  a  town  of  Anstria,  in  Galicia,  on  the 
TTswiea,  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  21  m.  E,  S. 
E.ofCracow;  pop.  in  1870,  7,480.  The  town 
is  chiefly  built  of  wood,  and  it  has  celebrated 
salt  mines,  adjoining  those  of  Wicliczks.  They 
yield  annually  about  300,000  quintals  of  differ-  . 
ent  kinds  of  salt,  and  have  been  worked  since 
the  13th  century.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town 
ore  extensive  quarries  of  gypsum. 

BOCHOLT,  a  town  of  Pmsua,  in  the  prorince 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Aa,  44  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
MUnster ;  pop.  in  1671,  6,126.  It  has  a  castle 
belonging  to  the  prince  of  Salm-Salm,  and  in 
the  vicinity  is  a  large  iron  mine. 


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7  7^Ai^  old  he  performed  in  public  on  the  piano- 
forte, and  at  12  had  compowd  sympliouiee, 
ooDcertoB,  overtures,  and  a  quartet.  At  the 
aee  of  IS  he  began  to  Btudj  the  liarp,  and  was 
placed  in  the  conservatoire  at  Paris,  where  he 
was  inatnict«d  by  M^Iiul  in  compo^tion.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  ;ear  he  obtained  the  prin- 
dpal  prize  in  harmony.  He  soon  acquired 
eminence  aa  a  performer  on  the  harp,  and  his 
published  compositions  fur  it  amount  to  160, 
eioliiaiTe  of  60  stadiei  and  two  methods  for 

Snpils.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  by  Napoleon 
rat  harpist  at  bia  private  concerts ;  and  he  filled 
the  same  ofEce  nnder  Louis  XVIII.  He  com- 
posed a  number  of  operas  for  the  French  stage, 
HDCcesafut  in  their  day,  but  now  nearly  forgot^ 
ten.     In  1817  he  went  to  England,  where  his 

Cfeaeional  career  lasted  80  years.  In  1622  he 
ame  professor  of  the  harp  at  the  roy^ 
Academy  of  mnsio,  of  which  institntion  he  was 
also  appointed  a  lil'e  Kovemor.  From  1S4T  he 
made  mnacal  tours  in  North  America,  Atutralio, 
&o.,  with  Uadame  Anna  Biahop. 

BOCHDJf,  a  town  of  Pmsaia,  capital  of  an  ex- 
t«nsive  and  densely  popnlated  circle,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Anuberg,  province  of  Westphalia,  40 
m.  8.  W.  of  Monster  1  pop.  in  18T1,  Sl.lSS.  It 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  i^on  on  the  ooal  field 
of  the  lower  Ruhr,  and  contains  a  school  of 
trades  and  a  chamber  of  commerce.  Boohum 
is  the  seat  of  the  mineratoKical  administration 
of  the  county  of  Mark,  and  has  important  man- 
ufactories of  cast  iron,  oast  st«el,  and  other  ar- 
ticles. The  production  of  coal  and  the  trade 
in  grain  are  considerable.  The  population  has 
more  than  doubled  since  1861,  and  is  still 
rapidly  increasing. 

BOCK,  C«rMUM  PeUr,  a  German  archnologist, 
bom  in  Aii-la-Chapetle,  June  8,  1804,  died  at 
Freiboi^,  Baden,  Oct.  18.  1870.  While  study- 
ing at  Bonn  and  Heiaelberg  he  published 
poems  nnder  the  name  of  Cbristodor,  ibowinff 
nis  devotion  to  the  Roman  Catholic  creed. 
After  spending  several  years  in  Italy  he  was 
for  a  short  time  professor  at  the  university  of 
Uarbarg,  and  euosequently  resided  for  many 
years  in  Brussels.  During  about  11  years  pre- 
ceding his  death  he  was  honorary  professor  at 
Freibnrg.  He  wrote  chiefly  on  arch»ol<^oal 
Nigects,  and  published  in  1866  inedited  frag- 
ments of  Boethius. 

BOCKi  Fian,  a  German  theologian  and  ar- 
obiBolopst,  born  at  Bnrtscheid  in  1S2S.  He  was 
educated  at  Bonn,  became  chapMn  at  Orefeld 
in  1850,  then  founded  in  1862  the  first  large 
exhibition  of  ancient  masterpieces  of  Christian 
art,  and  established  a  manufactory  of  silks  after 
the  models  of  the  middle  agea,  for  dhs  in 
churobes,  and  model  schools  for  instruction  In 
the  maonfacture  of  church  vessela.  He  col- 
lected in  various  parts  of  Europe  materials  tor 
his  6e»ehichU  der  liturgitehen  Qewinder  dei 
MitUlalltrt  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  18S9),  and  was  one 


BOCKH 

of  the  founders  of  the  q>iBcopal  museums  at  Co- 
logne and  Aix-la-Chi^lle.  Ue  wasappMnted 
honorary  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Aii-la- 
Chapelle,  and  has  also  been  pastor  at  Colopie 
since  1857.  He  spent  eight  years  in  preparing 
bis  principal  work,  Die  EUinoditn  det  heili- 
p«n  rdmuchen  Beieh*  deuUchrr  Nation  nebit 
den  Kroniimgnien,  Bohmen*,  Unganu  vnd  der 
Lombardti,  with  58  chromo-lithographic  plates 
(Vienna,  18B4),  and  has  published  many  other 
works  relative  to  Christian  art  and  antiquities. 

BOCK.  1.  Kari  AigMt,  a  German  anatomist, 
bom  in  Magdeburg,  March  25,  1782,  died  in 
Leipsic,  Jan.  BO,  1833.  He  was  assistant  pro- 
sector of  RosenmOUer,  and  from  1814  till  hia 
death  prosector  in  the  anatomical  theatre  of 
Leipsic,  and  did  much  to  improve  that  institu- 
tion. He  wrote  Handhueh  der  praktucketi 
Anatomia  det  inen»ehliehen  ESrjien  (2  vols., 
Ueissen.  181&-'22),  and  other  medical  works. 
IL  Kul  Enul,  a  German  anatomist  and  author, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Leipsic,  Feb.  21, 
1809.  He  studied  under  the  direction  of  hii 
father  at  the  aohools  and  the  m^veruty  of  Leip- 
Ho,  graduating  in  18S1.  In  the  same  year  h« 
r^w!tised  for  a  abort  time  in  iJie  hospttabtrf 
Warsaw.  On  his  retnm  t«  Leipdo  he  became 
a4jnnct  profeeaor  at  l^e  university,  and  anbse- 
qnently  professor  and  director  of  a  part  of  the 
dinio^  department^  and  he  al*o  presided  over 
post-mortem  examinations.  His  Sm»^w3k 
d^  Anatomia  dt*  Mentehtn,  An.  (9  vols.,  L«ip- 
sio,  18S8;  4th  ed.,  1864),  and  Anatomitdut 
Ta$elmibueh  (1889;  Cth  ed.,  1864),  have  be«n 
translated  inU>  Russian  and  Daniah,  and  his 
Lehrhveh  der  pathologuehen  Attatomit  wul 
Dioffnottik  (4th  ed.,  1884)  is  very  popular. 
His  other  works  include  Sandatlat  darAital*' 
mie  det  Menteken  (dth  ed.,  1864)  and  .Sow, 
L^en  und  Pfiegt  ie»  metachlieKet^  K^rpen  fa 
Wort  vnd  Jiild  (1868) ;  and  he  oompletod  the 
CkirttiyitA-analamiteht  T^feln  of  hia  father. 

BOCKfRHEU,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Pmsuan  province  of  Boase-Nassau,  about  1  n. 
K  W.  of  Frankfort,  Mi  the  Uain  and  Wwr 
railway;  pop.  in  1871,  6,478.  It  has  many 
mann&ctoriea,  and  its  popolation  ie  inoreasiig. 

BOCKEUON,  or  BmnM,  Jsfeua.    See  Jons 

bOcKB,  iignt,  a  German  philologist  and  onti- 
qoary,  bom  at  Carlsrube,  Nov.  24, 1786,  died  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  8, 1667.  He  was  the  son  of  a  fnne- 
tionory  and  the  brother  of  Friedricb  von  B6okh 
{1777-1856),  who  was  for  a  time  prime  min- 
ister of  Baden.  He  prepared  himself  at  &e 
Siymnasium  of  Carlanihe  for  a  conrae  of  theo- 
i^cal  atudiee  at  Halle,  when  Wolf  directed 
his  attention  to  philology,  to  which  science  be 
oontinued  to  apply  himself  at  Berlin.  He  was 
professor  at  Heidelberg  from  1807  to  1809,  and 
afterward,  for  over  40  years,  of  rhetoric  and 
ancient  literature  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 
He  was  made  member  of  the  academy  io  1814 
and  privy  councillor  in  1630.  He  opened  anew 
era  m  phiiolo^  and  archnology,  by  abandon- 
ing the  old  system  of  mere  lingnlstio  research, 


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B0DEN8TEDT 


771 


and  extending  hia  mqniriea  to  all  material, 
mental,  social,  religious,  aod  ^neral  Yeetiges 
ftud  aspects  of  civilizatJon.  Uis  conception  of 
philology  aa  an  organically  constructed  whole 
eioited  conaiderahle  apportion,  but  led  to  a 
more  exhaustive  study  of  classical  history  and 
civilization ;  and  he  trained  many  renowned 
scholars,  including  Karl  Ottried  Uolter.  His 
remarkable  knowledge  of  clasfflco!  poetry  is 
revealed  in  his  Ormea  TVagadut  Prineipum, 
Mtehyli,  SophoelU,  Euripidit  (Heideloerg, 
1  BOS),  and  eapeoially  in  his  edition  of  Pindar  (2 
vols.,  Leipnc,  18n-'22).  The  greatest  monn- 
meut  of  his  genina  for  minute  investigation  of 
poliliciil,  economical,  and  social  conditions  is  his 
Dia  StwiUkauthaltang  der  Atkener  (3  vols., 
Berlin,  1817;  enlarged  edition,  I8G1),  which 
vas  followed  by  related  works  entitled  Metro- 
logitehe  Untertuekungen  6ber  Qeaiehte,  MUm- 
fn»u  und  Matte  de*  AlUrthum*  (1888),  and 
Urlntnden  uigr  dot  Seeueaen  da  attitehea 
Slaatt  (1340).  Of  the  first  named  work,  an 
En^ish  trandation  was  made  by  6ir  G.  C.  Lewis 
("Pnblio  Economy  of  Athens,"  1828;  2d  ed., 
1341),  and  one  of  the  second  edition  by  An- 
thonv  Lamb  (Boston  and  London,  1BS7).  Un- 
der tne  auspices  of  the  academy  of  sciences  he 
publiahedthe  Gorptit  iTiteriptioniim  OToearum 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  ]e24-'e2;  unce  continned  by 
his  pupil  Franz  and  afterward  by  EirchhofF)] 
designed  to  contain  every  known  Greek  printed 
and  MS.  inscription.  He  also  presided  over  the 
academical  committee  appointed  for  the  super- 
vision of  a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great.  Els  later  pa  blioations  include 
EpiffrapMteh-etiToriologiteae  Studi&n  (Leipdo, 
1856);  his  lectures  and  pnblic  orations,  edited 
by  Ascherson  (2  vols..  lSSe-'9);  and  Utberdie 
vierjaliTigen  Oonnealcrtiie  der  Altm,  (Berlin, 
18SS).  His  detammtlU  hUinere  iSbAri^Mnhare 
been  published  in  6  vols.  (1868-'T2),  and  a  bi- 
ography of  Bockh  is  in  preparation  (1873)  by 
Prof.  Stork. 

BtCUirG,  EdBirt,  a  German  Jnrist,  born  at 
Trarbach,  Uay  20,  1802,  died  in  Bonn,  May  8, 
1870,  He  atndied  at  Heidelberg,  Bonn,  Berlin, 
and  Gottingen,  and  was  for  40  years  the  prin- 
cipal teacher  of  Boman  law  at  the  university  of 
Bonn.  Besides  annotated  editiona  of  the  frag- 
ments of  Ulpiaa,  the  lDstitnt««  of  Gains,  and 
other  clasaical  aathorities  on  ancient  law,  he 
published  Pandekten  de*  yOmuehen  Privat- 
rrehU  (3  vols.,  Bonn  and  Leipwo,  1843-'5B); 
Der  Orundriti  der  Pandehten  (5th  ed.,  Bonn, 
1861) ;  RBmitcha  Privatrecht,  Irutitutionen 
dtt  rlimachen  CitilTeehU  {2d  ed.,  Bonn,  18S3) ; 
and,  after  many  years'  preparatory  labors,  the 
highly  esteemed  NoHtia  Dignitatum  utriusgtia 
Imperii  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1889-'60).  He  also 
published  an  edition  of  A.  W.  von  SchlcKel's 
works  in  18  vols,,  and  collected  Ulrich  von 
Hutten's  Latin  writings,  with  a  bibliographical 
index,  in  7  vols. 

BWKUN,  IimM,  a  Swiss  painter,  bom  in 
Basel  in  1 837.  He  studied  in  Dflaseldorf,  Paris, 
and  Rome,  was  professor  of  landscape  painting 


at  the  Weimar  academy  in  1860-63,  and  ha* 
unce  resided  in  Rome.  His  principal  work^ 
remarkable  for  their  powerful  though  ideal  de- 
lineation of  scenery,  are  in  Munich,  Berlin,  and 
Basel.  Among  them  are  "Pan,"  "AmazODS 
Hunting  in  the  Forest,"  and  "A  Panic." 

SOCKSBERCEB,  or  BMki^ei's*'')  Hau  or  Kero- 
■yaw,  a  German  painter,  born  in  Salzburg  in 
1640,  died  at  the  end  of  tie  IBth  or  early  in 
the  17th  century.  He  excelled  in  battles  and 
hnnting  scenes,  illustrated  in  the  ducal  palace 
of  Augaborg  the  history  of  Frederick  Barba- 
roBsa,  and  in  1679  executed  frescoes  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Trausnitx,  which  are  still  pointed  out, 
together  with  his  portraits  of  court  Jestora. 

BODE,  Jehaan  Bert,  a  German  astronomer, 
bom  in  Hamburg,  Jan.  19, 1747,  died  In  Berlin, 
Nov.  28,  1826.  While  a  boy  he  made  a  tele- 
scope for  himself,  and  converted  his  father's 
garret  into  an  observatory.  He  pnblislied  in 
early  life  e,  paper  on  a  solar  eclipse,  and  a  pop- 
ular introduction  to  astronomy.  In  1772  he 
waa  chosen  astronomer  to  the  Berlin  academy 
of  sciences.  His  "Astronomical  Almanao 
(AttroTiomiiehe  JahrirQeher),  of  which  64  vol- 
umes appeared  at  Berlin  from  lTT6to  182B,  was 
continned  by  Encke.  His  Uranographia  con- 
tuns  observations  on  17,240  stars,  12,000  more 
than  were  contained  in  any  previous  chart — 
The  name  of  Bodo'a  law  has  been  ^ven  to  a 
symmetrical  relation  or  progression  in  the  dis- 
tances of  the  planeta  from  uie  sun.  To  4  add 
8  multiplied  by  3  once,  twice,  thrice,  &c,,  and 
the  sums  multiplied  by  9,000,000  will  give  the 
distances  of  the  aucccsaive  planeta  from  the  son. 
The  progression  is  merely  that  of  the  numbers 
4,  4-1-8,  4-1-6, 4-1-13,  &c.  This  rule  fails  in  the 
case  of  Neptune,  the  interval  between  its  orbit 
and  that  of  Mercury  being  but  little  more  than 
one  half  larger  than  that  between  Cranns  and 
Heronry.  A  similar  progresmon  is  observed  in 
the  distances  of  the  satellites  of  Jnpiter  and 
Batum  ft'om  those  planets.  The  merit  of  dis- 
covering this  law  IB  not  wholly  Bode's.  It  is 
a  modification  of  one  previously  announced  by 
Kepler^ 

BODEHOTEDT,  FrieUth  Kiida,  a  German  an- 
tlior,  bom  at  Peine  in  Hanover,  April  32,1819. 
He  studied  at  Gsttingen,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  and 
in  1840  became  private  tutor  at  Moscow,  in  the 
family  of  Prince  Galitzin.  While  in  this  por- 
tion, which  he  retained  until  1844,  he  publish- 
ed two  volnmea  of  poetry.  He  was  next  for  a 
abort  time  at  Tifiis  in  charge  of  a  school  and 
professor  in  the  gymnasinm,  and  iu  1845  sot  out 
upon  travels  through  the  Crimea,  the  Oancasaa, 
Ada  Minor,  and  Greece.  The  result  of  his  ob- 
scrvations  was  published  in  ViiJitfrdufauitfwut 
(2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1346, 1656)  and  Tau*ei\d  tind 
tin  Tag  im  Orient  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1950 ;  4th  ed^ 
18S4).  These  two  works  were  the  foundation 
of  his  reputation.  He  waa  afterward  engaged 
for  several  years  in  journalism,  and  in  1864 
took  up  his  residence  at  Munich  and  lectured 
as  proK«Bor  in  Uie  univernty,  at  first  upon  the 
Slavic  languages  and  literatures,  and  fhnn  1S6S 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


772 


BOmCHON 


npoD  tbe  old  EagliBh  literatare.  lIeha«traDa- 
l&ted  from  the  KnBsifiil  the  poems  of  Lermontoff 
(2  vols.)  and  Puehkin  (3  vols.),  and  from  the 
English  Shakespeare's  sooneta  (1S62),  and 
written  Shaktpeart^t  ZHtgenotttn  und  thrt 
Werke  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  ie58-'60).  The  moat 
brilliant  of  his  original  oompositions  was  the 
LUderde*  Mina  &Aa/j/ (Berlin,  1861;  80th 
cd.,  18T0).  These  songs  were  long  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  translations  from  the  Persian, 
and  have  been  rendered  into  almost  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  Among  his  other  puhlica- 
tions  are  Demttriiu  (1866),  GediekU  (3d  ed., 
Berlin,  186S),  £^ucKe  Dichtungen  (18S2),  and 
Kdnig  Authari't  BraHtfahrt  (1860).  The  last 
two  are  dramas.  He  is  now  (16T3)  engaged 
with  ottiers  in  making  a  complete  tran^tion 
of  Shakespeare. 

BODICHOH*    I.  EigiM,  a  Frencb  pbjaioian, 
bom  at  Nantes  about  1810.    He  received  his 
diploma  in  Paris  in  183fi,  and  has  ainoe  prac- 
tised his  profession  In 
Algiers,  and  pablished 
several  works,  includ- 
ing £fu^furr.i4^jri« 
et  rjfrique  (Paris  and 
Algiers,  1847).  II.  BaT< 
Inn  UIgh,  wife  of  the 

t receding,  bom  in  Eng- 
ind,April8, 182T.  She 
is  the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  late  Ur.  Benja- 
min Smith,  who  was 
member  of  parliament 
■for  Norwich.  She  pro- 
moted reforms  in  the 
English  laws  of  mar- 
riage and  divorce,  es- 
tablished a  school  in 
London  for  daughters 
of  respeotable  artisans, 
and  in  1857  married 
Dr.  Bodichon,  whom 
she  tdded  in  some  of 
his  works.      She    baa 

also  successfiiUy  devoted  herself  to  landscape 
painting. 

BODU,  Jmi,  a  French  puhUcist,  bora  at  An- 
gers in  16S0,  died  at  Loon  in  1696.  After 
studying  law  at  Toulouse,  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
and  devoted  himself  to  politics.  His  first  work 
was  a  Methodu*  ad  faeiUm  HUtoriaram  Cog- 
nitionem  (Paris,  1566).  In  157S  he  published 
his  Six  livrt*  dt  la  ripviliqut,  which  gained 
for  him  a  great  reputation,  and  the  esteem  of 
Henry  III. ;  but  having  suffered  in  the  king's 
mind  by  the  calumnies  of  some  courtiers,  be 
transferred  bia  services  to  the  duke  of  Alen^on, 
then  the  chief  of  the  party  called  lapolitiqna, 
and  went  with  that  prince  to  England  in  1660. 
His  DemoaoToanie,  ou  traiU  da  toreien,  was 
printed  at  Paris  in  1580.  After  tbe  death  of 
])is  protector,  in  1684,  be  retired  to  Laon, 
where  he  married,  and  held  the  office  of  pro- 
eurevT.  He  was  subsequently  sent  as  deputy 
for  tbe  tUri  itat  of  Yemundois  to  the  states 


BODUIUN  LIBBART 

general  at  Blois,  where  he  supported  several 
democratic  measures.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
III.  Bodin  joined  the  party  of  the  lewue,  hut  a 
little  later  went  over  to  the  side  of  Henry  IV. 
He  died  of  the  plague.  His  biography  bas 
been  written  by  Bandrillart  (Paris,  18fi3). 
.  BODLEUN  LUKiRY,  the  Dublic  library  of  the 
university  of  Oiford,  so  called  from  Sir  Thomas 
Bodley^  who  restored  it  toward  tbe  close  of  the 
16th  century,  many  of  the  previous  collections 
of  books  and  USS.  having  been  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  Bendes  restoring 
the  building  and  providing  a  fund  of  £2,000 
for  the  purchase  of  books,  he  also  presented 
a  collection  which  be  bad  made  on  the  conti- 
nent valued  at  £10,000,  and  left  an  estate  for 
the  maintenance  of  officers  and  for  keeping  the 
library  in  repair.  For  the  government  of  the 
library  he  drew  up  statutes,  which  were  after- 
ward incorporated  with  those  of  the  university. 
The  Ubrary  was  first  opened  to  the  public  Nov. 


8, 1602.  Tbe  example  of  Bodtej  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  (be  earl  of  Essex,  who  presented  part 
of  the  library  of  tbe  Portuguese  bishop  Oso- 
rins,  which  had  been  captured  by  him  in  1596, 
shortly  after  tbe  expedition  against  Cadiz, 
After  the  death  of  Bodley,  tlie  earl  of  Pern- 
broke  added  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek 
M8S.,  procured  by  Baroccio,  a  Venetian.  At 
later  dates  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  Sir  Eenelm  Digb^, 
Selden,  Gougb  the  antiquary,  and  Archbiuiop 
Laud  made  donations  of  vduable  Greek,  on- 
ental,  and  German  MSS,  The  rabbinical  col- 
lections of  the  Hebrew  scholar  Oppenbeim,  a 
great  collection  of  eastern  MS8.,  of  early  edi- 
tions of  the  Bible,  original  editions  of  ancient 
and  classic  authors,  together  with  fiO,000  dis- 
sertations by  members  of  foreign  nniverritiea, 
and  an  extensive  collection  of  medala,  coins, 

Erints,  &C.,  were  also  subsequently  deporited 
I  this  library.  In  1809  the  traveller  Clarke 
gave  to  it  some  rare  Greek  and  Latin  MSS., 


□igfizedbyGoOgIc 


BODLET 

iDclnding  a  Plato  from  th«  isle  of  Fntmofl.  In 
IBIS  ao  ezoeedingly  v&laftble  ooJlection  of  He- 
brew, Greek,  and  Arabic  M6S.,  procnred  from 
Venice,  wag  added,  together  with  a  portion  of 
the  famed  librarj  of  Richard  Heber  (1834) ;  and 
leatij,  the  rare  books,  MSS.,  and  coins  of  Fran- 
cis Donee.  The  library  is  conatantly  inoreasina 
by  donations,  by  copies  of  every  work  printed 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  to  which  it  is  entitled 
hy  tiie  copyright  law,  as  well  as  the  boots 
purchased  ttom  the  fond  left  by  Bodley,  by 
fees  received  at  matriculation,  and  by  an  anniud 
payment  of  all  persons  (servitors  excepted)  who 
have  the  right  of  admiwion  to  the  library.  The 
library  now  contains  about  800,000  printed 
Tolnmee. 

■ODLET,  Sir  Hmwh,  the  fonnder  at  the  Bod- 
Iman  library,  bom  in  Exeter,  March  2,  1S44, 
died  in  Oxford,  Jan.  28,  1618.  At  the  a^  of 
19  he  went  to  Geneva  with  his  father,  and 
studied  the  ancient  languages  and  divinity  at 
the  tiien  newly  founded  university  of  that 
citf.  On  the  accession  of  Qneen  Elizabeth 
in  1658  he  returned  Co  England,  entered  Che 
nniversity  of  Oxford,  became  fellow  of  Merton 
college  in  l&M,  and  filled  varions  ofBces  in  the 
universiCy  till  1GT6.  when  he  commenced  four 
years'  foreign  travel.  After  his  retorn  he  was 
made  gentleman  nsher  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  in  1585  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  marriage. 
Queen  Elizabeth  employed  him  after  this  in 
varions  embassies — to  Denmark,  Branawick, 
Eewe,  France,  and  the  Hague.  At  the  Ha«ne, 
where  he  was  admitted  one  of  the  council  of 
state,  he  remained  five  years,  bat  was  again 
sent  thither,  not  finally  quitting  Holland  till 
1597.  From  this  time  he  abandoned  the  pub- 
lic service,  and  set  abont  restoring  the  public 
library  at  Oxford.  He  was  knighted  on  the 
accession  of  James  I.  His  autobiography  was 
published  at  Oxford  in  1647. 

BODmX,  flMTg,  a  Swiss  mechanic,  bom  at 
ZQrioh  in  December,  1786,  died  in  Jnne,  18S4. 
Being  apprenticed  to  a  mechanic  in  Thnrgau, 
he  invented  screw  or  aross  wheels  in  1808,  and 
made  important  improvements  in  the  ma- 
chinery for  wool-spinning  in  1806.  He  estab- 
lished himself  at  Edssnacht,  where  in  1808  he 
invented  s  cannon  for  firing  bombs  which  ex- 
ploded when  tbey  struck.  He  settled  in  1609 
at  St.  Blasien  in  Baden,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  manufacture  and  improvement  of 
flrearraa  and  industrial  machinery.  In  1824 
he  went  to  Manchester,  England,  where  he 
applied  many  of  his  mechanical  improvements. 
He  constructed  at  Bolton  an  immense  water 
wheel  61  feet  in  diameter,  perfected  locomo- 
tives, and  daring  20  years  received  more  than 
80  patents  for  machinery.  In  1847  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  Austria  and  engaged  in  build- 
ing railroads. 

mtmB,  J«kon  Jikek,  a  Oerman  scholar  and 
literary  reformer,  bom  at  Greiffenaee,  Switz- 
erland, Jnly  9,  1S9S,  died  in  Zoriob,  Jan.  2, 
1788.  In  union  with  some  other  literary 
vojng  men,  he  issued  in  1721  a  periodical  en- 


BODONI 


773 


titled  JHthtrte  der  MdUr,  In  which  many  Ger- 
man poets  were  severely  criUoised  for  their  ser- 
vility to  French  models.  He  formed  a  Ger- 
man literary  school  based  on  national  and  an- 
cient standards,  in  opposition  to  the  French 
school  of  Gottsched,  with  whom  ha  carried 
on  a  protracted  contest.  He  wrote  poems 
and  dramas,  translated  "Paradise  Lost"  and 
the  "  Dnnciad,"  and  pnbliahed  valuable  editions 
of  older  German  poets.  He  was  for  SO  years 
professor  of  history  at  Zurich. 

BWHH,  the  county  town  of  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, 26  m.  W.  H".  W.  of  Plymouth ;  pop.  bf  the 
municipal  and  parliamentary  boron^  in  1871, 
e,B56.  The  town  is  bailt  partly  in  a  valley 
and  partly  on  a  hillddej  and  the  streets  are 
well  paved  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  prind- 
pal  church,  rebuilt  in  1472,  has  a  masuve  tower. 
A^oining  the  town  are  a  race  course  and  the 
ruins  of  tne  hospital  of  St.  Lawrence.  A  great 
fair  for  sheep  and  oattle,  which  was  among  the 
privil^B  granted  to  the  hospital  by  Elizabeth, 
w  still  neld  here  annaally;  and  there  are  several 
other  fairs  for  cattle  and  horses.  The  com- 
merce in  wool  is  considerable.  The  origin  of 
Bodmin  (Cornish,  Botventia  or  Botuenna,  "  the 
houses  on  the  hill,"  also  called  Bosmana  and 
Bodminian,  "the  abode  of  the  monks")  is  as- 
sociated with  fit.  Petroc,  who  lived  here  and 
died  in  B64.  His  hermitage  was  occupied  by 
Benedictine  monks  till  986,  when  King  Athef- 
stan  founded  a  priory  near  its  site.  Some  por- 
tions of  the  priory  still  remain,  and  are  used 
for  secular  pnrpoeea.  In  981  the  town  wai 
sacked  by  tlie  Danes.  In  1497  Perkin  War- 
beck  ^thered  here  armed  bands  agunst  Exe- 
ter. During  the  civil  war  it  was  taken  by 
Fairfax  in  1646. 

BODONI,  GUBbattMi,  an  Italian  printer,  bom 
at  Saluzzo,  Feb.  16,  1T40,  died  in  Padua,  Nov. 
80,  1818.  He  learned  the  trade  of  printer  with 
his  father,  and  practised  drawing  and  engrav- 
ing upon  wood.  At  the  age  of  18  he  was  era- 
ployed  as  a  compositor  in  the  printing  office  of 
the  propaganda  at  Bome,  and  there  learned 
Hebrew  and  Arabic,  and  engraved  punches  for 
a  new  set  of  oriental  types.  In  1768  he  took 
charge  of  the  ducal  nriuting  establishment  at 
Parma,  and  engraved  a  new  series  of  Greek 
types,  in  imitation  of  those  employed  by  the 
Italian  printers  of  the  15th  century.  To  these 
alphabets  he  soon  added  others,  and  in  1775 
print«d  the  ^ithalamia  Bxolieit  XAnguU  red- 
dita,  a  folio  of  600  pages  containing  the  alpha- 
bets of  100  languages,  nine  of  which  now  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time.  In  1789  he  printed 
the  first  edition  of  his  ManuaU  Upogrcffieo, 
in  folio,  which  contained  descriptions  of  100 
cities,  each  printed  in  a  different  kind  of  type, 
and  also  sfrecimens  of  Greek  type,  of  which  he 
then  had  28  kinds,  a  number  afterward  in- 
creased to  45.  An  enlarged  edition,  partly 
Irepared  before  his  death,  and  continued  by 
uigi  Ord,  appeared  in  1818,  in  two  large  folio 
volumea,  containing  specimens  of  more  than 
250  alphabets,  and  is  esteemed  the  most  mag- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


;t4 


BOEHM 


nifioent  vork  of  tlie  kind.  The  Bodonian  fooa- 
dei7  and  printing  office  came  to  be  tlie  finest  in 
Europe,  iurniBhiiig  type  to  prominent  printere 
in  all  countries.  Bodoni  gained  a  coneiderable 
fbrtnne  and  booght  a  fine  eatate,  and  hia  name 
waa  inscribed  in  the  "golden  book"  of  the 
nobility ;  but  he  oootinued  to  eierciw  his  pro- 
fesuon  to  the  last.  In  1806  he  commenced  the 
printing  of  a  soperb  edition  of  the  Iliad,  which 
appeared  in  180B,  in  3  vols,  folio.  The  Bo- 
donian editions  of  Greek,  Latjn,  Italian,  and 
French  daaeics  are  notable  rather  for  t>eant7 
than  aconracj.  Lama  pablished  bb  biogn^by 
and  a  catalogne  of  bis  editions  (3  vols,  tol., 
Panna,  1813). 

WWL  VHm,  or  BMkw,  tUtlk  (<rften  called 
by  Englisn  writers  Jacob  Bebmen),  a  German 
mystio,  bom  at  AltKidenberg,  near  O&rlitc,  in 
Silesia,  in  1S76,  died  at  GSriilz,  Not.  37,  1624. 
The  son  of  a  peasant,  hie  education  waa  very 
deficient.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
travelled  for  many  years  aa  a  jonrneyman,  and 
by  unceasing  efibrta  made  himself  familiar  with 
the  current  theological  literature.  Havitu;  re- 
turned from  his  travels,  be  set  np  a  shoemaker's 
shop  at  GOrlitz  in  16S4,  and  married  the  daogh- 
ter  of  a  butcher.  He  was  subject  to  ballnoiua- 
tions.  during  which  he  imagined  that  he  converg- 
ed with  God,  and  obtaiued  knowledge  of  nature 
and  grace,  which  be  conadered  it  necessary  he 
sboiudmakeknown  to  his  fellow  men.  Accord- 
ingly, in  1612  he  published  his  first  book,  Ati-- 
rora,  oder  dU  Morgtnr5th»  tin  Aufgang,  in 
which  he  proposed  "  to  light  a  torch  for  all  who 
are  longing  for  truth."  This  book,  which  con- 
taiiu  very  deep  and  obscare  philosophical  sen- 
timents on  God,  nature,  and  mankind,  couched 
in  crude  figurative  hmgnage,  was  violently  de- 
nounced. In  1610  he  published  other  writings, 
among  which  were  .fiMeArmAu^  d«rdrei  PHti- 
eipien  gdttliektn  Weten*  and  Von  viakrtr  Btutt 
wid  awirtr  OeUutenheit.  The  consequence 
was  his  tianishment  from  the  city.  He  went 
to  Dresden,  where  be  defended  his  opinions 
in  a  public  discussion  with  eminent  theologians. 
He  next  went  to  fiileaia,  and  obtained  the  abro- 
gation  of  the  decree  of  banishment  just  in  time 
to  return  home  and  die.  Hia  theoiogical  ad- 
versariea  refused  to  allow  bis  remains  a  Chris- 
tJao  burial,  but  were  compelled  to  do  so  by  the 
civil  authorities. — Boehm's  writings,  notwith- 
standing their  obscurity,  found  many  admirers, 
not  only  In  Germany,  but  in  England,  where  a 
religious  sect  was  built  upon  then.  In  16ST 
Jane  Leade,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Boehm, 
founded  a  society  for  the  true  interpretation  of 
his  works  (Fhiladelpbists),  John  Pordage  waa 
hia  profoundeat  exponnder.  A  new  edition  of 
Boebm's  works  was  published  by  Schiebler 
(Leipaio,  1831-46).  The  best  Eni^lish  transla- 
tion is  that  of  William  Law  (2  vols.  4to,  1T64). 

BOraM,  JMcph  Edgar.    See  supplement. 

BfEOIU  (Or.  SoioTia),  a  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  bounded  N.  by  Pbocia  and  Opuutian 
Locria,  E.  by  the  Eubcean  sea,  8.  by  Attica  and 
Uegaria,  and  W.  by  the  Coriotbian  gulf  and 


B<EOTIA 

Phocis.  The  mount«n  ranges  of  Oitharoa 
and  Psrnes  in  the  south,  Helicon  in  the  west, 
Parnassus  on  the  northwest,  and  the  Opnntiin 
range  on  the  north  and  east,  make  one  Isige 
basin,  which  includes  the  whole  of  Bceotia 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  coast  distnct 
on  the  Grissean  sea.  This  large  barin  ia  divi- 
ded by  the  mountains  Ptoum  and  Phcenicinm, 
which  reach  from  l^e  Enbcean  sea  to  Ht.  Heli- 
con, into  the  northern  basin  of  Lake  Gopaia 
(now  Topolias),  into  which  flows  the  river  Ce- 
phisMis  (Mavronero),  and  a  basin  which  oom- 
prises  the  plain  of  Thebes  and  the  v^ley  of 
the  AsopuB  (Oropo).  Lake  Clopais,  47  mile«  in 
ciraumference,  is  formed  by  tne  overflovring 
waters  of  the  Cephissus,  which  coming  fhim 
Phocis  enters  Bceotia  from  the  north  at 
Ohmronea,  and  is  prevented  by  the  moun- 
tains on  the  coast  Irom  flowing  directly  in- 
to the  EulMsan  sea.  It  with  difficulty  finds 
ita  onUets  through  underground  obannela, 
called  in  modem  Greek  KnrapiBpa,  in  the 
limestone  formation  of  thoee  mountains.  In 
smnmer  the  lake  is  nearly  dry  and  ia  little 
more  than  a  marsh,  but  the  whole  district  is 
aul^ect  to  Innndationa,  The  Hinyn  of  Orcho- 
menus,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  tiiia  regioii, 
eonatmcted  two  tnunelB  or  nndetgroand  chan- 
nels to  the  sea  for  the  sorplus  waters  of  tbe 
lake.  One  of  theae,  leading  from  the  N.  E. 
part  of  the  lake  toward  upper  Larymna,  was 
nearly  four  miles  in  length,  and  penetrated  at 
intervals  by  vertical  shalls  from  100  to  160  feet 
in  depth.  The  other  waa  shorter,  and  ocn- 
nected  Lake  Copais  with  Lake  Hylica  toward 
the  east.  Nearly  all  Bceotia  has  a  fertile  aoil^ 
but  the  lake  district  in  the  north  is  especially 
productive,  and  celebrated  both  in  sncient  and 
modern  timu  for  its  abundant  crops  of  com. 
The  climate  of  the  country,  however,  is  more 
severe  than  that  of  the  rest  of  Greece.  The 
leading  city  of  Bceotia  was  Thebes ;  the  other 
principal  towns  were  Platna,  Orchtsnaina, 
Ohnronea,  Coronea,  Lebadea,  Tiiesptn,  Ealiar- 
tns,  Tanagra,  and  Aulis. — Bceotia  was  the  scene 
of  many  of  the  legends  npoa  which  were 
founded  the  plays  of  the  Greek  tragedians.  It 
was  ori^nally  inhabited  by  various  barbaroni 
tribes,  of  which  the  two  most  powerful  were 
tbe  Miny»  of  Orchomenos  and  the  Gadmeana 
of  Thebes.  About  60  years  after  the  Trqjan 
war,  according  to  Thncydides,  the  supremacy 
of  uiese  two  tribes  was  overthrown,  and  the 
latter  expelled  from  their  city  by  the  Bceo- 
tiana,  an  .£olian  people  who  immigrated  fhra 
Tbesaaly.  Early  in  the  bialoric  age  the  oonntry 
was  governed  by  a  confederacy  of  the  fonrtecai 
most  important  cities  under  the  presidency  of 
Thebes,  and  in  all  these  cdties  the  Baotian  was 
the  prevailing  race.  The  chief  ma^strates  of 
the  confederacy  were  called  Bceotarcbs,  and 
were  elected  annually,  lloat  of  the  rities  wer« 
ruled  by  oligarchies,  which  were  naturally  hos- 
tile to  the  democrstio  state  of  Attics,  bi  607 
B.O.  the  Bceotians,  with  thePeloponnesiaiis  and 
Cbalcidiaus,  made  war  on  Athens,  and  in  the 


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BOEBHAAVE 

Pereifin  wars  thej^  rided  for  tlie  moet  part  wtth 
the  Peraaus.  Plataa,  howerer,  wu  demO' 
cretio  in  it«  gOTemment,  &nd  a  faithful  aily  of 
Athens.  (See  Plataa.)  Dnrinff  the  Pelopon- 
nesiali  war  the  Baeotiami  were  tuliea  of  Sparta 
and  aasistad  in  the  overthrow  of  Athens.  In 
89fi  B.  C,  however,  they  joined  the  league 
against  Sparta,  which  was  overcome  in  the  fol- 
lowing ;eftr  by  Agesilaiia  at  Ooronea.  In  88S 
another  war  between  B<»otia  and  Sparta  began, 
in  which  the  Theban  EpaminondoB  gained  the 
battleaof  Lenctraand  Mantinea,  and  broke  the 

! lower  of  Sparta.  At  this  time  Bceotia  was  the 
eading  state  and  Thebes  the  roiing  oitj  of 
Greece.  This  supremacy  was  taken  away  by 
the  Macedonians  under  Pliilip  at  Ohsronea  in 
888,  and  three  jears  later  Thebes  was  raied 
to  the  gronnd  by  Alexander,  bnt  was  restored 
by  CasMnder  and  the  Athenians  in  SIS.  (Bee 
TnasES.)  From  this  epoch  dates  the  ntter 
dedine  of  Bmotia,  which  was  finally  mined 
by  the  rapacity  of  Sylla,  who  defeated  at  OhfO' 
ronea  the  army  of  Mithridatea.  Inatgnifloant 
nnder  the  Romans,  daring  the  middle  ages,  and 
tmder  the  Tnrka,  it  became  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  sharpest  fighting  in  the  war  of  Greek 
libcraticm. — In  the  present  kingdom  of  Greece, 
it  forms  two  eparohlea,  Thebes  and  IJvadia,  in 
the  nomarohy  of  Attica  and  Bisotia.  (See 
Attida.)  Bceotia  Is  still  famons  for  its  heaTy 
atmosphere,  to  which  the  Athenians  attributed 
the  proverbial  dnlness  of  its  people. 

■OEKHUV^  BamMMM,  a  Dutch  phyrioian, 
bora  at  Voorhont,  near  Leyden,  Deo.  81, 
1669,  died  in  Leyden,  Sept.  28,  17SS.  His 
father  was  a  clergyman,  and  he  was  des- 
tined for  the  same  calling.  He  studied  at  Ley- 
den nnder  Gronovins,  Ryckioa,  and  Trigland, 
and  obtained  the  hishest  acadamioal  honors. 
In  1S89  he  received  his  degree  in  philosophy, 
the  aabject  of  his  thesis  being  the  distinction 
between  mind  and  matter,  in  which  he  con- 
demned the  doctrines  of  EDieams,  Hobbes, 
and  Spinosa,  and  maintained  that  the  doctrines 
of  Epionrns  had  been  oom^etely  analyzed  and 
refbted  by  Cicero.  For  this  dissertation  a  gold 
medal  was  given  to  him  by  the  city.  After 
the  death  of  his  bther  Boerhaave  supported 
himself  for  a  wbUe  by  teaching  mathematics, 
and  then  engaged  in  the  stndy  of  medicine. 
In  169She  obtained  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medi- 
ome  at  Harderwrck,  and  immediately  entered 
on  the  dntje«  of  his  profesnon.  In  1701  he 
was  appointed  by  the  nniversity  of  Leyden  to 
supply  the  place  of  Drelinconrt  as  lecturer  on 
the  institutes  of  medicine.     His  inangnral  dis- 


pupils  the  stady  of  the  works  of  that  writer  as 
the  best  source  of  instruction.  He  was  fond 
of  chemistry,  botany,  and  mathematics,  and 
these  sciences  were  much  consulted  In  his  med- 
ical investigations.  In  1708  be  pablished  at 
Leyden  the  Inttitvtiona  Mtdica  in  Utut  An- 
Hva  BtereitaHtmit  J)ome*tieoif  a  comprehensive 
work  on  the  stndy  and  praotioe  of  medidne. 


BOERS  775 

the  fimctionB  of  the  body  health,  disease,  and 
the  means  of  prolonging  life.  The  next  year 
appeared  his  Aphcritmi  dt  CognotcendU  »t 
OarMidU  Morhit,  a  classification  of  diseases, 
with  explanations  of  their  caosee,  symptoms, 
and  treatment.  These  two  works,  which  show 
immense  learning  and  ere  modeb  of  style, 
passed  through  numerons  editions,  were  co- 
piously annotated,  and  translated  into  many 
iangns^es.  In  1709  he  was  appointed  sucaes- 
sor  to  Rotten  in  the  chair  of  botany  and  medi- 
cine. Under  his  influence  additions  were  made 
to  the  botanical  garden  of  Leyden,  and  he  pab- 
lished nnmeroos  works  descriptive  of  new  spe- 
oiea  of  plants.  In  1T14  he  was  appointed  rec- 
tor of  the  imtversity,  and  in  the  same  year  snc- 
ceeded  Bidloo  in  the  chair  of  practical  medidne. 
In  this  position  he  had  the  merit  of  reviving 
the  ancient  system  of  clinical  instrnction.  In 
1718  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  chem- 
istry, and  the  fruit  Of  his  labors  in  this  position 
appeared  some  years  later  in  his  Elementa 
Ohtmvt  (bested.,  4to,  Leyden,  1732).  In  1789 
declining  health  indaoed  him  to  rcdgn  the 
chairs  of  chemistry  and  botany,  and  in  1781  he 
resigned  the  rectorship  of  the  university,  deliv- 
ering a  disoonrse  De  Monore  Medici  ServituU. 
Besides  attending  to  his  active  duties  as  rector 
of  the  aniver«ty  and  professor  of  chemistry, 
botany,  and  medicine,  Buerhsavo  was  always 
much  oonsulted  as  a  practical  physician.  He 
was  simple  and  economical  in  his  habits,  and 
when  he  died  he  left  a  fortane  of  2,000,000 
fiorins  to  his  only  surviving  dau^ter. — The 
genloa  of  Boerhaave  attract^  students  to  the 
nniversity  of  Leyden  from  all  parts  of  Europe ; 
and  when  Peter  the  Great  revi^ted  Hoilana  in 
1716,  he  had  recourse  to  him  for  instrnction. 
From  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  no  physician  bad 
excited  so  much  admiration  as  Boerhaave.  His 
personal  appearance  was  simple  and  venerable ; 
to  uncommon  intellectual  powers  he  united  gen- 
tleness, benevolence,  and  amiable  manners.  In 
lecturing,  bis  style  was  eloquent  and  graoefol, 
his  ideas  clear,  and  his  delivery  perfect.  Be 
possessed  an  exoellent  memory,  and  was  an 
aocomjplished  linguist  and  fond  of  mnsic.  He 
was  of  a  religions  tarn  of  mind,  and  usually 
devoted  an  hour  early  in  the  morning  to  read- 
ing the  Scriptures  and  pious  meditations,  to 
which  habit  ne  attributed  his  faculty  of  endur- 
ing with  cheerfulness  his  immense  labors.  The 
city  of  Leyden  rwsed  a  monument  to  his  mem- 
ory in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  inscribed  "To  the 
health-giving  skill  of  Boerhaave"  {Salut^grv 
Boerhaavii  ffenio  taeruta),  and  on  which  was 
engraved  his  motto,  Simplai  gigilhtm  tori. 

BOESS  (Dutoh,  boer,  a  peasant),  the  Dutch 
colonists  of  sonthem  Africa.  The  first  Dutch 
settlements  there  were  eetabiished  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  century,  and  grew  rapidly 
while  the  Netherlands  were  a  ruling  mantjme 
power;  but  daring  the  18th  century  the  ad- 
venturous spirit  of  the  Dutch  died  away,  and  as 
the  influx  of  fresh  elements  from  Europe  di- 
minished, the  original  settlers  of  Oape  (Mlouy 


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776 

developed  apecnliftrcbvacter  of  their  own,  sin- 

^tarly  blending  the  sleadineH  and  deliberation 
oftheDntch wiChrecklesanesBandenergj.  The 
Boers  conld  never  be  reconciled  to  the  tranrfer 
of  the  colony  to  Great  Britain  in  1814,  and 
maintaiaed  a  secret  but  constant  oppowtion 
against  all  efforts  to  Anglicize  the  colony.  The 
lenient  policy  which  the  British  adopted  toward 
the  CanHa,  and  finally  the  emaDcipatioa  of 
the  n^ro  slaves  (1883),  which  threatened  to 
overthrow  the  entire  domeatic  syatem  of  the 
Boers,  and  the  retrocession  by  government  of 
the  neutral  eastern  frontier  district  to  the  Caf- 
fres  in  183Gj  determined  them  to  emigrate  and 
toestabliahin  the  interior  an  independent  oom- 
munity.  Aa  early  aa  ISSfi  the  firat  bands,  led  by 
Triechard  of  Albany,  crowed  the  Orange  river, 
and  settled,  one  part  near   the  Zoutpanaberg 

gialt-pan  monntain)  and  another  part,  ]ed  by 
rich,  near  Delagos  bay,  where  they  were  aoou 
destroyed  by  m^gnant  coast  fevers.  A  third 
band,  which  followed  in  Angost,  1835,  was 
'  attacked  by  the  Uatabelee  Cafirea,  and  obliged 
to  £aU  bock  on  the  Modder  river.  Having 
been  reinforced  by  other  emigrants,  they  asain 
advanced  under  Ute  leadership  of  Gerrit  Ma- 
ritz,  repalsed  the  Matabelees,  Jan.  17, 1S33,  and 
fin^y  settled  in  the  Orange  river  district,  where 
they  organized  a  patriarchal  commonwealth 
under  Pieter  Retief.  Meanwhile  a  small  Brit- 
ish colony  had  been  established  at  Port  Natal 
by  Oapt.  Qerdner,  who  abandoned  it  as  hope- 
less in  18S6.  The  remuning  colonists  called 
on  the  Boers  to  unite  witii  them,  and  in  1887 
E^tief  with  his  followers  crossed  the  Qaath- 
lomba  moootain ;  bot  at  an  interview  with  the 
chief  of  the  Zooloo  Cafiree  he  and  his  compan- 
ions were  treacherously  aluin.  The  remnantof 
bia  followers  turned  in  a  southerly  direction, 
founded  the  settlement  of  Pieter-Uaritzburg, 
and  under  the  lead  of  Pretorins  defeat«d  the 
Zoolooa,  Feb.  1, 1888.  In  1840  Gov.  Napier  by 
proclamation  denied  their  right  to  form  an  inde- 
pendent commnnity,  even  beyond  the  bounda- 
ries of  the  British  possessions.  In  1 B43  a  small 
British  force  was  landed,  which  compelled  the 
Boers  to  retire  from  the  coast  and  to  accept  the 
amnesty  offered  them  in  exchange  for  their 
recogninng  the  British  sovereignty.  Kany  of 
them,  unwiUing  to  submit,  reorossed  the  moun- 
tains and  settled  in  the  Vaal  region.  The  Brit- 
ish, having  posseeson  of  Nattu,  at  once  began 
to  disturb  the  traditionary  rights  of  the  Boera. 
The  consequence  was,  that  again  a  large  por- 
tion of  them  migrated  northward  beyond  the 
Klipp  river,  then  the  northern  boondary  of 
Natal,  where  for  three  years,  unprotected  by 
the  government,  tJiey  struggled  against  the  Zoo- 
loos.  'When  at  length,  in  1845,  they  had  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  Cafires  by  their  un- 
aided efforts,  the  colonial  government  immedi- 
ately proclaimed  the  Bnffalo  river  as  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Natal,  thus  once  more  sub- 
jecting the  Boers  to  British  rule.  After  some 
reMstance  the  Boers  determined  to  emigrate  to 
the  Vaal  country.     Smith,  the  governor  gen- 


eral, attempted  to  retain  them  by  pronddng 
full  redress  of  their  grievances,  but  it  was  loo 
late.  Similar  events  followeid  beyond  the 
Qnathlamba.  The  bands,  led  by  Pretorins.  had 
settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Griquas  and  Be- 
chnanas;  but  on  Feb.  S,  164S,  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment annexed  by  proclamation  the  Orange 
river  sovereignty  to  the  Gape  Colony,  under 
the  pretext  of  protecting  the  savage  Griqnas 
agunst  encroachments  on  their  territory.  The 
Boers  took  to  anna,  and  on  Jnne  17  Pretorins 
drove  the  British  garrison  t>om  Bloemfontein. 
Bnt  Gov.  Smith  crowed  the  Orange  river  with 
a  large  force,  and  on  Aug.  2fi  defeated  the  Boers 
near  Boomplaats,  after  a  long  and  obstJoate 
re^Btanoe.  Pretoriua  and  the  m^ority  of  his 
followers,  unwilling  to  submit  to  the  British, 
migrated  to  the  north,  beyond  the  Vaal  river, 
and  there  founded  the  Transvaal  BepabUo. 
Some  12,000  Boers  remained  in  the  Orange 
river  oonntry,  bnt,  alt^ongh  snbdned  by  force, 
they  preserved  their  hostile  feeling  against  their 
conqaerors.  The  attempt  to  introduce  oonvicta 
into  the  colony  was  so  energetically  reaated 
that  the  government  was  obliged  to  deost 
The  Ceffte  wars,  begun  in  1 850,  made  it  evident 
that  united  action  by  the  Enropeans  was  necee- 
aary  for  safety,  and  in  18GB  the  relinqnishment 
of  the  Orange  river  country  to  tha  Boers  was 
resolved  upon  by  the  government.  On  Feb. 
28,  1804,  this  act  was  consummated,  and  the 
Orange  Biver  Bepublio  was  recognind  as  an 
independent  state  by  England,  unce  which  time 
the  two  republics  of  Orange  River  and  Trans- 
vaal have  rapidly  gained  strength  and  power. 
— Thb  Obakob  Rivbb  Repdblio,  or  Orakoi 
Peek  Staix  ia  boanded  B.  by  the  Orange  river, 
W.  and  N.  by  the  Vaal  river,  E.  by  the  Boaulo 
territory  and  the  Quathlamba  or  Drakenberg 
mountains,  and  extends  from  lat.  S7°  to  81 
S. ;  area,  46,049  sq.  m. ;  pop.  50,000,  of  whom 
1C,000  are  white.  The  country  ia  a  high  Uble 
land,  its  average  elevation  above  the  level 
of  the  ocean  being  about  0,000  feet,  excel- 
lent for  grazing  purpoBea,  and  abnudantly 
watered.  The  Boers,  oeing  principally  cattle 
breeders,  have  not  developed  tiie  agricnltnral 
resources  of  the  country  to  any  oonaiderable 
extent.  Goal  and  iron  have  been  fbund  in 
many  places,  and  gold  was  discovered  in  1604 
on  the  Caledon  river.  The  climate  is  dry,  tem- 
perate, and  aalnbriouB.  Excellent  roads  ctxa- 
munioate  with  Gape  Gotony  and  Fori,  Natal. 
The  republic  is  divided  into  five  districts,  vii., 
Fanresmith,  Caledon  or  Smithfield,  Bloeinfbn- 
tein,  Winbnrg,  and  Harrysnuth  or  Vaal  Biver 
district.  The  principal  towns  are  Bloemfon- 
tein, the  seat  of  government ;  Smithfield,  on  the 
Orange  riverj  Winburg,  the  former  capital; 
and  Harrysmith,  the  key  of  the  Port  Natal 
road,  and  the  centre  of  tne  principal  a^col- 
taral  district  The  political  organizatiim  is 
democratic.  An  elective  prerident  is  the  chief 
ma^atrate,  but  the  congress  (wlktrad)  hat  sll 
legislative  powers.  On  the  same  principle  the 
districts  are  governed  by  landdroatt  (govem- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BOETHIUa 


777 


on)  and  httmraden.  In  Mej,  1870,  diamond! 
were  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Vaal  river,  new 
the  misaionary  station  of  Pniel  in  the  district 
of  Winbwx,  Md  also  north  of  the  river  in  ter- 
ritory claimed  by  the  Transvaal  Republic.  A 
large  population  was  at  once  attracted  to  these 
diamond  fields,  and  although  the  region  was 
claimed  bj  both  republics,  the  miners  organ- 
ized a  government  of  their  own.  Their  prin- 
cipal settJement  is  Da  Toit's  Pan,  stud  to  con- 
tain in  18T2  a  popolation  of  16,000.  Bj  a 
proclamation  promolgated  in  Capetown  in 
October,  I8T1,  the  British  government  annex- 
ed the  diamond  Selds  to  Cape  Colony,  in  spite 
of  the  protest  of  the  Free  State  aathoriOee. 
The  territory  was  divided  into  tlie  diatricta 
of  Kiipdrift,  Pniel,  and  Griqna  Town.— Tbb 
Tkakbvaal  Rbpitbuc,  between  kt  22°  80' 
and  28°  6.,  is  bonnded  E.  by  the  Qnathlam- 
ba  moontiuns,  8.  by  the  Vaal  river,  W.  by  the 
Hart  river,  and  N.  W.  and  N.  by  the  Limpopo 
river;  area,  7T,flM  sq.  m. ;  pop,  140,000.  The 
phynt^nomy  of  the  ooantry  is  nearly  the  same, 
viz.,  an  elevated  table  land,  intersected  by 
parallel  mountain  ranges  in  the  east.  The  soil, 
consisting  of  sand,  clay,  and  loam,  is  more  fer- 
tile than  that  of  the  Orange  river  conntry.  Its 
rolling  prairies  are  covered  with  excellent  tall 
grass,  interspersed  with  shraba  and  magnificent 
trees.  In  the  mountainous  region  there  are 
primeval  forests.  The  climatA  is  wmilar  to 
that  of  southern  Enrope,  and  all  Enropeui  and 
many  tropical  vegetables  are  raised  without 
difficnlty.  The  rirers,  of  which  the  conntry 
haa  a  good  nnmtter,  are  not  navigable,  and 
(M>mmunication  with  the  seashore  is  difficult. 
Qrasshoppers  are  a  constant  plague  to  the 
former,  while  flies  end  other  venomons  in- 
sects often  destroy  hundreds  of  cattle.  The 
form  of  government  is  a  pure  democracy,  A 
voltarad,  elected  by  ballot  (every  white  man 
uf  21  years  being  entitled  to  vote),  meets  four 
time*  every  year  at  different  places.  This 
body  unites  all  legislative  and  executive  pow- 
ers. It  appoints  for  each  district  or  church 
parish  militorv  and  civil  officers,  viz.,  com- 
manders-in-chie^  commanders,  field  cornets 
(colonels,  minors,  and  captains),  landdrotU, 
and  h««mraden.  The  landdrosts  have  admin- 
istrative as  welt  as  Jndicial  powers;  they  and 
their  messengers  are  the  only  salaried  officers. 
Every  whit^man  is  entitled  to  a  homestead 
of  3,000  acres  from  the  public  lands.  Slavery, 
properly  speaking,  has  no  legal  existence,  but 
the  Boers  keep  a  number  of  semi-civilized 
Hottentots  as  laborers  and  herdsmen.  The 
principal  settlements  are  Fotchefstroro,  con- 
taining 1,500  inhabitants,  Rnstenburg,  Orich- 
stadt,  and  Zoutpan8l>erg.  These  towns  are 
laid  out  very  reg:alar!y,  and  are  well  supplied 
with  water. — The  Boers  are  represented  by 
those  who  have  sqjoumed  among  them  as 
plain,  honest,  straightforward,  pious,  and  hos- 
pitable, but  distrustful  of  foreigners,  especially 
Englishmen.  They  live  in  the  most  patriarch^ 
way  on  their  plaatt  or  cattle  farms,  m  comfort- 


appointed  h 
For  some  ye 


able  and  gpaoions,  thongh  unpretending  dwell- 
ings. Besides  cattle  breeding,  their  favorite  oc- 
cupation is  hunting.  Inns  are  nnknown,  and 
no  Boer  ever  denies  hospitality  to  a  stranger. 

BOfeCHIDS,  UdM  MwUis  TtrqaitM  Bcvcrbiu, 
a  Roman  philosopher,  born  between  A.  D.  470 
and  475,  executed  at  Pavia  about  52B.  Hia 
grandfather  Flavius,  prefect  of  the  prstorians, 
was  murdered  by  order  of  Valentinian  III,,  in 
455.  His  father  was  consul  in  467,  but  died 
while  the  son  was  yet  a  child,  and  Boethius 
was  brooght  up  b;  some  of  the  principal  men 
in  Rome,  among  whom  were  Festus  and  Bym- 
maohuB.  He  attained  the  rank  of  patrician 
while  under  the  legal  age,  was  oonsul  in  510, 
and  But>seqnentlyprine«p«M7iafus.  In  the  mean 
time  he  had  married  Rusticiana,  the  daughter 
of  hie  guardian  Sfmmachua,  who  bore  him  two 
sons,  AareliuB  Anicius  Symmaohus  and  Anidus 
ICanliuB  Severinos,  both  of  whom  were  after- 
ward coqsuIb.  Amid  his  public  dnties  he 
found  leisure  to  translate  several  mathematical 
and  philoeophical  worlcs  tram  the  Greek,  to  in- 
dulge his  talent  for  the  construction  of  curious 
marines,  (md  to  bestow  charity  upon  the  poor 
of  Rome.  His  reputation  attracted  the  atten. 
of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who 
linted  him  magutar  offieiomm  at  liis  court. 
some  years  BoSthins  eqjuyed  the  tViendtJiip 
of  this  monarch,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  in- 
auguration of  his  two  sons  in  the  consulate  in 
522,  he  pronounced  a  glowing  panegyric  on  his 
patron.  His  bold  advocacy  of  the  oaose  of  the 
weak  had  raised  him  up  many  enemies  at  the 
court  of  Theodorio,  who  eagerly  watched  for 
an  opportunity  to  effect  his  min.  At  length 
Albinos,  a  noble  Roman,  having  been  accused 
of  treason  by  the  dictator  Oyprianus,  Bo£thius 
undertook  his  defence  with  such  zeal  that  he 
was  accused  of  plotting  with  Symmaohus  b) 
free  Rome  from  the  barbarians.  He  was  ac- 
cordingly by  command  of  Theodorio  arrested 
with  Bymmachus,  and,  without  being  allowed 
to  defend  themselves,  they  were  stripped  of 
their  property  and  sentenced  to  death.  Boe- 
thius  was  taken  to  Pavia,  imprisoned  for  some 
time  in  the  baptiBtery,  and  executed.  In  722 
a  cenotaph  was  crecl«d  in  his  honor,  in  the 
church  of  San  Pietro  Cielo  d'Oro,  by  Lintprand, 
king  of  the  Lombards ;  and  in  690  a  still  more 
magnificent  one,  with  an  epitaph  by  Pope  Syl- 
vester IL,  was  raised  to  his  memory  uy  the 
emperor  Otho  III.  He  was  long  regarded  aa 
a  saint  and  a  martyr,  and  in  after  times  many 
traditiona  were  current  about  his  intimacy  with 
St.  Benedict,  and  the  miracles  which  he  had 
wrought  during  hia  life  and  at  his  death.  It  ia, 
however,  now  considered  an  established  fact 
that  he  was  not  a  Christian  at  all,  and  that  the 
theological  compilatioDS  ascribed  to  him  were 
written  by  anotner  person  of  the  same  name. 
The  greatest  of  his  works  is  that  which  he 
composed  in  prison  at  Pavia  while  awaiting 
execution,  and  entitled  Bt  Coruolationt  Phi- 
latophia.  It  is  an  imaginary  dialogue,  alter- 
nately in  prose  and  verse,  between  the  author 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


778 


boEthius 


and  philo«oph]r.  Its  tone  ii  morit]  and  elevated, 
its  style  eloquent,  perBpicaona,  and  pare,  and 
its  ftrgament*  are  ingenious.  It  nad  great 
fame  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  translated 
into  all  the  langaBgee  of  centra]  and  weBtem 
Surope,  and  also  into  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Arabic.  Tlie  most  celebrated  of  these  tranda- 
tione  was  that  into  Anglo-Sason  hj  King 
Alfred  (new  ed.  by  Fox,  London,  1884),  which 
has  a  peculiar  interest,  both  bb  being  one  of 
the  earlieet  specimens  of  English  literatnre  and 
one  of  the  chief  literarr  relica  of  Alfred.  Edi- 
tions of  the  works  of  Boethins  were  published 
at  Venice  in  1491  (the  earHest  full  collection), 
at  Baael  in  folio  in  1G70,  and  at  Glasgow  in 
4to  in  ITSl.  There  is  an  edition  of  I>t  Con- 
tolationt  PhiioiopKia,  with  notes  and  English 
translation  by  J.  S.  Cardale  (London,  1S29). 

BOStVIIFS,  or  Bmcc,  Better,  a  Scottish  his- 
torian, bom  at  Dandee  about  146S,  died  about 
ISSS.  He  was  edncated  at  Dnndee  and  at 
Paris,  where  in  1497  he  was  appointed  prof^ 
Bor  of  philoeophj  in  the  college  of  Kontaign, 
and  formed  an  aoqnaintance  with  Erasmus, 
who  afterward  dedicated  to  him  a  catalogue 
of  his  works.  In  J600  he  was  called  by 
Bishop  Elphinstone  to  the  first  presidency  of 
Atieraeen  college,  and  was  made  oanon  of  the 
cathedral  and  ohapltun  of  the  chantir  of  St. 
Kinian.  His  two  most  important  works  were 
a  biography  of  t^e  bishops  of  Al>erdeen  (Paris, 
IS22),  and  his  "History  of  Scotland  "(i%ob>r«m 
Sutoria  a  prima  Oenti*  Origins,  1638).  The 
latter  worft  cont^ns  much  that  is  fabulous, 
and  its  author  has  been  charged  with  pla^arism 
and  with  inventing  materials  and  imagining 
authors  for  them.    It  was  translated  into  Eng- 

1  by  John  Bellenden  in  1686  (new  edition, 


t,  a  French  author,  bom 
at  Sariat,  Nov.  I,  ISSO,  died  Aug.  18,  1668. 
He  was  celebrated  in  childhood  for  his  trans- 
lations, and  became  a  prominent  oonnsellor  of 
the  parliament  of  Bordoaui,  but  is  now  chief- 
ly remembered  t>ecanae  Montaigne  published 
some  of  his  works,  and  recorded  in  a  few 
toncblne  pages  the  friendship  which  existed  be- 
tween them.  His  discourse  on  voluntary  ser- 
vitnde,  a  violent  philippic  agiunst  royalty,  waa 
written  in  his  18th  year.  He  died  in  the  arms 
of  Montague. 

■06,  an  Irish  word,  literally  meaning  soft, 
applied  in  Great  Britain  to  extensive  districts 
of  marshy  land.  In  Europe  tlieae  tracts  consist 
so  generally  of  peat,  that  this  substance  is  there 
redded  as  essential  to  a  bog.  True  bogs  are 
most  commonly  foaud  in  northern  latitudes, 
and  in  districts  where  great  humidity  prevails. 
Their  situation  is  not  necessarily  low,  nor 
their  surface  level,  some  of  the  great  Irish 
bogs  presenting  even  a  hilly  appearance.  In 
places  naturally  moist,  by  the  abundance  of 
springs,  or  around  shallow  ponds,  the  mosses, 
liohens,  heaths,  and  grasses  flourish,  which  by 
their  spread  produce  the  great  peat  bogs,  or 
mosses.    They  encroooh  upon  the  ponds  and 


BOG 

fill  them  up  with  Inxnriant  living  regetatioQ 
and  the  accumulations  of  decayed  matter.  The 
moss  called  tpkoffnum  paliutre  grows  most 
abundantly,  and,  like  the  coral  in  the  ocean, 
the  new  growth  above  leaves  the  lower  por- 
tion below  dead  and  buried.  The  famous 
levels  of  Hatfleld  Ohase  in  Yorkshire,  which 
were  stripped  of  their  forests  by  the  Romans^ 
were  cleared  up  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  when  vast  quanlibes  of  excellent 
timber  were  found  buried  beneath  the  morass. 
Many  of  the  trees  were  of  extraordinary  mze, 
some  larger  than  any  now  known  in  Great 
Britun.  Many  of  them  retained  the  marks 
of  the  axe,  and  some  still  held  the  wooden 
wedges  used  to  rend  them.  Broken  axe  beads 
were  discovered,  links  of  chains,  and  (mmus  of 
Vespasian  and  other  Roman  emperors.  The 
great  cedar  swamps  in  the  sonthov  part  of 
New  Jersey  also  retain  in  their  fieaty  edl 
mnch  valuable  timber,  the  relics  of  foreats  of 
unknown  age.  An  extenmve  businesa  has 
long  been  carried  on  in  extracting  this  ancient 
timber  and  converting  it  into  sningiea.  The 
logs  are  discovered  by  thrusting  an  Iron  rod 
down  through  the  mud,  dll  one  is  struck  and 
traced  along  Its  length.  Some  have  been 
found  SO  it.  long,  and  4,  fi,  and  6  ft  in  di- 
ameter, and  one  of  7  ft.  They  retain  their 
buoyancy,  and  float  with  the  side  uppermost 
which  was  in  the  swamp  the  under  one.  Boga 
covered  with  living  forests,  like  these  oedar 
swamps,  receive  new  accumulations  of  vegetft' 
ble  matters  from  the  continual  waste  of  their 
foliage  and  of  the  snudler  shrubs,  wluota  grow 
among  the  trees.  The  forests,  once  swept  off 
by  Are  or  other  cause,  are  seldom  restored. 
The  waters,  ol)8tmoted  by  the  trunks  and 
brancb«,  stagnate ;  the  mosses  then  take  poo- 
session  of  the  snriAoe,  and  nnless  this  is  drained, 
the  spongy  covering  increases  in  the  manner 
alreaoy  described. — In  moet  northern  countries 
bogs  are  met  with  of  vast  eitent  and  in  great 
numbers.  They  cover  such  large  districts,  Uiat 
they  possess  a  gec^raphical  importance^  while 
the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  give 
them  no  little  geological  interest,  from  the  light 
they  shed  upon  the  mode  of  formation  of  the 
more  ancient  cari>oniferous  deposits  of  the  coal 
measures.  The  great  peat  marsh  of  Uontoire 
in  France,  near  the  mouth  of  the  J^re,  is  sud 
to  have  a  circumference  of  60  leagues.  This  i* 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Great  Dismal  swamp 
of  Vir^nia  and  North  Carolina,  and  bat  little 
inferior  to  the  area  covered  by  the  swamps 
that  make  up  the  Okefinokee  in  Oeotpa,  said 
to  be  about  180  miles  in  circumference.  Bat 
the  central  portion  of  Ireland  is  the  great  re- 
gion of  bogs.  Upon  a  map  of  the  island  is 
seen,  between  Sligo  and  Galway  bay,  a  portion 
on  the  wevtem  coast,  projecting  into  the  ocean 
from  the  main  body  of  the  island.  A  strip  of 
this  width,  extended  in  an  easterly  directioD 
across  the  country,  includes  about  one  fourth 
of  the  area  of  the  island,  and  in  this  portion 
ore  found  about  six  sevenths  of  its  boga,  leav* 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BOG 

ing  oat  of  the  Aoeount  the  maU  ohm  not  ex- 
ceeding about  800  acree  each.  The  whole 
mmount  of  bo^  sarfoce  is  S,831,000  acres, 
nearly  all  of  which  forma  one  almost  connected 
mass.  The  great  bog  of  Allen,  E.  of  the  Shan- 
non, extends  SO  m.  in  length  bj  2  to  8  in 
breadth.  This  is  divided  b;  occasional  high 
lands  into  eeTeral  bi^^  They  all  consist  of 
peat,  averaging  about  25  fL  in  thickness,  never 
less  than  12  nor  more  than  42.  The  upper  10 
ft.  is  composed  of  a  moss  of  the  fibres  of  the 
mosses,  more  or  less  decomposed,  and  a  light 
turf  of  blackish  brown  color  underlies  this,  in 
which  the  fibres  of  moss  maj  still  be  perceived. 
This  variety  may  ext«nd  10  ft.  deeper.  "  At 
a  greater  depth  the  fibres  of  vegetable  matter 
cease  to  be  visible,  the  color  of  the  turf  tje- 
comes  blacker,  and  the  substance  much  more 
compact,  ito  properties  as  fuel  more  valuable, 
■nd  graduallj  increaung  in  the  degree  of 
blackness  and  oampactoess  proportionate  to  its 
depth ;  near  the  bottom  of  the  bc^  it  fonns  a 
black  mass,  which  when  dry  has  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  pitch  or  bitmninons  coal,  having 
a  conchcudal  fracture  in  every  direction,  with 
a  blaok,  sbJDin^  lustre,  and  susceptible  of  re- 
ceiving a  considerable  poliib."  (Report  of 
mrveyoiv  appcnnted  by  parliament,  1810.) 
In  England  the  largest  lowland  bog  is  Chat- 
moss  to  Lancashire.  It  is  6  m.  long,  8  ro.  in 
greatest  breadth,  and  contains  7,000  acres.  It 
IS  a  mass  of  pure  vegetable  matter,  without 
any  mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  or  other  material, 
fWun  10  to  30  ft.  in  depth.  It  is  noted  for  the 
engineering  dilflcnlties  it  offered  to  the  passage 
of  the  first  great  English  rulway.  George 
Stephenson  carried  the  Liverpool  and  Han- 
ofaester  rwlway  over  it  when  all  other  engi- 
neers considered  the  task  impoaaible.— In  Uie 
Great  Dismal  swamp  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina,  the  extent  of  which  is  about  40  m.  N. 
and  S.  and  2S  m.  E.  and  W.,  little  true  peat 
appears  to  be  found.  The  soil  is  perfectly 
buiok,  eonsisting  wholly  of  vi^table  matter  to 
^e  depth  of  about  IS  ft.  When  dug  up  and 
exposed  at  the  sur&oe,  it  rapidly  deoomposes. 
The  Burfaos  is  covereid  with  mosses,  reeds, 
ferns,  and  aquatic  trees  and  shrubs.  Tlie 
white  cedar  is  abundant  as  in  all  our  swamps, 
and  they  and  the  tall  cypress  fnmish  timber 
of  such  value,  that  the  inmost  recesses  of  this 
tangled  morass  have  been  penetrated  by  canals 
in  search  of  it.  In  its  oenlzal  portion  the  sur- 
fitoe  is  fonnd  to  be  13  ft.  higher  than  the  rest, 
and  the  general  level  of  the.  swamp  is  above 
that  of  the  at^oining  country.  Thronghont 
the  country,  along  the  seabcmrd  to  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  swamps  of  this  charaot«r  are  of 
frequent  occilrrenoe.  The  outer  portions  are 
sometimes  wooded  swamp«,  while  witliin  thej 
present  moss-covered  heoths,  stretching,  like 
the  western  prairies,  further  than  the  eye  con 
see,  and  dotted  occasionally  with  clumps  or 
lit^e  islands  of  trees.  In  New  England,  the 
northwestern  states,  and  Canada,  the  bogs 
fdmiah  genuine  peat,  and  some  of  those  bor- 


BOG  ORE 


779 


deriog  the  great  lakes  are  of  great  extent. 
Over  one  of  these  the  traveller  is  carried 
npon  the  Great  Western  railroad  in  Canada, 
between  Chatham  and  Lake  St.  Clair.  Upon 
Long  Island,  near  Kew  York  city,  the  bogs 
present  a  marked  feature  along  the  sandy  coast, 
and  their  strnctnre  wad  finefy  exposed  in  the 
excavations  made  for  the  Brooklyn  aqueduct. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  they  are  found  to  be  the 
repositories  of  the  remains  of  the  mastodon. 
(See  ALumnx,  and  Pkat.) 

BOG,  a  river  of  Boaoia.    See  Btro. 

BOe  ME,  ■eoiew  Ore,  or  LteMlte  (Gr.  Xi,fi6v, 
meadow),  a  variety  of  iron  ore,  which  collects 
in  low  places,  being  washed  down  in  a  soluble 
form  in  the  waters  which  fiow  over  rocks  or 
sands  containing  oxide  of  iron,  and  precipitated 
in  a  solid  form  as  the  waters  evaporate.  It  ia 
deposited  in  the  bottoms  of  ponds  as  well  as 
swamps,  and  ia  found  in  beds  now  dry,  above 
the  level  at  which  it  most  originally  have  been 
oolleoted,  or  else  these  are  the  product  of 
springs  which  have  now  disappeared.  The 
roots  of  treee  t^ipear  to  have  on  influence  in 
reducing  tbe  peroxide  of  iron  in  the  sands  they 
come  in  contact  with  to  tbe  protoxide,  by  the 
action  of  some  organic  acid.  By  this  action 
the  (ve  is  rendered  soluble,  and  is  liable  to  be 

Sredpitated  bj  change  to  an  insoluble  salt,  in- 
uoed  by  the  influence  of  the  air  or  other 
causes.  As  the  waters  ran  among  deposits  of 
vegetable  matters,  and  this  change  slowly  takes 

Slace,  the  oxide  of  iron  replaces  tbe  woody 
bre,  retaining  in  its  more  solid  material  the 
exact  form  of  the  branches  of  trees,  of  the 
small  twigs,  and  even  of  the  leaves,  with  their 
delicate  reticulations.  Deposits  of  bright  red 
peroxide  of  iron,  made  up  entirely  of  masses 
of  tbese  forms,  which  are  true  feimginona 
petrifactions,  are  worked  as  iron  ore.  Exten- 
sive beds  exist  at  Salisbury  and  Kent,  Conn.; 
also  in  the  neighboring  towns  of  Beekman, 
Flshkill,  Dover,  and  Amenio,  N.  Y. ;  at  Rich- 
mond and  Lenox,  Mass. ;  at  Bennington, 
Monkton,  Putney,  and  Ripton,  Vt. ;  and  at 
nmnerooB  other  localities  in  tbe  United  Btates. 
The  bog  ore  deposits  of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J., 
contain  them,  among  other  varieties  of  the 
ore.  In  Piscataquis  co,,  Me.,  a  very  remark- 
able and  productive  bed  of  these  petrifactions 
has  furnished  tbe  supplies  of  ore  to  the  Katoh- 
din  iron  works.  In  the  ponds  of  Plymouth 
CO.,  Mass.,  bog  ores  were  found  so  abundantly, 
that  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  10  small 
blast  furnaces  were  kept  in  operation  by  them. 
As  tbe  snppUes  become  exhausted,  more  ores 
of  the  same  class  were  for  a  time  brought  from 
Egg  Harbor,  N.  J.  From  the  bottoms  of  the 
ponds  the  ore  was  r^sed  into  boots,  as  oysters 
are  gathered,  with  long  tongs.  It  was  found 
in  lumps  of  various  sizes,  some  weighing  even 
600  lbs. :  but  usually  it  occurs  in  small,  ir- 
reguiar-shaped  pieces,  or  in  the  form  of  shot. 
When  taken  from  swamps,  the  workmen  were 
careful  to  cover  the  cavities  with  loose  earth, 
leaves,  bushes,  See.,  calculating  upon  another 


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780  Boaj 

growth  in  10  or  IS  feara;  bnt  their  expecta- 
tions were  sometjines  realized  in  seven  years. 
Ehrenberg  has  detected  in  the  oohreonB  mut- 
ters that  form  bog  iron  ore  immense  nnmbera 
of  organic  bodies,  which  indeed  make  np  the 
substance  of  the  ochre.  Theycon^t  of  slender 
artJaalated  pUtes  or  threads,  partly  silicioDS 
and  partly  fermginous,  of  what  he  considered 
an  animalcnle,  but  which  are  now  commonly 
regarded  by  naturalists  as  belooging  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  are  referred  to  dia- 
tomactm  and  desmidi»a.  Bog  ore  contuns 
phosnhoras,  arsenic,  and  other  inipnrities, 
whica  greatly  Impiur  its  qualities  for  pro- 
ducing strong  iron.  The  pig  metal  obtained 
from  it,  called  cold  short,  is  so  brittle  that  it 
breaks  to  pieces  by  falling  apon  the  hard 
ground;  but  the  foreign  matters  which  weaken 
it  also  give  to  the  melted  oast  iron  great  fluid- 
ity, which  oanses  it  to  be  in  demand  for  the 
mannfaotnre  of  flne  castings,  the  metal  flowing 
into  the  minutest  cavities  of  the  mould,  and 
retaining  the  sharp  ontlines  desired.  The  iron 
made  from  the  bog  ores  of  Snowhill,  on  (jie 
eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  notwithstanding  its 
great  brittlenen,  brings  a  high  price  at  the 
great  stove  founderies  of  Albany  and  Troy,  to 
be  mixed  with  other  qualities  of  metal  for  pro- 
ducing the  best  material  for  their  excellent 
castings.  Bog  ores  are  very  easily  converted 
into  iron,  and  when  they  can  be  procured  to 
mil  with  other  kinds  of  ore,  they  prodnoe  a 
very  benefloial  effect,  both  in  the  running  of 
the  fhmace  and  in  the  quality  of  the  iron.  For 
theaS'  reasons,  as  also  for  the  cheapness  with 
which  they  are  obtained,  it  is  an  olgectto  have 
them  at  band,  though  they  seldom  yield  more 
than  SO  to  8S  per  cent  of  cast  iron. 

BOtlARDlIS,  Em«rdH,  a  Dntch- American 
clergyman,  bom  in  Holland,  died  Sept.  27, 
1647.  In  1638  he  came  to  New  Amsterdam 
(Kew  York),  and  became  the  second  minister 
there,  residing  in  what  ia  now  Brood  street  In 
1688  be  married  Annetje,  widow  of  Roelof 
Jansen,  who  had  obtained  a  grant  of  a  farm  of 
6a  acres  in  what  is  now  the  heart  of  the  city 
of  New  York ;  this  farm,  long  known  as  the 
"dominie's  Bonwery,"  in  time  became  vested 
in  Trinity  church,  and  forms  the  foundation  of 
the  wealth  of  that  corporation.    Dominie  Bo- 

Sardus  had  sharp  diapntes  with  the  successive 
irectors.  Van  Twiller,  Kieft,  and  Stoyvesant, 
was  complained  of  by  bis  congregation,  and  in 
1647  resigned  his  charge,  and  sailed  for  Europe 
to  answer  to  his  ecclesiastical  superiors  m 
Holland.  The  vessel  ran  by  mistake  into  Bristol 
channel,  struck  on  a  rock,  was  wrecked,  and 
80  persons,  among  whom  were  Bo^ardns  and 
Kieft,  were  drowned,  only  20  escaping. 

BOGIKDL'8,  JUMS,  an  American  inventor, 
bom  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  Msi-ch  14, 1800.  died  to 
New  York,  April  13,  1S74.  At  the  age  of  14 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker,  and  soon 
became  a  good  die-flinker  and  engraver.  He 
invented  an  eight-day,  three- wheeled  chronom- 
eter dock,  for  which  he  rec^ved  the  highest 


premium  at  the  first  fur  of  the  American  in- 
stitute ;  and  another  with  three  wheels  and  a 
segment  of  a  wheel,  which  struck  the  boats, 
and,  without  dial  wheels,  marked  the  hours, 
minutes,  and  seconds.  In  1838  he  invented  a 
"  ring-flyer  "  for  spinning  eotton,  now  in  gen- 
eral use,  and  known  as  the  "ring-spinner.^' 
In  1839  be  invented  the  eccentric  mill,  dillbr- 
ing  n-om  all  other  mills  in  having  both  the 
grmding  surfaces  running  in  the  same  direc- 
Ijon,  with  neariy  equal  speed.  In  1881  he  in- 
vented an  engraving  machine,  with  which  he 
mode  gold  watch  dials,  turning  imitation  fili- 
gree work,  rays  tVom  the  centre,  and  the  flgnres 
in  relief,  all  by  one  ojMration.  With  this  same 
machine  he  made  the  steel  die  for  the  first  gold 
medal  of  the  American  institute,  and  also  many 
beautifiil  medallions.  He  invented  the  trans- 
fer machine  for  producing  bank-note  plates 
from  separate  dies,  which  is  now  in  general 
nse.  In  1882  he  patented  the  first  dry  gas  me- 
ter, for  which  he  was  awarded  a  gold  medal 
by  the  American  institute ;  and  in  1833  the 
first  pencil  case  without  a  slot  In  1836  he 
greatly  improved  his  meter  by  giving  a  rotMry 
motion  to  the  machinery,  and  made  it  applica- 
ble to  all  current  fluids.  It  is  the  parent  of  all 
diaphragm  meters,  this  word  having  been  first 
so  need  by  Mr.  Bogardns.  At  this  time  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  made  the  celebrat- 
ed medallion-engraving  machine,  which,  among 
other  portraits,  engraved  that  of  the  queen, 
dedicated  to  her  at  her  reqnest  He  made  a 
machine  for  engine-turning,  which  not  only 
copied  all  known  kinds  of  machine  ensraving, 
but  engraved  what  it  could  not  itself  repro- 
duce. In  1839  a  reward  was  offered  for  the 
best  plan  of  carrying  out  the  penny-postage 
system  by  the  nse  of  stamps,  and  fiom  3,600 
competitors  his  plan  was  selected,  and  is  still 
in  use.  After  visiting  France  and  Italy,  he 
returned  to  New  York  in  1840.  He  then  in- 
vented a  machine  for  pressing  glass,  now  in 
common  use ;  also,  a  machine  for  shirring  in- 
dia-rnbber  fabrics,  and  another  for  cutting  in- 
dia-rubber into  fine  threads.  He  invented  ^e 
"  sun-and-planet  horse  power,"  and  a  dyna- 
mometer for  measuring  the  speed  and  power 
of  machinery  in  motion.  In  1847  he  put  in 
execution  his  long-cherished  idea  of  iron  build- 
ings, by  constmoting  his  factory,  of  five  sto- 
ries, 3S  ft.  by  90,  entirely  of  cast  iron.  This 
was  undoubtedly  the  first  complete  cast-iron 
building  in  the  world,  and  was  the  first  to  be 
represented  in  the  "  Illustrated  London  News." 
Hr.  Bogardns  was  the  first  to  snidest  the  Cob- 
stmcdoD  of  wrought-iron  beams ;  and  it  was 
from  a  pattern  designed  by  him  that  the  first 
were  made,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. He  claims  alsQ  to  have  introdaoed  a 
new  style  of  architecture,  column  over  column, 
which  he  calls  the  Roman,  from  the  fact  that 
be  had  never  seen  it  elsewhere  than  in  Italy. 
After  erecting  many  buildings  in  New  York, 
in  otlier  states,  and  in  the  West  India  island^ 
he  was  compelled  by  ill  health  to  relinqaisli 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BOGDANOVITOH 

this  busiaeBS.  Some  of  his  iDTentions  are  of 
■dentific  iotereet  Hla  pyrometer,  nsed  to  as- 
oertain  the  ezpannoD  of  metals  and  Btooes,  is 
remark&ble  for  delicacy  and  accnrac; ;  and  he 
clt^ms  for  his  deep-sea  Boanding  maohina  that 
it  wiU  measore  a  depth  of  10  or  IG  miles,  if 
nec«ssarj.  with  alwolute  accur&cj,  whatever 
currents  it  may  enconnter ;  in  its  nee  he  was 
the  first  in  100  years  to  revive  the  plui  of 
sounding  withoat  a  line.  His  improvetnonbi 
of  tools  have  also  been  nnmerons. 

BOCDiNOTircU,  iMMlit  Fedsnritck,  a  Bnssian 
poet,  bom  in  Little  Ktusia  in  1T48  or  1T44, 
died  near  Kursk,  Jan.  18,  1808.  lie  was  sent 
at  the  age  of  11  by  his  father  to  Moecow  to  be 
edaosted  as  a  surveyor.  Four  years  afterward 
be  applied  to  Eheraskoff,  the  manager  of  the 
theatre  there,  to  receive  him  into  the  company. 
Kberaskoff  reftised  his  application,  bat  enabled 
him  to  enter  the  oniversity,  where  in  ITfll  he 
was  made  iDBpeotor.  He  found  protectors  among 
the  influenti^  nobility,  and  was  sent  some  years 
afterward  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Dresden, 
where  he  commenced  his  beantifbl  romantic 
poem  Dvthenha,  which  was  not  published  till 
ITTfi.  Beudes  this,  his  chief  work,  he  pub- 
lished song&  minor  poems,  and  many  transla- 
tions, and  edited  varionsperiodioals.  He  was 
patronized  by  Catharine  IL,  and  after  her  death 
retired  from  the  publio  aervioe,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  bis  days  at  a  country  seat  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Russia. 

BOMS,  ChariH  Stuit,  an  American  naval 
officer,  bom  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
28,  1811.  Eeis  a  nephew  of  JamesLawrenoe, 
commander  of  the  Chesapeake,  who  fell  in  the 
action  with  the  Sfaanaon.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  16S6,  and  served  on  the  Uediterranean  sta- 
tion, in  the  West  Indies,  the  golf  of  Mexico,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the  Paoiflo,  be- 
coming lieutenant  in  1837.  la  1855  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  ob- 
fligned  to  the  m^l  steamer  Illinois,  and  in  1668 
was  appointed  lighthouse  inspector  on  the 
Focifio  coast.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  gonboat 
Varnoo,  of  Farragut's  gulf  squadron.  In  the 
attack  upon  the  Confederate  forta  and  squadron 
at  the  month  of  the  Missisuppi,  April  34,  1892, 
the  Vamna  destroyed  ^x  of  the  enemy's  gun- 
boats, but  was  finally  diaabled,  aft«r  driving 
her  last  antagonist  ashore  in  flames.  When 
Bo^s  found  his  vessel  sinking,  he  tied  her  to 
trees  on  the  bank,  and  fought  the  guns  until 
the  water  was  above  the  gun  tracks.  He  was 
soon  placed  in  command  of  the  sloop  of  war 
Jnniata,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  He  became 
commodore  in  18SS;  in  ISOT-'S,  commanded 
the  steamer  Be  Soto,  of  the  Atlantic  squadron ; 
in  July,  1870,  was  commissioned  rear  admiral; 
and  in  18T1  commanded  the  European  fleet 

BOGUPOOK,  or  BbaigalrM*.  I.  A  district  of 
Bengal,  in  the  Lower  Provinces,  bordering  on 
Nepanl,  between  lat.  24'  16'  and  20'"  tW'S., 
and  Ion.  8S°  16'  and  88'  10'  E.;  area,  6,606  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  2,000,000,  one  third  of  whom 


district  is  traversed  by 
the  Ganges  and  several  of  its  tributaries.  It  is 
exceedingly  hilly,  e^ecially  in  the  aoulbweat, 
and  so  stony  that  only  a  small  portion  even  of 
the  comparaljvely  level  land  isfit  for  the  plough. 
IL  The  capital  of  the  district,  200  m.  K  N.  W. 
of  Calcutta,  on  the  river  Ganges;  pop.  about 
80,000,  the  greater  part  Mohammedans.  The 
city  is  of  modem  ereotion,  has  a  small  Catholic 
church,  a  seminary  where  English  is  taught, 
and  a  Uohammedan  college  now  in  a  state  of 
decay.  In  the  neighborhood  are  two  round 
towers  of  ancient  stmctnre,  the  objects  of  pil- 
grimage. 

BOGODITKBOT,  a  fortified  tovra  of  Rnssia,  in 
the  government  and  80  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  the 
oily  of  Kharkov;  pop.  in  1887,  10,0«9,  The 
chief  indostry  of  the  town  is  leather  dressing 
and  boot  making.  It  also  carries  on  a  consii]- 
erable  trade  in  cattle  and  hides. 

BoeOMUH.    See  Buil,  a  Bnlgorian  pby- 

BOflOTi,  8nta  Fi  4e,  an  inland  city  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  capital  of  the  state 
of  Cundinamarca  and  of  the  republic,  on  the 
picturesque  and  fertile  plateau  of  Bogoti,  8,STI 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  lat.  4°  SB'  46"  N.  and 
Ion.  74"  12'  W. ;  pop.  about  46,000.  Viewed 
fhun  a  distance  the  city,  slightly  elevated  alwve 
the  plain  and  rising  in  the  form  of  an  amphl- 
theatre,  preeents  a  pleaong  aspecL  Two  lofty 
mountains,  the  Goadalape  and  Monserrate, 
rise  on  the  east  and  send  down  a  copious 
supply  of  water  to  be  distributed  through  the 
town  by  means  of  nmneroDS  public  and  private 
fountains.  The  streets  are  regular  and  bisect 
each  other  at  right  angles,  bat  ore  narrow,  ill- 
paved,  badly  lighted,  and  in  many  parts  cover- 
ed with  grass,  the  city  trafBc  being  eiclasively 
carried  on  by  mules.  Streams  of  water  running 
down  the  middle  of  many  of  the  thoroughfares 
are  made  the  receptacle  of  filth.  Two  of  these 
streams,  more  voluminous  than  the  rest,  are 
called  rivers,  and  are  crossed  by  several  neat 
and  well  built  stone  bridges.  The  Calle  Real 
or  principal  street  runs  the  entire  length  of  the 
city,  is  well  paved,  and  terminates  in  a  spa- 
cious square,  embellished  with  a  statue  of 
Bolivar,  and  bordered  by  an  arcade,  where  a 
market  is  held  weekly.  The  private  houses 
are  of  ann-dried  bricks  [adeb€t\  whitewashed, 
covered  with  red  tiles,  and  usnaily  built  low 
on  account  of  the  liability  to  earthquakes.  In 
consequence  of  the  influx  of  foreigners,  the 
interior  arrangement  of  dwellings  has  mate- 
rially improved  of  late  years,  as  has  also  the 
style  of  building;  the  old-fashioned  grating 
has  very  generally  been  superseded  by  glacs  in 
the  windows;  walls  are  painted,  and  carpets 
and  other  flimitnre  ore  imported  from  Europe 
and  the  ITnited  States.  There  ore  few  chimneys, 
stoves  alone  being  in  use.  The  stores  are  for 
the  most  part  badly  kept  and  dingy,  the  only 
admission  for  light  bemg  through  the  door. 
Of  the  public  edifices  the  most  noteworthy  are 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


the  government  mansion,  lazarioaslr  ^iptrint- 
ed,  and  occupied  bf  the  prendent  and  the  va- 
riooi  officers  of  the  ministerial  departtnents ; 
tite  hoDse  of  congresa ;  sad  the  obserratory, 
octagonal  in  form  and  comprising  three  Mpa- 
rate  piles,  Bogota  has  a  mint,  a  tbeatoe,  a 
naiversity,  a  national  acodomy^,  four  eoUegea, 
two  of  which  date  from  the  ITth  oentnrT,  and 
medical,  law,  normal,  and  infant  schools.  There 
is  a  mnaenm  in  which  are  preserved  petrified 
bones  of  moatodons  from  Toiva,  the  robe  or 
aero  at  Atahaalipa's  wife,  Pizarro's  standard, 
portraits  of  the  Spanish  viceroys,  &o.  Attached 
to  it  are  a  school  of  mines  and  a  botanical 
school.  The  cathedral,  erected  in  1614,  is  rich- 
ly decorated  within.  There  are  SD  churches 
(iDclnsive  of  9  monasCeriee  and  6  nunneries),  22 
of  which  are  in  the  Cslle  Real  alone.  Some 
ore  of  handsome  and  oil  of  solid  orchiteotare. 
There  are  a  fomidling,  a  genera),  and  a  military 
hospital ;  a  boase  of  refuge  for  the  relief  and 
education  of  orphans  and  the  children  of  the 
poor ;  and  other  benevolent  establishments,  as 
also  several  barracks  and  an  artillery  depot, 
where  military  equipments  are  made  and  re- 
paired. There  ore  a  castom  house  and  some 
good  hotels,  and  two  newspapers  are  pnblished. 
The  inhabitants  of  Boguti  are  chiefly  Creoles, 
with  half-breed  Indians  who  are  exclusively 
servants ;  of  mulattoes  there  are  few,  and  ne- 
groes are  rarely  seen.  The  BogotoDos  are  in- 
telligent, sprightly,  and  nrbone;  the  women 
have  a  remarkably  clear  complexion,  and  are 
in  general  handsome  and  fond  of  dress.  Near 
the  river  Fnnza,  here  an  inconsiderable  stream, 
and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city,  is  the 
alam«da,  tastefully  disposed  with  walks,  fringed 
with  trees  and  rose  bnahes  and  other  fragrant 
flowers  of  luxuriant  growth.    Owing  to  the 


great  elevation  of  the  table  land  of  BogotA,  tha 
temperature  is  mild  and  equable ;  the  clhnat«, 
though  humid,  is  not  insalnbrions,  and  epidem- 
ics are  altogether  unknown.  The  thermometor 
ranges  from  45°  to  66°  F.  There  ore  two  wet 
seasons,  March  to  May  and  September  to  No- 
vember, when  rains  are  at  times  so  violent  as 
to  deluge  tiie  city  with  the  floods  which  mail 
down  from  the  moontains,  if  suitable  dit«hea 
were  not  prepared  to  receive  them.  The  man- 
ufactures of  Bogoti  ore  limited  to  cotton  and 
woollen  cloths,  soap,  leather,  and  predons 
metal.  The  fine  arts  have  been  oaltivated 
here  to  on  extent  altogether  nnoommon  in 
South  America;  and  in  one  of  the  convents  are 
preserved  paintings  of  hij^h  merit  by  Yaeqliec, 
a  native  artist.  Communication  with  the  sea  is 
carried  on  by  steamers  and  barges  throvd)  the 
river  Magdolena,  f^m  the  town  of  Honda 
(reached  in  about  seven  hours)  to  Cartagena, 
and  to  BarronquUla  and  Sabanilla,  ntnoted  at 
the  month  of  that  river.  The  total  distonoe  is 
600  m.,  and  the  Journey  may  be  performed  in 
from  10  to  IS  days;  bat  the  tnp  up  stream 
sometimes  ooonpies  twice  and  even  thrice  that 
space  of  time.  The  river  Meta,  in  the  ralley 
E.  of  the  monntains  behind  Bc^ti,  and  com- 
municating with  the  Orinoco,  affiirds  easy  and 
oommodioos  communication  with  the  E,  prov- 
inces of  Venezuela  and  the  S.  E.  shores  of  the 
Atlantic— The  pUin  of  fiogoti  is  00  m.  long 
from  N.  to  S.  and  80  m.  wide  from  E.  to  W. ; 
it  is  intersected  b;  verdant  prairies  and  dense 
woods,  affording  some  ornamental  and  many 
useful  species  of  timber.  The  river  Fnnza, 
formed  by  numerous  mountain  streams  which 
take  their  rise  100  m.  N.  of  the  city,  traverses 
the  plain  in  a  S.  W.  direction  to  Teqnendoma, 
where,  through  a  gap  not  over  86  ft.  in  width, 


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BOQUE 

It  le^B  over  »  rockj  ledge  apward  of  900  ft. 
high,  forming  one  of  the  mogt  mttgniflcent  cat- 
aracts on  the  globe,  and  thence  rnshes  down 
to  join  the  Magdalena.  There  are  beaides  sev- 
eral lakes  and  moraaeea  on  the  platean,  a  nnm- 
ber  of  thermal  Bpringa,  and  man;  villages  and 
hamlets  still  known  bj  their  primitive  Indian 
Dames.  Coal,  iron,  and  copper  mines  jield  in 
ahnndance ;  there  are  salt  mines,  which  at 
an  earlier  period  were  leased  for  380,000  pe- 
sos annnallf,  and  still  sapply  the  sorronndiDg 
states:  and  the  celebrated  emeralds  of  Mnzo 
b&ve  lonR  met  the  aonstant  demand  for  that 
gem  in  Snrope.  Larae  aombers  of  cattle  are 
raised,  and  horses  ana  males  are  exported  to  a 
considerable  extent.  The  ve(;etation  is  ex- 
tremely Ininriant,  bnt  the  cultivated  gromids 
are  mostly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  oamtat,  pro- 
ducing twice  yearly  the  varionH  European 
cereals,  ttaits,  and  vogctablee.  The  potato  is 
Buid  to  have  been  f  rst  carried  to  Europe  from 
the  plain  of  Bogoti  by  Sir  John  Hawkins.— Bo- 
Kot&,  called  Santa  Ft  by  the  Spaniards,  was 
fonnded  in  1G38  by  Goozalo  Xim^nes  de  Qne- 
sada,  who  buOt  12  honses  t^ere  in  honor  of  the 
13  apostleH.  In  1548  it  became  a  bishopric. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
New  Granada  till  I81I,  when  the  repnblic  was 
proclaimed  by  the  congress  assembled  here,  in 
imitation  of  Venezaela,  on  Kov.  12.  In  1616 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  nnder  Ho- 
rillo;  bnt  it  was  relieved  by  Bolivar  in  the 
battle  of  Boyac4,  August,  1810.  It  then  be- 
Cftme  the  capital  of  Colombia;  and  «nae  the 
establishment  of  Veneznela  and  Ecuador  as 
•eparate  states,  it  has  been  the  capital  of  the 
repablio  of  New  Granada  (now  United  States 
of  Colombia),  and  an  archiepiscopal  see. 

BOGCE,  DstU,  a  Scottish  preacher  and  an- 
thor,  bom  in  Berwickshire,  March  1,  1750, 
died  at  Brighton,  Oct.  26,  1826.  Ho  was  edu- 
cated at  the  nniversity  of  Edinburgh,  licensed 
as  a  presober  in  the  chnrch  of  Scotland,  and 
in  1771  went  to  London,  and  kept  a  school  at 
Ohelaea  for  some  years.  After  a  visit  to  Am- 
sterdam in  1776,  he  became  pastor  of  an  Inde- 
pendent oongregation  at  Gosport,  Hampshire. 
and  principal  of  an  academy  for  ministerial 
education.  In  1791  he  commenced  an  agita- 
tion throagh  the  pulpit  and  the  press,  which 
led  to  the  formatton  of  the  London  missionary 
society  in  1T9G.  He  became  head  of  a  semi- 
nary fonnded  by  that  body,  and  wrote  the  first 
tract  for  the  religions  tract  society,  which 
chiefly  oripnated  with  him.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  projectors  and  first  editor  of  the 
"Evangelical  Magazine,"  and  took  on  active 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  British  and  foreign 
Bible  society.  Besides  various  pamphlets,  he 
wrot«  an  "Essay  on  the  Divine  Authority  of 
the  New  TeHtament"  (1802),  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages;  in  coiuunction 
vitii  Dr.  James  Bennett,  his  pupil,  friend,  and 
bit^rapher,  a  "History  of  the  Dissenters"  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1806;  4  vols.,  1812),  intended  as  a 
continnatioiL  of  Neal's  "  History  of  the  Pori- 
102  VOL.  □.—00 


BOHEMIA  783 

tans;"  and  "Disconnee  on  the  ITiUenniam" 
(2  Tola^  1818-'16). 

BOCCSUWSU,  Ifalkert  (Pol.  Wyeieeh),  a 
Polish  actor  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Gluina, 
near  Posen,  in  17G2,  died  in  Warsaw,  Jnly  23, 
1629.  He  went  upon  the  stage  in  Warsaw  in 
1TT8,  and  from  that  epoch  to  1809,  at  which 
time  be  was  finally  settled  as  the  manager  of 
the  theatre  in  Warsaw,  he  wandered  tiirough 
Poland,  establishing  theatres  in  various  cities. 
He  translated  play  s  and  operas  from  the  French, 
English,  and  Italian,  and  composed  many  origi- 
nal dramas  of  a  national  character.  His  plays 
were  published  at  Warsaw  in  1820-'2G,  in  0 
vols. ;  and  his  ori^nol  works  were  collected  in 
8  vols.,  1849-'64. 

BOHi-EDDn,  or  Brtftldta,  AM-SefeaMB  Tisaf 
ika  Shc^ad,  an  Arabian  Bcbotar  and  historian, 
born  in  Mosul  in  1145,  died  in  Aleppo  abont 
1288.  Having  attained  proficiency  in  Moslem 
law,  he  became  at  the  age  of  27  a  lecturer  at 
Bagdad.  In  1188  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  returned  through  the  Holy  Land. 
visiting  Jemsal em,  Hebron,  and  other  aocrea 
cities.     While  in  Damaacns,  being  summoned 


War,"  praising  Saladin's  policy.  Saladin  ap- 
pointed nim  cadi  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  army, 
and  a  strong  attachment  subsisted  between 
them.  On  the  death  of  Saladin  he  transferred 
his  attachment  to  his  son  Maiek  Dhaher,  whom 
he  was  instrumental  in  establishing  on  the 
throne  of  Aleppo.  In  return,  MaIek  appointed 
Boha-eddin  cadi  of  that  oity,  which  brought 
him  constantly  to  reside  in  the  royal  court. 
Aleppo  now  became  the  resort  for  men  of  sci- 
ence and  learning,  and  Boha-eddin  fonnded  a 
college,  where  be  continued  to  dve  lectures 
till  his  death.  His  great  work,  the  "  Life  of 
Saladin,"  was  publi^bed  by  Schultens  at  Ley- 
den  in  1782,  with  notes,  maps,  and  a  Latin 
translation.  . 

BOBEUi  (Boh.  Cechy  ;  Ger.  Suhmen),  a 
country  of  central  Europe,  now  forming  a  po- 
litical division  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy, between  lat.  48°  8S'  and  61°  S'  K.,  and 
Ion.  12°  6'  and  18°  48' E,,  and  bounded  N.  W. 

K"  Saxony,  F.  E.  by  Prussian  Silesia,  S,  E.  by 
iravia  and  Lower  Aastria,  and  S.  W.  by  Up- 
per Austria  and  Bavaria;  length  E.  and  W.,  200 
m. ;  breadth  N.  and  S.,  170  m. ;  area,  20,004  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871  (estimated),  5,178,541.  The 
capital  is  Prague,  on  the  Moldau.  The  boun- 
dary line  follows  the  high  mountain  ranges  of 
the  Erzgebirge  (Ore  mountains),  Riesengehirg* 
(Giant  mountuns),  Moravian  mountains,  and 
Bohemian  Forest,  which  separate  it  from  Sax- 
ony, Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Bavaria,  respective- 
ly. These  ranges  make  Bohemia  an  elevated 
quadrangular  basin,  with  a  waterslope  toward 
ttie  centre  and  north,  and  drained  by  the  river 
Elbe  and  its  aMaents.  The  Erzgebirge,  run- 
ning N.  E.  and  S.  W.,  are  a  wooded  range 
wiA  a  more  gentie  declivity  toward  Saxony 
than  toward  Bohemia.    At  the  southwest  this 


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range  teaches  the  Bavarian  Fichtolgebirge 
(Pine  mountains) ;  and  from  near  this  group 
atretches  southeasterly  to  the  eitrema  aonth 
of  the  country  the  ranfje  of  the  Bohemian 


Forest,  wild  and  precipitous,  and  intersected 
with  deep  ravines.  The  slope  of  these  monn- 
tuns  ia  alirupt  toward  Bohemia ;  they  are  cov- 
ered with  forests  and  swamps,  infested  with 
bears  and  wolves,  and  are  a  part  of  what  was 
known  to  ancient  geographers  as  the  Uercy- 
nian  forest.  Their  geological  formation  is  the 
primitive  granite  and  gneiss,  and  they  famish 
gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  cool,  zinc,  black  lead, 
oobajt,  and  antimony.  The  Moravian  monn- 
t^ns  run  N.  E.  from  the  southern  to  the 
eastern  portions  of  Bohemia,  and  form  the 
watershed  between  the  Elbe  and  Moldan  flow- 
ing N.,  and  the  Danube  and  March  Sowing  E. 
and  S.  The  Riesengebirgo,  rnnning  from  the  E. 
extremity  of  Bohemia  toward  the  Erzgebirge 
in  the  north,  present  their  broken  and  ebnipt 
descent  toward  Bohemia,  and  their  higher  sam- 
mits  are  bleak  and  naked.  The  intenor  is  nn- 
dulating  with  hills,  sometimes  steep,  but  rising 

fradually  to  no  greater  height  than  600  ft. — 
he  river  system  comprises  only  the  Elbe  and 
its  tribataries.  The  Elbe  from  the  mountains  in 
the  northeast,  the  Sazawa  from  the  sootheaat, 
the  Moldan  from  the  sonthem  extremity  of  the 
Bohemian  Forest  and  the  pond  and  raarah  dis- 
trict around  Bndweisia  the  sooth,  and  theBe- 
raun  and  Eger  from  the  western  monntains, 
converge  toward  the  centre  of  Bohemia,  and 
joining  at  no  great  distance  from  Prague  flow 
north  in  one  stream,  the  Kibe,  which  passes 
into  Saxony  through  a  channel  which  it  has 
out  in  the  sandstone  formation  of  the  eastern 
Erzgehirge.  The  Elbe  and  the  Holdan  i 
to  a  great  extent  navigable.    Bohemia  has 


large  lakes,  bat  haa  numerons  ponds,  aocord- 
lag  to  some  statements  as  many  as  20,000, 
and  as  many  as  160  mineral  springs  wtuch 
are  viwt«d.  Of  tbese  the  salina  chalybeate  at 
Franzensbad  and  Uarienbod,  the  warm  alka- 
line at  Carlsbad  and  at  Tepliti,  and  the  bitt«r 
and  cathartic  waters  at  BeidliCz,  Saidschitz, 
and  PQllna,  ore  the  most  celebrated. — The 
whole  mounts  system  which  encircles  Bo- 
hemia is  1^  primidve  formation,  characterized 
by  gramte  and  gneiss,  with  the  exception  of 
a  small  section  where  the  Elbe  cats  through 
the  Erzgebirge  and  a  point  on  the  north- 
west near  Braunau.  There  are  several  sand- 
stone masses  in  the  centre  of  the  conntry,  and 
in  many  parts  hills  of  basalt.  The  mineral 
prodacta  are  more  varied  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  same  size.  The  lead  mines  in 
1870  produced  22,126  owt.  of  lead  and  80,780 
lbs.  {M&ntp/titide)  of  mlver.  The  product  of 
iron  in  1870  was  1,277,948  cwL,  and  of  coal 
88,281,018  cwt.  There  are  also  mines  of  tin, 
copper,  zinc,  cinnabar,  arsenic,  and  cobalt,  and 
quarries  of  marble,  idabaater,  quartz,  (granite, 
freestone,  and  sandstone.  A  largo  variety  of 
precious  stones  are  found,  of  which  the  finest 
are  the  Bohemian  garnets.  —  The  climate  is 
healthy;  the  atmosphere  clear  and  salnbrions, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  48°  F.  at  Pragne, 
but  maob  lower  in  the  moantain  districta,  where 
the  snow  frequently  lies  12  ft.  deep,  and  often 
does  not  disappear  until  the  middle  of  April,  and 
in  some  localities  stays  through  the  year. — The 
soil  is  mostly  a  clayey  loam,  and  except  on  the 
high  parts  of  the  monnttuns,  and  in  some  sandy 
tracts  of  the  Elbe  valley,  is  generally  very  fer- 
tile. The  productive  land  is  estJm^ed  at  13,- 
&G9,3fl2  acres,  of  which  nearly  one  half  is  under 
the  plough,  the  remainder  being  vineyarda,  or- 
chards, m^ows,  paaturea,  and  forests.  Rye, 
oata,  wheat,  and  barley  are  raised  in  large  crofM. 


Flax  is  extenmvely  cultivated,  and  hemp,  tobso- 
co,  and  hops  ore  also  staple  products.  There 
is  an  ennu^  manufacture  of  about  250,000  gal- 
lons of  inferior  wine,  and  an  annual  yield  from 


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the  foreetB,  wfaich  cover  one  fourth  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  country,  of  8,000,000  cords  of 
wood,  besides  timber.  The  horses  of  Bohemia 
are  of  a  superior  breed,  but  the  homed  cattle 
are  sraalL  AcoordinK  to  the  oenans  of  1S69, 
there  were  189,327  horses,  1,603,016  cattle, 
1,10S,290  sheep,  194,273  goats,  and  238,180 
^OgB. — In  mannfactnres  Bohemia  is  by  far  the 
most  important  of  the  provinces  of  Austria. 
The  production  of  linen  goods,  partly  of  the 
finest  description,  employed  in  18T1  about  GO,- 
000  persona,  and  the  aggregate  valae  of  the 
linen  goods  was  80,000,000  florins.  Lace  mak- 
ing by  hand  formerly  snpported  over  40,000 
persons  at  the  north,  bnt  has  greatly  decreased 
since  the  invention  of  machine  lace,  and  is  now 
limited  to  the  r^on  between  Waldstein  and 
CfttharinabergintheETzpebirge.  Cottonraann- 
bct«rieeare  increasing;  mlSTl  there  were  over 
540,000  spioilles,  prodiicing  abont  112,000  owt. 
of  yam  ;  nearly  60,000  looma  were  employed 
on  calicoes.  These  numnfactories  are  in  the 
northern  region,  next  the  Erzgebirge,  but  the 
woollen  factories,  of  which  in  ISTl  there  were 
850,  are  more  numerous  in  the  northeast,  near 
Reichenberi;.  There  are  over  fio  leather  fac- 
tories, and  the  gloves  of  Pragae  are  mnch  in 
demand.  The  paper  mills,  of  which  there  were 
In  18T1  more  tnan  70,  are  particularly  nnmer- 
oas  in  the  district  of  the  Gger  and  in  the 
Sieaengebirge.  The  Bohemian  glass  factories, 
abont  120  in  number,  producing  annually  abont 
6,000,000  florins  and  employing  24,000  persona, 
are  renowned  all  over  the  world,  and  work 
mostly  for  export,  particularly  to  America ;  the 
imitation  gems,  the  looking-glass,  and  fine  orna- 
mental glosB  ware  are  unsurpassed.  The  china, 
earthen,  and  stone  ware  produced  in  1871 
(abont  one  half  in  the  circle  of  Gger)  were 
valnod  at  2,600,000  florins.  The  iron  industry 
has  its  centre  in  the  region  of  I^Isen,  Pribram, 
HorEowitz,  and  PUrgliti ;  the  value  of  the  raw 
and  cast  iron  produced  in  1871  was  1,500,000 
florins.  The  machine  factories,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  were  in  and  near  Prague,  prodnced 
machines  and  tools  to  the  value  of  4,500,000  fl. 
Thevalueof  the  products  of  the  entire  metal  in- 
dnstry  amonnted  to  about  16,000,000  fl.  There 
are  also  more  than  100  factories  of  chemicals, 
mostly  in  the  r^onsofPilsen,  Ausfflg-Tetachen, 
and  Falkenau.  The  factories  of  beet  sngar, 
more  than  ISO  in  number,  produced  in  1871, 
8,400,000  cwt.  The  total  industrial  products 
of  Bohemia  are  valued  at  218,000,000  florins. 
Its  commerce  is  also  rapidly  developing,  owing 
to  the  favorable  situation  of  the  country.  The 
exports  in  1871  amounted  to  22,000,000  fl.,  the 
imports  to  20,000,000.  The  number  of  brew- 
eries in  I8S8  was  068,  of  distilleries  824. — Of 
^e  population  the  Germans  conatitute  atwut 
87  per  cent.,  the  Ozechs  SI,  and  the  Jews  2, 
the  latter  nnng  generally  the  German  language. 
The  Germans  inhabit  in  compact  masses  the 
nortbenunoetqnarter  of  the  country,  the  moun- 
tainous distrif^  and  form  a  great  part  of 
every  city  and  town  population,  being  more 


aUA  785 

S'ven  to  industrial  pursuits ;  while  the  Czechs, 
^longing  to  the  seme  tribe  as  the  Uomvians, 
are  the  more  agricultural  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  of  el\  Slavic  tribes  in  many  respects 
the  most  giited  and  cultivated.  They  are  pre- 
eminently a  mumcal  neople,  and  are  fond  of 
song  and  poetry.  Withthe  exception  of  4G,SS1 
Lutherans,  6S,720  Beformed,  and  69,689  Jews, 
nearly  all  are  Roman  Catholics.  There  were 
4,008  public  schools  in  1866,  of  which  1,762 
were  German,  2,1S5  Czech,  and  81  mixed. 
There  were  46  high  schools  of  different  grades, 
11  agricnltoral  schools,  2  raining  schools,  1 
military  school,  and  4  theological  inBtitntions. 
The  capital,  Prague,  has  3  polytechnic  iustitu- 
tiona.  one  for  the  Germans  and  one  for  the 
Ozecns,  and  a  university.  The  m^ority  of  the 
professors  of  the  university  are  Germana,  bnt 
most  of  the  students  are  Czechs.  The  conflict 
between  the  German  and  Czech  nationalities 
has  become  very  animated,  and  is  from  year  to 
year  assaming  larger  dimensions.  The  Czechs 
chiefly  act  through  the  secretaries  of  the  dis- 
trict and  oommanal  autlioritiea,  white  the  Ger- 
mans have  eBtahlished  throughout  the  country 
political  associations.  The  leaders  of  the  Ger- 
man party  from  1882  to  1873  were  Herbst,  Haa- 
ner,  Sohmeikal,  and  Pickert.  The  Czechs, 
though  united  in  the  conflict  against  the  Ger- 
mans, have  in  political  questions  split  into  the 
conservative  old  Czechs,  headed  by  Palaoky 
and  Bieger,  and  the  democratic  young  Czeoha, 
whose  foremost  leader  is  Siadkow^y.  The 
diet  of  Bohemia  has  241  members,  consisting 
of  the  archbishop  of  Prague,  the  three  bish- 
ops of  Budweia,  Leitmeritz,  and  ECniggritz, 
the  rector  of  the  university  of  Prague,  70  dele- 
gates of  the  Qrattgrun^ttitt  (large  landed  es- 
tates), 72  delegates  of  the  towns  and  industrial 
places,  15  delegates  of  the  chambers  of  com- 
merce and  industry,  and  79  delegates  of  rural 
communities.  The  diet  elects  64  delegates  to 
the  Reichsrath  of  Vienna,  and  also  a  standing 
committee,  the  Landawutehiat,  which  is  pre- 
rided  over  by  an  Obent-Landmanchall  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor.  For  administrative 
purposes  Bohemia  is  now  (1678)  divided  into 
88  districts  and  2  independent  communes. — 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Bohemia  were  the 
Boil,  a  people  supposed  to  have  been  of  Celtto 
race,  from  whom  the  country  received  its 
name.  In  the  1st  century  B.  C.  they  were 
driven  out  by  the  Germanic  Uarcoraanni, 
whose  realm  flourished  for  a  time  under  Mar- 
hod,  the  rival  of  Arrainina.  This  people,  how- 
ever, subsequently  emigrated  or  were  driven 
into  Bavaria,  and  Bohemia  was  occupied  in 
the  6th  century  by  the  Slavic  Czechs,  wno  also 
established  themselves  in  Moravia.  Portions 
of  the  country  were  about  the  same  time  col- 
onized by  Germans.  The  Czeohs  maintuned 
tbeir  independence,  under  national  chiefs,  be- 
tween tiie  Avars  and  the  Frankish  empire, 
though  often  harassed  by  invasions.  The 
house  of  Premysl  (Przemysl)  became  preemi- 
nent in  the  nation.     Christianity  was  intro- 


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786 


BOHEMIA 


dnced  from  Tarions  quarters,  but  chiefly  in  its 
Slavic  form  by  tbe  oonvertg  of  Uetbodins  abont 
6S0,  when  the  king  of  Uoravia,  Swatoplak, 
ruled  Bohemia.  When  the  Uegyars  destroyed 
his  MorBTi&n  kingdom,  the  Bohemians  volnn- 
tarily  souglit  anne«a(Jon  to  the  German  em- 
pire, with  which  they  remained  connected,  in 
spite  of  the  endeavors  for  independence  of 
Duke  Bolealas  I.  (9S6-'67),  the  mnrderer  of 
his  brother  and  predecessor  St.  Wenceslaa. 
Under  his  Bacoessor,  Boleslaa  II.,  tbe  bounda- 
ries of  the  conntrj'  were  ezteuded  to  the  Vis- 
tola,  hnt  subsequently  it  succumbed  for  a  time 
to  Poland.  Wars  with  this  conntry  were  often 
renewed,  Silesia  being  the  main  object  of  con- 
tention, and  oltbnately  kept  by  Bohemia. 
Abont  loss  Bretislaa  I.  annexed  Moravia. 
The  native  dukes  in  116S  received  the  kingly 
dignity  from  Frederick  I.  Wars  of  Bncoassion 
convulsed  the  conntry  nntil  Ottocar  I.  (1197- 
1280),  a  truly  Breat  monarch,  made  the  royalty 
hereditary.  By  conquest  he  and  his  son  Otto- 
oar  II.  (12G3-'7B)  extended  their  dominion  over 
a  part  of  Poland,  Austria,  and  Prussi^  where 
the  latter,  on  a  crusade  against  the  heatlien 
Borassians,  founded  the  city  of  KOnigsberg. 
AA«r  a  short  struggle  against  tlie  emperor 
Rudolph  I.,  in  which  Ottocar  II.  perished  (see 
Ottocu),  the  Bohemian  monarohs  acquired 
Poland  and  Hungary  by  election;  but  with 
the  assassination  of  Wenceelos  II.  (1805)  the 
Dative  ruling  house  was  extinguished,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  nntil 
tliat  line  in  1B28  was  superseded  by  Austrian 
roonarobs.  Charles  C1846-'78),  who  ai  Ger- 
man emperor  was  insi^ificant,  was  a  great 
king  for  Bohemia,  which  he  augmented  by 
Lusatia  and  other  acquisitions,  which  were 
soon  lost.  Under  his  reign  the  country  flcur- 
Isbed.  Prague,  then  containing  the  only  Ger- 
man university,  numbered  30,000  students; 
science  and  art  were  fostered,  and  manufac- 
tures, partioulariy  those  of  glass  and  linen, 
were  founded.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
IGth  centnry,  when  Charles's  profligate  son 
Wenceslas  occupied  both  the  imperial  and  the 
royal  throne,  ideas  of  reformation  began  to 
spread  by  the  teachings  of  Hnss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague,  whose  deaui  at  Constance  in  1416 
and  14IS,  and  the  intervention  of  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  the  brother  of  Wenoealaa,  caused 
the  outbreak  of  the  Hussite  war  (see  Hcs- 
BiTBs).  Under  the  sway  of  the  Hussites  tbe 
throne  of  Bohemia  was  filled  by  election,  for  a 
time  from  the  Luxemburg  line,  once  (1468-'71) 
by  a  native  nobleman,  George  Podiebrad  (see 
Podibbbad),  and  subsequently  from  the  Polish 
line  of  the  Jagiellos.  When  the  second  Bohe- 
mian king  of  this  line,  Louis,  who  was  also 
king  of  Hungary,  perished  at  Uoh&os  (1629), 
Ills  brother-in-law  Ferdinand  of  Austna,  the 
brother  of  Charles  Y.,  was  crowned  king,  and 
in  1647  made  the  crown  hereditary  in  his 
bouse.  (See  Acstbia.)  In  ISIS  the  Bohe- 
mians, under  Protestant  lead,  rose  for  the  res- 
toration of  their  liberties,  and  this  revolt  open- 


BOHEMIAIT  BRETHREN 

ed  the  thirty  years'  war.  In  1619  they  chose 
the  elector  palatine  Frederick  V.  as  their  king, 
but  succumbed  in  tbe  battle  at  tbe  White 
mountwn,  near  Prague,  in  1G20.  The  moat 
cruel  persecution  commenced;  the  Protestants 
were  executed,  imprisoned,  and  banished,  and 
their  estates  couflscated.  The  constitution  was 
abolished,  the  Czech  literature,  school  system, 
and  nationality  proscribed,  and  the  native  state 
with  its  civilization  annihilated.  No  fewer  than 
86,000  families  were  forced  to  seek  refuge  in 
Saiony,  Sweden,  Poland,  Holland,  Branden- 
burg, and  elsewhere.  This,  and  the  sufTeringa 
of  the  thirty  years'  war,  devastated  the  land. 
German  Catholics  were  introduced  as  ooloiusta, 
and  everything  German  was  &vored  sod  pre- 
ferred to  such  an  extent,  that  the  Germans  of 
Bohemia  for  more  than  a  century  fomisbed 
more  than  half  of  all  the  officers  in  the  Aus- 
trian provinces.  The  country  became  intense- 
ly Catholic,  but  tbe  spirit  of  Ceecli  nationality 
reawoke  after  the  French  wars.  The  revolu- 
tion of  1848  inverted  the  position  of  the  par- 
ties toward  the  Austrian  government:  the 
Germans  of  Bohemia,  in  common  with  a  ma- 
jority of  the  Austrian  Germans,  opposed  their 
government ;  the  Czechs  in  Bohemia,  b^thw 
with  the  other  Slavic  populations  of  the  em- 
pire, looked  for  a  great  Slavic  empire  in  Aus- 
tria, and,  in  spite  of  the  bombardment  of 
Prague,  where  a  Slaric  congress  was  assem- 
bled in  June,  1848,  supported  tlie  imperial  au- 
thorities. Since  that  time  the  political  strag- 
gles of  the  Czechs  for  renewed  national  auton- 
omy have  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
history  of  the  Austrian  empire,  while  Bohemia 
itself!  which  witnessed  some  of  the  principal 
contests  in  the  Hnasite,  thirty  years',  and  seven 
years'  wars,  once  more  became  a  great  theatre 
of  war  in  1866  (battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3). 

MfflEHUM  BRGraEEH,  a  Christian  society 
which  ori^nated  in  tbe  Hussite  movements  of 
the  IGth  century,  and  rtQected  the  mass,  pnr- 
gatory,  transubstantiation,  prayers  for  the 
dead,  and  the  adoration  c^  images,  and  con- 
tended for  the  communion  in  both  kinds.  The 
origin  of  this  sect  is  traced  to  Peter  of  Chel- 
cic,  who  about  1420  protested  ogdnst  any  in- 
terference of  the  secular  power  in  niattert  of 
faith,  and  demanded  a  return  of  the  church  to 
the  institntions  of  the  apostolic  age.  About 
14G0  an  ccclesiaBfical  organixatjun  was  m  exist- 
ence, composed  mainly  of  remnants  of  the  Ta- 
borites  (see  HceaiTEs),  and  called  the  "  Chelcio 
Brethren,"  who  lived  retired  from  the  world, 
regarded  oaths  and  military  service  as  mor- 
tal rins,  and  denounced  the  Boman  Catholic 
church  as  the  church  of  AntichrisL  The^ 
were  favored  by  the  Calixtine  archbishop  Roki- 
tzana,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Gregory,  a 
nephew  ofBokitzana,  a  considerable  number  of 
adherents  of  these  doctrines  settled  on  an  es- 
tate belondng  to  George  Podiebrad,  then  re- 
gent of  Bohemia,  and  known  as  the  barony  of 
Liticz.  The  ColizUne  priest  Bradacz  becWe 
their  spiritual  head.    In  1460  the  first  synod 


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BOHEMIAN  BBETHBEN 

of  the  Brethren  was  held  at  Liticz,  which  sev- 
ered their  connection  with  the  CaJistines  and 
adopted  the  doctrine  of  the  merely  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  enohariat.  Hence- 
forth Rokitzana  and  Podiebrad,  who  had  been 
rusad  to  the  throne,  were  outspoken  enemies 
of  the  Brethren,  who  songht  refnge  from  per- 
aecatioD  in  the  caves,  and  thua  received  the 
name  of  cave-dwellera  (^Orubenhtimtr).  The 
Bretliren  themselves  adopted  for  their  ors:ani- 
zation  the  name  of  the  Unit;  of  Brethren 
(  Unitat  Fratrum).  The  organization  increased 
rapidly  amid  perBecntion ;  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Lutheran  reformation  it  nnmhered  4CK) 
oongregatioDB  with  200,000    members.     The 

Seat  persecution  nnder  Ferdinand  I.,  in  1547, 
ove  a  nnmber  of  the  Brethren  into  Poland 
and  Pmssia.  In  Poland  the  organization  be- 
came so  flourishing  that  the  Polish  congrega- 
tiMts  were  received  into  the  communion  of  die 
Brethren  as  a  separate  provinoe.  These  con- 
gregations united  ^vith  tJie  Lutherans  and  Be- 
formed  in  the  Gonientv*  SandomiTitnti*  (1670), 
while  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  they  presented 
conjointly  with  those  two  Protestant  denoraina- 
tjone  the  C<mfasio  Bohemiea  to  the  emperor 
Maximilian  if.  {16TR).  After  Budolph  II.  had 
granted  religious  toleration,  the  Brethren  were 
represented  in  the  evangelical  consistory  of 
Pragoe  by  one  of  their  biahops.  Under  Ferdi- 
nand XL  diey  were  compelled  either  to  join  out- 
wardly the  Roman  Catholic  church  or  go  into 
exile  (1630).  By  those  who  preferred  esile  a 
nnmber  of  congregations  were  established  in 
PrOBraa,  Poland,  and  Hongary,  which  main- 
tained uiem  selves  until  the  death  of  their  bidiop 
Amoe  Oomenius  (1671),  when  they  became 
merged  in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  congre- 
gations. The  Brethren  in  Poland  ultimately 
united  with  the  Reformed  church,  and  contin- 
ued the  consecration  of  bishopa  in  the  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  the  Unitai  Fratrum.  The 
same  hope  was  entertained  by  the  remainder 
of  the  Brethren  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  who 
kept  up  secret  meetings.  Their  hopes  were 
liilnllea  by  the  new  organization  which  owes  its 
origin  to  Count  Zinzendorf.  (See  Mobavians.) 
The  relation  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  to  the 
Waldenses  haa  not  yet  been  fully  cleared  up  by 
historical  investjgators. — At  the  head  of  the 
church  were  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  as 
assiataote  of  the  prieate.  The  biBhops  bad  the 
exclusive  right  to  ordain.  Each  of  tne  bishops 
had  a  diocese ;  conjointly  they  formed  the 
gapreme  church  council,  which  was  presided 
over  by  the  primate.  This  council,  which  also 
embraced  &am  six  to  eight  assistant  bishops, 
appointed  all  the  preachers,  but  was  itself  re- 
sponsible to  the  synod,  which  met  every  third 
or  fonrth  year.  The  church  was  divided  into 
three  provinces,  the  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and 
Polish.  The  disoiplme  of  the  church  consisted 
of  three  degrees :  first,  private  admonition  and 
censure;  secondly,  poblio  oeumre  and  exclu- 
sion from  the  Lord's  snpper ;  lastly,  exclusion 
from  the  communion  of  the  ehurch.      The 


BOHEMIAir  LANGUAGE        787 

Brethren  were  noted  for  their  literary  activity 
and  their  schools ;  their  most  celebrated  work 
was  the  Krsliti  translation  of  the  Bible  in  the 
Bohemian  language.  The  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  the  Brethren  waa'greatly  promoted 
by  the  discovery  in  1802  at  Lissa  of  a  part  of 
the  old  archives  of  the  church,  and  a  number 
of  able  historical  works  have  since  been  written 
on  the  subject.  The  most  important  sonrces 
of  information  are:  Gindely,  OeKkiekU  der 
BBhmitehen  Bruder  (Prague,  1857);  CrOger, 
OetekiehU  der  alien  Br&dertireht  (Gnadau, 
186B);  De  Schweinitz,  "The  Moravian  Epis- 

te"  (Bethlehem,  Penn.,  1866);  Benham, 

igin  and  Episcopate  of  the  Bohemian  Breth- 


uirfiriGE  Airo  utesatiibe.  The 

word  Bohemian  is  improperly  applied  to  the 
principal  nation  of  the  western  nljvs.  The 
true  name  of  the  people  Is  Ozechs  (UeeM,  pro- 
nounced Tehekki),  from  ieti,  to  begin,  as  they 
believe  themselves  to  he  the  flrat  of  the  family. 
The  language  is  the  hardest,  strongest,  most 
abounding  in  consonants,  and  at  the  same  time 
tbe  richest  and  most  developed  of  the  many 
dialects  of  the  Slavic  family,  which  itself  is  the 
northernmost  relative  of  the  Sanskrit,  the  cul- 
minating tongue  of  the  Aryan  stock.  Nearest 
to  the  Czech  are  the  Moravian  and  the  Slovak 
of  N.  W.  Hungary,  both  sub-dialecta,  and  the 
Sorabo-Wendic  of  Lusatia,  a  oognate  dialect. 
The  Bonthem  and  sonthweetem  Slavs  had  ob- 
tained lettera  from  Oyrillus  who  modified  the 
Greek  alphabet,  and  the  Glogolitic  characters, 
wrongly  aacribed  to  St.  Jerome,  before  the 
Latin  mode  of  writing  was  adopted  by  the  other 
branches  of  tbe  family,  in  the  form  of  the  black 
letter,  and  recently  in  the  Italian  shape.  In. 
this  language  there  are  tbe  five  Italian  vowels 
(both  short  and  long— when  long,  marked  by 
an  accent),  with  an  additional  y  (short  and 
long),  which  is  duller  and  heavier  than  {  ;  one 
diphthong,  ou  (pronounced  as  in  our) :  the 
pseudo-diphthongs  of  ol!  the  rowels  with  a 
clodng  y,  and  the  diphthong  i,  pronounced  yi. 
B,d,^,l!,l,  m,  n,  p,  V,  sound  aa  in  English ; 
but  e  18  pronounced  as  if  written  la  in  English ; 
^before  e,  i,  s,  like  y  in  ye»;  h  harsher  than 
in  h«n;  r  trembling  and  rolling,  and  not  slurred 
over  aa  In  the  English  martA,  park;  i  alwaya 
as  in  <ap;  t  always  as  in  tin,-  u  like  the  Eng- 
lish e;  I  always  aiin'teal.  The  following  let- 
ters with  the  diacritic  sign  (')  are  pronounced 
-^e  tiie  EDglish  ek  in  chat ;  » like  th  in  shall; 
e  like  the  French  j,  or  the  English  ti  in  gUC- 
tUr;  r  like  the  Polish  n,  almost  like  rtK,  as 
mnch  aa  possible  in  one  utterance ;  d  like  the 
Magyar  gy  (dy  in  one  ntterance);  t  like  the 
Magyar  ty  ;  a  like  the  Italian  gn  in  tifncre,  or 


and  dull  sound  unknown  to  the  English.  Tbo 
letter  z  occurs  only  in  foreign  words.  Tiie 
combination  eh  is  pronounced  as  in  German, 
being  the  most  strongly  aspirated  guttural 
sound;    the   trigramma    tek   represents   two 


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BOHEMIAJt  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEBATURE 


■oimde,  viz.,  «  and  f  A,  as  ia  the  Germ&n  word 
Oldtektn.  Ci  was  former];  used  for  l,  rx  for 
r,  and  m  for  l.—Tbe  Czech  lan^age  has  no 
article,  but  hu  declinable  demuastrative  pro- 
nonna.  It  has  tiiree  genders,  eight  deden- 
sona,  eeven  cases  (nominative,  genitire,  da- 
tive, acoDsatiTe,  vocative,  instramental  or  so- 
ciatJve,  and  locative) ;  three  numbera  (a  doal 
onlf  in  noons  and  prODoana) ;  two  kinds  of 
adjectives,  determinate  and  indeterminate ; 
organic  and  periiihrastic  degrees  of  compari- 
son; declinable  numerals;  sis  forma  of  the 
verb  (with  but  one  inflection),  six  modes 
QndicBtiv^  imperative,  conjunctive,  optative, 
oonditional,  and  transgreH^ve  or  participial). 
The  psHsiTe  voice  and  the  future  tenses  are 
made  bj  means  cf  anxitiaries ;  but  the  termi- 
nations of  persons  and  numbers  are  not  less 
developed  than  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Great 
liberty  in  the  sequence  of  words  characterizes 
the  syntax,  whicn  is  analogous  to  the  Greek 
•sd  Latin.  Metre  predominates  over  the 
tones  in  the  vocalism  of  words,  so  that  the 
Czech  language  can  vie  with  the  MaK^ar  in 
rendering  Greek  and  Latin  poetic  rnythm. 
Great  variety,  force,  and  phonetic  symbolism 
in  the  derivating  affixes,  enrich  the  language 
with  a  great  number  of  expressions,  and  make 
up  for  its  scantiness  of  metapbony, — Josenh 
Dobrovsky,  the  great  Slavic  linguist,  diviaea 
the  history  of  the  Czech  language  and  litera- 
ture into  six  periods,  commencing  respectively 
with  the  following  epochs:  1,  the  immigration 
of  the  Czechs;  2,  their  converuon  to  Chris- 
tiamty,  A.  D.  84S;  8,  King  John  of  Luxem- 
burg, 1310;  4,  Jolm  Husa,  who  introduced  a 
precise  orthography,  1410 ;  5,  the  extension  of 
printing,  and  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  I.  of 
Hapsburg,  1626 ;  6,  the  battle  at  the  White 
Uonntdn,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  non-Catho- 
lics, 1820.  ^  The  discovery  in  1817  of  a  part  of 
the  Rvkopu  vfoXodkanhy  (manuscript  of  E9- 
niginhof),  by  Hanka,  in  a  oharcH  steeple, 
brought  to  light  a  collection  of  14  lyric  and 
epio  poems,  alleged  to  have  been  written  be- 
tween the  years  1290  and  1310,  and  supe- 
rior to  most  of  the  contemporary  productions 
of  other  European  nations.  There  are  about 
20  poetic  and  EO  prose  works  extant  belonging 
to  the  epoch  before  Huss,  such  as  Dalimil's 
chronicle  in  verse,  of  1814 ;  a  song  of  1846,  on 
the  l)attle  of  Or^oy,  where  King  John  fell,  and 
other  historic  legends;  Thomas  Stitny's  book 
for  his  children,  1376;  Baron  Duba's  judicial 
oonatitution  of  Bohemia,  1402;  a  politico-di- 
dactic poem,  by  S.  Flaafca  of  EichenDurg;  and 
various  allegoric,  dramatic,  and  elegiac  compo- 
sitions, besides  traualationa  of  foreign  works. 
Charles  I.  of  Bohemia,  known  as  Charles  IV,, 
emperor  of  Germany,  founded  in  1347  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Smaus,  in  the  Neu- 
stadt  of  Prague,  for  monks  who  had  fled  hither 
from  Croatia  and  in  1848  the  university  of 
PragQC-  John  Husa  revised  the  translation  of 
theBible,  wrote  tracts  and  hexameter  poetry, 
and  gave  a  great  unpulse  to  the  activity  of  the 


Czech  mind.  Notwithstanding  the  « 
destruction  of  the  Hussite  writings,  there  yet 
remain,  hidden  in  archives  and  libraries,  many 
productions  of  the  Caliitines,  Taborit^  Ho- 
rebites,  Orphanites,  and  other  Ilusute  sects, 
some  of  them  by  mechanics,  peasants,  and  wo- 
men. Many  of  these  works  were  carried  off 
by  the  Swedes,  and  are  now  in  the  library  of 
Stockholm.  Mere  rhyming,  however,  prevuled 
over  poetic  inspiration  in  most  of  the  verse  of 
those  times.  But  the  prose  works  of  the  16th 
century,  especially  the  state  papers,  are  models 
of  composition :  ooncise,  clear,  and  emphatic  b 
style ;  so  much  so,  that  the  Czech  langnage 
was  alxint  to  become  a  general  means  of  civ- 
ilization for  all  Slavs,  and  was  even  used  in 
Lithuanian  official  docnmenta.  John  ^ka, 
the  leader  of  the  Hnssites  (141»-'24),  composed 
war  songs,  and  a  system  of  tactics  for  his 
troops.  The  work  of  Hayek  de  Hodetin,  and 
especially  that  of  Wenceslaa  Vlcek  de  Cenow, 
on  Husfflte  strategy,  are  more  important.  The 
accounts  of  the  travels  of  Albert  Eostka  de 
Postupitz  to  France  (1464),  of  Leo  de  Ros- 
mital  through  Europe  (HSC),  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Brother  Martin  Eabatnik  in  Aua  Minor 
and  Egypt  (1491),  of  John  de  Lobkovritz  to 
Palestine  (1493),  ^.;  the  spirited  and  elegant 
political  work  of  Otibor  de  Cimburg,  the  cla»- 
aio  production  of  the  same  sort  by  Y.  0.  de 
Wszehod,  "The  Art  of  Governing^"  and  the 
great  encyelopiedia  of  the  canon  Paul  Zidek, 
with  many  works  on  economy,  popular  medi- 
cine, &c.,  are  monnmenta  of  the  CEech  intel- 
lect in  the  latter  fa^  of  the  IGth  century. 
After  1490  the  kujgs  ceased  to  reside  in  Bo- 
hemia, and  German  Catholics  l>^an  to  poor 
into  the  country.  Nevertheless,  Czech  Utertt- 
ture  attained  its  golden  age  between  1626  and 
1020,  especially  under  Budolph  (II.  as  em- 
peror of  Germany,  1GTS-1S12J,  when  the  sci- 
ences and  arts  were  zealously  ooHiTOted  by 
all  classes  of  society.  Eepler  (though  a  Ger- 
man) presided  over  the  astronomic  observatory 
at  Prague,  which  then  had  two  universities  and 
16  other  literary  institutions,  including  schools 
for  females  as  well  as  males.  The  Czech 
tongue  was  now  more  developed  even  than  the 
German,  and  was  used  in  all  transactions;  in 
point  of  style  the  works  of  this  period  are  in- 
ferior to  those  of  earlier  times,  but  the  political 
and  l^ai  literature  is  superior  to  the  rest.  The 
following  works  are  worthy  of  mention:  George 


Hayek  de  IJboczan's  romantic  chronicle  of  Bo- 
hemia; Barto's  work  on  the  religious  troablea 
of  1G24;  Slztus  de  Ottendorfs  work  on  the 
diet  of  1647;  John  Blahoalav's  history  of  tbe 
Bohemian  and  Moravian  brethren,  perhape 
wrongly  ascribed  to  him ;  a  nniveraal  history, 
now  at  Stockholm,  by  an  anonymous  author, 
bnt  rich,  clear,  and  trustworthy;  genealogies 
and  bion'aphieB  by  Brzezan;  an  exceUent  his- 
tory by  Vdeslavin;  the  travels  and  fortunes 
of  Ulric  de  Wlkanowa,  Wcnceslas  Vratjalaa  de 


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BOHEMIAir  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEBATUBE 


789 


Hitrowitz,  and  Obriato^er  Hartmt  de  PalzitK, 

&□.  Matthew  Benesovskj'B  g]o8ao!olg7,  and 
Abraham  de  Ginterrod's  cU^c  arcbasoloKy, 
are  also  memorable.  There  are  seTeral  good 
works  on  judicial  afiwrs  and  on  reli^oaa  sub- 
jects; for  inBtance,  that  of  Angusta,  a  biehop 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  The  translation 
of  the  Bible  published  by  this  soeietf  reached 
eight  editions.  It  is  in  pore  and  elegant  Czech, 
and  was  translated  from  the  original  in  the 
castle  of  Kralitz  in  Moravia,  by  a  society  which 
Joseph  Zerotin  had  collected  and  muntained 
there  from  1579  to  1598.  Coont  Slavata,  one 
of  the  imperial  Catholic  party,  who  was  thrown 
from  a  window  of  the  caatle  of  Prague  by 
Count  Thnm's  associates  in  1618,  left  a  detailed 
doonmentary  history  of  his  times,  in  IG  vols. 
folio.  That  act  of  violence  opened  the  thirty 
years*  war,  and  brongbt  abont  the  sodden  fall 
and  decay  of  Ciech  civilization,  which  then 
sank  to  a  low  degree  of  debasement  The  best 
men  of  the  country  perished  by  the  sword  and 
pestilence;  others  emigrated;  Oerman,  TCalian, 
Netherlandish,  Spanish,  and  Irish  adventurers 
took  their  place  in  all  offices,  dignities,  and  emol- 
nmenta.  Ferdinand  II.  imported  Benedictines 
fh>m  Montserrat  in  1624;  and  the  Jesnits,  es- 
corted by  the  soldiery,  ransacked  every  house 
for  Bohemian  hooka,  bamimrall  those  publish- 
ed after  1414  as  heretical.  This  state  of  things 
lasted  far  into  the  18th  oentnry.    While  it 

Ereruled,  many  of  the  so-calted  Bohemian 
eretics  and  rebels  Gennanized  their  very 
namea.  The  JesuitAnton  Eoniaa,  wiio  died  in 
1780,  boasted  of  having  burnt  80,000  books. 
The  exiles,  however,  continued  to  cherish  their 
native  literature,  and  printed  several  books  in 
Poland,  Saxony,  Holland,  &o.  The  Qnngarian 
Protestant  Slovaks  did  very  much  in  preserving 
Bohemian  letters.  In  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
there  appeared  bnt  few  works,  among  them 
Bezovsky's  chronicle,  the  la/s  of  Volney,  and 
the  hexameter  essays  of  Bosa.  John  Amos 
Oomenina,  the  last  bishop  of  the  Bohemian 
Brethren,  wrote  an  Orbit  Fietui  in  several 
languages,  and  although  his  Latinity  is  barba- 
rous, his  native  style  is  pure,  lively,  and  forcible. 
The  Swedes,  who  were  expelled  from  Bohemia 
hi  1640,  carried  many  literary  treasures  home, 
among  others  the  Aziukividariam  or  Alpha- 
betum  Siazomm,  in  Glogolitio  characters,  on 
parchment,  now  in  the  great  book  at  Stock- 
holm; also  the  Alphahetum  RuUntim  in  Cy- 
rillic characters.  The  empress  Maria  Theresa 
decreed,  Dec.  6,  1774,  the  cessation  of  perse- 
cutions against  the  Protestants,  and  remodelled 
the  system  of  education,  introducing  normal 
and  other  schools.  Joseph  II.  ordered  that 
German  should  be  the  language  in  the  high 
schools  and  in  all  public  affairs.  But,  thanks 
to  the  exertions  of  Count  Francis  Kinsky,  and 
of  the  historian  Pelzel,  the  Czech  language  was 
introduced  into  the  higher  military  institutions, 
and  the  sciences  were  IVeed  from  German 
trammels.  The  Czech  culture  soon  rose  from 
its  long  lethal^,  and  writers  appeared  in  all 


branches  of  literature,  among  whom  the  fol- 
lowing must  be  particularly  mentioned :  Pelzel, 
Frochazka,  Krameriua,  Parizek,  an  author  of 
good  school  books,  and  Tomsa,  a  linguist.  The 
father  of  modern  Bohemian  poetry  was  Anton 
Pnohmayer,  aclerm-man  (1786-1820),  who  waa 
also  well  versed  in  Polish  and  Bussian,  He  wa? 
followed  by  the  brothers  A.  and  T.  Negedly, 
Rautenfcranz,  Stepniczka,  Hnievkovsky,  who 
was  also  a  good  prose  writer,  Svoboda,  and 
especially  Jnngmann,  and  Chmelensky,  a  lyric 
poet.  The  higher  classes,  however,  continued 
to  be  estranged  fVom  native  letters  until  lately, 
although  since  1770  a  chair  for  the  Czech  lan- 
guage has  existed  even  in  the  nniversit]^  of 
Vienna.  Printing  had  been  introduced  into 
Bohemia  in  1476,  and  Yrtatko  lately  even 
clumed  a  share  in  its  InventiMi  in  favor  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  ground  that  Gutenberg  waa 
originally  from  that  country,  and  that  the  prese 
was  freely  developed  in  it,  without  the  aid 
of  Germans.  The  above-mentioned  discovery 
of  Hanka,  the  introduction  of  the  Czech  tongue 
in  the  high  schools,  the  efforts  of  the  supreme 
burgsraf  Kolowrat  in  the  foundation  of  a  na- 
tioiuJ  musenm  (1832),  and  other  favorable  oir- 
Qumstanoes,  have  more  recentiy  produced  a 
sodden  rise  of  Bohemian  literature.  We  must 
be  content  with  notices  of  its  more  prominent 
writers  and  productions.  Schafarik  and  Pa- 
laoky  first  recommended  the  old  metres  in 
verse.  A  committee  on  the  language  was 
formed  in  the  museum  in  18S1.  Langer  wrote 
lyric,  didactic,  and  satiric  poems;  Boko,  an 
epic;  Holly,  an  epic,  Svatopluk,  and  a  "  Cynllo- 
Hethodiad ; "  Kollar,  elegies ;  Bchneider,  songs  - 
and  popular  ballads:  Sciepanek,  Klicpcra,Ua- 
hacek,  Vooel,  and  Tnrinsky,  dramas.  Opera 
libretti  were  produced  by  the  last  named,  by 
Bvoboda,  and  by  Chmelensky.  Prizes  were 
offered  for  the  beet  dramatin  works,  and  a  na- 
tional theatre  was  founded  by  subscription. 
The  foremost  of  the  modem  poets  are  Kollar, 
whose  masterpiece  is  the  Slavy  deera  ("  Daugh- 
ter of  Glory  "),  and  the  song-writer  Cetakov- 
sky-  In  tales  the  favorite  author  is  Erben; 
and  the  songs  and  ballads  of  Schneider  are  in 
the  months  of  all.  Among  the  properly  ro- 
mantic poets  we  find  Macha,  Haiek,  Nemda, 
Frio,  and  Barak,  most  of  them  living.  Czech 
fictitions  literature  is  comparatively  poor.  We 
must  also  mention  Jnngmann'a  "History  of 
Bohemian  Literature,"  Schnfarik's  "History 
of  Slavic  Uterature,"  and  the  latter'a  transla- 
lations  from  Aristophanes,  Schiller,  BQrger, 
and  others.  A  new  soientiflo  glossology  was 
produced  by  PresI,  professor  and  director  of 
the  cabinet,  and  author  of  many  works  on  nat- 
ural history.  Palacky  is  at  tiie  bead  of  the 
historical  scKool,  and  is  a  writer  on  resthetio 
and  critical  subjects.  So  was  Schafarik,  who 
also  wrote  an  eminent  work  on  "  Slavic  An- 
tiquities" (8d  ed.,  18e8-'4).  Philosophy,  the- 
ology, the  natural  sciences,  and  matbemadoa 
have  fonnd  numerous  votaries.  Of  late,  owing 
to  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  the  all-absorbing 


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790  BOHEMOND 

smore  ^Itti cat  turn,  the  periodic&l  prem  be- 
ing parbonlsrlj  aotira.  Czech  grainiiiBrs  and 
diotionariea  are  namerone,  some  of  them,  like 
the  works  of  Dobrovsky,  Oetakovsky,  and 
Jnngmann,  of  great  pbilological  valae. 

BOHEMOIfD,  Mure,  a  Nonnan  crasader,  bora 
aboDt  lOSO,  died  in  1111.  He  was  the  eldest 
BOD  of  Robert  Goiscard,  the  conoueror  of  Apu- 
lia and  Calabria,  and  comtDandeo  with  distino' 
tion  in  the  wars  of  his  father  against  the  By- 
zantine emperor  Alexia,  1081-%.  After  his 
father's  death  he  was  exolnded  from  the  throne 
of  Apnlia  bv  his  yoangBr  brother  Roger,  and 
obtained  as  bis  inheritance  the  citj  of  Taranto. 
Deairoiia  of  conquest  and  new  glory,  be  joined 
tbe  onisaders  in  Epirns  with  a  large  armj 
(1096),  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Antiocb  in  1098.    Ha  retained  posses- 


pendent  principality  in  Syria  After  varioae 
adventnres  he  returned  to  Europe,  leaving  his 
kinsman  Tanored  in  Antioch,  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  king  of  France,  and  beginning  a  new 
war  against  Alexis,  crossed  the  Adriatic  with 
6,000  horse  and  40,000  foot,  assembled  from 


the  Normans.  Bohemond  was  compelled  to 
conclude  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  soon  after  died. 
His  son,  Bohemond  11.,  succeeded  to  tbe  prin- 
cipality of  Antioch,  whiob  fell  nnder  Bohe- 
mond VI.  in  1288, 

BOOL-FlBiaL  CetOto,  a  Spanish  anthoress, 
'  known  under  the  nom  d»  plume  of  Feman  Oa- 
ballero,  born  at  Morget,  Switzerland,  in  1T97, 
died  April  7,  18T7.  Her  mother  was  a  Span- 
iard, and  her  father,  Nikolas  Bohl  von  Faber, 
the  son  of  a  Hamburg  merchant  estaliliahed  in 
Spain,  and  the  author  of  "" 


(1SS2).  The  danghter  was  aduoated  in  Ger- 
many, and  went  with  ber  father  to  Spain  in 

1816.  She  waa  married  sucoessireiy  to  Col. 
Planells,  the  marquis  of  Aroo  Hermeso,  and 
Antonio  de  Arrom,  Spanish  oonsnl  in  Australia. 
After  the  death  of  the  last,  in  1663,  she  was 
enabled,  through  the  patronage  of  the  duke  de 
MonCpensier,  to  reside  in  the  royal  palace  at 
Seville.  She  wrote  on  the  traditions,  oustoma, 
and  social  characteristics  of  Spain,  especially 
of  Andalusia,  a  series  of  novels,  foiry  tales,  and 
ballads.  A  collection  of  her  works  appeared  at 
Madrid  in  18  vols.,  1860-'61,  an  additional  vol- 
nme  at  Cadiz  in  1369,  and  in  18S5  her  Noeelaa 
oriffinalet.  Her  principal  productions  have  been 
translated  into  French,  and  some  of  them  into 
English,  In  Germany  translations  of  her  worka 
appeared  at  Paderborn  in  17  vols.,  1869-'B4. 

BOBLEN,  Prttr  tsb,  a  German  orientalist, 
bom  at  Wttppels,  Oldenbnrg,  March  18, 1799, 
died  in  Halle,  Feb.  6,  1840.  He  was  of  humble 
origin,  and  bad  to  struggle  with  adver^ty  till 

1817,  when  the  treemasonsof  Hamburg  enabled 


BOHOL 

him  to  study  at  the  gymnasium  of  that  dty, 
and  he  perfected  his  knowledge  of  oriental  lan- 
guages m  Halle  and  Bonn.  In  182S  he  became 
ai^'unct  professor  at  Bonn,  and  in  ]92£  profes- 
sor eitraordinary  of  oriental  languages  in  Eli- 
nigsberg,  and  in  1880  i^rdinary  professor.  He 
-visited  England  in  1S31  and  18S7,  and  for  th« 
improvement  of  his  health  be  apent  some  time 
in  southern  France,  whence  he  removed  in  1889 
to  Halle.  Hisprtnotpal  works :  are  Dtu  allt  /n- 
di«n(2  vols.,  KOnigsberg,  1830-'81);  his  edition 
of  Bhartirihari's  SpHiche  (Beriin,  1833,  with  a 
German  translation,  Hamburg,  1835):  Bit  Omt- 
tii,  JiuUtritch-krituek  erla&tart  (Kdnigsberg^ 
18SS) ;  his  edition  of  Kalidasa's  Ritmankdra 
(Leipsic,  1840) ;  and  his  Antobiojfraphie,  edited 
by  Voigt  (KOmgsberg,  1841 ;  2d  ed.  with  hit 
oorrespondence,  1848). 

BShI,  netMd,  a  German  fintist,  bom  in  Ba- 
varia in  1803.  In  1684  he  went  to  Londcm,  and 
in  1849  returned  to  his  native  oountry,  where 
he  entered  the  private  service  of  the  king.  Be 
was  considered  almost  without  a  riv^  as  a 
flute  player,  and  also  set  himself  the  task  of 
perfecting  the  mechanism  of  flutes  and  other 
reed  instruments.  His  efforts  resulted  in  the 
constmctiou  of  what  has  unce  been  known  as 
the  Bshm  flute,  which  has,  by  reason  of  the 
greater  aoouraoy  and  equality  of  its  scale  and 
tiie  superior  facility  of  iJie  fingering,  gradually 
superseded  the  old  models.  B6hm  also  made 
several  universally  accepted  improvements  in 
the  oboe  and  the  bassoon.  As  a  composer  be 
has  acquired  a  considerable  celebrity.  He  has 
written  several  concertos  for  Sute  and  or- 
chestra, and  has  published  a  treatise  on  tbe 
construction  of  the  flute. 

BOBH,  Bmrf  Geuge,  an  English  publisher,  of 
German  parentage,  born  in  London,  Jan.  4, 
179S.  He  commenced  in  1845  the  republica- 
tion of  rare  standard  works,  selected  from  all 
the  national  literatures  of  Europe,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  in  a  cheap  form.  For  many 
years  he  issued  in  a  oniform  shape  series  enti- 
tled "Standard  Library,"  "  Scientific  Library," 
"Illustrated  Library,"  "Library  of  French  JJe- 
moirs,"Library  of  Extra  Volumes,"  "Olassical 
Library  "  (consisting  of  translations  of  the  Greek 
and  LAtin  classics),  "Antiquarian  Library," 
" PhiloBophieal  Library,"  "Philological  Libra- 
ry," "Library  of  British  Classics,"  "Eoclea- 
ostical  Library,"  "Miniature  Library,"  and 
"Cheap  Series,"  amounting  in  all  to  betireen 
BOO  and  700  volumes.  Mr.  Bohn  translated 
for  these  series  some  of  the  works  of  Schiller, 
Goethe,  and  Humboldt,  assisted  in  several  of 
the  classical  translation^  and  compiled  a 
"  Handbook  of  Pottery  and  Porcelain,"  "  Hand- 
book of  Proverbs,"  "  Polyglot  of  Foreign  Prov- 
erbs," &c.  Be  edited  the  works  of  Addison 
and  Lowndes's  "Bibliographer's  Manual,"  and 
prepared  for  the  Philoblblou  society  a  "  Life 
of  Shakespeare"  and  "Dictionary  of  English 
Poetical  Quotations," 

BOHOL,  or  BmI,  one  of  the  Philippine  ialands. 
situated  between  Cebn  and  Leyte,  and  N.  of 


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bOhtungk 

Mindanao,  lat  9°  Bi'  N.,  Ion.  124°  21'  E.,  dis- 
covered by  Magellan  in  1B2I.  It  is  48  m.  in 
length  from  E.  to  W.  and  S2  m.  in  breadth ; 
area  estimated  at  1,864  sq.  ra.  It  is  watered 
by  aeveral  email  rivers,  one  of  which  has  ita 
rise  in  a  lake  in  the  interior.  Gold  is  found  in 
the  river  aands.  The  cbief  vegetable  products 
are  rice,  cocoannta,  and  cotton.  Cattle-raisiiig 
and  the  mannfacture  of  cocoannt  oil  and  of  silk 
and  ooerae  cotton  fabrics  are  the  principal  oc- 
cnpationa  of  the  inhabitants. 

BftHnraeE,  otto,  a  Rnssian  orientalist^  of 
German  descent,  born  in  St.  Peterabnrg,  Hav 
80,  1815.  He  stndied  at  Beriin  and  Bonn,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Bt.  Petersburg  acad- 
emy of  sciepces  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
edited  Vopadeva'a  grammar  (St.  Petersbnrg, 
1816),  KaJidaaa'E  Saiuntalti  (with  translation, 
Bonn,  1842),  and  Hemat«handra's  lexicon  (St. 
Petersburg,  184T),  and  poblished  a  grammar 
and  lexicon  of  the  Yakut  language  (8  vols., 
1849-'6I),  and  "Indian  Aphorisms"  fjnduche 
SprHeAe,  2  vols.,  18fl3-'4J.  His  principal  vrork 
is  the  great  Sanskrit  dictionary  [Sarutrit-  W6r- 
terhveh),  prepared  coijointlj  with  Prof.  Ru- 
dolph Rota  of  TQbingen  and  published  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  academy  (7  vols.,  1BB8-'6TJ. 

BOHTN,  EdHud,  an  Lnglish  writer  of  the 
17th  century,  born  at  Ringafieli  Suffolk.  He 
was  a  descundant  of  the  lords  of  the  manor  of 
Westhall,  and  was  educated  at  Queen's  college, 
Cambridge,  which  he  entered  in  1668.  He 
edited  Filmer'a  treatise  on  the  origin  of  gov- 
ernment, wrote  an  answer  to  the  paper  whicli 
Algernon  Sidney  had  delivered  to  the  sheriffs 
on  the  scaffold,  and  subsequently  published  a 
geographical  dictionary  and  other  works.  He 
awore  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  though 
be  was  a  stanch  tory  and  had  been  a  persecu- 
tor of  nonconformists  and  a  champion  of  the 
doctrine  of  passive  obedience;  and  in  169r  ' 
was  appointed  by  the  earl  of  Nottinghan 
licenser,  in  place  of  Fraser.  He  at  once  , 
posed  the  publication  of  "A  History  of  the 
Bloody  Arizes,"  and  of  other  writings  which 
he-  considered  schismatic  and  revolutiooary, 
bot  sanctioDed  that  of  an  anonymous  volume 
entitled  "King  William  and  Queen  Mary  Con- 
qnerors,"  which  refiected  his  own  peculiar 
views,  but  which  roused  public  indignation 
chiefly  by  its  title,  and  led  in  January,  1898, 
to  hia  removal  tVom  office,  to  his  arrest,  and  to 
the  pnblic  bnming  of  the  obnoxious  treatise, 
It  waa  alleged  that  Charles  Blount,  an  extreme 
whig,  had  written  this  book  in  order  to  lay  . 
trap  for  the  ruin  of  Bohun,  whose  cenaorahip 
he  had  bitterly  denounced.  See  "  Autobiog- 
raphy of  Edmund  Bohun  "  in  Dunton's  "  Life 
and  Errors"  (privately  printed,  London,  1863). 

BOIIBDO,  or  B^ardo,  KattM  Maria,  oonnt  of 
Scandiano,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Scandiano 
in  1480  or  1484,  died  m  Reggio  in  December, 
1404.  After  finishing  hia  studios  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Ferrara,  he  was  received  with  dis- 
tinction at  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Eate  in  that 
city,  and  was  appomted  governor  of  fieggio 


Bon 


791 


in  1476,  ofModenainliei,  and  again  of  Beg- 
gio  in  1487.  His  great  chivalrous  poem,  which 
was  left  unfinished,  Orlando  innamoralo,  is 
divided  into  three  books,  containing  69  cantos. 
In  164C  this  work  had  already  passed  through 
16  editions,  but  the  entire  work  was  first 

trinted  in  149G.  It  was  translated  into  French 
y  Vincent  in  1G44,  and  subsequently  by  Rosset 
and  Tressan,  and  Le  Sa^e  made  an  imitalioQ 
of  it.  Boiardo  wrote  his  poem  in  the  Italian 
spoken  in  his  time  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  and 
it  was  therefore  very  much  criticised  at  Flor- 
ence. After  various  attempts  to  purify  the 
style,  it  waa  more  than  once  entirely  rewrit- 
ten; the  best  rifaeeimento  is  that  of  Bemi. 
This  brought  the  poem  into  disuse,  and  Panizzi 
first  published  the  primitive  text,  with  a  carc- 
fiil  examination  of  the  poem  (London,  1880). 
Ariosto'e  Orlando  furioto  is  a  continuation  of 
Boiardo's  poem.  Boiardo  was  the  author  of 
many  other  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
are  his  Sonnetti  t  eaneoni  (8  vols.,  Eeggio, 
1499),  almost  all  addressed  to  his  mistress, 
Antonia  Capraca.  Among  the  others  is  Jl 
Timone,  a  drama  in  five  acta. 
BOIeIJ^IED,  Fra^tls  kMn,  a  French  com- 

Sjser,  bom  at  Rouen,  Dec.  IG,  1TT5,  died  at 
rosbois,  near  Bordeaux,  Oct.  8, 1884.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  distinguished  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  for  which  be  composed  bis  first 
musical  pieces.  These  were  aucoeeded  by  duets 
for  the  harp  and  piano,  and  romances,  remark- 
able for  their  sintple  and  graceful  melodies, 
several  of  which,  as  the  Menatral  and  ^i{  e»t 
vraiq'oe  d'Stre  detw,  became  very  popular.  In 
1797,  two  year*  after  his  arrival  In  Paris,  he 
waa  appointed  profeasor  of  the  piano  at  the 
conservatoire,  and  produced  at  the  op^a  co- 
mique  LafamilU  tuitte,  which  was  succeeded 
by  Le  eal^fe  de  Bagdad,  Ma  tante  Aiirtyre,  and 
other  works,  revealing  fertility  of  invention, 
and  a  freshness  and  vivacity  in  the  melodies 
which  have  never  been  surpassed  on  the  French 
stage.  In  1808,  at  the  invitation  of  the  czar 
Alexander  I.,  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg  to  fiU 
the  place  of  Imperial  chapelmaater.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1811,  and  soon  after  brought 
out  a  number  of  works,  among  which  were 
Jean  d»  Parit,  La  deux  nviU,  Le  nouwau  eei- 
gneuT  du  tillage,  &c.  In  1817  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  institute,  soon  after  which  ap- 

E eared  his  Chaperon,  rmtge,  the  gay  and  bril- 
ant  music  of  which  fully  justified  the  honor 
thus  conferred  upon  him.  hi  1826  he  produced 
La,  dame  hlanehe,  esteemed  his  ehef-d^ofatre^ 
which  is  still  familiar  to  the  English  and  Amer- 
ican stage.  An  affection  of  the  throat  now 
compelled  him  to  resign  his  professorship,  but 
he  was  enabled  to  live  comfortably  on  a  pen- 
sion from  the  conservatoire  and  an  annual 
present  from  Charles  X.,  until  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  deprived  him  of  these  sources  of 
income.  He  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral. 
BOH,  a  Celtic  people  whose  original  seat  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  that  remon  now  forming 
the  Fr^ch  departments  of  Haute-Hame  and 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


792 


Boa 


Hftuto-SaAne,  but  who  pawed  over  into  Cis- 
alpine  Gaul,  bj  the  Great  St.  Bernard  or  the 
paaa  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  probably  with  the 
current  of  Celtio  immigration  which  began  to 
Bet  thither  as  early  as  the  6th  century  B.  C. 
(See  Celts.)  They  crossed  the  Po,  and  estab- 
liahed  themselves  south  of  that  river,  in  the  re- 
oion  forming  the  modem  provinces  of  Modena, 
Bologna,  and  Ferrora.  In  the  half-tradition- 
ary accounts  of  the  period  Bubseqaoot  to  this 
settlement,  they  are  represented  as  aiding  the 
Insnbres  and  Benonea  in  the  sack  of  U«Jpiun 
fprobably  abont  SB6  B.  C).  Their  first  con- 
niot  with  the  RomAns  appears  to  have  been  in 
288,  when  they  acted  as  allies  of  the  Etra»- 
cans  at  their  defeat  near  Lake  Vadimonis.  In 
282  they  were  again  defeated,  and  now  kept  a 
truce  with  Borne  for  iS  years.  At  the  end  of 
that  tjme  they  again  took  up  arms  to  resist 
Roman  encroachments,  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Gallic  war  of  22S,  in  wnich  they 
snSered  severe  defeat,  in  the  second  Fnnic  war 
(218),  in  which  they  were  efficient  allies  of 
Hannibal,  and  in  the  revolt  of  the  Oanls  under 
Hamiloar  (200).  They  did  not  cease  hostili- 
ties, waged  with  or  without  the  asustance  of 
other  tribes,  until  191,  when  they  were  finally 
entirely  snbdned  by  Scipio  Nasica,  who  punished 
them  with  the  ntmoat  severity,  slanghtenng 
nearly  half  their  number.  As  a  further  means 
of  putting  an  end  to  their  power,  the  Romans 
establish^  colonies  in  their  territory,  and 
finally  compelled  the  remaining  Boii  to  re- 
cross  the  Alps,  and  take  refuge  with  the  Oeltic 
tribes  of  Pannonia.  Near  the  W.  border  of  this 
country  they  again  established  themselvea,  in 
the  regions  which  took  from  them  the  names 
of  Boioaria  or  Bavaria  and  Boiohemnm  or 
Bohemia.  They  remained  here  for  more  than 
a  century,  but  their  power  had  been  broken, 
and  they  were  at  last  entirely  eitermlnatM 
by  the  Dacian  tribes.  Little  is  known  of  their 
customs  and  political  condition,  but  from  the  al- 
lusions of  Livy  they  appear  to  have  bad  towns 
and  fortifications  of  some  consequence,  and  to 
have  known  something  of  the  raeohanio  arts. 

BOIL,  an  inflamed  tumor,  which  begins  as 
a  pimple  in  the  skm,  and  continnes  to  in- 
crease until  it  becomes  as  large  as  a  walnut,  or 
even  larger.  It  is  of  a  conical  shape,  some- 
what red  or  dusky,  and  hard,  with  burning 
heat  and  pain.  Between  the  fourth  and  eighth 
day  it  becopies  very  prominent,  and  bef^ns 
to  "point;"  a  speck  of  matter  may  be  seen  on 
the  summit,  which  gradually  softens ;  the  skin 
at  lasts  bursts  at  that  point,  and  matter  mixed 
with  blood  is  discharged  through  a  small  open- 
ing. A  day  or  two  mer  this,  the  core,  which 
is  anpposed  to  be  a  portion  of  dead  connective 
tissue,  finds  its  way  out,  or  may  be  forced  out 
by  gentle  pressure,  leaving  an  open  cavity 
which  soon  fills  up,  and  heals  about  the  12th 
or  14th  day.  Boils  may  appear  on  any  part  of 
the  body,  but  they  commonly  form  on  the  face 
or  on  the  neck,  in  the  annpits  or  inside  of  the 
thighs,  on  the  hips  or  in  the  groin ;  and  there 


BOILEAU-DESPREATJX 

are  generally  several,  either  at  the  same  time  or 
following  one  another.  They  seem  to  be  cans- 
ed  by  fatigue  in  some  form,  anxiety  of  mind, 
fatigue  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  general  &- 
tigue  of  body  or  of  mind,  or  both.  By  lancing 
the  pimple  on  its  first  appearance,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  boil  is  often  prevented.  If  allowed 
to  mature  and  go  on  to  suppuration,  the  pain 
may  be  relieved  and  the  prooees  hastened  by  the 
application  of  warm  poultices.  The  period  of 
suppuration  may  be  distinguished  by  the  pain, 
which  becomes  more  severe  and  throbbing  in 
character,  by  on  (edematous  condition  of  the 
skin  over  its  moat  prominent  portion,  and  by  a 
sense  of  deep-seated  fluctuation  ctonmnnioated 
to  the  fingers,  when  the  tumor  is  compreMed 
alternately  from  side  \o  nde.  As  soon  as  the 
formation  of  pns  is  indicated  by  the  above 
signa,  the  most  effectual  treatment,  both  &« 
the  relief  of  pain  and  for  the  rapidity  of  cure, 
is  to  make  a  ^ee  incision  into  the  substance  of 
the  Ixnl,  deep  enough  to  reach  its  central  cavity 
and  allow  the  evacuations  of  the  pus.  When 
the  boii  ia  allowed  to  burst  of  itself,  the  open- 
ing is  usually  small,  and  the  core  remains  some 
time  before  it  is  discharged,  unleas  it  be  drawn 
out  The  cavity  soon  heals  after  the  core  is 
discharged,  and  nothing  is  usually  required  hot 
simple  dreeung. 

BOUfAr-DESPUlDX,  KlMiM,  a  French  didao- 
tic  and  satirical  poet  and  oritic,  bom  in  or  near 
Paria,  Nov.  1, 1630,  died  there,  March  18, 1711. 
His  mother,  Anne  de  Nielle,  who  died  In  his 
infancy,  was  the  second  wife  of  Gilles  Boilean,  ' 
an  esteemed  greffier  of  the  Paris  parliament, 
who  claimed  descent  from  £tieime  BoUeau  w 
Boilesve,  a  provost  of  the  ISth  century.  Young 
Boilean,  whose  surname  of  Deepr^anx  is  ascrih- 
ed  by  some  anthoritiea  to  a  small  patch  of 
land  which  he  owned,  studied  law  and  the- 
ology, was  admitted  as  an  advocate,  and  re- 
ceived the  tonsure;  but,  despite  the  remon- 
strances of  his  relatives  and  the  limited  means 
bequeathed  to  him  by  his  tkther,  who  died  in 
lOGl,  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuit^ 
and  especially  to  satirical  poems,  in  which  .he 
took  Horace  as  his  model.  Some  of  them 
were  circulated  in  MS.  in  leSO,  and  gained  for 
him  access  to  the  hAtel  de  Rambouillet,  where 
the  prevdling  pedantry  confirmed  his  purpose 
of  refining  literary  taste.  Eia  Diteourt  au  rvl 
and  other  aatires,  first  published  in  1966,  estab- 
lished his  reputation,  and  he  became  the  high- 
est literary  authority,  whoee  deciMons  made 
all  pretentious  mediocrities  wince,  while  Cor- 
neilte  found  in  him  a  judicious  admirer,  and 
Moli^re,  Lafontaine,  and  Racine  a  disoruni- 
natiug  mentor.  His  numerous  enemies  pre- 
vented his  presentation  at  court  till  1669 ;  bat 
thenceforward  he  was  the  principal  literary 
favorite  of  Louis  XIV.,  whom  with  Racine  he 
accompanied  in  his  campaigns  nominally  as  his- 
torit^^her,  recei\ing  a  large  salary  withoot 
performmg  any  duty  beyond  the  compositioo 
of  complimentary  verses.  With  his  increwing 
prestige,  his  writings  became  more  serene  ana 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BOaJNG  POINT 


798 


phUosopliiaal,  although  he  continued  to  ose 
satire  as  a  potential  engine  of  reform.  The 
French  acoaeray,  though  inoeused  at  his  bold 
criticisms,  could  not  eiclnde  Mm  bejrond  1 6&4 ; 
and  with  Racine  he  alao  became  one  of  the 
earliest  members  of  the  academy  of  medals 
(afterward  of  inscriptions).  Loois  XIT.  pre- 
sents him  with  a  fine  residence  at  Aotenil, 
where  the  choicest  spirits  of  France  delighted 
in  BoUeaa'a  conversation,  the  sting  of  his  satire 
being  smoothed  over  bj  his  Icindlj  nature. 
Acoordiag  to  Mme.  de  ^Tign6,  he  was  cruel 
only  in  writinf^.  He  was  tenderly  devoted  to 
Moli^re,  Kacine,  and  Lafontune,  though  often 
onsparing  In  hia  criticiam  of  their  works,  and 
sncceasfmly  exerted  his  inflaence  with  Loois 
XIV.  for  restoring  a  pennon  to  the  t^ed  Cor- 
neille.  At  a  later  period  Mme.  de  Maintenon 
took  nmbrage  at  bis  disparaging  remarks  on 
Scarronin  the  presence  of  Loois  XIV. ;  and  ul- 
tramontane iuflaence  also  working  ag^nst  him, 
he  forfeited  the  favor  of  the  monarch  and  his 
conrt,  which  he  ceased  to  frequent  after  the 
death  of  Racine  (1699),  the  kmg  having  re- 
ceived him  on  his  annoanoement  rf  this  event 
with  marked  coldness,    fiubseqaentlj  he  was 

frohibited  from  publishing  his  12th  satire,  De 
equwoqut.  In  his  disappointment  he  sold  his 
house  at  Anteuil  and  ended  his  life  in  Paris  in 
sadnes^  which  was  increased  by  his  inflnniUes. 
He  first  resided  in  a  cloister  of  Notre  Dame, 
and  finally,  according  to  the  latest  researches, 
in  the  me  de  Jerusalem,  and  not  as  previoosty 
stated  in  a  village  near  Paris. — His  greatest 
work  is  L'art  poitiqvt  (16T4),  a  didactic  poem, 
establishing  a  new  system  of  poetical  and  dra- 
matic composition ;  and  the  first  four  cantos  of 
Le  lulrin  (1074),  a  heroico-comiopoem,  were  ad- 
miredasgerasof  fancy  and  homor.  Many  of  bis 
didactic  ^tltre*  also  acquired  celebrity,  aud  his 
other  productions  include  Satint,  Bpigramtne*, 
Diah^put  de  lapoitie,  de  la  vm»ique  et  det  hiroi 
de  roman,  and  an  annotated  translation  of  the 
trentiae  on  the  sublime  by  Longinus.  Guided 
solely  by  his  judgment  and  bis  flne  perceptions 
of  the  troe  and  the  Ijeautiful,  he  was  wrongly 
represented  by  those  whose  pedantry  be  de- 
nounced as  destitute  of  oil  emotional  powers. 
Voltaire  characterized  him  as  the  leeislator  of 
ParDossas,  and  his  reputation  as  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  criticism  and  compoution  has 
survived  all  the  changes  in  French  literature, 
SB  attested  by  Sainte-Beuve  and  other  recent 
anthorities.  Among  the  best  editions  of  bis 
works  are  those  by  Daunoo  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1809;  4  vols.,  1825);  by  Saint-Surin,  with 
copious  notes  (4  vols.,  1824);  and  by  Borriat 
Samt-Priz  (4  vols.,  1830;  new  ed.,  ISflO,  with 
an  essay  by  Sainte-Beuve).  Auguste  Larerdet 
has  published  a  complete  edition  of  Boileau's 
Gorretpondanet  (2  vols.,  1866). 

BOILUG  POIKT,  the  temperature  at  which 
a  liquid  is  converted  into  vapor  with  ebollition. 
It  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  liquid  and  with 
the  degree  of  pressure  upon  it,  but  it  is  ordi- 
narily understood  to  mean  that  temperature 


at  which  the  boiling  oconrs  when  the  suriiicfl 
of  the  liquid  is  exposed  to  an  atmospheric 
pressure  equal  to  maintaining  a  column  of 
mercury  29'fi23  inches  in  height  It  is,  conse- 
quently, the  point  at  which  the  tension  of  the 
vapor  is  equal  to  the  pressure  upon  the  liquid. 
During  the  boiling  of  a  liquid  in  the  open  air, 
therefore,  the  temperature  remains  constant, 
even  when  the  amount  of  heat  supplied  to  the 
liquid  is  increased.  The  additional  heat,  in- 
stead of  being  retted,  is  expended  in  con- 
verting an  increased  quantity  of  the  liquid  into 
vapor.  If  pure  water  is  boiled  in  an  open 
metallic  vessel  when  the  barometer  stands  at 
29-922  inches,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
ebullition  takes  place  and  continues,  for  a  long 
time  at  least,  at  212°  F.  If  we  sobatitute  al- 
cohol for  water,  ebullition  will  commenc^at 
173° ;  and  if  sulphuric  ether  is  used,  its  boilmg 
point  will  be  found  at  96°,  a  temperature  below 
that  of  the  hnman  body.  There  are  several 
bodies  which  at  ordinary  temperatures  are 
gases,  bat  which  by  the  abstraction  of  heat  or 
suluection  to  pressure,  or  both,  may  be  reduced 
to  uquids,  whose  boiling  points  are  therefore 
below  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  following  table  gives  the  boiling 
pointaof  several  of  both  these  classes  of  bodies, 
and  also  the  atmoapheric  pressore  at  which  the 
obaervations  were  mode,  and  the  authority ; 


vaa. 

». 

^^HmT 

,.„™ 

Nltnu  oiUa 

-lea-Ta 

-*S;« 
S4943 

Kft-StS 

Bf«UDlb 

CUoftde  aTethf  1 

Pten*. 

Kopp. 

SS&SS..:::: 

K»pp.      . 

Sulpbnrlo  KM 

Me«iii7 (.. 

BtigiiiuH. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  four  of  the 
bodies  in  the  above  table  ore  gases  at  tem- 
peratures below  the  freezing  point  of  water, 
one  of  them  passing  into  the  liquid  state  only  at 
13a'22''  F.  beiow  zero.— The  following  method 
fur  ascertaining  the  boiling  points  of  liquids 
is  recommended  by  Prof  Kopp,  and  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  cobob  where  the  liquid 


with  a  cork  through  which  are  bored  two  Hmall 
holes.  Through  one  of  these  n  delicate  ther- 
mometer is  passed,  and  through  tbe  other  a 
bent  glass  tube,  open  at  both  ends.  A  few 
scraps  of  recentiy  heated  platinum  foil  are 
placed  in  the  test  tube,  aud  then  the  liquid. 


for  the  fonuation  of  the  steam  bubbles, 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  usually  placed  in 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


794 


BOILma  PODTT 


the  T&por  immedlatel}'  above  die  li<iDid.  A 
spirit  lamp  will  quickly  esnse  ebalUtion,  the 
steam  passing  off  throagh  tLe  open  glass  into 
a  cooled  receiver. 
(See  flg.  1.)- Wa- 
ter has  been  the 
subject  of  very 
careful  experi- 
ments with  regard 
U>  its  boiling  point. 


In 


of 


the  dimination  of 
the  weight  of  the 

atmospUere  as  we 
ascend  to  high 
mountain  alti- 
tudes, the  boiling 
point  of  water  be-  jra.  1. 

comes  so  low  that 

food  cannot  be  cooked  in  it    Darwin,  who  as- 
cended one  of  the  moantains  of  Patagonia,  was 
unable  to  cook  potatoes  by  boiling,  and  various 
traTellera  hare  ascended  heights  where  it  was 
im[)ossibIe  to  boil  eges.    At  the  city  of  Mexico, 
which  is  T,000  It  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
water  boils  at  200°  F. ;  at  Quito,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  9,000  ft.,  it  boils  at  194°;  and  at 
a  height  of  18,000  ft.  in  the  Himalaya  moun- 
tains Dr.  Hooker  fonod  the  boiling  point  to  be 
180°.    In  mines  below  the  level  of  the  sea 
water  will  not  boil  till  it  is  rwsed  to  a  tem- 
perature ahove  213°  F.     When  the  barometer 
marks  28-2  inches  ebnllition    commences  at 
209°,  BO  that  the  time  required  to  cook  food 
by  boiling,  even  in  the  aame  locality,  will  often 
vai7  considerably.    The  boiling  point  of  water 
ander  various  degreesof  atmospberic  pressure, 
and  consequently  at  various  mountain  alti- 
tudes, may  be  readily  obtained  by  placing  a 
vessel  of   warm  water    containing    a    ther- 
mometer under  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump, 
through  the  top  of  which  has  been  introduced 
a  barometer.  (Seefi^.  3.)    If  the  water  in  tiie 
vessel  has  been  raised  to 
212°  just  before  beingplaced 
tmder  the  receiver,  it  will 
require  bat  a  stroke  of  the 
piston  of  the  (ur  pump  to 
produce  ebullition.  Byoon- 
tinuing  the  exhaustion  the 
boiling  may  be   rendered 
very  violent,  and  then  the 
mercury  in  the  thermom- 
eter  will  be  observed  to 
fall  very  rapidly.    The  con- 
version of  the  water  into 
vapor  causes  the  conversion 
of  sensible  into  latent  heat, 
a  terra  which  is  still  re- 
tained,   although    modem 
theory  rej;ards  it  as  being  Fia.  i. 

converted  into  mechanical 
force.    When  the  water  boils  at  186°  F.,  the 
oolamn  of  mercory  in  the  barometer  will  stand 
at  about  IT'S  inches,  or  about  the  same  as  at 
the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  at  an  altitude  of 


about  16,700  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
By  using  a  large  pump  and  a  small  recover, 
which  may  be  quickly  eihausted,  and  also  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  placed  in  a  test  tabe 
or  a  vessel  of  that  form,  and  some  strong  snl- 
phnrio  acid  or  chloride  of  calcium,  for  absorb- 
ing mdsture,  ebullition  may  be  produced  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  46°  F.,  or  even  lower. 
If  it  were  possible  to  produce  a  perfect  vacuum, 
it  could  ])e  continued  till  the  freezing  point 
is  reached ;  but  the  cir- 
onmatancea  of  the  case  pre- 
vent it.  An  apparatus  like 
that  represented  in  Sg.  8 
will  serve  to  exhibit  the 
effect  of  increased  pressure 
on  the  boiling  point.  A 
small  iron  boiler,  a,  having 
a  thermometer,  b,  tightly 
at^usted,  with  the  bulb 
passing  to  the  interior,  and 
fhnushed  with  a  stopcock, 
e,  receives  at  its  mouth,  d, 
a  strong  glass  tube  open  at 
both  ends,  and  sofGciently 
long  to  contain  a  column  of 
mercury  equal  to  the  pree* 
sure  it  may  be  desired  to  »•».  » 

produce.  To  the  mouth  a 
screw,  through  which  the  tube  passes  to  near 
the  bottom,  is  seonrely  fitted.  To  make  the 
experiment  some  mercory  is  poured  into  the 
boiler,  and  then  it  is  about  half  filled  with  wa- 
ter, the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  being  left 
a  little  above  the  level.  If  now  heat  be  ap- 
plied while  the  stopcock  is  left  open,  the  wa~ 
ter  will  commence  and  continue  to  boil  at  213° 
F. ;  but  when  the  stopcock  is  closed  the  in- 
creased pressure  produced  by  the  confined 
steam  will  prevent  ebullition  nnlesa  the  temper- 
ature is  raised.  When  the  mercury  has  been 
forced  up  the  tube  to  a  height  of  30  inches^ 
there  will  of  course  be  a  pressure  of  two  at- 
mospheres upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  the 
boihng  point  of  which  will  be  raised  to  249°. 
If  the  heat  be  increased  until  the  oolnmn  at- 
tains a  height  of  HO  inches,  the  pressure  will  be 
ei^iial  to  four  atmospheres,  and  the  boiling  point 
will  be  rtused  to  291°.  liegnault,  in  his  cele- 
brated experiments,  used  a  stronger  and  more 
complex  apparatus  than  this,  and  found  that  at 
a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres  the  boiling  point 
of  water  was  416-4°  F.  From  the  foregoing 
oonaideratioos  it  will  be  seen  that  a  perpendic- 
ular column  of  water  will  hare  various  boilmg 
points  at  different  depths.  Thus,  if  a  column 
of  water  is  34  ft.  in  height,  the  particles  at  the 
bottom  will  sustain  a  pressure  of  two  atmos- 
pheres, and  it  will  reqnire  the  application  of 
249°  of  heat  t«  produce  ebullition  at  that  point, 
and  of  234°  at  half  the  depth.  When  steam 
bubbles,  having  a  temperature  moch  above 
212°,  ascend  through  a  column  of  liquid  in  a 
tall  ■cylinder,  they  impart  their  eioess  of  beet 
to  it,  and  violent  hursts  of  steam  and  boiling 
water  are  thrown  fi-om  the  mouth  of  the  vee- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BOniNG  POINT 


mL  If  a  ba^  in  placed  Hboat  the  orifloe  to 
catch  the  fiiUing  liqnid,  which  in  the  presence 
of  the  eipandiog  vapor  has  parted  with  mach 
of  ita  heat,  and  convej  It  back  again  to  the 
cylinder,  a  period  of  comparative  qnie^  wilt 
foUow.  Daring  thia  time  the  temperature  of 
the  column  will  inoreaae,  and  bubbles  of  steam 
will  rise  bijcher  and  higher,  until  at  last,  when 
the?  have  attained  sufficient  force,  the  violent 
ezpul^on  of  8t«&m  and  water  will  be  repeated. 
The  geysera  in  Iceland,  and  the  great  Ameri- 
can geysers  at  the  head  waters  of  tbe  Mteeoori 
river,  are  examples  in  nature  of  the  boiling  of 
water  in  vertical  tubes. — There  are  some  cir- 
onmatances  attending  the  boiling  of  water  be- 
sidee  external  pressure  which  mnst  be  taken 
into  coDsidemtton  in  making  esperimenta,  or 
correct  results  will  not  be  reacL^.  If  water 
ia  boiled  in  a  well  cleaned  glass  flask  which  is 
perfectly  smooth  inside,  it  will,  when  the  barom- 
eter stands  at  29-932  inches,  reach  a  tempera- 
tnre  of  314°.  If  the  flask  had  been  rinsed  with 
a  aolntion  of  potash,  the  boiling  might  not  have 
occurred  below  215"  or  216°.  The  reason  as- 
rigned  for  these  phenomena  is  that  the  perfect 
cleaning  of  the  glass  in  one  case,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  a  small  quantity  of  potash  in  the  other, 
increases  the  coheuon  of  tne  water  and  glass 
to  snch  a  degree  as  to  demand  an  increase  of 
heat  to  effect  a  separation  between  them.  If 
water  be  boiled  for  a  long  time  in  a  flask,  and 
not  in  a  vessel  where  the  surface  is  freely  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  will  be  observed,  especially 
if  the  heat  is  moderately  applied  to  the  centre 
of  the  bottom,  that  the  ebullition  becomes 
more  or  lese  irregnlar  or  jerking.  If  the  water 
ia  allowed  to  cease  boiling  for  a  few  moments, 


bubbles  of  steam  will  be  formed,  when  the  boil- 
ing will  take  pUoe  with  a  sadden  leap,  accom- 
panied by  a  rapid  decrease  of  temperature; 
then  there  will  be  another  period  of  quietnde, 
succeeded  by  another  violent  evolution  of  va- 
por. These  eSecta  are  heightened,  if  instead 
of  using  an  open  flask  the  water  is  boiled  in  a 

Sartial  vacunm  of  its  own  vapor.  This  may  be 
one  by  removing  the  lamp  and  corking  the 
neck  of  the  flask  after  the  air  has  been  as  far 
as  poe^ble  expelled.  If  we  now  turn  cold  water 
over  the  flask,  the  vapor  within  will  be  partially 
condensed,  and  the  boiling  will  recommence  and 
will  continue  even  if  the  flask  be  plunged  into 
cold  water,  until  its  temperature  is  reduced 
mach  below  blood  heat,  and  indeed  as  long  as 
the  tension  of  the  vapor  above  the  water  can 
be  kept  below  the  tension  of  the  vapor  which 
the  water  is  capable  of  yielding.  Near  the  con- 
clusion the  ebullition  becomes  very  irregular 
and  jerking ;  and  if  the  flask  is  placed  in  a  re- 
tort stand  and  gently  heated  at  the  bottom,  the 
bursts  of  vapor  will  be  more  explosive  than 
during  the  cooling  process,  and  sometimes  the 
flask  will  be  thrown  f^om  the  stand.  The  es- 
EJanation  which  is  generally  received  is  this ; 
Water  in  ita  natural  state  contains  a  oonaider- 


pels  a  portion,  but  not  all  of  it,  n 
tinned  a  long  time.  While  this  expalsion  of 
air  is  taking  place,  if  only  in  exceedingly  small 
quantities,  little  bubbles  of  it  are  formed  into 
which  the  steam  can  enter  and  expand ;  bnt 
when  the  air  is  all  expelled,  the  molecules  of 
water  will  not  separate  from  each  other  aa 
readily  as  they  passed  into  the  air  chambers. 
It  seems  as  if  there  needed  to  be  an  opening 
or  a  point  of  diminished  pressnre  somewhere 
in  order  that  the  particles  of  water  at  212°  F. 
may  expand  into  vapor.  Dufour  has  very  care- 
taVij  studied  this  subject  In  experimenting 
with  water  he  used  a  mixture  of  oil  of  cloves 


would  invariably  be  passed  and  a  heat  of  2S0° 
or  280°  reached  before  any  manifestation  of 
ebnllition  could  take  place.  Then  an  explosion 
would  occur  and  the  remainder  of  the  globule 
of  water  would  be  violently  driven  to  one  side. 
He  suoceeded  in  rairing  some  small  globules  to 
847°  F.,  a  temperature  which  would  cause  wa- 
ter with  an  ex{>osed  surface  to  boil  under  a 
pressure  of  more  than  eight  atmospheres.  The 
passage  of  sparks  from  a  Leyden  jar  would 
produce  violent  explosions ;  so  also  would  a 
weak  galvanic  current,  bat  in  a  less  degree. 
In  the  latter  case  Dufour  attributed  the  effect 
to  the  production  of  bubbles  of  gas  at  the  ends 
of  the  conducting  wires.  He  eJso  found  that 
when  the  surface  of  water  was  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  oil  its  temperature  coald  be  raised 
considerably  above  the  boiling  point.  The  in- 
vestigations of  Prof.  Donny  of  Ghent,  who  has 
succeeded  in  rai^ug  water  far  above  its  boiling 
point  when  not  enclosed  in  oil  or  other  sub- 
stances, have  added  much  to  the  stock  of 
knowledge  on  the  subject.  Prof.  Eopp  and 
others  have  extended  researches  to  various 
other  liquids,  and  hi^e  found  that  many  of 
them  also  possess  the  property  of  being  raised 
under  certain  circumstances  several  degrees 
above  their  boiling  points.  Thus,  metnylic 
alcohol,  whose  boiling  point  is  141  "8°  F.,  may 
be  raised  by  changing  the  nature  of  the  vessel 
to  162°.  In  estimating  the  boiling  point  of  a 
liquid  Dufour  very  sensibly  suggest^  that  we 
should  take  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  a 
liquid  can  be  made  to  boil  under  the  proper 
conditions.  That  an  examination  of  this  sub- 
ject in  relation  to  the  cause  of  steam-boiler  ex- 
plosions would  lead  to  important  improvements 
is  most  probable.  That  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  boiler  of  a  steam  engine  may  he 
raised  considerably  above  the  boiling  point  ia 
very  possible,  as  for  instance  when  the  engins 
baa  been  standing  quiet  for  some  time,  and  the 
water  has  been  deprived  of  most  of  its  air. 
Under  such  drcumstances  a  disturbance  of  rest 
would  canee  an  explosive  burst  of  vapor,  pro- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


portional  to  the  teniperatnre  the  w&ter  had  at- 
buned.  The  presence  of  various  salts  in  sola- 
tion  affects  the  bniling  to  a  very  rreat  degree, 
bot  there  has  not  been  found  ranch  accordance 
between  the  eolabilit;  of  the  Baits  and  the  ex- 
tent of  their  influence. 


.AK.  or  BotLP-a  «ra«  or 

fUTTTU™* 

OLUuom, 

.^.of^vr. 

XT.. 

IM-S 

■i? 

tt  has  been  a  sabject  of  controversj  whether 
the  vapors  which  issue  fVom  boiling  aqueous 
sotutlona  are  of  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
boiling  point  of  pare  water,  Aocording  to 
the  recent  experiments  of  Prof,  tfagnus  of  Ber- 
lin the  bubbles  have  at  the  moment  of  issning 
a  temperatnre  equal  to  that  of  the  highest 
stratum  of  the  liquid ;  but  it  is  almost  instan- 


BOISE  CUT 

taneously  reduced  bj  the  absorption  of  heat 

occasioned  hj  the  expansion  of  the  vapor. — All 
the  observations  that  have  been  made  ful  !a  es- 
tablish an;  relation  between  the  boiling  points 
of  li(}uids  and  their  specific  gravitiee.  Thua, 
bromme,  with  a  specific  gravitr  of  8'1862, 
boils  at  146'4°  F.,  while  bromide  of  silicon, 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  Z'B128,  has  a  btnling 
point  of  B08°;  andfonnicether,  havingaspecifio 
gravity  of  -9357,  boils  at  127'7°,  whilefhsel  oil, 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  only  '8271,  does  not 
boil  below  a  temperatnre  of  269'B.  The  chem- 
ical oonstitntion  of  many  liquids,  however,  ac- 
cording to  the  investigations  of  Prof.  Kopp, 
l>ears  a  very  striking  relation  to  their  respec- 
tive boiling  points.  He  found  that  analogoas 
compounds,  having  the  same  differences  of 
compowtion,  olten  have  the  same  differences  in 
their  boiling  pointa.  Thus,  in  the  seHes  of  ho- 
mologons  aciuB  which  differ  in  composition  by 
one  molecule  of  OHi,  and  the  alcohols  from 
which  they  are  derived  by  oxidation,  he  found 
that  there  was  a  difference  of  very  nearly  S4'2'' 
F.  in  the  boiling  points.  In  the  following  table, 
which  exhibits  some  of  Eopp's  resnlta,  it  will 
moreover  be  observed  that  the  difference  in 
boiling  ^ints  between  each  alcohol  and  its  de- 
rived acid  is  very  nearly  72°  P. 


BoniNa  poiNTB  or  alcohols. 


Etbyfe  ilcotnA. . 
■MtsaB-ieaiol.. 
Teln-Uo  ulcobiil. 
AmjHeikohol.. 


c,d.o 

CjH.O 
C,H„0 
C,HjjO 


ISfri*  KuM,  140* ;  Eapn,l«*:  PlurF*.  ISO'S*. 

ITM  DamM,  m«-;  Otr-LauK,  Eopii,  1TM°. 

10»«  Chumel.  >»4^. 


BOILING  POINTS  OV  ACTD8. 

Acnt. 

,^ 

VOIIPIM.  ». 

Otam  boiut  p^i,  r. 

SIM* 
W-'O 

Kopp,  m-t- ;  Bsbfik  Aaw.  ««•. 

It  was  found  that  in  the  series  of  hydrocarbons 
homologous  with  benntle,  OtHt,  a  difference 
of  OHi  in  chemical  compoution  is  accompanied 
with  an  average  difference  of  about  48*"  F.  in 
the  boiling  point;  and  in  the  series  of  alcohol 
radicles  homologous  with  ethyl  the  difference 
in  the  corresponding  boiling  points  was  ob- 
served to  be  abont  the  same. 

BOISIBD.  L  Jeaa  JseqMS  Truftta  Haile,  a 
French  fabulist,  bom  at  Caen  in  1748,  died 
there  in  1831.  He  was  secretary  to  the  oount 
de  Provence,  afterword  Louis  XVIII.  Losing 
his  pension  at  the  revolution,  and  unable  to 
find  employment  in  Paris,  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  at  Caen,  in  great  poverty.  His  Milleet 
vne/ablet  (2  vola,  1777)  are  regarded  as  equal 
to  those  of  Florian,  and  in  some  respects  to  those 
of  Lafontaine.  A  new  edition  of  them  was 
published  at  Caen  in  1 806.    U.  Jaefws  Fnafeta, 


a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Caen  aboat 
1762,  died  in  the  first  half  of  this  century.  He 
was  not  snooessful  as  a  painter,  and  not  much 
more  so  as  a  fabulist,  though  be  wrote  many 
volumes,  some  of  which  {Fabla,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
1817-'22)  he  dedicated  to  Louis  XVIII.  He 
was  sentenced  to  be  guillotined  in  1793,  but 
escaped.    He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  poverty. 

BOlSt.  a  S.  W,  county  of  Idaho,  watered  by 
the  Little  Salmon  river,  and  affluents  of  the 
Baptin  or  Snake  river ;  area,  about  3,600  9q. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1S70,  8,834,  of  whom  1,754  were 
Chinese.  The  county  contains  5  quarts  mills 
for  the  production  of  gold,  8  saw  milla,  and  ■ 
weekly  newspaper.    Capital,  Idaho  City. 

B0is£  cm,  the  capital  of  Idaho  territory 
and  of  Ada  county,  situated  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  BoisS  river,  abont  620  m.  N.  E.  of  San 
Frandsco,  and  286  to.  N.  W.  of  Salt  Lake  Oty, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


B0I8-LE-DD0 

In  Gia  6,  G.  part  of  the  conntj ;  pop.  in  1670, 
996.  It  contoios  a  penitentiary,  a  U.  S.  assay 
office,  a  national  banlc,  8  grist  milk,  and  3  newa- 
papera.  It  is  reached  in  two  days  by  stage 
from  Indian  Creek,  Utab,  on  the  Centra]  Pa- 
cific railroad.  The  place  was  furmerlj  a  trad- 
ing post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  ftar  company ; 
it  now  commands  the  trade  of  the  miners 
(in  the  W.  slope  of  the  Rocky  momttains,  and 
of  the  EQiroanding  agricultural  country. 

BOIS-LE-DDC  (Dotch,  UHertogm^oteh,  the 
dnfee'a  wood,  or  Lett  Botth),  a  fortified  city 
of  Holland,  capital  of  North  Brabant,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Dommel  and  the  Aa,  which 
here  form  the  Dieze,  27  m.  S.  hy  E.  of  Utrecht ; 
pop.  in  186S,  2B,038.  The  town  is  6  m.  in 
oircninference,  handsome  and  well  built,  and 
traversed  by  several  canals,  crossed  by  upward 
of  SO  bridges.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic bishop,  and  has  a  handsome  town  hall, 
eight  churches,  inoluding  a  fine  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, an  orphan  asylum,  prison,  two  hospitals, 
a  citadel,  two  forts,  barraoks  for  8,CN)0  men, 
in  academy  of  punting,  aculptore,  and  archt- 
tactnre,  and  mannfactures  of  thread,  ribbons, 
cntlery,  and  glass.  Bois-le-Duc  was  founded 
by  Godfrey  111.,  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1184,  on 
the  site  of  a  hunting  seat,  whence  the  name. 
The  city  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by 
Prince  Frederick  Henry  of  Orange,  after  a  se- 
vere nege,  in  1629,  by  the  French  under  Piehe- 
gni  in  17B4,  and  by  the  Pmsaians  in  1814. 

B0IS8IEC,  JeiM  Jic^Me  4e,  a  French  engraver, 
bom  in  Lyona  Nov,  29, 1 TS6,  died  there,  March 
1, 1810.  He  first  devoted  himself  to  painting; 
bnt  his  health  having  sufiered  by  the  prepara- 
tion of  colors,  he  tnmed  to  engraving  and  etch- 
ing. He  was  a  friend  uf  Joseph  Vemet,  and 
in  bis  own  line  hod  no  rival.  His  etchings, 
which  are  either  original  compositiona  or  copies 
of  Flemish  pictures,  may  be  ranked  next 
those  of  Rembrandt 

BOIBST,  Hitaln  t«ttuat  Octave  leillM,  marquis 
do,  a  French  politician,  bom  in  Paris,  March 
4,  1798,  died  there,  Sept.  26,  1866.  He  waa 
a  member  of  an  ancient  and  opulent  family, 
served  as  secretary  of  legation  in  London  un- 
der Chateaubriand,  and  in  18S9  entered  the 
chamber  of  peers,  where  his  continued  alterca- 
tions with  its  pre^dent,  the  duke  de  Pasquier, 
and  his  eccentric  invectives,  acquired  for  him 
much  notoriety.  His  exposure  of  political  scan- 
dale  caused  him  to  be  mrited  to  the  political 
banquet  in  Paris  which  preceded  the  downfall 
of  Louis  Philippe ;  but  by  oppowng  the  ex- 
treme revolutionists  be  lost  Ins  chance  for  an 
election  to  the  constituent  and  legislative  as- 
semblies. In  1SG3  he  became  a  member  of  the 
imperial  senate,  where  he  became  conspicuous 
for  his  bitt«r  and  occawonally  brilliant  speeches, 
and  his  onimodty  against  the  ultra  liberals  of 
1848.  HemarriedinieeiLordByron'aformer 
mistresa,  tbe  countess  Gulccioli. 

BOIHBY  D'ilTGUS,  Frut^  IMMw  *t,  a  French 


BOivnr 


797 


were  Protestant,  and  had  destined  him  to  tbe 
bu" ;  but  having  purchased  the  place  of  stew- 
ard to  the  count  of  Provence,  afterward  Louis 
XVIII,,  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  literary  pur- 
suits. He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  states 
general  and  of  the  convention.  In  the  latter 
he  for  the  most  part  sided  with  the  Girondists. 
He  voted  for  the  trial  of  Louis  XYL,  for  his 
captivity,  and  for  his  deportation,  and,  when 
extreme  measurea  were  determinci'  upon,  for 
an  appeal  to  the  people  in  his  behalf,  and  for 
the  postponement  of  his  execution.  These 
evidences  of  moderation  rendered  him  ob- 
noiious  to  the  committee  of  public  safety,  and 
throughout  the  reign  of  terror  he  kept  himself 
in  the  backgronnd;  but  on  the  downfall  of 
Robespierre  De  reappeared  at  the  tribnne.  He 
woa  chosen  secretary  of  the  convention,  Oct. 
7,  1794,  and  two  months  later  a  member  of 
tiie  cotnmittee  of  public  safety.  While  super- 
intending the  provisioning  of  Paris,  he  was  de- 
nounced by  the  populace  aa  having  caused  the 
scarcity  of  bread  which  prevailed.  In  the 
dreadliil  insurrections  of  April  1  and  May  20. 
1795,  his  situation  was  exceedingly  difficult  ana 
dangerous,  yet  he  acted  with  firmness  and  judg- 
ment. He  presided  over  the  tumultuous  delib- 
erations of  ue  convention  with  like  intrepidity. 
After  the  convention  passed  away,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  council  of  GOO,  and  subsequently 

E resident  Being  hostile  to  the  directory,  he 
e  was  accused.  Sept  B,  1797,  of  corresponding 
with  the  royalist  club  of  Cllchy,  and  condemned 
to  deportation.  For  two  years  he  was  con- 
cealed, but  at  last  surrendered  himself  a  pris- 
oner at  the  island  of  Ol^ron.  Bonapart«  re- 
leased him,  and  in  1800  named  him  to  the 
tribunate,  where  he  was  chosen  president  in 
1808.  The  following  year  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  senate,  with  the  title  of  connL  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814,  he 
gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  new  government, 
and  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  Euai  mir  la  vU,  let  icriU  et  let 
opiniont  At  21.  it  Malaiherbet  (2  vols.  6vo, 
Paris,  1819-'21),  and  of  Slvdet  littirairtt  et 
poitique*  d'un  vieillard  (5  vols.  12mo,  1B2G). 

■OIBEE)  PWrre  Ctaide  Vkteln,  a  French  lexi- 
cographer, bom  in  Paris  in  1766,  died  at  Ivry, 
April  24,  1884.  He  was  successively  an  advo- 
cate, printer,  and  man  of  letters,  and  composed 
a  DUtwRnaire  nnitertei  de  la  langue  /ran- 
paite,  a  work  of  great  merit,  and  deserving  the 
poptdarity  which  it  immediately  obtained.  It 
appeared  in  1800,  and  passed  through  ax  edi- 
tions during  the  lifetime  of  the  author.  To  each 
edition  the  author  added  some  new  feature, 
first  the  etymologies,  then  the  original  authori- 
ttea,  finally  sentences  and  maxims,  or  select 
thoughts,  where  each  word  is  employed.  Ho 
publiahed  also  a  Dietitmnaire  de  giographie 
wnwertell*  aneienna  tt  modeme  (1806),  and 
several  works  on  the  priaciplea  of  grammar  and 
literatnre. 

MITIN,  Xvrto  kat  TIcMn  OHIata,  a  Frenoli 
midwife,  bom  Dear  Paris,  April  9,  1778,  died 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


798  BOJADOH 

May  16, 1841.  She  was  educated  in  anannerj, 
where  bj  her  talents  she  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  sister  of  Lonis  XVI.,  Madame  Elisa- 
beth. The  nunnery  was  destroyed  in  the  rovo- 
lution,  and  she  then  spent  three  years  in  the 
Btudy  of  anatomy  and  midwifery.  In  1T97  she 
married  ai)  eraployee  at  Versailles  named  Boi- 
vin,  and  on  bein^;  left  after  a  short  time  a 
widow  with  a  child  and  without  fortune,  she 
nndertook  the  oftioe  of  midwife  at  the  Hat«r- 
nit6  hospital,  and  in  1601  was  appointed  ohief 
superintendent  of  the  institation,  t<}  which  at 
her  Bu^^tion  a  special  school  of  accouchement 
was  added  by  Chaptal.  The  order  of  civil 
merit  was  conferred  upon  her  by  the  king  of 
ProBsis  in  1814,  and  she  received  the  degree 
of  M.  D.  from  the  university  of  Marburg.  Her 
Mejiiorial  de  Vart  dea  aeeouehementi,  published 
in  1824,  passed  through  many  editions. 

BOJIDUB,  Csp«,  a  lofty  headland  of  W.  Afri- 
ca, in  lat.  28°  T  N.,  Ion.  14°  28'  W.  This  cape 
is  monntainons  and  rocky,  being  the  western 
termination  of  the  Block  mountains,  which  ex- 
tend esHtward  into  the  interior  of  Sahara, 
and  as  far  northward  as  Cape  Fun.  The  coast 
is  very  dangerous,  being  perpetually  shrouded 
in  mists,  and  strong  oorrents  setting  in  toward 
the  land.    For  many  years  it  interrupted  the 

Erogress  of  the  early  Portuguese  navigators, 
ut  was  finally  passed  by  Gilianes  in  1433. 
BOKEK,  fie«rge  Ueary,  an  American  dramatist 
and  poet,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1824.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1842,  studied 
law,  but  did  not  pursue  the  profession,  and  in 
1847  published  the  "  Lesson  of  Life  and  other 
Poems."  Next  ho  wrote  "  Oalaynos,  a  Trage- 
dy," which  at  once  extended  his  reputation, 
and  was  suceessftilly  played  in  London.  His 
next  production  was  "Anne  Boleyn,"  which 
was  succeeded  by  the  tragedies  of  "Leonor  de 
Guzman"  and  "  Francesca  da  Rimini."  He 
published  two  volumes  of  "  Plays  and  Poems" 
at  Boston  in  185S,  and  during  the  civil  war 
produced  many  patriotic  poems,  which  were 
collected  in  one  volume  entitled  "Poems  of 
theWar"  ^Boston,  1884).  He  was  appointed 
minister  resident  at  Constantinople  in  1871. 

BOKHiU.  1,  A  khanate  of  Independent 
Turkistan,  central  Asia,  botween  lat,  36°  and 
43° N.,  and  Ion.  62°  30' and  68°  80'E. ;  bounded 
N.  by  the  desert  of  Kizil  Koom,  N,  E.  and  E. 
by  Russian  Turkistan,  Khokan,  and  Koondooz, 
S,  by  Balkh,  Malmana,  and  Afghanistan,  and 
W.  by  Khiva ;  area,  about  100,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
roughly  estimated  at  2,500,000.     The  western 

5 arts,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  banks  of  the 
ihoon,  which  are  lined  with  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion, present  the  appearance  of  a  vast  desert 
similar  to  those  of  Arabia,  devoid  of  all  ani- 
mals, and  subject  t«  the  tebhad,  a  hot  dry 
wind,  which  sweeps  swiftly  across  the  arid 
plains,  and  if  overtaking  a  caravan  overwhelms 
both  men  and  animals,  and  not  onfrequently 
proves  fatal.  The  eastern  part  of  the  khanate, 
which  ia  hilly  and  wot*rea  by  affluents  of  the 
Jihoon  and  the  Zeralshan  or  Eohik,  is  more 


BOKHARA 

fertile.  Spurs  of  the  Paropamisan  range  in  the 
southeast  give  rise  to  a  number  of  streams. 
The  three  principal  rivers,  along  which  lies 
nearly  all  the  cultivated  land,  are  the  Jiboon 
or  Amoo  Darya  (the  ancient  Oins),  which 
flows  N.  W.  through  the  centre  of  the  coun- 
try; the  Zerafthan,  flowing  W.  from  the 
now  Russian  territory  of  Bamarcond  to  and 
past  the  city  of  Bokhara,  and  dividing  into  sev- 
eral channels,  which  with  artificial  irrigating 
canals  form  a  network  of  streams  rendering  the 
district  exceedingly  fertile ;  and  the  Shehri- 
zebz,  between  the  Zeralshan  and  the  Jihoon. 
The  last  two  terminate  in  small  salt  lakes  or 
are  lost  in  the  sand.  The  cultivated  land  is  di- 
vided into  squares  with  bonndaries  marked  by 
ridges  of  turf  raised  slightly  above  the  level 
of  the  plain.  The  water  from  tbe  rivers  and 
canals  flows  through  trenches,  whii^  as  well 


Lidj  ud  Oentlemu  of  BoUim. 

as  the  narrow  roads  of  the  farm  lands,  are 
lined  with  trees.  The  climate  ia  temper- 
ate, the  summer  beginning  in  March  and  last- 
ing till  October.  Dnring  this  season  no  run 
falls,  and  tbe  thermometer  rises  to  90°  in  tbe 
day,  but  the  nights  ore  cool.  October  and 
Fobmary  are  the  rainy  seasons.  The  winters 
are  open,  thongh  sometimeB  the  snow  coyers 
the  ground  for  a  fortnight,  and  in  January,  the 
coldest  month,  the  mercnry  falls  as  low  as  6'. 
The  more  violent  storms  come  usually  from  the 
northwest.  They  are  often  acoompanied  with 
clouds  of  sand  and  dost  which  render  ophthal- 
mia frequent,  but  otherwise  the  cliniatia  infln- 
ences  are  healthy.  Tbe  principal  vegetable 
productions  are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  rice, 
seaame,  hemp,  tobacco,  pulse,  tropical  fraits 
and  vegetables,  a  species  of  indigo  plant,  manna, 
cotton,  and  silk.  Bang,  an  intoxicating  drng, 
is  made  from  hemp  seeds.    Gold  is  fonnd  in 


□igitirerfbyCiOOQlC 


the  riven,  salt  is  obtained  from  the  bdibII  lakes, 
ftiid  rolphur  scid  ssi  uamoiiisc  are  also  fomt'L 
Tiinber  is  broaglit  from  the  momitaiiis,  bnt 
on  the  plMDs  onlj  willow  and  poplar  are  fonnd. 
The  wild  animals  of  Bokhara  are  bea^^  wolvea, 
foxe&  Jaoksls,  wild  asses,  hares,  and  antelopes. 
The  domeslio  anitnalw  ore  horses,  camels,  dnnne- 
darieo,  assea,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats.  The 
'     p  are  of  the  £at-tailed  breed,  and  there  is 


ot  Bokhara  are  a  Tarietj  of  the  Thibetan  and 
Cashmere  breed,  and  yield  a  fine  shawl  hur. 
The  population  of  Bokhara  ia  composed  of  dif- 
ferent nations,  TJzbecks,  T^iks,  Tarkfflnana. 
A%1iang,  Kirghiz,  Arabs  (the  deso«ndanta  of 
the  Mohaaunedaii  conquerors),  Ealmnoks^  Hin- 
dooa,  and  Jeva.  The  Tajiks  are  sappoeed  to 
be  the  most  ancient  inhabitanta,  and  are  said 
to  resemble  the  Oaneaaian  type  most  nearly ; 
they  have  a  large  portion  of  the  trade  and  mann- 
footaires  in  their  handa  The  Uzbeoks  lead 
mostly  a  nomadie  life,  and  are  noted  foi  their 
ho^itahty  to  strangers.  The  Persians  are 
nearly  all  either  slaves  who  have  been  kid- 
napped by  the  Tnrkomans  and  sold  here,  or 
each  as  have  parehased  their  freedom ;  they 
enliven  trade,  enter  the  government  service. 


a4]*>ining  conntries  are  the  persecnted  race, 
«nigration  even  being  forbidden  them.  The 
Tnrkomans  roam  over  the  country  with  their 
fiooks  and  herds,  plandering  and  kidnapping 
persona  on  the  ih)ntiers  and  selling  them  inUi 
alavery  in  the  interior.  Tnrkio  dialects  are 
spoken  by  most  of  the  inhabitants.  The  pre- 
Tuling  religion  ia  the  Mohammedan.  A  con- 
riderabls  tndo  is  carried  on  with  foreign  oonn- 
triee  by  laeans  of  caravans,  though  the  extor- 
tionate onstoms  daes  in  Bokhara,  as  in  the 
ndghboring  states  traversed  by  the  caravans, 
and  the  predatory  hsbita  of  the  Tnrkomans 
tend  to  cripple  iL  The  imports  from  Bas- 
ida  are  mucins,  leather,  metala,  dyes,  and 
p^wTj  from  A^banistan  and  India,  English 
manniBCtnrea,  Cashmere  shawls,  and  sngar; 
from  China,  tea  and  porcelun.  The  exports 
are  rhnbarb,  cotton,  skins,  raw  and  mannfao- 
tnred  silk,  oamel's  and  goat's  hair,  fresh  and 
preserved  fmita,  and  shawl  goods, — The  gov- 
ernment is  a  mUitary  despotieni.  At  its  head 
stands  the  emir  as  commander~in-ohief^  prince, 
and  chief  of  religion.  Under  him  are  the 
vider,  the  m«Ater  daturkhanji  (steward),  and 
ttkiailcM  (receiver  of  cnstoms).  The  militsry 
and  other  civil  dignitaries  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  the  kttt^  tipahi  (higher  fiinotion- 
aries,  comprising  the  secretary  of  state),  the 
orta  Hpaht  (the  middle  fnnctdonaries'),  and  the 
(uhaghi  ripahi  (sahaliena).  The  admmlstrstive 
divisions  of  the  conntry  are  based  npon  the 
larger  cities,  and  Include  at  present  Ksrakol, 
Bokhara,  Earshl,  Tchardyni,  and  Shehrizebz. 
The  last  named,  owing  to  its  continoal  struggles 
with  the  khan,  is  not  at  all  times  wholly  snb- 
103  VOL.  ii.-ai 


[ABA  799 

ject  to  him,  £aoh  divisionhaa  a  governor,  who 
18  allowed  as  his  salary  a  fixed  sharie  of  the  rev> 
enoB  of  the  district. — The  country  was  little 
known  to  the  oncienta,  and  the  greater  part  of 
it  was  included  under  the  general  name  of 
Transoxiana  or  fiogdiana.  The  conquests  of 
the  Mohammedans  extended  to  the  foot  of  the 
Bolor  Tagh,  and  to  them  Bokhara,  in  its  former 
and  wider  extent,  was  known  as  the  Mawar-al- 
Nahr,  and  became  fomous  for  its  great  aemina-  ' 
rie»  of  learning  at  Samarcand,  Balkh,  and  Bo- 
khara. Even  in  modran  times  these  i^ties,  of 
which  only  the  lost  now  belongs  to  the  khan- 
ate, e^joy  a  considerable  reputation  for  their 
schools.  For  several  centuries  before  the  con* 
quest  by  Genghis  £han,  about  1S20,  Bokhara 
was  re^rded  as  belonging  to  Ferna ;  bnt  sub- 
sequently, and  chiefly  after  the  invasion  by  tiie 
Mongols  under  Tamerlane  in  1870,  the  Pernan 
element  gave  way  to  that  of  the  Uzbocks,  and 
Tamerlane  intended  to  make  Samarcand  his 
capital.  At  the  close  of  the  16th  century  his 
descendants  were  driven  from  power  by  the 
house  of  the  Sheibani.  The  ablest  of  these 
was  Abdullah  Ehan,  bom  in  16S8,  who  con- 
quered Badakhsban,  Herat,  and  Meshed.  His 
son  was  unable  to  maintain  his  throne,  and 
was  assassinated  in  1697.  The  overthrown 
dynasty  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Astra- 
khanides  (descendants  of  Genghis  Khan),  who 
remuned  in  power  till  1T87.  Ebul  Feiz,  the 
last  of  this  dynasty,  was  murdered  by  Behim 
Khan,  who  ruled  with  independent  anthority, 
but  nnder  the  title  of  vizier.  Upon  his  death 
the  government  was  seized  by  Daniel  Beg,  to 
whom  succeeded  the  emirs  Shah  Murad;  S^d 
Ehan,  and  Nasrollah  Khan.  The  last  of  these  . 
is  known  by  the  wars  which  he  waged  with 
Khokan,  and  by  hb  barbarous  treatment  of 
several  European  traveUers.  In  I8S8  the  Brit- 
ish ambassador  to  Persia  sent  Col.  Stoddart  to 
Bokhara,  to  aseuro  the  emir  of  the  friendly 
feeling  entertained  toward  him  by  England. 
Haarull^,  enraged  at  receiving  no  reply  to  let- 
ters which  he  nad  sent  to  the  queen,  threw 
Btoddart  into  poison.  Capt  Conolly,  who  was 
sent  on  a  like  errand,  met  the  same  fate,  and 
both  were  put  to  death  in  I&42  on  charge  of 
being  spdee.  Since  then  few  Europeans  nave  ^ 
visited  Bokhara.  The  missionary  Wolff  went  * 
there  in  184S,  and  brought  baok  tidings  of  the 
fate  of  Stoddart  and  Conolly.  In  1641  a  Rus- 
sian expedition,  consisting  of  Col.  Bat^neff, 
Lieut.  Bogoslovsky,  the  geographer  Ehani- 
koff,  and  the  naturalist  Ldimann,  vivted  Bo- 
khara at  the  request  of  the  emir ;  the  last  two  ■ 
published  accounts  of  their  ionruey  (Kham- 
koff,  "Description  of  the  Khanate  of  Bo- 
khara," in  Russian,  St,  PeteTsbnrg,  IS48 ;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Bode,  London,  1646; 
Lehmann,  Beite  naeh  Bokhara  und  Samar- 
kand, et.  Petersburg,  I86B).  In  1888  three 
Italians,  GavazzI,  Litta,  and  Meazza,  went  there 
in  order  to  procure  eggs  of  the  silkworm. 
They  were  imprisoned,  bnt  were  released  after 
a  year  through  the  interrention  of  the  Bussian 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


800 

Sivenimeut  In  the  same  year  Vimbiry,  % 
DDgarian  scholar,  disguised  as  a  wander- 
ing dervish,  traversed  a  great  part  of  Tarkigtan. 
His  two  works,  "  Travels  in  Central  AsiaJ' 
Hjondon  and  New  York,  186G),  and  "  Sketches 
Rvm  Central  Aua  "  (ISflT),  furnish  the  most 
valuable  information  respecting  Bokhara,  and 
its  relations  to  the  other  khanates.  (See  Kho- 
KAN.)  In  1800  the  Russians  estahlished  them- 
selves at  the  mouth  of  the  Sir  Darya,  on  the 
sea  of  Aral,  and  began  to  posh  southeastward 
along  the  ooorse  of  that  river.  They  overran 
EJiokan,  and  in  166G  annexed  the  northern 
part,  while  the  remainder  was  formed  into  an 
Independent  khanate  nnder  the  protection  of 
Itnssia.  Mozafiar  Eddin,  who  had  succeeded 
Naamllah,  attacked  this  khanate  in  1866,  and 
was  defeated  hy  the  Rnssians,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  Uie  whole  region  of  tJie  Sir  Darya.  A 
treah|  was  entered  into  in  November,  I86T ;  bnt 
hostilities  broke  out  again  in  the  following 
epriug.  The  Rnsmans  took  Samarcoad,  and 
moved  toward  the  city  of  Bokhara.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  emir  raised  an  insurrection 
against  his  father,  and  Hozaffar  Eddin  threw 
himself  upon  the  protection  of  the  Russians, 
ceded  to  them  Samarcand  and  the  ai^acent  terri- 
tory, promised  to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  and 
virtually  became  a  dependant  of  Bnssia.  In 
1868  the  emir  became  engaged  in  hostiUties  with 
Cabool,  and  by  Russian  aid  gained  the  region 
as  far  south  as  the  Jihoon,  which  in  1S6S  was 
established  as  the  boundoiy  between  Bokhara 
and  Afghanistan.  In  1870  the  fanatical  princes 
of  Shenrizebz  made  an  incursion  into  the  Raa- 
sian  territory,  but  were  defeated.  Instead  of  tak- 

.  ingpOBsessionofShehrizebz,  the  Russians  made 
it  over  to  the  emir  of  Bokhara.  The  emir  has  a 
standing  army  of  40,000  cavalry,  which  in  case 
of  need  can  be  increased  to  60,000.  IL  A  city, 
capital  of  the  khanate,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Zerafshan,  in  lat  Sg°  45'  N.,  Ion.  64°  25'  E.,  4S0 
m.  N.  W.  of  Cabool ;  pop.  about  70,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  pierced  by  1 1  gates,  and  is 
diidded  into  two  parts,  the  inner  and  the  outer 
city,  which  again  are  subdivided  into  qoarters. 
It  contains  npward  of  100  mosqnes,  and  about 
80  medreses  or  colleges.    Tlie  instmction  given 

a  in  these  institutions  is  npon  the  Koran  and 
religions  casotetry,  and  there  are  a  few  tiooks  on 


BOL 

logio  and  philosoiAy.  Poetry  and  history  are 
regarded  as  frivolous  subjects  of  study,  aud 
even  disgraceful.  The  number  of  students  ia 
represented  at  G,000  trom  different  parts  of  ths 
khanate  and  the  bordering  states,  India,  China, 
and  Rnasia.  The  poorer  students  have  a  yearly 
pension  from  tiie  emir.  The  streets  are  norroir 
and  tortuoQB,  and  the  houses  built  chieSy  of 
brick  or  mud  with  flat  roofs ;  glass  is  unknown 
except  in  the  form  of  beads  or  other  orna- 
ments, and  the  windows  are  furnished  only 
with  wooden  shutters.  The  bazaars  are  mostly 
of  wood,  with  mats  stretched  across ;  very  ftw 
are  of  stone.  The  emir  resides  in  the  citadel, 
which  is  def^ded  by  a  few  old  brasa  pieca. 
The  supply  of  water  is  scanty.  A  oisease 
called  the  rithU  is  peculiar  to  Bokhara,  and  is 
attributed  to  the  baa  quality  of  the  water.  It 
consists  of  a  boil  from  which  issues  a  long 
worm  like  a  thread.  This  is  oarefnlly  extracted, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  infected  place  is  cut 
out.  In  either  case  it  leaves  a  hideous  scar, 
completely  disflgnring  the  person  if  attacked  in 
the  fooe.  The  favorite  and  universal  beversgs 
is  tea,  of  which  there  are  several  excellent 
kinds  superior  in  flavor  and  quality  to  those  in 
western  markets,  European  cotton  and  if  Mil- 
len  stuffs,  cutlery,  beads,  &o.,  find  their  way 
into  Bokhara  through  the  medium  of  Persian 
traders  and  dervishes.  Coarse  woollen  and 
cotton  gooda,  as  also  the  finest  dlks,  and  leather 
boots,  are  maunfaotured. — Bokhara  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Tryl>aotra  of  the  ancients.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  suooesuvely  the  capital  of 
Turkistan,  of  the  Samanides,  and  of  variong 
Mongol  rulers.  In  1219  it  was  captured  and 
burned  by  Genghis  Khan,  bnt  was  rebuilt  soon 
after.  In  ISTO  it  was  captured  by  Tamerlane, 
whose  dynasty  reigned  there  till  1498.  Since 
that  time  the  history  of  the  city  is%ierged  in 
that  of  the  khanate. — See  "Bokhara,  its  Eis- 
t<»ry  and  Conquest,"  by  Prof.  Anninins  Vim- 
bfiry  (London,  I8T8). 

BOL,  FenUaaM,  a  Dutch  painter  and  etcher, 
bom  at  Dort  in  1611,  died  in  Amsterdam  in 
1681  or  in  1686.  Be  was  the  pupil  of  Rem- 
brandt, and  is  best  known  by  his  admirable 
portr^ta  in  the  style  of  that  master,  though  he 
likewise  executed  historical  puntinga.  Many 
of  hb  works  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Amsterdam. 


END  07  TOLUKB   8B00IID. 


Digitized  by  Google 


StrPPLEMENT  TO  YOLITME  H. 


\  nXBOIDS.    The  minor  planets  are  dietjo- 

J\,  Kuiahed  by  a.  nftme  and  a  number.  The 
tiiimbera  are  assigned  according  to  the  order  of 
discoverj.  The  names  are  arbitrary,  bnt  have 
tuoally  been  nelected   from  fioinan,  Oreek, 


Soandinavian,  or  GhiDMe  vay&cAogf.  In  the 
foHoiring  list  the  arrangemeat  U  chronologi- 
cal. The  last  oolamn  in  eaob  division  gives 
the  discoverer's  nnmber.  The  table  is  com- 
plete to  May  22, 1880. 


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ASTRONOMY 


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W 

— A  few  atatjatios  with  reg&rd  to  the  aateroidg 
maj  be  excerpted  from  a  paper  bj  Prof.  Eirk- 
wood,  which  refera  only  to  the  first  ITS  of  them. 
Their  distanoea  trom  the  sqd  verj  from  2'20 
tiinea  the  earth's  diatance  (Flora)  to  3-0S  times 
(Hilda),  and  their  periods  of  revolation  be- 
tween 1,198  dajB  and  2,8SS  daja.  The  largest 
iDoliaatioQ  of  an  asteroid's  orbit  to  the  eeliptio 
is  Gl°  43'  (Pallaa),  and  there  are  ten  whose 
inclinatioDS  are  over  20°.  No  estimate  can 
be  made  of  their  itambar,  and  the  magnitudes 
of  those  now  disoovered  do  not  fall  mnoh  be- 
low the  11-5  mag.  Bnt  the  blighter  asteroids 
were  first  disooverad,  as  the  foIlowisK  table 
wiU  show : 


The  combined  mass  of  the  asteroida  la  oer- 
tainly  less  tiian  one  foarth  of  the  earth's  mass 
(Leverrier).  The  estimates  of  their  size  mast 
be  baaed  on  photometry,  and  must  aaatime  that 
thej  reflect  a  certain  (unknown)  percentage 
of  anulight.  The  latest  and  best  meaanres  are 
those  of  Prof.  Pickering  of  the  Harvard  college 
observatory  (1880).  On  the  assumption  that 
the  asteroids  named  below  reflect  sunlight  aa 
Uars  does,  their  diameters  in  miles  are : 


y™«»W SIS  ± 


iCmOIIOKT.  Kr.  Bosanqnet  and  Prof  Sajce 
have  recently  contributed  a  paper  to  the  royal 
aatroQomioal  society  of  England  on  Babylo- 


nian astronomy.  The  antbors  deacribe  k 
Babylonian  calendar  established  about  SOOO 
B.  0.  The  inscriptions  are  vritten  in  Assyr- 
ian and  Aooadian.  Gapella  was  taken  as  tbs 
determining  star  of  that  astronomy. — For  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  newly  diaooTered 
minor  planets,  see  the  supplementary  article 
AsTEBOiDS.  The  supposed  discovery  of  two 
new  major  planet^by  Pro&.  Watson  and  Swift 
is  spoken  of  in  the  new  article  Pi-xuKn,  wher« 
also  Prof.  Ball's  discovery  of  two  sateUitea 
of  Mars  ia  described.  For  reoent  rrnimtmhrr] 
npon  the  ludd  stars,  and  incidentally  upon  the 
number  and  digtribntion  of  the  fixed  atars,  see 
Uranemetry  in  the  new  article  Stabil — The 
nature  of  the  recent  researcbea  in  theoreUoftl 
astronomy  (that  hraoeh  which  treats  of  tike 
motion  of  t£e  bodies  of  the  solar  syatem  nn- 
der  tbe  inflnenoe  of  gravitation)  renders  any 
short  ocoount  of  them  difficult  to  give  in  a 
umple  form.  The  prinoipal  advances  in  tbe 
lunar  theory  are  described  in  tbe  sDpplwnui- 
tary  article  Moon,  The  extensive  researches 
of  Levcrrier  npon  the  Aeory  of  the  motion 
of  the  planets  were  closed  by  bis  death  in 
187T ;  but  he  had  the  satisfaotioa  of  seeing  in 
print  the  results  of  84  years  of  inoeseant  labor. 
As  the  fruits  of  this,  we  now  have  from  his 
hand  the  theory  and  the  tables  of  each  one  of 
the  m^or  planets.  These  are  all  on  a  uniform 
plan,  and  derive  no  email  part  of  their  value 
from  this  fact  A  rfianmfi  of  this  extraordi- 
nary series  of  works  is  given  in  what  follows. 
The  theory  of  Mercury  was  presented  to  ttie 
Paris  academy  of  acienoes  in  18j8 ;  it  was  sub- 
sequently revised  and  completed  in  ISeS.  Tbe 
tables  of  the  aun  (earth)  appeared  in  1858,  and 
those  of  Venns  and  Mara  in  18S1.  Tlie  theo- 
ries of  Jnpiter  and  6atnm  w««  presented  in 
1872  and  1878.  The  theory  of  ITr&nns,  whose 
first  investigation  in  1844  led  to  tbe  discovery 
of  Neptune,  was  completed  in  1874,  and  Nep- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


ATLAITTA  COTTON  EXPOSITIOK 


tuna's  theory  was  presented  in  the  ewne  y«Ar. 
The  tables  of  the  two  latter  planets  were  fin- 
ished in  1676,  and  have  Hinoe  been  printed, 
tiiaa  oonipleting  the  work.  No  similar  worlc, 
of  anythiDg  like  saoh  a  magnitnde,  lias  ever 
been  done  by  an;  one  man ;  aod  in  the  oonrse 
of  it  many  minor  inveedgationa  have  been 
published.  The  tables  of  Leverrier  are  now 
nsnallj  employed,  bat  those  of  Saturn  especial- 
ly will  soon  reqnire  revision.  Similar  pnblica- 
tions  in  the  some  field  ainoe  1S73  have  been 
the  tables  of  Urauns  by  Prof.  Newoomb,  and 
of  Venas  by  Dr.  G.  W.  HilL 

IILUTA  COTKHI  EXPOSniffif.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1980,  in  ftcoordance  with  snggeationi 
made  by  Edward  Atkinson,  an  aaaooiation  was 
formed  in  Atla&U,  Oa.,  for  the  pnrpoee  of  or- 
ganiziog  an  exhibition  of  everything  relating 
to  the  cultivation,  manipnlation,  and  mannfao- 
tore  of  cotton.  In  the  spring  of  1861  a  cbar> 
ter  was  obtained  for  "The  International  Cot- 


ton Exposition,"  with  a  eapital  of  $200,000; 
tbe  governor  of  the  state  was  made  president 
of  the  association,  snd  H.  I.  Kimball  its  direo- 
tor-generoi.  Buildings  were  erected  in  Ogle- 
thorpe park,  about  2  m.  from  the  centre  of  th* 
city,  on  the  line  of  tlje  Western  and  AtloDtio 
railroad.  Tbe  main  building,  in  the  form  of 
a  orosB,  planned  for  a  model  cotton-mill,  and 
cunsCmeted  of  very  heavy  dmber,  was  720  ft, 
long  by  400  ft.  wide,  admirably  lighted  and 
ventilated,  snpplied  with  ample  steam-power, 
oonsisting  of  8  en^es  in  tbe  main  boildlng 
and  one  in  the  agricnltQral  annex,  and  8  lines 
of  diatting  arranged  for  the  opn^tion  of  all 
sorts  of  machinery.  It  iraa  traversed  in  ita 
length  and  breadth  by  wide  aisles,  tbe  total 
lencth  of  which  was  11  tn.,  on  either  side  of 
which,  and  in  the  centre,  tbe  exhibits  were 
displayed.  Besidee  this  main  boilding,  bot 
connected  with  it,  there  were:  I.  A  hall, 
oollad  the  "  Agricnltoral  Annex,"  B70  it.  by 


100,  in  which  the  tgrlcnltnral  implement  and 
machinery  were  exhibited ;  2.  A  building 
known  as  the  "  Carriage  Annex,"  810  ft.  by 
100,  devoted  to  the  display  of  oaniages,  eto, ; 
8.  Two  bnildingB  set  apart  for  the  exhibit  of 
minerals  and  woods,  the  respective  dimensions 
of  whioh  were  200  ft.  by  ISO,  and  100  ft  by 
60.  Overlooking  tbe  main  building  on  the  N. 
aide  of  tbe  grounds  was  the  Art  and  Indnstrial 
Hall,  SIO  ft  by  65,  open  to  tbe  roof  60  ft. 
high,  with  wide  galleries,  reached  by' conven- 
ient staircases,  devoted  to  the  exhibit  of  works 
of  art  and  all  sorts  of  manntactnred  goods. 
Close  to  the  Art  Hall  was  s  oommodioas 
room,  112  ft,  by  8S,  called  tbe  "Judges'  HaU," 
capable  of  seating  3,000,  naed  for  the  meetings 
of  tbe  jnd^es,  and  for  the  various  conventions 
and  societies  which  mot  during  the  exposition. 
There  were  other  buildings  in  the  grounds,  the 

Sirincipal  of  which  were  the  "Florida  Build- 
ng,"  erected  by  the  state  of  Florida  for  the 
display  of  tbe  varied  prodncts  of  the  "  Land  of 
Flowers";  the  "Department  of  Public  Com- 


1,  AtliBta,  Oeorglk. 

tort,"  contaiaing  offices  f or  the  tdegraph,  tele- 
phone, messengers,  cigars,  newspapers,  etc; 
and  a  reataorant,  containing  dining-soloon^ 
parlors,  etc.  Tbe  buildings,  covering  21  acres 
of  floor-spaoe,  were  oil  of  wood,  the  main  Btmo> 
tnre  being  of  sufficiently  heavy  timber  to  fit  It 
to  be  used  for  manufacturing  purposes.  The 
cost  of  the  bnildingH  was  $140,000;  of  the 
steam-pipex,  water  snpply,  etc.,  (20,000.  Im- 
mediately outnde  the  enclosed  grounds  were 
plots  planted  in  cotton  at  different  dates  and 
with  every  variety  of  seed,  wherein  the  public 
could  eee  the  cotton-plant  in  every  stage  of 
onlcnre,  and  could  judge  of  the  relative  value 
of  tbe  various  modes  and  systems  of  tillage. 
There  were  over  l,8uO  exhibits,  which  were 
divided  into  six  d^artments,  and  subdivided 
into  groups,  as  follows:  I.  Mineral  and  metal- 
lurgical produota,  divided  into  five  groups:  1. 
General  and  state  collections;  2.  Ores,  combus- 
tibles, building  and  refractory  stones ;  8.  KiiMS, 
wells,  and  mining  surveys;  4.  Uetallnrgy  ;  6. 
Fertilizers. — II.  Tools, implements, andmochin- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


804  AVEET8B0E0 

ery,  diridod  into  nine  gronpa,  viz. :  1.  Prepar- 
ing cotton  and  cotton-aeeda;  2.  Textile  muiD- 
factnring ;  3.  Tilling,  planting,  and  barreating ; 
4.  Motors  and  means  of  transmitting  power; 
6.  Printing  and  telegraphy;  6.  Breaking  and 
dressing  stone,  worting  wood  and  metal ;  7. 
Farnacea,  blowers,  and  pnmpa ;   8.  Preparing 

Eicoltaral  prodneta  otlier  than  textile ;  9. 
insportation.  —  IH-  Mannlaotnres,  general, 
divided  into  seven  groups,  viz. :  1.  Colleotive 
exhibits ;  S.  Oheinioal  and  pbarmacentioa]  prod- 
ucts, Boapa,  and  perfumerj ;  8.  Bricks,  tiles, 
torra-ootta,  chemical  clay,  and  gla«  ware ;  4. 
Fire-arms,  military  aoooutrements,  and  sad- 
dlery ;  G.  Medical  preparations  aud  surgical 
instmments;  8.  R^lway  sa^plies,  builders' 
mill  and  metal  work ;  T.  Safes,  clocks,  and 
ornamental  metal  work. — IV.  Hannfaotnrea, 
teztiile,  divided  into  five  gronpa,  viz.:  1.  Cot- 
ton yam,  cloth,  aad  printa;  other  vegetable 
fabrics;  a.  Woollen,  mohair,  and  mixed  goods, 
woven  and  felted;  8.  Silk  and  silk-mixed 
goods;  4.  Clothing  and  millinery;  C.  Paper 
and  blank  books. — V.  Home  and  social  im- 
provement, divided  into  five  groups,  vie ;  1. 
Furniture  and  mnsioal  instrnmeats ;  3.  Mirrors 
and  table  ware ;  S.  Heating,  cooking,  and  light- 
ing; water-supply;  i.  Ediioation  and  natural 
soienoe;  0.  Fine  arts. — YL  Forest  and  a^ri- 
oultaral  products,  divided  into  tea  groups,  viz, : 
1.  Forestry  and  general  agriculture ;  2.  Cotton ; 
8.  Fibres  other  than  ootton ;  4.  Oereala,  forage, 
and  root-crops,  sngar  and  tobaooo;  S.  Fari- 
naceous and  kindred  foods,  oils,  and  spioea ;  6. 
Animal  products  other  than  fibre;  7.  Agrioal- 
taral  engineering;  8.  Fmits,  wines,  flowers, 
and  omaruental  plants ;  9.  Oattle,  mules,  sheep, 
ewine,  dogs,  ana  poaltry;  10,  Bairy  products. 
The  system  of  awards  adopted  by  tbe  Oenten- 
nial  Exposition  was  followed  aubstantiaUj  by 
the  Interaatiooal  Ootton  Exposition.  The 
exhibition  was  opened  on  the  6th  of  Oc- 
tober, and  was  closed  on  the  Slst  of  Decem- 
ber. The  nnmber  of  visitors  was  886,890. 
The  financial  resolt  is  shown  by  tbe  follow- 
ing balanoe-sheet: 

CMto(baaiIngI,Ma tlOMWD 

Sunnliic  upenuL ieil,00a 

Toui tm,im 

BabKriptlou tltCOOO 

EstrT-^,nte-realpta,ato IS^DW 

BabiDtbimiflDfi nOOO 

mjMD 

LuTbisfoTdlitrlbnlloDtottocikliotiliin tin,000 

The  buildings  have  been  purchased  for  $85,- 
000  by  a  stock  company,  who  have  alao  bought 
the  land  from  the  city  of  Atlanta  for  |15,000, 
with  a  view  to  establish  immediately  a  cotton- 
mill  with  not  fewer  than  ten  thousand  spindles. 
ITraiSIOBO,  a  small  post  village  in  Harnett 
CO..  N.  0.,  on  Gape  Fear  river,  85  m.  9.  ref 
Raleigh.  It  waa  the  scene  of  a  battle  between 
a  portion  of  the  federal  forces  nnder  Gen.  Sher- 
man and  B  portion  of  the  confederates  un- 
der Oen.  Johnaton,  Uaroh  10,  1800.     Oen. 


BALFOUR 

Slocnm,  with  fonr  divirions  of  the  left  wing 
of  Sherman's  army,  moving  toward  Averfs- 
boro,  found  Oen.  Hardee  intrenched4  m.  S.  of 
that  place,  and  attacked  him.  The  left  Sank 
of  the  confederates  tieing  turned,  they  fell 
back  to  a  stronger  position  nearer  the  village. 
The  cavalry,  under  Eilpatrick,  at  work  to  se- 
cure a  position  on  the  road  to  Bentonville, 
was  attacked  b;  MoLaws's  division  of  confed- 
erate infantry,  and,  after  hard  fightins,  waa 
driven  back.  Slocum  advanced  his  whole  line, 
and  attacked  the  enemy  in  his  intrenchmenta, 
but  without  sacoess.  Learning  that  a  move- 
ment was  in  progress  to  tnm  bis  left  flank 
agtdn,  Hardee  abandoned  his  position  in  the 
night  and  retreated  under  cover  of  darkness 
toward  Bmithfield.  He  reported  hia  loss  in 
the  engagement  at  abont  GOO.  Slooum's  toaa 
waa  77  lulled  and  4T7  wounded. 


BiemOT,  VaHer,  an  English  author,  bom  at 
Langport,  Feb.  S,  1626,  died  in  Lond<», 
March  S4,  1877.  He  graduated  at  Dniversitj 
college,  London,  went  into  the  bu^ness  of  bank- 
ing, and  made  a  special  study  of  finance.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  James  Wilson,  founder 
of  the  "  Economist,"  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law  became  editor  and  proprietor  of 
that  Jonraal.  He  waa  alao  a  writer  for  tbe 
leading  reviews,  and  for  a  time  was  examiner 
in  political  economy  in  the  univerdty  of  Lon- 
don. Bii  pahlications  in  book  form  were: 
"  The  English  Constitution  "  (1887) ;  "  Physics 
and  Politics"  (1872);  and  "Lombard  Street" 
(4th  ed.,  1873). 

BULET,  JaMM  Hsilgtwrf,  an  American  ho- 
morist,  bom  in  Albany,  N.  T.,  Sept.  SS,  1841. 
lie  was  educated  in  the  public  scboola.  In 
1860  he  removed  to  Danbnry,  Oonn.,  where 
for  two  years  he  worked  as  a  carpenter.  He 
then  enlisted  as  a  private  iu  the  17th  Con- 
necticut volunteers,  and  served  through  the 
war.  His  first  article  in  print  was  published 
in  the  New  York  "Mercury"  in  1880,  He 
bought  the  Danbnry  "Times"  in  18SG,  and 
the  "  Jeffersonian  "  in  1870,  and  consolidated 
them  under  tbe  title  of  the  "  News."  His 
hnmorons  articles  soon  began  to  be  widely 
copied,  but  had  little  effect  upon  tbe  dreali- 
tion  of  the  paper  till  187S.  In  Jannary  of 
that  year  its  circulation  was  1,900  oopies;  by 
September  it  had  risen  to  80,000.  Mr.  Bailey 
went  to  Europe  in  1874,  and  remained  nearly 
a  year.  He  has  lactnreii  on  "  England  from  a 
Back  Window,"  and  the  lecture  appeared  in 
book  form  io  1878.  His  other  pnblieatiou 
are:  "Life  in  Danbury,"  made  up  of  his  hn- 
morons articles  in  the  "  News  "  (Boston,  1873); 
"ThoDanbnry  News  Man's  Almanac"  (1878); 
"TheyAlldoit"(187'0;  and  "  Mr.  Phillipa'i 
Oonenesa  "  (1879). 

ULFOFR,  FTsMlS  JUtUairf,  an  English  phjli- 
olst,  bom  in  1861,  died  July  22,  1883.  B« 
received  his  early  education  at  Harrow,  gradn- 


□igitizedbyGoOglc 


BAKTON 

ftted  at  TriDity  OoUege,  CatnbridM,  in  1670, 
and  obtained  a  nataral  ftcieoce  scbolarBhip  in 
1871.  He  went  to  Naples  to  stud?  lofllogy  in 
1873,  and  th«re  made  discoveriea  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  eUsmobrancb  fishes  which 
he  published  in  a  volume  in  1876.  Its  great 
merit  was  immediately  recognized  bj  Frof. 
Hnilaj  and  others,  and  it  seoared  hie  nnani- 
muua  election  to  a  fellawship.  He  was  made 
professor  at  animal  morpholog?  at  Cambridge 
in  1881,  the  ohoir  being  created  pnrpoiel;'  for 
him.  Be  pablished  a  "Treatise  on  Oompara- 
tive  Erabrjoiogj"  (2  vols.,  1880-'81_),  and 
many  papers  in  the  transactioDS  of  learned 
Bocteties  and  the  "  Journal  of  Microacopie  Sci- 
ence," and  edited  "  Stadiea  from  the  Uorpho- 
logicnl  Laboratory  of  the  Univeraity  of  Cam- 
bridge." He  was  mode  a  fellow  of  the  royal 
society  in  187S,  reoeived  a  royal  medal,  and 
was  made  a  member  of  the  conncil.  He  was 
also  general  secretary  of  the  Bridsh  aaaooia- 
tion  for  the  advancement  of  soience,  and 
president' of  the  Cambridge  philosophical  so- 
ciety. He  was  killed  by  an  accident  on  the 
sonthem  ride  of  Mont  Bluno. 

BABTOH,  Oara,  an  American  philanthropist, 
bom  at  Oxford,  Mass.,  about  1880.  She  was 
ednoated  at  Clinton,  S.  Y.,  and  when  very 
yonng  engaged  in  teaching.  She  foonded  the 
first  tVee  school  in  New  Jersey,  at  Borden- 
town,  which  opened  with  six  pupils;  but  the 
nnmber  had  inoreaaed  to  600  in  ISM,  when 
she  went  to  Washington  and  became  a  clerk 
in  tlie  patent  otlice.  When  the  civil  war 
broke  out,  she  devoted  her  entire  time  to  the 
care  of  wonnded  soldiers  on  the  battle  field, 
and  was  presect  at  several  engagements.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  she  originated,  and  con- 
ducted for  a  while  at  her  own  expense,  the 
search  for  miswng  soldiers.  Dnrlng  lB66-'7 
she  lectured  upon  "Incidents  of  the  War," 
and  then  went  to  Europe  to  regain  ber  health. 
Bbe  was  living  in  Switzerland  when,  apon  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  of  1870,  the  grand  dnch- 
ess  of  Baden  asked  her  aid  in  establishing  hos- 
pitals. Misa  Barton  then  followed  the  German 
army,  and  was  decorated  with  the  golden  and 
iron  crosses  by  the  grand  duke  of  Baden  and 
the  emperor  of  Germany. 

BI8UT0B,  a  native  tribe  of  S.  Africa,  oc- 
eapying  a  territory  about  80  by  100  m.  in  ex- 
tent, wnich  lies  W.  of  Natal,  and  is  separated 
from  it  by  the  Drakenberg  monntains.  They 
are  a  bracoh  of  the  Becbnana  tribe,  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  of  the  Bantu  family.  Being 
Involved  in  constant  dispntes  with  the  Boers 
oF  the  Orange  Free  State  on  one  side  and  the 
Zooloos  on  the  other,  and  in  some  dsnger  of 
extinction,  they  appealed  to  the  British  an- 
thoriCies  for  protection,  and  in  18S6  were  ac- 
cepted as  subjects  and  swore  allef^anoe  to  the 
crown.  They  made  the  stipulation,  however, 
that  they  were  not  to  form  a  part  of  Cape  Col- 
ony. In  1679  a  body  of  them  rendered  efficient 
service  totheEnglish  in  theZooloowar.  They 
have  been  largely  civilized  and  Cfaristlaaized 


by  Protestant  misdonariee  from  France,  who 
were  invited  thither  by  King  Moshesh  ;  bat 
the  majority  are  still  pagans.  The  Christian 
minority  are  industrions  and  proaperoos,  have 
ohnrches  and  a  aynodial  organization,  and  con- 
trol the  affairs  of  the  tribe.  Their  advance- 
ment has  been  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
African  tribe,  and  they  have  erected  honaee 
and  eBtabllshed  schools,  and  are  rich  in  cattle, 
horses,  and  grain.  In  1379,  apparently  by  some 
oversight,  the  act  conferring  autonomy  on  the 
colony  turned  over  the  Bosatos  to  the  Gape 
government  In  February,  1860,  an  order  was 
promulgated  which  required  them  to  surrender 
their  arms.  Every  man  of  the  tribe  had  a  rifle, 
which  was  hie  chief  pride,  and  was  by  many 
looked  upon  as  the  mark  of  manhood,  A 
formal  protest  procured  a  delay  till  July,  and 
an  appropriation  of  £80,000  was  voted  as  com- 
pensation by  the  colonial  aseembiy.  In  obe- 
dience to  the  orders  of  Chief  Letiiea,  son  of 
King  Moshesb,  many  of  the  Basotos  surren- 
dered their  arms.  Othera,  onder  the  lead  of 
Maeupha,  refused,  and  oi^auised  resistance. 
A  force  of  800,  led  by  Chief  Lethorodi,  attacked 
a  British  force  nnder  Col.  Carrington  at  Mafe- 
teng,  and  were  defeated.  Another  attack  on 
the  place  was  made,  Sept.  21,  by  7,000  Basntoa, 
who  aftor  a  hard  fight  were  driven  off  with 
heavy  loss.  Another  body  of  1,200  attacked 
the  garrison  at  Mohates  Hoek,  on  the  80th  and 
21st,  but  were  not  suocessfnl.  Oct.  10,  the 
rebels  attacked  Hasero,  which  vas  held  ^j 
Col.  Bayley  with  600  men.  They  fooglit  dea- 
perately,  and  horned  many  of  the  public  build- 
ings, but  were  evQatnally  driven  off.  Letho- 
rodi had  in  the  mean  time  been  coneentratinr 
his  forcea  near  Uafeteng,  and  had  snoceeded 
in  isolating  Col.  Carrington,  who  was  there 
with  a  rather  smallM'  force  than  that  cd  Col. 
Bayley  at  Maseru.  A  body  of  1,SS0  men  and 
officers,  1,000  of  which  were  monnted,  with  B 

funs,  was  c<rflected  at  Wapener,  in  the  Orange 
re«  State,  under  Brig.-Gen.  Clark,  who  had 
taken  comsiand  of  the  eoloniol  foroea,  and 
marched,  Oct.  IS,  and  relieved  Mafbteng  on 
the  next  day.  The  Baaotos  of^Hiwd  a  raera 
vigoroas  resistsnce  to  the  relieving  force  thas 
had  been  anticipated,  and  oampelleo  on  aetivft 
contest,  but  were  finally  repelled  on  every  side. 
The  prineipal  disaster  to  the  British  was  suf- 
fered by  the  1st  regiment  of  Yecananry,  wbi^ 
was  charged  upon  by  a  large  body  ef  Baanto^ 
and  lost  43  killed  and  wounded.  After  tbi« 
suooess,  a  proclamation  was  issned  by  the  gov- 
ernment, «>ffering  proteotioD  to  all  rebria  vb» 
would  surrender  with  their  arms  aid  amns- 
nition.  Lethorodi's  village  was  c^lnied  b^ 
Col.  Carrington  on  the  23d  of  Octotier.  6e«. 
Clark,  having  bnmed  the  Tillage  of  tha  Chief 
Voletsane,  Baccessfnlly  stormed  his  navnlain  , 
stronghold  on  the  Slst  of  October.  White  thSa  1 
action  was  going  on,  a  large  body  ef  mtiies!  J 
attacked  the  small  nnmber  of  colonial  tioeps 
holding  Lethorodi's  village  and  competed  lhe<n 
to  evacuate  it.    On  the  ad  of  Novembac  tb* 


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806 


BATJDELAIEE 


rebeU  had  been  driren  out  of  the  Motadile 
diatriot  ID  Cafiraria;  on  the  ISth  the  defeat  of 
the  rebel  chief  Umhloahlo  was  aDnonooed. 

Earl;  in  1881  akimiUbiaK  was  reeamed,  and  a 
vigDrooa  attack  by  the  rebels  oa  Jan.  10  broke 
the  British  line  and  wss  almost  anceessttil. 
The  BasntoH,  who  were  Buffering  for  food,  now 
aaked  for  an  arrniRtioe,  which  was  panted. 
After  considerable  negotiation,  terms  of  peace 
were  agreed  upon.  Tbe  Baaatos  were  to  paf 
a  fine  of  6,000  cattle  to  tbe  Cape  government, 
to  restore  propertj  taken  from  lojal  natiTes, 
and  to  pay  £1  annual  license  fee  for  the  privi- 
lege of  Iceepiug  a  gan,  and  sbonid  enjoy  entire 
amnesty  and  suffer  no  oonfiscation  of  territory. 
BdC  it  was  found  imposnible  to  enforce  the  pro- 
viinons  of  the  agreement  compietelj,  and  the 
ooantr;  is  still  in  an  unsettled  state.  The  ad- 
ministration  of  Basatoland  oosta  abont  £10,000 
a  year,  which  most  ber  paid  ont  at  the  Oape 
rerennea,  nule^  the  local  taxes  can  be  col- 
lected, wbioh  it  is  foaod  very  hard  to  do. 

BIDSBJIKE,  CkarlH  Flem,  a  French  poet, 
bom  in  Paris  in  April,  1S'21,  died  there  in 
September,  1867.  His  father  was  a  man  of 
Bome  note,  a  &iend  of  Condoroet  and  Oabania 
Charles  reuded  some  time  in  tbe  East  Indies 
in  early  life,  bnt  returned  to  Paris  wliile  still 
very  yonng,  and  oaltirated  the  society  of  the 
yonnger  generation  of  writers,  conceiving  a 
aCrong  admiration  for  Th6opbile  Oantier,  and 
beooming  a  devoted  follower  of  the  romantic 
school  of  literatnre.  Se  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  literatnre  as  an  art  eritlo  and  reporter 
of  the  salon  for  the  press.  He  fonnd  m  tbe 
works  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  a  reflex  of  his  own 
tastes  and  tendencies,  and  applied  himself  with 
ardor  to  traostatlng  them  into  French,  pro- 
dncing  in  his  veraons  of  tbe  "  Tales  "  and  the 
"Narrative  of  Arthur  Gordon  Fym"  an  ex- 
ample of  faithful  and  sympathetic  translation 
which  oonld  not  be  surpaaiied.  These,  pub- 
lished in  three  volnmea  (Paris,  lSSS-'6),  were 
meant  to  be  the  serione  literary  achievement 
of  his  life,  A  small  collection  of  poems,  how- 
ever, Lm  Jhur*  du  mat  (1867),  were  much 
more  effeotive  in  spreading  tbe  author's  fame. 
These  poems  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
police,  who  snmmoned  the  author  before  the 
ooarta.  The  offensive  psssBges  were  ordered 
to  be  expurgated  in  labseqnent  editions,  and 
in  the  seoond  edition  (ISSl)  wi  oondemnad 
poems  were  replaced  by  new  pieces.  Baade- 
laire's  Petit*  poinui  enprou  are  characterized 
by  the  same  vivid  imagination,  artistic  senti- 
ment, and  high  literary  finish,  without  betray- 
ing so  strong  a  predilection  for  iudeoent  sub- 
loots.  He  published  in  18S9  a  stndy  of  his 
riterary  hero.  Tlitophile  Gautier;  in  1860,  Lai 
paradii  art^UU,  a  highly  colored  picture  of 
the  effects  of  opium  and  hashiah;  in  1381, 
Riehard  Wagner  et  TbnnAomMr  ;  and  in  ISOS, 
a  fourth  volume  of  the  works  of  Edgar  Foe. 
His  death,  from  a  lingering  illness,  was  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  oocnrred  a  year  be- 
fore its  actual  date.    A  hiograpluoal  account 


BAYABD 

of  Obarlet  Baadelwre  was  pnbliehed  in  1S68 
by  A.  de  la  Fizeliire  and  Decani,  another  in 
tbe  following  year  by  M.  Asselinean,  and  a 
collection  of  eouveDin  and  letters  in  187S, 

BIYAKD,  IkMns  tnmdit,  an  American  ststea- 
man,  bom  in  Wilmington,  DeL,  Oct.  29, 18S6. 
He  is  descended  from  a  French  BngoeDot 
clergyman  and  professor  of  laugnages,  nuucd 
Baltbaxar  Bayard,  who  fled  from  the  perseoii- 
tLon  ofRichelien  to  Holland,  whence  his  widow 
and  three  sons  emigrated  to  America,  accom- 
panying Peter  Stnyvesant,  the  famous  Dutch 
governor  of  Kew  Netherland,  to  whom  they 
were  akin.  One  of  these  sons,  Peter,  por- 
chased  a  great  estate,  called  Bohemia  Hanor, 
lying  partly  in  Uaryland  and  partly  in  Dela- 
ware, which  dnring  the  revolutionary  war 
was  held  by  hla  twin  grandsons,  John  and 
James  Asbeton.  The  former  was  a  oolonel  fat 
the  army  and  a  member  of  the  otmliDenlal 
ooogreee,  and  the  latter  an  army  aargeoD. 
John's  oldest  son,  James  Aaheton,  a  Wilming- 
ton lawyer,  was  a  member  of  both  houses  of 
oongreaa  and  one  of  the  commissioners  wbo 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  bendes  serving 
the  government  of  die  United  States  in  many 
other  capacitie*.  He  bad  two  sons,  Riobaid 
E.,  who  was  a  senator  for  two  terms  and  wss 
sent  as  Dnlted  States  cbarg^  d'affaires  to  Bel- 
gium, and  James  Asbeton,  the  father  of  Thomss 
F.,  wbo  served  two  terms  in  the  senate  and  re- 
signed at  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Thomas 
F.  was  educated  at  tbe  then  well  known  Flusb- 
ing  (N.  Y.)  school  of  Dr.  F.  L.  Hawks,  As 
bis  elder  brother  had  studied  law,  he  entered 
a  New  York  counting  house,  but  afterward 
was  employed  in  a  great  West  India  house  at 


Bayard  abandoned  c 
studied  law  in  his  father's  office  at  Wiliuiog- 
ton.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861,  and 
in  1868  was  appointed  United  States  attorney 
for  Delaware,  out  resided  the  next  year.  He 
continued  to  practise  m  his  native  city,  with 
the  exception  of  two  years  (18G5  and  1866) 
passed  in  Philadelphia,  until  1869,  when  be 
was  elected  a  United  Butea  senator.  The 
leg^atnre  that  chose  him  also  on  the  same 
day  elected  his  father  to  the  senata  to  fill  ao 
unexpired  term.  The  younger  Bayard,  with- 
out aolicitation  on  his  part,  reoelvod  every 
vote  in  tbe  joint  convention.  In  1876,  snd 
again  in  1881,  he  was  reelected  to  the  sen- 
ate. He  haa  been  a  member  of  the  committee 
on  finance  ever  nnce  he  entered  tbe  senate, 
and  has  also  been  attached  to  the  oommiUeei 
on  the  judiciary,  private  land  claims,  revision 
of  the  laws,  and  others,  and  chairman  of  thoae 
on  finance  and  engrossed  bilk.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  joint  committee  that  devised 
the  electoral  commiauon  bill  of  18T7,  earnestly 
advocated  that  measure  in  the  senate,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  commission.     He  bore  a  very 

Erominent  pert  in  securing  tbe  reform  custom- 
onse  legislation  of  1874,  has  alwaye  taken  a 
leading  position  in  the  discnsnon  of  queaiioas 


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/ 


BEABD 

relating  to  the  KiDth,  and  hu  eloq^entlj  de- 
fended the  liberty  of  the  presa.  For  iniuif 
i'ears  be  has  ihared  with  Hr.  TbDrmui  the 
eaderahip  in  the  senate  of  the  demoeratia 
party:  bat  he  has  on  varioos  oooesionR  dis- 
played more  independoice  than  is  nanBlly 
loiMed  for  in  a  man  of  snoh  decided  political 
views.  Especially  has  Uiis  been  the  oaae  in 
the  conaiderstion  of  financial  meaenres.  His 
eamettt  adroeaoy  of  specie  resumption  baa  fr&- 
qaeatly  brought  bim  into  antagonism  with  the 
m^ority  of  his  party  in  the  senate,  notably  in 
the  46th  congress,  in  which  he  firmly  related 
the  policy  regarding  the  coinage  of  silver  nrged 
by  a  portion  of  the  finance  committee,  and  slso 
introdooed  and  warmly  aapported  a  reeolation 
ill  favor  of  repealing  the  legal-tender  quality 
of  treasnry  notes.  He  has  repeatedly  been  a 
favorite  with  many  members  of  hia  party  for 
(he  presidential  nombation. 

KlBtt,  GMm»  MBtr,  an  American  pbyaioiao, 
bom  at  Hontrille,  Conn.,  Usy  S,  1889 ;  died 
in  New  York,  Jan.  3S,  1888.  His  father  was 
a  olergyman.  The  son  wsa  educated  at  Fhil- 
lipe  academy,  Aodover,  and  at  Tale  college, 
gradnating  in  18fi3.  He  atndied  a  year  in 
the  medical  department  of  Yale,  and  in  186S 
obtained  hia  medioaJ  degree  at  the  college  of 
phyaioiani  and  sargeons,  New  York.  For 
eighteen  months,  in  186S-'4,  be  was  assistant 
snrgecai  on  tbe  gonboat  New  London,  in  the 
western  golf  blookadiag  squadron.  On  grad- 
nating, be  at  onoe  aettled  in  New  York,  giv- 
ing Attention  to  diseases  of  the  nervons  sys- 
tem. He  introdnoed  several  new  methods  of 
electrizstJOD,  and  was  the  firat  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  tonic  effects  of  electricity.  In 
18ST  he  published  with  Dr.  Bookwell  a  work 
on  "  General  Electrization,"  and  in  the  same 
year  a  paper  on  "  The  Longevity  of  Brain- 
Worker«."  In  1368  he  translated  from  the 
Oennan  and  edited  Tobold's  "  Ohronio  Dis- 
eases of  the  Larynx,"  and  in  the  following  year 
pnblished  a  popular  work  for  the  family,  en- 
titled "  Our  Home  Phyaician."  In  16T1  he 
pnbliahed  with  Dr.  Rockwell  "  Hedical  and 
Snrgical  Uses  of  Electricity,"  which  waa  trnii»- 
lated  into  German  by  VAtw  of  Prague.  In 
the  same  year  be  pnblished  two  populkr  trea- 
tises, entitled  "  Stimulants  and  Narcotics,"  and 
"Eating  and  Drinking,"  based  on  a  itody  of 
the  ouatoma  of  all  ages  and  races.  At  this 
time  he  introdaced  the  method  of  central  gal- 
vanization, and  also  pnblished  the  results  of 
experimenta  in  the  electrical  treatment  of  dia- 
eases  of  the  skin.  In  1873  he  pnblished  with 
Dr.  Eoekwell  ''  Clinical  BesearchoB  in  Electro- 
Surgery,"  and  in  the  same  year  a  paper  on 
"  Atmospheric  Eleotricity  and  Ozone,  their  Re- 
lation to  Health  and  Disease."  In  1871  he 
published  an  important  monograph  ou  "Legal 
Responaibility  in  Old  Age,"  based  on  researches 
into  the  relation  of  age  to  work.  In  the  same 
year  he  founded  the  "  Archives  of  Electrolo^ 
and  Neurology,"  a  setni-ancnal  journal,  which 
was  continued  two  years.    Id  1874  be  entored 


on  a  syrtematto  study  of  animal  magnetism, 
spiritu^ism,  clairvoyance,  and  mind-reading,  in 
relation  to  the  nervous  system 


er,"  maintaining  that  what  was  called  mind* 
reading  was  the  unconsoiona  action  of  mind 
on  body.  In  1876  he  pnblished  a  work  on  hay 
fever,  advancing  the  nerve  theory  of  that  dis- 
ease. In  187T  be  published  papers  on  "  The 
Scientific  Basis  of  Delosions,"  on  "  Mental 
Thempeutios,"  and  on  the  "  Physiology  of 
Hind-readiug ;"  and  En  1678- '9  monographs  on 
"The  Scientific  Study  of  Hnman  Testimony 
and  Experimenta  with  Living  Human  Beinga," 
and  "The  Payohology  of  Spiritiwu."  In  1879 
he  pnblished  the  reeulte  of  a  long  study  of  wri- 
teHa  cramp,  and  in  1860  a  monograph  on  the 
"  Problems  of  Insanity,"  and  a  syatematio  trea- 
tise on  "  Nervous  Exhtuatlon  (Neurasthenia)." 
In  the  same  year  he  pnblialted  a  work  on 
"  Seaaickneaa,  its  Nature  end  Treatment."  Br. 
Beard  alao  gave  mnch  attontion  to  the  fonc* 
tional  nervous  disease  known  as  inebriety, 
and  pnblished  papers  making  clear  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  vice  of  drinking  and  tin 
disease,  and  indicating  the  treatment  by  seda- 
tives and  tonics.  In  1868  he  was  lectorer  ou 
nervous  diaeasea  in  the  nnlveraity  of  New 
York.  In  1879  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Brit- 
ish medical  association  at  Cork,  where  he  pre- 
sented a  paper  on  "Inebriety  and  allied  Ner< 
voua  Diseases  of  America."  Dr.  Beard  was 
a  f)w]uent  contribntor  to  periodical  literature 
on  topics  relating  to  osycbology  and  the  nerv- 
ous eyatem,  and  also  aeUvered  popular  lectores 
on  psyoholc^cal  and  nenrological  subjects. 
'  BHJ.  ThMHi,  an  English  natoralist,  bom  in 
Poole,  Dorsetshire,  Oct.  11,  17fl2,  died  in  8el- 
bome,  Hampshire,  March  lit.  1880.  He  atudied 
medioiue  at  Ony's  and  St.  Thomas's  hospitals, 
became  a  member  of  the  royal  college  of  anr- 
geons  in  181G,  practised  as  a  dentist,  and  wrote 
largely  on  the  teeth.  But  his  'love  of  »niwiBls 
led  bim  to  the  stndy  of  xoOli^,  and  he  was 
^p<Hnted  professor  of  that  science  In  King's 
college,  London,  in  1883.  He  bad  been  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  in  162B,  and  was 
its  aeoretery  in  1S48~'G3.  He  was  president 
of  the  Linntean  society  from  18G8to  1861.  He 
published  "  British  Quadrupeds"  (1887);  "Brit- 
ish Reptiles"  (1889);  '^British  Stalk-eyed 
Omstsoea"  (18fi3);  a  monograph  on  the  Tas- 
tndinata,  and  a  new  edition  of  White's  "Nat- 
ural History  of  Selborae  "  (1877). 

BENSOK,  Hwaid  WUte,  an  English  der^- 
man,  bom  in  Birmingham,  July  14, 1829.  He 
waa  ednooted  by  private  tutors  and  at  the 
Birmingham  grammar  achool,  and  gained  an 
open  Bonolarabip  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 
After  a  brilliant  college  career,  in  which  he 
gained  the  senior  chancellor's  medal,  the  mem- 
bers' prize,  a  firat^class  in  the  classical  tripos, 
and  a  senior  opdme  in  the  mathematical  tri- 
pos, be  graduated  in  18C3.  He  entered  into 
holy  orders,  and  became  a  master  at  Rugby, 


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V 


808  BENTONVILLE 

where  he  taaght  with  marked  snoceu  and 
Imtituted  some  reforms.  Od  the  eetabUsh- 
ment  of  WelliDgton  college,  for  sons  of  de- 
ceased arm/  omoers,  he  was  ohosen  head 
master.  Within  a  /ear  he  threw  the  school 
Open  to  noD-fouadutioners,  and  made  the  onr- 
ricnlura  the  most  liberal,  if  not  the  best,  in 
Englaad.  He  also  made  it  a  model  in  the  mat- 
ter of  ventilation,  drainase,  dormitories,  &o. 
Is  1868  he  became  prebend  of  Lincoln,  and  in 
1872  chancellor  of  the  oathedraL  When  in 
1877  the  diocese  of  Trnro  was  created,  being 
set  off  from  that  of  Exeter,  Dr.  Benson  was 
made  its  first  bishop.  Under  his  administra- 
tion a  diviaitj  school  was  fonnded,  which  has 
attained  great  popnlaritf,  and  the  church  of 
8t.  Marj'fl,  in  Trnro,  was  restored,  beautified, 
and  oonverted  into  a  cathedral,  at  a  cost  of  one 
million  dollars.  He  was  preacher  to  the  nni- 
Terwty  of  Cambridge  fram  1864  to  1871,  and- 
to  that  of  Oxford  in  lS75-'76.  Alter  the  death 
of  Archbishop  Tait  in  December,  1882,  Bishop 
Benson  was  chosen  to  snooeed  him,  and  bis  con- 
secration as  Archbishop  of  Oanterborf,  primate 
of  all  England,  took  plaos  Uaroh  S9,  1888. 
Archbishop  Benson  has  contributed  to  the 
"  Speaker's  Oommeotary,"  has  written  much 
for  periodicals,  and  has  published  in  book 
form  "  Work,  Friendship,  Worship,"  three 
sermons  (London,  1872) ;  "  Boy  Life  "  (1874) ; 
" Sioglehearc "  (18TT);  "Living  Theology" 
(18T8);  and  "The  Oathedral  in  the  Life  and 
Work  of  the  Obnroh  "  (1879). 

BEHTONTIU.E,  a  smidl  post  village  in  John- 
ston 00.,  N.  0.,  about  20  in.  W.  of  Goldsboro. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the 
confederate  foroes  under  Gen.  Johnston  and 
a  portion  of  the  federal  arm;  nnder  Qen.  Sher- 
man, Uarch  19,  1866.  Johnston,  whose  ob- 
ject was  to  delay  Sherman's  march,  and,  if 
possible,  defeat  some  important  portion  of  his 
army,  being  uncertain  whether  the  next  point 
aimed  at  by  the  Union  commander  was  Raleigh 
or  Goldsboro,  sought  to  place  bis  entire  force 
midway  between  the  roads  leading  to  those 
two  places,  and  for  this  pDrpose  chose  a  posi- 
lioD  near  BentoQville.  It  was  on  the  eastern 
edge  of  an  old  plantation,  extending  a  mile  and 
a  half  to  the  w.,  and  tying  principally  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  road.  It  was  sarronnded,  ex- 
cept the  W.  aide,  by  dense  thickets  of  black- 
jack. He  placed  bis  main  force,  commanded  by 
Hoke,  across  the  road,  with  its  right  in  the 
plantation,  and  its  left  in  the  thicket  sonth  of 
tbe  road.  Two  batteries  were  planted  on  the 
right,  and  on  the  right  of  these  another  infantry 
force,  which  was  thrown  forward  along  the 
open  ground.  The  whole  force  was  protected 
by  slight  intreuchments.  The  left  wing  of 
Sherman's  army,  commanded  by  Gen.  Sloonm, 
marching  eastward  from  Averysboro,  where  a 
battle  had  been  fought  on  tbe  16th,  stmck  this 
position  on  the  morning  of  the  19th,  and  im- 
mediately attacked.  The  left,  commanded  by 
Gen.  J.  0.  Davis,  broke  the  nght  flank  of  the 
oonfederates  and  drove  it  back,  after  which 


Eilpatrick  maased  bis  cavalry  on  that  flank, 
and  the  federal  artillery  was  planted, ras 
oommanding  knoll.  On  the  other  Sank,  where 
either  side  in  attacking  was  obliged  to  advance 
tbrough  a  tliicket  so  dense  as  to  destroy  the 
organization,  the  fighUng  was  bloodier  and 
more  obstinate.  Both  sides  wwe  protected 
by  breastworks,  and  repeated  chaises  were 
made  and  repelled.  After  nightfall  the  eon- 
federates  withdrew  from  the  field,  and  left 
the  road  practically  open  for  the  federals  in 
their  march  to  Goldsboro.  Johnston's  forces, 
bowever,  hang  on  the  federal  fiank  for  some 
days,  and  there  was  heavy  and  almost  con- 
tinnal  skirmishing  on  the  20th  and  21st>,  till  a 
flank  movement  by  Gen.  Mower  to  serionsly 
threatened  his  line  of  retreat  that  Johnston 
withdrew  in  haste  to  Smithfleld,  leaving  his 
dead,  wounded,  and  pickets.  Tbe  oonfederata 
loss  during  the  three  days,  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing,  acoording  to  Johnston's  "Narra- 
tive," was  2,848  men ;  the  reports  of  federal 
commanders,  as  to  prisoners  taken  and  confed- 
erate dead  buried  on  the  field,  make  it  oon«d- 
erablj  larger.  The  federal  loss  was  1,648. 
This  was  the  last  action  funght  by  the  army 
under  Sherman. 

BKKGH,  Hmh;,  president  of  the  "  American 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Ani- 
mals," bom  in  New  York  in  1823.  His  father. 
Christian  Bergh,  of  German  ancestry,  was  an 
exten^ve  ship-builder,  and  was  for  serersl 
years  in  the  service  of  the  government  He 
died  in  1854,  leaving  his  fortone  to  his  three 
children.  Henry  Borgh  entered  Gtdumbia  col- 
lege, but  before  he  had  finished  the  course 
made  a  visit  to  Europe,  where  he  remained 
about  five  years.  He  made  several  other  visits 
to  Europe  before  he  was  sent  to  St.  Peterabnrg 
in  1882  as  secretary  of  legation,  visited  every 
part  of  tbe  continent,  and  travelled  extensively 
In  the  East.  When  in  1864  Hr.  Bei^h  was 
foroed  through  ill  health  to  resigu  his  office, 
he  determined  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his 
Hfe  to  the  interests  of  dumb  animals,  and 
stopped  on  his  way  home  to  confer  with  Lord 
Harrowby,  preddent  of  the  English  society, 
which  became  Mr.  Bergh's  model.  The  le^s- 
lature  passed  a  charter  and  laws  prepared  by 
Hr.  Bergh,  and  in  April,  1866,  the  society  was 
legally  organiied,  Mr.  Bergh  being  elected 
president.  The  society  moved  steadily  for- 
ward, and  by  August,  1BS6,  was  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition  financially,  having  received  a 
valuable  property  from  Hr.  and  Urs.  Bergh. 
In  1871  Louis  Bonard  left  his  entire  prop- 
erty, amounting  to  (150,000,  to  the  society. 
This  enabled  them  to  move  from  their  mod- 
est little  np-staira  room  at  Broadway  and 
Fourth  street  to  the  building  at  the  corner 
of  Fourth  avenue  and  22d  street,  which  was 
purchased  and  decorated  according  to  Mr. 
Bergh's  plan.  In  187^  he  made  a  lecturing 
tour  through  the  west,  which  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  several  societies  similar  to  that 
in  New  York.    He  spoke  before  the  evangeli- 


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BERKHARDT 

oftl  allisnce  and  Epiacopal  cunTent'ron,  and  iras    < 
the  means  of  having;  a  new  caooa  cootlrmed,  to    i 
tbo  efieot  that  Proteatant  Episcopal  clergj'meii 
should  at  least  once  a  year  preach  a  aermon  on    ' 
ornelty  and  meroj  to  animals.     In  18T4  Mr. 
Berf;h  rescued  two  little  girla  from  inhnman 
treatment,  and  this  led  to  the  foandiag  of  a    : 
Bocietj  for  the  prerention  ot  cruelty  to  chil- 
dren.    He  has  written  several  plays,  one  of 
which  was  acted  with  some  success  in  Phila-    ■ 
delphia,  and  haa  pnblished  a  volnme  of  tales 
and  sketches,  a  drama  entitled  "Love's  Al- 
ternative," and  "  Married  Off,"  a  poem  (Lon- 
don, 16G9). 

BIXKHABin',  Sxnh  (Mme.  Dahala),  a  French 
utresa,  horn  in  Paris,  Oct.  2S,  1844.  Her  pa- 
rentfl  were  Jews,  but  she  was  reared  as  a 
Ohriatian.  She  received  her  early  education 
at  the  college  of  Grnndohanip,  where  she  re- 
solved "to  be  a  noD  if  I  cannot  be  an  actress 
at  the  Com^die  Fran^se."  From  this  school 
she  was  admitted  to  the  conservatoire,  whence 
she  went  to  the  Com^e  Franoaise,  making 
her  d^but  as  Iphig^nie.  Through  some  jeal- 
oasj  or  misunderstanding,  she  soon  left  this 
theatre,  and  afterward  appeared  at  the  Qym- 
nase  and  the  Od6on.  in  her  anxiety  tor  a 
thorough  mastery  of  stage  business,  she  would 
play  any  part,  even  .in  fairy  spectacles.  She 
soon  acquired  a  reputation  so  high  that  she 
was  recalled  to  the  Com6die  Francalse,  where 
at  length  she  rose  to  extraordinary  distinc- 
tion. She  began  the  study  ot  sculpture  in 
1869,  and  exhibited  a  marhle  bust  of  a  girl 
in  the  salon  of  18T4.  But  her  power  as  a 
sculptor  attracted  no  special  attention  till  she 
exhibited  a  group  entitled  Apri*  la  temptta. 
"  An  aged  woman,  bereft  of  reason  by  accumu- 
lated misfortunes,  gazes  at  the  dead  body  of 
an  only  son,  refusing  to  believe  that  he  is  not 
alive,  yet  with  a  glimmering  consciousness  of 
the  truth  expressed  in  her  withered  face." 
She  has  executed  a  bust  of  £mile  de  Qirardin, 
and  a  colossal  statue  for  the  facade  of  the  the- 
atre at  Monaco.  She  is  also  a  painter,  her 
most  noted  picture  being  "  Medea  slaying  her 
Children,"  and  has  written  art  oriticisms  in  a 
daily  newspaper  of  Paris.  She  lives  in  the 
avenae  de  Viiliers,  in  a  hoase  built  after  her 
own  deagns.  One  large  room  is  her  studio, 
where  she  works  several  hours  a  day,  dreeeed 
In  trousers  and  jacket.  She  played  in  London 
in  1679.  In  the  beginning  ot  1880  she  with- 
drew from  the  Oom^die  FraD^sise,  and  in  No- 
vember comttenoed  an  engagement  in  New 
York.  She  returned  to  Europe  the  next  year, 
and  has  since  played  in  the  principal  conti- 
nental capitals.  She  married  M.  Damala,  a 
French  stock  actor,  in  1882.  She  has  four 
children. 

nCTGLE,  a  two-wheeled  vehicle  propeHed 
bj  the  rider  by  means  ot  pedals  attached  to 
the  larger  wheel.  The  wheels  are  placed  one 
in  fWint  of  the  other,  thus  affording  the  bicy- 
cler a  longitudinally  firm  seat.  Tiie  rider's 
perch  is  a  saddle-shaped  seat  on  springs  placed  | 


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810 


BICYCLE 


frtotnro  of  about  £1,000,000.  The  Uofole  b 
the  final  davelopment  of  a  long  liat  of  inveiw 
tjons  for  faoilitatiag  locomotiDn  bj  00aibili»- 
tioDi  of  wheels  and  pedals.  In  the  last  oeu- 
turj,  Blanohard  and  Kagnrier  exhibited  a  re- 
lootpede  ia  Paris.  DuchaaBsais  obtained  a 
patent  for  t,  triojicle  in  Praooe  in  1828.  In 
181?  Earl  von  Drais,  of  Mannheitn,  devised  a 
vehicle  with  two  oonBecntive  wheels,  steered 
with  a  lever,  snd  propelled  bj  the  Motion  of 
the  feet  on  the  (^oudJ,  whiob  he  named  the 
eilirifira.  Tins  form  of  vabiele,  called  the 
drsiiiine,  wa«  improved  apon  by  Dinenr,  John- 
son, and  Qompertz-,  and  it  met  with  eomider- 
able  favor  whea  introdnced  into  the  United 
States  in  1810.  In  1395  Maresohal  and  Mbbsts. 
Woirin  and  Saoonde  conetmoted  veloidpedes 
with  oranks  and  pedals,  ronaiDt;  on  three  and 
five  wheels.  The  same  year  Lallement,  a 
yonng  Frenoh  meehanie,  adspt«d  this  principle 
to  a  two-wheeled  velocipede.  No  steps  were 
taken  to  lotrodnoe  it  nntil  fn  the  following 
year,  Lallement  having  emigrated  to  the  Uni- 
ted States,  it  was  taken  up  by  Oarrol  and  pat- 
ented at  Wsahingtoa  in  bts  and  the  inventor's 
names.  A  similar  instrament  was  patented  in 
England  by  Edward  Gilman  in  ISM.  The  ve- 
looipede  come  into  general  nse  in  France,  Bng- 
land,  and  the  United  States  in  the  years  ISflS 
and  19S9.  In  ISaS  Rivi£re  in  Englorid  im- 
proved it  by  makina  the  front  wheel  mnch 
larger  than  the  hind  one;  Bradford  in  the 
United  States  devised  the  rubber  tire;  and 
Oowper,  an  Englishman,  added  the  BaspeDBloii 
wheel.  These  are  the  three  distinctive  fea- 
tores  of  the  modem  bicyde.  The  defects  of 
the  velocipede,  its  rigidity,  tnd  the  strain  on 
the  rider  in  propelling  it  by  mcsonlar  throat, 
besides  rendering  it  impraotjoable  for  general 
road  travel  and  subjecting  the  rider  to  a  severe 
jolting,  were  a  frequent  cjiase  of  abdominal 
hernia.  The  difficulty  of  preserving  the  equi- 
librium led,  moreover,  to  constant  accidents. 
It  therefore  fell  into  entire  disose  after  abont 
two  years'  popularity.  The  first  bioyoleproper 
was  constructed  in  England  in  18S9.  In  1877 
and  the  aucceedicg  years  the  new  type  came 
into  use  in  Great  Britain  and  ou  the  continent ; 
long  tours,  in  one  cose  from  Paris  to  Vienna 
and  bock,  were  accomplished  at  remarkable 
rates  of  speed.  In  1S79  the  improved  form 
was  introduced  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
Pope  manofoctnring  company  of  Boston  be- 
gan the  manafactnre  of  bicycles  on  English 
models. — The  position  of  the  rider  on  the  bi- 
cycle, nearly  in  a  perpendicular  line  with  the 
acis  of  the  main  wheel,  enables  him  to  propel 
the  machine  by  applying  his  weight  to  the 
pedals,  not  by  muscular  exertion,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  velocipede ;  his  posture  and  mo- 
tions are  nearly  the  same  as  in  walking.  The 
bicycle  in  motion  is  kept  in  unstable  equilib- 
rium by  the  momentum  of  the  moss  of  the 
vehicte  and  its  rider,  and  a  oomplex  process  of 
balancing  on  the  part  of  the  rider  by  mnscDler 
movements  as  delicate  and  n^id  as  those  which 


BOOrrALLISU 

balance  the  body  in  walking.  The  weight  ct 
the  nder  out  be  thrown  on  either  atirnqi  ot 
either  handle,  and  the  oentre  of  gravity  tins 
changed  at  wUl.  A  double  system  of  levers^ 
comee  into  play  in  balancing  the  vehicle,  en- 
abling it  to  be  easily  controlled  wiih  a  whed 
base  scaroeiy  an  inch  wide;  the  spaoe  wiihin 
whioh  the  oentre  of  the  wheel  can  oscillate, 
without  the  rider's  losing  t^e  power  to  restore 
the  equilibrium,  ia  about  24  inchee  wide.  The 
shifting  of  the  oentre  of  gravity  to  either  side 
within  this  limit  can  be  oompensated  by  throw- 
ing the  weight  of  the  bo^  on  the  opposite 
pedal  or  on  the  opposite  handle,  or  by  pulliug 
the  handle  on  the  side  toward  whioh  the 
vehiole  Inclinea,  or  by  a  combination  of  these 
movements.  The  expenditure  of  power  in 
propelling  the  bicycle  is  caloulated  by  Pratt  to 
be  8,8SB  foot  pounds  or  '27  horse  power  uer 
mile;  or,  counting  the  epeed  a  milo  in  nve 
minutes,  '004  horse  power  per  minute.  The 
rate  of  speed  is  ordinarily  three  times  titatof 
walking,  with  an  expenditure  of  foroe  only 
one  aUth  as  great  for  eqoal  distances.  As  an 
exercise  of  the  muscles,  bicycle  riding  caDi 
into  action  those  of  the  arms  and  ehest  as 
fnlly  as  those  of  the  legs  and  loins. — ^An  ex- 
tended description  of  the  bieyole  is  given  in 
Charles  E.  Pratt's  "  American  Bicycler  "  (Boe* 
ton,  1876) ;  B  manual  for  its  use  is  Charles 
Spencer's  "  Uodem  Bicycle  "  (London,  Sd  ed^ 
ISTfl).  "Eieniise  and  Training,"  by  Dr.  C.  E. 
Ralfe  (New  Tork,  187B),  contains  an  appreda- 
ttve  account  of  its  hygienic  merits.  J.  T.  God- 
dard's  "The  Velocipede"  (New  York,  1869) 
describes  the  earlier  forms.  A  "  Bicyclist's 
Hand  Book  "  is  published  in  Weymouth,  Eng- 
land, by  Henry  Sturmlcy.  Journals  published 
for  the  amateurs  of  the  bicycle  are  "The 
American  Bioycling  Journal,"  printed  in  Bos- 
ton, and  the  "  Bicycling  Times,"  the  "  Bicycle 
Journal,"  the  "Bicycling  News,"  and  othoi^ 
published  in  England. 

BHBTlUiSM,  the  use  at  onoe,  and  at  a  fixed 
ratio  of  value  for  equal  weights  of  eai^  of 
both  gold  and  ulver  for  legal-tender  money, 
monometalliera  being  the  use  of  gold  alone  or 
silver  alone  for  the  same  purpose.  This  use 
is  also  called  that  of  the  double  etandaid,  bl 
opposition  to  the  single  standard  of  moao- 
metaltiam;  but  the  more  correct  term  is  "al> 
temative  standard,"  nnoe  only  one  thing  can 
he  a  standard  at  a  given  time.  Both  of  Uie 
precious  metals  have  served  as  the  medium  of 
exchange  since  the  infancy  of  •ommeroe,  at 
varying  ratios,  determined  principtally  by  the 
relative  supply.  Before  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica gold  was  comparatively  the  more  plentifbl. 
Boring  the  first  hundred  years  of  the  Peruvian 
and  Mexican  supply,  the  relative  value  of  gold 
and  rilver  fiactoated  between  1  to  10-7  and  1 
to  la.  Since  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  )( 
has  reniained  at  between  1  to  IB  and  1  to  16. 
In  1717  Sir  Isaac  Newton  fixed  the  ratio  for 
the  English  mint  at  about  1  to  IB.S.  In  1603 
Fraooe  adopt«d  the  ratio  of  1  to  IS'S,  cou- 


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BOCETAIXISK 


Sll 


formii^  to  tbe  mean  bullion  valnes  at  the  time. 

The  Daited  States  adopted  tbe  bimetallio  a;*- 
tem  in  1702,  with  the  ratio  of  1  to  IS,  bnt  were 
nnable  to  enforce  it,  beoanie  tbe  French  ratio 
determined  tbe  nlatire  ralnas  of  the  metala  in 
Barope.  Con eeqnantly  little  gold,  tbe  imder- 
valned  metal,  waa  brooght  to  tbe  American 
mint  for  coinage,  and  moet  of  that  which  wai 
coined  flowed  ont  of  tlieoonntrf.  TheBrltiab 
goremmeot,  in  reaamiag  apeoie  paymenta  in 
1831,  onwilling  to  adopt  the  French  Ifi-S  or  to 
incommode  commerce  bj  aelecting  the  Amerl- 
cmD  standard,  and  m07ed  alto  by  tbe  oonrident- 
tlon  that  thwe  waa  a  atook  of  sold  bullion  in 
tbe  marke^  while  the  illTer  prodootion  had  de- 
clined, decided  to  coin  onl;  gold.  In  1894  the 
AmM^can  congreaa  changed  tbe  standard,  with 
the  object  of  aeoaring  a  onrrenoj  of  gold  as 
well  as  of  eilrer.  Tbe  weight  of  the  eagle 
waa  redaced  from  370  to  2S8  graiiiH  of  stand- 
ard  gold,  that  of  the  diver  dollar  remaining 
at  416  graina  of  standard  mIvct,  the  eqniv- 
alent  of  the  Spanish  piaster  when  thia  waa 
adopted  aa  the  unit  of  aeconntin  1798.  The 
ratio  established  by  this  act  waa  1  to  1 9,  w  hich 
it  was  thought  would  temporarilj'  atimnlate 
the  coinage  of  gold  and  approximate  more 
nearly  to  the  eventnal  relative  valnes  of  tbe 
tnetals  than  tbe  French  ratio,  as  it  did  at  the 
time  to  the  prioea  prerailing  in  the  market 
The  coinage  act  of  1834  undervalued  ailver, 
howerer,  and  resolted  in  rapid  exportation  of 
tbe  lilver  carrenoy  as  bullion.  The  movement 
was  only  slackened  by  tbe  act  of  1BS7  reducing 
the  weight  of  the  dollar  to  4134-  gruns  of  fine 
BilTCr.  Thus  United  States  money  became 
Bgdn  practioally  monometalUo.  There  was  not 
enongb  silver  remaining  in  circulation  to  m^e 
email  change.  To  remedy  this  evil  the  act  of 
Feb.  34,  ISfiS,  was  passed,  by  which  the  faalf- 
dollara  were  rednced  to  163  grains,  and  tbe 
smaller  coins  in  tbe  same  proportion ;  but  the 
dollar  waa  left  unchanged,  and  oonseqnently 
became  obsolete.  The  discoveries  of  gold  in 
OaUfomia  and  Anstralia  oansed  a  widespread 
fear  that  this  metal  would  depredate  as  com- 
parod  with  silver.  EcUand,  acting  upon  this 
motive,  and  upon  the  de«ire  to  esoape  the  finan- 
rial  crises  which  resnlted  from  monetary  strin- 
gency in  tbe  London  market,  demonetiied  gold 
in  18S0  and  adopted  the  single  diver  standard. 
The  British  government  revoked  the  optional 
standard  which  had  been  proclaimed  in  India, 
thongh  there  was  no  gold  coinoge  to  demooe- 
tiie.  The  Dntcli  gold  currency  was  esohanged 
for  mlver,  without  affecting  the  value  of  gold. 
Great  Britain  preserred  the  gold  standard,  and 
France  maintained  the  ratio  of  1  to  15-C.  The 
English,  French,  and  American  mints  were 
kept  open  to  the  free  coinage  of  gold,  and  tbe 
enormons  product  of  tbe  Califomtan  and  Ans- 
tralian  gold  washings  was  at  once  absorbed  in 
the  general  circnlaticn  of  the  western  nations. 
The  greater  part  of  the  French  silver  onireocy 
was  gradually  exported  for  the  profit,  and  re- 
placed by  gold  coins.    The  world's  stock  of  pre- 


oions  metals  at  the  date  of  the  Califnmlan  dis> 
ooverlen  is  oonunonly  estimated  at  (3,800,- 
000,000  in  gold  and  $4,000,000,000  In  diver,  of 
which  (1,200,000,000  in  gold  and  $3,200,000,- 
000  in  silver  constituted  the  stock  of  coin  and 
bars.  In  the  five  years  ending  with  leSfl  tbe 
prodoctioD  of  gold  and  silver  amounted  to 
1960,000,000,  of  which  $700,000,000  was  gold. 
This  was  on  addition  of  38  per  cent,  to  the  stock 
of  coin  and  bars,  and  of  14  per  oent.  to  the  total 
stock  of  gold  and  silver.  The  increase  In  the 
world's  stock  of  gold  waa  30  per  cent ;  that  in 
the  stock  employed  for  monetfvy  purposes,  %%\ 
per  oent  In  tlie  twenty-eight  years  endins 
with  187fi  the  aggregate  production  of  gold 
and  silver  waa  $4,  G8S,  000,000,  en  ad^lion  of 
67  per  oent  to  the  stock  of  coin,  bars,  eod 
plate,  and  of  181!  per  cant,  to  that  of  coin  and 
bars.  Of  thia  Increment  $8,315,000,000  wai 
gold,  an  an^entaticn  of  the  total  stock  <rf 
gold  amonnliDg  to  110  per  cent.,  and  of  338 
per  cent  in  the  stock  of  gold  coin  and  bars. 
The  tendency  of  this  supply  of  gold  to  raise 
prices  was  retarded  through  the  stimulstion 
whioh  it  gave,  in  combination  with  other 
causes,  to  tlic  creation  of  capital  and  the 
production  and  consnmption  of  commodities. 
According  to  the  estimates  of  Tooke  and  New- 
march,  tbe  general  level  of  prices  was  rather 
lower  than  higher  in  ISGS  Uion  in  1848,  and 
the  extreme  rise  was  not  attained  until  18T8, 
when  it  averaged  about  30  per  cent.  'When 
the  increased  annnal  eupplr  of  gold  seemed 
to  be  constant,  and  an  indefinite  rise  of  prices 
was  anticipated,  a  school  of  economists  arose 
in  France  and  other  bimetallio  continental 
ooantriee,  about  1808,  who  advocated  the 
demonetization  of  silver.  The  chief  srgnment 
of  the  monometallists  was,  thst  the  impending 
depreciation  of  money  would  work  an  injury 
to  the  classes  dependent  npon  fixed  incomes, 
derived  ttovi  interest  on  mortgages  or  govern- 
ment stock,  aunnities,  stated  stdiuies,  rent  con- 
tracts on  long  terms,  etc.  As  the  world  oo- 
commodated  itself  to  the  enlarged  stock  of 
specie,  while  tbe  gold  production  sabsequenUy 
declined,  leas  was  heard  of  the  monometallio 
tlieory  until  after  the  opening  of  the  great  sll- 
rer  deposits  in  Kevada,  the  working  of  which 
began  hi  1861.  In  1865  what  is  called  the  Latin 
Monetary  Union  was  formed  by  treaties  be- 
tween France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Bwitieriond, 
Joined  in  1870  by  Greece  end  in  187S  by  8er- 
via,  binding  them  to  the  some  monetary  con- 
stitution with  the  bimetallic  standard  and  the 
ratio  of  I  to  10-e  antil  18S0.  In  18T1  the  Ger- 
man empire,  anticipating  some  decline  In  the 
value  of  silver  from  tbe  increasing  production 
of  the  Nevada  mines,  and  hoping  to  share  the 
commercial  prestige  of  England  by  placiOE 
itself  on  a  geld  basis,  adopted  the  dngle  gold 
standard,  and  in  1873  b^an  to  sell  the  silver 
of  which  the  coinage  of  the  German  states 
chiefly  consisted,  and  to  coin  gold  pieces  of 
10  and  30  marks.  In  1674  the  Latin  Monetary 
Union,  to  prevent  Germany  from  flooding  tha 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


813 


BIMETALLISH 


mints  with  the  discarded  silver,  placed  a  limita- 
tioa  on  the  coinwe  of  silver,  which  waa  or- 
rested  eotirely  in  Switzerland  in  1875,  and  in 
Franoa  the  followiag  year.  In  1878  the  United 
States  abolished  the  coinage  of  the  silver  dol- 
lar, whioh,  however,  was  only  the  oomple' 
meat  of  the  act  of  1853  stoppine  the  coinage 
of  full-weighted  half-dollRrs  aoa  minor  coins. 
Denmark,  Sveden,  and  Norway  entered  into 
a  convention  and  passed  laws  in  1878  by 
which  the  silver  standard  in  those  coontries 
was  changed  to  the  gold  standard.  In  1876 
the  Netherlands  states  general  authorized  the 
minting  of  gold,  and  in  1876  arrested  the  coin- 
age of  silver  and  gave  the  government  dis- 
cretionary power  to  call  in  the  silver  onrrency. 
Spain  stopped  the  coinage  of  silver  in  1876, 
and  adopted  measures  providing  for  the  ulti- 
mate establishment  of  the  gold  standard. — The 
following  table  shows  the  present  situation 
as  to  bimetallism  and  monometallism  of  conn- 
tries  other  than  the  TTnit^d  States : 

ArgmUae  BspubHo OoM  ud  lUnr 

AnMHi : mirw. 

Balglun Gold  ud  tUnr. 

BolfTJi mitt. 

BtMil Gold. 

Britlih  Fowu^mB  In  S.  A... .  QoU. 

ChlU eold  uid  iHnr. 

Cote Gold  ud  iUtst. 

Dsunurk Gold. 

Eaudor BUtv. 

Egypt Gold. 

Wriatt GoU  ud  illrar. 

OnMBrltalD Gold. 

GnsM OiMuidilhv. 

Gsrouu  Kmpln Gidd. 

HhU Gotduiddlnr. 

lulr ',  Gold  ud  lOTer. 

Jipui BlIlH. 

U6wl« GuM. 

MeiiM BUrer. 

Kelherliuidi GaldudtUTn-. 

?™' 

BduIi. 
BiMin.. 

Tilpoa 

TilSw, OoM. 

DnHadStUuorCaJamUL.,..  6Uret. 

The  flow  of  specie  to  India  and  the  East  is  an 
important  element  in  the  monetary  problem. 
For  centuries  there  has  been  a  constant  move- 
ment of  silver  and  gold  to  the  East,  particularly 
of  silver,  which  is  ased  as  money  and  hoarded, 
while  gold  is  mainly  demanded  for  ornamental 
purposes.  During  the  forty-one  years  ending 
with  1878,  the  total  silver  production  of  the 
world  was  about  $1,800,000,000,  and  in  this 
period  the  shipmenU  of  silver  to  India  amount- 
ed to  $1,200,000,000,  of  which  $1,000,000,000 
were  retained  in  that  coimtry.  During  the 
same  period  about  $515,000,000  of  the  $3,460,- 
000,000  of  gold  produced  were  absorbed  by 
India.  The  net  imports  of  silver  during  the 
twenty  years  1886- '55  averaged  abont  $9,000,- 
000  a  year.  The  cost  of  suppresdng  the  Sepoy 
rebellion,  the  more  expensive  administration 
after  tlie  transfer  from  the  East  India  com- 


pany to  the  crown,  and  the  expenditores  on 
public  works  and  rulways,  raised  the  average 
to  $16,000,000  a  year  dnring  the  period  from 
]86fl~-'62,  being  one  and  a  half  times  the  ag- 
gregate production  of  the  world.  In  the  next 
foar  years  the  produotloa  and  exportation  of 
cotton  daring  the  cotton  famine,  caused  by  the 
blockade  of  the  forts  of  the  Southern  Con- 
federacy, further  mereased  the  silver  importa 
to  $68,000,000  a  year.  The  cotton  excitement 
came  to  an  end.  the  loans  and  investments 
ceased,  the  payment  of  interest  and  dividends 
in  England  began,  and  the  conncil  bills  or 
drawings  of  the  English  government  against 
India  ^^naily  rose  to  $75,000,000  a  year. 
From  1867-'72,  inclusive,  the  average  aimnal 
inflai  of  silver  into  India  from  Enrope  wsi 
$30,000,000.  In  1878  it  aank  to  $8,500,000, 
and  for  the  four  years  18TS-'76  it  averaged 
only$12,000,000.  In  thefollowing  four  years, 
ftom  ]e77-'80,  the  eastward  drain  of  wlver 
recovered  its  force,  the  annual  imports  into 
India  averaging  $43,000,000.  The  Gomstcck 
lode,  in  Nevada,  was  opened  in  1861,  the  Bel- 
cher and  Crown  Point  bonanza  in  1871,  and 
the  Oonsolidaled  Virginia  mine  in  1873.  The 
silver  production  of  the  United  States  since 
1861  waa  as  follows: 


I  ISTO it,(xia.m 


In  1876  the  prodnct  of  the  American  mines 
was  abont  half  the  total  prodnct  of  the  world. 
The  lapae  of  several  years  without  the  discov- 
ery of  new  bonanzas,  and  the  knowledge  of 
the  prospective  ezhaastion  of  the  richest  of 
the  ore-bodies,  dissipated  the  fears  of  an  oo- 
limited  inundation  of  silver  from  this  source. 
The  German  coina^  laws  of  1871  and  I87S 
provided  for  the  wititdrawal  of  the  currency 
of  all  the  states  except  the  thaler  coinage, 
which  was  continued  in  circulation  provision- 
ally in  the  discretion  of  the  government,  and 
made  exchangeable  with  the  new  gold  coinage 
in  the  ratio  of  I  to  15-5.  They  ordered,  alMs 
the  coinage  of  a  subsidiary  silver  currency,  to 
be  limited  to  10  marks  per  bead  of  tbe  popols- 
tion.  When  the  Qerman  government  b^an 
the  operation  of  exchaiiging  the  ulver  cur- 
rency for  gold,  the  Indian  demand  for  silver 
had  fallen  to  almost  nothing,  while  the  Ameri- 
can supply  had  assumed  formidable  propor- 
tions. All  the  mints  of  Enrope  were  closed 
against  the  silver  to  be  disposed  of  by  Ger- 
many. The  German  stock  in  1878  was  esti- 
mated at  1,286,700,000  marks,  or  over  $300.- 
000,000,  besides  about  $48,000,000  received 
from  France  as  a  part  of  the  war  ransom. 
The  new  token  currency  would  require  about 
$100,000,000.     Between  1878  and  1877  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


BIUETALLISM 


813 


old  gnlden  coinage  of  the  Sontb  German  stateB, 
the  EIonse-towD  cairenof,  end  the  sabeidiarr 
coinage  of  billon  metal  were  mostly  wttbdrawa 
and  demoeetized,  and  ahoat  a  thit^  part  of  the 
thaler  ooioage,  amountiog  to  1,484,000,000 
marks,  was  withdrawn  but  not  demonetued. 
Of  the  490,000,000  marlts  which  were  demone- 
tized np  to  Sept.  80,  1876,  205,000,000  were 
sold  and  the  rest  recoiaed,  Germany  obtained 
and  coined  about  1,480,000,000  marks,  or  t&40,- 
000,000,  of  gold  during  this  period,  — The 
world's  production  of  ailver  for  the  ten  yean 
preceding  the  opening  of  the  Gomstock  lode 
remainod  constant  at  about  $40,000,000.  I>ar- 
ing  this  period  of  extraordinary  gold  prodnc- 
tion  and  of  eicessiFe  Inditm  demand,  which 
took  the  whole  aggregate  product  of  sjiver 
during  the  aixteen  ^eare  ending  with  1866,  the 
average  price  of  eilrer  was  only  a  little  over 
three  foarths  o(  one  per  cent,  higher  than  the 
French  rate.  When  the  Indian  requirements 
fell  ofl'end  the  new  sapplies  from  America  be- 
came considerable,  the  price  fell  below  the 
I^tjn  Union  ratio,  averaging  not  quite  one 
half  of  one  per  cent,  leas  then  that  rate  from 
1863  until  the  demonetization  of  silver  in  Ger- 
many in  1878.  The  amount  of  silver  which 
Germany  forced  npon  the  market  in  18TS-'TS 
added  Ibm  than  20  per  cent,  to  the  annaal  ent>- 
ply  from  the  mines.  But  the  olo«ore  of  the 
mints  to  silver  and  the  cessation  of  the  Indian 
demand  left  no  outlet  for  the  accnmulatin^; 
stock  of  bullion,  which  became  a  specnlatlva 
commodity  and  sank  rapidly  in  price.  When 
the  Indian  demand  reaomed  ita  normal  propor- 
tions, only  halt'  of  the  annual  product,  which 
the  American  supply  had  doubled,  was  re- 
qnired  for  sliipment  to  India,  so  that  the  sur- 
plus stock  continued  to  accnmulate  and  the 
S rices  to  fall.  The  average  price  in  the  Lon- 
on  marlcet  in  1873  was  59id.  per  ounce,  2f 
per  cent,  less  than  the  French  mint  rate; 
in  1674,  69^.,  4fr  per  cent,  less ;  in  187Q, 
6ft}d.,  ef  per  cent  less.  In  I87S  the  continued 
sales  of  toe  German  government  broke  down 
the  market,  and  the  demonetizing  operation 
was  virtually  suspended  before  the  quarter 
part  of  it  was  accomplished.  The  price  fell  to 
47(2.,  but  recovered,  the  average  for  the  year 
being  B2id.,  or  12^  per  cent  below  the  French 
rate  and  I04  per  cent,  below  the  American 
rate  of  16  to  1.    In  1877  the  average  of  the 

SDotationa  was  54^|iJ.,  and  it  is  now  (1868) 
bout  sod.,  or  1  to  18'7  as  compared  with 
gold.  The  German  government  was  not  even 
in  a  position  to  retire  the  silver  currency, 
becanse  it  was  onable  to  obtain  the  gold  to 
replace  iL  The  French  indemnity  was  paid 
in  the  form  of  bills  of  ezchonge  on  London 
and  other  financial  centres,  and  tlie  govern- 
ment was  prepared  to  pay  a  considerable  pre- 
minm  to  accomplish  the  conversion  of  the 
standard.  But  the  gold  reserve  In  London  is 
alM'ays  at  a  critical  ininimam,  and  there  and 
elsewhere  every  considerable  store  of  gold  was 
protected  against  the  German  demand.    These 


measures  wonld  have  proved  ineffeotnal  in  the 
long  run  if  the  current  of  trade  had  deter- 
mined a  flow  of  gold  into  Germany.  Bnt  the 
fact  that  a  sixth  pert  of  the  gold  coined  in  the 
four  years  was  melted  down  and  recolned  in 
foreign  mints  proved  theimpossibility  of  effect- 
ing the  monetary  change  at  that  time  by  any 
sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  government. — Af- 
ter the  United  States  practically  adopted  the 
monometallic  gold  standard  in  187S,  an  act  was 

Easaed  authorizing  the  coinage  of  "  trade  "  dol- 
trs  of  420  grains  of  fine  silver,  for  export  to 
China.  They  were  intended  to  compete  with 
the  Mexican  dollars,  which  were  preferred  in 
Ohina  becanse  of  their  parity  of  standard  and 
becaose  tliey  contain  more  or  teas  gold,  owing 
to  the  imperfection  of  the  smelting  processes  in 
Uexico.  The  American  trade  dollars  are  equal 
or  slightly  superior  to  the  Mexican  in  Intrinsia 
valae,  but  the  expectation  that  they  would  pasa 
by  tale  in  China  and  become  an  article  of  com- 
merce was  not  realized.  The  116,418,000  coined 
in  three  years  remained  in  the  United  States. 
In  1878,  when  the  general  demonetization  of 
silver  was  agitated  in  Europe,  tlie  United 
States  congress  posaed  the  Bland,  more  prop- 
erly the  Allison,  aitver  bill,  directing  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  to  purchase  bnllion,  and 
coin  the  minimum  amount  of  (2,000,000  per 
month  in  silver  dollars  of  412)  grains.  The 
dollara  coined  under  this  act  have  been  only 

fiartially  brought  into  circulation,  and  aocomn- 
Rte  in  the  treasory.  The  depreciation  of  sU- 
ver  has  been  checked  only  to  the  extent  of  the 
$24,000,000  per  annum  of  which  the  market 
is  relieved. — An  international  bimetallic  con- 
gress was  held  at  Paris  in  1878,  and  another 
in  1881,  at  which  the  question  of  fully  re- 
establishing the  bimetallic  standard,  with  free 
coinage  of  silver,  was  discussed  by  represen- 
tatives of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Italy,  Austria,  Rua- 
sia,  Bweden,  and  Switzerland.  None  but  the- 
oretical conclnsions  were  arrived  at.  The 
difQcnlties  in  the  way  of  returning  to  the 
old  basis  were  anderstood  to  be  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  intentions  of  Germany  with  re- 
gard to  the  thaler  currency,  and  the  estab- 
lishment in  the  United  States  of  a  standard 
differing  from  that  of  the  Latin  Union. — The 

Sueation  of  bimetallism  concerns  the  United 
tatos  especially  as  a  large  prodacer  of  sil- 
ver, France  and  the  other  bimetallic  and  for- 
merly bimetallic  or  silver-paying  countries  of 
Europe  as  the  ownera  of  huge  qnantitiea  of 
silver  money,  and  Austria,  Bussis,  and  other 
paper-paying  countries,  as  well  as  all  the  poorer 
nations,  in  the  degree  in  which  it  itSects  their 
capacity  for  acquiring  and  retaining  treasDre. 
The  question  in  its  general  bearings  affects  all 
countries,  and  more  directly  the  dehtor  and 
creditor  classes  everywhere.  The  western 
world  haa  hitherto  possessed  a  bimetallic  cou- 
stitntion.  The  measure  of  valnce  in  the  mono- 
metijlio  as  well  as  in  the  bimetallio  countries 
depends  upon  the  entire  stock  of  both  metals, 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


814 


BIMETALLISM 


aad  more  immediatelj  apoii  tbe  maas  of  money 
in  ftctaal  cirouUtion  or  represented  by  notee 
ot  credit,  except  in  the  oonntriea  with  foroed 
paper  oireulation.  Over  three  eighths  of  the 
metallic  money  of  Earope  and  America  con- 
BiHta  of  silver,  and  bLmet^liats  contend  that  the 
general  demonetization  of  that  metal  would 
entul,  tirst,  the  Binking  of  money  valaes  about 
40  per  cent,  and  the  oonseqnent  commercial 
reroUion,  anil,  gecoiidly,  the  aogmentation  of 
the  burden  of  all  debts,  publio  and  private,  in 
the  BSme  propnrtioc. — Aithongh  the  silver  ores 
of  Nevada  and  the  silver-producing  territories 
are  often  ricli  in  gold  M  well  aa  in  silver,  these 
mines  have  not  materially  increased  the  anoaal 
productioD  of  the  preciona  metals,  Tbe  statis- 
tios  of  the  total  annual  prodaot  of  the  world 
of  gold  and  ailver  fruni  1861  to  18T6  are  as  fol- 
lows, in  millions  of  dollara : 


Monometallists  hold  that  this  prodaetion  is 
in  excess  of  the  world's  monetary  require- 
ments. The  depreciation  of  silver  is  regarded 
by  them  as  a  proof  that  it  has  ontgrown  the 
.  need  of  so  bulky  a  mediam  of  exohaoge,  with 
its  present  sappl^  of  gold.  In  regard  to  the 
United  States,  it  is  srgoed  that  the  definitive 
adoption  of  bimetallistn,  eepeoially  while  the 
value  ot  silver  is  depressed,  woald  be  a  breach 
of  faith,  since  the  national  debt  was  con- 
tracted at  a  time  when,  although  silver  was 
a  tender  by  law,  there  was  no  onrrenoy  bnt 

Sid.  The  chief  orgomeot  of  monometallists 
that  a  doable  standard  is  impossible  and 
that  a  bimeUllio  state  can  keep  only  one 
metal  in  circulation,  which  will  always  he 
the  cheaper  and  less  deurable  of  the  two.  Bi- 
metallista  muntain,  on  the  contrary,  that  the 
bimetallic  standard  was  practically  preserved 
daring  the  period  when  the  relative  volumes 
of  the  Btooks  of  gold  and  silver  changed  greatly, 
and  that  all  that  is  necessary  to  prevent  any 
flaotnattons  o(  value  between  the  two  metals 
is  for  commercial  nations  to  adopt  a  common 
bimetallic  standard.  They  hold  that  the  sup- 
ply of  both  metals  is  not  more  than  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  present  level  of  commercial 
values  in  view  of  uie  iacts  that  with  the  growth 
of  population  and  with  the  iocrease  of  prodae- 
tion a  larger  volume  of  correocy  is  required  to 
keep  np  existing  prices ;  that  Rnssia,  Austria, 
Brazil,  the  Argentine  Bepublic,  Greece,  and 
some  smaller  states  have  a  circulation  of  irre- 
deemable paper  which  they  will  desire  to  re- 
place with  coin,  which  Is  true  likewise  of  a 


BLAOE 

part  of  the  oarreQcy  of  Japan  and  Tnrk^, 
while  Italy,  which  resumed  specie  payments  m 
1383,  and  the  United  Htates,  which  resumed  in 
1879,  have  still  large  quantities  of  paper  oat- 
reooy  that  is  inadequately  protected  by  metal- 
lic reserres;  and  tiiat  the  capacity  of  Asia  to 
absorb  specie  is  only  limited  by  the  ability  to 
furnish  surplus  products  that  are  desired  in 
Eiuvpe.  One  school  believes  that  the  annual 
snpplyof  gold  is  moreooostsnt;  the  other  that 
the  oombmed  prodact  of  both  metals  is  less 
lisble  to  variations  tbaa  that  of  either  of  them 
singly,  though  considering  variatioDS  as  of  small 
account^  since  the  entire  accnmulated  stock,  not 
the  annual  product,  constjtates  Uie  supply, 

BUDUKGK,  a  town  in  Bakota  territory,  the 
capital  of  Burleigh  co..  on  the  Missouri  river 
and  on  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad,  470  m. 
W.  of  Dnluth ;  pop.  in  1888,  about  S,000.  One 
of  the  earliest  settlements  in  the  northwest 
oountry,  it  developed  rapidly  with  the  inflni 
of  immigration,  as  it  was  placed  in  the  heart 
of  the  Red  river  farming  region  at  the  poiot 
where  the  two  arteries  ol  oommonication  in- 
tersect. It  lies  about  midway  between  tbe 
head  of  navigati(»i  and  St.  Louis,  with  3,000 
m.  of  navigable  water  below  it  and  an  equal 
distance  above.  The  landing  facilities  are  ez- 
oeptionally  good.  It  occupies  a  healthful  site 
aboat  1,690  ft.  above  the  sea  and  beyond  the 
level  of  the  highest  food  waters.  It  is  one 
of  the  chief  business  and  distributing  centres 
of  the  noTthweet.  The  town  of  Bismarck  was 
first  settled  in  1873,  when  the  surveyors  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  selected  this  spot  for  the 
crossing  of  the  river.  It  was  first  called  £d- 
winton,  but  the  name  was  soon  changed  t« 
Bismarck.  It  contains  many  substantiarbuild- 
ings,  inclading  a  bank,  an  elevator,  a  flour-mill, 
several  hotels,  G  churches,  a  puhlio  hall,  court- 
honse,  &c.  The  railroad  bridge  is  about  two 
milee  from  the  town.  It  is  a  massive  structure 
of  wrought  iron  and  steel,  on  granite  piers. 
I,4fi0  ft.  in  length,  in  five  spans,  three  of  400, 
and  two  of  118  fL  It  was  opened  for  traffic 
Oct  31,  1882.  The  steamboat  traffic  is  la^e, 
emplojing  2S  vessels.  Bismarck  is  a  shipping 
point  for  military  and  Indian  supplies.     It  is  a 

Sort  of  entry,  and  has  some  trade  with  the 
ritish  possessions,  1,G00  m.  distant.  The 
town  snpports  three  newspapers,  one  daily. 
It  is  abundantly  supplied  with  water  from  an 
artesian  well. 

H.1GK,  Vmbas,  a  British  novelist,  bom  in 
Glasgow  in  1841.  He  was  edncated  at  private 
Bchools,  aud  stadied  in  the  Glasgow  school  ot 
art,  hut  soon  relinquished  art  for  Jonmallsm, 
and  became  connected  with  the  Glasgow  "  Cit- 
izen." He  went  to  London  in  1864,  wrote 
for  the  magazines,  and  joined  the  staff  of  the 
"  Morning  Star,"  acting  as  its  correspondent 
in  the  field  during  the  war  between  fYosiia 
and  Austria  in  16S6.  He  was  afterward  con- 
nected with  the  "Daitv  News."  His  first 
novel,  "Lone  or  Marriea"  {18fi7),  which  at- 
tempted to  deal  with  social  problems,  was  not 


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BLACKBDEN 

Boooeasfal.  His  next,  "  la  Silk  Attire  "  (1869), 
describes  peBsaDt  life  in  the  BlockForest.  His 
others  inoJude:  "  Kilmenj,"  "The  HoQKroh 
of  tfinoing  Iiane"  (1870);  "A  Danghter  of 
Heth,"  his  first  reall)'  aacoesafol  novel  (1B71)  ; 
"  The  Strange  Adventorea  of  &  Phaeton," 
fonnded  on  a  oarriage  ride  from  London  to 
Edinbni^b  (1873) ;  "A  Princess  of  Thule" 
(1878);  '"Oie  Maid  of  Killeena,  and  other 
Stories"  (1874);  "Three  Feathers "  (187B); 
"  Madcap  Violet "  (1876) ;  "  Maoleod  of  Dare  '* 
(1B78J ;  •'  Sunrise  "  and  "  White  Wings  "  (1880). 
Most  of  his  stories  have  been  republished  in  the 
United  Statee,  and  some  of  tnem  have  been 
translated  into  oontinental  langaages. 

BUCKBVU,  Beuj,  an  English  aothor,  born 
in  Portsmontb,  Feb.  IC,  1830.  He  was  ednca- 
tod  at  King's  college,  London,  and  became  an 
art  critic  and  foreign  correspondent  of  London 
joDmals.  He  travelled  in  Spain  and  Algeria 
in  1866-'T,  and  afterward  aelivered  iltnatra- 
ted  lectures  on  "Life  in  Algeria."  He  edited 
"  London  Boeiet;  "  in  1870-'T2,  and  has  since 
held  an  appointment  in  the  civil  servioe.  He 
has  peblished  "Travelling  in  Spiun"  (1866) ; 
"  The  Pyrenees  "  (1897) ;  "  Artists  and  Araba  " 
(1868) ;  " Normandy  Piotnresqno"  (18B8) ;  ''Art 
in  the  Uonntains :  the  Story  of  the  Passion 
Play  in  Bavaria"  (1870);  and  "HartzMonn- 
tains:  a  Tonr  in  the  Toy  Country"  (1878). 
Koet  of  hia  works  are  illostrated  by  bimself. 

BLACKHME,  Uckarri  DeMrl^^  an  English 
author,  bom  in  Longwortb,  Berkshire,  in 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  Tiverton  aohool 
and  Exeter  college,  Oxford,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1847.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1869,  and  practised  as  a  conveyancer.  He 
baa  written  "  Eric  and  Kaniia,"  "  Epnllia,  the 
Bngle  of  the  Black  Sea,"  and  tlie  following 
novels:  "  Clara  Vanghan  "  (1864) ;  "Cradock 
Nowell,  a  Tale  of  the  New  Forest "  (1666) ; 
"LornaDoone,  a Romanoe of  Eimoor  "  (1889); 
"  The  Maid  of  Sker  "  (1872) ;  "  Alice  Lorraine, 
a  Tale  of  the  South  Downs  "  (18T5) ;  "  Oripja 
the  Carrier,  a  Woodland  Tale''  (1878);  "Ere- 
ma,or  My  Father's  Sin"  (1877);  and  "Mary 
Anerley,  a  Yorkshire  Tale  "  (1880).  He  has 
also  published  "  The  Fate  of  Franklin,"  a  poem 
(1880) ;  "The  Farm  and  Fruit  of  Old,"  a  trans- 
lation of  the  first  and  second  Goorgics  of  Vir- 
gil (1862) ;  and  a  complete  translation  of  the 
Georgics  (1871).  Most  of  his  novels  have  been 
repoblished  in  the  United  States. 

lUUE,  JaBM  GUm^  an  American  states- 
man, bom  in  West  Brownsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  81, 
1880.  He  is  a  great-grandson  of  Col.  Ephraim 
Blaine,  commissary  general  of  the  middle  de- 
partment dnring  the  revolution.  His  father 
was  a  wealthy  landowner  in  Washington  coun- 
ty, and  pud  much  attention  to  his  son's  educa- 
tion. Me  attended  school  at  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
living  in  the  family  of  his  relative  Thomas 
Ewing,  at  that  time  secretary  of  the  TJnited 
States  treasury.  He  graduated  at  Washington 
(Pa.)  college  in  1817,  where  be  was  known  as 
the  moat  akiltul  mathematician  of  his  class, 
108*  TOL.  n,— 82 


BLAINE 


815 


of  which  ke  was  the  youngest  member  bot 
one.  After  leaving  college,  he  was  for  two 
years  an  instructor  in  the  military  academy  at 
Georgetown,  Ey.,  at  the  same  time  studying 
law,  but  he  never  engaged  in  the  praotioe  of 
that  profesdon.  While  employed  as  a  teacher 
both  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  Kentacky  he  con- 
tributed frequently  to  the  newspapers  and 
magazines.  He  removed  to  Augusta,  Maine, 
in  1864,  became  editor  of  the  "  Kennebec  Jour- 
nal," and  soon  acquired  great  authority  in  the 
oouncila  of  the  repnblioan  party  in  the  state. 
In  ieJS3  he  was  cnosen  chairman  of  the  ex- 
ecutive committee  of  the  organization,  from 
which  time  he  wielded  a  paramount  inflnence 
in  state  politics.  From  1868  to  1861  he  ed> 
ited  the  "  Portland  AdTertiser."  He  was  a 
member  of  the  legislature  in  186S^'62,  being 
speaker  of  the  honae  the  last  two  yetmi,  and 
in  1863  was  elected  to  the  national  honse  of 
representatives,  where  by  snooeaaive  reSleo- 
tions  he  held  his  seat  till  187S.  He  served  ia 
the  88th  congreSB  on  the  committee  on  post 
offices,  and  was  instrumental  in  establishing 
postal  CBTH.  In  the  88th  congress  he  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  on  military  affun 
and  churman  of  that  on  the  war  debts  of  loyal 
states.  In  the  sacoeeding  congreee  he  served 
on  the  committee  on  appropriations.  Almost 
from  his  first  entrance  Mr.  Blaine  commanded 
the  attention  of  the  bouse,  and  he  soon  became 
one  of  the  leading  debaters  on  the  great  na- 
tional questions.  His  speech  on  the  ability  of 
the  American  people  to  suppress  the  rebellion 
reoeived  wide  attention.  The  clauses  in  the 
fourteenth  amendment  relating  to  the  basis 
of  representation  were  in  great  part  bis  work. 
From  186S  to  187S  he  was  speaker,  and  no 
speaker  since  Olay  has  presided  with  a  readier 
tmowledge  of  oougressionol  usages  and  the 
laws  of  debate.  The  oorreotness  and  impar- 
tiality of  bis  rulings  were  recogniied  by  both 
partieB.  When,  after  holding  the  speakership 
daring  three  oongreuee,  he  sgun  appeared 
on  the  floor  of.  the  house,  he  was  more  lis- 
tened to  than  before.  His  speeches  on  remov- 
ing the  disabilities  of  Jefferson  Davis  attract- 
ed much  attention.  In  July,  1876,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Maine  appointed  him  United  States 
senator  to  fill  the  vacancy  cauaed  by  the  resig- 
nation of  Lot  M.  Morrill,  who  had  become 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  he  was  suhae- 
queutly  elected  by  the  legislature,  and  reSlect- 
ed  for  the  easuing  term,  ending  in  IBSS.  In 
the  senate  he  has  neen  a  member  of  the  oom- 
mitl«es  on  appropriations,  naval  affairs,  civil 
service,  and  rules,  but  has  ohiefiy  distinguished 
himself  in  debate  on  party  questions.  On  the 
subject  of  Chinese  immigration  he  advocated 
a  modification  of  the  Burlingame  treaty.  Id 
the  republican  national  convention  held  in  Cin- 
cinnati in  June,  1878,  Mr.  Blaine's  name  led  on 
every  ballot  for  presidential  candidate  except 
the  last,  wheu,  an  the  elements  of  opposition 
to  him  having  united  on  E,  B.  Hayes,  the  latter 
received  881  votes,  to  8S1  for  Blaine.    In  the 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


816 


BLTJITT 


npnbliom  nationBl  conventloD  at  Chioago, 
June  2-4,  1680,  Mr.  Blaine  reoeived,  on  the 
flnt  ballot  for  a  presidential  nominee,  284 
Totet^  Bgsinat  804  tor  Geo.  Grant,  the  whole 
nnmber  being  TG6.  This  vote  did  not  varf 
mooh  till  the  66tb  ballot,  and  od  the  36th  Gen. 
James  A.  Qarfleld  was  nominated.  On  the 
inangaration  of  President  Garfield  and  appoint- 
ment of  bie  cabinet,  Ur.  Blaine  was  given  the 
office  of  Heoretar7  of  state.  Tbia  post  he  re- 
tted for  a  abort  time  after  the  aocsMion  of 
FrsBident  Arthnr,  but  resigned  on  tbe  IGth  of 
December,  1S81.  He  is  about  to  publish  (1868) 
"Twenty  Yosre  of  Publio  Life." 

ILOIFT,  Joha  Heary,  an  English  anthor,  bom 
at  Ohelaea  in  1S23.  He  was  ednoated  at  the 
unirerdty  of  Darham,  and  became  vicar  of 
Eennington,  near  Oxford,  and  afterward  reo- 
tor  of  Beverston.  He  has  published,  beaidea 
onmeroaa  pamphlets  and  rerlews,  "The  An- 
notated Book  of  Common  Prajef,"  ahUrtorical, 
ritnal,  and  theological  commentary  on  the  de- 
TOtioual  system  of  the  church  of  England, 
which  has  passed  throngh  many  editions;  a 
"  History  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Ohnrob  of 
England,"  of  which  only  tbe  first  volume  (1514 
-'47)  has  appeared;  "The  Doctrine  of  the 
Ohoreh  of  England,  as  stated  in  Eoclesiastioal 
Docnmente  set  forth  by  anthority  of  Ohnrob 
and  State,  from  ISSS  to  1662 ; "  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Doctrinal  and  Hiatorioa]  Theology;"  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Sects,  Heresies,  Ecclesiastical  Par- 
ties, and  Sohools  of  Religions  Thought ;  "  and 
other  similar  works. 

BLUNT.  L  WUAcd  ScawM,  an  English  aa- 
tlior,  iMm  in  Crabbett,  Bnssex,  '  " 

bdoi   ~  ■ 
Cath 

olio  eallege  at  Oaoott,  Staffordshire. 
tend  tlie  diplomatia  service  in  1BG8,  and  was 
oouneoted  with  it  for  several  years.  In  1877 
and  following  years  he  travelled  in  the  East 
with  his  wife,  making  some  remarkable  Jonr- 
neys.  Leaving  Damaacua,  with  none  bnt  Arab 
attendants,  and  accompanied  by  Mohammed, 
son  of  the  aheik  of  Pumyra,  with  whom  Mr. 


BOEHM 

BInnt  bad  sworn  brotherhood,  they  otosMd 
the  desert  of  Jowf,  and  proceeded  tbenca  to 
N^d,  where  they  were  gnests  of  Ibn  Randd, 
ruler  of  a  portion  of  the  country  fonnerly  in- 
cluded in  the  Wahabee  state.  This  region  bad 
not  been  visited  by  Europeans  aluce  Pugrave'i 
expedition  in  1862.  Usiilie  Palgrava,  however, 
Mr.  BInnt  and  his  wife  travelled  without  dis- 
gaise,  having  a  private  caravan,  and  being  er* 
ery where  created  with  respect  as  anEngliitl 
sheik  and  sheikess.  Their  mastery  of  Arabic 
enabled  them  to  dispense  with  the  servicM  of 
a  dragoman.  In  1681  Mr.  Blunt  was  craispien- 
oos  in  Egypt  as  a  friend  of  Arabi  Pasha  ud 
an  advocate  of  the  oause  of  tbe  national  party, 
believing  that  he  saw  in  it  tbe  germs  of  a  re- 

Sneration  of  tbe  Mohammedan  religion.  Ha 
a  published  "  The  Fntnre  of  Ldam  "  (Lon- 
don, 1883)  and  "  Love  -  Bonnets  of  Protaoi," 
anonymously  (1882).  D.  lua  Inbda  NmI, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1837.  Bbe  a 
the  daaghter  of  the  first  Earl  of  Lovelace  and 
his  first  wife  Ada,  who  was  Iiord  Byron's 
daughter.  Lady  Anne  married  Mr.  Blunt  in 
1669.  She  has  published  "Bedonin  Tribesof 
the  Enphrates "  (2  to1».,  London,  1879)  and 
"  A  Pilgrimage  to  N^d  "  (3  voU.,  1861). 

BOEHB,  JsaqA  Edgar,  a  German  sculptor, 
bom  in  Vienna,  July  6, 1884.  His  father,  who 
was  director  of  the  Austrian  mint,  was  tbe 
owner  of  a  celebrated  art  collection.  The  nm 
received  his  early  ednoation  in  Vienna,  sod 
afterward  stndied  art  in  Italy  and  in  Paris,  and 
in  1S62  settled  in  England.  He  obtuned  tbe 
first  imperial  prize  in  Vienna  in  1806,  and  in 
18T6  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Florenw 
academy.  He  has  executed  a  ooloaeal  marlila 
statue  of  Queen  Victoria,  for  Windsor  castk; 
one  of  John  Bnnyan,  nn veiled  at  Bedford ;  an 
of  Gen.  Bnrgoyne,  in  Waterloo  place,  Loodta; 
and  life-size  etataes  of  Thomas  Carlyle  nd 
Xing  Leopold  of  Belgium,  the  iatter  in  Si 
George's  oliapel,  Windsor.  He  has  also  ei>- 
anted  several  monumental  gronpa,  ooIosmI 
equestrian  statnee,  and  portrait  bu^ts  of  UiOaii 
the  ptuuter,  Lord  Shaftesbury,  and  othera. 


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conte:sts  of  volume  il 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


AjMae.  Bt  CeOTire 

Ayton,  Sir  Eobert 

Aytoun.  WUIIvn  Edmondiloniie. . . 

AyuntiimlMito...,, -^,„, 

ABta,  Ptnte  Hy«cliiUie 

Aiar^FiHzii"^/////.'.'.'.'.'".'.'.'. 

ifntto,  Murimo  TnaretH,  Mw- 

■JUH* 

AurbOiul 

Az«T«do  CoadDho,  Jirt6  Joaqola 

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AiDUi.    B^Nltni^ 

Anmn.  OomM  EuilMda 

Aiymlta* 

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Balder,  nuiXiT«r  TOO,,.,. 

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bSmI?.....^. 

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Babbitt,  JaeqiH* 

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BabbutoD,  WflUam 

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Babo,  FniuHaiiiunm 

BatO'lmi '.'.'.'. 

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s^ocbJvist^v/^v^y^'.'.'^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

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Baeb.  hmihr «( 

B»th.V.K 

Bach,  Ham  (Jobamia) 

Bach.  Halmfth 

Bacb,Johaiin£gMhig 

Badi,Ga<irg  Qirtuopb 

Barb,  Johuin  AtabrMlna 

Bach,  JobaoD  Chrlatopb -,,.... 

Bacb.JobaiuUliAa«I. 

Bacb.  Jofaaso  Bemad 

Bach.  WUbebn  Flfedemun.!"!'.!! 

Bacb,  Kail  PUUpp  Kraaonpl 

Bach.  JohaoD  CMUoph  FHedricb. . 

Baeb.  Aleunder 

BaclHDaefa 

Bachaamoiit,  FnUfOl*  to  ColfOali 

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Baehe.  BeniaiiitD  Fnsklin 

BudM.  Blebard 

Baebe,e*»b. 

Bachelet  Jeaa  Loida  Tbiodora 

Buhman,  John 

Back.  Bir  OeoBe. 

BadibnKn.  Lndoit 

Baokia.  laaac 

Backtr  d- Albe,  Loala  AHwrt  G  blAte, 


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lUllkBa U 

BOtinnnco. » 

BaWmon St 

BaltlDiaM,  L«d.    UaeCalrert. 

BiMmon  Btn:  S: 

BilBBr,  JohuB  BulM U 

Bdlur,  Wnhcbn  Edoud  SI 

BducJiudib SI 

BdDffl.QH«lllO SI 

B>lnia.Sd>^ St 

BahK,  UoDort  d« SI 

LcmhtOiiaiiSeiinearir  SI 

S( 

SI 

8« 

SI 

y..\.'.''.'.'.'.'.\'.'.\  S< 

HmUfon SJ 

t< 

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_  _  mo 11 

BuaDft,Edmd M 

Bwcroft.  6«Tg« H 

Bucnft,  Bld>«(4 S« 

Bud*  Iriudi U 

Bud!  OrlsnliL    B«  TJttigiaj. 

Budirn  Oonnki  Annw M 

BudaL  JoHpb  Enut  no M 

BuikUo,  Umtlea M 

BUHimeo. « 

Budrttliil,  TanH M 

Bandlaoal H 

Bii<idlai*,ACtmauHli;iDUla M 

Budlndk,  Bacdd Id 

Bandao.  ■  river M 

BandOB,  >  (on Sd 

Baodlka,  JenrSaintial M 

Budlke.  Ju  Wlnoeoty SC 

Bauer,  Johu M 

Banff W 

Bannahlm H 

Bang-on H 

Bangkok It 

Bangor,  Ualne 37 

BaDger.Walaa IT 

Bangor,  Irdaad K 

ia±^.°-.°;:::::::::::::l! 

Banian K 

Bulm.  JnbD ST 

BaDliD.  Micliaol IT 

BanlMw.Ta. W 

BanlennaaaiB II 

Ba^ «r 

Bt^iVialy^V//^'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  !8 
Bankrupt. S8 

BMitito sa 

Banka,ilohB SS 

Banka,  HIr  JoKpb S8 

Banka,  Hathanlal  PnsntU* tH 

Banka,  Thomaa SS 

B^Jal^y^y^y^y.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  sa 

BaoDtker,  BanJoBiln IS 

BannmL 18 

Banuodiboni S8 

BaongortUtrlmonr SS 

Banqw M 

Bujboa W 

BaBUa If 

Baallng,  Wmiui IS 

BtntirBuT e» 


..  wa  '  Baobab.. 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Hnpltam 21 

Biiptl»l«T a 

Bur.  l^&u^ir-DKBinnir-Anbel 

■nd  Hur-Hir-Scliie. 
Biir.itown S 

Bmri  1  putmoii '.'..'.',..'.  a 

BATBdA  ,.    ,.,...,  .    ..    £t 

BmKi.  Fmlcrtck.  D.  D W 

Buitruay  d'HIIHan,  Lrxil*. » 

BwiiKUoj  d'HIIUen.  AdilUs a 

BuudK  NIkalai. tt 

Bimnoir,  AleKDiler  ADdn^srllch.  £1 
BatuU.  Anuble  GDUIuuas  Pmpsr.  V 

Btnujt a 

Bwitler,  JobuiD  PhUlpp... « 

Bum^riutL  Yergsnl  AbnunoTttch.  a 

B«*M«,8^nt!"!!'.''"!! "!"'.'"  » 
ButuelH,  OlnrRlD,    8m  OkHKluDO. 

■■    ■       -^AiikU « 

H,  Klulr-ed-Dln « 

«  Fradarlck,    a«  Frul»- 
rjCK  1^  Empvrvr  of  Geitnuiy. 

BirtiaHiui.  ChiriM  Jau  UarU D 

Burbiiiy  8UU» 81 

Barti»»ln>. a 

BirtHuld,  Adiw  LcUUi e 

Bubti e 

BurM-ltubola,  Frufoli  de £1 

Birber,  Fnudi H 

Bvber,  Co),  rruda « 

Buberfail,bmllTo/ W 

Bibmr » 

BubH  Annud W 

BulMf»l!,JtU 8> 

BwbJi  dn  Bodpi,  Jam  DsDta 81 

BuUar,  AsUlDa  Alaiudn SI 

Birbttr.  EdmoDd  JsanFrucDli....  81 

Birbitr,  Henri  Anguna » 

B»rMer.  PaulJnki. 81 

BirblerL  (ilovunl  FnnoMO).    Bag 
OueniDO. 

Barton,  hmlly  of M 

BirixHUHk,  W.  V»_ 81 

Birtanrm,  Al>. SI 

Bubour  CD^  KuiuA ^.„  81 

BartwHir,  Jiowb SI 

ButoDr,  Jchn Si 

B»rbj SI 

BiKa,idiy !,!*.'.!!..!!"!  8i 

Btnii,  *B  epllhat. 81 

BircdoH.  SnilD 8i 

BufvloDB,  Venenuik. Si 

BvchhuiKn,  Johuia  Eonrad. .  ^  ^ , ,  81 

ButII)',  John '.'.'.',  » 

Bnolay,  t'lpL  Robatt 81 

B»rdl»r,  RoWl,  of  Urr SI 

Buclay.  WlllUm 81 

Banlay  de  Tally.  HtcbHl SI 

Bu^CoUiaba « 

Bard » 

Barf.  John 81 

Bud.Bunael 81 

Vijietiiik^"\\V.'.V'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  8c 
BardlU.  Cbrlalopli  OottrHod 31 

Bardinia.    See  Armor." 

Burdslown » 

Bartbono,  PtqIm  Qod .  » 

BaiTlboud  FRira  and  Mnna A 

BartBM S( 

BanUli,  JoD  Francola S> 

Bawlly 31 

Barcnlz.  WUIcm 8< 

Ilar*»  de  Vitniao.  flerliiujd. 81 

BaroltHJIiueppe 81 

Barttilc  and  SaL SI 

Bulain,  RIchaidHante.l^!',!!!'..  81 

Bariaieapart 81 

Barl,  a  m^gro  tribe 81 


s^lri]lt,iul^,ily^'//^'//^'.'.'.'.'".  a 

BBriSR.  sir  ffaada SI 

Baring,  SlrTfaamaa.., SI 

Uarlng.  Ftaaete  TbonhlU 81 

Barinr.  Tbomaa  Owrge SI 

Baring.  Charisa SI 

Barlng-Oould,  Bablna. 81 

B^l^///^v^v^\v^'^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."  si 

Barker,  Fordyoa,  M.  D. 81 

Barker,  Jacob 81 

Barking SI 

BarlBoa,  Gaapar.    See  Baerie. 
Baj-le-Dw! SI 

Bari«ta,'UabiMk) :!!!!'. !!!!.'!:!!!  SI 

Barley. 81 

Barlow,  Joel. 81 

Bartow.  Wimam 81 

BonneeUea 81 

BattUBii SI 

Bamabaa,  Eplatk  at 81 

Banatiai,  Saint 81 

Baniabllee SI 

Bamaele 81 

Banuud.  Frederick  Angutiu  Far- 
ter, LI,I>. SI 

Barnard,  Ueuy.  LL,D th 

Barnard,  Jotan  Orow SI 

Barnanl,BirJobD SS 

Barnaul K 

BamaT«,  Antotoe    Plefre   Joaepb 
Marie K 

S»ntfitlv^ot.V//""//.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  K 

B.rDea,Alb«rt U 

Baniet,  Tbanu Si 

Banna.  WUHain K 

Bametetdt.  Jan  Tan  OMen 81 

Barney,  JoahDa 8i 

Banl,  Jolas  BoduId » 

Bniieley Sj 

Banitaple  ra.  Hata.  Si 

BanalaUe,  ■  town '. 8S 

BamaUfila Si 

Barauiu.  Fbliui  Taykw 8S 

BanwalteD. U 

BarwKb.    See  Broach. 

Barocclo,  fkat  Pederlgo Si 

BarodH,  Pierre  Jotee M 

Barometw.! !!!!!" !;;;!."!!!!!!";  8i 

Barometrical  Ueaiaramenl SE 

Bamn « 

BuoD  and  Feme tt 

Baronet Sf 

Baronlue,  C'eaaie Si 

Barony SI 

BaIa«»^ a 

Baronlo  da  VlgiHda.    SaeVlgiMk. 
BaniolBliiula St 

BaiT.  or  Barn '.  St 

BamUlmida K 

Bamckpoor St 

Itaml,  Jean  Augnatln. St 

Bams,  FmI  Fnugola  Jeu  Nlcolaa.  » 

BafiatTT. St 

Barn,  AciioliMjaaepbleFiiredala  St 

Rarri,  laaac St 

Ban-eiea-    Sea  Birtge*. 

Bam^er,  Jacquee si 

RatrencD. 88 

Barrelo.  Fnnelaoo  de St 

Rarretry St 

Samtt,  fienjamtn  Flak. SI 

Barrett  Oeorge  Uorlon SK 

Barrbead 8t 

Barrier  Keelt  S» 

Banlngton.  John  Shots St 

BkiHngton.  Wllllaio  WHdDMn 88 

BarTlDirton.  l>alDes SS 

"     -  -  -   "--nod 88 

1(8. 8fl 

'.WW.'.'.'.l'.W  SS 

88 

(two). SS 


•t,  Ckmllle  Ilyadiiihe  Odfkn..  HI 
■t.  Vktarln  FenUband ...m 


Barrow-ln-  Fomeea. . . . 


BanT,JiuiHi Si 

Barry,  John U 

Barry,  Uarte  JeSDBe  Oamaid  de 
Vaobemler,  Coonteia  dn 81 


Bar-aor-Beine.... 


h^HoInrich 8M 


Berth,  Chriitlan  Goltlob. . . 

Barth,  Holnrich 

Baithelemy.  Anguete  Maneina —  — 
BarthiStemy,  Fiaccnia,  UaniuLi  de..  M3 

BartlitlDolT,  Jeu  Jacques M 

Barthtiemy.9aln  I- 1  lUaira,  Jolee. . : .  841 

Bar(hu,nnt  JoKpli Sit 

Barthei,  AnlolBe  Cbaries  £nMU  da.  HI 

BarUuid,  Friedrkb  WlOudra StI 

BarttaoMy,  Jabdi  Sakmun. 


UI 


BartleO.  Ichabob 

Bartlett.  John  RuaeeU. . , 

Baitiett,  Joaeph 

Bartlett.  Joatah,U.I>.., 


Bartlett^  William  Hai 
BaitaLCyni*  Angiut 

BartoU,  Danlele 

brtolLPIetnitantl.. 
BartoHnl.  Loremo... . 
Bartolo. Taddeo  dl,.. 
Banola,  Damenlca  dl. 


Banao,  Benxrd . . 
Barton.  Elizahnth  . 


Bartsch,  JohuiD  Adam 

Baitidi,  kiv] '  niedricti '. '. 

Bary.  u'^iiriri'. '.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'. 

Barye.  Antolne  Loida 

Baryta.    See  Biriuin. 


Bascom,  Henry  BIdleouiLD.D... 


Baaedow.  Jobaun  Bernbard. . . 


DiailizedbyGoOgle 


BulL  Emperor  I  two). Ml 

BuD  tto  Oreat,  ttelm. 8ai 

BMlll^Jt'iioai»\\[\'.V^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.  3tS 

BuUlaitil .'.'.'.'                          .".'.' .' .'  MB 
BulltdH 888 

HMiiiik. .!!!'. !!!!!!'.'.!!!! !!!!!!!!  sm 

BullMuinu.    S«  ZenriodoD. 

ItukemUa,  Joho 8«l 

Bukot MS 

Bmu^  da  BuaTil,  JiuM SM 

Buqw  Prarluef.    aMBuqas. 

BuqOM SM 

BirBUii 8*7 

Bua 8*1 

Ban,  or  BuiirDod.    B»  LlodcD. 

Bui.OMF«aA MR 

B«CH» M» 

BoHuo,  GlicoiDixlii  roDtu 8711 

BuaiDO.  llimucs  Benurd  MnraL 

DnkBor. 870 

BtMUUn.  Jimiv 810 

BMondlls.  Anita  Labrnn  da 8T1 

Bhhiid.oiitIh''.*.*.'.:.'.*.*.**!!!!!!'!!  sn 

)law«-Alpaa nil 

BiaHs-PjriJiiMa STI 

BuM-Tarre,  lit  Uhriilopber 871 

fUMc-Ten^  GiudftloDna..,.^....^  871 

Buri.  Liun  Mute  CaUrlna 871 

BM«ompl«[Ta,  Fnn«il*,fi*roads..  871 
BMaoon 871 

BanK<Kii\\V^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  gli 

BawBtfK  ..'.." '.'..'.  874 

Bu>Tllla.MI(»liiJaati  HngOD  da...  Sn 

But !?. 87! 

BuUrd 878 

B^aatli,'jMp\iV^\\\V/^"'.'.'.'.'^  874 

BuUu,  H.  Clwlton 874 

ButM,  Fl«d«rfc; 870 

BuiMa,  Jnla* B7B 

ButUa 87ft 

ButlML    SaaFortUlntlao. 

BHtrnpes S» 

at 878 

BUlk sn 

BaCuB.    e«aBatbui. 

Bsui«M sn 

BaCaCiL    Bae  Potato,  ud  Tui. 

JKiWri. 878 

BaUTla. 880 

B»l»»i»,N.  Y. 8M 

IlaUTlaii  Rwwbllo 881 

BMohlan 881 

B«t«in«ti,  KMa  JoMpbtno. tsl 

Batanltnt.    S«  Aaaiaalns. 

BalMM 88] 

Bila^  Banmbai, tA 

BatM  Kdnid,  LI.  D 881 

Bataa,  Joabni. 881 

Bath 881 

B«h(i),Va 897 

Bath<A,KT 8ST 

B>ai,M« 8»7 

BaUk,II.T 888 

Bttb.'BBg 888 

Bath,Eariat  Sea  Pidtsnev.WiUlui. 

Bath.  Kolcfata  uf  Iba 88« 

Bilhorl,  auuIlT  r>r. 8» 

BlIlBiy,  Btophen  (Chraa) 880 

BiUior]',  ObAMopbO'. SS» 

BitboTT,  Blgtamand 88> 

B*ltac*r.<Mwial B3» 

BUboiy,  EHabaUi aso 

BUhancH'B. 8% 

Bathnnc,  AnatraVa 84 

Battaonb  AfilcB 880 

BMbnimAmUTor. 8«0 

Bathnnt,  Balpb. 8l>0 

Btttnnt,  Anao.  flrit  EarL 8*0 

Balhont  Hanry  (tlitsi.) 880 


BaihTioTl.  Baa  Batthytnyl. 
Baibrbliu... 

Baloiu !".... 

BdIod  Rouire '.'.'.'.'...'.'.»» 

BaloD  Boom.  Eau  and  Wt«t    Sea 

Eut  BMon   Xouga.   ud   WMt 

BatoD  Rouge. 
Bitracktuu.    Sa«  Ampblbla. 
Batahlu.    Sea  Balcblao. 
BaCta.    SaeBauk. 

BaUaring  Bam.  88 

Battaraea 81 

BanaiT,  OaJntDlc    Be«  OalTUlam. 

BaUar/. 89 

Battsiu.  Cbarfei  K 

BanhyiiiTl.  Kiim^r. 8t 

Batthylnit,  lialoa W 

Battle 8S 

Battle  Aia.. SV 

BalUaCroek 8e 

Ban  Khan SS 

BaluU.  Ibn BS 

Batyuilikolt  dnatutlD  Nlkohu'e- 

Ttlcb 88 

Baoeber,  Fnncola. 8C 

BaDdelocqae.  Jean  LodIb 89 

Bandana,  Jaan  Butlata  Lndeo 89 

BmdlM'loolu 8U 

Bandln  daa  Ardeimta,  Chariea 88 

Baodnla,  Jaan 89 

BaDdriJIaitpHeariJoaapbLtou,...  SU 

Banar,  Anton 89 

BHHr,  Bamaid 89 

Bauer,  Bnmo 89 

Bauer,  Edgar. 89 

Baser.  Oeori  Loreni 89 

Bangi. 89 

BauEhi.Jeao 81 

BanmanDahOUa.... 89 

Banmt,  AMoliie 8li 

BanmfaRan.  Alexander  Gottlieb...  89 

Buoiguten,  MiebaeL 89 

Baumgirten,  Blgmond  Jakob. 89 

Banmiarwo-  Cniliu,  DetleT  Ktri 

WIlEelm. 89 

BaamgartaB-Ontln*,  Lndwlg  Friad- 

rkbOtIo 897 

Baomgirtav, AndrflaaTOn........  SS' 

BanmgiutMr.OatluB  Jakob 89 

Bamn^rtner.  Karl  Helnricb. 89 

Banr.FardliUBdCbriittaii 89 

BaoMat,  Lonla  Fnacolade 89 

Baotata,  toala  Eiifine  MiHe 89 

BatUMO 89 

BaoxUs.    Bwi  Alumina. 
BavaL    BaaBan?. 

Bmnj  ^\y^\'.y^\v^y.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  4c 

BawT.  AkiMkdtlM  Si^bie  Corny  da 
Quimpgraad,  Banneu  de «% 

BaMBr'  Klchanl !'.".".'.'. '.'.'.*. . 

Bar  w 

Bafideer 

fiqicoulaa 

Bayard.  Jamea  Aibeton  (In 
Bayaid,  Bkbard  Biuetc, , , . 
Bajard,  Tbomal  Franda . . . 
Banrd,  Jeu  nucola  Aim 
Banrd,  Plaira  duTnrall,  C 

Bv  an  ".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' '.'.'.'. 

Baver,  Johann 

Bayeui 

Bayeun  Tapsatry 

BayflaMoo 

Bayla.  Flam 

Baylay,  Jamea  RoowveLt... 
Biyl^,  Rtcbaid 

Bayiy.  Thooiaa  Haynea. 

B«yDa.Pal«r 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Baanr.  FhUlp < 

Bwva- H**d  so. , 

Bavv  lodbiDi 

BuTdr  Iiludi. ( 

Bsuky.  Bunne] 

BebeerlH ' 

Biblu,  Bocfa  AmbrolK  Auguite.. .  < 

BebnUK  TulU  UilpoTltiJi ' 

B««»flM 1 

BeocsAiml,  Dom^nloo ' 

B*«izU,  C«ufi  BoDeflKiUk  HirqizU 

Bsizb1&,  Glunbiu 

B«»TT«,  QmApar, 

Bflcher,  Johjuzi  Joachim. . . 
Becliitsln.  Johima  MitUiln 

BAchuuu. 

BectDiTtd 

B«k.Kut. 

B«k,  Theodoric  Bomnn. . 

B«k.  John  Itrodhnd 

B«k,L«v*C 

B«ker  CO 

B«kcr,  GoOfrM  WIUHba 
Bsckcr.  Kari  Ferdlnmil  lt« 
B«k»,  Kiri  FtMricti.,., 
Bttktr.r    •  •—    ■     ■ 
Bsckn, 

"mjtWi:: 

BMqnant,  Antorna  ijeMr 

BfloqiMnl,  AlKiuidn  Ednwndh. 

Btcqnanl,  Loni*  Atbvd 

BwM,  Old 

Bec»e,Now , 

Be«kereli,IJta«'.V.'.V,'.'.V.'.'.'.". 

Bad  and  Bcdtuad. 

BedorJuiUca 

BMirleui 

BadbHR.    Ote  Epkoa. 

Bartdofi,  TTionKi 

BoddoH.  Thonua  IdTall 

Bade.  VoDemWe 

Bvdeu,  Hiria  AlnluHiaa. 

Badall,  QngoiT  TawnaaDd,  D.  I 
BadtlL  GnsDiT  ThDnton,  D.  D 

Badall,  WtlSuii 

fledlbrto9,P» , 

Badfind  eo.,  Ta 

Bcdfard  m,  TanB 

Badlbid.Pa. , 

BadAird.  EugtaDd 

B(dlbrd,Gaaii1iigS 

Bsdibrd  Lattl. 
Bedlftnr  " 

BedluD 
Bedonli 
Bee.... 

Bnco. 

B«aeh 

Beeeber,  Ljmaa.  D.  Ii 

Bevchcr.  CathulDa  Eatbar.. 
Bemibn.  GdwB^D.  D 

BMcharl  Umiit  EUnbidi'  (Stoira).  m 

Baeeber,  Cluriei 408 

Baattber.  Thoiou  Kenidcntt «8 

Beacber,  Fndrrtok  WlUlim 4a 

BsMhey,  Sir  wmum. «8 

Boe-eaUr. 4(3 

Boa.kMpIng 4U 

B^lt^uttr^\V/^V^\'."'.'.'.'".'.'.'.'.'.  4« 

Beer 4M 

Baar,  Wnbehn 410 

Baar.lllebiel 410 

Batr-ibeba 410 

Baat 4T1 

BaMbmra,  LodwlB  KB  (i<ra) 4IS 

&Ala'^\\\y/^v.'.'.'.'.'.'.'^'.'.'.'.'".'.  as 

Bag 418 

B<gia,Kiri 4IS 

B^hairdKtwe) 4TS 

BegbumiL    Baa  BagfalrmL 

Ba)foala........ ......  4TS 

Bactbebar 411 


Digitized  byGoOgIc 


Hdiiiiliiiiai.  niiiniMln  Till  III,  riiiiiii  SSI 

BciuliigH«,BuiUtT(Hi asi 

BtDOlnitaD  CO nj2 

RennlHlra,  Vt OH 

BdBB^Salnt. &K 

BKuMn 68* 

BsiioD,  Orafgg B81 

B^^Tn '.'.I'.'.'.W'.'.y.'."'."  S38 

htotbtm,  Jtrttof DM 

Bnlhan,  Tbomia ISS 

Bentlack.  kmllrof «• 

BcntlDek.  WIUIwD «» 

fi«lltll»k,  HBBfT. M» 

BoDttiwk,  Iwil  WIIUUB  Henry  Ct,y- 

endlati I» 

BonlliKk.    Lord   WilUUD   CturtM 

0>ir«aiib U» 

Bentlink.  Lon]  0««n BW 

BaUTDf Bo,  hiDUr  (7 MO 

BentlTacUo,  Enofe MO 

BeUlTOglla,  QoM* ftlD 

-BMUTMllo.CDnwUo Atn 

BwUsy,  Bkbud lua 

BuUer.Eobert Ml 

BcoWn  oon  Mb* Ml 

Baatoa  eo.  Ark. M 

BHaMtt^^bta.^\V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  Ml 

Benton  Oh,  MtDD Ml 

Btatrw  OIL,  Ion HI 

Barton  XL,  Xo Ml 

Bhwo  oo„  OngOB Ml 

Builoa.Tla Ml 

BaDtoq,  Tbomu  Hut Ml 

Butid'StaniMi,   GhriMlin    Erul, 

Ooant aa 

Bamote  AtM.'.'  !!"■!'.!"■'.'.!'■"■"■  1 1 '.!! "  Ml 

Baaiola US 

Bouola. Mt 

Boawnu;  Tila  of.    Sm  Aii«ki-3u. 

ODik  iMogtume  ud  LlliAMOn  of 

Uu. 
Biruggr,  Flan  J«u  d« N> 

B«rMd,'J(iH'phFrMirla':!"!!*."!  M» 

Binrd,  Plan  HoBoM Ml 

B*nid,AiictMii. KH 

Bnt OU 

B«bw M» 

BecbN* 54> 

Btrkatliv Mfl 

Barlw* Ml 

BwMce,  ■  rltar UO 

BkMosoo. DM> 

Btf«MMa^ui ftfiO 

Binr DM 

BKdlutk HO 

BMdUdwT MO 

Bmg 6BI 

Bannnriin Ml 

Bttsun,  klBfi  of  IUI7 »1 

Binaloa,  qnMoi HI 

B«c«l», «  eilr  (Wo) MB 

B««fbrd.JunM... OSS 

Bmafbrd,  WWun  Oht.  VlMsoont..  Us 

fi«n«lu OH 

BneSK(tiR>) EM 

B«r 6M 

Bms.  AMrlcb  von,  Ooont eM 

Bo^nu OM 

BwEud.  BvW1aiiim» sm 

BnsuBO DM 

BeiBMHt UB 

BOTirmoo OM 

B*tiai,Rom7 DM 

BovsO'i^ZwHn BU 

B«Hebr«Ui,  OhMt U7 

Barsarmo 581 

Barcortc,  8»Tlnlen  Cynijo  da jsi 

UMftMi,  Holniteti W1 

Bargbam.  Nlk<*«^^ {iB1 

flargnMB,  Tarbern  OIoC MM 

BerWKUl,  AunUroC ua 

BergOBH,  Chrio Ue 

Bangui.  WIcIhI  ABRalo. SM 

BnSoBit,  MlaoU DM 

Bartot^^irlaa AufiuU da '.'.  Ogs 


Berkakf,  Eoiiud Dl 

Bert^laj,  a«ii«a U 

Barkatar.  Ovngt  ULufca  OnDtlBj 

riti-Hudlnn 9 

Baikeltrr. eirWimui a 

Barfcal^  BpriDgt. & 

Barkhef,  Jul  LafMiuu  no Ai 

Beikam IH 

Btrkibtnao M 

BotiUn^  Kulud A 

BarikUnnB,  uMt  Ton & 

Baritai 6 

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